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This article is about the U.S. state of Arkansas. For the river, see Arkansas River. For other uses, see Arkansas (disambiguation).

Arkansas
State
CountryUnited States
Before statehoodArkansas Territory
Admitted to the UnionJune 15, 1836 (25th)
Capital
(and largest city)		Little Rock
Largest metro and urban areasLittle Rock Metropolitan Area
Government
 • GovernorMike Beebe (D)
 • Lieutenant GovernorMark Darr (R)
LegislatureGeneral Assembly
 • Upper houseSenate
 • Lower houseHouse of Representatives
U.S. senatorsMark Pryor (D)
John Boozman (R)
U.S. House delegation3 Republicans, 1 Democrat (list)
Population
 • Total2,949,131 (2,012 est)[1]
 • Density56.4/sq mi (21.8/km2)
Language
 • Official languageEnglish
Traditional abbreviationArk.
Latitude33° 00′ N to 36° 30′ N
Longitude89° 39′ W to 94° 37′ W

Arkansas (/ˈɑːrkənsɔː/ ⓘ AR-kən-saw)[6] is a state located in the Southern region of the United States.[7] Its name is an Algonquian name of the Quapaw Indians.[8] The state's diverse geography ranges from the mountainous regions of the Ozarks and the Ouachita Mountains, which make up the U.S. Interior Highlands, to the eastern lowlands along the Mississippi River and the Arkansas Delta. Arkansas is the 29th most extensive and the 32nd most populous of the 50 United States. The capital and most populous city is Little Rock, located in the central portion of the state. The Territory of Arkansas was admitted to the Union as the 25th state on June 15, 1836.[9]

Etymology

The name “Arkansas” derives from the same root as the name for the state of Kansas. The Kansa tribe of Native Americans are closely associated with the Sioux tribes of the Great Plains. The word “Arkansas” itself is a French pronunciation (“Arcansas”) of a Quapaw (a related “Kaw” tribe) word, akakaze, meaning “land of downriver people” or the Sioux word akakaze meaning “people of the south wind”. The pronunciation of Arkansas was made official by an act of the state legislature in 1881, after a dispute between two U.S. Senators from Arkansas. One wanted to pronounce the name /ɑːrˈkænzəs/ ar-KAN-zəs and the other wanted /ˈɑːrkənsɔː/ AR-kən-saw.[b]

In 2007, the state legislature passed a non-binding resolution declaring the possessive form of the state's name to be Arkansas's, which has been followed increasingly by the state government.[10]

Geography

View from the summit of Petit Jean Mountain, nestled in the Arkansas River Valley, from Mather Lodge in Petit Jean State Park.
The flat terrain and rich soils of the Arkansas Delta near McGehee are in stark contrast to the northwestern part of the state.
The Ouachita River runs through the Ouachita National Forest.
Main article: Geography of Arkansas

Arkansas borders Louisiana to the south, Texas to the southwest, Oklahoma to the west, Missouri to the north, and Tennessee and Mississippi on the east. The United States Census Bureau classifies Arkansas as a southern state, sub categorized among the West South Central States.[7] The Mississippi River forms most of Arkansas's eastern border, except in Clay and Greene counties where the St. Francis River forms the western boundary of the Missouri Bootheel, and in dozens of places where the current channel of the Mississippi has meandered from where it had last been legally specified. The state line along the Mississippi River is indeterminate along much of the eastern border with Mississippi due to these meanders.[11]

Arkansas can generally be split into two halves, the highlands in the northwest half and the lowlands of the southeastern half.[12] The highlands are part of the Southern Interior Highlands, including The Ozarks and the Ouachita Mountains. The southern lowlands include the Gulf Coastal Plain and the Arkansas Delta.[13] This dual split is somewhat simplistic, however, and thus usually yields to general regions named northwest, southwest, northeast, southeast, or central Arkansas. These directionally named regions are also not defined along county lines and are also broad. Arkansas has seven distinct natural regions: the Ozark Mountains, Ouachita Mountains, Arkansas River Valley, Gulf Coastal Plain, Crowley's Ridge, and the Arkansas Delta, with Central Arkansas sometimes included as a blend of multiple regions.[14]

The southeastern part of Arkansas along the Mississippi Alluvial Plain is sometimes called the Arkansas Delta. This region is a flat landscape of rich alluvial soils formed by repeated flooding of the adjacent Mississippi. Farther away from the river, in the southeast portion of the state, the Grand Prairie consists of a more undulating landscape. Both are fertile agricultural areas. The Delta region is bisected by an unusual geological formation known as Crowley's Ridge. A narrow band of rolling hills, Crowley's Ridge rises from 250 to 500 feet (76 to 152 m) above the surrounding alluvial plain and underlies many of the major towns of eastern Arkansas.[15]

Northwest Arkansas is part of the Ozark Plateau including the Ozark Mountains, to the south are the Ouachita Mountains, and these regions are divided by the Arkansas River; the southern and eastern parts of Arkansas are called the Lowlands. These mountain ranges are part of the U.S. Interior Highlands region, the only major mountainous region between the Rocky Mountains and the Appalachian Mountains.[16] The highest point in the state is Mount Magazine in the Ouachita Mountains; it rises to 2,753 feet (839 m) above sea level.

Arkansas has many rivers, lakes, and reservoirs within or along its borders. Major tributaries of the Mississippi River include the Arkansas River, White River, and St. Francis River. The Arkansas is fed by the Mulberry River, and Fourche LaFave River in the Arkansas River Valley, which is also home to Lake Dardanelle. The Buffalo River, Little Red River, Black River and Cache River all serve as tributaries to the White River, which also empties into the Mississippi. The Saline River, Little Missouri River, Bayou Bartholomew, and the Caddo River all serve as tributaries to the Ouachita River in south Arkansas, which eventually empties into the Mississippi in Louisiana. The Red River briefly serves as the state's boundary with Texas.[17] Arkansas has few natural lakes but many major reservoirs, including Bull Shoals Lake, Lake Ouachita, Greers Ferry Lake, Millwood Lake, Beaver Lake, Norfork Lake, DeGray Lake, and Lake Conway.[18]

Arkansas is home to many caves, such as Blanchard Springs Caverns. More than 43,000 Native American living, hunting and tool making sites, many of them Pre-Columbian burial mounds and rock shelters, have been catalogued by the State Archeologist. Arkansas is currently the only U.S. state in which diamonds are mined—although by members of the public with primitive digging tools for a small daily fee, not by commercial interests.[19][20] (near Murfreesboro).

Arkansas is home to a dozen Wilderness Areas totaling around 150,000 acres (610 km2). These areas are set aside for outdoor recreation and are open to hunting, fishing, hiking, and primitive camping. No mechanized vehicles are allowed in these areas, some of which are rarely visited and can provide a good experience of feeling as if you are the only person to have ever stepped foot there.

Flora and fauna

The White River in eastern Arkansas

Arkansas is divided into three broad ecoregions, the Ozark, Ouachita-Appalachian Forests, Mississippi Alluvial and Southeast USA Coastal Plains, and the Southeastern USA Plains.[21] The state is further divided into seven subregions: the Arkansas Valley, Boston Mountains, Mississippi Alluvial Plain, Mississippi Valley Loess Plain, Ozark Highlands, Ouachita Mountains, and the South Central Plains.[22] A 2010 United States Forest Service survey determined 18,720,000 acres (7,580,000 ha) of Arkansas's land is forestland, or 56% of the state's total area.[23] Dominant species in Arkansas's forests include Quercus (oak), Carya (hickory), Pinus echinata (shortleaf pine) and Pinus taeda (Loblolly pine).[24][25]

Climate

Arkansas generally has a humid subtropical climate, which borders on humid continental in some northern highland areas. While not bordering the Gulf of Mexico, Arkansas is still close enough to this warm, large body of water for it to influence the weather in the state. Generally, Arkansas has hot, humid summers and cold, slightly drier winters. In Little Rock, the daily high temperatures average around 93 °F (34 °C) with lows around 73 °F (23 °C) in July. In January highs average around 51 °F (11 °C) and lows around 32 °F (0 °C). In Siloam Springs in the northwest part of the state, the average high and low temperatures in July are 89 °F (32 °C) and 67 °F (19 °C) and in January the average high and lows are 44 °F (7 °C) and 23 °F (−5 °C). Annual precipitation throughout the state averages between about 40 and 60 inches (1,000 and 1,500 mm); somewhat wetter in the south and drier in the northern part of the state.[26] Snowfall is common, more so in the north half of the state, which usually gets several snowfalls each winter. This is not only due to its proximity to the plains states, but also to the higher elevations found throughout the Ozark and Ouachita mountains. The half of the state south of Little Rock gets less snow, and is more apt to see ice storms, however, sleet and freezing rain are expected throughout the state during the winter months, and can significantly impact travel and day to day life. Arkansas' all time record high is 120 °F (49 °C) at Ozark on August 10, 1936; the all time record low is −29 °F (−34 °C) at Round Pond, on February 13, 1905.

The Buffalo National River, one of many attractions that give the state's nickname The Natural State.
Devil's Den State Park is a popular state park in Washington County for enjoying autumn foliage.

Arkansas is known for extreme weather. A typical year will see thunderstorms, tornadoes, hail, snow and ice storms. Between both the Great Plains and the Gulf States, Arkansas receives around 60 days of thunderstorms. A few of the most destructive tornadoes in U.S. history have struck the state. While being sufficiently away from the coast to be safe from a direct hit from a hurricane, Arkansas can often get the remnants of a tropical system which dumps tremendous amounts of rain in a short time and often spawns smaller tornadoes.

Temperature

City Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Avg
Fayetteville[27] 44/24
(7/-4) 		51/29
(10/-2) 		59/38
(15/3) 		69/46
(20/8) 		76/55
(24/13) 		84/64
(29/18) 		89/69
(32/20) 		89/67
(32/19) 		81/59
(27/15) 		70/47
(21/9) 		57/37
(14/3) 		48/28
(9/-2) 		68/47
(20/8)
Jonesboro[28] 45/26
(7/-3) 		51/30
(11/-1) 		61/40
(16/4) 		71/49
(22/9) 		80/58
(26/15) 		88/67
(31/19) 		92/71
(34/22) 		91/69
(33/20) 		84/61
(29/16) 		74/49
(23/9) 		60/39
(15/4) 		49/30
(10/-1) 		71/49
(21/9)
Little Rock[29] 51/31
(11/-1) 		55/35
(13/2) 		64/43
(18/6) 		73/51
(23/11) 		81/61
(27/16) 		89/69
(32/21) 		93/73
(34/23) 		93/72
(34/22) 		86/65
(30/18) 		75/53
(24/12) 		63/42
(17/6) 		52/34
(11/1) 		73/51
(23/11)
Texarkana[30] 53/31
(11/-1) 		58/34
(15/1) 		67/42
(19/5) 		75/50
(24/10) 		82/60
(28/16) 		89/68
(32/20) 		93/72
(34/22) 		93/71
(34/21) 		86/64
(30/18) 		76/52
(25/11) 		64/41
(18/5) 		55/33
(13/1) 		74/52
(23/11)
Monticello[31] 52/30
(11/-1) 		58/34
(14/1) 		66/43
(19/6) 		74/49
(23/10) 		82/59
(28/15) 		89/66
(32/19) 		92/70
(34/21) 		92/68
(33/20) 		86/62
(30/17) 		76/50
(25/10) 		64/41
(18/5) 		55/34
(13/1) 		74/51
(23/10)
Average high °F/average low °F (average high °C/average low°C)

History

Main article: History of Arkansas

Early Arkansas through territorial period

Burial mounds, such as this one at Toltec Mounds Archeological State Park in northeast Arkansas, became more common during the Woodland Period.

Prior to European settlement of North America, Arkansas was inhabited by the Caddo, Osage, and Quapaw people. Explorers to visit the state include Hernando de Soto in 1541, Jacques Marquette and Louis Jolliet in 1673, and Robert La Salle and Henri de Tonti in 1681.[32][33] Arkansas Post was the first European settlement upon its establishment by de Tonti in 1686.[34] As Europeans settled the east coast, many other Native American tribes were relocated to Arkansas. Settlers, including fur trappers, moved to Arkansas in the early 18th century. These people used Arkansas Post as a home base and entrepôt.[34] During the colonial period, Arkansas changed hands between France and Spain following the Seven Years' War, although neither showed interest in remote outpost.[35] In April 1783, Arkansas saw its only battle of the American Revolutionary War, a brief siege of the post by British Captain James Colbert, with the assistance of Choctaw and Chickasaw.[36] The early Spanish or French explorers of the state gave it its name, which is probably a phonetic spelling of the Illinois tribe's name for the Quapaw people, who lived downriver from them.[37][b]

Evolution from the Territory of Arkansaw to State of Arkansas, 1819-1836

Napoleon Bonaparte sold French Louisiana to the United States in 1803, including all of Arkansas, in a transaction known today as the Louisiana Purchase. Following the purchase, the balanced give-and-take relationship between settlers and Native Americans began to change all along the frontier, including in Arkansas.[38] Following a controversy over allowing slavery in the territory, the Territory of Arkansas was organized on July 4, 1819.[b] Gradual emancipation in Arkansas was struck down by one vote, the Speaker of the House Henry Clay, allowing Arkansas to organize as a slave territory.[39] Slavery became a wedge issue in Arkansas, forming a geographic divide that would remain for decades. The cotton plantation economy of southeast Arkansas firmly supported slavers as slave labor was the only method of harvesting their crop.[40] The "hill country" of northwest Arkansas was unable to grow cotton and relied on a cash-scarce, subsistence farming economy.[41] Native American removals began in earnest during the territorial period, with final Quapaw removal complete by 1833.[42] The capitol was relocated from Arkansas Post to Little Rock during the territorial period.[43]

Statehood, Civil War and Reconstruction

Lakeport Plantation south of Lake Village is the only remaining antebellum plantation house in Arkansas on the Mississippi River. Built ca. 1859, the cotton industry in southern Arkansas allowed many planters to rise to prominence.

When Arkansas applied for statehood, the slavery issue was again raised in Washington DC. Congress eventually approved the Arkansas Constitution after a 25 hour session, admitting Arkansas on June 15, 1836 as the 25th state and the 13th slave state.[44] Arkansas immediately struggled with taxation to support its new state government, a problem made worse by a state banking scandal and worse yet by the Panic of 1837. In early antebellum Arkansas, the southeast Arkansas economy grew rapidly on the backs of slaves. On the eve of the Civil War in 1860, enslaved African Americans numbered 111,115 people, just over 25% of the state's population.[45] However, plantation agriculture would ultimately set the state and region behind the nation for decades.[46] The growth of southeast Arkansas also caused a rift to form between the northwest and southeast.[47]

Many politicians were elected to office from the Family, the Southern rights political force in antebellum Arkansas, but the populace generally wanted to avoid a civil war. Arkansas voted to remain in the Union when the gulf states seceded in early 1861.[47] Arkansas would not secede until Abraham Lincoln demanded Arkansas troops be sent to Fort Sumter to quell the rebellion there. The following month a state convention voted to terminate Arkansas's membership in the Union and join the Confederate States of America.[47] Arkansas held a very important position for the Rebels, maintaining control of the Mississippi River and surrounding Southern states. The bloody Battle of Wilson's Creek just across the border in Missouri shocked many Arkansans who thought the war would be a quick and decisive Southern victory. Battles early in the war took place in northwest Arkansas, including the Battle of Cane Hill, Battle of Pea Ridge, and Battle of Prairie Grove. Union General Samuel Curtis swept across the state to Helena in 1862. Little Rock was captured the following year, forcing the Confederate capitol to move to Washington for the remainder of the war. Throughout the state, guerrilla warfare ravaged the countryside and destroyed cities.[48] Passion for the Confederate cause waned after implementation of unpopular programs like a draft, high taxes, and marshal law.

Under the Military Reconstruction Act, Congress declared Arkansas restored to the Union in June 1868. The Republican controlled reconstruction legislature established universal male suffrage (though disenfranchising all former Confederates, who were mostly Democrats), a public education system, and passed general issues to improve the state and help more of the population. The state soon came under almost exclusive control of the Radical Republicans, (those who moved in from the North being derided as "carpetbaggers" based on allegations of corruption), and led by Governor Powell Clayton they presided over a time of great upheaval and racial violence in the state between Republican state militia and the Ku Klux Klan.

In 1874, the Brooks-Baxter War, a political struggle between factions of the Republican Party shook Little Rock and the state governorship. It was settled only when President Ulysses S. Grant ordered Joseph Brooks to disperse his militant supporters.[49]

Following the Brooks-Baxter War, a new state constitution was ratified re-enfranchising former Confederates.

In 1881, the Arkansas state legislature enacted a bill that adopted an official pronunciation of the state's name, to combat a controversy then simmering. (See Law and Government below.)

After Reconstruction, the state began to receive more immigrants and migrants. Chinese, Italian, and Syrian men were recruited for farm labor in the developing Delta region. None of these nationalities stayed long at farm labor; the Chinese especially quickly became small merchants in towns around the Delta. Some early 20th century immigration included people from eastern Europe. Together, these immigrants made the Delta more diverse than the rest of the state. In the same years, some black migrants moved into the area because of opportunities to develop the bottomlands and own their own property. Many Chinese became such successful merchants in small towns that they were able to educate their children at college.[50]

Wife and children of a sharecropper in Washington County, Arkansas, c. 1935

Construction of railroads enabled more farmers to get their products to market. It also brought new development into different parts of the state, including the Ozarks, where some areas were developed as resorts. In a few years at the end of the 19th century, for instance, Eureka Springs in Carroll County grew to 10,000 people, rapidly becoming a tourist destination and the fourth largest city of the state. It featured newly constructed, elegant resort hotels and spas planned around its natural springs, considered to have healthful properties. The town's attractions included horse racing and other entertainment. It appealed to a wide variety of classes, becoming almost as popular as Hot Springs.

In the late 1880s, the worsening agricultural depression catalyzed Populist and third party movements, leading to interracial coalitions. Struggling to stay in power, in the 1890s the Democrats in Arkansas followed other Southern states in passing legislation and constitutional amendments that disfranchised blacks and poor whites. Democrats wanted to prevent their alliance. In 1891 state legislators passed a requirement for a literacy test, knowing that many blacks and whites would be excluded, at a time when more than 25% of the population could neither read nor write. In 1892 they amended the state constitution to include a poll tax and more complex residency requirements, both of which adversely affected poor people and sharecroppers, and forced them from electoral rolls.

By 1900 the Democratic Party expanded use of the white primary in county and state elections, further denying blacks a part in the political process. Only in the primary was there any competition among candidates, as Democrats held all the power. The state was a Democratic one-party state for decades, until after the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Voting Rights Act of 1965 were passed.[51]

Between 1905 and 1911, Arkansas began to receive a small migration of German, Slovak, and Irish immigrants. The German and Slovak peoples settled in the eastern part of the state known as the Prairie, and the Irish founded small communities in the southeast part of the state. The Germans were mostly Lutheran and the Slovaks were primarily Catholic. The Irish were mostly Protestant from Ulster.

After the Supreme Court's decision in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas in 1954, the Little Rock Nine brought Arkansas to national attention when the Federal government intervened to protect African-American students trying to integrate a high school in the Arkansas capital. Governor Orval Faubus ordered the Arkansas National Guard to aid segregationists in preventing nine African-American students from enrolling at Little Rock's Central High School. After attempting three times to contact Faubus, President Dwight D. Eisenhower sent 1000 troops from the active-duty 101st Airborne Division to escort and protect the African-American students as they entered school on September 25, 1957. In defiance of federal court orders to integrate, the governor and city of Little Rock decided to close the high schools for the remainder of the school year. By the fall of 1959, the Little Rock high schools were completely integrated.[52]

Bill Clinton, the 42nd President of the United States, was born in Hope, Arkansas. Before his presidency, Clinton served as the 40th and 42nd Governor of Arkansas, a total of nearly 12 years.

Cities and towns

Cleveland County Courthouse in Rison
See also: Arkansas metropolitan areas, List of cities in Arkansas, and List of townships in Arkansas

Little Rock has been Arkansas's capital city since 1821 when it replaced Arkansas Post as the capitol of the Territory of Arkansas.[53] The state capitol was moved to Hot Springs and later Washington during the Civil War when the Union armies threatened the city in 1862, and state government did not return to Little Rock until after the war ended. Today, the Little Rock–North Little Rock–Conway metropolitan area is the largest in the state, with a population of 709,910 in 2011.[54]

The Fayetteville–Springdale–Rogers Metropolitan Area is the second-largest metropolitan area in Arkansas, growing at the fastest rate due to the influx of businesses and the growth of the University of Arkansas.[55] The state has eight cities with populations above 50,000 (based on 2010 census). In descending order of size they are Little Rock, Fort Smith, Fayetteville, Springdale, Jonesboro, North Little Rock, Conway and Rogers. Of these, only Fort Smith and Jonesboro are outside the two largest metropolitan areas.

Demographics

Population

Arkansas's population distribution
Main article: Demographics of Arkansas

The United States Census Bureau estimates that the population of Arkansas was 2,949,131 on July 1, 2012, a 1.1% increase since the 2010 United States Census.[1]

As of 2012, Arkansas has an estimated population of 2,949,131.[56] From fewer than 15,000 in 1820, Arkansas's population grew to 52,240 during a special census in 1835, far exceeding the 40,000 required to apply for statehood.[57] Following statehood in 1836, the population doubled each decade until the 1870 Census conducted following the Civil War. The state recorded growth in each successive decade, although slowing until recording losses in the 1950 and 1960 Censuses. This outmigration was a result of multiple factors, including mechanization on the farm reducing the number of laborers needed and young educated people leaving the state due to a lack of non-farming industry in the state.[58] Arkansas again began to grow, recording positive growth rates ever since and exceeding the 2 million mark during the 1980 Census.[59] Arkansas's current rate of change, age distributions, and gender distributions mirror national averages. Minority group data also approximates national averages, with the exception of persons of Hispanic or Latino origin approximately 10% below the national percentage in Arkansas.[60] The center of population of Arkansas for 2000 was located in Perry County, near Nogal.[61]

Ancestry

In terms of race and ethnicity, the state was 80.1% White (74.2% non-Hispanic White), 15.6% Black or African American, 0.9% American Indian and Alaska Native, 1.3% Asian, and 1.8% from Two or More Races. Hispanics or Latinos of any race made up 6.6% of the population.[56]

As of 2011, 39.0% of Arkansas's population younger than age 1 were minorities.[62]

European Americans have a strong presence in the northwestern Ozarks and the central part of the state. African Americans live mainly in the southern and eastern parts of the state. Arkansans of Irish, English and German ancestry are mostly found in the far northwestern Ozarks near the Missouri border. Ancestors of the Irish in the Ozarks were chiefly Scotch-Irish, Protestants from Northern Ireland, the Scottish lowlands and northern England part of the largest group of immigrants from Great Britain and Ireland before the American Revolution. English and Scotch-Irish immigrants settled throughout the backcountry of the South and in the more mountainous areas. Americans of English stock are found throughout the state.[63]

The principal ancestries of Arkansas's residents in 2010 were surveyed to be the following:[64]

Many of the people who cite that they are of "American" ancestry are actually of English descent and some are of Scotch-Irish descent, however they have families that have been in the state so long, in many cases since before statehood, that they choose to identify simply as having "American" ancestry or do not in fact know their own ancestry. Their ancestry primarily goes back to the original thirteen colonies and for this reason many of them today simply claim "American" ancestry, though they are of predominately English ancestry. Many people who identify themselves as Irish descent are in fact of Scotch-Irish descent.[65][66][67][68]

According to the 2006–2008 American Community Survey, 93.8% of Arkansas' population (over the age of five) spoke only English at home. About 4.5% of the state's population spoke Spanish at home. About 0.7% of the state's population spoke any other Indo-European languages. About 0.8% of the state's population spoke an Asian language, and 0.2% spoke other languages.

Religion

Arkansas, like most other Southern states, is part of the Bible Belt and is predominantly Protestant. The largest denominations by number of adherents in 2000 were the Southern Baptist Convention with 665,307; the United Methodist Church with 179,383; the Roman Catholic Church with 115,967; and the American Baptist Association with 115,916.[69]

Economy

The Metropolitan National Bank Tower is the state's tallest building.
See also: Economy of Arkansas and List of Arkansas companies

Once a state with a cashless society in the uplands and plantation agriculture in the lowlands, Arkansas's economy has evolved and diversified to meet the needs of today's consumer. The state's gross domestic product (GDP) was $105 billion in 2010.[70] Four Fortune 500 companies are based in Arkansas, including the world's #1 retailer, Walmart.[71] The per capita personal income in 2010 was $36,027, ranking forty-fifth in the nation.[72] The three-year median household income from 2009-11 was $39,806, ranking forty-ninth in the nation.[73] The state's agriculture outputs are poultry and eggs, soybeans, sorghum, cattle, cotton, rice, hogs, and milk. Its industrial outputs are food processing, electric equipment, fabricated metal products, machinery, and paper products. Mines in Arkansas produce natural gas, oil, crushed stone, bromine, and vanadium.[74]

As of July 2012 the state's unemployment rate is 7.3%[75]

Industry and commerce

Arkansas's earliest industries were fur trading and agriculture. Although approximately 3% of the population is employed in the agricultural sector,[76] it remains a major part of the state's economy, ranking 13th in the nation in the value of products sold.[77] The state is the U.S.'s largest producer of rice and ranks in the top three for cotton, broilers, pullets, turkeys, and aquaculture (catfish).[77] Forestry remains strong in the Arkansas Timberlands, and the state ranks fourth nationally and first in the South in softwood lumber production.[77] In recent years, automobile parts manufacturers have opened factories in eastern Arkansas to support auto plants in other states. Bauxite was formerly a large part of the state's economy, mostly mined around Saline County.[78]

Tourism is also very important to the Arkansas economy; the official state nickname "The Natural State" was originally created for state tourism advertising in the 1970s, and is still used to this day. The state maintains 52 state parks and the National Park Service maintains seven properties in Arkansas, including the nation's first National Park, Hot Springs National Park. The completion of the William Jefferson Clinton Presidential Library in Little Rock has drawn many visitors to the city and revitalized the nearby River Market District. Many cities also hold festivals which draw tourists to the culture of Arkansas such as King Biscuit Blues Festival, Ozark Folk Festival, Toad Suck Daze, and Tontitown Grape Festival.

Culture

Symbols
One of the bridge pavilions over Crystal Spring at Crystal Bridges Museum of American Art, Bentonville
Main article: Culture of Arkansas

The culture of Arkansas is available to all in various forms, whether it be architecture, literature, or fine and performing arts. The state's culture also includes distinct cuisine, dialect, and traditional festivals. Sports are also very important to the culture of Arkansas, ranging from football, baseball, and basketball to hunting and fishing. Perhaps the best-known piece of Arkansas's culture is the stereotype of its citizens as shiftless hillbillies.[79] The reputation began when the state was characterized by early explorers as a savage wilderness full of outlaws and thieves.[80] The most enduring icon of Arkansas's hillbilly reputation is the The Arkansas Traveller, a painted depiction of a folk tale from the 1840s.[81] Although intended to represent the divide between rich southeastern plantation Arkansas planters and the poor northwestern hill country, the meaning was twisted to represent a Northerner lost in the Ozarks on a white horse asking a backwoods Arkansan for directions. The state also suffers from the racial stigma common to former Confederate states, with historical events such as the Little Rock Nine adding to Arkansas's enduring image.

Art and history museums display pieces of cultural value for Arkansans and tourists to enjoy. Crystal Bridges Museum of American Art in Bentonville is the most popular with 604,000 visitors in 2012, its first year.[82] The museum includes walking trails and educational opportunities in addition to displaying over 450 works covering five centuries of American art.[83] Several historic town sites have been restored as Arkansas state parks, including Historic Washington State Park, Powhatan Historic State Park, and Davidsonville Historic State Park.

Arkansas features a variety of native music across the state, ranging from the blues heritage of West Memphis and Helena-West Helena to rockabilly, bluegrass, and folk music from the Ozarks. Festivals such as the King Biscuit Blues Festival and Bikes, Blues, and BBQ pay homage to the history of blues in the state. The Ozark Folk Festival in Mountain View is a celebration of Ozark culture and often features folk and bluegrass musicians. Literature set in Arkansas such as I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings by Mya Angelou and A Painted House by John Grisham describe the culture at various time periods.

Sports and recreation

The flooded forested bottomlands of east Arkansas attract wintering waterfowl (Wapanocca National Wildlife Refuge).

Sports are an integral part of the culture of Arkansas, and her residents enjoy participating and spectating various events throughout the year. One of the oldest sports in Arkansas is hunting. The state created the Arkansas Game and Fish Commission in 1915 to regulate and enforce hunting.[84] Today a significant portion of Arkansas's population participates in hunting duck in the Mississippi flyway and deer across the state. Millions of acres of public land are available for both bow and modern gun hunters.

Fishing has always been popular in Arkansas, and the sport and the state have benefited from the creation of reservoirs across the state. Following the completion of Norfork Dam, the Norfork Tailwater and the White River have become a destination for trout fishers. Several smaller retirement communities such as Bull Shoals, Hot Springs Village, and Fairfield Bay have flourished due to their position on a fishing lake. The Buffalo National River has been preserved in its natural state by the National Park Service and is frequented by fly fishers annually.

Sports, including the major college football team in the state, the Arkansas Razorbacks, are an integral part of Arkansas's culture.

Football, especially collegiate football, has always been important to Arkansans. College football in Arkansas began from humble beginnings. The University of Arkansas first fielded a team in 1894 when football was a very dangerous game. Calling the Hogs swept the state as a cheer to support the Razorbacks, the major team in the state. High school football also began to grow in Arkansas in the early 20th century. Over the years, many Arkansans have looked to the Razorbacks football team as the public image of the state. Following the Little Rock Nine integration crisis at Little Rock Central High School, Arkansans looked to the successful Razorback teams in the following years to repair the state's reputation. Although the University of Arkansas is based in Fayetteville, the Razorbacks have always played at least two games per season at War Memorial Stadium in Little Rock in an effort to keep fan support from central and south Arkansas. Arkansas State University joined major college football in 2005 after playing in lower divisions for almost a century. However, the two schools have never played each other.[85] Six of Arkansas's smaller colleges play in the Great American Conference, with University of Arkansas at Pine Bluff playing in the Southwestern Athletic Conference and University of Central Arkansas competing in the Southland Conference.

Baseball runs deep in Arkansas and has been popular since before the state hosted Major League Baseball (MLB) spring training in Hot Springs from 1886-1920s. Today, two minor league teams are based in the state. The Arkansas Travelers play at Dickey-Stephens Park in North Little Rock, and the Northwest Arkansas Naturals play in Arvest Ballpark in Springdale. Both teams compete in the Texas League.


Education

Old Main, part of the Campus Historic District at the University of Arkansas in Fayetteville.
See also: List of colleges and universities in Arkansas, List of high schools in Arkansas, and List of school districts in Arkansas

Education in Arkansas has historically been a major issue, and is a problem that continues to this day. Part of the problem has been the resistance to needed reforms, including low teacher salaries and small budgets for spending on students. The state's refusal to integrate, refusal to teach evolution, and poor school facilities also contribute to the poor performance of Arkansas students. Arkansas's education funding mechanism was found unconstitutional in 1983 and again in 2001. Governor Mike Beebe has made improving education a major issue again through his attempts to spend more on education.[86] The failure to commit necessary funds and attention to education has resulted in an undereducated populace. Arkansas ranks as the 32nd smartest state on the Morgan Quitno Smartest State Award, 44th in percentage of residents with at least a high school diploma, and 48th in percentage of bachelor's degree attainment.[87][88]

In 2010 Arkansas students earned an average score of 20.3 on the ACT exam, just below the national average of 21. These results were expected due to the large increase in the number of students taking the exam since the establishment of the Academic Challenge Scholarship.[89] Top high schools receiving recognition from the U.S. News and World Report are spread across the state, including Haas Hall Academy in Fayetteville, KIPP Delta Collegiate in Helena-West Helena, Bentonville, Rogers, Rogers Heritage, Valley Springs, Searcy, and McCrory.[90] A total of 81 Arkansas high schools were ranked by the U.S. News and World Report in 2012.[91]

The state supports a network of public universities and colleges, including two major university systems: Arkansas State University System and University of Arkansas System. Other public institutions include Arkansas Tech University, Henderson State University, Southern Arkansas University, and University of Central Arkansas across the state. It is also home to 11 private colleges and universities including Hendrix College, one of the nation's top 100 liberal arts colleges, according to U.S. News & World Report.[92]

Transportation

Main articles: Transportation in Arkansas, List of Arkansas railroads, and Aviation in Arkansas
The Greenville Bridge over the Mississippi River, August 2009
The Missouri and Northern Arkansas Railroad

Transportation in Arkansas is overseen by the Arkansas State Highway and Transportation Department (AHTD), headquartered in Little Rock. Several main corridors pass through Little Rock, including Interstate 30 and Interstate 40 (the nation’s 3rd-busiest trucking corridor).[93] In northeast Arkansas, Interstate 55 runs north from Memphis to Missouri, with a new spur to Jonesboro (Interstate 555). Northwest Arkansas is served by Interstate 540 from Fort Smith to Bella Vista, a segment of future Interstate 49. The state also has the 13th largest state highway system in the nation.[94]

Arkansas is served by 2,750 miles (4,430 km) of railroad track divided among twenty-six railroad companies including three Class I railroads.[95] Freight railroads are concentrated in southeast Arkansas to serve the industries in the region. The Texas Eagle, an Amtrak passenger train, serves five stations in the state Walnut Ridge, Little Rock, Malvern, Arkadelphia, and Texarkana.

Arkansas also benefits from the use of its rivers for commerce. The Mississippi River and Arkansas River are both major rivers. The United States Army Corps of Engineers maintains the McClellan-Kerr Arkansas River Navigation System, allowing barge traffic up the Arkansas River to the Port of Catoosa in Tulsa, Oklahoma.

There are four airports with commercial service: Little Rock National Airport, Northwest Arkansas Regional Airport, Fort Smith Regional Airport, and Texarkana Regional Airport, with dozens of smaller airports in the state.

Public transit and community transport services for the elderly or those with developmental disabilities are provided by agencies such as the Central Arkansas Transit Authority and the Ozark Regional Transit, organizations that are part of the Arkansas Transit Association.

Law and government

See also: List of Governors of Arkansas and Political party strength in Arkansas

The current Governor of Arkansas is Mike Beebe, a Democrat, who was elected on November 7, 2006.[96][97]

One of Arkansas's U.S. Senators is Democrat Mark Pryor, and the other one is Republican John Boozman. The state has four seats in U.S. House of Representatives. One seat is held by Democrats: Mike Ross (map), and three are held by Republicans: Rick Crawford, (map), Tim Griffin(map), and Steve Womack(map).

Presidential elections results
Year Republican Democratic
2008 58.72% 638,017 38.86% 422,310
2004 54.31% 572,898 44.55% 469,953
2000 51.31% 472,940 45.86% 422,768
1996 36.80% 325,416 53.74% 475,171
1992 35.48% 337,324 53.21% 505,823
1988 56.37% 466,578 42.19% 349,237
1984 60.47% 534,774 38.29% 338,646
1980 48.13% 403,164 47.52% 398,041
1976 34.93% 268,753 64.94% 499,614
1972 68.82% 445,751 30.71% 198,899
1968* 31.01% 189,062 30.33% 184,901
1964 43.41% 243,264 56.06% 314,197
1960 43.06% 184,508 50.19% 215,049
*State won by George Wallace
of the American Independent Party,
at 38.65%, or 235,627 votes

The Democratic Party holds majority status in the Arkansas General Assembly. A majority of local and statewide offices are also held by Democrats. This is increasingly uncommon in the modern South, where a majority of statewide offices are now held by Republicans. Arkansas had the distinction in 1992 of being the only state in the country to give the majority of its vote to a single candidate in the presidential election—native son Bill Clinton—while every other state's electoral votes were won by pluralities of the vote among the three candidates. Arkansas has become more reliably Republican in presidential elections in recent years. The state voted for John McCain in 2008 by a margin of 20 percentage points, making it one of the few states in the country to vote more Republican than it had in 2004. (The others were Louisiana, Tennessee, Oklahoma and West Virginia.)[98] Obama's relatively poor showing in Arkansas was likely due to a lack of enthusiasm from state Democrats following former Arkansas First Lady Hillary Clinton's failure to win the nomination[citation needed], and his relatively poor performance among rural white voters. However, the Democratic presence remains strong on the state level; in 2006, Democrats were elected to all statewide offices by the voters in a Democratic sweep that included the Democratic Party of Arkansas regaining the governorship, and in 2008, freshman Senator Mark Pryor was re-elected with nearly 80% of the vote against Green candidate Rebekah Kennedy with no Republican opposition.[citation needed]

Most Republican strength lies mainly in the northwestern part of the state, particularly Fort Smith and Bentonville, as well as North Central Arkansas around the Mountain Home area. In the latter area, Republicans have been known to get 90 percent or more of the vote. The rest of the state is more Democratic. Arkansas has only elected two Republicans to the U.S. Senate since Reconstruction, Tim Hutchinson, who was defeated after one term by Mark Pryor and John Boozman, who defeated incumbent Blanche Lincoln. The General Assembly has not been controlled by the Republican Party since Reconstruction and is the fourth most heavily Democratic Legislature in the country, after Massachusetts, Hawaii, and Connecticut. Arkansas was one of just three states among the states of the former Confederacy that sent two Democrats to the U.S. Senate (the others being Florida and Virginia) during the first decade of the 21st century.

Although Democrats have an overwhelming majority of registered voters, Arkansas Democrats tend to be much more conservative than their national counterparts, particularly outside Little Rock. Arkansas' Democratic congressman is a member of the Blue Dog Coalition, which tends to be more pro-business, pro-military, and socially conservative than the center-left Democratic mainstream. Reflecting the state's large evangelical population, the state has a strong social conservative bent. Under the Arkansas Constitution Arkansas is a right to work state, its voters passed a ban on same-sex marriage with 75% voting yes, and the state is one of a handful with legislation on its books banning abortion in the event Roe v. Wade is ever overturned.

In Arkansas, the lieutenant governor is elected separately from the governor and thus can be from a different political party.

Each officer's term is four years long. Office holders are term-limited to two full terms plus any partial terms before the first full term. Arkansas governors served two-year terms until a referendum lengthened the term to four years, effective with the 1986 general election. Statewide elections are held two years after presidential elections.

Some of Arkansas's counties have two county seats, as opposed to the usual one seat. The arrangement dates back to when travel was extremely difficult in the state. The seats are usually on opposite sides of the county. Though travel is no longer the difficulty it once was, there are few efforts to eliminate the two seat arrangement where it exists, since the county seat is a source of pride (and jobs) to the city involved.

Arkansas is the only state to specify the pronunciation of its name by law (AR-kan-saw).[b]

Article 19 (Miscellaneous Provisions), Item 1 in the Arkansas Constitution is entitled "Atheists disqualified from holding office or testifying as witness," and states that "No person who denies the being of a God shall hold any office in the civil departments of this State, nor be competent to testify as a witness in any Court." However, in 1961, the United States Supreme Court in Torcaso v. Watkins (1961), held that a similar requirement in Maryland was unenforceable because it violated the First and Fourteenth Amendments to the US Constitution. The latter amendment, per current precedent, makes the federal Bill of Rights binding on the states. As a result, this provision has not been known to have been enforced in modern times, and it is understood that it would be struck down if challenged in court.


Attractions

Blanchard Springs Caverns in Stone County is a popular tourist destination.

Arkansas is home to many areas protected by the National Park System. These include:[99]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Elevation adjusted to North American Vertical Datum of 1988.
  2. ^ a b c d The name Arkansas has been pronounced and spelled in a variety of fashions. The region was organized as the Territory of Arkansaw on July 4, 1819, but the territory was admitted to the United States as the state of Arkansas on June 15, 1836. The name was historically /ˈɑːrkənsɔː/, /ɑːrˈkænzəs/, and several other variants. In 1881, the Arkansas General Assembly passed the following concurrent resolution, now Arkansas Code 1-4-105 (official text):

    Whereas, confusion of practice has arisen in the pronunciation of the name of our state and it is deemed important that the true pronunciation should be determined for use in oral official proceedings.

    And, whereas, the matter has been thoroughly investigated by the State Historical Society and the Eclectic Society of Little Rock, which have agreed upon the correct pronunciation as derived from history, and the early usage of the American immigrants.

    Be it therefore resolved by both houses of the General Assembly, that the only true pronunciation of the name of the state, in the opinion of this body, is that received by the French from the native Indians and committed to writing in the French word representing the sound. It should be pronounced in three (3) syllables, with the final "s" silent, the "a" in each syllable with the Italian sound, and the accent on the first and last syllables. The pronunciation with the accent on the second syllable with the sound of "a" in "man" and the sounding of the terminal "s" is an innovation to be discouraged.

    Citizens of the state of Kansas often pronounce the Arkansas River as /ɑːrˈkænzəs ˈrɪvər/, in a manner similar to the common pronunciation of the name of their state.

Footnotes

  1. ^ a b "Annual Estimates of the Population for the United States, Regions, States, and Puerto Rico: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2012" (CSV). 2012 Population Estimates. United States Census Bureau, Population Division. December 2012. Retrieved December 24, 2012.
  2. ^ Arkansawyer (definition). May 18, 2010.
  3. ^ "Mag". NGS Data Sheet. National Geodetic Survey, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, United States Department of Commerce. Retrieved October 20, 2011.
  4. ^ a b "Elevations and Distances in the United States". United States Geological Survey. 2001. Retrieved October 21, 2011.
  5. ^ Elevation adjusted to North American Vertical Datum of 1988.
  6. ^ Jones, Daniel (1997) English Pronouncing Dictionary, 15th ed. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-45272-4
  7. ^ a b "Census Regions and Divisions of the United States" (PDF). Geography Division, United States Census Bureau. Retrieved June 23, 2012.
  8. ^ Lyon, Owen (Autumn 1950). "The Trail of the Quapaw". Arkansas Historical Quarterly. 9. Arkansas Historical Association: 206–207.
  9. ^ Cash, Marie (December 1943). "Arkansas Achieves Statehood". Arkansas Historical Quarterly. 2. Arkansas Historical Association.
  10. ^ Gambrell, John (March 13, 2007). "Senate gives support to possessive form of Arkansas". Arkansas Democrat Gazette. Retrieved June 28, 2012.
  11. ^ Arkansas Atlas and Gazetteer (Map) (Second ed.). DeLorme.
  12. ^ Smith 1989, p. 15.
  13. ^ Smith 1989, pp. 15-17.
  14. ^ "Arkansas Regions". Discover Arkansas History. The Department of Arkansas Heritage. Retrieved June 28, 2012.
  15. ^ Smith 1989, p. 19.
  16. ^ Ozark Mountains. Encyclopedia Britannica.
  17. ^ Smith 1989, p. 24.
  18. ^ Smith 1989, p. 25.
  19. ^ "Crater of Diamonds: History of diamonds, diamond mining in Arkansas". Craterofdiamondsstatepark.com. Archived from the original on August 21, 2010. Retrieved July 30, 2010. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  20. ^ "US Diamond Mines – Diamond Mining in the United States". Geology.com. Archived from the original on July 24, 2010. Retrieved July 30, 2010. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  21. ^ Ecological Regions of North America (PDF) (Map). 1:10000000. United States Environmental Protection Agency. Retrieved July 5, 2012.
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  23. ^ "Forest Inventory and Analysis" (XLS). United States Forest Service, Southern Research Station. 2010. Retrieved July 5, 2012.
  24. ^ "Proceedings of the Symposium on Arkansas Forests: A Conference on the Results of the Recent Forest Survey of Arkansas". United States Forest Service. May 30–31, 1997. p. 74. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |url= (help)
  25. ^ Dale, Jr, Edward E.; Ware, Stewart (April - June, 2004). "Distribution of Wetland Tree Species in Relation to a Flooding Gradient and Backwater versus Streamside Location in Arkansas, U.S.A.". Journal of the Torrey Botanical Society. 131. Torrey Botanical Society: 177–186. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  26. ^ Average Annual Precipitation – Arkansas. Spatial Climate Analysis Service, Oregon State University. Published 2000. Last Retrieved October 26, 2007.[dead link]
  27. ^ "Climate - Fayetteville - Arkansas". U.S. Climate Data. Retrieved June 28, 2012.
  28. ^ "Climate - Jonesboro - Arkansas". U.S. Climate Data. Retrieved June 28, 2012.
  29. ^ "Monthly Averages for Little Rock, AR". The Weather Channel. Retrieved June 28, 2012.
  30. ^ "Climate - Texarkana - Texas". U.S. Climate Data. Retrieved June 28, 2012.
  31. ^ "Climate - Monticello - Arkansas". U.S. Climate Data. Retrieved June 28, 2012.
  32. ^ Sabo III, George (December 12, 2008). "First Encounters, Hernando de Soto in the Mississippi Valley, 1541-42". Retrieved May 3, 2012.
  33. ^ Fletcher 1989, p. 26.
  34. ^ a b Arnold 1992, p. 75.
  35. ^ Arnold et al 2002, p. 82.
  36. ^ Din, Gilbert C. (Spring 1981). "Arkansas Post in the American Revolution". The Arkansas Historical Quarterly. 40. Arkansas Historical Association: 17–28.
  37. ^ "Linguist list 14.4". Listserv.linguistlist.org. February 11, 2003. Retrieved July 30, 2010.
  38. ^ Arnold et al 2002, p. 79.
  39. ^ Johnson 1965, p. 58.
  40. ^ Bolton, S. Charles (Spring 1999). "Slavery and the Defining of Arkansas". The Arkansas Historical Quarterly. Arkansas Historical Association. p. 9. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |url= (help)
  41. ^ Scroggs 1961, pp. 231-232.
  42. ^ White 1962, p. 197.
  43. ^ Eno, Clara B. (Winter 1945). "Territorial Governors of Arkansas". Arkansas Historical Quarterly. 4. Arkansas Historical Association: 278.
  44. ^ Scroggs 1961, p. 243.
  45. ^ Historical Census Browser, 1860 US Census, University of Virginia. Retrieved March 21, 2008.
  46. ^ Arnold et al 2002, p. 135.
  47. ^ a b c Bolton 1999, p. 22.
  48. ^ Arnold et al 2002, p. 200.
  49. ^ "Brooks-Baxter War – Encyclopedia of Arkansas". Archived from the original on September 29, 2007. Retrieved August 24, 2007. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  50. ^ William D. Baker, Minority Settlement in the Mississippi River Counties of the Arkansas Delta, 1870–1930, Arkansas Preservation Commission. Retrieved May 14, 2008
  51. ^ "White Primary" System Bars Blacks from Politics – 1900", The Arkansas News, Old State House, Spring 1987, p.3. Retrieved March 22, 2008.[dead link]
  52. ^ "Little Rock Nine – Encyclopedia of Arkansas". Archived from the original on September 29, 2007. Retrieved August 24, 2007. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  53. ^ Smith, Darlene (Spring 1954). "Arkansas Post". Arkansas Historical Quarterly. 13. Arkansas Historical Association: 120.
  54. ^ "Annual Estimates of the Population of Metropolitan and Micropolitan Statistical Areas" (XLS). United States Census Bureau. April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2011. Retrieved July 8, 2012. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  55. ^ "Estimates of Population Change for Metropolitan Statistical Areas and Rankings" (XLS). United States Census Bureau. July 1, 2010 to July 1, 2011. Retrieved July 8, 2012. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  56. ^ a b "Arkansas QuickFacts". U.S. Census Bureau.
  57. ^ Arnold et al 2002, p. 106.
  58. ^ Holley, Donald (Autumn 2005). "Leaving the Land of Opportunity: Arkansas and the Great Migration". Arkansas Historical Quarterly. 64. Arkansas Historical Association: 247–248.
  59. ^ "Resident Population Data". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved July 4, 2012.
  60. ^ "Arkansas QuickFacts". United States Census Bureau. June 7, 2012. Retrieved July 4, 2012.
  61. ^ "Arkansas 2000 Census Population Center". NOAA. Retrieved July 4, 2012.
  62. ^ Exner, Rich (June 3, 2012). "Americans under age 1 now mostly minorities, but not in Ohio: Statistical Snapshot". The Plain Dealer.
  63. ^ David Hackett Fischer, Albion's Seed: Four British Folkways in America, New York: Oxford University Press, 1989, pp.633–639
  64. ^ American FactFinder, United States Census Bureau (2010). "Arkansas – Selected Social Characteristics in the United States". American Community Survey. Retrieved July 4, 2012.
  65. ^ Sharing the Dream: White Males in a Multicultural America By Dominic J. Pulera.
  66. ^ Reynolds Farley, 'The New Census Question about Ancestry: What Did It Tell Us?', Demography, Vol. 28, No. 3 (August 1991), pp. 414, 421.
  67. ^ Stanley Lieberson and Lawrence Santi, 'The Use of Nativity Data to Estimate Ethnic Characteristics and Patterns', Social Science Research, Vol. 14, No. 1 (1985), pp. 44–6.
  68. ^ Stanley Lieberson and Mary C. Waters, 'Ethnic Groups in Flux: The Changing Ethnic Responses of American Whites', Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. 487, No. 79 (September 1986), pp. 82–86.
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  71. ^ "Fortune 500". Forbes. 2012. Retrieved September 11, 2012.
  72. ^ "Graph: Per Capita Personal Income in Arkansas". Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis. January 1, 2011. Retrieved September 11, 2012.
  73. ^ "Table H-8B. Median Income of Households by State Using Three-Year Moving Averages: 1984 to 2011". United States Census Bureau. 2011. Retrieved October 4, 2012.
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  75. ^ "Graph: Unemployment Rate in Arkansas". Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis. July 1, 2012. Retrieved September 11, 2012.
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  77. ^ a b c "Arkansas State Profile" (PDF). Census of Agriculture. United States Department of Agriculture. 2007. Retrieved October 4, 2012. Cite error: The named reference "agcensus" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  78. ^ Bush, William V. "History of Bauxite in Arkansas" (PDF). Arkansas Geological Survey. Retrieved October 4, 2012.
  79. ^ Arnold et al 2002, p. 115.
  80. ^ Blevins 2009, p. 15.
  81. ^ Blevins 2009, p. 30.
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  84. ^ Griffee, Carol. "Odyssey Of Survival, A History of the Arkansas Conservation Sales Tax" (PDF). p. 10. Retrieved September 16, 2012.
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  86. ^ Blagg, Brenda (April 12, 2007). "Lawsuit may go way of Lake View district". DeWitt, Arkansas: Dewitt Era-Enterprise. p. 4A.
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  89. ^ "Arkansas' ACT score slips in 2010". Arkansas Public School Resource Center. August 18, 2010. Retrieved September 3, 2012.
  90. ^ "Best High Schools in Arkansas". U.S. News and World Report. 2012. Retrieved September 3, 2012.
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  92. ^ "National Liberal Arts College Rankings". U.S. News and World Report. 2012. Retrieved September 3, 2012.
  93. ^ Mukhopadhyay, Ph.D., Sutapa. "Memphis: The Number One City of Chemical Related Incidents in Tennessee" (PDF). Tennessee Department of Health. Retrieved August 25, 2012.
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  95. ^ "Arkansas State Rail Plan" (PDF). Arkansas State Highway and Transportation Department. 2002. p. 3. Retrieved August 25, 2012.
  96. ^ "Winners in '06 Governors races" (PDF). Retrieved July 30, 2010.
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  98. ^ http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/54/Election-state-04-08.png
  99. ^ "Arkansas". National Park Service. Retrieved July 15, 2008.

References

  • Arnold, Morris S. (Spring 1992). "The Significance of the Arkansas Colonial Experience". Arkansas Historical Quarterly. 51. Arkansas Historical Association: 69–82.
  • Arnold, Morris S.; DeBlack, Thomas A.; Sabo III, George; Whayne, Jeannie M. (2002). Arkansas: A narrative history (1st ed.). Fayetteville, Arkansas: The University of Arkansas Press. ISBN 1-55728-724-4. OCLC 49029558.
  • Blevins, Brooks (2009), Arkansas/Arkansaw, How Bear Hunters, Hillbillies & Good Ol' Boys Defined a State, Fayetteville, Arkansas: University of Arkansas Press, ISBN 978-1-55728-952-0
  • Bolton, S. Charles (Spring 1999). "Slavery and the Defining of Arkansas". The Arkansas Historical Quarterly. Arkansas Historical Association. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |url= (help)
  • Fletcher, John Gould (1989). Carpenter, Lucas (ed.). Arkansas. Vol. 2. Fayetteville, Arkansas: University of Arkansas Press. ISBN 1-55728-040-1. OCLC 555740849.
  • Johnson, William R. (Spring 1965). "Prelude to the Missouri Compromise: A New York Congressman's Effort to Exclude Slavery from Arkansas Territory". Arkansas Historical Quarterly. 24. Arkansas Historical Association: 47–66.
  • Scroggs, Jack B. (Autumn 1961). "Arkansas Statehood: A Study in State and National Political Schism". Arkansas Historical Quarterly. 20. Arkansas Historical Association: 227–244.
  • Smith, Richard M. (1989). The Atlas of Arkansas. The University of Arkansas Press. ISBN 1557280479.
  • White, Lonnie J. (Autumn 1962). "Arkansas Territorial Indian Affairs". Arkansas Historical Quarterly. 21. Arkansas Historical Association: 193–212.

Further reading

  • Blair, Diane D. & Jay Barth Arkansas Politics & Government: Do the People Rule? (2005)
  • Deblack, Thomas A. With Fire and Sword: Arkansas, 1861–1874 (2003)
  • Donovan, Timothy P. and Willard B. Gatewood Jr., eds. The Governors of Arkansas (1981)
  • Dougan, Michael B. Confederate Arkansas (1982),
  • Duvall, Leland. ed., Arkansas: Colony and State (1973)
  • Hamilton, Peter Joseph. The Reconstruction Period (1906), full length history of era; Dunning School approach; 570 pp; ch 13 on Arkansas
  • Hanson, Gerald T. and Carl H. Moneyhon. Historical Atlas of Arkansas (1992)
  • Key, V. O. Southern Politics (1949)
  • Kirk, John A., Redefining the Color Line: Black Activism in Little Rock, Arkansas, 1940–1970 (2002).
  • McMath, Sidney S. Promises Kept (2003)
  • Moore, Waddy W. ed., Arkansas in the Gilded Age, 1874–1900 (1976).
  • Peirce, Neal R. The Deep South States of America: People, Politics, and Power in the Seven Deep South States (1974)\
  • Thompson, Brock. The Un-Natural State: Arkansas and the Queer South (2010)
  • Thompson, George H. Arkansas and Reconstruction (1976)
  • Whayne, Jeannie M. Arkansas Biography: A Collection of Notable Lives (2000)
  • White, Lonnie J. Politics on the Southwestern Frontier: Arkansas Territory, 1819–1836 (1964)
  • Williams, C. Fred. ed. A Documentary History Of Arkansas (2005)
  • WPA., Arkansas: A Guide to the State (1941)

34°48′N 92°12′W / 34.8°N 92.2°W / 34.8; -92.2

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