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Daivadnya

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Daivajña
Regions with significant populations
Goa, Coastal and western Mahārāṣṭra, Coastal and central Karṇāṭaka

Populations in:

Languages
Koṅkaṇī,Marāṭhī
Religion
Hinduism,Smārta or the Mādhva tradition
Related ethnic groups
Gauḍa Sārsvatas

Template:IndicText

The Daivajñas are an ethno-religious community of the western coast of India,predominantly residing in the states of Goa,coastal Karṇāṭaka,coastal Mahārāṣṭra.Goa is considered as the homeland of this tribe,and are believed to have flourished and prospered in Goa[1][2] hence,called as Gomantaka Daivajña[† 1].Due to many socio-economic reasons they emigrated to different parts of India within the last few centuries.

They are predominantly are into jewelery trade,and are commonly known as Śeṭ in the coastal region.The word Śeṭ is a corrupt form of the word Śreṣṭha or Śreṣṭhin[3] which could mean excellent,distinguished or superior[4].As the time progressed the word was transformed from Śreṣṭha to Śeṭ[5].Most of the older generation from Daivajña community in Goa call themselves as Śeti Bāmaṇ which is a corrupt form of Śreṣṭhi Brāhmaṇa.Portuguese referred these people as Xette,Xett,Xete or sometimes Chatim,Xatim or Cyātī in Koṅkaṇī,Portuguese appellation for trader.Śeṭs are often called as Daivajña Brāhmaṇa Suvarṇakāra.

Etymology

Daiva jānati iti daivajñaḥ

Look up Daivajna in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Written as दैवज्ञ in Devanāgarī and ದೈವಜ್ಞ in Kannaḍa.Differnt authorities spell this word differently,some of the standard spellings are as follows:Daivadnya,Daivajnya[6],Daivagna,Daiwadnya and Daivadnea[7],IPA: [d̪aivaɡna] in Karṇāṭaka and IPA: [d̪əivaʝɲa] in Goa and Maharshtra.

A person who knows about future is a Daivajña,one is well versed in Śilpaśāstra and can craft an idol of god is called a Daivajña [8]. A person mastering the following eight fields is termed as a Daivajña :Bhugolasthiti,Gaṇita Siddhānta,Horāśastra,Śakuna,Saṃhitā,Svaraśāstra,Sāmudrikā and Śilpaśātras.

According to Reginald Edward Enthoven,Daivajña is derived from Daiva pertaining to god,and jña to know[9].

They are referred to as Śeṭ by others and the members of this tribe commonly.The etymology of the term Śeṭ is explained above.Historians say that they were called Śreṣṭh because they were very wealthy,excellent traders,excellent artisans,excel in many other fields,have distinct physical features,wheatish fairer skin,and even they called themselves.Old Portuguese documents mention them as Aria Daivadnea Orgon Somudai or Ārya Daivajña Varga Samudāya,transliterated as Āryas belonging to Daivajña Community[10] or some times as Daivdneagotris[11].

Sode maṭha and its pontiffs mention Daivajñas as Mukhamāsita Sūryavaṃśī brahmins.The 33rd pontiff Śrī Viśvādhīśa Tīrtha of Śrī Sode Vādirāja Maṭh mentions them as Mukhamāsita Daivajña Sūrya brahmins in his letter to chieftain of Hosakeri village near Gokarṇa[† 2].

Genealogy

Map of Vedic India.

The Irani Sun and Fire worshiper priests have been mentioned in many Hindu scriptures like Bhaviṣya Purāṇa[† 3],Viṣṇūpurāṇa[12] and Mahābhārata[† 4] who are believed to have settled in Sāṃbapura[13] and then to Magadha.They crafted an idol of sun god Surya,hence also called as Murtikāra[14][15] and worshiped the idol with incense,garland and other things[16].These sun worshiper priests were called as Magas[17] who married Bhoja women and were called as Bhojakas[16].

Historians Nagendranath Kr, author of the Encyclopaedia of Hinduism, Dr.Shreedhar Venkatesh Ketkar in Maharashtriya Jnanakosha, Part-1, states [18], Ad.Pandurang Purushottam Shirodkar in Bharatiya Samajavighataka Jativarna Vyavastha,[19], Vithal Raghvendra Mitragori in A socio-cultural history of Goa from the Bhojas to the Vijayanagara, and Balkrishna D.Kamat Satoskarin Gomantak Prakruti ani Sanskruti, Part-1 in their research asseverate that Śeṭs are descendants of the Bhojakas and have inherited the art of crafting an idol from Bhojakas.Bhojakas are also called as Gaṇakas which is synonymous to Daivajña.Daivajñas are descendants of Bhojakas,who migrated to Goa in 4th or 6th century AD with a Kṣtriya tribe called as Bhojas,[20] who were also called as Cāḍḍes,from Gauḍa Deśa in northern Kosala[21],which was a part of Magadha kingdom.They spoke spoke Māgadhi[22],the dialect and the accent which Śeṭs of Goa speak,their customs are different from the other castes found in Goa[23].It can be seen that due assimilation with other cultures and races,their traits and practices have gradually lost.

History

Vedic period

The descendency of Daivajña brahmins from the Bhojakas is also suggested on the basis of the interest shown by the former in performing arts such as dance and drama.Magas and Bhojas were expert in performing arts.Following śloka from Bhaviṣya Purāṇa justifies the above statement:

Vādyanāṃ śaṅkhaśabdaśca nṛtyaṃ nāṭyaṃ mataṃ mama[24]
Translation: Playing musical instruments, dancing, enacting dramas are my hobbies

Over and over the Vedas mention a mighty river called the Sarasvatī where Āryan civilizations flourished, where the Indus Valley civilization flourished and dispersed when the Sarasvatī river dried up around 1900 BCE,another theory says that Sarasvatī started drying up in the year 2525 B.C.E.and dried up totally in 2075 B.C.E.[25].Sarasvatī river along with Dṛṣadvati and Āpayā river formed a delta called Brahmāvarta[26]. According to Sahyādrikhaṇḍa of Skanda Purāṇa[27] Lord Paraśurāma created Sapta Koṅkaṇa[28],96 brahmin families belonging to 10 Gotras migrated to Goa from Brahmāvarta via Saurāṣṭra[29] and settled in different Agrahāras.Daivajñas came with Lord Paraśurāma to the south to assist other brahmins perform Yajñas or the ritualistic sacrifices[† 5],in 2500 BC[30],and are believed to have settled in different Agraharas,with other brahmins.But some Historians say that this tribe migrated to Goa in 4th to 6th century AD,but period of migration of Sārasvat's is dated back to 700 BC,some theories say 2500 BC,which is quite confusing.Sahyādrikhaṇḍa even mentions that,a group of artisan brahmins called as Śaivagāyatrī brahmins used to exist in Goa before the advent of Daivajña tribe in Goa[27].To discern themselves from Śaivagāyatrīs,Narāśanas[5][† 6] and others and to claim superiority,Daivajñas started to refer themselves as Śreṣṭha[5][31].

Enthoven,in his book The Tribes and Castes of Bombay,mentions that this clan is related to the semi-divine beings mentioned in the Ṛgveda and the Atharvaveda like Ṛbhus,Tvaṣṭar[9].But Śeṭs do not relate themselves with any of the above mentioned deities,nor do they have any blood relations with any community who trace their origin from Tvaṣṭar or Ṛbhus[32].But notably Magas are related to Tvaṣṭar who happens to be Nikṣubhā's(Sūrya's wife) father[33].Tvaṣṭar known asTechnitês in western mythology(Teukhoin Greek,and Texo in Latin),according to Sanchoniathon,Magus(Magas?),Amynus(Manu?), were grandsons of Technitês[33].

Goan anthropologist and historian Anant Ramkrishna Sinai Dhume claims that goan Śeṭs are descendants of the ancient Sumerian colonists[34],who came to Goa around 2200[35] to 3000 BC[36],Dhume suggests that the architect of some of the temples the Śeṭs are associated with,are built in Sumerian style[34][36].

According to the oral tradition[37], they believe to have come from Gauḍa Deśa with their Kuldevatās,some of their Kulapuruśas have appellations like Gauḍpuruśa or Gauḍīpuruśa.There are no written evidences available to support this traditional belief.Surprisingly,few sub-groups of brahmins from West Bengal and Assam were referred to as Śreṣṭhas and Daivajñas[38] who are believed to have migrated from Śhākadvipa[39] and are commonly known as Graha Vipra and Ācārya brahmins in West Bengal.Records maintain that these groups migrated from Assam or Kāmarupa and Gauḍa from beginning of nineth or tenth century[40].It can be thus concluded that oral traditions of Goan Śeṭs are not a myth.

Migration period

According to Viṭhṭhala Mitragotrī,their migration to Goa dates back to early 4th - 6th century AD,i.e. Bhoja period[41].Bā.Da.Sātoskar,suggests that they are a part of the Sārasvat tribe and reached Goa around 700 BC. From 1352 to 1366 AD Goa was ruled by Khilji .In 1472, the Bahamani Muslims attacked and demolished many temples and forced the Hindus to get converted to Islam. To avoid this religious persecution, several Śeṭ families fled to the neighbourhood Kingdom of Sondā[42][43].

Portuguese Period

In 1510 Portuguese invaded Goa, King of Portugal João III issued a decree threatening expulsion or execution of non-believers of Christianity in 1559 A.D,.Daivajñas refused conversion and had to decamp.Thousands of Daivajña families fled to the coast and interiors of Mahārāṣṭra and coastal Karṇāṭaka.[44] About 12,000 families from the Sāsaṣṭi region of Goa (ie. from Rāy,Kuṅkalī,Loṭalī,Verṇe and other places), mostly of the Sārasvats and the Śeṭs, including Vaiśyas,Kuṇbīs, and others departed by ships to the southern ports from Honnāvara to Kozhikode[44][45]. A considerable number of the Śeṭs from Goa,settled in Ṭhāṇe district of Mahārāṣṭra after 1510 CE on the Portuguese conquest of Goa[46].Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency: Kola'ba and Janjira,volume 11 published in the year 1883 mentions that Śeṭ families had migrated from Goa to Kolābā,Jañjīrā about 300 years from then[47]. Portuguese had imposed heavy restrictions on all Goan Hindus,but on contrary there were no much such heavy restrictions imposed on Daivajñas,eg:They were permitted to wear horizontal mark Vibhutī on the forehead,and were even exempted from being punished when they committed crimes[48]. 16th-17th century records mention conflicts between Śeṭs and Sārasvats of Goa.The cause of this conflict was use of traditional emblems used by brahmin and royal Kṣtriya families during religious rituals, functions and festivals ,like Adbagira,Sūryapān,Chatra,Chāmara that symbolised high status in the Hindu society then[49]. Another conflict between Daivajñas and Vaiśyas,in the year 1348 in Khāṇḍepār (ancient name Kharegrāma) as mentioned in Khāṇḍepār copperplate, this issue was solved in Gaṇanātha temple in Khāṇḍepār[30][50].

Modern period

Historical documents mention conflict between Daivajñas and Kāsārs of Goa,in 15th century CE,regarding Mahājanship of Kālikā Sansthān[51]. The Havyaka brahmins of Gokarṇa with a view that the Daivajña brahmins would take over the Pujā authority at Gokarṇa,filed a case against the Daivajña brahmins at Kumṭā court (22.10.1927).The case from Kumṭā court reached Kārvār,Bombay high court and has proved that Daivajña brahmins belong to the Vaiṣṇava brahmin cult[52]. In the early 18th century,those Daivanjas who migrated from Koṅkaṇa to places like Pune were demeaned and tortured by the Peśvās,they did not have any sort of religious freedom,those who performed religious rites and studied the Vedas were punished[53],to such a brutal extent that their tongues and Śīkhās were cut off[54]. In the Indian state of Mahārāṣṭra most of the Sonārs or Devāgnis claimed to be Daivajña brahmins,and some of them insisted to be called as Daivajñas and claimed higher status[55][56]. Even though Daivajñas have been accepted as Anuyāyīs by the Śaṅkarācāryas and Mādhva gurus and have been always recognized as Mukhamāsita Sūryavaṃśī brahmins by their respective pontiffs,some other brahmin communities dispute this claim[57].They enjoy a well esteemed,prestigious,well respected social status in the society,and have been considered as high caste Hindus since the days gone by,but they were not given the ritual status of brahmins by some communities.Śeṭs,on contrary regard them as Mogers or fishermen,and call them Nindaka or scoffers[57]. It is virtually impossible to find a traditional Christian Goan Śeṭ,while all the other castes find representation in the convert society[58],the reason being the protection Portuguese had given them,they had little religious freedom as compared to the others,and were not troubled by the Portuguese[59].But according some historians very few of them were converted,and were lumped into Catholic caste of Bāmaṇs or brahmins[60].According to the gazetteer of Goa state a they are called as Catholic Śeṭs itself[61],but no such distinction is found amongst Goan Catholics. Few historians have even categorized them into the category of Sudirs or the Śudras because of some confusion,the appellation they used ie.Chatim,was even sometimes used by the lower castes.But a detailed study of cumminidades reveals that,converted Śeṭs are categorized as Bāmaṇs[60],but their number is very much insignificant. About 3500 Śeṭs migrated to Beṅgalūru city after 1905 from Dakṣiṇa Kannada[62].Similarly, following liberation of Goa,many Goan Daivajña families migrated to cities like Mumbai,Pune[63].

Anthropological classification

Studying their features,customs and rituals,Some historian and anthropologists have opined that,this tribe or community is an amalgam or hybrid of two or more tribes,as their traits and traditions cannot be attributed to a single tribe[30].It is quite possible that they are of mixed origin,texts maintain that Bhojakas entered into matrimonial alliances with the local population[64] and later mingled into the Aṅgirasa tradition and with non-brahmins[64].They were looked down upon by other brahmins[65] in the days of yore many be because of these reasons[30].Goan historian Bā.Da.Sātoskar remarks that they are very similar to the Sārasvats.

A schematic classification of Indian races was attempted by Sir H.H.Risley in the year 1886-1888,on the basis of physical characters based on anothopometric measurements.As a result it was found out that most of the races occurring in a belt of country on the west coast of India extending from Gujarat to Coorg are of Scytho-Dravidian origin[66].Syctho-Dravidian people exhibit the following physical characteristics:Fair complexion,dark brown to black wavy to curly hair,hair on face rather scanty, medium to broad head,eyes dark in colour,medium stature,nose moderately medium and not conspicuously long[66].Sarkar classifyes this group of people as Indo-Scythians [67].This claim has not always been accepted as most of the Koṅkaṇī speaking castes are categorized as Indo-Aryans.Scholars like Ad.Pandurang Purushottam Shirodkar in Bharatiya Samajavighataka Jativarna Vyavastha,Vithal Raghvendra Mitragori in A socio-cultural history of Goa from the Bhojas to the Vijayanagara, and Balkrishna D.Kamat Satoskarin Gomantak Prakruti ani Sanskruti, Part-1have mentioned that Daivajñas belong to the Indo-Aryan stock.Govinda Sadashiva Ghurye in his book Caste and race in India claims that all castes in modern India are formed out of two or more ethnicities.Which must be very true in case of this tribe too,as the scholars have already mentioned about their mixed origins in their work.This cannot be ascertained unless detailed genealogical DNA study is done to trace their ethnic origin.

Religion

Deities

Daivajñas are predominantly Devi worshipers[68].Pañcāyatana pujā ie. a concept of worshiping God in any of the five forms,viz Śiva,Devi,Gaṇeśa,Viṣṇu,Sūrya,propagated by Ādi Śaṅkara is observed till date.Daivajñas worship Devi or Śiva Pañcāyatana with Devi or Śiva as principle deity.For example: Śantādurgā,Mahādeva,Lakṣminārayaṇa,Gaṇapatī,Nārayaṇa in the form of sun.Pañcāyatana may also include guardian deities like Ravalanātha,Bhūtnātha,Kālbhairava,Kṣetrapāla and deities like Grāmapuruṣa etc[68]. Most of the Daivajña diaspora follow Vaiṣṇava Saṃpradāya in the coastal track of Karṇāṭaka up to the end of Kerala worship lord Viṣṇu and Lakṣmī as their prime deities and have established many temples of Viṣṇu in the form of Lakṣminārayaṇa,Kṛṣṇa,Narasimha,Viṭhṭhala[69] even though their Kuldevtas in Goa are Śaiva deities[3].

Kuldevatās

The Hindu mythology affirms that Kuldevatā is the deity who is the object of hereditary and family worship, and is always one of the leading personages as Śiva,Viṣṇu, or Devi. No house is supposed to be without its tutelary divinity, but the notion attached to this character is now very far from precise. Each Daivajña family has its own family god or goddess.Kuldevatā is derived from two words,kula and devatā. The word kula means family or clan, and devatā means divinity.All Daivajñas have their family deity temples in Goa,very few were shifted to neighbouring states of Karṇāṭaka and Mahārāṣṭra during inquisition period.Daivajña families from all over make a pilgrimage to the Kuladevata temple to attain blessing of the God during festivals and after an auspicious occasion such as a wedding.Unfortunately many of the Daivajña families in Mahārāṣṭra have forgotten their roots and Kuldevatās in Goa in the course of time,due to many obliterative socio-cultural reasons,and have started worshipping regional brahmin and local deities like Khaṇḍobā,Aṃbābāī,Ekvīrā,Jyotībā etc.

Even though they follow Viṣṇu or Śiva,their tutelary deities are in the form of Mother Goddess related to Śākta cult[3].

They worship different aspects of Devi such as[32][43]:

As well as Śiva in the forms of[32]:

Iṣṭadevatās

Iṣṭadevatā or ā,literally cherished divinity, from iṣṭa desired,liked,cheriched and devatā godhead, divinity,tutelary deity is a term denoting a worshipper's favourite deity[70].

Gaṇeśa is ishta devata of all the Śeṭs.Gaṇeśa Caturthī or Siddhivināyaka Vrata is a major festival of all the Daivajñas.

Kālika,Kāsarpālī Goa,is worshipped as Iṣṭadevatā by Gomantaka Daivajñas spread all over the world.This temple is more than 800 years old and is located at a distance of around 14 kilometers from Mhāpsā,at Kāsarpālī was built by Kadaṃbas and was renovated by a Daivajña Mantrī who was serving Sāvant Bhonsale kings of Sāvantvādī in Mahārāṣṭra.It has 4 pillars of seven rows and the inner structure as well as the outer one makes it a unique temple among the all temples of Goa.The temple also has the arrangement for the distant Mahājanas and devotees for the fooding and lodging.There is gigantic gold Kalaśa on the top of the dome of the temple.It also features the unique blend of the architectural designs and elegance.It is one of the most important temples in the northern part of Goa.The main festivals celebrated in this temple are Śiśirotsava,Navrātrī,Rathasaptamī,Āvalībhojana,Vasantapujā etc[10][71][72].

Main article: Mahamaya Kalika Devasthan Kasarpal

Other Iṣṭadevatā of Daivajñas are Rāma,temples are located at Maḍgāv,Paṇajī and many other places in Goa,Mahārāṣṭra and Karṇāṭaka,Dattātreya[3],temples at Kārvār,Mhāpsā,Cincoṇe in Goa,Hanumāna[3],Pāṇḍuraṅga,Hayagrīva,Mahālakṣmī,Kṛṣṇa,Gāyatri,Durgā Parameśvarī,Lakṣminārayaṇa.There are about 38 temples of Daivajñas in North Canara district of Karṇāṭaka[73],and many temples in other parts of Karṇāṭaka,Mahārāṣṭra and few are found in the state of Kerala.

For a more comprehensive list, see List of Daivajna temples and other affiliated temples.

Maṭha tradition and Saṃpradāyas

The Smārta sect

The Vaiṣṇava or Mādhva sect

  • The Daivajña diaspora in North Canara,Uḍupi,South Canara and Kerala,who had migrated from Goa due to Arab and Portuguese invasions,were influenced by Śrī Vādirāja Tīrtha Tīrtha[82] and adopted Vaiṣṇavism.[3][78][83][84] Another story says that a Daivajña was sculpting a Gaṇeaśa idol,but it took form of a horse or Hayagrīva,since then all the Daivajñas in Uḍupi,Maṅgalūru became followers of Vādirāja Tīrtha the pontiff of Sode maṭha and worshipped Hayagrīva[3][85][86].
  • Gazetteer of the Bombay presidency-Kanara district, 1883, volume 15, part 1 mentions the following about the Vaiṣṇava counterpart:

    ....whose original temple is at Māḍḍol,they also worship the ordinary brahmin and village deities and keep local holidays.They are Vaiṣṇavas and have as their teacher Śrī Vādirāja Svāmī, the head of the Vaiṣṇava Monastry of Uḍupi in South Kanara.They pay him large sums which are Gurukāṇike or presents to the teacher, and in return have their breasts and shoulders marked with hot metal seals bearing Viṣṇu's the Śaṅkha or conch, the Cakra or disc, the Gadā or mace and Padma or lotus. Their boys are gifted with the sacred thread....[87]

  • The 36th pontiff in the lineage Viśvavallabha Tīrtha Svāmī initiated into Sanyasa by Śrī Viśvottama Tīrtha Svāmī is the present guru of the maṭha and their religious teacher.[88].

Ancestral worship

Daivajñas have a unique system of ancestral worship,the Mūlapuruṣa or the creater of the clan is worshiped in the form of Śiva Liṅga.

Main article: Kulapurusha

Social structure

Daivajñas are believed to have descended from migrant Magas,hence they are not classified under Gauḍādi Pañcaka in Kalhaṇa's Rājtaraṅgini[89].

Gotras or Exogamous divisions

Daivajñas follow the Saptarṣi gotra system[90] and adhere to Ṛgveda[91][92].

Basic ten Gotras of Daivajñas[93][94][95]:
Bhardvāja Kauśika Vatsa;Vacca Kauṇḍinya Kaśyapa
Vasiṣṭha Jamadagni Viśvāmitra;Kaṃsa Gautama Atri
Sources:Karnāṭakātīl Ṛgvedī Daivajña brāhmaṇāncī gotrāvalī[96]
Gazatter of the Bombay presidency,Kanara district[90]

Apart from basic ten gotras or the Daśagotras mentioned above,many more gotras also exist amongst Daivajñas,most of which belong to the Saptarṣi linage and others as branches,sub-branches of the gotras listed above[† 7].
Few of these gotras are found exclusively amongst the Daivajñas and not found in other castes.

Sūrya Savitā;Savitṛ Bhāskara Śhāndilya
Kutsa Bhṛigu;Bhārgava Kaustubha Sanaga;Sānaga
Sāṅkhāyana Pradnya Sauparṇa;Suparṇa Sañjaya
Sanātana Viśvāgni Abhavana;Abhuvana Sanaka
Parāśara Aṅgirasa Dadhica Karmaṇi
Sources:
The Tribes and Castes of Bombay By Reginald Edward Enthoven[97]

Goa by Sureśa Kumāra Siṅgh and others[98]

For a more comprehensive list, see Daivajna surnames and Gotras.
Further information: [[:Brahmin gotra system]]

Classification

Subdivisions

Śeṭs were divided into many subdivisions in the past,may be according to the place from where they hailed,the maṭha they followed etc.

The Subdivisions of Gomantaka Daivajñas

Until the early 19th century,Goan Śeṭs were divided into three sub-divisions,these subdivisions do not exist any more viz:

  • Vāḍkār
  • Goyṃkār
  • Sauṃdekār[99]

These sub-divisions never intermarried nor did they accept food from their counterparts[99].

The Subdivisions of Śeṭs in Canara

The Śeṭs had migrated from Goa during the 13th, 14th and 15th centuries, but the exodus became thicker after the advent of the Portuguese in the 16th century.They fled by ships to the southern ports,most of them settled in these cities,and later disseminated all along the western coast and the interiors of Karṇāṭaka. These distinctions were probably derived from the ports where they had landed and settled first.

  • Kārvārkār
  • Bhaṭkalkār

Some of the families belonging to these subdivisions were vegetarians,and few were pisco-vegetarians,matrimonial relationships between them were not in vogue[100].

Diaspora in Mahārāṣṭra

There are no prominent distinctions found in Maharastra,but there are mentions of groups of Śeṭs of Goa,specially from Sāsaṣṭī,Bārdes,Tīsvāḍī,landing in places like Ṭhāṇe[101],Sāvantvāḍī,Khārepāṭaṇ,Mālvaṇ,Kudāl etc[102].They are sometimes collectively called as Koṅkaṇastha Daivajñas[103].

Previously Daivajñas from Goa refrained from having matrimonial alliances outside Goa.Today they arrange them with the Daivajñas of Karṇāṭaka and Mahārāṣṭra[32].

Śeṭs of Kerala

The emigration of goan Śeṭs to Kerala dates back to early 13th century[104],most of them settled in the port of Koccī[105].Some of them have migrated from Goa during the later half of the 16th century due to the religious persecution of the Portuguese and settled in places like Mañjeśvaraṃ,Ālappula,Eṟṇākulaṁ,along the costal line of Kerala in 1562 AD[106].

Francis Day in his book The land of the Permauls or COCHIN-Its past and its present written in 1863,mentions about Śeṭs from Koccī :

.... are now trying to give up the trade which they consider degrading.They have a temple of their own in Cochin; and once in a year they give their idols a grand entertainment by the side of the public road .... [105]

They are known as Koccīkār in Koṅkaṇī, and their language and customs have been gradually changing.They have gave up eating fish because local Nambũdiri looked down upon them and local Nāyars were jealous of the migrant Konkanies[105].

According to Mackenzie manuscripts,the four divisions of Konkanies,namely the Sārasvats,the Śeṭs,the Vaiśyas and the Kuṇbīs ,emigrated from Concan into Malābar,in consequences of some disturbances, and prevailed upon the Rajah of Cochin to permit them to settle and build their temples in his dominion.They were under Dutch protection until 1772,since which period authority over them has been claimed by Cochin’s Rajah[105].

Culture

Traits of Daivajña people

  • Gazateer of the Bombay presidency-Kanara district,1883,volume 15,part I,records:

....stocks.They are middle-sized, fair and delicate, and speak a some what peculiar Koṅkaṇī, using Z instead of J. Both....[107]

  • Goan historian Bā.Da.Sātoskar in his book Gomantaka Prakṛti āni Sanskṛti,Part-1:

....generous.They are appreciating,aesthetic,connoisseur of arts and culture,even poorest of them are very much hospitable,bon vivant....[1]

Socio-economic background and its history

Traditionally Daivajña people are into jewelery trade,but they were not primarily involved in jewelery trade.Their skill was diversified and they were making gold and silver masks for the temples,old texts suggest that they have inherited this art from the Bhojaks[20] who made idols of the Sun god,hence were also called as Murtikāras.They were well versed in Śilpaśāstra and in Sanskrit hence received royal patronage[30].Dhume mentions that the Śeṭs also studied medicine, astrology,astronomy [108] in ancient university of Brahmapuri in Goa[109].

They were renowned for their skills even in the western world and were the first to intoduce exquisite jewelery designs to Europe[110],and were extensively involved in gold,silver,perfumes,black pepper export[110] and even silk,cottn textiles,tobacco[111] and import of horses[† 8] in Portuguese and pre-Portuguese era[112].Texts maintain names of many wealthy traders eg. Virūpa Śeṭī of Coḍaṇe[112],Āditya Śeṭī of Śivāpura or Śirodā[113]Vittal Setty etc.King of Portugal had summoned Ravala Śeṭī from Caraim[110][114] to Portugal for designing royal jewelery [115].The tradition of jewelery trade still continues,and their business is predominantly spread throughout the western coast of India.Some of them are primarily engaged in testing gemstones and metals,designing and making gold jewelery.Since days of yore their business has been flourishing on the banks of river Maṇḍavī,historical records mention them as prosperous and wealthy traders and business class.Few of them also worked as interpreters in King's and were called as Dubhāṣī,Gaṇa Śeṭī from Loṭalī village was in Kadamba rājā's court[116].They assisted the kings in minting the coins,designing the coins etc[30],during Marāṭha rule some Daivajña families were given a title of Potdār,whcih literally means treasurer in Fārsī,who were in charge of testing the genuineness of the minted coins and their prescribed weight[117],and played an important role in the revenue system of the Marāṭhas[118].

Modern day Śeṭs have amongst them scholars,scientists, doctors,judges,lawyers,politicians,executives, and are also very prominent in different white collar jobs,others sort of business etc.[74].Goan Śeṭs are rich & business-oriented,have entirely lost their sacerdotal disposition.There used to be Śāstrīs,Paṇḍits well versed in Vedas and Śāstras in Goa,the tradition of studying Vedas amongst the goan Śeṭs does not exist anymore[74],but Daivajñas from Gokarṇa,Honnāvara and many other places in coastal Karṇāṭaka,and Koṅkaṇa division of Mahārāṣṭra have kept this tradition alive.Apart from this many of them are priests who offer religious services to the community(and sometimes other communities too)[119],very few of them are astrologers and temple priests[3].

In Uttar Kannada ditrict of Karṇāṭaka,few families fromthe poorer section of this community have even taken up cultivation to support their livelihood[120].

The Saṃskāras,Customs and other practices

Daivajña people are not so orthodox but they adhere to all the Ṣoḍaśa Saṃskāra or the 16 sacraments,and other brahminical rituals[68][121].Certain number of pollution days are observed (according to some rules eg.one day three days,or eleven days) as Aśauca after child birth and death as Suyer and Sutak followed by purification rituals,follow Ṛgvedic wedding rituals[68],and observe gotra exogamy[122].The custom of dowry in its strict form does not exist any more, but Sālaṅkṛta Kanyādāna with Varadakṣiṇā is followed as a custom.Cross-cousin marriages are practised but only with mother's brother's daughter[123].Intercaste marriages are not common in Daivajñas[124].Upanayana ceremony is performed at the age of eight[125].There was no custom of widow remarriage in the past[126] neither is it very common nowadays,strict rules were imposed on widows,widows were tonsured[127][128] nor was there any custom of divorce[126].Daivajñas never used accept cooked food from other brahmins[9] but showed them much reverence[129].They are very much reluctant to accept water and cooked food from people belonging to other castes or religions[130].Customs like Śikhā,Sandhyā Vandana,untouchability were strictly followed until last 30 years,orthodox families still follow such customs[131].

Festivals and Vratas

Daivajñas observe all the Hindu festivals but Cavath,Nāga Pañcamī and Divālī are the most important annual festivals[132].Other festivals and Vratas observed by them are:

In addition several other temple and maţha related festivals festivals like Jātrā,Paryāya,Cāturmāsa are celebrated with great joy.

Traditional attire

A Daivajña lady from Goa,wearing traditional nose ring (Nath) and Kumkum

Daivajña men traditionally wear Dhotīs called as Puḍve, Aṅgavastra etc which cover them from waist to foot. These are made of cotton and sometimes silk on special occasions and wore Judi,Sadro etc to cover upper part of their bodies, and a piece of cloth called as Uparṇe over the shoulders. They wore turbans and Pagdis, Muṇḍāso, a red velvet cap or Topī was used by the traders and merchants so that they would not be troubled by the Portuguese [134][135]. Men had their ears pierced and wore Bhikbālī, sported Śendī and wore Vibhutī or Sandalwood or Gopīcandana paste on their foreheads. Men were fond of gold jewelery too[135].

Traditional Daivajña woman is draped in a nine yard saree, also known as Kāppad or Cīre in such a way, that the back was fully covered[135]. Fashion of wearing a blouse became popular in 18th century.Ghāgro and five yards saree was worn by unmarried girls.Women wore myriad types of gold ornaments on different parts of their bodies(eg.Ghonṭ,Pāṭlī,Ṭodo,Bājunband,Galesarī,Valesar,Kudī[135]),silver ornaments were worn to decorate feet(eg;Paijaṇ,Salle,Māsolī,Vāle[135]).Gold ornaments were not worn below the waist.Gold is considered as a symbol of Agni and is said to keep the evil spirits away.Married women wore Kuṅkuma on their forehead in the shape of a cucumber seed,which is not in vogue anymore,and wear Maṅgalsutra,nose ring(a diamond stud,Nath),toe rings,as a symbol of marriage.Wearing hair in plaits was considered demeaning so they always wore their hair in a bun,and decorate it with flowers and gold ornaments.Widows wore red coloured nine yards sarees and covered their heads,and sometimes wore Vibhuti on forehead[136].

In modern days western clothing has found tremendous acceptance amongst men, nine yard sarees and dhotis are worn only on special occasions and festivals,traditional gold jewelery is still extremely popular.Women wear five yard sarees,Salwār Kamīj is extremely popular.[citation needed]

Languages

Languages

Daivajñas speak Koṅkaṇī,and its dialects[137].Koṅkaṇī is an Indo-Aryan language belonging to the Indo-European family of languages,which is spoken predominantly on the western coast of India[138].Gomantaka Daivajñas speak a dialect of Koṅkaṇī known as Goan Koṅkaṇī which the Ethnologue recognizes as the Gomāntakī dialect,further divided into sub-dialects such as the Bārdescī Bhāsor north Goan,Pramāṇa or standard Koṅkaṇī and Sāśṭicī Bhāsor south Goan[139][140]. Daivajñas in Mahārāṣṭra,ie Mumbai,Ṭhāne,Pune,Kolhāpur,Sātārā,contemporarily speak Marāṭhī.In the Koṅkaṇa region of Mahārāṣṭra they speak dialects of Koṅkaṇī such as Mālvanī,Kudālī etc.Daivajñas in Canara speak different dialects of Koṅkaṇī such as Kārvārī in the Uttara Kannada district and Maṅglurī in the South Canara district[139]. Almost all of them are bilingual,Goan Śets can speak Marāṭhī fluently[32],Canara Śets speak Kannada outside home[141],likewise a very small fraction of them in Kerala can speak Malayālaṃ,most of them can speak English fluently[32].

Records say that,Śaursenī dialect of Prākrita was spoken by one of the group of Āryas of the Sārasvata tribe,who descended down south,which was later evolved into present day Koṅkaṇī when mixed with Kuṅkṇā[28].spoken by the aboriginal people,and was initially influenced by Mahāraṣṭrī Prākrita[142] and later by languages like Kannada[28],Marathi,Arabic-Fārsī[28] and Portuguese[28].

Historians say that the period of migration of Daivajñas and the Kudāldeskārs,from the northern part of India is same,and they settled in Goa in the same period,for this reason members of both the communities speak the same dialect of Koṅkaṇī in Goa[143][1].

Code Language

The Śeṭs are mainly jewelery traders.Since days of yore,they dealt with jewelery trade,in ancient and modern Goa and Koṅkaṇa region,Gopikāpaṭṭaṇa was the center of this trade.The trade was flourishing during Kadamba,and pre-Portuguese era.Daivajña traders use a unique code language called as Kalī Bhās Daivajñas sometimes refer themselves as Kalo.This code language was used to keep the secrecy of the business by the traders.This code language is still used by the Daivajña traders, even some times at home[23][144][145].

Few words from "Kali Bhasha":
Kalī Koṅkaṇī Meaning
Zalken Nuste Fish
Nevlo ~ A non Śeṭ customer
Tīgh Palay Look
Tol Ghe Take
Valay Kāṅkaṇ A bangle or any circular object
Kanak Bhāṅgar,Suvarṇ Gold
Dāfarāvaṇī Gondal,Dīvāle,Nāgavṇī Confusion, Bankruptcy,Cheating
Source:Bhāratiya Samājvighaṭak Jātī Varṇa Vyavasthā,Śiroḍakar[citation needed]

Food habits

Śeṭs are mostly pisco-vegetarian[3].It is said that when the river Sarasvatī dried up, and the inhabitants of the Sarawati River survived by eating fish.[citation needed]Fish is considered as very auspicious and is offered to Devi by some families on the day Mālinī Paurṇimā in Pauṣa month of Hindu lunar calendar.[citation needed] Fish is euphemistically called sea fruit or Zalken.[citation needed]Generally fish from the brackish waters is prefered than freshwater fish[146].Their daily diet consists of rice and Hūmaṇ (fish curry) accompanied by different varieties of vegetable curries, pickles and sweets ; Pāyas,Mangaṇe,Khīr,Puraṇ polī,Sojī,Pātolī.[citation needed] They do not eat fish Mondays,and many of them do not eat fish the on days and dedicated to their Kuladevatās,and Iṣṭa devatās,on Tithīs like Caturthīs,Ekādaśīs,Navamīs ,the birthdays of various Hindu deities,Amāvasyās etc.,and holy months like Śrāvaṇa and Mārgaśirṣa.The Vaiṣṇava counterpart and Purohits are vegetarian[3].

See also: Goan cuisine

Notable Individuals

Notes

  1. ^ The state of Goa has been mentioned as Gomantaka,Gomanta,or Goparāṣṭra or land of the nomads,in Hindu scriptures Like Mahabharata,Source:Mahabharata of Krishna Dwaipayana Vyasa, translated to English by Kisari Mohan Ganguli
  2. ^ A letter from Sodhe Math pontiff to chieftain of Hosakerī village "Shree Swasthi Srimad Udupi Sri Sonde Mutt Sri Vadiraja Guru Peetharoodha Srimad Vishwadheesha Thirtha Padangalauru.......In respect, this is to inform you that,you the Mukhamasitha Daivajnya Suvarnakar sūrya brahmin......" Pubished by Brahmasri. B.R. Kshirasagara (edition 6, page 139) in his work.
  3. ^ The doctrinal basis for that assertion is Bhaviṣya Purāṇa 133, which may be summarized as follows:

    Kṛṣṇa's son Sāṃba was afflicted with leprosy, which was cured after he worshipped Sūrya.He built a temple for Sūrya on the banks of the Candrabhāgā river, but no competent brahmin could be found to take up the role of priest in the temple. So Sāṃba sought help of Gauramukha, the adviser of the yadu chief, Ugrasenā.

    Gauramukha suggested that Sāṃba go to Śhākadvipa and invite the priests to worship Sūrya. Further,Sāṃba asked ,"Tell me,oh brahmin, what are the antecedents of these worshippers of the Sun?".Gauramukha replied,"The first of the brahmins amidst the Shākas was called Sujihvā,He had a daughter named Nikṣubhā(Tvaṣṭā's daughter,as mentioned in Bhaviṣya Purāṇa), who enamoured Sūrya(Mārtaṇḍa as mentioned in Bhaviṣya Purāṇa) and was impregnated by him. Thus she gave birth to Jarāśabda who was the founding father of all the Maga priests.They are distinguished by the sacred girdle called the Avyaṅga that they wear around their waist",Sāṃba requested Kṛṣṇa to send him Garuḍa, on whose back he then flew to Śhākadvipa. He collected the Maga Ācāryas, brought them to Jaṃbudvipa and appointed them priests of the Sūrya temple.

    Of the pious representatives of 18 families Sāṃba invited to resettle in the city of Sāṃbapura, eight were Maṅdagas, and their descendants became śūdras. The other 10 were Maga Brahmins, who married Bhoja women and so their descendants came to be known as Bhojakas.

    Further information: [[:Śhākadvipi]]
  4. ^ Mahabharata describes four fold Varna system that was followed in Śhākadvipa:Maga,Mashaka,Manasa,Madanga,"Mahabharata",Bhishmaparva,Adhyaya-11,Shlokas-35 to 38
  5. ^ The holy Vedas have mentioned various roles,duties and occupations practiced by the Brahmins.For instance,the Yajurveda mentions brahmins taking up several roles in context with the Puruṣamedha or the human sacrifice,eg.,Gaṇaka or Daivajña or the astrologer,Murtikāra or the image maker,Maṇikāra or the jeweler,Hiraṇyaka or the goldsmith.Such occupations are even mentioned in Manu's book of law or the Manusmṛti
    Source:Society and Religion: From Rugveda to Puranas‎ by Jayant Gadkari,1996,254 pages
  6. ^ "Narashans",नराशंस,नराः-men or people,शंस-to praise,which literally means "the praised ones", but its a term used in Vedas and Puranas for a person or group of persons produced by the interaction or mongrelization of the three twice born Varnas,viz.Brahmin,Kshatriya,Vaishya,"Gomantak Prakruti ani Sanskruti,Part-1,Page-221,222 by B.D.Satoskar,Shubhada PublicationSmall Text
  7. ^ According to M. A. Sherring, all the chief Brahmin gotras are descended from the Saptarishis (seven sages). Sherring says the Vatsa, Bida, Arshtikhena, Yaska, Mitryu, Shaunak and Bainya gotras claim descent from sage Bhrigu; the gotras of Gautam, Bharadwaj and Kewal-Angiras from sage Angirah; the Atre, Badbhutak, Garishtira and Mudhgala from sage Atri; the Kaushika, Lohit, Raukshak, Kamkayana, Aja, Katab, Dhananjya, Agamarkhan, Puran and Indrakaushika from sage Viswamitra; the Nidruba, Kasyap, Sandila, Rebha and Langakshi from sage Kasyap; the Vashisht, Kundin, Upamanyu, Parashara and Jatukaraniya from sage Vashisht; and the Idhamabahar, Somabahar, Sambhabahar and Yagyabhar from sage Agastya. Other gotras are said to have been derived from these gotras.[unreliable source?][verification needed]
  8. ^ Collected from the old documents preserved in Ghode Karekar family of Mapusa Goa,to which Raulu Chtaim or Shetty belonged,and their oral tradition[unreliable source?]

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  78. ^ a b "A socio-cultural history of Goa from the Bhojas to the Vijayanagara" By Vithal Raghavendra Mitragotri Published by Institute Menezes Braganza, 1999 ,Original from the University of Michigan, Pages:108.
  79. ^ Mitragotri, Vithal Raghavendra (1999). A socio-cultural history of Goa from the Bhojas to the Vijayanagara. Goa University. p. 108.
  80. ^ Kamat, Suryakant (1984). Karnataka State gazetteer. Vol. 3. Gazetter Dept. p. 106.
  81. ^ "Mahan Daivadnya Sant ani Vibhuti",Pages-72-79 by P.P.Shirodkar,published by Kalika Prakashan Vishwast Mandal
  82. ^ History of the DVAITA SCHOOL OF VEDANTA and its Literature. p. 542.
  83. ^ "Mahan Daivadnya Sant ani Vibhuti",Page-73 by P.P.Shirodkar,published by Kalika Prakashan Vishwast Mandal
  84. ^ "Castes and Tribes of Southern India",By Edgar Thurston, K. Rangachari Edition: reprint, illustrated ,Published by Asian Educational Services, 2001,Page:392.
  85. ^ "Saint Vādirāja Tīrtha's Śrī Rukmiṇīśa Vijaya" By Vādirāja, D. R. Vasudeva Rau
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  88. ^ About Sodhe Math[unreliable source?]
  89. ^ cf. A History of Brahmin Clans, p.279
  90. ^ a b "...to know . They are said to belong to the Vatsa ,Kaundanya , Vishwamitra ,Bharadhwaj ,and Kaushik Gotras or family stocks. They are middle-sized, fair and delicate, and speak ..." Gazatter of the Bombay presidency -Kanara district, 1883, volume 15, part 1
  91. ^ "Gotravali" published by "Date Panchang",Date's Almanac Pvt Ltd,Solapur,India Date Panchang online
  92. ^ ^ "Gomantak Prakruti ani Sanskruti",Part-1-Page 223,227,228,Prachin Gomantakacha itihas by B.D Satoskar
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  94. ^ Daivajna Gotras[unreliable source?]
  95. ^ "Gotravali" published by "Date Panchang",Date's Almanac Pvt Ltd,Solapur,India
  96. ^ "Karnatakatil Rigvedi Daivadnya Brahmananchi Gotravali" published by "Date Panchang",Date's Almanac Pvt Ltd,Solapur,India
  97. ^ Enthoven, Reginald Edward (1975). The Tribes and Castes of Bombay. Vol. 3 (Reprint of the 1920-1922 ed. issued under the orders of the Govt. of Bombay, printed at the Govt. Central Press, Bombay. ed.). p. 340.
  98. ^ "Goa" By Kumar Suresh Singh, Pra. Pā Śiroḍakara, H. K. Mandal, Anthropological Survey of India,Page-65
  99. ^ a b "Bharatiya Samajvighatak Jati Varna Vyavastha" Page-141 by P.P.Shirodkar,published by Kalika Prakashan Vishwast Mandal
  100. ^ Information gathered from older generation community members from Canara[unreliable source?]
  101. ^ "Gazetter of Thane region". Gazetter Dept. Retrieved 2009-07-22.
  102. ^ आम्ही खारेपाटणचे पाटणकर;Amhi Kharepatanche Patankar:History of Daivajña Raikars settled in Kharepatan (in Marathi).
  103. ^ "Sociological Bulletin". 1962. Indian Sociological Society: 40. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  104. ^ Menon, Krishnat P. Padmanabha (1983). History of Kerala. Vol. 3. pp. 633, 634. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  105. ^ a b c d Day, Francis (1886). The land of the Permauls or COCHIN-Its past and its present. Asian educational services. p. 309. ISBN 8120603249.
  106. ^ Travancore State Archieves records.
  107. ^ "Gazateer of the Bombay presidency-Kanara district", 1883, volume 15, part 1
  108. ^ Sinai Dhume, Anant Ramkrishna (1986). The cultural history of Goa from 10000 B.C.-1352 A.D. p. 257.
  109. ^ Sinai Dhume, Anant Ramkrishna (1986). The cultural history of Goa from 10000 B.C.-1352 A.D. p. 281.
  110. ^ a b c Gopal K. Bhargava,, Gopal K. Land and people of Indian states and union territories S. C. Bhatt. p. 162. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
  111. ^ Veen, Ernst van (2005). Rivalry and conflict. p. 119. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  112. ^ a b Xavier, Ângela Barreto (September 2007). Disquiet on the island: Conversion, conflicts and conformity in sixteenth-century Goa. Indian Economic & Social History Review. Vol. vol. 44. pp. 269–295. {{cite book}}: |volume= has extra text (help)
  113. ^ De Souza, Teotonio R. Goa Through the Ages: An economic history. p. 119.
  114. ^ dos Santos, R. (1954). A India Portugueasa e as artes em Portugal (in Portuguese). Lisbon. p. 9.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  115. ^ "The Portuguese empire, 1415-1808" By A. J. R. Russell-Wood,Page 105
  116. ^ "Gomantak Prakruti ani Sanskruti",Part-2,Page-562, by B.D. Satoskar,published by Shubhada Publication
  117. ^ The Journal of the administrative sciences. Vol. v. 24-25. Patna University. Institute of Public Administration, Patna University. 1979. p. 96.
  118. ^ Joshi, P. M. Mediaeval Deccan history. p. 303. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  119. ^ "Gazateer of the Bombay presidency"-Kanara distrcit 1883, volume 15, part 1
  120. ^ "pt. 6,no.36". Census of India, 1961. Vol. v. 11, . Office of the Registrar General. 1962. p. 13.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
  121. ^ Singh, Kumar Suresh (1993). Goa. Vol. 21. Anthropological Survey of India. pp. 66, 67, 68. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  122. ^ Census of India, 1961. Vol. 11. India. Office of the Registrar General. 1962. p. 13.
  123. ^ "pt. 6,no. 6". Census of India, 1961. Vol. v. 11, . Office of the Registrar General. 1962.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
  124. ^ "Gomant Kalika",articles published in April 2008 issue by several writers
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  131. ^ Ghildiyal, Subodh (27 July 2009). "Untouchability alive in rural areas: Study". The times of India. p. 1. Retrieved 2009-07-28.
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  133. ^ "Gomant Kalika" (in Marathi). Margao,Goa: Kalika Prakashan Vishwast Mandal. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  134. ^ Gune, Vithal Trimbak (1979). Gazetteer of the Union Territory Goa, Daman and Diu. Vol. 1. Goa, Daman and Diu (India). Gazetteer Dept. p. 254.
  135. ^ a b c d e "Gomantak Pranruti and Sanskruti",Part-1,,Page-381 by B.D.Satoskar
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  137. ^ "Ethnologue report for Konkani(ISO 639: kok)". Ethnologue.
  138. ^ Caroline Menezes. "The question of Konkani?" (PDF, 267 KB). The National Institute for Japanese language (Tokyo, Japan). Retrieved 2008-02-10.
  139. ^ a b "Ethnologue report for Konkani, Goanese (ISO 639-3: gom)". Ethnologue.
  140. ^ "People of India: Goa" By Kumar Suresh Singh, Prakashchandra P. Shirodkar, Pra. Pā Śiroḍakara, Anthropological Survey of India, H. K. Mandal, Page-65
  141. ^ Padmanabha, P. (1973). Census of India, 1971. India. Office of the Registrar General. pp. 107, 111, 112, 323, .{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
  142. ^ "Konkani Language and Literature". Goa Konkani Akademi.
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  144. ^ "Gomant Kalika"(monthly), April 2004,published by Kalika Prakashan Vishwast Mandal
  145. ^ "Mahan Daivadnya Sant ani Vibhuti",Page-50,By P.P Shirodkar,Kalika Prakashan
  146. ^ Singh, Kumar Suresh (1993). People of India: Goa. Anthropological Survey of India, H. K. Mandal. pp. xiv. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)

References

Further reading

  • Gomes, Rui Pereira; Couto, Antonio Victor (1978), Hindu Temples and deities
  • Gomes, Rui Pereira; Couto, Antonio Victor (1981), Goa
  • Caste System in Goa According to the Gazetteer of India, Union Territory: Goa, Daman and Diu, vol. 1, 1979
  • Ranganathan, Murali (2009). Govind Narayan's Mumbai. p. 407. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Saldanha, Jerome A., Origin and growth of Konkani or Goan communities and language
  • Dhume, Anant Ramkrishna Sinai, The cultural history of Goa from 10000 B.C.-1352 A.D
  • Thurston, Edgar; Rangachari, K. (2001), Castes and Tribes of Southern India
  • Goa (1979), Gazetteer of the Union Territory Goa, Daman and Diu: district gazetter
  • Larsen, Karin, Faces of Goa
  • Ghurye, Govind Sadashiv (1993). Caste and race in India (5 ed.). p. 493.
  • Karve, Irawati (1961). Hindu society (2 ed.). p. 171.
  • De, Souza; Carmo:borges, Charles, The Village Communities. A Historical and legal Perspective
  • Ghurye, Govind Sadashiv, Caste and race in India
  • General, Office of the Registrar; India (1961), Census of India
  • Singh, Kumar Suresh; Prakashchandra, Shirodkar, People of India: Goa
  • Wilford, Major F. (1812). "II". Asiatic researches or transactions of the society instituted in Bengal. Vol. Eleventh, . p. 93.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
  • Goa and Portugal. 1997. p. 319. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Joshi, Pundit Mahadev Shastri, भारतिय संस्कृतिकोष ;Bharatiya Sanskrutikosh
  • Kalika Prakashan Vishwast Mandal, गोमंत कालिका ;Gomant Kalika (monthly)
  • Satoskar, B.D., गोमंतक प्रकृति आणि संस्कृति;Gomantak Prakruti ani Sanskruti;Part I;Part II
  • Kshirsagar, Narayan Shastri, विश्वब्रह्मकुलोत्साह;Vishwabrahmakulotsah
  • P.P.Shirodkar, महान दैवज्ञ संत आणि विभुति ;Mahan Daivadnya Sant ani Vibhuti
  • Unknown, Author, ऋग्वेद ;Rigveda;Marathi translation {{citation}}: |author= has generic name (help)
  • P.P.Shirodkar, भारतिय समाज विघटक जाति-वर्ण व्यवस्था ;Bharatiya Samaj Vighatak Jati Varna Vyavastha
  • Madkaikar, Shreepadrao P. (1984), श्री देवि कालिका;Shree Devi Kalika, p. 78
  • Gomes, Francisco Luis, Os Bramanes
  • India, Portuguese, Annuário do Estado da India Portuguesa
  • दाते पंचांग,गोत्रावळी "Gotravali" published by "Date Panchang",Date's Almanac Pvt Ltd,Solapur,India Date Panchang online
  • Manu Smriti
  • Dias, Giselle (2007). "A search for an identity Catholic Goans — How they fit in a predominantly Hindu India" (PDF, 66 KB). Goan Association of Toronto, Canada (Based on various books). Retrieved 2008-12-23. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  • "Genetics of Castes and Tribes of India:Indian Population Milieu" by M. K. Bhasin ,Department of Anthropology, University of Delhi, Delhi 110 007, India"Genetics of Castes and Tribes of India:Indian Population Milieu" (PDF).
  • "The Sixteen Samskaras Part-I" (PDF). August 8,2003. Retrieved 2008-08-27. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
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