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Organic food

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Organic vegetables at a farmers' market in Argentina.

Organic foods are produced according to certain production standards. For crops, it means they were grown without the use of conventional pesticides, artificial fertilizers, human waste, or sewage sludge, and that they were processed without ionizing radiation or food additives.[1] For animals, it means they were reared without the routine use of antibiotics and without the use of growth hormones. In most countries, organic produce must not be genetically modified.

Increasingly, organic food production is legally regulated. Currently, the United States, the European Union, Japan and many other countries require producers to obtain organic certification in order to market food as organic.

Historically, organic farms have been relatively small family-run farms[2] — which is why organic food was once only available in small stores or farmers' markets. Now, organic foods are becoming much more widely available — organic food sales within the United States have grown by 17 to 20 percent a year for the past few years[3] while sales of conventional food have grown at only about 2 to 3 percent a year. This large growth is predicted to continue, and many companies are jumping into the market.[4]

Types of organic food

Mixed organic bean sprouts
See also: Organic farming for information on the production of organic food.

Organic foods can be either fresh or processed, based on production methods.

Processed food

Often, within the same supermarket, both organic and conventional versions of products are available, although the price of the organic version is usually higher (see modern developments). Most processed organic food comes from large food conglomerates[5] producing and marketing products like canned goods, frozen vegetables, prepared dishes and other convenience foods.

Processed organic food usually contains only organic ingredients, or where there are a number of ingredients, at least a minimum percentage of the plant and animal ingredients must be organic (95% in Australia). Any non-organically produced ingredients must still meet requirements. It must be free of artificial food additives, and is often processed with fewer artificial methods, materials and conditions (no chemical ripening, no food irradiation, and no genetically modified ingredients, etc.).

They may also be required to be produced using energy-saving technologies and packaged using recyclable or biodegradable materials when possible.[citation needed]

Identifying organic food

At first, organic food comprised mainly of fresh vegetables. Early consumers interested in organic food would look for chemical-free, fresh or minimally processed food. They mostly had to buy directly from growers: "Know your farmer, know your food" was the motto. Personal definitions of what constituted "organic" were developed through firsthand experience: by talking to farmers, seeing farm conditions, and farming activities. Small farms grew vegetables (and raised livestock) using organic farming practices, with or without certification, and the individual consumer monitored.

Consumer demand for organic foods continues to increase, and high volume sales through mass outlets, like supermarkets, is rapidly replacing the direct farmer connection. For supermarket consumers, food production is not easily observable, and product labelling, like "certified organic", is relied on. Government regulations and third-party inspectors are looked to for assurance.

A "certified organic" label is usually the only way for consumers to know that a processed product is "organic".

The National Organic Program (run by the USDA) is in charge of the legal definition of organic in the United States and does organic certification. It administers the Organic Seal to products and producers that meet strict requirements.
Main article: Organic certification
See also: List of countries with organic agriculture regulation‎

To be certified organic, products must be grown and manufactured in a manner that adheres to standards set by the country they are sold in:

Australia: NASAA Organic Standard
Britain: Organic Farmers and Growers Organic Standards and the Soil Association
Canada: Canada Gazette, Government of Canada
European Union: EU-Eco-regulation [2]
Japan: JAS Standards.
United States: National Organic Program (NOP) Standards [3]
Sweden: KRAV

In the United States, the Organic Food Production Act of 1990 (7 U.S.C.A. § 6501-22) required that the USDA develop national standards for organic products.[6] The regulations (7 C.F.R. Part 205) are enforced by the USDA through the National Organic Program under this act. These laws essentially require that any product that claims to be organic must have been manufactured and handled according to specific NOP requirements. A USDA Organic seal identifies products with at least 95% organic ingredients.

Motivations

The production, sale and consumption of organic foods reflects both a concern for the environment and a concern for human health. Furthermore it reflects an interest in strengthening communities and the relationships within them. The popularity of famer's markets and the often seen bumper sticker " Who's your farmer ? " highlight the value now placed on fresh organic local food. The organic movement also reflects a return to values of handmade quality, accountability, and a refined holistic aesthetic. This is evidenced by the frequent convergence of the organic with the gourmet.

Companies who have begun to incorporate organics into their product lines often cite the now popular dictum " to do good is to do well" . The development of organic lines in mainstream grocery stores is paralleled by the more general interest now given to all forms of sustainability in business and industry. Cynics may cite profit as the sole motivation for what they believe to be token or even crass efforts on the part of business and industry to incorporate features such as organics. However, one need only to pass a newstand to appreciate that the issue of environmental crisis and climate change has come to occupy a deep and painful place in the modern psyche. The motivation to produce, sell and consume organics is a legitimate and tangible way to address this.

Environmental impact

Supporters of organic farming claim that organic farms have a smaller environmental impact than conventional farms. Several surveys and studies have attempted to examine and compare conventional and organic systems of farming. The general consensus across these surveys[7][8] is that organic farming is less damaging for the following reasons:

  • Organic farms do not release synthetic pesticides into the environment — some of which have the potential to harm local wildlife.
  • Organic farms are better than conventional farms at sustaining diverse ecosystems, i.e., populations of plants and insects, as well as animals.
  • When calculated either per unit area or per unit of yield, organic farms use less energy and produce less waste, e.g., waste such as packaging materials for chemicals.

See "Organic FAQs" in the journal Nature for more details.[9]

One study found a 20% smaller yield from organic farms using 50% less fertilizer and 97% less pesticide.[10] Studies comparing yields have had mixed results.[11] Supporters claim that organically managed soil has a higher quality[12] and higher water retention. This may help increase yields for organic farms in drought years. One study of two organic farming systems and one conventional found that, in one year's severe crop season drought, organic soybean yields were 52% and 96% higher than the conventional system and organic maize yields were 37% higher in one system, but 62% lower in the other.[13] Some studies are also consistent in showing that organic farms are more energy efficient.[14]. However, alternative views hold that this may be deceptive, based on fossil fuel usage but ignoring energy costs of plowing and other laborious practices used on organic farms to maintain yields. Michael Pollan, author of “The Omnivore's Dilemma”, notes that in the whole chain of food production and distribution, only one-fifth of the energy is used on the farm. A report published by DEFRA, Britain's environment and farming ministry, concluded that shifts toward a local food production and distribution system, as advocated by many organic food proponents, would actually increase the amount of energy being invested in food due to the a higher level of small-scale transport systems, which suffer from inefficiencies compared to standard large-scale supermarket systems. [15]

One study from the Danish Environmental Protection Agency found that, area-for-area, organic farms of potatoes, sugar beet and seed grass produce as little as half the output of conventional farming. [16] Findings like these, and the dependence of organic food on manure from low-yield cattle, has prompted criticism from many scientists that organic farming is environmentally unsound and incapable of feeding the world population. [17]. Among these critics are Norman Borlaug, father of the "green revolution," and winner of the Nobel Peace Prize, who asserts that organic farming practices can at most feed 4 billion people, after expanding cropland dramatically and destroying ecosystems in the process. [18]

Farmer John Peterson together with Angela B. Caudle, Executive Director of the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM) and Leslie Littlefield in the IFOAM Head Office in Bonn, Germany.

Pesticides and farmers

For those who work on farms, there have been many studies on the health effects of pesticide exposure.[19] Even when pesticides are used correctly, they still end up in the air and bodies of farm workers. Through these studies, organophosphate pesticides have become associated with acute health problems such as abdominal pain, dizziness, headaches, nausea, vomiting, as well as skin and eye problems.[20] In addition, there have been many other studies that have found pesticide exposure is associated with more severe health problems such as respiratory problems, memory disorders, dermatologic conditions,[21][22] cancer,[23] depression, neurologic deficits,[24][25] miscarriages, and birth defects.[26] Summaries of peer-reviewed research have examined the link between pesticide exposure and neurological outcomes and cancer in organophosphate-exposed workers.[27][28]

Certain genetic modifications can allow some non-organic food to avoid the usage of pesticides without losses in yield. However, genetically-modified crops are the subject of controversy on their own.

Pesticide residue

A study published in 2002 showed that "Organically grown foods consistently had about one-third as many residues as conventionally grown foods."[29][30]

Monitoring of pesticide residues in the United States is carried out by the Pesticide Data Program (part of USDA, which was created in 1990. It has since tested over 60 different types of food for over 400 different types of pesticides - with samples collected close to the point of consumption. Their most recent results found in 2005 that:

These data indicate that 29.5 percent of all samples tested contained no detectable pesticides [parent compound and metabolite(s) combined], 30 percent contained 1 pesticide, and slightly over 40 percent contained more than 1 pesticide.

— USDA, Pesticide Data Program[31]

Several studies corroborate this finding by having found that that while 77 percent of conventional food carries synthetic pesticide residues, only about 25 percent of organic food does. [32] [33] [34] [35] [36] [37] [38] [39] [40] [41]

A study published by the National Research Council in 1993 determined that for infants and children, the major source of exposure to pesticides is through diet.[42] A recent study in 2006 measured the levels of organophosphorus pesticide exposure in 23 schoolchildren before and after replacing their diet with organic food. In this study it was found that levels of organophosphorus pesticide exposure dropped dramatically and immediately when the children switched to an organic diet.[43] However, the fact that diet is the major source of pesticide ingestion does not mean that pesticides are ingested at amounts that could ever prove harmful;[citation needed] modern pesticides biodegrade into harmless components in the body;[citation needed] and food residue limits established by law are set specifically with children in mind and consider a child's lifetime ingestion of each pesticide.[citation needed]

There is controversial data on the health implications of certain pesticides. The herbicide Atrazine, for example, has been shown in some experiments to be a teratogen, even at concentrations as low as 0.1 part per billion, to emasculate male frogs by causing their gonads to produce eggs — effectively turning males into hermaphrodites.[44]

Organic farming standards do not allow the use of synthetic pesticides, but they do allow the use of specific pesticides derived from plants. The most common organic pesticides, accepted for restricted use by most organic standards, include Bt, pyrethrum, and rotenone. Some organic pesticides, such as rotenone, have high toxicity to fish and aquatic creatures with some toxicity to mammals including humans. [45]

The United States Environmental Protection Agency and state agencies periodically review the licensing of suspect pesticides, but the process of de-listing is slow. One example of this slow process is exemplified by the pesticide Dichlorvos, or DDVP, which as recently as the year 2006 the EPA proposed its continued sale. The EPA has almost banned this pesticide on several occasions since the 1970s, but it never did so despite considerable evidence that suggests DDVP is not only carcinogenic but dangerous to the human nervous system — especially in children.[46]

Taste and nutritional value

A 2001 study by researchers at Washington State University concluded, under judgement by a panel of tasters, that organic apples were sweeter. Along with taste and sweetness, the texture as well as firmness of the apples were also rated higher than those grown conventionally. These differences are attributed to the greater soil quality resulting from organic farming techniques compared to those of conventional farming.[47]

A small study looking at processed organic foods, found participants could not differentiate organic and conventional varieties of a rice cakes or vitabrits.[citation needed]

Some studies have shown higher nutrient levels in organic fruit and vegetables compared with conventionally grown products. However, due to the difficulty with designing such experiments, the evidence is not considered conclusive.[citation needed]

Most studies show that organic food is better for you because it lacks harmful dyes and hormones[citation needed], however, some studies — including a 2002 meta-analysis, which is a review of all past studies on the subject — found no proof that organic food offers greater nutritional values, more consumer safety or any distinguisable difference in taste. [48][49][50][51]

Cost

Critics claim that organic food is more expensive than conventional food and thus too highly priced to be affordable to persons on a lower income. Organic products typically cost 10 to 40% more than similar conventionally produced products.[52] Processed organic foods vary greatly in price when compared to their conventional counterparts. An Australian study by Choice magazine in 2004 found processed organic foods in supermarkets to be 65% more expensive, but noted this was not consistent. Some products were more than twice the price (such as chocolate), others were similarly priced (jam).[citation needed] Prices may be higher because organic produce is produced on a smaller scale, and may need to be milled or processed separately.

Commercialization

Organic food began as a small movement with farmers rejecting the use of conventional farming practices. With the market share of organic food outpacing much of the food industry many big companies have moved into this market. With these large companies, and with the creation of a legal certification framework (2002 in the US), there is worry that the very definition of organic food will change from what it used to be.[53]

History

Main article: History of organic farming

Modern agriculture, utilizing large amounts of artificial chemical inputs, monocultures, and intensive farming methods, is a recent phenomenon. Indeed, one could argue that almost the entire history of agriculture consists of what would be now termed "organic farming".

Rising consumer awareness of organic methods began in the 1950s with the promotion of organic gardening. In the 1960s and 1970s, one effect of a growing grassroots concern with environmental issues was the appearance of more elaborate approaches to organic food, including food-buying co-ops and dedicated organic producers. In the 1970s and 1980s, private sector organic certification and development of regulations at the governmental level began around the world. In the 1990s, formal organic certification began to be legislated in various countries, and this trend continues to today. During the same period, the organic food market experienced a sustained surge in growth, expanding at around 20% a year (exceeding the rest of the food industry by a factor of at least 10). Organic baby food is popular too, sales of which increased 21.6 percent in 2006, while baby food overall has only grown 3.1 percent in the same year.[54] The first years of the 21st century saw multinational food corporations taking major stakes in the organic market, and this has dramatically increased the variety, availability and falling cost of processed organic food.[citation needed]

Modern developments

The prices for organic food have been, and continue to be, higher than their conventional counterparts. This is because farmers who grow organic food have to meet stricter quality standards to have their products certified organic. More labor is required to achieve this, bringing up the cost.

Since the 1980s there has been a growth trend in supermarkets that carry large volumes of organic food. This includes Whole Foods Market in the US, and Waitrose in the UK. With large volume sales, these retailers have been bringing the price of organic food down.

In the United States the pressure to bring the cost down will vastly increase soon because in 2006, Wal-Mart, the largest grocery retailer, announced plans to increase the amount of organic food available in its stores.[55] Both conventionally grown and organic versions of certain products will be available, but Wal-Mart intends to keep the price of the organic versions to no more than 10% over the price of the conventionally grown counterparts.

Because of Wal-Mart's size and business practices, their move into selling organic food has some people worried.[56] Specifically, the increase in demand for organic food will require that more organic produce be imported.[57] Secondly, the push to lower prices might "virtually guarantee that Wal-Mart's version of cheap organic food is not sustainable".[58]

Various alternative organic standards are emerging. They generally bypass formal certification, which can be expensive and cumbersome, and provide their own definition of organic food. One such, the Authentic Food standard, proposed by leading US organic farmer Eliot Coleman, includes criteria that are incompatible with current agribusiness: =

  • Fresh fruits and vegetables, milk, eggs and meat products are produced within a 50-mile radius of their place of their final sale.
  • The seed and storage crops (grains, beans, nuts, potatoes, etc.) are produced within a 300-mile radius of their final sale.
  • Only traditional processed foods such as cheese, wine, bread and lactofermented products may claim, "Made with Authentic ingredients."[59]

Some are also implementing new approaches to defining and buying food. Community-supported agriculture (CSA) is one such approach, that cuts out all the middlemen by having consumers partner with local farmers. CSA members prepurchase "shares" in a season's harvest, and pick up their weekly portions from distribution sites. Thus, consumers provide direct financing for farms, participate in the risks and rewards of annual growing conditions, and participate with farmers in distribution networks.

CSA is one example of "buying locally," which is often valued by both the organic food consumer and producer. Generally speaking, locally-grown seasonal food can be brought to market more quickly than food that has to be transported long distances, and therefore can be better tasting and to some degree more nutritious by virtue of its freshness. Additionally, the act of buying foods that are locally-grown benefits local farmers and other employers. This local food approach is seen as a direct investment in one's own community and a way to reduce economic dependence.

Organic food is also often linked with the fair trade movement, based on the principle that social and environmental sustainability are inextricably interdependent.

Facts and statistics

While organic food accounts for 1–2% of total food sales worldwide, the organic food market is growing rapidly, far ahead of the rest of the food industry, in both developed and developing nations.

  • World organic food sales were US $23 billion in 2002.[60]
  • The world organic market has been growing by 20% a year since the early 1990s, with future growth estimates ranging from 10-50% annually depending on the country.

North America

United States:
  • "In 2003 organic products were available in nearly 20,000 natural food stores and 73% of conventional grocery stores.[61]
  • Organic products account for 2.6% of total food sales in the year 2005.[62]
  • Two thirds of organic milk and cream and half of organic cheese and yogurt are sold through conventional supermarkets.[63]

Europa

In the European Union (EU25) 3.9% of the total utilized agricultural area is used for organic production. The countries with the highest proportion of organic land are Austria (11%), Italy (8.4), followed by Czech Republic and Greece (both 7.2%). The lowest figures are shown for Malta (0.1%), Poland (0.6%) and Ireland (0.8%)[64]

Austria:
  • 4.9% of all food products sold in Austrian supermarkets (including discount stores) in 2006 were organic. [65]
Germany:
Poland:
  • Since May 2004, products of certified organic farms in Poland are allowed to carry the EU organic farming label, but it is not obligatory. This sign certifies that a given product was produced according to the EU 2092/91 organic farming regulation and therefore can be freely traded and marketed on the whole Common Market. In 2005 already 168,000 ha of land were under organic management. The value of the organic market in Poland is estimated at Eur 50 million (2006).[66]
UK:
  • By January 2005, 686,100 ha of land was managed to organic standards. Organic food sales increased from just over £100 million in 1993/94 to £1.21 billion in 2004 (an 11% increase on 2003).[67]

Caribbean

Cuba:
  • After the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1990, the government converted the entire country to organic agriculture, and currently organic agriculture is the mainstream and many pesticides are not permitted by law. [68] However, Cuba defines "organic" differently from many countries and encourages genetically engineered crops, particularly those with enhanced nutritional content and vaccines from GMO plants.[69][70]

See also

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  44. ^ Tyrone Hayes, Kelly Haston, Mable Tsui, Anhthu Hoang, Cathryn Haeffele, and Aaron Vonk (2003). "Atrazine-Induced Hermaphroditism at 0.1 ppb in American Leopard Frogs". Environmental Health Perspectives. 111. {{cite journal}}: External link in |title= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  45. ^ Pesticide Information Profiles: Rotenone. June, 1996. Pesticide Information Project of Cooperative Extension Offices of Cornell University, Oregon State University, the University of Idaho, and the University of California at Davis and the Institute for Environmental Toxicology, Michigan State University. http://extoxnet.orst.edu/pips/rotenone.htm
  46. ^ Raeburn, Paul (2006). "Slow-Acting: After 25 years the EPA still won't ban a risky pesticide". Scientific American. 295: 26. {{cite journal}}: External link in |title= (help)
  47. ^ Green, Emily (2001). "Washington Apple Study Finds Organic Growing Is Best". Nature. {{cite journal}}: External link in |title= (help)
  48. ^ Bourn D, Prescott J. January 2002. A comparison of the nutritional value, sensory qualities, and food safety of organically and conventionally produced foods. Critical Reviews in Food Science Nutrition. 42(1): 1-34.
  49. ^ Williams, C. M. February 2002. Nutritional quality of organic food: shades of grey or shades of green? Proceedings of the Nutrition Society. 61(1): 19-24
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Further reading

On Organics
  • Environmental Magazine (2005). Green Living. Penguin Group (USA). ISBN 0-452-28574-7.
  • Gussow, Joan Dye (2002). This Organic Life: Confessions of a Suburban Homesteader. Chelsea Green Publishing. ISBN 1-931498-24-5.
  • Nancarrow, Loren; Taylor, Janet Hogan (2000). Dead Daisies Make Me Crazy: Garden Solutions without Chemical Pollution. Ten Speed Press. ISBN 1-58008-156-8.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  • Pretty, J. N.; et al. (2006). "Resource-Conserving Agriculture Increases Yields in Developing Countries". Environmental Science and Technology. 40: 1114–1119. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help); External link in |title= (help)
  • Phillips, Michael (1998). The Apple Grower: A Guide for the Organic Orchardist. Chelsea Green Publishing. ISBN 1-890132-04-7.
  • Rubin, Carole (2003). How to Get Your Lawn & Garden Off Drugs: A Basic Guide to Pesticide-Free Gardening in North America. Harbour Publishing Company. ISBN 1-55017-320-0.
  • Stokstad, Erik (May 2002). "Organic Farms Reap Many Benefits". Science. 296: 1589.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: year (link)
  • Kingsolver, Barbara; Kngsolver, Camille; Hopp, Steven L. (2007). Animal, Vegetable, Miracle. HarperCollins. ISBN 0060852550.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
On Conventional vs Organic Farming
  • Guthman, Julie (2004). Agrarian Dreams: The Paradox of Organic Farming in California. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-24095-2.
  • Hamilton, Denis; Crossley, Stephen (editors) (2004). Pesticide residues in food and drinking water. J. Wiley. ISBN 0-471-48991-3. {{cite book}}: |author= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  • Hond, Frank; et al. (2003). Pesticides: problems, improvements, alternatives. Blackwell Science. ISBN 0-632-05659-2. {{cite book}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)
  • Watson, David H. (editor) (2004). Pesticide, veterinary and other residues in food. Woodhead Publishing. ISBN 1-85573-734-5. {{cite book}}: |author= has generic name (help)
  • Wargo, John (1998). Our Children's Toxic Legacy: How Science and Law Fail to Protect Us from Pesticides. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-07446-8.
  • Williams, Christine (2002). "Nutritional quality of organic food: shades of grey or shades of green?". Proceedings of the Nutrition Society. pp. 19–24. {{cite conference}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |booktitle= ignored (|book-title= suggested) (help)

Pesticides and food

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