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'''The Hejaz''', also '''''Al-Hijaz''''' ({{lang-ar|اَلْـحِـجَـاز}}, ''{{transl|ar|al-Ḥiǧāz}}'', literally "the Barrier"), is a region in the west of present-day [[Saudi Arabia]]. The region is so called as it separates the land of the [[Najd]] in the east from the land of [[Tihamah]] in the west. It is also known as the "Western Province."<ref name=Mackey>Mackey, p. 101. “The Western Province, or the Hijaz[...]</ref> It is bordered on the west by the [[Red Sea]], on the north by [[Jordan]], on the east by the Najd, and on the south by [[‘Asir Region]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Merriam-Webster's Geographical Dictionary |last= |first= |coauthors= |year=2001 |isbn=0 87779 546 0 |page=479 |pages= |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Co_VIPIJerIC&pg=PA479 |accessdate=17 March 2013}}</ref> Its main city is [[Jeddah]], but it is probably better known for the [[Islam]]ic holy cities of [[Mecca]] and [[Medina]]. As the site of Islam's holiest places, the Hejaz has significance in the [[Arab]] and Islamic historical and political landscape.
'''The Hejaz''', also '''''Al-Hijaz''''' ({{lang-ar|اَلْـحِـجَـاز}}, ''{{transl|ar|al-Ḥiǧāz}}'', literally "the Barrier"), is a region in the west of present-day [[Saudi Arabia]]. The region is so called as it separates the land of the [[Najd]] in the east from the land of [[Tihamah]] in the west. It is also known as the "Western Province."<ref name=Mackey>Mackey, p. 101. “The Western Province, or the Hijaz[...]</ref> It is bordered on the west by the [[Red Sea]], on the north by [[Jordan]], on the east by the Najd, and on the south by [[‘Asir Region]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Merriam-Webster's Geographical Dictionary |last= |first= |coauthors= |year=2001 |isbn=0 87779 546 0 |page=479 |pages= |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Co_VIPIJerIC&pg=PA479 |accessdate=17 March 2013}}</ref> Its main city is [[Jeddah]], but it is probably better known for the [[Islam]]ic holy cities of [[Mecca]] and [[Medina]]. As the site of Islam's holiest places, the Hejaz has significance in the [[Arab]] and Islamic historical and political landscape.


Historically, the Hejaz has always seen itself as separate from the rest of Saudi Arabia.<ref name="LonelyPlanet2010">{{cite book |title=Oman, UAE & Arabian Peninsula |author1=Butler, J. W. S. |author2=Schulte-Peevers, A. |author3=Shearer, I. |publisher=Lonely Planet |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D8hmZIAaTGQC&pg=PA316 |pages=316–333 |date=2010-10-01}}</ref> The Hejaz is the most populated region in Saudi Arabia;<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.opendemocracy.net/faith-europe_islam/mecca_3882.jsp|title=Mecca: Islam's cosmopolitan heart|quote=The Hijaz is the largest, most populated, and most culturally and religiously diverse region of Saudi Arabia, in large part because it was the traditional host area of all the pilgrims to Mecca, many of whom settled and intermarried there.}}</ref> 35 % of all Saudis live in Hejaz.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.relooney.info/SI_Milken-Arabia/0-Important_14.pdf|title=Saudi Arabia Population Statistics 2011 (Arabic)|page=11}}</ref> [[Hejazi Arabic]] is the most widely spoken dialect in the region. Saudi Hejazis are of ethnically diverse origins.<ref name="di"/>
Historically, the Hejaz has always seen itself as separate from the rest of Saudi Arabia.<ref name="LonelyPlanet2010">{{cite book |title=Oman, UAE & Arabian Peninsula |author1=Butler, J. W. S. |author2=Schulte-Peevers, A. |author3=Shearer, I. |publisher=Lonely Planet |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D8hmZIAaTGQC&pg=PA316 |pages=316–333 |date=2010-10-01}}</ref> The Hejaz is the most populated region in Saudi Arabia;<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.opendemocracy.net/faith-europe_islam/mecca_3882.jsp|title=Mecca: Islam's cosmopolitan heart|quote=The Hijaz is the largest, most populated, and most culturally and religiously diverse region of Saudi Arabia, in large part because it was the traditional host area of all the pilgrims to Mecca, many of whom settled and intermarried there.}}</ref> 35 % of all Saudis live in Hejaz.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.relooney.info/SI_Milken-Arabia/0-Important_14.pdf |title=Saudi Arabia Population Statistics 2011 (Arabic) |page=11 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131115051640/http://www.relooney.info/SI_Milken-Arabia/0-Important_14.pdf |archivedate=November 15, 2013 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> [[Hejazi Arabic]] is the most widely spoken dialect in the region. Saudi Hejazis are of ethnically diverse origins.<ref name="di"/>


The Hejaz is the most cosmopolitan region in the [[Arabian Peninsula]].<ref name="di">{{cite book|title=Britain and Saudi Arabia, 1925-1939: The Imperial Oasis|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lt0-U4cUj9sC&pg=PA12 |page=12}}</ref> People of Hejaz have the most strongly articulated identity of any regional grouping in Saudi Arabia. Their place of origin alienates them from the Saudi state, which invokes different narratives of the history of the Arabian Peninsula. Thus, Hejazis experienced tensions with people of Najd.<ref name="beranek1">{{cite journal|last=Beranek|first=Ondrej|title=Divided We Survive: A Landscape of Fragmentation in Saudi Arabia|journal=Middle East Brief|date=January 2009|volume=33|pages=1–7|url=http://aapjs.brandeis.edu/globalbrandeis/documents/mebjan09.pdf|accessdate=April 15, 2012}}</ref>
The Hejaz is the most cosmopolitan region in the [[Arabian Peninsula]].<ref name="di">{{cite book|title=Britain and Saudi Arabia, 1925-1939: The Imperial Oasis|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lt0-U4cUj9sC&pg=PA12 |page=12}}</ref> People of Hejaz have the most strongly articulated identity of any regional grouping in Saudi Arabia. Their place of origin alienates them from the Saudi state, which invokes different narratives of the history of the Arabian Peninsula. Thus, Hejazis experienced tensions with people of Najd.<ref name="beranek1">{{cite journal|last=Beranek|first=Ondrej|title=Divided We Survive: A Landscape of Fragmentation in Saudi Arabia|journal=Middle East Brief|date=January 2009|volume=33|pages=1–7|url=http://aapjs.brandeis.edu/globalbrandeis/documents/mebjan09.pdf|accessdate=April 15, 2012}}</ref>
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[[File:MasjidNabawi.jpg|thumb|[[Masjid al-Nabawi|Muhammad's Masjid]] in [[Medina]], his place-of-residence after the ''[[Hegira|Hijrah]]'' ({{lang-ar|هِـجـرة}}, Migration) from Mecca, 2010.]]
[[File:MasjidNabawi.jpg|thumb|[[Masjid al-Nabawi|Muhammad's Masjid]] in [[Medina]], his place-of-residence after the ''[[Hegira|Hijrah]]'' ({{lang-ar|هِـجـرة}}, Migration) from Mecca, 2010.]]


As the land of Mecca and Medina, the Hijaz was where Muhammad was born, and where he created a Monotheistic ''[[Ummah]]'' ({{lang-ar|أُمَّـة}}, Community) of followers, bore [[Sabr|patience]] with his foes or struggled against them, migrated from one place to another, [[Sunnah|preached or implemented]] his beliefs, lived and died. Given that he had both followers and enemies here, a number of battles or [[List of expeditions of Muhammad|expeditions]] were carried out in this area. They involved both Meccan [[Sahabah|companions]], such as [[Hamzah ibn ‘Abdul-Muttalib]], `[[Ubaydah ibn al-Harith]] and [[Sa`d ibn Abi Waqqas]], and Medinan companions.<ref name="Mubarakpuri, The Sealed Nectar"/><ref name="Haykal 1976"/><ref name="buk55774">{{Hadith-usc|Bukhari|usc=yes|5|57|74}}</ref><ref name=pre-badr>[http://www.webcitation.org/60tV4Irei Witness Pioneer "Pre-Badr Missions and Invasions"]</ref> The Hijaz fell under Muhammad's influence as he emerged victorious over his opponents, and was thus a part of his empire.<ref name="Lings"/><ref name="Ishaq"/><ref name="Firestone1990"/><ref name=Tabari1987/><ref name="EOIATMW">"Muhammad", Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim world</ref><ref name="Holt (1977) p, 57">Holt (1977), p. 57</ref><ref name="Lapidus (2002), pp. 31–32"> Lapidus (2002), pp. 31–32</ref>
As the land of Mecca and Medina, the Hijaz was where Muhammad was born, and where he created a Monotheistic ''[[Ummah]]'' ({{lang-ar|أُمَّـة}}, Community) of followers, bore [[Sabr|patience]] with his foes or struggled against them, migrated from one place to another, [[Sunnah|preached or implemented]] his beliefs, lived and died. Given that he had both followers and enemies here, a number of battles or [[List of expeditions of Muhammad|expeditions]] were carried out in this area. They involved both Meccan [[Sahabah|companions]], such as [[Hamzah ibn ‘Abdul-Muttalib]], `[[Ubaydah ibn al-Harith]] and [[Sa`d ibn Abi Waqqas]], and Medinan companions.<ref name="Mubarakpuri, The Sealed Nectar"/><ref name="Haykal 1976"/><ref name="buk55774">{{Hadith-usc|Bukhari|usc=yes|5|57|74}}</ref><ref name=pre-badr>[http://www.webcitation.org/60tV4Irei?url=http://www.witness-pioneer.org/vil/Books/SM_tsn/ch4s4.html Witness Pioneer "Pre-Badr Missions and Invasions"]</ref> The Hijaz fell under Muhammad's influence as he emerged victorious over his opponents, and was thus a part of his empire.<ref name="Lings"/><ref name="Ishaq"/><ref name="Firestone1990"/><ref name=Tabari1987/><ref name="EOIATMW">"Muhammad", Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim world</ref><ref name="Holt (1977) p, 57">Holt (1977), p. 57</ref><ref name="Lapidus (2002), pp. 31–32"> Lapidus (2002), pp. 31–32</ref>


=== Subsequent history ===
=== Subsequent history ===
Line 87: Line 87:
People of Hejaz, who feel particularly connected to the holy places of Mecca and Medina, have probably the most strongly articulated identity of any regional grouping in Saudi Arabia.<ref name="beranek1"/>
People of Hejaz, who feel particularly connected to the holy places of Mecca and Medina, have probably the most strongly articulated identity of any regional grouping in Saudi Arabia.<ref name="beranek1"/>


The people of Hejaz have never fully accommodated to Saudi rule and their [[Wahhabi]] religion. They continue to be [[Sunni]] of [[Maliki]] [[rite]] with a [[Shia]] minority in the cities of Medina, Mecca and Jeddah. Many consider themselves more cosmopolitan because Hejaz was for centuries a part of the great empires of Islam from the [[Umayyads]] to the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Riedel|first=Bruce|title=Brezhnev in the Hejaz|journal=The National Interest|year=2011|volume=115|url=http://www.relooney.info/SI_Milken-Arabia/0-Important_14.pdf|accessdate=April 23, 2012}}</ref>
The people of Hejaz have never fully accommodated to Saudi rule and their [[Wahhabi]] religion. They continue to be [[Sunni]] of [[Maliki]] [[rite]] with a [[Shia]] minority in the cities of Medina, Mecca and Jeddah. Many consider themselves more cosmopolitan because Hejaz was for centuries a part of the great empires of Islam from the [[Umayyads]] to the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Riedel |first=Bruce |title=Brezhnev in the Hejaz |journal=The National Interest |year=2011 |volume=115 |url=http://www.relooney.info/SI_Milken-Arabia/0-Important_14.pdf |accessdate=April 23, 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131115051640/http://www.relooney.info/SI_Milken-Arabia/0-Important_14.pdf |archivedate=November 15, 2013 |df=mdy-all }}</ref>


== Notable Hijazis ==
== Notable Hijazis ==
Line 173: Line 173:


==== Post-7th century ACE ====
==== Post-7th century ACE ====
* [[Sharif ‘Ali ibn ‘Ajlan ibn Rumaithah ibn Muhammad]], son-in-law and successor of [[Sultan Ahmad of Brunei]], father of [[Sulaiman (Brunei)|Sultan Sulaiman]], and a descendant of Muhammad<ref name=history-centre>{{cite web |title=Pusat Sejarah Brunei |url=http://www.history-centre.gov.bn/sultanbrunei.htm |language=[[Bahasa Melayu]] |publisher=www.history-centre.gov.bn |accessdate=2016-08-23}}</ref>
* [[Sharif ‘Ali ibn ‘Ajlan ibn Rumaithah ibn Muhammad]], son-in-law and successor of [[Sultan Ahmad of Brunei]], father of [[Sulaiman (Brunei)|Sultan Sulaiman]], and a descendant of Muhammad<ref name=history-centre>{{cite web|title=Pusat Sejarah Brunei |url=http://www.history-centre.gov.bn/sultanbrunei.htm |language=[[Bahasa Melayu]] |publisher=www.history-centre.gov.bn |accessdate=2016-08-23 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150415152209/http://www.history-centre.gov.bn/sultanbrunei.htm |archivedate=April 15, 2015 |df=mdy-all }}</ref>


== See also ==
== See also ==

Revision as of 05:00, 31 March 2017

This article is about the geographical region. For other uses, see Hejaz (disambiguation).

Template:Contains Arabic text

Map with the Saudi region outlined in red, and the 1923 Kingdom in green.

The Hejaz, also Al-Hijaz (Arabic: اَلْـحِـجَـاز, al-Ḥiǧāz, literally "the Barrier"), is a region in the west of present-day Saudi Arabia. The region is so called as it separates the land of the Najd in the east from the land of Tihamah in the west. It is also known as the "Western Province."[1] It is bordered on the west by the Red Sea, on the north by Jordan, on the east by the Najd, and on the south by ‘Asir Region.[2] Its main city is Jeddah, but it is probably better known for the Islamic holy cities of Mecca and Medina. As the site of Islam's holiest places, the Hejaz has significance in the Arab and Islamic historical and political landscape.

Historically, the Hejaz has always seen itself as separate from the rest of Saudi Arabia.[3] The Hejaz is the most populated region in Saudi Arabia;[4] 35 % of all Saudis live in Hejaz.[5] Hejazi Arabic is the most widely spoken dialect in the region. Saudi Hejazis are of ethnically diverse origins.[6]

The Hejaz is the most cosmopolitan region in the Arabian Peninsula.[6] People of Hejaz have the most strongly articulated identity of any regional grouping in Saudi Arabia. Their place of origin alienates them from the Saudi state, which invokes different narratives of the history of the Arabian Peninsula. Thus, Hejazis experienced tensions with people of Najd.[7]

Timeline

Prehistoric or ancient times

The city of Al-`Ula, with its archaeological part in the foreground, 2012.

One or possibly two megalithic dolmen have been found in Al-Hijaz.[8]

The Hejaz includes both the Mahd adh-Dhahab (Arabic: مَـهـد الـذّهـب, "Cradle of (the) Gold") (23°30′12.96″N 40°51′34.92″E / 23.5036000°N 40.8597000°E / 23.5036000; 40.8597000) and a water source, now dried out, that used to flow 600 miles (970 km) north east to the Persian Gulf via the Wadi Al-Rummah and Wadi Al-Batin system. Archaeological research led by of Boston University and the University of Qassim indicates that the river system was active in 8000  BCE[citation needed] and 2500–3000 BCE.[9]

The northern part of the Hejaz was part of the Roman province of Arabia Petraea.[10]

Al-Hijr Archaeological Site

Main article: Mada'in Saleh
Al-Hijr or Mada’in Salih ("Cities of Salih"), 2012.

Saudi Arabia's first World Heritage Site that was recognized by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is that of Al-Hjir. The name "Al-Hijr" (Arabic: اَلْـحِـجْـر, "The Stoneland" or "The Rocky Place") occurs in the Qur’an,[11] and the site is known for having structures carved into rocks, similar to Petra.[3][12] Construction of the structures is credited to the people of Thamud. Despite their rather Polytheistic nature, a member of this folk was a Monotheistic preacher called 'Salih',[13][14][15][16][17][18] after whom the site is also called "Mada’in Saleh" (Arabic: مَـدَائِـن صَـالِـح, "Cities of Saleh"). After the disappearance of Thamud from Mada’in Saleh, it came under the influence of other people, such as the Nabataeans, whose capital was Petra. Later, it would lie in a route used by Muslim Pilgrims going to Mecca.[10][19][20][21]

Era of Abraham and Ishmael

Further information: Abraham in Islam, Hagar in Islam, and Ishmael in Islam
Al-Masjid Al-Haram, which surrounds the Ka‘bah (middle), in Mecca, land of Muhammad's birth and ancestry, and an annual point of pilgrimage for millions of people, 2010.

According to Islamic sources, the civilization of Mecca started after Ibrahim (Abraham) brought his son Isma‘il (Ishmael) and wife Hajar (Hagar) here, for the latter two to stay. Some people from the Tribe of Jurhum settled with them, and Isma‘il reportedly married two women, one after divorcing another, at least one of them from this tribe, and helped his father to construct or re-construct the Ka‘bah,[22][23][24] which would have social, religious, political and historical implications for the sight and region.[25][26]

For example, in Arab or Islamic belief, a tribe called 'Quraysh' would descend from Isma‘il ibn Ibrahim, be based in the vicinity of the Ka‘bah,[27] and include Muhammad ibn ‘Abdullah ibn ‘Abdul-Muttalib ibn Hashim ibn ‘Abd Manaf. From the Period of Jahiliyyah (Arabic: جَـاهـلـيّـة, 'Ignorance') to the days of Muhammad, the often-warring Arab tribes would cease their hostilities during the time of Pilgrimage, and go on pilgrimage to Mecca, as inspired by Ibrahim.[24] It was during such an occasion that Muhammad met some Medinans who would allow him to migrate to Medina, to escape persecution by his opponents in Mecca.[28][29][30][31][32][33]

Era of Muhammad

Main article: Muhammad in Islam
Muhammad's Masjid in Medina, his place-of-residence after the Hijrah (Arabic: هِـجـرة, Migration) from Mecca, 2010.

As the land of Mecca and Medina, the Hijaz was where Muhammad was born, and where he created a Monotheistic Ummah (Arabic: أُمَّـة, Community) of followers, bore patience with his foes or struggled against them, migrated from one place to another, preached or implemented his beliefs, lived and died. Given that he had both followers and enemies here, a number of battles or expeditions were carried out in this area. They involved both Meccan companions, such as Hamzah ibn ‘Abdul-Muttalib, `Ubaydah ibn al-Harith and Sa`d ibn Abi Waqqas, and Medinan companions.[32][33][34][35] The Hijaz fell under Muhammad's influence as he emerged victorious over his opponents, and was thus a part of his empire.[25][28][30][31][36][37][38]

Subsequent history

Due to the presence of the two holy cities in the Hijaz, the region went under numerous empires. Al-Hijaz was at the center of the Rashidun Caliphate, in particular whilst its capital was Medina from 632 to 656 ACE. The region was then under the control of regional powers such as Egypt and the Ottoman Empire, throughout much of its later history.

Brief independence

Main article: Kingdom of Hejaz

In 1916, Sharif Hussein ibn `Ali proclaimed himself King of an independent Hejaz, as a result of the McMahon–Hussein Correspondence. The ensuing Arab Revolt overthrew the Ottoman Empire. In 1924, however, Ibn `Ali's authority was replaced by that of Ibn Saud of the Najd.

In modern Saudi Arabia

Main article: Regions of Saudi Arabia

At first, Ibn Saud ruled the two as separate units, though they became known as the Kingdom of Hejaz and Nejd. Later they were formally combined as the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

Flags of entities that have dominated the Hejaz

Cities

People laying tracks for the Hejaz Railway near Tabuk, 1906.

Geography

Mountains near Ta’if, 2012.

The region is located along the Red Sea Rift. It is also known for its darker, more volcanic sand. Depending on the previous definition, the Hejaz includes the high mountains of Sarawat, which topographically separate the Najd from Tehamah. Bdellium plants are also abundant in the Hijaz.

People of the Hejaz

People of Hejaz, who feel particularly connected to the holy places of Mecca and Medina, have probably the most strongly articulated identity of any regional grouping in Saudi Arabia.[7]

The people of Hejaz have never fully accommodated to Saudi rule and their Wahhabi religion. They continue to be Sunni of Maliki rite with a Shia minority in the cities of Medina, Mecca and Jeddah. Many consider themselves more cosmopolitan because Hejaz was for centuries a part of the great empires of Islam from the Umayyads to the Ottomans.[39]

Notable Hijazis

Al-Abwa’

Mecca

Pre-6th century ACE

Men
Women
  • Hubbah bint Hulail ibn Hubshiyyah ibn Salul ibn Ka‘b ibn ‘Amr al-Khuza‘i, wife of Qusai, and an ancestor of Muhammad
  • ‘Atikah bint Murrah ibn Hilal ibn Falij ibn Dhakwan, wife of ‘Abd Manaf, and an ancestor of Muhammad

6th–7th centuries ACE

Men
Women

Medina

Pre-6th century ACE

6th–7th centuries ACE

Men
Women

8th century ACE

Men
Women

9th Century ACE

Ta’if

6th–7th centuries ACE

Post-7th century ACE

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Mackey, p. 101. “The Western Province, or the Hijaz[...]
  2. ^ Merriam-Webster's Geographical Dictionary. 2001. p. 479. ISBN 0 87779 546 0. Retrieved March 17, 2013. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  3. ^ a b c Butler, J. W. S.; Schulte-Peevers, A.; Shearer, I. (October 1, 2010). Oman, UAE & Arabian Peninsula. Lonely Planet. pp. 316–333.
  4. ^ "Mecca: Islam's cosmopolitan heart". The Hijaz is the largest, most populated, and most culturally and religiously diverse region of Saudi Arabia, in large part because it was the traditional host area of all the pilgrims to Mecca, many of whom settled and intermarried there.
  5. ^ "Saudi Arabia Population Statistics 2011 (Arabic)" (PDF). p. 11. Archived from the original (PDF) on November 15, 2013. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  6. ^ a b Britain and Saudi Arabia, 1925-1939: The Imperial Oasis. p. 12.
  7. ^ a b Beranek, Ondrej (January 2009). "Divided We Survive: A Landscape of Fragmentation in Saudi Arabia" (PDF). Middle East Brief. 33: 1–7. Retrieved April 15, 2012.
  8. ^ Gajus Scheltema (2008). Megalithic Jordan: an introduction and field guide. ACOR. ISBN 978-9957-8543-3-1. Retrieved October 5, 2012.
  9. ^ Sullivan, Walter (March 30, 1993). "SCIENCE WATCH; Signs of Ancient River". The New York Times. Retrieved June 25, 2014.
  10. ^ a b Kesting, Piney. "Saudi Aramco World (May/June 2001): Well of Good Fortune". Retrieved April 7, 2014.
  11. ^ Quran %3Averse%3D80 15 :80–84
  12. ^ "Al-Hijr Archaeological Site (Madâin Sâlih)". UNESCO. Retrieved April 7, 2014.
  13. ^ a b Quran 7:73–79
  14. ^ a b Quran 11:61–69
  15. ^ a b Quran 26:141–158
  16. ^ a b Quran 54:23–31
  17. ^ a b Quran 89:6–13
  18. ^ a b Quran 91:11–15
  19. ^ Hizon, Danny. "Madain Saleh: Arabia's Hidden Treasure – Saudi Arabia". Retrieved September 17, 2009.
  20. ^ "ICOMOS Evaluation of Al-Hijr Archaeological Site (Madâin Sâlih) World Heritage Nomination" (PDF). World Heritage Center. Retrieved September 16, 2009.
  21. ^ "Information at nabataea.net". Retrieved September 17, 2009.
  22. ^ Quran 2:127 (Translated by Yusuf Ali)
  23. ^ Quran 3:96 (Translated by Yusuf Ali)
  24. ^ a b Quran 22:25–37
  25. ^ a b Mecca: From Before Genesis Until Now, M. Lings, pg. 39, Archetype
  26. ^ Concise Encyclopedia of Islam, C. Glasse, Kaaba, Suhail Academy
  27. ^ Quran 106:1–4
  28. ^ a b Ibn Ishaq, Muhammad (1955). Ibn Ishaq's Sirat Rasul Allah – The Life of Muhammad Translated by A. Guillaume. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 88–9. ISBN 9780196360331.
  29. ^ Karen Armstrong (2002). Islam: A Short History. p. 11. ISBN 0-8129-6618-X.
  30. ^ a b Firestone, Reuven (1990). Journeys in Holy Lands: The Evolution of the Abraham-Ishmael Legends in Islamic Exegesis. Albany, NY: State University of NY Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-0331-0.
  31. ^ a b al-Tabari (1987). Brinner, William M. (ed.). The History of al-Tabari Vol. 2: Prophets and Patriarchs. Albany, NY: State University of NY Press. ISBN 978-0-87395-921-6.
  32. ^ a b Al Mubarakpuri, Safi ur Rahman (2002). Ar-Raheeq Al-Makhtum (The Sealed Nectar): Biography of the Noble Prophet. Darussalam. pp. 127–147. ISBN 9960-899-55-1. Retrieved October 6, 2014.
  33. ^ a b Haykal, Husayn (1976), The Life of Muhammad, Islamic Book Trust, pp. 217–218, ISBN 978-983-9154-17-7
  34. ^ Sahih al-Bukhari, 5:57:74
  35. ^ Witness Pioneer "Pre-Badr Missions and Invasions"
  36. ^ "Muhammad", Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim world
  37. ^ Holt (1977), p. 57
  38. ^ Lapidus (2002), pp. 31–32
  39. ^ Riedel, Bruce (2011). "Brezhnev in the Hejaz" (PDF). The National Interest. 115. Archived from the original (PDF) on November 15, 2013. Retrieved April 23, 2012. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  40. ^ Maqsood, Ruqaiyyah Waris. "The Prophet's Line Family No 3 – Qusayy, Hubbah, and Banu Nadr to Quraysh". Ruqaiyyah Waris Maqsood Dawah. Retrieved July 1, 2013.
  41. ^ Book of Genesis, Chapters 10, 11, 16, 17, 21 and 25
  42. ^ 1 Chronicles, Chapter 1
  43. ^ Ibn Hisham. The Life of the Prophet Muhammad. Vol. 1. p. 181.
  44. ^ "Pusat Sejarah Brunei" (in Bahasa Melayu). www.history-centre.gov.bn. Archived from the original on April 15, 2015. Retrieved August 23, 2016. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)

References

  • Mackey, Sandra. The Saudis: Inside the Desert Kingdom. Updated Edition. Norton Paperback. W.W. Norton and Company, New York. 2002 (first edition: 1987). ISBN 0-393-32417-6 pbk.
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