Village deities of South India

"Village deities of Tamil Nadu" redirects here. For Village deities of Sri lankan Tamils, see Village deities of Tamils of Sri Lanka.

Mariyamman during a festival near Madurai

Village deities are the numerous spirits and other beings venerated as part of the folk tradition in villages throughout South India. They are found in almost all villages in Tamil, Kannada and Telugu-speaking areas. These deities, mainly goddesses, are intimately associated with the well-being of the village and can have either benevolent or violent tendencies.

These deities have been linked back to common Indus Valley civilization imagery, and could represent the prevailing Dravidian folk religion at the time. The worship of these gods at many times contradicts the common tenents of Brahminical traditions, especially in customs of animal sacrifice, right of priesthood, and possession by a goddess. Today these deities are worshipped by almost all non-Brahmins in the rural areas of Tamil Nadu, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. Similar practices, more influenced by Brahminical practices, are still found in Indo-Aryan peoples, especially those of Maharashtra, West Bengal and Bihar.

Origins and history

Female figure, possibly fertility goddess, from the Indus Valley civilization.

Most scholars see the village deities of South India as continuations of religious traditions followed in the subcontinent before the arrival of Indo-Aryans. In the early centuries BCE, village goddesses are represented with various symbols such as the chakra (wheel), srivatsa (an unending knot), and trishula (trident), all of which have parallels in the Indus Valley civilization. It thus seems likely that the worship of these village deities was also present in the Indus Valley civilization at some point. In the Deccan Plateau, the first art forms for the fertility goddess appeared between the 8th and 4th century BCE, before the recorded arrival of other traditions like Buddhism, Jainism and Brahminism into the region.

Types

There are several main types of deity propitiated in a village. Any of these deities can be considered a kuladevata.

Example of a fertility goddess, Chikkamma Doddamma, common in South Karnataka

All villages will have a fertility goddess. This goddess is believed to arise from the natural world itself and to be intrinsically linked to the ground of the village. She is a representation of the village itself, rather than simply a guardian figure. She often has the additional responsibility of overseeing rain, since, in the areas of South India east of the Western Ghats, the monsoon rains are the primary source of water for agriculture. She is the main protector of the village, especially against common diseases like smallpox or plague. Other goddesses preside over specific household objects, or act as guardians of cattle or children. Most of these deities are unique to their village and have their own origin stories, and many are worshipped only by members of a particular community. Mariamman is one of the most popular of this class of deity, worshipped throughout South India. She provides fertility and, in many places, protection against smallpox and other deadly diseases. Other popular goddesses include Pochamma in Telugu regions and Yellamma in northern Karnataka and western Telangana. Another common theme is the seven sisters, called saptamatrikas in Brahminical traditions. This collection of goddesses does not have a specific function, but may be called upon if a disease is affecting the family. In the area around Tirumala, it is said that these deities can be seen as young girls wandering around at noon, dusk or night. Village goddesses can have different personalities. Some are kindly, and will shower blessings on those who worship them. Others are vengeful and angry, and will unleash terror on the village unless they are propitiated. Many of these deities are especially worshipped by one particular community, for example Yellamma is worshipped especially by two Dalit communities: Malas and Madigas.

Villages, especially in Tamil and Telugu regions, will also have a guardian deity: a male deity who protects the village from harms like war or famine or other evils. Unlike the fertility goddess, this deity is worshipped throughout a wide region and has less variety. In northern Tamil Nadu, this deity is called Aiyyanar, while in southern Tamil Nadu, he is known as sasta. His name in Telugu is Poturaju and is the brother of the presiding goddess in those villages. A common origin myth for Poturaju is that he drank the blood of demons slain by amma. In Tamil Nadu, there are a host of other male deities, such as Karuppusami, who are either attendants to Aiyanar or guardians for the main goddess. Most of these gods are kuladevatas for families in the village, especially for dominant castes, who trace it back patrilineally.

Poturaju standing in front of statues of the Pandavas in a village of Chittoor district, Andhra Pradesh

Occasionally, the fertility goddess or guardian deity can be the spirit of a historical figure. This practice has roots in ancient times: as early as the Sangam period, hero stones (natukal/viragal in Tamil, veeragalu in Kannada), stones erected to honour those men who laid down their lives for the village, were worshipped and propitiated. Similar to hero stones, sati stones honour women who sacrificed their life, especially for chastity and purity. The early Tamil poem Tolkappiyam gives a six-stage guide to the erection of such a stone, from selection of a suitable stone until the institution of formal worship. In time, many of these spirits have merged into or become the local guardian deity. Examples of deified heroes include Madurai Veeran (from Madurai) and Kaathavarayan (from Thanjavur). Oftentimes, these heroes are found as attendants to Ayyanar or a village goddess, especially in Tamil Nadu. The Paanchamman temples in north Tamil Nadu were built to worship widows who underwent Sati. Often, the deities are spirits who suffered injustice in their lives or deaths and must be propitiated to prevent their spirit from affecting the village. Several couples who have lost their lives due to caste animosity are worshipped as deities in several villages. Kannaki Amman is Kannagi from the Silappadikaram, whose husband was unjustly killed by the Pandyan king, is another widely-worshipped deity of this category. The Maachani Amman temple at Pollachi was built to worship a young girl who was killed by a Kongu king for unknowingly eating a mango from his garden. Oftentimes female spirits are merged into the main fertility goddess, or are venerated as one of her attendants.

Some few deities are less-venerated characters in the epics of the Ramayana and Mahabharata. For example, there are many temples dedicated to Draupadiamman (Panchali) and Dharmaraja (Yudhishthira) in northern Tamil Nadu. Temples dedicated to Gandhari (mother of the Kauravas), Kunti (mother of Pandavas) and Aravan (the son of Arjuna and the serpent princess Ulupi) are also found in Tamil Nadu.

Representation

Placement

A typical Amman temple on the outskirts of the village, Tamil Nadu

The place and way in which a deity is represented is symbolic of their role in society. In Tamil Nadu, the guardian god is given a space along the village boundaries to protect them from harm, but the fertility goddess is normally given the center of attention in the middle of the village. The shrines themselves vary by deity and region. For Tamils, Aiyanar is represented in an open space to better fulfill his duty. However there the goddess is given her own temple similar in form, and sometimes size, to a Brahminical temple. In other regions, however, the goddess (since gods are less venerated in these areas) may be given a shrine at the edge of the village, although it is common to find the shrine next to a tree or a snake-hole. In Telugu regions, the deity sometimes has no permanent shrine, but a temporary pandal. Some goddesses wish to be in the open space to feel the same hardships as their devotees. Yet there is no distinction between the dwelling-place of the deity and the deity: the dwelling-place itself is a form of the deity.

If a deity is considered "fierce" or has a bad temper, it is usually avoided as much as possible. These temples are located on the outside of the village closer to Dalit neighbourhoods.

Iconography

The deities themselves are often represented as aniconic, either as a shapeless stone or tree or snake-hole. In Tamil Nadu, the guardian god is often given form as a fierce warrior, holding an aruval or other weapon, with attendants surrounding him. However Poturaju in Telugu areas is typically represented only by a stick in the ground. In Telugu and Kannada regions, the goddess is often given anthropomorphic form as a terracotta statue only during a temple festival, and is then returned to her aniconic shape. In many villages in Tamil Nadu, a village god is represented by planting spears or trishulas in the ground to represent his martial prowess. In the village of Kogilu near Bengaluru, the goddesses were represented by items such as a lamp or a stone pillar. In many areas of South Karnataka, the village goddess is symbolized by an aarti, a lamp made of rice flour shaped like a cone and adorned with kumkuma in the shape of a face. All these icons are believed to be the deity itself, rather than simply a vessel to hold it.

Examples of Naga statues in Tamil Nadu

Another common symbol is the snake, or naga. Usually they are carved onto stone pillars, either in the shape of a hooded cobra (like Adishesha) or as two snakes intertwined. The snake is symbolic of the earth's fertility, since they are only visible after the monsoon, and as a punisher of those who oppose the goddess. Worship of these specific qualities is done in Kerala, especially by non-Brahminical castes such as the Nairs.

Worship

Man doing worship to Maaramma in Mandya district

There are a huge diversity of worship practices for these deities, oftentimes depending on the deity's nature and other local customs. However, some general characteristics of worship include local language and, most of the time, non-Brahmin priests.

The worship itself is not done in a language such as Sanskrit, but in the local language. This worship is usually done through oral tales, telling the origin of the goddess. Such plays are known as villu pattu in Tamil.

Depending on the temper of the deity, they may be offered animal sacrifices or vegetarian offerings. Most deities, however, accept animal sacrifices. In Tamil Nadu, it is a goat or chicken that is killed, and depends on the number of families that contribute. In Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, it was once a buffalo that was sacrificed. However, with more Brahminical influence due to Hindutva and other factors, the sacrifice has been made a goat. The actual killing of the animal can be done by any non-Brahmin community, but the buffalo was usually killed by one of the Dalit communities: especially the Madigas. This was because the Madigas, being leather-workers, would use the remains of the buffalo for their food and livelihoods.

The sacrifice takes place near the end of the village festival. The animal is doused with water, and if it shivers, it is deemed to be possessed by the deity. Then, the animal is led to the shrine, and is restrained. One man takes a large sword and beheads the animal, which is then tossed aside to twitch and bleed out. For fowl, the head can be ripped off or the neck be broken without the use of a weapon. The head itself is placed in front of the deity so that the animal receives their blessing. The meat is then taken and is used to make a prasada, which is then offered to the deity. Afterwards, it is eaten by the devotees. It was usually the Dalits who got the meat from the buffalo sacrifice since only they would eat buffalo meat. At other times, however, anyone can walk up to the deity and make a sacrifice to them, potentially to ease some personal trouble such as a sick child or obtaining bad luck. The Muthumariamman temple in the Nilgiris was once the place where people swore solemn vows. This was sometimes used by the judicial system in the region during Britisher times, and it was common for witnesses to make a vow of truth and make a sacrifice to Muthumariamman in the presence of a court official, so that all would know they spoke the truth.

Oftentimes someone, usually from one of the Dalit communities, is possessed by the goddess, and devotees can ask her questions and sometimes criticize her.

Another characteristic is the timing of festivals. Village festivals are often celebrated for the first sowing or harvest, but often festivals will be called at unknown time. If there is a pestilent disease spreading in the area, the villagers, who see the deity as the controller of those diseases, will organize a festival to please or appease their deity.

Relationship with Hinduism

The Vedic and non-Vedic people assimilated from each other. Even though there are diversified characteristics between the Vedic and the folk tradition, various communities inducted these deities in their spectrum and created various sthalapuranas which emphasized the relation between these gods and goddesses from differing traditions. For example, a male deity called Kuttandavar is worshipped in many parts of Tamil Nadu, especially in the former South Arcot district. The image consists of a head like a big mask with a fierce face and lion's teeth projecting downwards outside the mouth. According to legend the creation of Kuttandavar, the god Indra, is for the crime of murdering a Brahmin, became incarnated in the form of Kuttandavar, and a curse was laid upon him that his body leaving only the head. Another story, from Chittoor district in Andhra Pradesh, is about Gangamma, the daughter of a Brahmin who unknowingly married a Dalit. This Dalit had claimed Brahmin status in order to lean the Vedas from Gangamma's father, but was unknowingly exposed by his mother who had visited. Ganga, distraught at being "polluted," burned herself to death, and her angry spirit cursed her husband and his mother to be reborn as a goat and sheep respectively, and to be sacrificed to her for all eternity. A similar myth exists in Kurnool district for a goddess there. This myth, by vilifying the Dalits as nothing more than animals and portraying the Brahmins as innocent victims, is meant to show the "disastrous consequences" of transgressing one's caste and to uphold caste boundaries.

Brahminical deities and local village deities exist on multiple spectra, one of which is the Brahminical idea of pure vs polluting. However the most important contrast is the spectrum ranging from "soft" to "fierce." The "softest" deities are the Brahminical deities: Vishnu, Siva and others, who are worshipped via vegetarian offerings solely. The fiercest deities are worshipped only through offerings of meat and alcohol, both considered "polluting" in Brahminical scriptures. These are also the deities most commonly worshipped by Dalit communities, who often offer buffalos in Telugu and Kannada regions. Typically, the Brahminical deities are seen as "big deities," concerned with major events that affect the entire world. Although they are revered, they do not usually have a close relationship with non-Brahmin villagers, being seen as distant rulers. The village deities, on the other hand, are accessible and seem more concerned with the day-to-day woes of the villagers. Therefore, in times of need, it is the village deities that are turned to rather than the major Brahminical deities. Therefore, their temples are usually maintained by donations from the people of the village, while Brahminical temples are administered by the government and often neglected.

The popular deities have evolved significantly over time. For example, Mariamman, another traditional folk deity, is highly influenced by the Vedic rituals. She is usually garlanded with skulls. But due to Vedic influence, the skull garland has been replaced by the lemon garland and her poor outlook has been altered into a pleasant one. Sometimes these processes of assimilation lead to the degradation of the deities. When the Brahmins stressed the holiness of the Brahminical deities, at the same time they denied the holiness of the deities of the folk tradition. They described the gods and goddesses of folk tradition either as subservient to Brahminical deities or they venerated these deities as capable of curing most potent contagious diseases.

The process of inclusivism can also be seen in popular temples dedicated to the deities of folk religion. For example, the Mariamman temples of Samayapuram, Punnainallur, Vazhangaiman in Tamil Nadu attract a large number of devotees. These larger temples for traditionally non-Vedic deities in fact have Brahmin priests, who perform rituals as per Brahminical customs: including turning Mariamman into a suddhadevata (vegetarian deity) and performing kumbhabhishekam. With regard to the temples of folk tradition Vinayakar, Murugan, Iyyappan and others, Vedic deities are replaced by the deities of folk tradition such as Aiyanar, Madurai Veeran and Karuppannasamy. Even the people of the folk tradition have begun to follow some customs and habits of higher castes in order to raise their social status.

See also

• Muruga
• Urumi - a Folk musical instrument used in festivals and as an instrument of getting into trance.
• Veeramanidasan - popular Tamil devotional singer.
• Village deities of Sri Lankan Tamils

External links

• Religious traditions of the Tamils
• Village deities of Tamil Nadu
• Village deities and hero stones of Tamil Nadu
• Ayyanar to Ayyappan