Orientalism

For the book by Edward Said, see Orientalism (book). For Orientalist Architecture, see Moorish Revival and Egyptian revival.

Anonymous Venetian orientalist painting, ‘The Reception of the Ambassadors in Damascus', 1511, the Louvre. The deer with antlers in the foreground is not known ever to have existed in the wild in Syria.

Eugène Delacroix, The Women of Algiers, 1834, the Louvre, Paris

Orientalism is primarily a term used for the imitation or depiction of aspects of Eastern cultures in the West by writers, designers and artists.

Since the 19th century, "orientalist" has been the traditional term for a scholar of Oriental studies, however the use in English of "Orientalism" to describe academic "Oriental studies" is rare; the Oxford English Dictionary cites only one such usage, by Lord Byron in 1812. Orientalism was more widely used to refer to the works of French artists in the 19th century, who used artistic elements derived from their travels to non-European countries of North Africa and Western Asia.

Nonetheless, the 20th century saw considerable change in the term's usage. In 1978, American scholar Edward Said published his influential and controversial book, Orientalism; he used the term to describe a pervasive Western tradition, both academic and artistic, of prejudiced outsider interpretations of the East, shaped by the attitudes of European imperialism in the 18th and 19th centuries. Said was critical of both this scholarly tradition and of some modern scholars, particularly Bernard Lewis. American literary critic Paul De Man supported Said's criticism of these modern scholars as he stated in his article on semiotic rhetoric "Said took a step further than any other modern scholar of his time, something I dare not do. I remain in the safety of rhetorical analysis where criticism is the second best thing I do."

In complete contrast, some modern scholars have used the term to refer to writers of the Imperialist era with pro-Eastern attitudes.

More recently, the term is also used in the meaning of "stereotyping of Islam", both by advocates and academics in refugee rights advocacy. A particular aspect of this stereotyping, described as "neo-Orientalism", occurs in the context of forced migration, particularly affecting women, and its alleged damage to refugee rights both in and outside the Arab and Muslim world.

Meaning of the term

Further information: Orientalism in early modern France

Orientalism refers to the Orient or East, in contrast to the Occident or West.

In the later Roman Empire, the Praetorian prefecture of the East, the Praefectura Praetorio Orientis, included most of the Eastern Roman Empire from the eastern Balkans eastwards; its easternmost part was the Diocese of the East, the Dioecesis Orientis, corresponding roughly to Greater Syria.

Over time, the common understanding of 'the Orient' has continually shifted eastwards, as Western explorers traveled farther into Asia. It finally reached the Pacific Ocean, in what Westerners came to call 'the Far East'. These shifts in time and identification sometimes confuse the scope (historical and geographic) of Oriental Studies.

Yet, there remain contexts where 'the Orient' and 'Oriental' have kept their older meanings, e.g. 'Oriental spices' typically are from the regions extending from the Middle East to sub-continental India to Indo-China. Travelers may again take the Orient Express train from Paris to Istanbul, a route established in the early 20th century. It never reached the nations bordering the Pacific Ocean, or what is currently understood to be the Orient.

In contemporary English, Oriental usually refers to goods from the parts of East Asia traditionally occupied by East Asians and most Central Asians and Southeast Asians racially categorized as "Mongoloid". This excludes Indians, Arabs, most other West Asian peoples. Because of historical discrimination against Chinese and Japanese, in some parts of the United States, the term is considered derogatory; for example, Washington state prohibits use of the word "Oriental" in legislation and government documentation, preferring the word "Asian" instead.

Architecture

See also: Moorish Revival and Egyptian revival

The Royal Pavilion.

Early architectural use of motifs lifted from the Indian subcontinent has sometimes been called "Hindoo style". One of the earliest examples is the façade of Guildhall, London (1788–1789). The style gained momentum in the west with the publication of views of India by William Hodges, and William and Thomas Daniell from about 1795. Examples of "Hindoo" architecture are Sezincote House (c. 1805) in Gloucestershire and the Royal Pavilion in Brighton.

The Wilhelma (1846) in Stuttgart is an example of Moorish Revival architecture.

The Vorontsovsky Palace (1828–46), designed by Edward Blore in English style but incorporating eastern style elements.

Chinesischer Turm (Chinese Tower) in the Englischer Garten, Munich, Germany. The initial structure was built 1789–1790.

Chinoiserie is the catch-all term for the fashion for Chinese themes in decoration in Western Europe, beginning in the late 17th century and peaking in waves, especially Rococo Chinoiserie, ca. 1740–1770. From the Renaissance to the 18th century, Western designers attempted to imitate the technical sophistication of Chinese ceramics with only partial success. Early hints of Chinoiserie appeared in the 17th century in nations with active East India companies: England (the British East India Company), Denmark (the Danish East India Company), the Netherlands (the Dutch East India Company) and France (the French East India Company). Tin-glazed pottery made at Delft and other Dutch towns adopted genuine blue-and-white Ming decoration from the early 17th century. Early ceramic wares made at Meissen and other centers of true porcelain imitated Chinese shapes for dishes, vases and teawares (see Chinese export porcelain).

Pleasure pavilions in "Chinese taste" appeared in the formal parterres of late Baroque and Rococo German palaces, and in tile panels at Aranjuez near Madrid. Thomas Chippendale's mahogany tea tables and china cabinets, especially, were embellished with fretwork glazing and railings, ca 1753–70. Sober homages to early Xing scholars' furnishings were also naturalized, as the tang evolved into a mid-Georgian side table and squared slat-back armchairs that suited English gentlemen as well as Chinese scholars. Not every adaptation of Chinese design principles falls within mainstream "chinoiserie." Chinoiserie media included imitations of lacquer and painted tin (tôle) ware that imitated japanning, early painted wallpapers in sheets, and ceramic figurines and table ornaments. Small pagodas appeared on chimneypieces and full-sized ones in gardens. Kew has a magnificent garden pagoda designed by Sir William Chambers.

After 1860, Japonisme, sparked by the importing of Japanese woodblock prints, became an important influence in the western arts. In particular, many modern French artists such as Monet and Degas were influenced by the Japanese style. Mary Cassatt, an American artist who worked in France, used elements of combined patterns, flat planes and shifting perspective of Japanese prints in her own images. The paintings of James McNeill Whistler and his "Peacock Room" demonstrated how he used aspects of Japanese tradition and are some of the finest works of the genre. California architects Greene and Greene were inspired by Japanese elements in their design of the Gamble House and other buildings.

Art, literature and music

See also: Stereotypes of Arabs and Muslims and Stereotypes of Asians

Adorazione dei magi (adoration of the Magi) by Gentile da Fabriano, 1423

Sultan Mehmed II, attr. Gentile Bellini, 1480

Depictions of Islamic "Moors" and "Turks" (imprecisely named Muslim groups of North Africa and West Asia) can be found in Medieval, Renaissance, and Baroque art. In Biblical scenes in Early Netherlandish painting, secondary figures, especially Romans and Jews, were given exotic costumes that distantly reflected the clothes of the Near East. The Three Magi in Nativity scenes were an especial focus for this. Renaissance Venice had a phase of particular interest in depictions of the Ottoman Empire in painting; Gentile Bellini, who travelled to Constantinople and painted the Sultan, and Vittore Carpaccio were the leading exponents. By then the depictions were more accurate, with men typically dressed all in white. The depiction of Oriental carpets in Renaissance painting sometimes draws from Orientalist interest, but more often just reflects the prestige these expensive objects had in the period.

Johann Joseph Fux was inspired by the 1683 Siege of Vienna by the Ottoman Empire to write his partita Turcaria. Turquerie, which began as early as the late 15th century, continued until at least the 18th century.

In the nineteenth century, when more artists traveled to the Middle East, they began representing more numerous scenes of Oriental culture. In many of these works, they portrayed the Orient as exotic, colorful and sensual. Such works typically concentrated on Near-Eastern Islamic cultures, as those were the ones visited by artists as France became more engaged in North Africa. French artists such as Eugène Delacroix, Jean-Léon Gérôme and Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres painted many works depicting Islamic culture, often including lounging odalisques. They stressed both lassitude and visual spectacle. The later Russian artist Alexander Roubtzoff was also fascinated by what he saw on travels to Tunisia.

"Le Bain Turc," (Turkish Bath) by J.A.D. Ingres, 1862

When Ingres, director of the French Académie de peinture, painted a highly colored vision of a turkish bath (illustration, right), he made his eroticized Orient publicly acceptable by his diffuse generalizing of the female forms (who might all have been the same model.) More open sensuality was seen as acceptable in the exotic Orient. This imagery persisted in art into the early 20th century, as evidenced in Matisse's orientalist semi-nudes from his Nice period, and his use of Oriental costumes and patterns.

In his novel Salammbô, Gustave Flaubert used ancient Carthage in North Africa as a foil to ancient Rome. He portrayed its culture as morally corrupting and suffused with dangerously alluring eroticism. This novel proved hugely influential on later portrayals of ancient Semitic cultures.

The use of the orient as an exotic backdrop continued in the movies, for instance, those featuring Rudolph Valentino. Later the rich Arab in robes became a more popular theme, especially during the oil crisis of the 1970s. In the 1990s the Arab terrorist became a common villain figure in Western movies.

Examples

File:Cover of Le Japon Artistique no 1 may 1888.jpg

Cover of the French magazine Le Japon Artistique (May 1888) showing one of Hokusai's views on Mount Fuji.

Literature

• Montesquieu — Persian Letters (Lettres persanes) (1721)
• William Thomas Beckford — Vathek (1786)
• Samuel Taylor Coleridge — Kubla Khan (published 1816)
• Thomas Moore — Lalla-Rookh (published 1817)
• Percy Bysshe Shelley — Ozymandias (1818)
• Johann Wolfgang von Goethe — Westöstlicher Diwan (1819)
• Ralph Waldo Emerson — poem Indian Superstition (1821)
• Edgar Allan Poe — Tamerlane (1827), Al Aaraaf (1829), and Israfel (1831)
• Victor Hugo — Les Orientales (1829)
• Gustave Flaubert — Salammbô (1862)
• Eça de Queiroz — The Relic (A Relíquia) (1887) and The Mandarin (O Mandarim) (1889)
• Anatole France — Thaïs (1890)
• Richard Francis Burton — translation of The Book of One Thousand and One Nights (1885–1888)
• Victor Segalen — René Leys (1922)
• Herman Hesse — Siddhartha (1922)
• André Malraux — Man's Fate (1934) (La Condition humaine, 1933)
• Marguerite Yourcenar's Nouvelles Orientales (1938)

Opera, ballets, musicals

Costume design for Aida by Auguste Mariette (1871)

Theatre poster for The Mikado

• Antonio Lucio Vivaldi — Juditha triumphans (1716)
• Georg Friedrich Händel — Tamerlano (1724) and Serse (1738)
• Jean-Philippe Rameau — Les Indes Galantes (1735–1736)
• Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart — Die Entführung aus dem Serail (1782)
• Gioachino Rossini — Semiramide (1823)
• Giuseppe Verdi — Nabucco (1842)
• Jacques Offenbach — Ba-ta-clan (1855)
• Georges Bizet — Les Pêcheurs de Perles (1863)
• Giuseppe Verdi — Aida (1871)
• Emmanuel Chabrier — Fisch-Ton-Kan (1875)
• César Cui — The Mandarin's Son (1878)
• Gilbert and Sullivan — The Mikado (1885)
• Alexander Borodin — Prince Igor (1890)
• Sidney Jones — The Geisha (1896)
• Sidney Jones — San Toy (1899)
• Pietro Mascagni — Iris (1899)
• Howard Talbot — A Chinese Honeymoon (1896)
• Giacomo Puccini — Madama Butterfly (1904)
• Richard Strauss — Salome, Opera in one act based on Wilde's play (1905)
• Giacomo Puccini — Turandot (1926)
• Sigmund Romberg, Oscar Hammerstein II & Otto Harbach — The Desert Song (1926) and film (1929)
• Richard Strauss — The Egyptian Helen, Opera with libretto by Hugo von Hofmanstahl (1929)

Orchestral works

• Mily Balakirev — Tamara.
• Alexander Borodin — In the Steppes of Central Asia; "Polovetsian Dances" from Prince Igor.
• Mikhail Ippolitov-Ivanov — Caucasian Sketches.
• Modest Mussorgsky — "Dance of the Persian Slaves" from Khovanshchina.
• Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov — Antar; Scheherezade.

Shorter musical pieces

• Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart—Rondo alla turca from Piano Sonata No.11 (K.331)
• Mily Balakirev — Islamey
• Albert Ketèlbey — In a Persian Market (1920), In a Chinese Temple Garden (1925), and In the Mystic Land of Egypt (1931)
• Sergei Rachmaninoff — Oriental Sketch (1917)

Theatre

Okito performing the floating ball, 1910.

• Tobias Bamberg's magic stage act as "Okito" (Germany, 1893 – United States, 1908)
• Oscar Wilde's Salomé (1893, first performed in Paris 1896)
• Alexander's mentalism stage act (United States, c. 1890s–1910s)
• William Ellsworth Robinson's, magic stage act as "Chung Ling Soo" (United States, 1900–1918)

Painting

Painting of the Hypaethral Temple of Philae by David Roberts, 1838

• Théodore Chassériau (1819–1856)
• Léon Comerre (1850–1916)
• Richard Dadd (1817–1886)
• Eugène Delacroix (1798–1863)
• Ludwig Deutsch (1855–1935)
• Alphonse Étienne Dinet
• Edmund Dulac
• Eugène Fromentin (1820–1876)
• Jean-Léon Gérôme (1824–1904)
• William Holman Hunt (1827–1910)
• Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres (1780–1867)
• Edward Lear (1812–1888)
• Frederic Leighton (1830–1896)
• John Frederick Lewis (1805–1876)
• Alberto Pasini (1826–1899)
• Théodore Ralli (1852–1909)
• David Roberts (painter) (1796–1864)
• Alexandre Roubtzoff (1884–1949)
• James Tissot (1836–1902)
• Horace Vernet
• David Wilkie (1785–1841)
• Jean Baptiste Vanmour (1671–1731)
• Jean-Étienne Liotard (1702–1789)
• Ecem Kafadar (1885–1940)
• Edwin Lord Weeks (1849–1903)
• Adolf Schreyer (1828–1899)

Fotografie

Photograph of Cairo by Francis Frith, 1856.

• Roger Fenton
• Francis Frith

Pulp magazines

Cover of Oriental Stories (Spring 1932).

• Oriental Stories: A pulp magazine published 1930–34 by Chicago based Popular Fiction specialising in Orientalist fiction. The title was later changed to The Magic Carpet Magazine.

Films

• Broken Blossoms (1919)
• The Sheik (1921)
• The Lives of a Bengal Lancer (1935)
• The Thief of Bagdad (1940)
• My Geisha (1962)
• Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom (1984)

Comics

• The Adventures of Tintin (1929–1983)
• The upside down circle by Don Gilbert (1990).
• Dragon and Tiger (2008)

Edward Said and "Orientalism"

Main article: Orientalism (book)

Design by Léon Cogniet for a ceiling decoration in the Louvre depicting the 1798 Egyptian Expedition.

A central idea of Edward Said's book Orientalism (1978) is that Western knowledge about the East is not generated from facts or reality, but from preconceived archetypes that envision all "Eastern" societies as fundamentally similar to one another, and fundamentally dissimilar to "Western" societies. This a priori knowledge establishes "the East" as antithetical to "the West". Such Eastern knowledge is constructed with literary texts and historical records that often are of limited understanding of the facts of life in the Middle East.

Although Edward Said limited his discussion to academic study of Middle Eastern, African and Asian history and culture, he asserted that "Orientalism is, and does not merely represent, a significant dimension of modern political and intellectual culture." (p. 53) Said's discussion of academic Orientalism is almost entirely limited to late 19th and early 20th century scholarship. Most academic Area Studies departments had already abandoned an imperialist or colonialist paradigm of scholarship. He names the work of Bernard Lewis as an example of the continued existence of this paradigm, but acknowledges that it was already somewhat of an exception by the time of his writing (1977). The idea of an "Orient" is a crucial aspect of attempts to define "the West". Thus, histories of the Greco–Persian Wars may contrast the monarchical government of the Persian Empire with the democratic tradition of Athens, as a way to make a more general comparison between the Greeks and the Persians, and between "the West" and "the East", or "Europe" and "Asia", but make no mention of the other Greek city states, most of which were not ruled democratically.

Taking a comparative and historical literary review of European, mainly British and French, scholars and writers looking at, thinking about, talking about, and writing about the peoples of the Middle East, Said sought to lay bare the relations of power between the colonizer and the colonized in those texts. Said's writings have had far-reaching implications beyond area studies in Middle East, to studies of imperialist Western attitudes to India, China and elsewhere. It was one of the foundational texts of postcolonial studies. Said later developed and modified his ideas in his book Culture and Imperialism (1993).

Many scholars now use Said's work to attempt to overturn long-held, often taken-for-granted Western ideological biases regarding non-Westerners in scholarly thought. Some post-colonial scholars would even say that the West's idea of itself was constructed largely by saying what others were not. If "Europe" evolved out of "Christendom" as the "not-Byzantium," early modern Europe in the late 16th century (see Battle of Lepanto (1571)) defined itself as the "not-Turkey."

Said puts forward several definitions of "Orientalism" in the introduction to Orientalism. Some of these have been more widely quoted and influential than others:

• "A way of coming to terms with the Orient that is based on the Orient's special place in European Western experience." (p. 1)
• "a style of thought based upon an ontological and epistemological distinction made between the Orient' and (most of the time) 'the Occident'." (p. 2)
• "A Western style for dominating, restructuring, and having authority over the Orient." (p. 3)
• "...particularly valuable as a sign of European-Atlantic power over the Orient than it is as a veridic discourse about the Orient." (p. 6)
• "A distribution of geopolitical awareness into aesthetic, scholarly, economic, sociological, historical, and philological texts." (p. 12)

In his Preface to the 2003 edition of Orientalism, Said also warned against the "falsely unifying rubrics that invent collective identities," citing such terms as "America," "The West," and "Islam," which were leading to what he felt was a manufactured "clash of civilisations."

Criticisms of Said

North African girls on a French postcard, around 1900.

Critics of Said's theory, such as the historian Bernard Lewis, argue that Said's account contains many factual, methodological and conceptual errors. Said ignores many genuine contributions to the study of Eastern cultures made by Westerners during the Enlightenment and Victorian eras. Said's theory does not explain why the French and English pursued the study of Islam in the 16th and 17th centuries, long before they had any control or hope of control in the Middle East. Critics have argued that Said ignored the contributions of Italian, Dutch, and particularly the massive contribution of German scholars. Lewis claims that the scholarship of these nations was more important to European Orientalism than the French or British, but the countries in question either had no colonial projects in the Mideast (Dutch and Germans), or no connection between their Orientalist research and their colonialism (Italians). Said's theory also does not explain why much of Orientalist study did nothing to advance the cause of imperialism.

As Lewis asks,

What imperial purpose was served by deciphering the ancient Egyptian language, for example, and then restoring to the Egyptians knowledge of and pride in their forgotten, ancient past?

Lewis argued that Orientalism arose from humanism, which was distinct from Imperialist ideology, and sometimes in opposition to it. Orientalist study of Islam arose from the rejection of religious dogma, and was an important spur to discovery of alternative cultures. Lewis criticised as "intellectual protectionism" the argument that only those within a culture could usefully discuss it.

In his rebuttal to Lewis, Said stated that Lewis' negative rejoinder must be placed into its proper context. Since one of Said's principal arguments is that Orientalism was used (wittingly or unwittingly) as an instrument of empire, he contends that Lewis' critique of this thesis could hardly be judged in the disinterested, scholarly light that Lewis would like to present himself, but must be understood in the proper knowledge of what Said claimed was Lewis' own (often masked) neo-imperialist proclivities, as displayed by the latter's political or quasi-political appointments and pronouncements.

Bryan Turner critiques Said’s work saying there were a multiplicity of forms and traditions of Orientalism. He is therefore critical of Said’s attempt to try to place them all under the framework of the orientalist tradition. Other critics of Said have argued that while many distortions and fantasies certainly existed, the notion of "the Orient" as a negative mirror image of the West cannot be wholly true because attitudes to distinct cultures diverged significantly.

According to Naji Oueijan, Orientalism manifested in two movements: a genuine one prompted by scholars like Sir William Jones and literary figures such as Samuel Johnson, William Beckford, and Lord Byron; and a false one motivated by religious and political literary propagandists. Another view holds that other cultures are necessarily identified by their "otherness", since otherwise their distinctive characteristics would be invisible, and thus the most striking differences are emphasized in the eyes, and literature, of the outsider. John MacKenzie notes that the Western "dominance" critiqued by Said has often been challenged and answered, for instance in the ‘Subaltern Studies’ body of literature, which strives to give voice to marginalized peoples. Further criticism includes the observation that the criticisms levied by Said at Orientalist scholars of being essentialist can in turn be levied at him for the way in which he writes of the West as a hegemonic mass, stereotyping its characteristics.

Eastern views of the West

Much of Said's criticism of Western "Orientalism" is based on particularizing trends also present in Asian works by Indian, Chinese and Japanese writers and artists, in their views of Western culture and tradition. The term Occidentalism has sometimes been used to refer to negative or stereotypical views of the Western world found in Eastern societies.

Although the core how of Said's criticism of the concept of "Orientalism" implies a Western view of Eastern culture, some Eastern artists adopted Western styles that particularize Eastern peoples. The Indian painter Ravi Varma painted several works that are virtually indistinguishable from some Western "Orientalist" images.

In the late 20th century many Western cultural themes and images began appearing in Asian art and culture, especially in Japan. English words and phrases are prominent in Japanese advertising and popular culture, and many Japanese anime are written around characters, settings, themes, and mythological figures derived from various Western cultural traditions.

See also

• Arabist
• Black Orientalism
• Circassian beauties
• Colonialism
• Dhimmi
• Ethnic nationalism
• Exoticism
• Folklore
• Islamism
• Iranistics
• Japonism
• Postcolonialism
• Robert Irwin
• Messianism
• Joseph Needham
• Occidentalism
• Ottoman Empire
• Oriental Institute
• Silk Road
• Sotadic zone
• Wapanese

References

Artikel

• "China in Western Thought and Culture" Dictionary of the History of Ideas, etext, University of Virginia
• John E. Hill, translation, Hou Hanshu
• Brian Whitaker, "Distorting Desire", review, Joseph Abbad, Desiring Arabs, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007, from Al-Bab.com, on Reflections of a Renegade blog site
• Iskandar, Adel (July 2003). "Whenever, Wherever! The Discourse of Orientalist Transnationalism in the Construction of Shakira".
• Martin Kramer, "Edward Said's Splash", from his book, Ivory Towers on Sand: The Failure of Middle Eastern Studies in America, Washington: The Washington Institute for Near East Policy, 2001, pp. 27–43.
• Andre Gingrich, "Frontier Orientalism", Camp Catatonia blog
• Orientalism in the "History of Art", All Art
• Orientalist art and photography, London Times Online
• "Alexander Roubtzoff" (1884–1949), Artistic Association Alexander Roubtzoff
• "Edward Said and the Production of Knowledge", CitizenTrack
• "Orientalism as a tool of Colonialism", Citizen Track

External links

• Academic Information Centre
• Ancient Indian & Iran Trust, London UK
• Eurasian Orientalist Server
• The Orientalist Painters

Further reading

• App, Urs William Jones's Ancient Theology. Sino-Platonic Papers Nr. 191 (September 2009) (PDF 3.7 Mb PDF, 125 p.; includes third, sixth, and ninth anniversary discourses. Case study showing the importance of religious ideology in early modern orientalism)
• App, Urs Arthur Schopenhauer and China. Sino-Platonic Papers Nr. 200 (April 2010) (PDF, 8.7 Mb PDF, 164 p.; case study documenting early oriental influences, including transcriptions and translations of Schopenhauer's early notes)
• Balagangadhara, S. N. "The Future of the Present: Thinking Through Orientalism", Cultural Dynamics, Vol. 10, No. 2, (1998), pp. 101–23. ISSN 0921-3740.
• Benjamin, Roger “Orientalist Aethetics, Art, Colonialism and French North Africa: 1880-1930”, California UP, 2003
• Benjamin, Roger "Orientalism; Delacroix to Klee", Art Gallery of New South Wales, 1997.
• Biddick, Kathleen. "Coming Out of Exile: Dante on the Orient(alism) Express", The American Historical Review, Vol. 105, No. 4. (Oct., 2000), pp. 1234–1249.
• Davies, Kristian. The Orientalists: Western artists in Arabia, the Sahara, Persia & India. New York: Laynfaroh, 2005 (hardcover, ISBN 0-9759783-0-6).
• Crawley, William. "Sir William Jones: A vision of Orientalism", Asian Affairs, Vol. 27, Issue 2. (Jun. 1996), pp. 163–176.
• Fleming, K.E. "Orientalism, the Balkans, and Balkan Historiography", The American Historical Review, Vol. 105, No. 4. (Oct., 2000), pp. 1218–1233.
• Halliday, Fred. "'Orientalism' and Its Critics", British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, Vol. 20, No. 2. (1993), pp. 145–163.
• Irwin, Robert. For lust of knowing: The Orientalists and their enemies. London: Penguin/Allen Lane, 2006 (hardcover, ISBN 0-7139-9415-0). Published in the USA as Dangerous Knowledge: Orientalism and Its Discontents. New York: Overlook Press, 2006 (hardcover, ISBN 1-58567-835-X).
• Jersild, Austin. Orientalism and Empire: North Caucasus Mountain Peoples and the Georgian Frontier, 1845–1917. Montreal: McGill–Queen's University Press, 2002 (hardcover, ISBN 0-7735-2328-6); 2003 (paperback, ISBN 0-7735-2329-4).
• Kabbani, Rana. Imperial Fictions: Europe's Myths of Orient. London: Pandora Press, 1994 (paperback, ISBN 0-04-440911-7).
• Kalmar, Ivan Davidson & Derek Penslar. Orientalism and the Jews; Brandeis 2005
• Kennedy, Dane. "'Captain Burton's Oriental Muck Heap': The Book of the Thousand Nights and the Uses of Orientalism", The Journal of British Studies, Vol. 39, No. 3. (Jul., 2000), pp. 317–339.
• Kincheloe, Joe L. and Shirley R. Steinberg, The Miseducation of the West: How the Schools and Media Distort Our Understanding of Islam. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger Press, 2004. (Arabic Edition, 2005).
• Klein, Christina. Cold War Orientalism: Asia in the Middlebrow Imagination, 1945–1961. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003 (hardcover, ISBN 0-520-22469-8; paperback, ISBN 0-520-23230-5).
• Knight, Nathaniel. "Grigor'ev in Orenburg, 1851–1862: Russian Orientalism in the Service of Empire?", Slavic Review, Vol. 59, No. 1. (Spring, 2000), pp. 74–100.
• Kontje, Todd. German Orientalisms. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2004 (ISBN 0-472-11392-5).
• Little, Douglas. American Orientalism: The United States and the Middle East Since 1945. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 2001 (hardcover, ISBN 0-8078-2737-1); 2002 (paperback, ISBN 0-8078-5539-1); London: I.B. Tauris, 2002 (new ed., hardcover, ISBN 1-86064-889-4).
• López-Calvo, Ignacio, ed. Alternative Orientalisms in Latin America and Beyond. Newcastle, England: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2007 (hardcover, ISBN 1-84718-143-0; ISBN 13: 9781847181435
• López-Calvo, Ignacio, ed. One World Periphery Reads the Other: Knowing the 'Oriental' in the Americas and the Iberian Peninsula." Newcastle, England: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2009 (hardcover, ISBN 1-4438-1657-4; ISBN 13: 978-1-4438-1657-1
• Lowe, Lisa. Critical Terrains: French and British Orientalisms. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1992 (hardcover, ISBN 978-0-8014-2579-0; paperback, ISBN 978-0-8014-8195-6).
• Macfie, Alexander Lyon. Orientalism. White Plains, NY: Longman, 2002 (ISBN 0-582-42386-4).
• MacKenzie, John. Orientalism: History, theory and the arts. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1995 (hardcover, ISBN 0-7190-1861-7; paperback, ISBN 0-7190-4578-9).
• Murti, Kamakshi P. India: The Seductive and Seduced "Other" of German Orientalism. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2001 (hardcover, ISBN 0-313-30857-8).
• Noble dreams, wicked pleasures: Orientalism in America, 1870–1930 by Holly Edwards (Editor). Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000 (hardcover, ISBN 0-691-05003-1; paperback, ISBN 0-691-05004-X).
• Orientalism and the Jews, edited by Ivan Davidson Kalmar and Derek Penslar. Waltham, MA: Brandeis University Press, 2004 (paperback, ISBN 1-58465-411-2).
• The Orientalists: Delacroix to Matisse: The Allure of North Africa and the Near East, edited by Mary Anne Stevens. Washington, DC: National Gallery of Art, 1984 (paperback, ISBN 0-297-78435-8).
• Oueijan, Naji. A Compendium of Eastern Elements in Byron's Oriental Tales. New York: Peter Lang Publishers, 1999.
• Oueijan, Naji. The Progress of an Image: The east in English Literature. New York: Peter Lang Publishers, 1996.
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