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{{Main article|Roman law}}
{{Main article|Roman law}}
In the [[12th century|12th]] and [[13th century|13th centurie]]s the rediscovery of old Roman law and the ''ordenación'' of the [[canon law]] sparked a new era for the legal ordering of the [[western world]]. This influenced deeply in the politics of the time, especially in the course of the struggle of the Dominium Mundi between the Empire and the Pontificate.
In the [[12th century|12th]] and [[13th century|13th centurie]]s the rediscovery of old Roman law and the ''ordenación'' of the [[canon law]] sparked a new era for the legal ordering of the [[western world]]. This influenced deeply in the politics of the time, especially in the course of the struggle of the Dominium Mundi between the Empire and the Pontificate.
The Roman law to be known by the medieval Europe exclusively the compilation made by the emperor [[Justiniano]] in the [[6th century]], which consists of several differentiated parts:
The Roman law to be known by the medieval Europe exclusively the compilation made by the emperor [[Justinian]] in the [[6th century]], which consists of several differentiated parts:
#The '' Digest '' or '' Pandectas'', compendium of jurisprudence.
#The '' Digest '' or '' Pandectas'', compendium of jurisprudence.
#The ''Institutions'' or a manual of study which, in part, summarizes the previous one.
#The ''Institutions'' or a manual of study which, in part, summarizes the previous one.
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#The ''Novels'', or imperial constitutions after the year 53.
#The ''Novels'', or imperial constitutions after the year 53.


[[Image: Bologna University seal.jpg|left|thumb|Bologna University seal. Bolognian teachers commented the justinian texts through the glosses, favoring the empire.]]
[[Image: Bologna University seal.jpg|left|thumb|Bologna University seal. Bolognian teachers commented the Justinian texts through the glosses, favoring the empire.]]
Of all these, the one of greater influence in the medieval rediscovery was the ''Digest''. The justinian work would, starting in the [[16th century]], be known as ''[[Corpus Iuris Civilis]]'', but at the time it lacked diffusion and was known through compendiums that deformed it.
Of all these, the one of greater influence in the medieval rediscovery was the ''Digest''. The Justinian work would, starting in the [[16th century]], be known as ''[[Corpus Iuris Civilis]]'', but at the time it lacked diffusion and was known through compendiums that deformed it.
The renaissance on Roman studies during the 12th and 13th centuries that would influence all of Europe, occurred in [[Bologna]], a city in the italian [[Romagna]]. It wasn't small, in this diffusion, the role of the romano-germanic emperors, who were moved by their political interests as much as by their supposed condition of successors to the old [[Roman Empire]]. The teachers of this most famous “school of Bologna” acted according to a method of medieval study, the one of [[glosses]] or commentary of the content and meaning of justinian texts. They are not critical commentaries, but rather, analytical. The bolognian professors accept justinian law as something superior, even supreme; they are limited to comment on it, without too much critical baggage, because for that they needed [[philology|philological]] (dominion of [[Greek language]] and study of original texts) and historical knowledge, in which they were lacking. But from their commentary fundamental consequences for the Europe of the time are deduced, by the creation of a rich [[casuistry]] that covered a field of superior and more ample legal hypothesis from what was widely known until then. The foundation of this school of bolognian porfessors is due to [[Irnerio]] at the beginning of the 12th century. Disciples of his were [[Hugo]], [[Bulgaro]], [[Jacobo]] and [[Martin]], called “the four doctors” because of their wisdom and influences. All of them were ''[[Ghibelline]]s'' (supported the idea of the [[Holy Roman Empire|Empire]] being over the pontificate) and in favor of [[Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor|Federico I]], of whom they were contemporary.
The renaissance on Roman studies during the 12th and 13th centuries that would influence all of Europe, occurred in [[Bologna]], a city in the italian [[Romagna]]. It wasn't small, in this diffusion, the role of the romano-germanic emperors, who were moved by their political interests as much as by their supposed condition of successors to the old [[Roman Empire]]. The teachers of this most famous “school of Bologna” acted according to a method of medieval study, the one of [[glosses]] or commentary of the content and meaning of justinian texts. They are not critical commentaries, but rather, analytical. The bolognian professors accept justinian law as something superior, even supreme; they are limited to comment on it, without too much critical baggage, because for that they needed [[philology|philological]] command of [[Greek language]] and study of original texts and historical knowledge, in which they were lacking. But from their commentary fundamental consequences for the Europe of the time are deduced, by the creation of a rich [[casuistry]] that covered a field of superior and more ample legal hypothesis from what was widely known until then. The foundation of this school of bolognian professors is due to [[Irnerio]] at the beginning of the 12th century. Disciples of his were [[Hugo]], [[Bulgaro]], [[Jacobo]] and [[Martin]], called “the four doctors” because of their wisdom and influences. All of them were ''[[Ghibelline]]s'' (supported the idea of the [[Holy Roman Empire|Empire]] being over the pontificate) and in favor of [[Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor|Federick I]], of whom they were contemporary.


=== Canon law ===
=== Canon law ===
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Around the same time, with some decades of difference, a systematization of the ecclesiastical law took place, which was going to give birth to the canon law in all its fullness. Romanists and canon lawyers were brothers of mentality and duties, although the later defended the pontifical rights. The first one to compile and systematize the previous universal council canons was [[Graciano]], a bolognian [[theology]] teacher, who wrote ca. [[1140]] his ''Concordance of the Discordances of the Canons'', commonly called ''Decree''. The work of Graciano did not have official status, but it reached great prestige and caused in the following decades a height in legal consultations formulated to the [[pontiff]] s, something to be expected at a time of insufficient organization of the civil power. These answered by means of ''litteras decretals'' or “[[decretal]]s”, whose compilation became necessary, as the only way to use and preserve the jurisprudential wealth they contained, since they not only affected ecclesiastical matters, but also those of civilians and seculars.
Around the same time, with some decades of difference, a systematization of the ecclesiastical law took place, which was going to give birth to the canon law in all its fullness. Romanists and canon lawyers were brothers of mentality and duties, although the later defended the pontifical rights. The first one to compile and systematize the previous universal council canons was [[Graciano]], a bolognian [[theology]] teacher, who wrote ca. [[1140]] his ''Concordance of the Discordances of the Canons'', commonly called ''Decree''. The work of Graciano did not have official status, but it reached great prestige and caused in the following decades a height in legal consultations formulated to the [[pontiff]] s, something to be expected at a time of insufficient organization of the civil power. These answered by means of ''litteras decretals'' or “[[decretal]]s”, whose compilation became necessary, as the only way to use and preserve the jurisprudential wealth they contained, since they not only affected ecclesiastical matters, but also those of civilians and seculars.


The first compilation was made by [[Raymond of Peñafort]], a [[Dominican Order|Dominican]] [[Catalan people|Catalan]], and is named ''[[Gregory IX]] Decretals''; it reunites the decretals appeared between [[1154]] and [[1234]] and is divided in five books, this being the reason the following compilation, which includes material up until [[1298]], was known ''[[Liber sextus]]'' ("Sixth book"). In the [[14th century]] new compilations were made, ''Clementines'', ''Extravagantes de [[John XXII]] '' and ''Comunas''. From the 16th century on, all canon law in its recognized compendiums will take the official name of ''Corpus iuris canonici''. Tee Decree of pontifical Graciano and the Decretals were commented by the same procedure of glosses as was applied to the Roman law. Some of the main glossists played a decisive role in the struggle against the Empire: Rolando Bandinelli (Pope Alexander III) and Sinibaldo Fieschi ([[Pope Innocent IV]]). The synthesis of the glosses was made, mainly, by [[Bartholomew de Brescia]], in the 12th century, and also by [[Juan the Teutónico]], in the 13th century, of [[Hugh of Pisa]] and [[Enrique de Susa]].
The first compilation was made by [[Raymond of Peñafort]], a [[Dominican Order|Dominican]] [[Catalan people|Catalan]], and is named ''[[Gregory IX]] Decretals''; it reunites the decretals appeared between [[1154]] and [[1234]] and is divided in five books, this being the reason the following compilation, which includes material up until [[1298]], was known ''[[Liber sextus]]'' ("Sixth book"). In the [[14th century]] new compilations were made, ''Clementines'', ''Extravagantes de [[John XXII]] '' and ''Comunas''. From the 16th century on, all canon law in its recognized compendiums will take the official name of ''Corpus iuris canonici''. Tee Decree of pontifical Graciano and the Decretals were commented by the same procedure of glosses as was applied to the Roman law. Some of the main glossists played a decisive role in the struggle against the Empire: Rolando Bandinelli (Pope Alexander III) and Sinibaldo Fieschi ([[Pope Innocent IV]]). The synthesis of the glosses was made, mainly, by [[Bartholomew de Brescia]], in the 12th century, and also by [[Juan the Teutónico]], in the 13th century, of [[Hugh of Pisa]] and [[Henry of Segusio]].


== Development of the conflict ==
== Development of the conflict ==
[[Image: Milan dot.png|left|thumb|150px|In varied occasions the cities [[lombardos|lombardas]], headed by [[Milan]], revolted to the imperial authority, approaching pontificado.]]
[[Image: Milan dot.png|left|thumb|150px|In varied occasions the cities [[lombardos|lombardas]], headed by [[Milan]], revolted to the imperial authority, approaching pontificado.]]
==== the diet of Besançon and the first differences ====
==== the diet of Besançon and the first differences ====
To its return of [[Italy]], after to have gone in aid of the Pontiff [[Eugene III]], Federico I summoned a diet in Besançon (1157), with object to reform the political statute of its kingdom in [[Ar to them]]. In that diet the first differences between the high civil employees of the emperor, in special took place the chancellor Rainaldo de Dassel, and the pontifical legacy, and future Pope, [[Alexander III|Rolando Bandinelli]]. The complaint between [[imperialistic Teocracia|''teócratas '']] and '' '' avivava, being the pretext the interpretation of a papal document in which it was alluded to to the “benefits” that [[Pontiff]] granted to [[emperor]]. The word “benefit”, in that then, had a very specific meaning, because vasallo was [[]] s the one who received benefits or feudos of his [[Sir]] is. To thus Rainaldo de Dassel understood it and, put to argue, Rolando Bandinelli did not have disadvantage in accepting the thesis of its rival: in effect, for him, the emperor received the Empire as a “benefit” of hands of [[Pope]]. [[Adriano IV]], Pope of English origin that crowned emperor to Federico I, clarified later that the word had a more general sense: the Pope granted spiritual benefits, not [[feudo]] s. But the complaint had been revived, and when Rolando Bandinelli raised the pontifical seat, was as to a true teocráticas renovador of [[Teocracia|teorías]] ([is seen [[Gregorio VII]]). Theories that no longer had the energetic simplicity of the gregorianos times. In first half of century XII, mainly, there are authors who continue the theses of [[Gregorio VII]], like Hugo of San Victor, Juan de Salisbury or Honorio Augustodunense, but the normal thing is that the teocráticas ideas assimilate of some form the new realities: redescubrimiento of [[straight Roman]], affirmation of the political powers, complication of the social scheme in a world in which the possible offices and individual situations are multiplied, breaking the primitive ideal of the “trinitaria society” (politicians, the military and agriculturists).
To its return of [[Italy]], after to have gone in aid of the Pontiff [[Eugene III]], Federick I summoned a diet in Besançon (1157), with object to reform the political statute of its kingdom in [[Ar to them]]. In that diet the first differences between the high civil employees of the emperor, in special took place the chancellor Rainaldo de Dassel, and the pontifical legacy, and future Pope, [[Alexander III|Rolando Bandinelli]]. The complaint between theocrats and '' '' avivava, being the pretext the interpretation of a papal document in which it was alluded to to the “benefits” that [[Pontiff]] granted to [[emperor]]. The word “benefit”, in that then, had a very specific meaning, because vassals were the ones who received benefits or [[fiefdom|fiefs]] from their [[Lord#Feudalism|lord]]. To thus Rainaldo de Dassel understood it and, put forth the argument that, Rolando Bandinelli did not gain a disadvantage in accepting the thesis of its rival: in effect, for him, the emperor received the Empire as a “benefit” of the [[Pope]]. [[Adriano IV]], the Pope of English origin that crowned emperor Federick I, clarified later that the word had a more general sense: the Pope granted spiritual benefits, not [[fiefdom|fiefdoms]]. But the complaint had been revived, and when Rolando Bandinelli was raised to the pontifical seat as [[Pope Alexander III|Alexander III]], it was as a true restorer of [[Theocracy|papal authority]] (in the spirit of [[Pope Gregory VII]]). Theories that no longer had the energetic simplicity of the Gregorian times. In first half of the 12th century, mainly, some authors continued the theses of [[Pope Gregory VII| Gregory VII]], like Hugo of San Victor, John of Salisbury or Honorio Augustodunense, but the predominant theories assimilate in some form the new realities: rediscovery of [[straight Roman]], affirmation of the political powers, complication of the social scheme in a world in which the possible offices and individual situations are multiplied, breaking the primitive ideal of the “trinitarian society” (politicians, the military and agriculturists).


==== Frederick I against Alexander III ====
==== Frederick I against Alexander III ====
[[Image: Pope Hadrian IV.jpg |right|thumb|180px|After the death of [[Adrian IV]], 24 [[cardinal (Catholicism)|cardinals]] choose the Pope [[Alexander III]]. Nevertheless, Federico I recognized like Pope Victor IV ([[Antipope]]).]] In 1158 took place the second travels imperial to [[Italy]]. Shortly after, the death of [[Adrian IV]] opened a successory crisis in the pontificado one. Around both facts the first propitious conjuncture for the confrontation between [[emperor]] and [[Pope]] takes place. [[Federico I Barbarroja|Federico]] tried to subjugate to the cities lombardas. [[Milan]] was raised at the top of this new urban world. The emperor besieged it and he forced it to capitulate, conserving this one its internal autonomy but accepting totally the imperial authority. Next, Federico I reunited to one magna assembly in Roncaglia with the purpose of reorganizing the administration of the kingdom of [[Italy]] and recovering in him all his authority. It seemed to obtain it, but the resistance against its measures would raise to the cities and would renew its old “entente” with the Pontiff, for whom the constitution of an imperial power hard in the north and center of Italy was more serious the immediate danger against its political independence. [[Image: Image-Charlemagne-by-Durer.jpg|left|thumb|140px|La [[canonización|seudocanonización]] of [[Carlomagno]] was an example of the culmination of imperial interventionism.]]
[[Image: Pope Hadrian IV.jpg |right|thumb|180px|After the death of [[Adrian IV]], 24 [[cardinal (Catholicism)|cardinals]] choose the Pope [[Alexander III]]. Nevertheless, Federick I recognized like Pope Victor IV ([[Antipope]]).]] In 1158 took place the second travels imperial to [[Italy]]. Shortly after, the death of [[Adrian IV]] opened a successory crisis in the pontificado one. Around both facts the first propitious conjuncture for the confrontation between [[emperor]] and [[Pope]] takes place. [[Federick I Barbarossa|Federick]] tried to subjugate to the cities lombardas. [[Milan]] was raised at the top of this new urban world. The emperor besieged it and he forced it to capitulate, conserving this one its internal autonomy but accepting totally the imperial authority. Next, Federick I reunited to one magna assembly in Roncaglia with the purpose of reorganizing the administration of the kingdom of [[Italy]] and recovering in him all his authority. It seemed to obtain it, but the resistance against its measures would raise to the cities and would renew its old “entente” with the Pontiff, for whom the constitution of an imperial power hard in the north and center of Italy was more serious the immediate danger against its political independence. [[Image: Image-Charlemagne-by-Durer.jpg|left|thumb|140px|La [[canonization|pseudocanonization]] of [[Charlemagne]] was an example of the culmination of imperial interventionism.]]


===== Pope and antiPope =====
===== Pope and antiPope =====
When [[Adrian IV]] died, the 24 cardinals in favor to be against to the dominion of Federico I in Italy chose Pope to [[Alexander III]], while the three whom they preferred to contemporizar gave their vote to Octaviano cardinal, who was titled Victor IV. The split allowed that Federico took part to the classic way reuniting I conciliate in [[Pavía]] (January of [[1160]]), where was recognized like Pope Victor IV, while Alexander III looked for supports in the kingdom normando of the south of Italy, whose kings were vasallos of [[Santa Sede]], and in other European countries, besides to stoke the displeasure lombardo against the emperor. [[Milan]] again revolted in [[1161]], but it was conquered by the arms and devastated; shortly after, Alexander III was itself forced to divide for [[France]]. Federico won, but Alexander was [[Pope]] recognized by everything [[Europe]], except for [[Sacred Empire Romano Germánico|Imperio]], and, even so, he counted within this one with frightful allies, in special in [[Italy]], where the emperor and his chancellors, Rainaldo de Dassel and Christian de Bach, organized [[autoritarismo|gobierno authoritarian]] to contrapelo of the old local autonomies, that were not resigned to accept their new luck without resistance.
When [[Adrian IV]] died, the 24 cardinals in favor of opposing the dominion of Federick I in Italy chose Pope [[Alexander III]], while the three that preferred to reconcile gave their vote to cardinal Octavian, who was titled Victor IV. The split allowed Federick to attempt a conciliation in [[Pavía]] (January of [[1160]]), where Pope Victor IV was recognized, while Alexander III looked for support in the Norman kingdom of the south of Italy, whose kings were vassals of [[The Holy See]], and in other European countries, to foment opposition against the emperor. [[Milan]] again revolted in [[1161]], but it was conquered by force of arms and devastated; shortly after, Alexander III was forced to divide for [[France]]. Federick won, but Alexander was the [[Pope]] recognized by [[Europe]], except for [[The Holy Roman Empire|the Empire]], and, even so, he counted within this one frightful allies, in particular in [[Italy]], where the emperor and his chancellors, Rainaldo de Dassel and Christian de Bach, organized [[authoritarism|authoritarian government]] to counter the old local autonomies, that were not resigned to accept their new lot without resistance.
===== Culmination of the imperial intervensionismo =====
===== Culmination of the imperial intervention =====
The death of Victor IV also deprived to [[Federico I Barbarroja|Federico]] of an important support, because [[antipope]]s that made choose to happen to him (Paschal III, [[Calixto III]]) did not have possible justification nor was recognized willingly by he himself [[German clergy]], since [[emperor]] took advantage of the circumstances to inmiscuir itself in the ecclesiastical life like at the worse moments of” [[Querella of the investitures]] “: In [[1165]], sínodo of [[Wurzburgo]] and [[canonización|seudocanonización]] of [[Carlomagno]] was the culmination of imperial interventionism. In addition, the complaint with [[Alexander III]] forced to make concessions and to obtain alliances in [[Germany]] like in other countries. Great [[nobleza|nobles]] Germanic s is made pay expensive their fidelity and, in the outside, Federico looked for so much the French alliance, never obtained, like the English, taking advantage of the existing fight between the king [[Enrique II]] and [[archbishop]] [[Canterbury]], [[Thomas Becket]].
The death of Victor IV also deprived to [[Federick I Barbarossa|Federick]] of an important support, because [[antipope]]s that made choose to happen to him (Paschal III, [[Calixto III]]) did not have possible justification nor was recognized willingly by he himself [[German clergy]], since [[emperor]] took advantage of the circumstances to inmiscuir itself in the ecclesiastical life like at the worse moments of” [[Querella of the investitures]] “: In [[1165]], sínodo of [[Wurzburgo]] and [[canonización|seudocanonización]] of [[Carlomagno]] was the culmination of imperial interventionism. In addition, the dispute with [[Alexander III]] forced him to make concessions and to obtain alliances in [[Germany]] like in other countries. Great German [[nobles]] is made Frederick pay dearly for their fidelity and, in the outside, Federick looked for so much the French alliance, never obtained, like the English, taking advantage of the existing fight between the king [[Henry II]] and [[Archbishop of Canterbury]], [[Thomas Becket]].


== Pontificate and Empire at the time of Frederick I ==
== Pontificate and Empire at the time of Frederick I ==
[[Image: Braunschweig Brunswick Heinrich der Loewe (Sunday 2005) .jpg|right|thumb|130px| [[Enrique Leon]], head of the Welf family (from here the Guelfic name '' ''), presented/displayed a strong opposition to [[Federico I Barbarroja|Federico Barbarroja]], but this one gain the victory for its lineage and managed to exiliar it to [[England]].]]
[[Image: Braunschweig Brunswick Heinrich der Loewe (Sunday 2005) .jpg|right|thumb|130px| [[Enrique Leon]], head of the Welf family (from here the Guelfic name '' ''), presented/displayed a strong opposition to [[Federick I Barbarossa|Federick Barbarossa]], but this one gain the victory for its lineage and managed to exiliar it to [[England]].]]


'''[[1152]]''': Frederick succeeds [[Conrad III of Germany|Conrad III]]. First conflict with the [[Pope]]. The Scandinavian churches are separated from [[Hamburg]].
'''[[1152]]''': Frederick succeeds [[Conrad III of Germany|Conrad III]]. First conflict with the [[Pope]]. The Scandinavian churches are separated from [[Hamburg]].
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'''[[1156]]''': Imperial coronation of Frederick. Revolt of [[Rome]] and retreat of the emperor, who restitutes [[Bavaria]] to [[Henry the Lion]]. Alliance between Adrian IV and [[William I of Sicily]]. Concordato de Benevento. [[Austria]], independent countship.
'''[[1156]]''': Imperial coronation of Frederick. Revolt of [[Rome]] and retreat of the emperor, who restitutes [[Bavaria]] to [[Henry the Lion]]. Alliance between Adrian IV and [[William I of Sicily]]. Concordato de Benevento. [[Austria]], independent countship.


'''[[1157]] ''': Assembly of Besançon. Rupture between [[emperor]] and the Pope. ''' [[1158]] ''': Shaken and punishment of [[Milan]]. Diet of Roncaglia. ''' [[1159]] ''': New revolt of Milan. Site of [[Crema]]. Death of Adriano IV. [[Alexander III]], Pope, and Victor IV, antiPope. ''' [[1160]] ''': Cream taking and destruction. Beginning of the site of Milan. Assembly of Pavía. ''' [[1162]] ''': Taking and destruction of Milan. Alliance of Federico with [[Pisa]] and [[Genoa]] against Guillermo of Sicily. Project of interview between Federico and [[Luis VII]] of France to end the schism. [[Thomas Becket]], archbishop of Canterbury. ''' [[1162]] - [[1165]] ''': The German clergy happens to the party of Alexander III. ''' [[1163]] ''': I conciliate of Tours. ''' [[1164]] ''': [[Venice]] forms the call League of Verona against Federico. Death of the antiPope Victor IV, happening Paschal III to him. ''' [[1165]] ''': Diet of Wurzburgo. Persecution against those in favor of Alexander III. [[Enrique II]] Plantagenet breaks with Alexander III and recognizes Paschal III. [[Image: Gustave_dore_crusades_death_of_frederick_of_germany.jpg|thumb|left|200px| "The Death of Federico of Germany” by [[Gustave Doré]].]] ''' [[1167]] ''': Federico seizes of Rome. Formation of [[Liga Lombarda]], that is allied to the one of Verona. ''' [[1168]] ''': Foundation of [[Alexandria]] in Piedmont by the cities lombardas in honor of Alexander III. Paschal death of III. ''' [[1170]] ''': Liga Lombarda is put under the protection of Alexander III. Negotiations of Veroli between the Pope and the emperor. ''' [[1174]] - [[1175]] ''': Siege of Alexandria by Federico. ''' [[1175]] ''': Truce of Montebello. ''' [[1176]] ''': Federico is overcome in Legnano by the Italian communes. Conversations of Agnani with the Pope Alexander III. ''' [[1177]] ''': Peace of [[Venice]]. ''' [[1179]] ''': Rupture between the emperor and Enrique Leon. I conciliate of [[Letrán]]: reorganization of the papal election. ''' [[1180]] ''': War against Enrique Leon. ''' [[1181]] ''': Reconciliation between Federico and Enrique Leon. Death of Alexander III. ''' [[1183]] ''': Preliminaries of Plasencia and peace of Constanza. ''' [[1184]] ''': Diet of [[Maguncia]]: nuptials between the future [[Enrique I SAW]] and [[Constanza of Sicily]]. Diet of Verona. ''' [[1185]] ''': Alliance between Federico and Milan. ''' [[1186]] ''': Rupture between Urban Federico and [[III]]. Assembly of Gelnhausen. ''' [[1188]] ''': Reconciliation of the Pope with the Roman commune. ''' [[1189]] ''': Reconciliation between Pope and emperor. Death of Guillermo of Sicily; it happens the son of the emperor and future to him [[Enrique IV]]. ''' [[1190]] ''': [[Third Crossed]]: death of Federico in [[Smaller Asia]].
'''[[1157]] ''': Assembly of Besançon. Rupture between [[emperor]] and the Pope. ''' [[1158]] ''': Shaken and punishment of [[Milan]]. Diet of Roncaglia. ''' [[1159]] ''': New revolt of Milan. Site of [[Crema]]. Death of Adriano IV. [[Alexander III]], Pope, and Victor IV, antiPope. ''' [[1160]] ''': Cream taking and destruction. Beginning of the site of Milan. Assembly of Pavía. ''' [[1162]] ''': Taking and destruction of Milan. Alliance of Federick with [[Pisa]] and [[Genoa]] against Guillermo of Sicily. Project of interview between Federick and [[Louis VII]] of France to end the schism. [[Thomas Becket]], archbishop of Canterbury. ''' [[1162]] - [[1165]] ''': The German clergy happens to the party of Alexander III. ''' [[1163]] ''': I conciliate of Tours. ''' [[1164]] ''': [[Venice]] forms the call League of Verona against Federick. Death of the antiPope Victor IV, happening Paschal III to him. ''' [[1165]] ''': Diet of Wurzburgo. Persecution against those in favor of Alexander III. [[Enrique II]] Plantagenet breaks with Alexander III and recognizes Paschal III. [[Image: Gustave_dore_crusades_death_of_frederick_of_germany.jpg|thumb|left|200px| "The Death of Federico of Germany” by [[Gustave Doré]].]] ''' [[1167]] ''': Federick seizes of Rome. Formation of [[Liga Lombarda]], that is allied to the one of Verona. ''' [[1168]] ''': Foundation of [[Alexandria]] in Piedmont by the cities lombardas in honor of Alexander III. Paschal death of III. ''' [[1170]] ''': Liga Lombarda is put under the protection of Alexander III. Negotiations of Veroli between the Pope and the emperor. ''' [[1174]] - [[1175]] ''': Siege of Alexandria by Federick. ''' [[1175]] ''': Truce of Montebello. ''' [[1176]] ''': Federick is overcome in Legnano by the Italian communes. Conversations of Agnani with the Pope Alexander III. ''' [[1177]] ''': Peace of [[Venice]]. ''' [[1179]] ''': Rupture between the emperor and Enrique Leon. I conciliate of [[Letrán]]: reorganization of the papal election. ''' [[1180]] ''': War against Enrique Leon. ''' [[1181]] ''': Reconciliation between Federick and Enrique Leon. Death of Alexander III. ''' [[1183]] ''': Preliminaries of Plasencia and peace of Constanza. ''' [[1184]] ''': Diet of [[Maguncia]]: nuptials between the future [[Enrique I SAW]] and [[Constanza of Sicily]]. Diet of Verona. ''' [[1185]] ''': Alliance between Federick and Milan. ''' [[1186]] ''': Rupture between Urban Federick and [[III]]. Assembly of Gelnhausen. ''' [[1188]] ''': Reconciliation of the Pope with the Roman commune. ''' [[1189]] ''': Reconciliation between Pope and emperor. Death of Guillermo of Sicily; it happens the son of the emperor and future to him [[Enrique IV]]. ''' [[1190]] ''': [[Third Crossed]]: death of Federick in [[Asia Minor]].


== Involved Personages ==
== Involved Personages ==
(in chronological order)
(in chronological order)
=== Imperialistic ===
=== Imperial ===
* [[Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor]]
* [[Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor]]
* [[Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor]]
* [[Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor]]
* [[Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor]]
* [[Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor]]
* [[Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor]]
* [[Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor]]
=== Teócratas ===
=== Papal ===
* [[Pope Gregory VII]]
* [[Pope Gregory VII]]
* [[Pope Urban II]]
* [[Pope Urban II]]
Line 80: Line 80:


== See also ==
== See also ==
{{commonscat|Holy Roman Sacred Empire}} * [[Sacred Germanic Roman Empire]] * [[Querella of the Guelfic and Ghibelline Investitures]] * [[]]
{{commonscat|Holy Roman Sacred Empire}} * [[Sacred Germanic Roman Empire]] * [[Complaint of the Guelfic and Ghibelline Investitures]] * [[]]
== References ==
== References ==
* '' naissance of l'esprit laïque au déclin du Moyen Āge '', 2nd ed., Paris-Lovaina, 1970 (Lagarde, G.).
* '' naissance of l'esprit laïque au déclin du Moyen Āge '', 2nd ed., Paris-Lovaina, 1970 (Lagarde, G.).

Revision as of 01:40, 20 December 2007

Dominium mundi is an idea of universal dominion developed in the Middle Ages. Inspired by the memory of the Roman Empire, dominium mundi implied the recognition of one supreme authority, which generated a prolonged political and spiritual struggle between imperial and ecclesiastical power. This struggle can be said to have begun with the Investiture Controversy, and was mainly embodied by the Holy Roman Empire and Catholic Church, who elevated the emperor and Pope, respectively, to the status of supreme ruler. The idea of universal dominion divided Italy into the warring faction of Guelphs and Ghibellines. Guelphs supported the Church, while Ghibellines supported the Empire. After two hundred years of division during the 12th and 13th centuries, neither of the powers had prevailed, due to their mutual dependency and the rise of the powerful and practically independent reigns of Church and the State. The idea of dominium mundi did not reappear until the Imperialism of the 19th century, and even then did not appear in its original form.

The imperial idea

Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor, emperor of the Holy Roman Empire between 1152 and 1190, was the biggest figure of imperialism in the first stage of the dispute over Dominium Mundi.

Height and sustenance

At the time of the reign of Frederick I (1152-1190), the imperial idea had already reached maturity. Its continuity was emphasized in Europe from the Roman times, through the Carolingian Empire link. In fact, Frederick I spoke about Charlemagne as the model of emperors and had him canonized in 1165 without the requirements. The thesis on the public sovereignty that Roman law (rediscovered by the European jurists and politicians in the twelfth century) contains were also used in favor of the imperial ideas. It was of them that it was deduced the unicity and the universal character of the Holy Roman Empire, considered "a project of worldwide dominion" that symbolizes the whole period. Given these premises, it was believed in the court of Frederick I that the Empire, established directly by divine will as a form of political organization of humanity, was sacred. The expression Sacrum Imperium appears for the first time, in effect, in a document of the year 1157.

File:CodexManesseFol006rHenryVI.jpg
Portrait of Henry VI from the Codex Manesse (folio 6r, ca. 1300)

In a different plane, it cannot be forgotten that the 12th century saw the beginning of the revitalization of the monarchic power over feudalism, after several centuries of deep decay of the royal authority. The Empire did not stay at the margin of this evolution, recovering strongly its prestige. Nevertheless it was badly managed, causing important consequences for the political future of the territories of Germany and Italy. The reconstruction of the monarchies also went against the projected Dominium Mundi. Because of this, Frederick I, as well as his son and successor Henry VI, tried to conciliate both events imagining a universal temporal empire, at whose front was an emperor with supreme authority, superior to the power of various kings, called "régulos" or "local kings". This supreme authority seemed necessary, because it was believed that the Empire was the way to maintain unity in Christianity in preparation for the end times. Without considering this eschatological and messianic element, one cannot correctly understand what the Empire meant for the men of the time, in particular for emperor Frederick I.

The vision of the Church

The foundations of the ecclesiastical vision can be exemplified by these sources:

  • According to Pope Alexander III: "The unicity of the creation also implies the unicity of the supreme authority on all the creatures. This had to belong to the Pope because of the superiority of his spiritual power and because the eternal salvation, that he promoted, was the prime social aim. "
  • According to Summa Coloniensis (1170 text): "The Pope is the true emperor, the emperor being his effective vicarious." (imperator Pope verus est, imperator ET vicarius eius).
  • According to Geroh de Reichersbgerg and the great canon lawyers like Graciano and Huguccio: "The lay temporary power had independent operation, being able to choose those who exerted it either by means of election or inheritance, as well as to develop its own administrative means without interferences. The Pope conserved, nevertheless, a supreme authority, but he could only exert it to sanction or to authenticate the political acts, not to stop or modify them nor to directly act, except for moral or religious reasons (ratione peccati: “because of sins”) or when it was necessary to dissolve an issue for which no other power of the world was authorized."

Imperial and ecclesiastical law in the 12th and 13th centuries

Roman law

Main article: Roman law

In the 12th and 13th centuries the rediscovery of old Roman law and the ordenación of the canon law sparked a new era for the legal ordering of the western world. This influenced deeply in the politics of the time, especially in the course of the struggle of the Dominium Mundi between the Empire and the Pontificate. The Roman law to be known by the medieval Europe exclusively the compilation made by the emperor Justinian in the 6th century, which consists of several differentiated parts:

  1. The Digest or Pandectas, compendium of jurisprudence.
  2. The Institutions or a manual of study which, in part, summarizes the previous one.
  3. The "Justinian Code", that reunites all the constitutions by the emperors starting from the times of Hadrian.
  4. The Novels, or imperial constitutions after the year 53.
Bologna University seal. Bolognian teachers commented the Justinian texts through the glosses, favoring the empire.

Of all these, the one of greater influence in the medieval rediscovery was the Digest. The Justinian work would, starting in the 16th century, be known as Corpus Iuris Civilis, but at the time it lacked diffusion and was known through compendiums that deformed it. The renaissance on Roman studies during the 12th and 13th centuries that would influence all of Europe, occurred in Bologna, a city in the italian Romagna. It wasn't small, in this diffusion, the role of the romano-germanic emperors, who were moved by their political interests as much as by their supposed condition of successors to the old Roman Empire. The teachers of this most famous “school of Bologna” acted according to a method of medieval study, the one of glosses or commentary of the content and meaning of justinian texts. They are not critical commentaries, but rather, analytical. The bolognian professors accept justinian law as something superior, even supreme; they are limited to comment on it, without too much critical baggage, because for that they needed philological command of Greek language and study of original texts and historical knowledge, in which they were lacking. But from their commentary fundamental consequences for the Europe of the time are deduced, by the creation of a rich casuistry that covered a field of superior and more ample legal hypothesis from what was widely known until then. The foundation of this school of bolognian professors is due to Irnerio at the beginning of the 12th century. Disciples of his were Hugo, Bulgaro, Jacobo and Martin, called “the four doctors” because of their wisdom and influences. All of them were Ghibellines (supported the idea of the Empire being over the pontificate) and in favor of Federick I, of whom they were contemporary.

Canon law

Main article: Canon law
Pope Alexander III was one of the main glossists of the Decree of pontifical Graciano and Decretals, playing a decisive role in the fight with the Holy Roman Empire.

Around the same time, with some decades of difference, a systematization of the ecclesiastical law took place, which was going to give birth to the canon law in all its fullness. Romanists and canon lawyers were brothers of mentality and duties, although the later defended the pontifical rights. The first one to compile and systematize the previous universal council canons was Graciano, a bolognian theology teacher, who wrote ca. 1140 his Concordance of the Discordances of the Canons, commonly called Decree. The work of Graciano did not have official status, but it reached great prestige and caused in the following decades a height in legal consultations formulated to the pontiff s, something to be expected at a time of insufficient organization of the civil power. These answered by means of litteras decretals or “decretals”, whose compilation became necessary, as the only way to use and preserve the jurisprudential wealth they contained, since they not only affected ecclesiastical matters, but also those of civilians and seculars.

The first compilation was made by Raymond of Peñafort, a Dominican Catalan, and is named Gregory IX Decretals; it reunites the decretals appeared between 1154 and 1234 and is divided in five books, this being the reason the following compilation, which includes material up until 1298, was known Liber sextus ("Sixth book"). In the 14th century new compilations were made, Clementines, Extravagantes de John XXII and Comunas. From the 16th century on, all canon law in its recognized compendiums will take the official name of Corpus iuris canonici. Tee Decree of pontifical Graciano and the Decretals were commented by the same procedure of glosses as was applied to the Roman law. Some of the main glossists played a decisive role in the struggle against the Empire: Rolando Bandinelli (Pope Alexander III) and Sinibaldo Fieschi (Pope Innocent IV). The synthesis of the glosses was made, mainly, by Bartholomew de Brescia, in the 12th century, and also by Juan the Teutónico, in the 13th century, of Hugh of Pisa and Henry of Segusio.

Development of the conflict

In varied occasions the cities lombardas, headed by Milan, revolted to the imperial authority, approaching pontificado.

the diet of Besançon and the first differences

To its return of Italy, after to have gone in aid of the Pontiff Eugene III, Federick I summoned a diet in Besançon (1157), with object to reform the political statute of its kingdom in Ar to them. In that diet the first differences between the high civil employees of the emperor, in special took place the chancellor Rainaldo de Dassel, and the pontifical legacy, and future Pope, Rolando Bandinelli. The complaint between theocrats and avivava, being the pretext the interpretation of a papal document in which it was alluded to to the “benefits” that Pontiff granted to emperor. The word “benefit”, in that then, had a very specific meaning, because vassals were the ones who received benefits or fiefs from their lord. To thus Rainaldo de Dassel understood it and, put forth the argument that, Rolando Bandinelli did not gain a disadvantage in accepting the thesis of its rival: in effect, for him, the emperor received the Empire as a “benefit” of the Pope. Adriano IV, the Pope of English origin that crowned emperor Federick I, clarified later that the word had a more general sense: the Pope granted spiritual benefits, not fiefdoms. But the complaint had been revived, and when Rolando Bandinelli was raised to the pontifical seat as Alexander III, it was as a true restorer of papal authority (in the spirit of Pope Gregory VII). Theories that no longer had the energetic simplicity of the Gregorian times. In first half of the 12th century, mainly, some authors continued the theses of Gregory VII, like Hugo of San Victor, John of Salisbury or Honorio Augustodunense, but the predominant theories assimilate in some form the new realities: rediscovery of straight Roman, affirmation of the political powers, complication of the social scheme in a world in which the possible offices and individual situations are multiplied, breaking the primitive ideal of the “trinitarian society” (politicians, the military and agriculturists).

Frederick I against Alexander III

After the death of Adrian IV, 24 cardinals choose the Pope Alexander III. Nevertheless, Federick I recognized like Pope Victor IV (Antipope).

In 1158 took place the second travels imperial to Italy. Shortly after, the death of Adrian IV opened a successory crisis in the pontificado one. Around both facts the first propitious conjuncture for the confrontation between emperor and Pope takes place. Federick tried to subjugate to the cities lombardas. Milan was raised at the top of this new urban world. The emperor besieged it and he forced it to capitulate, conserving this one its internal autonomy but accepting totally the imperial authority. Next, Federick I reunited to one magna assembly in Roncaglia with the purpose of reorganizing the administration of the kingdom of Italy and recovering in him all his authority. It seemed to obtain it, but the resistance against its measures would raise to the cities and would renew its old “entente” with the Pontiff, for whom the constitution of an imperial power hard in the north and center of Italy was more serious the immediate danger against its political independence.

La pseudocanonization of Charlemagne was an example of the culmination of imperial interventionism.
Pope and antiPope

When Adrian IV died, the 24 cardinals in favor of opposing the dominion of Federick I in Italy chose Pope Alexander III, while the three that preferred to reconcile gave their vote to cardinal Octavian, who was titled Victor IV. The split allowed Federick to attempt a conciliation in Pavía (January of 1160), where Pope Victor IV was recognized, while Alexander III looked for support in the Norman kingdom of the south of Italy, whose kings were vassals of The Holy See, and in other European countries, to foment opposition against the emperor. Milan again revolted in 1161, but it was conquered by force of arms and devastated; shortly after, Alexander III was forced to divide for France. Federick won, but Alexander was the Pope recognized by Europe, except for the Empire, and, even so, he counted within this one frightful allies, in particular in Italy, where the emperor and his chancellors, Rainaldo de Dassel and Christian de Bach, organized authoritarian government to counter the old local autonomies, that were not resigned to accept their new lot without resistance.

Culmination of the imperial intervention

The death of Victor IV also deprived to Federick of an important support, because antipopes that made choose to happen to him (Paschal III, Calixto III) did not have possible justification nor was recognized willingly by he himself German clergy, since emperor took advantage of the circumstances to inmiscuir itself in the ecclesiastical life like at the worse moments of” Querella of the investitures “: In 1165, sínodo of Wurzburgo and seudocanonización of Carlomagno was the culmination of imperial interventionism. In addition, the dispute with Alexander III forced him to make concessions and to obtain alliances in Germany like in other countries. Great German nobles is made Frederick pay dearly for their fidelity and, in the outside, Federick looked for so much the French alliance, never obtained, like the English, taking advantage of the existing fight between the king Henry II and Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Becket.

Pontificate and Empire at the time of Frederick I

File:Braunschweig Brunswick Heinrich der Loewe (Sunday 2005) .jpg
Enrique Leon, head of the Welf family (from here the Guelfic name ), presented/displayed a strong opposition to Federick Barbarossa, but this one gain the victory for its lineage and managed to exiliar it to England.

1152: Frederick succeeds Conrad III. First conflict with the Pope. The Scandinavian churches are separated from Hamburg.

1153: Treaty of Constanza between Frederick and Eugene III.

1154: Frederick in Italy; decree of Roncaglia. Violence against the Italian communes. Adrian IV, the Pope.

1156: Imperial coronation of Frederick. Revolt of Rome and retreat of the emperor, who restitutes Bavaria to Henry the Lion. Alliance between Adrian IV and William I of Sicily. Concordato de Benevento. Austria, independent countship.

1157 : Assembly of Besançon. Rupture between emperor and the Pope. 1158 : Shaken and punishment of Milan. Diet of Roncaglia. 1159 : New revolt of Milan. Site of Crema. Death of Adriano IV. Alexander III, Pope, and Victor IV, antiPope. 1160 : Cream taking and destruction. Beginning of the site of Milan. Assembly of Pavía. 1162 : Taking and destruction of Milan. Alliance of Federick with Pisa and Genoa against Guillermo of Sicily. Project of interview between Federick and Louis VII of France to end the schism. Thomas Becket, archbishop of Canterbury. 1162 - 1165 : The German clergy happens to the party of Alexander III. 1163 : I conciliate of Tours. 1164 : Venice forms the call League of Verona against Federick. Death of the antiPope Victor IV, happening Paschal III to him. 1165 : Diet of Wurzburgo. Persecution against those in favor of Alexander III. Enrique II Plantagenet breaks with Alexander III and recognizes Paschal III.

"The Death of Federico of Germany” by Gustave Doré.

1167 : Federick seizes of Rome. Formation of Liga Lombarda, that is allied to the one of Verona. 1168 : Foundation of Alexandria in Piedmont by the cities lombardas in honor of Alexander III. Paschal death of III. 1170 : Liga Lombarda is put under the protection of Alexander III. Negotiations of Veroli between the Pope and the emperor. 1174 - 1175 : Siege of Alexandria by Federick. 1175 : Truce of Montebello. 1176 : Federick is overcome in Legnano by the Italian communes. Conversations of Agnani with the Pope Alexander III. 1177 : Peace of Venice. 1179 : Rupture between the emperor and Enrique Leon. I conciliate of Letrán: reorganization of the papal election. 1180 : War against Enrique Leon. 1181 : Reconciliation between Federick and Enrique Leon. Death of Alexander III. 1183 : Preliminaries of Plasencia and peace of Constanza. 1184 : Diet of Maguncia: nuptials between the future Enrique I SAW and Constanza of Sicily. Diet of Verona. 1185 : Alliance between Federick and Milan. 1186 : Rupture between Urban Federick and III. Assembly of Gelnhausen. 1188 : Reconciliation of the Pope with the Roman commune. 1189 : Reconciliation between Pope and emperor. Death of Guillermo of Sicily; it happens the son of the emperor and future to him Enrique IV. 1190 : Third Crossed: death of Federick in Asia Minor.

Involved Personages

(in chronological order)

Imperial

Papal

See also

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Holy Roman Sacred Empire.

* Sacred Germanic Roman Empire * Complaint of the Guelfic and Ghibelline Investitures * [[]]

References

  • naissance of l'esprit laïque au déclin du Moyen Āge , 2nd ed., Paris-Lovaina, 1970 (Lagarde, G.).
  • Histoire du christianisme, volume I VI. Temps d'épreuves (1274-1449), Paris, 1990 (Congourdeau, M.H.). ISBN 2-213-02629-7
  • History of the political thought in the average Age , Barcelona, 1992 (Ullmann, W.). ISBN 0-14-055102-6
  • the Papado. Brief history of pontified , You settle, 2003 (Kalyan).
  • the Average Age , volume X of the Collection of Universal History Salvat, 2005.
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