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SpaceX Starship
From left to right: various tanks, Super Heavy booster BN3, Starship spacecraft SN20, ground support tanks, launch and catching tower
Function
ManufacturerSpaceX
Country of originVereinigte Staaten
Cost per launchUS$2 million (goal)[2]
Size
Height119.5 m (392 ft)[3]
Diameter9 m (30 ft)[4]
Mass5,000 t (11,000,000 lb), estimate incl. max. payload[4][5]
Stages2
Capacity
Payload to low Earth orbit
Mass100–150 t (220,000–330,000 lb) reusable
up to 250 t (550,000 lb) expendable[4][6]
Volume1,100 m3 (39,000 cu ft)[4]
Payload to geostationary transfer orbit
Mass
  • 21 t (46,000 lb)[7]
  • 100 t (220,000 lb) with refueling[7]
Payload to Moon
Mass100–200 t (220,000–440,000 lb), HLS with refueling
Payload to Mars
Mass100–150 t (220,000–330,000 lb) (with multiple refuellings)[4]
Associated rockets
Comparable
Launch history
StatusIn development
Launch sites
First stage – Super Heavy
Height70 m (230 ft)[5][4]
Diameter9 m (30 ft)[4]
Empty mass280 t (620,000 lb)
Gross mass3,680 t (8,110,000 lb)
Propellant mass3,400 t (7,500,000 lb)[4]
Powered by29 then 33 sea-level Raptor engines Raptors[8]
Maximum thrustc. 74 MN (7,500 tf; 17,000,000 lbf)[8]
Specific impulse330 s (3.2 km/s) sea-level Raptor engine[9]
Burn time169 seconds[10]
PropellantSubcooled CH4 / LOX[4]
Second stage – Starship
Height50 m (160 ft)[4]
Diameter9 m (30 ft)[4]
Empty mass120 t (260,000 lb), goal[11]
Gross mass1,320 t (2,910,000 lb)[11]
Propellant mass1,200 t (2,600,000 lb)[4]
Powered by6 Raptors[4]
Maximum thrustc. 14 MN (1,400 tf; 3,100,000 lbf)[12]
Specific impulse350 s (3.4 km/s) sea-level Raptor engine
380 s (3.7 km/s) vacuum Raptor engine[13]
Burn time345 seconds[14]
PropellantSubcooled CH4 / LOX[4]
[edit on Wikidata]

The SpaceX Starship system consists of a family of spacecraft collectively named Starship, a super-heavy booster called Super Heavy, and Earth-based support infrastructure, all under development by SpaceX.[15] The SpaceX Starship system is a fully reusable, two-stage-to-orbit super heavy-lift launch vehicle, and will be the world's tallest and most powerful rocket ever built, producing more than twice the thrust of the Saturn V.[16] The SpaceX Starship system would dramatically reduce the cost of going to space, since the Super Heavy booster and some Starship variants are intended to be capable of landing on Earth and being reused with minimal inspection and turnaround time.

Currently, most manufacturing, assembly, and test flights of Starship prototypes have been conducted at the SpaceX South Texas launch site, referred to by SpaceX as Starbase, and also known by the FAA and legal documents as the Boca Chica launch site. The Starship spacecraft is a second stage of the system while launch, transporting propellant, cargo, and crew, and staying in low Earth orbit. After being refueled by one or more tanker Starships in orbit, the spacecraft would be capable of much higher performance at transporting cargo and crew to higher Earth orbits, other bodies' orbit, or land on the surface of bodies in the Solar System such as the Moon and Mars. The Starship spacecraft can also launch from Mars back to Earth, provided that propellant is produced there. Some variants of Starship are designed to be able to travel to the edge of the Solar System delivering deep space probes, or to designated spaceports on the Earth's surface.[17] NASA has contracted SpaceX to develop a crew-rated Starship vehicle variant known as the Starship Human Landing System which will serve as the lunar lander for the Artemis program.[18]

Development history

Conception and initial designs

Main article: SpaceX Starship development history § Background
Official render of Big Falcon Rocket in flight

The name of the vehicle changed many times between its first announcement and during the first several years of development.[19] At least as early as 2005, SpaceX used the codename "BFR" for a conceptual heavy‑lift launch vehicle, "far larger than the Falcon family of vehicles."[20][21]

The launch vehicle was initially mentioned in public discussions by Musk in 2012 as part of a description of the company's overall future Mars program. It was then known as the "Mars Colonial Transporter", with nine Raptor engines on a single stage, similar to the arrangement of nine Merlin engines on each Falcon 9 booster core, in order "to put over 100 tons of cargo on Mars." The system's shortened name was changed to BFR one year later, which has been referred to formally as the "Big Falcon Rocket", and informally by the media and internally at SpaceX as the "Big Fucking Rocket."[22][23][24] The second stage and spacecraft were referred to as the "Big Falcon Ship" and the booster as "Big Falcon Booster," with similar informal names given to them.[25][26]

In mid‑September 2016, the system was renamed to "Interplanetary Transport System," with the booster engine design revealed to contain 42 engines, with both 21 on the outer ring and 14 on the middle ring fixed in place, while a cluster of 7 engines can gimbal.[27][28] The "Interplanetary Transport Spacecraft" have a nine-engines configuration, six Raptor vacuum-optimized engines around a cluster of three sea-level Raptor engines.[28] SpaceX mentioned the theoretical possibility of using Starship to carry passengers on suborbital flights between two points on Earth in under one hour, providing commercial long‑haul transport to compete with long‑range aircraft.[29][30] In September 2017, at the 68th annual meeting of the International Astronautical Congress, SpaceX unveiled an updated vehicle design.[9] This design included a double stainless steel skin with active coolant flows between the two skin layers and multiple pores in the spacecraft for transpiration cooling, which is subsequently removed in later designs.[31][32]

In November 2018, the combination of the Starship spacecraft and Super Heavy booster were referred to collectively by the present name "Starship" or the "Starship system" by SpaceX in their payload user's guide.[33][34]: 16:20–16:48  The second stage of the system was ambiguously renamed Starship and the first stage booster was renamed Super Heavy.[35][36] Around that time, Musk showed another redesigned concept for the second stage and spaceship with three rear fins and two front canard fins for atmospheric entry, replacing the previous delta wing and split flaps shown a year earlier.[37]

In January 2019, Musk announced that the Starship's structure and tanks would not be constructed out of carbon fiber and that stainless steel would be used instead. The strength‑to‑mass ratio of the new design should be comparable to or better than the earlier SpaceX design alternative of carbon fiber composites, from the low temperatures of cryogenic propellants to the high temperatures of atmospheric reentry.[38] In October 2019, SpaceX changed the Starship spacecraft design back to using just six Raptor engines, with three of the engines optimized for sea‑level and three optimized for vacuum.[39] During that time, the spacecraft's fins design was changed to the current form, with a pair of aft fins at the bottom and forward fins at the top.[40]

Development and testing

Main article: SpaceX Starship development history § SpaceX Starship system
For a list of flight and atmospheric tests, see List of SpaceX Starship launches § Starship test flights
Remains of exploded Starship SN8 next to Elon Musk

All Starship spacecraft and Super Heavy boosters are produced at the SpaceX South Texas launch site, referred by SpaceX as Starbase,[41] also known as the Boca Chica launch site.[42] Starship prototypes are subjected to several tests on the launch stand before launch, including ambient-temperature pressure tests, wet dress rehearsal, and static fire of the engines. During the ambient-temperature pressure test, the test article's propellant tanks are filled with benign air‑temperature nitrogen gas, which checks for leaks and verifies basic plumbing performance and a basic level of structural integrity.[43] The wet dress rehearsal is where the vehicle's oxygen and methane tanks are tested to safely load, transport, and unload supercool propellant.[43] For some test articles with thrust structures, a hydraulic ram was attached to the thrust puck to simulate the thrust of Raptor engines.[44] Finally, a static fire test is performed by loading liquid oxygen and liquid methane and firing the Raptor engines briefly while Starship is held down on the test stand.[45]

SpaceX's iterative design philosophy is evident in the Starship development and testing program, as SpaceX is willing to regularly test prototypes to destruction, counting the data gathered as a successful part of the overall process, as well as an allowance for failures and fast cadence of prototype construction.[46][47]

Starship spacecraft

Starship SN20's ceramic tiles are inspected

The Starship spacecraft is 50 m (160 ft) tall and 9 m (30 ft) in diameter. It is a fully reusable spacecraft with a dry mass of 120 t (120 long tons; 130 short tons) or less.[48] The spacecraft acts as the second stage of the launch system to reach orbital velocity on launches from Earth. After reaching orbit, it acts as a long‑duration spacecraft, as well as a single-stage-to-orbit rocket on launches from Mars, the Moon, and on other planets and moons.[49] Starship is also designed to be capable of re-entering Earth's atmosphere from orbital velocities and landing vertically, with a design goal of rapid reusability without the need for extensive refurbishment.[50][51] The spacecraft is designed to be refueled in space, as this is required for most missions beyond Earth's orbit.[52]

Design

Starship spacecraft, Super Heavy boosters, and cryogenic storage tanks at Starbase are all manufactured from sheets of 304L stainless steel alloy, 4 mm (0.16 in) thick and 72 in (180 cm) wide.[53] The sheets are cut and welded by humans or robots to form stainless steel rings with a 9 m (30 ft) diameter.[54] These rings are then welded together manually to form sections of two to four rings. Sections are then stacked together to form these structures, usually with a crane or a robot inside the "bays".[55][56] In the future, SpaceX will use a proprietary stainless steel alloy 30X to construct Starship spacecraft and Super Heavy boosters.[57]

The bottom-most two-ring section, informally called the "skirt", is occupied by Raptor engines and composite overwrapped pressure vessels (COPV).[58][59] These COPVs in the Starship spacecraft serve the function of autogenous pressurize propellant tanks by storing very high-pressure gas made by engines and then pumping it back to the liquid methane and oxygen tank.[60] The next three-ring section contains a plumbing system, a thrust puck, and a "thrust dome" that made up the bottom of a main liquid oxygen tank.[61][62] The following four rings made up the wall of the oxygen tank. The three rings on top contain the "common dome", which separates two main propellant tanks and contains slosh baffles at the top. This section also includes the smaller spherical liquid methane header tank, which is inside the liquid oxygen tank.[63][64] A "forward dome" is housed on the next three rings, which cap the top of the main liquid methane tank. The last four-ring section and a nose cone complete the assembly, which is the payload bay of Starship spacecraft and stores a small liquid oxygen header tank which is mounted on the tip of the nose cone, alongside a flight computer, antennas, batteries, etc.[65][66] The methane tanks use a downcomer at the middle of the main liquid oxygen tank to transport fuel to the engines, and the liquid oxygen header tank uses a separate downcomer that is welded at the inside of the tanks' wall.[67][68] The main propellant tanks feed the engines' propellant during the ascent phase, while the smaller, sphere-shaped header tanks are used for landing the spacecraft.[69]

The actuated fins or body flaps are assembled perpendicularly to the spacecraft's body, the bigger pair of aft fins are at the bottom of the spacecraft, while the smaller pair of forwarding flaps are placed at the bottom of the nose cone.[70] The aft fins are placed opposite to each other, with each side facing the windward and the leeward side during re-entry, and the smaller forward flaps are installed angled from each other at the leeward side of the ship.[70][71] They are all controlled by electric motors, with a primary purpose of attitude control during descent to optimize both trajectory and energy dissipation.[4] Simulation from SpaceX shows that 99.9% of the spacecraft's kinetic energy on Earth reentry is dissipated and 99% on Mars even though the Martian atmosphere is much thinner.[72] The spacecraft's heat shield is composed of hexagonal tiles made of ceramic, silicon, and "toughened uni-piece fibrous reinforced oxidation-resistant composite", which is installed on the windward side of a Starship to it from the harsh conditions of atmospheric reentry.[73][74]

Starship is powered by three sea-level Raptor engines providing an accumulated thrust of 5,550 kN (1,250,000 lbf) plus three Raptor vacuum engines.[4] The sea-level Raptor engines are used to retropropulsively land on a designated landing pad or bare surfaces of Mars, while the Raptor vacuum engines are used for the Starship to get to parking orbit after separating from Super Heavy. Starship will use pressure-fed hot gas reaction control system thrusters using methane and oxygen in the gas state for attitude control, including the final pre‑landing pitch‑up maneuver of the second stage from belly flop to tail down and for stability during high‑wind landings up to 60 km/h (37 mph).[75] Initial prototypes used nitrogen cold gas thrusters, which are substantially less mass-efficient but are more expedient to support early prototype flight testing than the hot gas methane thrusters, which will be used in the finalized design.[50]

Planned variants

File:Starship HLS Moon landing.jpg
Official render of Starship HLS

SpaceX has announced that Starship will eventually be built to several operational variants.[76][77] The Starship cargo variant is likely to be the earliest operational variant, as it doesn't involve crew and leaving Earth's orbit. The original spacecraft variant is intended to exclusively fly cargo transport missions initially and that passenger flights would come only much later.[1][78] The spacecraft would be able to transport and place spacecraft into orbit, with a large cargo bay door that can open in space to facilitate the delivery and pickup of cargo.[76][79] The Starship crew variant would be a large, long‑duration spacecraft capable of carrying passengers or cargo to low Earth orbit, the Moon and Mars.[76] As envisioned in the 2017 design unveiling, the Starship specialized for a Mars mission might have a pressurized volume of approximately 825 m3 (29,100 cu ft), which could be configured for up to 40 cabins, large common areas, central storage, a galley, and a solar flare shelter for Mars missions.[26]

For transporting space probes, cargo, and crew to higher orbits or at further interplanetary or interstellar space destinations, propellant cargo‑only propellant tankers would rendezvous with and refuel the spacecraft in Earth orbit. The tanker variant is designed to be light and reusable, designed to be able to perform automatic rendezvous and docking operations and on‑orbit propellant transfer to Starships. This variant is expected to come later; initial in‑space propellant transfer will be from one modified standard Starship to another.[80][81]

In April 2021, NASA selected the Starship HLS variant to be a human‑rated lunar lander for the Artemis program and contracted it for two operational Moon missions, with a human lunar landing occurring on the second one, as early as 2024.[82] It is made without airbrakes or a heat shield since these components would be redundant for the mission.[83] The spacecraft will be equipped with a docking port on the nose, additional landing engines installed much higher up to reduce dust clouds during landing.[83] SpaceX also envisioned a lunar cargo lander for transferring high-mass cargoes from the Earth's surface to the lunar surface under the Commercial Lunar Payload Services program, which is not required to leave the lunar surface.[84]

The Starship design is expected to be flexible. For example, a possible modification to the base Starship would have only an expendable three‑engine Starship with no fairing, rear fins, or landing legs, to optimize its mass ratio for interplanetary exploration with robotic probes.[85]

Super Heavy booster

Super Heavy BN4 in the high bay

The booster stage Super Heavy is 69.5 m (228 ft) long and is 9 m (30 ft) in diameter, designed to hold subcooled liquid methane and liquid oxygen propellant like the Starship spacecraft. In mid-2021, the design was changed to not include legs, since the booster would be captured by the launch tower.[86] The booster is powered by 29 or 33 sea-level variant Raptor engines that provide approximately 74,000 kN (17,000,000 lbf) total liftoff thrust, although expected thrust can change as the design progresses.[4][8][87] The propellant capacity of Super Heavy is approximately 3,400 t (7,500,000 lb).[86]

Design

Super Heavy uses the same stainless steel rings for its construction as the Starship spacecraft. The first three bottom steel rings house the thrust dome, the bottom of the liquid oxygen tank, and COPVs used for autogenous pressurization of the fuel tanks of Super Heavy.[88] Unlike the Starship spacecraft where Raptor engines mount inside the skirt section, 29 or 33 of them are mounted directly to Super Heavy's bottom.[89] Super Heavy is also equipped with a thrust puck and a complicated feed system that feeds the Raptor engines with propellant.[90] On top of the rings at the bottom are the four four-ring sections which serve as the liquid oxygen tank wall. The next four rings contain the common dome, which separates the two propellant tanks.[91] The three steel sections above the common dome section are the wall for the liquid methane tanks, which are four, three, and three rings high from bottom to top. Finally, a forward dome inside a three-ring high section tops off the construction and the methane tanks.[92] The top section has a mounting adapter for Starship to stack on top of Super Heavy.[93]

Launch tower

Construction of launch tower

The launch tower is 479 ft (146 m) tall, with 469 ft (143 m) being steel tower trusses and a 10 ft (3.0 m) long lightning rod.[94] The launch tower also contains fuel pipes, data cable, and power lines in the quick disconnect arm, as well as an internal elevator for easy access to the tower and Starship system.[95][96] The tower also has a large gantry pulley and "chopstick arms", which are used to lift the Super Heavy booster and Starship spacecraft and catch the booster.[97]

Super Heavy catching system

Although the original concept used landing legs on both the booster and the spacecraft, SpaceX decided to incorporate a catching system into the launch tower instead.[95] The catching system includes arms that will be able to move up and down along the tower and side to side on pivots, with a cable system that will match the speed of incoming Super Heavy's that touch down using its grid fins.[98] This system simplifies the Starship system's reusability feature since it will be used to catch the Super Heavy booster upon return from launch and the spacecraft upon return from orbit and also to lift the booster and the spacecraft into position, allowing for a speedy turn-around time.[99] In December 2020, Musk added the possibility of catching the booster by the small pins using the launch tower arm, eliminating the need for landing legs and further simplifying recovery processes.[100][101]

Finanzbranche

Cost and planned usage

Starship is intended to become the primary SpaceX orbital vehicle. SpaceX intends to eventually replace its existing Falcon 9, Falcon Heavy, and Dragon 2 fleet with Starship, which is expected to take cargo to orbit at a far lower cost than any other existing launch vehicle.[9]: 24:50–27:05 [76][102] In November 2019, Elon Musk estimated that fuel will cost US$900,000 per launch and operational costs per launch could drop as low as US$2 million.[103]

In addition to the commercial launch market that SpaceX has been servicing since 2013, the company intends to use Starship to launch the largest portion of its internet satellite constellation, Starlink, with more than 12,000 satellites intended to be launched by 2026, more than six times the total number of active satellites in orbit in 2018.[104] An orbital launch of Starship could place up to 400 Starlink satellites into orbit with a single launch, whereas the Falcon 9 flights in 2019‑2020 can launch a maximum of 60 satellites per flight.[1] Beyond the low-Earth orbit launches performed by Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy in the 2010s, the Starship system is an architecture designed to perform many diverse spaceflight missions, due to the very low mission marginal cost.[34]: 30:10–31:30 

Funding and contracts

Elon Musk with a model of Starship presenting to the United States military

The development work on the two-stage launch vehicle design has been nearly entirely privately funded by SpaceX.[105] The entire project is possible only as a result of SpaceX's multi-faceted approach focusing on the reduction of launch costs.[106] However, the speed of commercially available Mars transport for both cargo and humans will be driven, in large part, by market demand as well as constrained by the technology development and development funding.[106]

In January 2016, the United States Air Force signed a contract with SpaceX US$33.7 million to develop a prototype Raptor engine for a methalox upper stage for Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy, with up to a further US$61.4 million available for additional requirements. SpaceX has no plans to develop a methalox second stage for the Falcon launch vehicles but the Air Force wanted this technology to be developed.[107]

Beginning in 2019, SpaceX began to offer specific services to potential future customers using Starship, Super Heavy, or Raptor engine technologies. In June 2019, SpaceX indicated they could potentially launch commercial payloads using Starship as early as 2021,[79] which can result in the recognition of revenue before a flight is launched. On September 14, 2018, Yusaku Maezawa contracted SpaceX for a nine-crew private circumlunar lunar mission called the dearMoon project, in which Yusaku would give the remaining 8 seats to anyone around the world.[108][109][110] In October 2020, NASA awarded SpaceX US$53.2 million to conduct a large-scale flight demonstration to transfer 10 metric tons of cryogenic propellant between the tanks of two Starship vehicles.[111]

In April 2020, NASA announced they would pay SpaceX US$135 million for initial design work of a variation of the Starship second‑stage vehicle and spaceship called the Starship Human Landing System as one of three potential lunar human landing systems for the NASA Artemis program.[112][113] On 16 April 2021, NASA selected SpaceX's Starship for the human landing system, awarding SpaceX with a contract valued at US$2.89 billion spread over several years.[82][114][115]

Criticism

The Starship vehicle design has been criticized for not adequately protecting astronauts from ionizing radiation on interplanetary missions;[116][117] Musk has stated that he believes the transit time to Mars will be too insignificant for a crewed Mars mission, saying "it's not too big of a deal."[116][118][119] The lifetime cancer risk increase caused by the dose incurred on a multi‑year Mars mission has been estimated to amount to a 5% increase in total cancer risk, a number which can be greatly reduced through simple shielding measures.[120] Responding to these criticisms, Musk's 2017 revision included a solar storm shelter.[119][121]

Critics have also attacked the Starship test campaign at the SpaceX South Texas launch site. Debris from launch explosions has traveled over 5 mi (8.0 km) downwind, leading environmental organizations such as the Sierra Club, the Friends of Wildlife Corridor, and concerned citizens to argue that it damages the surrounding ecosystems.[122] Environmental activists accuse SpaceX of not adhering to the conditions outlined in their original Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) and have urged the Federal Aviation Administration to require an updated EIS, which includes an environmental assessment, a 30-day public comment period, and an assessment of those comments.[123]

See also

References

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