Timeline of the development of tectonophysics (before 1954)

The evolution of the Tectonophysics is closely linked to the history of the Continental drift hypothesis. The Continental drift hypothesis had many flaws and scarce data. The fixist, the Contracting Earth and the Expanding Earth concepts had many flaws as well. Wegener had data for assuming that the relative positions of the continents change over time. It was a mistake to state the continents "plowed" through the sea. He was an outsider with a PhD in Astronomy attacking a established theory between geophysicists. The geophysicists were right to state that the Earth is solid, and the mantle is crystalline and inhomogeneous, and the ocean floor would not allow the movement of the continents. But excluding one alternative, substantiates the opposite alternative: passive continents and an active seafloor spreading and subducting, with accreation belts on the edges of the continents. The velocity of the drifters, was allowed in the uncertainty of the fixists and a convection at c. 1 cm/year allows for inhomogeneity.

The problem too, was the specialisation. A. Holmes and A. Rittmann saw it right (Rittmann 1939). Only an outsider can have the overview, only an outsider sees the forest, not only the trees (Hellman 1998b, p. 145). But A. Wegener did not have the specialisation to correctly weight the geophysical data and the paleontologic data, and its conclusions.

Einführung

• Abraham Ortelius (Ortelius 1596), Francis Bacon (Bacon 1620), Theodor Christoph Lilienthal (1756), Alexander von Humboldt (1801 and 1845), Antonio Snider-Pellegrini (Snider-Pellegrini 1858), and others had noted earlier that the shapes of continents on opposite sides of the Atlantic Ocean (most notably, Africa and South America) seem to fit together. (Brusatte 2004, p. 3)
  • Note: Francis Bacon was thinking of western Africa and western South America.
• Hutton, J (1795). Theory of the Earth: with proofs and illustrations. Edinburgh: The Geological Society of London. ISBN 1-897799-78-0. There has been exerted an extreme degree of heat below the strata formed at the bottom of the sea.
• Catastrophism (e.g. Christian Fundamentalism, William Thomson) vs. Uniformitarianism (e.g. Charles Lyell, Thomas Henry Huxley) (Hellman 1998a).
  • Term coined by William Whewell.
  • Uniformitarism is the prevailing view in the U.S. (Oreskes 2002).
• Pratt's isostasy is the prevailing view (Oreskes 2002):
  • Airy-Heiskanen Model; where different topographic heights are accommodated by changes in crustal thickness.
  • Pratt-Hayford Model; where different topographic heights are accommodated by lateral changes in rock density.
  • Vening Meinesz, or Flexural Model; where the lithosphere acts as an elastic plate and its inherent rigidity distributes local topographic loads over a broad region by bending.
• A cooling and contracting Earth is the prevailing view.
  • H. Jeffreys was the most important contractionist (Frankel 1987, p. 211), (Jeffreys 1924) - (Jeffreys 1952)
• H. Wettstein (Wegener 1929, p. 2-3), E. Suess, Bailey Willis and Benjamin Franklin allow horizontal move of the Earth's crust.
  • Willis, Bailey; Willis, R. (1929). Geologic Structures. McGraw-Hill book company, inc. p. 131. the evidences of movement noted in rock structures are so numerous and on so large scale that it is clear that dynamic conditions exist from time to time. (Holmes 1929a).
  • Wettstein, H. (1880). Die Strömungen der Festen, Flüssigen und Gasförmigen und ihre Bedeutung für Geologie, Astronomie, Klimatologie und Meteorologie. Zuerich. p. 406.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  • Suess, E. (1875). Die Entstehung der Alpen. W. Braumüller. A mass movement, more or less horizontal and progressive, should be the cause underlying the formation of our mountain systems. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help) (Holmes 1929a).
  • Quote, Benjamin Franklin (1782): "The crust of the Earth must be a shell floating on a fluid interior.... Thus the surface of the globe would be capable of being broken and distorted by the violent movements of the fluids on which it rested".
• Although Wegener's theory was formed independently and was more complete than those of his predecessors, Wegener later credited a number of past authors with similar ideas: Franklin Coxworthy (between 1848 and 1890), Roberto Mantovani (between 1889 and 1909), William Henry Pickering (1907) and Frank Bursley Taylor (1908). (Wegener 1912a, p. 185)
  • 1912-1929: Alfred Wegener develops his continental drift hypothesis. (Wegener 1912a, Wegener 1929)
• The vertical movement of Skandinavia after the ice age is accepted (recent uplift c. 1 cm/year). This implies a certain plasticity under the crust. (Flint 1947)
• In the 1920's Earth scientists refer to themselves as drifters (or mobilists) or fixists. (Frankel 1987, p. 206)
• Moreover, most of the blistering attacks were aimed at Wegener himself, an outsider (PhD in Astronomy) who seemed to be attacking the very foundations of geology.

Controversy

Triassic, Ladinian stage (230 Ma).

Distribution of modern day Glossopteris fossils (#1: South America, #2: Africa, #3: Madagascar, #4: Indian subcontinent, #5: Antarctica, #6: Australia).

• 1912, Wegener presents his ideas at the German Geological Society, Frankfurt (Wegener 1912a). Strong points:
  • Matching of the coastlines of eastern South America and western Africa, and many similarities between the respective coastlines of North America and Europe.
  • Numerous geological similarities between Africa and South America, and others between North America and Europe.
  • Many examples of past and present-day life forms having a geographically disjunctive distribution.
  • Mountain ranges are usually located along the coastlines of the continents, and orogenic regions are long and narrow in shape.
  • The Earth's crust exhibits two basic elevations, one corresponding to the elevation of the continental tables, the other to the ocean floors.
  • The Permo-Carboniferous moraine deposits found in South Africa, Argentina, southern Brazil, India, and in western, central, and eastern Australia. (Frankel 1987, p. 205-206)
  • Note I: Wegener described in a sentence the seafloor spreading in the first publication only. But he believed it is a consequence of the continental drift. (Wegener 1912a), (Jacoby 1981)
  • Note II: ‘Petermanns Geographische Mitteilungen’ is one of the leading geographical monthlies of international reputation. (Ruud 1930); Wladimir Köppen (father-in-law), (Köppen 1921a), (Köppen 1921b), (Köppen 1925) and Kurt Wegener (brother), (Wegener 1925), (Wegener 1941), (Wegener 1942) defended there the Continental drift hypothesis in a somewhat mirror controversy (Demhardt 2005).
  • Note III: Coal mines are on the Equatorial Realm, glaciation remains are near the South Pole, and between glaciation and Equatorial Realm (centered between latitude 30° and the Tropic of Cancer and the Capricorn) there are the remains of deserts (salt lakes and sand dunes) (Brusatte 2004, p. 4). These are consequences of the evaporation rate and the atmospheric circulation.
• 1914, the idea of a strong outer layer (lithosphere), overlying a weak asthenosphere is introduced (Barrel 1914).
• H. Jeffreys and others, most important criticisms (Frankel 1987, p. 211), (Hellman 1998, p. 146):
  • Continents can not "plow" through the sea, because the seafloor is denser than the continental crust.
  • Pole-fleeing force is too weak to move continents and produce mountains.
    • Paul Sophus Epstein calculated it to be one millionth of the gravity.
  • If the tidal force moves continents, than the Earth's rotation would stop after only one year.
• Daly, Reginald A. (1926). Our Mobile Earth. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons.
  • It's openning sentence is Galileo's allegedly muttered rebellious phrase And yet it moves.
• W. Van Waterschoot van der Gracht, ed. (1928). Theory of Continental Drift: a symposium on the origin and movement of land masses both intercontinental and intracontinental as proposed by Alfred Wegener, A Symposium of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists (AAPG, 1926). Tulsa, OK. p. 240.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) Although the chairman favored the drift hypothesis, it ceased to be an acceptable geological investigation subject in many universities under the influence of Jeffreys (1924) book (Machamer, Pera & Baltas 2000, p. 72-75).
  • Quote, University of Chicago geologist R. Thomas Chamberlain: "If we are to believe in Wegener's hypothesis we must forget everything which has been learned in the past 70 years and start all over again." (Hellman 1998b), (Sullivan 1991, p. 15)
  • Quote, Bailey Willis: "further discussion of it merely incumbers the literature and befogs the mind of fellow students. (It is) as antiquated as pre-Curie physics". (Hellman 1998b, p. 150), (Hallam 1983, p. 136)
  • Quote, W. Van Waterschoot van der Gracht (Wilson cycle): "there may have been a pre-Carboniferous "Atlantic" that was closed up during the Caledonian orogenis" (Holmes 1929a).
• By the mid-1920's, A. Holmes had rejected contractionism and he had introduced a model with convection (Frankel 1987, p. 212), (Holmes 1929a), (Holmes 1929b), (Holmes 1944).
  • Note: in a way, not only A. Wegener (Wegener 1912a) but A. Holmes and K. Wegener suggested seafloor spreading as well. (Holmes 1929c), (Wegener 1942) (citing: Demhardt 2005, Jacobi 1981 and Vine 1966).
• Alexander du Toit, Our wandering continents: an hypothesis of continental drifting. Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd. 1937.
• 1931: Peacock named the calc-alkaline igneous rocks series.
• January, 1939: at the annual meeting of the German Geological Society, Frankfurt, Alfred Rittmann opposed the idea that the Mid-Atlantic Ridge was a orogenic uplift (Rittmann 1939). "Atlantisheft I". Geologische Rundschau. 30 (3). May 1939. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)
  • Orogenic volcanism (Pacific Ring of Fire) is dominated by calc-alkaline igneous rocks (Calc series), lacking alkali-basaltic magmas (Sodic series); whereas the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (extension) has mainly alkali-basaltic magmas (Ippolito & Marinelli 1981).
• Mid-1940's, paleontologist George Gaylord Simpson finds flaws on the paleontology data. (Frankel 1987, p. 217)
• Alexander du Toit, Glossopteris findings in Russia are an errous identification. It was used as argument by anti-drifters (Du Toit 1944).
• 1948, Felix Andries Vening Meinesz, dutch geophysicist who believes in convection currents as a result of his work on oceanic gravity anomalies. Highly respected by H. H. Hess, Hess even got a chance to work with him. (Frankel 1987, p. 230), (Vening Meinesz 1948), (Vening Meinesz 1952a), (Vening Meinesz 1952b), (Vening Meinesz 1955), (Vening Meinesz 1959)
• 1949, Niskanen calculates the viscosity under the crust to be 5 10²¹ CGS units.
• 1950, fading of the hypothesis from view. Gewers, T. W. (1950). "Transactions of the Geological Society of South Africa". 52 (suppl.): 1. marked regression away from continental drift {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• 1953, Adrian E. Scheidigger, anti-drifter.

Making sense of the puzzle pieces

• 1953, the Great Global Rift, running along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, was discovered by Bruce Heezen (Lamont Group) (Puzzle pieces: Seismic-refraction and Sonar survey of the rifts). (Ewing & Ewing 1959), (Heezen 1960), (Heezen & Tharp 1961), (Heezen & Tharp 1964), (Heezen & Tharp 1966)
• 1954-1963: Alfred Rittmann was elected IAV President (IAV at that time) for three periods.
• 1956, S. K. Runcorn becomes a drifter. (Frankel 1987, p. 221)
  • Statistics by Ronald A. Fisher
  • Jan Hospers work (magnetic poles and geographical poles coincide the last 23 Ma).
  • Self-exciting dynamo theory of Elsasser-Bullard.
• S. W. Carey, Plate tectonics (Carey 1958). But he believed here in a Expanding Earth.
• Seafloor spreading
  • December 1960, Harry H. Hess (preprint and a report for the Navy): Sonar and seafloor spreading (personal communication formaly published in 1962 (Puzzle pieces: his World War II seafloor profiles, Carey (1958), Vening Meinesz (1948, oceanic gravity anomalies) and the Great Global Rift). (Hess 1962), (Hess 1960b), (Hess 1960a), (Hess 1959)
  • 1961, Robert S. Dietz (Dietz 1961).
• Dott (1961), the Permian tillite at Squantum, Massachusetts, was reclassified as turbidite. It was used as argument by anti-drifters.
• P. M. S. Blakett (1960), his former lecturer S. K. Runcorn (1962), Runcorn's former student E. Irving: Paleomagnetism.
  • References: (Frankel 1987, p. 221), (Blackett, Clegg & Stubbs 1960), (Runcorn 1959), (Runcorn 1962a), (Irving & Green 1958), (Irving 1960), (Creer, Irving & Runcorn 1957)
• 1962, S.K. Runcorn applies the Rayleigh's theory of convection: convection occurs if viscosity under the crust is less than 10²⁶-10²⁷ CGS units. (Runcorn 1962b)
• 1962, Subduction, Robert R. Coats.
• Wunderlich, H.G. (1962). "50 Jahre Kontinentalverschiebungstheorie - von Wegener bis Runcorn". Geologische Rundschau. 52 (1). Springer: 504–513. doi:10.1007/BF01840095. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help) The uncertainty of the distance between Europe an North America is too great to confirm the Continental drift hypothesis. It states wrongly that the lock-and-key form of South America and Africa is less good if the continental shelf is taken into account.

Plate tectonics

Approximate location of Mesoproterozoic (older than 1.3 Ga) cratons in South America and Africa.

File:LateJurassicGlobal.jpg

Global paleogeographic reconstruction of the Earth in the late Jurassic period 150 million years ago.

Map of the later North Atlantic region after the closing of the Iapetus Ocean and the Caledonian/Acadian orogenies (Wilson 1966).

Euler rotational pole.

• Publication of the Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis. (Frankel 1987, p. 228), (Vine 1963)
  • Frederick Vine is working under Drummond Matthews, University of Cambridge.
  • Lawrence W. Morley's independent paper was not accepted.
• Frederick Vine, applies the transform fault concept, the Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis and the seafloor spreading concept on the Juan de Fuca Ridge. He does not get a constant spreading rate as the Jamarillo reversal (Geomagnetic reversal) is unknown. (Vine & Wilson 1965)
• John Tuzo Wilson, a former fixist/contractionist up to around 1959. (Frankel 1987, p. 231)
  • J. T. Wilson spends much of 1965 in Cambridge and Hess joined him on the second half. Wilson develops the transform fault concept. (Wilson 1962), (Wilson 1963a), (Wilson 1963b), (Wilson 1963c), (Wilson 1965a)
  • Wilson cycle, (Wilson 1966).
• A Symposium on Continental Drift, 28th October, 1965. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Mathematical and Physical Sciences. Vol. 258. The Royal Society. 1965. pp. i–x, 1–323, A1–A6. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |editors= ignored (|editor= suggested) (help) (Bullard, Everett & Smith 1965), (Wilson 1965b), (Heezen & Tharp 1965).
• Wells, finds on growth rings of Devonian corals the maximum Earth expansion during this time to be less than 0.6 mm/year (Wells 1963), (Marvin 1966, p. 60). Heezen, abandons the expanding Earth theory as it requires a radial expansion of 4-8 mm/year for the Atlantic Ocean alone (Heezen 1966).
• 1966, East South America and West Africa, rocks and their ages match where they were joint: South Africa / Santa de la Ventana, Argentina; Ghana / São Luís do Maranhão, Brazil (Bullard, Everett & Smith 1965).
• Closure:
  • November 1965, Geological Society of America, Brent Dalrymple (Brent Dalrymple, Richard Doell and Allan V. Cox - USGS) brought to Frederik Vine attention that there is the Jaramillo "reversal" (publ. mid-1966 !!!). (Frankel 1987, p. 234), (Doell & Dalrymple 1966)
  • February 1966, Vine visits the Lamont group (Walt Pitman and Neil Opdyke) and tells them that their 'discovered' Emperor reversal was already named as Jaramillo reversal. And shows the reversal on the Walt Pitman's graphik (cm/ vertical), surprising Pitman, Opdyke and even himself (Ninkovich et al. 1966), (Vine 1966). Many anti-drifters changed their mind after the publication of these magnetometer readings of sediment core (Eltanin-19), geomagnetic reversals (Le Grand 1990).
  • The Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis is the first scientific test to confirm the seafloor spreading concept. Earth Sciences paradigm shift, from fix continents to plate tectonics (Wilson 1968):
    • Magnetometer readings of sediment cores, geomagnetic reversals: ratio of cm (vertical).
    • Magnetic profiles of seafloor, geomagnetic reversals: ratio of km (horizontal).
    • Radiometric analysis of lava flows, geomagnetic reversals: ratio of Ma (time). (Frankel 1987, p. 235)
• Even Maurice Ewing (Lamont–Doherty Earth Observatory) came to accept seafloor spreading by April of 1967 and cited (along with his brother John Ewing) the case for Vine-Matthews-Morley Hypothesis as "strong support for the hypothesis of spreading. (Frankel 1987, p. 230)
  • Ewing, John; Ewing, Maurice (23 June 1967). "Sediment Distribution on the Mid-Ocean Ridges with Respect to Spreading of the Sea Floor". Science. 156 (3782): 1590–1592. doi:10.1126/science.156.3782.1590. PMID 17797640. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Around 1967, Marshall Kay becomes a drifter. (Frankel 1987, p. 230)
• In 1967, W. Jason Morgan proposed that the Earth's surface consists of 12 rigid plates that move relative to each other (Morgan 1968). Two months later, in 1968, Xavier Le Pichon published a complete model based on 6 major plates with their relative motions (Le Pichon 1968). The Englishmen Dan McKenzie and Robert Parker publish the quantitative principles for plate tectonics (Euler's rotation theorem: Individual aseismic areas move as rigid plates on the surface of a sphere, quote: "a block on a sphere can be moved to any other conceivable orientation by a single rotation about a properly chosen axis.") (McKenzie & Parker 1967).
  • Note: although Morgan 1968 was published later than McKenzie & Parker 1967, Morgan applied his paper first. W. Jason Morgan shared with Fred Vine an office in Princeton University for two years, and read a scientific paper from H. W. Menard.

Geodynamics

• John F. Dewey applies Plate tectonics:
  • Dewey, John F.; Bird, John M. (1970). "Mountain Belts and the New Global Tectonics". Journal of Geophysical Research. 75 (14): 2625–2647. doi:10.1029/JB075i014p02625.
• Mantle plume controversy (Cowen 1975, Jordan 2007): The relationship between subducted seafloor, flood basalts and continental rifting is uncovered. (Morgan 1971), (Morgan 1972), (Rampino & Stothers 1988), (Silver, Carlson & Olson 1988), (Segev 2002)
• Back-arc basin (Molnar & Awater 1978), (Barker & Hill 1980), (Martinez et al. 1995)
• Similar to a landslide, seafloor sinks and subducts (Hager & O'Connell 1981), (Kerr 1995), (Conrad & Lithgow-Bertelloni 2002)
  • Wilson cycle: slab-pull force on western South America and ridge-push force on eastern South America.
• Pacific Plate, lower mantle has a greater viscosity (Monastersky 1996a)
• Tibetan Plateau, collision generates heat (Nelson 1996), (Monastersky 1996b)
• Lockwood, John P.; Hazlett, Richard W. (2010). Volcanoes: Global Perspectives. p. 552. ISBN 978-1-4051-6250-0.
  • Total estimated radiogenic heat release (from neutrino research): 19 Terawatts
  • Total directly observed heat release through Earth's surface: 31 Terawatts
• Seismic anisotropy (Becker 2008), (Kreemer 2009), (Conrad & Behn 2010)
• Geodynamic Teams at NGU (Geological Survey of Norway), PGP (Physics of Geological Processes, University of Oslo, Norway) and the EarthByte Group, University of Sydney, Australia: Geodynamics, Tectonophysics, Plate reconstruction and Mantle dynamics.
  • Torsvik, Trond Helge; Steinberger, Bernhard; Gurnis, Michael; Gaina, Carmen (2010). "Plate tectonics and net lithosphere rotation over the past 150 My" (PDF). Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 291: 106–112. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2009.12.055. Retrieved 18 June 2010.
    • Global plate reconstructions with velocity fields from 150 Ma to present in 10 Ma increments.

Übersicht

The shifting and evolution of knowledge and concepts, were from Alfred Wegener (continental drift), (Wegener 1912a), (Wegener 1929); then to Arthur Holmes (a model with convection), (Holmes 1944); then to Felix Andries Vening Meinesz (gravity anomalies along the oceanic trenches implied that the crust was moving), (Vening Meinesz 1959); then to Samuel Warren Carey (plate tectonics), (Carey 1958); Harry Hammond Hess and Robert S. Dietz (seafloor spreading), (Hess 1962), (Dietz 1961); then to John Tuzo Wilson (seafloor spreading), (Wilson 1963b), (transform faults), (Wilson 1965a) and (Wilson cycle), (Wilson 1966); then to the confirmation of the Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis, (Vine 1963) and paradigm shift, (Wilson 1968); then to Jason Morgan, Dan McKenzie and Robert Parker (quantification of plate tectonics), (Morgan 1968), (McKenzie & Parker 1967); its uncertainty was quantified by Theodore C. Chang; and then to computer simulation (Hager & O'Connell 1981), (Kerr 1995) and (Conrad & Lithgow-Bertelloni 2002) with nice works published by the EarthByte Group (R. Dietmar Müller) and the Center for Geodynamics (Trond Helge Torsvik and Carmen Gaina).

Graphics

• The Digital Tectonic Activity Map (DTAM) was produced by Paul Lowman and colleagues at NASA GSFC, 1998.

Plate tectonics map

• NASA/JPL, courtesy of M. Heflin, 2007.9.

Global plate tectonic movement

• Dr. Ron Blakey, Northern Arizona University.

File:TectonicReconstructionGlobal.gif

Reconstruction of plate configurations for the whole Phanerozoic

Further reading

• Gohau, Gabriel (1990). A History of Geology. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. ISBN 081351665X.
• Wessel, P.; Müller, R. D. (2007). "Plate Tectonics". In Anthony B. Watts (ed.). Treatise on Geophysics: Crust and Lithosphere Dynamics. Vol. 6. Elsevier. pp. 49–98.
• "NYC Regional Geology: Mesozoic Basins". USGS.
• "Wilson Cycle: and A Plate Tectonic Rock Cycle". Lynn S. Fichter.

Bibliography

Notes:

References:

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  • [I don't know what the problem is with this url.]
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