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'''Khmer names''' are names used in, or originating in, [[Cambodia]] which usually consist of two elements including a [[patronymic]], which serves as a common [[family name]] for siblings, followed by a [[given name]] (i.e. following the [[Eastern name order]]).<ref name=huffman>[http://homepages.newnet.co.uk/dance/webpjd/intro/worldnamexa-g.htm "Naming systems of the world"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080423002014/http://homepages.newnet.co.uk/dance/webpjd/intro/worldnamexa-g.htm |date=2008-04-23 }} (self-published). Citing Huffman, Franklin Eugene. [https://books.google.com/books?id=NqqbGwAACAAJ ''Cambodian names and titles'']. Institute of Far Eastern Languages, [[Yale University]] (1968). [[OCLC]] 20035170.</ref><ref name=short/> An example is singer [[Sinn Sisamouth]], his surname (last name) is Sinn and his given name (first name) is Sisamouth (in [[Western world|Western]] sources, the two are sometimes reversed).<ref>Kershaw, Roger. ''Monarchy in South-East Asia: The Faces of Tradition in Transition''. [[Routledge]] (2001), [https://books.google.com/books?id=7GHpx6pTPlQC&pg=PR14&sig=rVqCKzRFHi6LWwd4Y_3MtoDq2I0 p xiv]. {{ISBN|0-415-18531-9}}.</ref> |
'''Khmer names''' are names used in, or originating in, [[Cambodia]] which usually consist of two elements including a [[patronymic]], which serves as a common [[family name]] for siblings, followed by a [[given name]] (i.e. following the [[Eastern name order]]).<ref name=huffman>[http://homepages.newnet.co.uk/dance/webpjd/intro/worldnamexa-g.htm "Naming systems of the world"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080423002014/http://homepages.newnet.co.uk/dance/webpjd/intro/worldnamexa-g.htm |date=2008-04-23 }} (self-published). Citing Huffman, Franklin Eugene. [https://books.google.com/books?id=NqqbGwAACAAJ ''Cambodian names and titles'']. Institute of Far Eastern Languages, [[Yale University]] (1968). [[OCLC]] 20035170.</ref><ref name=short/> An example is singer [[Sinn Sisamouth]], his surname (last name) is Sinn and his given name (first name) is Sisamouth (in [[Western world|Western]] sources, the two are sometimes reversed).<ref>Kershaw, Roger. ''Monarchy in South-East Asia: The Faces of Tradition in Transition''. [[Routledge]] (2001), [https://books.google.com/books?id=7GHpx6pTPlQC&pg=PR14&sig=rVqCKzRFHi6LWwd4Y_3MtoDq2I0 p xiv]. {{ISBN|0-415-18531-9}}.</ref> |
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The use of surnames in Cambodia is relatively recent and was not mandated by law until imposed by the French in 1910.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Whitaker|first=Donald P.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B3EsAAAAYAAJ |
The use of surnames in Cambodia is relatively recent and was not mandated by law until imposed by the French in 1910.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Whitaker|first=Donald P.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B3EsAAAAYAAJ&dq=khmer+surnames&pg=PA60|title=Area Handbook for the Khmer Republic (Cambodia)|date=1973|publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office|pages=60|language=en}}</ref> Surnames are typically derived from the father's given name.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Huy|first1=Vannak|title=THE KHMER ROUGE DIVISION 703: From Victory to Self-destruction|date=2003|publisher=Documentation Center of Cambodia|location=Phnom Penh|pages=6 (note 1)|citeseerx=10.1.1.139.6706}}</ref> |
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Other [[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic]] indigenous [[Ethnic groups in Cambodia|people groups within Cambodia]] have similar naming customs, while the [[Sino-Khmer]] and [[Vietnamese Cambodians|Viet-Khmer]] may follow [[Chinese name|Chinese]] and [[Vietnamese name|Vietnamese]] naming patterns, respectively. [[Chams]] in Cambodia may have either Khmer or Cham names or a combination of both. Cham name order is the reverse of the Khmer; the given name is followed by the father's given name.<ref name="Ueki">{{cite journal|last1=Ueki|first1=Kaori|title=PROSODY AND INTONATION OF WESTERN CHAM|date=2011|url=http://www.ling.hawaii.edu/graduate/Dissertations/KaoriUekiFinal.pdf|access-date=20 November 2017|publisher=University of Hawaii}}</ref>{{rp|23}} |
Other [[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic]] indigenous [[Ethnic groups in Cambodia|people groups within Cambodia]] have similar naming customs, while the [[Sino-Khmer]] and [[Vietnamese Cambodians|Viet-Khmer]] may follow [[Chinese name|Chinese]] and [[Vietnamese name|Vietnamese]] naming patterns, respectively. [[Chams]] in Cambodia may have either Khmer or Cham names or a combination of both. Cham name order is the reverse of the Khmer; the given name is followed by the father's given name.<ref name="Ueki">{{cite journal|last1=Ueki|first1=Kaori|title=PROSODY AND INTONATION OF WESTERN CHAM|date=2011|url=http://www.ling.hawaii.edu/graduate/Dissertations/KaoriUekiFinal.pdf|access-date=20 November 2017|publisher=University of Hawaii}}</ref>{{rp|23}} |
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==Surnames== |
==Surnames== |
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Historically, Khmer practiced cognatic kinship and reckoned descent bilaterally, and surnames were not used to trace descent. Surnames became mandatory only by legal decree during the French colonial era in 1910, but was rarely used outside of legal and administrative matters. After the passage of the law, parents often gave their children the father, grandfather or great-grandfather's given name as a surname. Some Khmer may also have surnames from the mother or two given names with one used as a surname. This heterogeneous naming practice continued into the 1970s and 1980s.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Hein|first=Jeremy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D_EWAwAAQBAJ |
Historically, Khmer practiced cognatic kinship and reckoned descent bilaterally, and surnames were not used to trace descent. Surnames became mandatory only by legal decree during the French colonial era in 1910, but was rarely used outside of legal and administrative matters. After the passage of the law, parents often gave their children the father, grandfather or great-grandfather's given name as a surname. Some Khmer may also have surnames from the mother or two given names with one used as a surname. This heterogeneous naming practice continued into the 1970s and 1980s.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Hein|first=Jeremy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D_EWAwAAQBAJ|title=Ethnic Origins: The Adaptation of Cambodian and Hmong Refugees in Four American Cities|date=2006-04-13|publisher=Russell Sage Foundation|isbn=978-1-61044-283-1|pages=52|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Ehrman|first1=Madeline Elizabeth|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=POEPkJ-4iaUC&dq=khmer+surname&pg=PA108|title=Contemporary Cambodian: Grammatical Sketch|last2=Sos|first2=Kem|date=1972|publisher=Foreign Service Institute, Department of State|pages=108|language=en}}</ref> When they were used, they were usually taken from the father's given name and are generally monosyllabic.<ref name=fong>Mary Fong & Rueyling Chuang. ''Communicating Ethnic and Cultural Identity''. [[Rowman & Littlefield]] (2003), [https://books.google.com/books?id=lyy15odOFl0C&pg=PA40&sig=8_WAalpR0Va_WA-JrU18sawJILQ p40]. {{ISBN|0-7425-1739-X}}.</ref> Khmer surnames are sometimes identical to [[Chinese name|Chinese]] or [[Vietnamese name|Vietnamese]] surnames.<ref name=fong/> Women keep their [[maiden name]]s after marriage.<ref name=struggling/> |
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==Origin and meanings== |
==Origin and meanings== |
Revision as of 04:09, 22 December 2021
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Khmer names are names used in, or originating in, Cambodia which usually consist of two elements including a patronymic, which serves as a common family name for siblings, followed by a given name (i.e. following the Eastern name order).[1][2] An example is singer Sinn Sisamouth, his surname (last name) is Sinn and his given name (first name) is Sisamouth (in Western sources, the two are sometimes reversed).[3]
The use of surnames in Cambodia is relatively recent and was not mandated by law until imposed by the French in 1910.[4] Surnames are typically derived from the father's given name.[5]
Other Austroasiatic indigenous people groups within Cambodia have similar naming customs, while the Sino-Khmer and Viet-Khmer may follow Chinese and Vietnamese naming patterns, respectively. Chams in Cambodia may have either Khmer or Cham names or a combination of both. Cham name order is the reverse of the Khmer; the given name is followed by the father's given name.[6]: 23
Given names
Generally, women are given names relating to beauty, while men are given names of virtues.[7][8] Some Khmer given names are unisex names.
Surnames
Historically, Khmer practiced cognatic kinship and reckoned descent bilaterally, and surnames were not used to trace descent. Surnames became mandatory only by legal decree during the French colonial era in 1910, but was rarely used outside of legal and administrative matters. After the passage of the law, parents often gave their children the father, grandfather or great-grandfather's given name as a surname. Some Khmer may also have surnames from the mother or two given names with one used as a surname. This heterogeneous naming practice continued into the 1970s and 1980s.[9][10] When they were used, they were usually taken from the father's given name and are generally monosyllabic.[11] Khmer surnames are sometimes identical to Chinese or Vietnamese surnames.[11] Women keep their maiden names after marriage.[7]
Origin and meanings
The earliest attested names among Khmer either have indigenous origins or were drawn from Sanskrit. The use of Sanskrit and Indic words as names continues to the present.[9]
The meanings of Khmer names are generally very simple and reference positive attributes. Cambodian people are called by their given names without a title (informal) or by their given names with a title (formal); the full name, including both family name and given name is often used[2][7] (Surnames are used as a form of address, however, in the case of names that originated as revolutionary aliases).[clarification needed]
Different naming traditions exist among ethnic groups other than the Khmer majority. The Cambodian population is 90% Buddhist and names are often taken from Buddhism. Among the Muslim minority, Arabic names are often used as family names.[1]
Pronunciation
Khmer names are usually pronounced with the stress (emphasis) placed on the last syllable.[12] Khmer uses a glottal stop (the brief stop in uh-oh) and other stops: p, t, c and k which may or may not occur with aspiration. In romanizations of Khmer script, aspiration (i.e., a breath sound) is usually marked with an h. Final r, d, g, s, b, and z sounds are not heard: Ngor is pronounced Ngow. Some final consonants are written but not pronounced.[13]
List of some family names
Although historically, surnames were chosen from the father, grandfather, or great-grandfather's given name, in modern practice, surnames are now usually transmitted from father to children. Other ethnic groups, particularly Chinese-Cambodians and Vietnamese-Cambodians, may have a family name that is taken by each generation, in which case the name is pronounced similarly to the language of origin but within the bounds of Khmer phonology. Below is a list of some common family names,[14] some of which are also found as given names.
Khmer | IPA | UNGEGN | Common spellings |
---|---|---|---|
កូយ | /kouy/ | Koy | Koy |
កឹម | /kəm/ | Kœ̆m | Koem |
កែប | /kaep/ | Kêb | Kaep, Kep |
កែវ | /kaew/ | Kêv | Kev, Kaev, Keo |
កាំង | /kaŋ/ | Kăng | Kang |
ខាត់ | /kʰat/ | Khăt | Khat |
ខាយ | /kʰaːy/ | Khay | Khay |
ខៀវ | /kʰiəw/ | Khiĕv | Khiev, Kheav |
ខ្លូត | /kʰlout/ | Khlot | Khlot |
គ្រី | /kriː/ | Kri | Kri, Kry, Kree |
គឹម | /kɨm/ | Kœ̆m | Koem, Kim |
គួច | /kuəc/ | Kuŏch | Kuoch |
ឃាង | /kʰiəŋ/ | Khéang | Kheang |
ឃិន | /kʰɨn/ | Khĭn | Khin |
ឃីម | /kʰiːm/ | Khim | Khim |
ចន្ទ | /can/ | Chăn | Chan |
ចាន់ | /can/ | Chăn | Chan |
ចាប | /caːp/ | Chab | Chap |
ចេង | /ceːŋ/ | Chéng | Cheng |
ចេន | /ceːn/ | Chén | Chen, Jen |
ឆន | /cʰɑːn/ | Chhân | Chhan, Chhorn |
ឆាយ | /cʰaːy/ | Chhay | Chhay |
ជា | /ciə/ | Chéa | Chea |
ជាម | /ciəm/ | Chéam | Cheam |
ជិន | /cɨn/ | Chĭn | Chin, Jin |
ជី | /ciː/ | Chi | Chi, Chy |
ជឹម | /cɨm/ | Chœ̆m | Choem |
ជ័យ | /cɨj/ | Chey | Chey, Jey |
ឈិត | /cʰɨt/ | Chhĭt | Chhit |
ឈិន | /cʰɨn/ | Chhĭn | Chhin |
ឈឹម | /cʰɨm/ | Chhœ̆m | Chhoem |
ញឹក | /ɲɨk/ | Nhœ̆k | Nhoek |
ដួង | /ɗuəŋ/ | Duŏng | Duong |
ឌិត | /ɗɨt/ | Dĭt | Dit, Dith |
ឌិន | /ɗɨn/ | Dĭn | Din |
ឌី | /ɗiː/ | Di | Di, Dy, Dee |
ឌុល | /ɗul/ | Dŭl | Dul |
ឌួង | /ɗuəŋ/ | Duŏng | Duong |
តក់ | /tɑk/ | Ták | Tak |
តាង | /taːŋ/ | Tang | Tang |
តាត | /taːt/ | Tat | Tat, Tath |
តូច | /touc/ | Toch | Toch, Touch |
តាំង | /taŋ/ | Tăng | Tang |
ថន | /tʰɑːn/ | Thân | Than, Thorn |
ថៃ | /tʰaj/ | Thai | Thai |
ទាវ | /tiəw/ | Téav | Teav |
ទី | /tiː/ | Ti | Ti, Ty, Tee |
ទុំ | /tum/ | Tŭm | Tum |
ទ្រី | /triː/ | Tri | Tri, Try |
ទេព | /teːp/ | Tép | Tep |
ធី | /tʰiː/ | Thi | Thi, Thy, |
នី | /niː/ | Ni | Ni, Ny, |
ប្រាក់ | /prak/ | Prăk | Prak |
ប៉ាង | /paːŋ/ | Pang | Pang |
ប៉ុក | /pok/ | Pŏk | Pok |
ប៊ុន | /bun/ | Bŭn | Bun |
ប៉ែន | /paen/ | Pên | Pen, Paen |
ផាន | /pʰaːn/ | Phan | Phan |
ពិជ | /pɨc/ | Pĭch | Pich |
ពេជ្រ | /peːc/ | Péch | Pech |
ភី | /pʰiː/ | Phi | Phi, Phy |
មា | /maː/ | Ma | Ma |
មាន | /miən/ | Méan | Mean |
មាស | /miəh/ | Méas | Meas |
មួយ | /muəy/ | Muŏy | Muoy |
មូល | /muːl/ | Mul | Mul, Moul |
មេង | /meːŋ/ | Méng | Meng |
ម៉ៅ | /maw/ | Mau | Mau, Mao |
យស់ | /yuh/ | Yós | Yos, Yoh |
យុន | /yun/ | Yŭn | Yun |
យូ | /yuː/ | Yu | Yu, You |
រស់ | /rʊəh/ | Ruŏs | Ruos, Ruoh, Ros |
រួយ | /rʊəj/ | Ruŏy | Ruoy |
លន់ | /lun/ | Lón | Lon |
លិម | /lim/ | Lĭm | Lim, Lym |
លី | /liː/ | Li | Li, Ly, Lee |
លីវ | /liːw/ | Liv | Liv |
លីម | /liːm/ | Lim | Lim |
វ៉ាង | /ʋaːŋ/ | Vang | Vang |
វង្ស | /ʋuŋ/ | Vóng | Vong |
ស | /sɑː/ | Sâ | Sa, Sar, Sor |
សង | /sɑːŋ/ | Sâng | Sang, Song |
សន | /sɑːn/ | Sân | San, Sorn |
ស៊ន | /sɔːn/ | Sôn | Son, Sorn |
សម | /sɑm/ | Sám | Sam, Som |
សរ | /sɑːØ/ | Sâ | Sa, Sar, Sor |
សាង | /saːŋ/ | Sang | Sang |
សាត | /saːt/ | Sat | Sat, Sath |
សាន | /saːn/ | San | San |
សាន់ | /san/ | Săn | San |
សាយ | /saːj/ | Say | Say |
សិន | /sən/ | Sĕn | Sen, Sin |
សឺន | /səɨn/ | Sœn | Soen, Seun, Son |
សុខ | /sok/ | Sŏk | Sok |
សុង | /soŋ/ | Sŏng | Song |
សុន | /son/ | Sŏn | Son |
ស៊ុន | /sun/ | Sŭn | Sun |
ស៊ុយ | /suj/ | Sŭy | Suy |
សូ | /soː/ | So | So |
ស៊ូ | /suː/ | Su | Su |
សួន | /suən/ | Suŏn | Suon |
សឿង | /sɨəŋ/ | Sœăng | Soeang |
សៀង | /siəŋ/ | Siĕng | Sieng, Seang |
សេង | /seːŋ/ | Séng | Seng |
សេន | seːn | Sén | Sen |
សោម | /saom/ | Saôm | Saom, Som |
សៅ | /saw/ | Sau | Sau, Sao |
ហាក់ | /hak/ | Hăk | Hak |
ហុង | /hoŋ/ | Hŏng | Hong |
ហ៊ុន | /hun/ | Hŭn | Hun |
ហូ | /hou/ | Ho | Ho |
ហេង | /heːŋ/ | Héng | Heng |
ឡាយ | /laːj/ | Lay | Lay |
ឡុង | /loŋ/ | Lŏng | Long |
អាង | /ʔaːŋ/ | Ang | Ang |
អិម | /ʔim/ | Ĕm | Em, Im, Yim |
អុង | /ʔoŋ/ | Ŏng | Ong |
អ៊ុច | /ʔuc/ | Ŭch | Uch |
អ៊ុយ | /ʔuj/ | Ŭy | Uy |
អៀម | /ʔiəm/ | Iĕm | Iem, Eam, Iam |
អៀវ | /ʔiew/ | Iĕv | Iev, Eav, Eaw |
អ៊ុំ | /ʔum/ | Ŭm | Um |
ឯក | /ʔaek/ | Êk | Ek, Aek |
ឱ | /ʔaːo/ | Aô | Ao, Or |
ឱក | /ʔaːok/ | Aô | Aok |
ឱម | /ʔaːom/ | Aôm | Aom, Om |
List of given names
Unlike Khmer family names, given names may have multiple syllables and differ greatly. Given names were influenced greatly by Sanskrit.
Khmer | IPA | UNGEGN | Revised |
---|---|---|---|
បទុម | /ɓɔtum/ | Bôtŭm | Botum |
ចន្ថា | /cɑntʰaː/ | Chăntha | Chantha |
ជា | /ciə/ | Chéa | Chea |
ជាតា | /ciətaː/ | Chéata | Cheata |
ឆេង | /cʰeːŋ/ | Chhéng | Chheng |
ឈៀង | /cʰiəŋ/ | Chhiĕng | Chhieng |
តា | /ɗaː/ | Da | Da |
តារា | /ɗaːraː/ | Dara | Dara |
ឡេង | /leːŋ/ | Léng | Leng |
ណារ៉ុង | /naːroŋ/ | Narŏng | Narong |
និមល | /nimul/ | Nĭmól | Nimol |
ភួង | /pʰuəŋ/ | Phuŏng | Phuong |
សារឿន | /saːrɨən/ | Sarœăn | Saroean, Saroeun |
ស្រី | /srəj/ | Srei | Srei, Srey |
សន | /sɑn/ | Sân | San, Son, Sorn |
បុប្ផា | /ɓopʰaː/ | Bŏpha | Bopha |
បុរី | /ɓorəj/ | Bŏrei | Borei, Borey |
ចិន្ដា | /cənɗaː/ | Chĕnda | Chenda |
ឈួន | /cʰuən/ | Chhuŏn | Chhuon |
ខាន់ | /kʰan/ | Khăn | Khan |
កុសល | /kosɑl/ | Kŏsál | Kosal |
គុន្ធា | /kuntʰiə/ | Kŭnthéa | Kunthea |
ឡាយ | /laːj/ | Lay | Lay |
លំអង | /lumˈɑŋ/ | Lum-âng | Lum-ang, Lum Ang |
ម៉ាលី | /maːliː/ | Mali | Mali, Maly |
ម៉ី | /məj/ | Mei | Mei, Mey |
ម៉ាប់ | /map/ | Măp | Map |
ណារី | /naːriː/ | Nari | Nari, Nary |
បញ្ញា | /paɲˈɲaː/ | Pănha | Panha, Pagna |
ពិសិដ្ឋ | /pisɨt/ | Pĭsĕt | Piset, Piseth |
ផល្លា | /pʰɑllaː/ | Phálla | Phalla |
ភារៈ | /pʰiərĕəʔ/ | Phéareăk | Pheareak |
ភិរុណ | /pʰirun/ | Phĭrŭn | Phirun |
ពៅ | /pɨw/ | Pŏu | Pou, Pov |
រស្មី | /rĕəʔsməj/ | Reăksmei | Reaksmei, Reaksmey |
រិទ្ធិ | /rɨt/ | Rĭt | Rit, Rith |
រី | /riː/ | Ri | Ri, Ry |
សម្បត្តិ | /sɑmˈɓat/ | Sámbăt | Sambat, Sambath |
សម្ផស្ស | /sɑmˈpʰŏəh/ | Sámphoăs | Samphoas, Samphors |
សំណាង | /sɑmˈnaːŋ/ | Sâmnang | Samnang |
សារិទ្ធ | /saːrɨt/ | Sarĭt | Sarit, Sarith |
សុខា | /sokʰaː/ | Sŏkha | Sokha |
សុធា | /sotʰiə/ | Sŏthéa | Sothea |
សុផល | /sopʰɑl/ | Sŏphál | Sophal |
សុផាត | /sopʰɑt/ | Sŏphát | Sophat |
សុភា | /sopʰiə/ | Sŏphéa | Sophea |
សុភាព | /sopʰiəp/ | Sŏphéap | Sopheap |
សួន | /suən/ | Suŏn | Suon |
ទី | /tiː/ | Ti | Ti, Ty |
វណ្ណា | /ʋannaː/ | Vănna | Vanna |
វាសនា | /ʋiəˈsnaː/ | Véasna | Veasna |
វិបុល | /ʋibo/ | Vĭbŏl | Vibol |
វុឌ្ឍី | /ʋuttʰiː/ | Vutthi | Vuthi, Vuthy |
Compound names
At times, many families combine shorter names to create a longer name. This happens often among the wealthier class of Cambodians.
- Sovanna (Combined "So" and "Vanna") means gold in Sanskrit
- Somally (Combined "So" and "Maly")
- Chandarith (Combined "Chanda" and "Rith")
See also
- Khmer Names Asian name pronunciation guide
References
- ^ a b "Naming systems of the world" Archived 2008-04-23 at the Wayback Machine (self-published). Citing Huffman, Franklin Eugene. Cambodian names and titles. Institute of Far Eastern Languages, Yale University (1968). OCLC 20035170.
- ^ a b Short, Philip. Pol Pot: Anatomy of a Nightmare. Macmillan (2006), p xv. ISBN 0-8050-8006-6.
- ^ Kershaw, Roger. Monarchy in South-East Asia: The Faces of Tradition in Transition. Routledge (2001), p xiv. ISBN 0-415-18531-9.
- ^ Whitaker, Donald P. (1973). Area Handbook for the Khmer Republic (Cambodia). U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 60.
- ^ Huy, Vannak (2003). THE KHMER ROUGE DIVISION 703: From Victory to Self-destruction. Phnom Penh: Documentation Center of Cambodia. pp. 6 (note 1). CiteSeerX 10.1.1.139.6706.
- ^ Ueki, Kaori (2011). "PROSODY AND INTONATION OF WESTERN CHAM" (PDF). University of Hawaii. Retrieved 20 November 2017.
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(help) - ^ a b c Valerie Ooka Pang & Li-Rong Lilly Cheng. Struggling to Be Heard: The Unmet Needs of Asian Pacific American Children. SUNY Press (1998), p51. ISBN 0-7914-3839-2.
- ^ Asian American Community Mental Health Training Center. Bridging Cultures: Southeast Asian Refugees in America. University of Michigan (1983), p98. OCLC 10431338.
- ^ a b Hein, Jeremy (2006-04-13). Ethnic Origins: The Adaptation of Cambodian and Hmong Refugees in Four American Cities. Russell Sage Foundation. p. 52. ISBN 978-1-61044-283-1.
- ^ Ehrman, Madeline Elizabeth; Sos, Kem (1972). Contemporary Cambodian: Grammatical Sketch. Foreign Service Institute, Department of State. p. 108.
- ^ a b Mary Fong & Rueyling Chuang. Communicating Ethnic and Cultural Identity. Rowman & Littlefield (2003), p40. ISBN 0-7425-1739-X.
- ^ Khmer Institute
- ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2011-07-05. Retrieved 2011-06-26.
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: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) - ^ "What Language Does He Speak? Asian Last Name Guide" (PDF).