Jump to content

Hydrothermal mineral deposit

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This is an old revision of this page, as edited by Alexgiovi (talk | contribs) at 05:47, 16 November 2018. The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this revision, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

Hydrothermal Mineral Deposits are formed from hot waters circulating in Earth's crust through fractures and eventually create rich-metallic fluid accumulations concentrated into a selected volume of rock, which becomes supersaturated and then precipitate ore minerals. In some occurrences, they can be extracted at a profit by mining activity. Their discovery consumes considerable time and resources and only about one in every one thousand prospects explored by companies is eventually developed into a mine.[1] A mineral deposit is any geologically significant concentration of economical rock or mineral present in a specified area.[2] However, a mineral deposit implies that there is lack of evidence of its profitability.

Hydrothermal Mineral Deposits are divided into six main subcategories: Porphyry, Skarn, Volcanogenic Massive Sulphide (VMS), Sedimentary Exhalative (SEDEX), Epithermal and Mississippi Valley-type (MVT) deposits. Each hydrothermal mineral deposit has different distinct structures, ages, sizes, grades, geological formation, characteristics and, most importantly, value.[3] Their names derive from their formation, geographical location or distinctive feature.

Generally, porphyry-type mineral deposits form in hydrothermal fluid circulation systems developed around felsic to intermediate magma chambers and/or cooling plutons. However, they did not precipitate directly from the magma. While, a skarn deposit is an assemblage of ore and calc-silicate minerals, formed by metasomatic replacement of carbonate rocks in the contact aureole of a pluton.[4] Volcanogenic Massive Massive Sulphide deposits form when mafic magma at depth, could be a few kilometers beneath the surface, acts as a heat source, causing convective circulation of seawater through the oceanic crust.The hydrothermal fluid leaches metals as it descends and precipitates minerals as it rises. Sedimentary exhalative deposits, also called sedex deposits, are lead-zinc sulfide deposits formed in intracratonic sedimentary basins by the submarine venting of hydrothermal fluids. These deposits are typically hosted in shale. Subsequently, Hydrothermal epithermal deposits consist of geological veins or groups of closely spaced geological veins. Finally, Mississippi Valley-type are hosted in limestone or dolostone that was deposited on shallow marine environment in a tectonically stable intraplate environment. As expected in such an environment, volcanic rocks, folding and regional metamorphism are absent as a general rule. MVT deposits commonly lie in close proximity to evapourites.[5]

Background

Schematic cross-section of a hydrothermal system, represented from Edwards and Atkinson (1985).

A mineral ore deposit is the volume of rock that can be mined at a profit.[6] Therefore, there are many variants that can define whether a mineral deposit is profitable or not, such as price, tonnage, location to name a few. Mineral commodities can be classified as metals or non-metals.[7] Metals refer to elements of the periodic table which include base, ferrous, minor fissionable and precious metals. In the other hand, non-metals refer to industrial minerals such as gypsum, diamonds, oil, coal and aggregates. According to many experts, deposits are scarce.[8]

Hydrothermal mineral deposits play a great role in our everyday lives since the production from these orebodies make life possible as we know it.

Mineral Deposit Classification [9]
Igneous Ore minerals are precipitated directly from a magma.
Sedimentary Ore minerals are concentrated or formed by sedimentary processes.
Metamorphic Ore minerals are formed during metamorphism.
Hydrothermal Ore minerals are precipitated by a hydrothermal solution percolating

through intergranular spaces and along bedding planes and fractures in the host rocks

.According to some authors, the hydrothermal solutions can have four origins, although any single volume of hydrothermal solution is commonly a mixture of two or more types:[10]

  1. Deuteric fluid derived from magma at a late stage of crystallization
  2. Fluid derived by progressive removal of hydrothermal fluids during regional metamorphism
  3. Meteoric water descending from the surface
  4. Fluid formed by the degassing of the core and mantle

Ore minerals can form at the same time and from the same processes as the host rock, also termed as syngenetic, they can form slightly after the formation of the host rock, perhaps during weathering or compaction, also termed as diagenetic, or they can form much later than the host rock or epigenetic [11]. Host rock is the rock surrounding the ore deposit.[12] [5]

Hydrothermal Deposit Subcategory Known

Abbreviation

Formation Principal Metals Host Rocks
Porphyry - Diagenetic Cu, Mo, Au The ore is spatially associated with one or more high-level intrusions of felsic to intermediate composition such as granite, granodiorite or diorite.[13]
Skarn - Diagenetic Cu, Mo, Ag, Au A skarn deposit is an assemblage of ore and calc-silicate minerals, formed by metasomatic replacement of carbonate rocks in the contact aureole of a pluton.[14]
Volcanogenic Massive Sulphide VMS Syngenetic Cu, Zn, Pb The host rocks are mainly volcanic, with the felsic volcanic rocks pointing to a convergent setting (island arc or orogenic belt).[15]
Sedimentary Exhalative SEDEX Syngenetic Zn, Pb These deposits are commonly stratiform and are typically hosted in shale.[3]
Epithermal - Epigenetic Au, Ag The host rocks can be sheared muscovite granite, small plutons.
Mississippi Valley-type MVT Epigenetic Pb, Zn MVT deposits are hosted in carbonate rocks, whereas sedex deposits

are found within marine shales

Porphyry Ore Deposits

Hypothetical cross-section of an island arc volcano showing intrusions emplaced into the core of the volcano. During the development of porphyry-type ore, one or more intrusions would have generated a separate hydrothermal fluid phase and/or acted as a heat source to drive convection of meteoric waters (see red arrows).

Porphyry deposits account for most of the copper and molybdenum world production, 60 and 95 percent of its supply respectively.

Porphyry-type ore deposits form in hydrothermal fluid circulation systems developed above and around high-level, subvolcanic felsic to intermediate magma chambers and/or cooling plutons. Then, the ore is temporally and genetically related to the intrusions, but did not precipitate directly from the magma.[16]

Formation

Porphyry mineral deposits are formed when two plate tectonic plates collide in an advanced subduction zone, then cools off reacting with existing rocks and finally forming a copper deposit. The level of displacement is usually shallow at less than two kilometers below surface in an active volcanic activity.

An example for a typical arc-island porphyry deposit is described as follows:[17]

  1. The formation starts during early volcanism on the seafloor above a subduction zone in an oceanic-oceanic collision zone
  2. Then as the magma crystallizes, volatiles such as water, carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide increases in concentration in the liquid phase.
  3. Eventually, at a very late stage of crystallization, the volatile concentration becomes so great that a separate hydrothermal fluid phase separated from the silicate magma.
  4. As the amount of hydrothermal fluid increases, vapour pressure increases.
  5. At some point, vapour pressure exceeded the strength of the overlying roof rocks and a volcanic explosion took place that fractured the overlying rock.
  6. The sudden reduction in confining pressure on the remaining magma led to instantaneous vigorous boiling of the magma as more and more volatiles separated.
  7. Consequently, the closing of the fractures in the roof rocks by precipitation of minerals allowed confining pressure to increase once again.
  8. As time passed, increasingly felsic magmas rose up into the core of the volcano. Some of these later magmas probably erupted on the surface, forming new layers of volcanic rocks that have since been removed by erosion.

Finally, volcanic activity ceased and erosion removed the upper portions of the volcano and exposed the intrusive rocks and stockwork mineralization that used to lie within.[18]

Porphyry Characteristics

Age Average age of 13 million years ago, continental and oceanic arcs of Tertiary and Quaternary age. [19]
Size Amongst the largest in the world, especially porphyry-type deposits.[20]
Standort The 25 largest gold-rich porphyry deposits are concentrated in the southwest Pacific and South America, with other occurrences in Eurasia, British Columbia, Alaska, and New South Wales.[21]
Host Rocks Ore is associated with one or more subvolcanic intrusions of felsic to intermediate composition such as granite, granodiorite or diorite.[22]
Economic Metals In island arc settings where the host plutons are typically andesitic in composition, the elements of economic interest are mainly copper and gold.

In contrast, those that occur in continental orogenic belts are typically rhyolitic in composition and carry copper, molybdenum and gold, and in some cases tin and/or tungsten.[22]

Grade Commonly low in grade and have relatively low dollar value
Fractures Ore minerals are generally confined to small veinlets and less common larger veins that formed as fracture fillings in the host rocks
Hydrothermal Alteration The wallrock on both sides of each veinlet is typically altered to varying degrees.

The primary siyoutulicate minerals such as feldspar and amphibole are replaced by hydrothermal minerals stable at temperatures of about 400°C or less such as chlorite, epidote, muscovite and quartz.

Where veinlets are close together, the zones of alteration around each veinlet overlap, making the whole rock hydrothermally altered.[23]

Mining Activity Bingham Mine, The Chuquicamata deposit, El Teniente deposit, Henderson Mine

Skarn Mineral Deposits

Skarn Formation - three main stages of this mineral ore deposit formation

Skarn Mineral Deposits tend to be small of size but high of mineral grade. Therefore, it is a balance and challenge to find a profitable skarn orebody.

Geologically speaking, a skarn deposit is an assemblage of ore and calc-silicate minerals, formed by metasomatic replacement of carbonate rocks in the contact aureole of a pluton. Typical calc-silicate minerals are garnet, epidote, pyroxene, chlorite, amphibole and quartz – magnesian minerals dominate if dolomite is replaced whereas calcic minerals dominate where limestone is replaced.[24]

Skarn deposits are of economic interest, since they are the source of numerous metals as well as minerals of industrial application.

Formation

Skarn formation, as illustrated in the figure on the right, can be explained in three stages:[25]

  1. Intrusion of a felsic to intermediate magma body rich in volatiles. Contact metamorphism and minor metasomatism, skarn formation, occurs in favorable locations.
  2. Continued crystallization of the magma and widespread release of volatiles as a hydrothermal fluid which causes widespread skarn formation and localized brecciation.
  3. Characterized by decreasing temperatures and hydrothermal activity, during which sulfide deposition occurs in veins and retrograde alteration is common.

There is a very close spatial association with the granite, the skarn occurs only within marble which is known to be a very reactive rock type, and the skarn has a chemical composition that is unlike any known igneous or sedimentary rock type. Furthermore, various structures such as flexures in the contact or impermeable hornfels beds affected the distribution and ore grade of the skarn zones.[26]

Skarn Characteristics

Size Relatively small, they tend to be less than 10 million tonnes, although a few large ones exist such as the Mission mine in Arizona, 320 million tonnes.
Economic Metals Tungsten, tin, molybdenum, copper, iron, lead-zinc and gold ores.[27]
Geologic Features Nonfoliate rock textures created by contact metamorphism such as hornfels and marble
Level of Emplacement Close proximity to a felsic to intermediate pluton of relatively large size. Therefore, shallow depths.
Grade Ore zones may grade laterally into calcic or dolomitic marble
Geometry Equidimensional geometries are most common.

Many orebodies are elongate along structural weaknesses such as faults and bedding planes

The largest and thickest orebodies tend to occur where carbonate beds lie immediately above gently inclined pluton contacts.[27]

Mining Activity Grasberg and Ertsberg Mines are part of a single mining complex in the glacier-capped mountains of Irian Jaya, Indonesia.

Together, they comprise the single largest copper-gold mine in the world, with reserves of 2.8 billion tonnes grading 1.1% Cu and 1.1 g/t Au.[28]

Epithermal Hydrothermal Vein Deposits

Ascending hydrothermal solutions rich in gold, sulfur and metals were channelled upward along major fracture and fault zones. Fluid that made it to the surface would have vented as hot springs and geysers. Localized erosion through the thrust sheet has created windows into the underlying ore-bearing rocks. Edwards and Atkinson (1985).

Hydrothermal vein ore deposits consist of discrete veins or groups of closely spaced veins. Veins are believed to be precipitated by hydrothermal solutions travelling along discontinuities in a rockmass.[29] They are commonly epithermal in origin, that is to say they form at relatively high crustal levels and moderate to low temperatures. They are epigenetic since they form after their host rocks.

Formation

Hydrothermal vein deposits fall into 3 main categories:

  1. Felsic pluton association - many veins are spatially associated with felsic plutons, presumably because a pluton is a source of deuteric fluids.
  2. Mafic volcanic rock association - many veins and vein packages occur within mafic volcanic sequences such as the greenstone belts of the Canadian Shield.
  3. The metasedimentary association.

There are two main possibilities for the origin of the ore, both of which are hydrothermal:[30]

One possibility, the rise of a small body of felsic magma may have led to either the:

  1. Release of deuteric hydrothermal fluid, or
  2. The creation of a convective meteoric water system driven by the hot pluton.

Elements were leached from the already solidified portions of the pluton. The fluids would have migrated upward and outward, following fractures in the solidified part of the granite pluton, precipitating ore minerals in veins and altering the wallrocks.

The other possibility, a regional shearing event developed in the crust. Shearing take place at temperatures on the order of 300- 400°C. Thus, the shearing event may have been accompanied by the generation and movement of hydrothermal fluid as the crust was subjected to prograde devolatilization.[31] This fluid might have leached the ore elements from one part of the granite pluton and reprecipitated them in veins in another part of the same pluton, effectively concentrating them.

Characteristics

Epithermal ore deposits form at shallow depth. This conclusion was initially based on geologic reconstructions, ore mineralogy and related textures.[32] It has subsequently been refined with fluid inclusion data to indicate that epithermal ores form over the temperature range of less than 150 to 300 Celsius degrees, from the surface to as deep as 1 to 2 km.[33] Hydrothermal vein deposits are typically tabular (two-dimensional) in geometry.

Mining Activity

Good examples are the gold-silver veins in northwestern Nevada and large ion veins such as the fluorine veins in the St. Lawrence mine in Newfoundland and the tin-bearing veins that made up the East Kemptville Mine in southwestern Nova Scotia.

Volcanogenic Massive Sulfide Mineral Deposits

The origin of modern seafloor smokers and ancient volcanogenic massive sulfide deposits: mafic magma at depth (perhaps a few kilometers beneath the surface) acts as a heat source, causing convective circulation of seawater through the oceanic crust.  

Volcanogenic Massive Sulfide (VMS) are responsible for almost a quarter of the world's zinc production while contributing for lead, silver and copper as well. VMS deposits tend to be of great size since they form over a long period of time and have a relatively high grade in valuable minerals. The main minerals in this deposit are sulphide minerals such as pyrite, sphalerite, chalcopyrite and galena.

The term “massive sulfide” deposit refers to any deposit containing more than 50% sulfide minerals. The modifier “volcanogenic” indicates that the massive sulfides are believed to be genetically related to volcanism that was ongoing at the time of sulfide deposition. Thus, VMS deposits are believed to be syngenetic or perhaps slightly diagenetic in age relative to their host volcanic rocks.

Formation

Deposition of VMS is due to mainly two reasons:

  1. Mixing between upwelling hot ore-bearing fluids and the cold down-moving water.
  2. Cooling of the upflowing hot hydrothermal solution.

The majority of deposits are formed in subduction-related arc and back-arc systems, either in oceanic environments or at the transition from oceanic to continental crust.[34]

VMS deposits form in zones of extension and active volcanism. The original fluid is mainly cold, alkaline, deficient in metals sea water and in some cases it can include a lesser proportion of magmatic fluid.

The main source of the minerals comes from the volcanic rocks through which the sea water flows, taking with it the minerals of the volcanic rock.

The sea water is heated, convection currents are formed and they ascend carrying the minerals which are discharged at the bottom of the sea or immediately below the surface in the form of black smokers.[35]

Magma rises up from the mantle and then cools off in the crust and then releases volatile fluids that contain metals that are eventually transported up to the surface and over time these accumulations become mineral deposits.

As the high-temperature volatile fluids from the magma make contact with low-temperature liquids such as seawater that travel downwards via cracks and faults, producing, due to the large difference in temperature and chemical properties, black smokers that end up showing up in the seafloor.

The host rocks are mainly volcanic, with the felsic volcanic rocks pointing to a convergent setting such as an island arc or orogenic belt. Minor sedimentary beds such as chert and slate are found in VMS depositsd and they indicate marine deposition, below wave base.

VMS deposits formed on the seafloor, in the same way that modern seafloor smokers are forming today. The most recent compilations of VMS deposits on land include about 1,100 deposits in more than 50 countries and 150 different mining camps or districts.[36]

VMS Characteristics

Age Almost any age of terrain can potentially host a VMS deposit.

The oldest VMS style deposits are some 3.4 billion years old while the youngest are being deposited today in oceans including the Red Sea and the western Pacific Ocean.[37]

Size Individual lenses that are a hundred meters thick and extend hundred meters along strike. The median deposit size is only about 70,000 tonnes. The average concentrations

of metals based on analyses of surface samples are 3.6 wt percent Cu, 7.9 wt percent Zn, 0.4 wt percent Pb, 1.7 g/t Au, and 115 g/t Ag.[38]

Types There are three of types of sulfide ore that can be found in these mineral deposits.[39]
  1. Stringer ore, quartz-chalcopyrite-pyrite veins, is prominent at the stratigraphic base of the ore.
  2. Massive sulfide ore locally shows primary stratiform features such as lamination and grading.
  3. Breccia ore is common near the top of the ore, with sulfide fragments as large as 10 m or more in diameter. Although the breccia may be the result of hydrofracturing or
  4. slumping in a seafloor smoker, a tectonic origin such as faulting, cannot be discounted. The ore is Zn-rich at the top and Cu-rich at the base.
Geometry Typically tabular to lensoid, and range from less than 1 to more than 150 million tonnes. They often occur in clusters.
Economic Minerals Chalcopyrite (Cu), sphalerite (Zn), galena (Pb), silver and gold. The dominant gangue minerals are quartz, pyrite and pyrrhotite.

Lenses of barite (BaSO4), gypsum or anhydrite are associated with the sulfides in some deposits.[40]

Mining Activity Flin Flon, Manitoba, Canada, Kidd Creek Mine, Ontario, Canada

Sedimentary Exhalative Mineral Deposits

The petrogenetic model for the origin of the Red Sea sulfide deposits. Cold seawater (blue arrows) enters the seafloor via deep-seated fractures. As it descends, it heats up and leaches Si, metals and other solutes from the seafloor basalts.

Sedimentary Exhalative (SEDEX) deposits account for 40% of total world zinc production, 60% of lead and a significant proportion of silver. Despite their economic importance however, sedex deposits are relatively rare. A worldwide compilation of sedex deposits indicates that about 70 are known, of which 24 have been or are being mined. The majority is uneconomic to mine because of relatively low grade or unusually fine grain size, making mill recovery rather low.[41]

SEDEX deposits are lead-zinc sulfide deposits formed in intracratonic rift basins by the submarine venting of hydrothermal fluids. These deposits are commonly stratiform, tabular - lenticular and are typically hosted in shale however, sedimentary rocks detrictics or even carbonates could be the host.

Formation

SEDEX deposits form in sedimentary basins under a regional tectonic extensional environment, under the ocean where cold seawater (blue arrows) is mixed with basin water and through sinsedimentary faults flow towards the bottom of the basin, which are heated by the geothermal gradient, and later ascends by convective currents (red arrows).[42]

Model for the origin of the Red Sea sulfide deposits. Cold seawater (blue arrows) enters the seafloor via deep-seated fractures. As it descends, it heats up and leaches Si, metals and other solutes from the seafloor basalts.

The source of sulfur can be by bacterial reduction of marine sulphate a process that takes place at the bottom of the basin. It can also come from the washing of the infrayacentes series or by the thermochemical reduction of the marine sulphate. Precipitation of sulfide minerals could be triggered by i) inorganic precipitation and/or ii) bacterial precipitation.

SEDEX Characteristics

Size Average 41 million tonnes

Generally take the form of stratiform lenses with maximum thicknesses in the range of just 5 to 20 m..

In contrast, sphalerite tends to be concentrated in the lower grade outer portions of the orebodies.[43]

Grade 6.8% Zn, 3.5% Pb and 50 g/t Ag
Ore Minerals Zinc and lead sulfides are the primary economic minerals associated with these deposits.

Silver, copper tin and tungsten may also be deposited in economic quantities. Barite (barium sulfate) is also common in these settings

Geometry Form of stratiform lenses with maximum thicknesses in the range of just 5 to 20 meters.
Mining Activity Mt Isa, Australia, Red Dog, USA, Sullivan Mine

Mississippi Valley Type Mineral Deposits

Formation

MVT deposits petrogenetic model in general - Carbonate sand banks deposited on a shallow tropical marine platform separated very shallow water evapourite basins (landward) and deeper water muds (seaward).

The deposits are hosted in limestone or dolostone that was deposited on shallow marine platforms in a tectonically stable intraplate environment. As expected in such an environment, volcanic rocks, folding and regional metamorphism are absent as a general rule. MVT deposits commonly lie in close proximity to evapourites and/or beneath unconformities.[44]

Deposits are discordant to bedding on a deposit scale, and are confined to specific stratigraphic horizons. Ore-hosting structures are most commonly zones of highly brecciated dolostone – these structures may be more or less vertical, crossing bedding at high angles, or they may be lensoid in shape extending in the same direction as bedding.

A petrogenetic model to explain MVT deposits in general:

  1. The ore minerals fill cavities and fractures in dolostone. Hence, they must be hydrothermal and epigenetic in origin.
  2. The hydrothermal fluids involved must have been fairly low in temperature since no rocks in the region are metamorphosed in any way. In addition, the presence of numerous cavities implies that the rocks were so shallow that confined pressure was insufficient to collapse the cavities. Moreover, the sphalerite is generally very pale yellow – this means that it was a low temperature sphalerite rich in zinc and low in iron.
  3. Ore deposition occurred close to the surface, during or soon after karst development.

Deposits are discordant to bedding on a deposit scale. Ore-hosting structures are most commonly zolinknes of highly brecciated dolostone – these structures may be more or less vertical, crossing bedding at high angles, or they may be lensoid in shape extending in the same direction as bedding.

MVT Characteristics

Size Tend to be less than 10 million tonnes each, and they tend to occur in clusters.

As many as 400 individual deposits occur within the upper Mississippi Valley mining district alone. [45]

Grade Generally fall between 5% and 15% combined Pb plus Zn.

Iron sulfides are commonly minor, although pyrite and chalcopyrite can be present and are even abundant in a few deposits.[44]

Host rocks Limestones and dolostones, deposited on shallow marine platforms in a tectonically stable intraplate environment
Ore minerals Sphalerite and galena
Mining Activity Pine Point Mine, NWT

Mississippi Valley-type deposits can be compared with the Red Sea deposits, which we take to be modern analogues of ancient sedex deposits. The following differences are relevant:[46]

  • MVT deposits are hosted in carbonate rocks, whereas sedex deposits are found within marine shales
  • MVT deposits are believed to form in very shallow water, most likely less than 50 meters in depth, whereas sedex deposits can form under relatively deep marine conditions
  • Mineralization is characterized by coarse grain size, cavities, breccia fragments and euhedral crystals. In contrast, sedex mineralization is commonly fine grained and laminated
  • MVT deposits are stratabound whereas sedex deposits tend to be stratiform
  • Copper and pyrite/pyrrhotite are generally absent or minor in MVT deposits, whereas they can be more abundant in SEDEX deposits.

See also

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Hydrothermal mineral deposit.

References

  1. ^ Wilkinson, Jamie J. (2013-10-13). "Triggers for the formation of porphyry ore deposits in magmatic arcs". Nature Geoscience. 6 (11): 917–925. doi:10.1038/ngeo1940. ISSN 1752-0894.
  2. ^ Misra, Kula C. (2000), "Formation of Mineral Deposits", Understanding Mineral Deposits, Springer Netherlands, pp. 5–92, ISBN 9789401057523, retrieved 2018-11-13
  3. ^ a b Deb, Mihir; Sarkar, Sanjib Chandra (2017), "Energy Resources", Minerals and Allied Natural Resources and their Sustainable Development, Springer Singapore, pp. 351–419, ISBN 9789811045639, retrieved 2018-10-08
  4. ^ Peters, W.C. (1987-01-01). Exploration and mining geology. Second edition.
  5. ^ a b Skinner, Brian J. (2005-01). "INTRODUCTION TO ORE-FORMING PROCESSES,". American Mineralogist. 90 (1): 276.1–276. doi:10.2138/am.2005.426. ISSN 0003-004X. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  6. ^ M., Guilbert, John (2007). The geology of ore deposits. Waveland Pr. ISBN 1577664957. OCLC 918452788.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  7. ^ Misra, Kula C. (2000), "Formation of Mineral Deposits", Understanding Mineral Deposits, Springer Netherlands, pp. 5–92, ISBN 9789401057523, retrieved 2018-11-13
  8. ^ Misra, Kula C. (2000), "Formation of Mineral Deposits", Understanding Mineral Deposits, Springer Netherlands, pp. 5–92, ISBN 9789401057523, retrieved 2018-11-13
  9. ^ Edwards, Richard; Atkinson, Keith (1986). "Ore Deposit Geology and its Influence on Mineral Exploration". doi:10.1007/978-94-011-8056-6. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  10. ^ Hedenquist, Jeffrey; Lowenstern, Jacob (1994-08-18). "The role of magmas in the formation of hydrothermal ore deposits". Nature. 370: 519–527. doi:10.1038/370519a0.
  11. ^ Ore Deposit Geology and its Influence on Mineral Exploration | Richard Edwards | Springer.
  12. ^ C., Misra, Kula (2000). Understanding mineral deposits. Kluwer academic. ISBN 0045530092. OCLC 468703479.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  13. ^ Robb, James (2005-10). "Editorial". Gait & Posture. 22 (2): 95. doi:10.1016/j.gaitpost.2005.07.009. ISSN 0966-6362. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  14. ^ Guilbert, J. M. (1986). <816b:br>2.0.co;2 "BOOK REVIEWS". Geology. 14 (9): 816. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1986)14<816b:br>2.0.co;2. ISSN 0091-7613.
  15. ^ Falcon, N. L.; Jensen, Mead L.; Bateman, Alan M.; Dixon, Colin J. (1981-03). "Economic Mineral Deposits". The Geographical Journal. 147 (1): 101. doi:10.2307/633431. ISSN 0016-7398. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  16. ^ Wilkinson, Jamie J. (2013-10-13). "Triggers for the formation of porphyry ore deposits in magmatic arcs". Nature Geoscience. 6 (11): 917–925. doi:10.1038/ngeo1940. ISSN 1752-0894.
  17. ^ Wilkinson, Jamie J. (2013-10-13). "Triggers for the formation of porphyry ore deposits in magmatic arcs". Nature Geoscience. 6 (11): 917–925. doi:10.1038/ngeo1940. ISSN 1752-0894.
  18. ^ Ulrich, T.; Günther, D.; Heinrich, C. A. (1999-06). "Gold concentrations of magmatic brines and the metal budget of porphyry copper deposits". Nature. 399 (6737): 676–679. doi:10.1038/21406. ISSN 0028-0836. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  19. ^ D Sinclair, W (2007-01-01). "Porphyry deposits". Geological Association of Canada, Mineral Deposits Division, Special Publication. 5: 223–243.
  20. ^ Schwartz, George Melvin (1947-06-01). "Hydrothermal alteration in the "porphyry copper" deposits". Economic Geology. 42 (4): 319–352. doi:10.2113/gsecongeo.42.4.319. ISSN 1554-0774.
  21. ^ Cooke, D. R. (2005-08-01). "Giant Porphyry Deposits: Characteristics, Distribution, and Tectonic Controls". Economic Geology. 100 (5): 801–818. doi:10.2113/100.5.801. ISSN 0361-0128.
  22. ^ a b Cooke, D. R. (2005-08-01). "Giant Porphyry Deposits: Characteristics, Distribution, and Tectonic Controls". Economic Geology. 100 (5): 801–818. doi:10.2113/100.5.801. ISSN 0361-0128.
  23. ^ Edwards, Richard; Atkinson, Keith (1986), "Magmatic hydrothermal deposits", Ore Deposit Geology and its Influence on Mineral Exploration, Springer Netherlands, pp. 69–142, ISBN 9789401180580, retrieved 2018-10-02
  24. ^ Einaudi, Marco T.; Burt, Donald M. (1982-07-01). "Introduction; terminology, classification, and composition of skarn deposits". Economic Geology. 77 (4): 745–754. doi:10.2113/gsecongeo.77.4.745. ISSN 1554-0774.
  25. ^ Williams-Jones, A. E. (2005-10-01). "100th Anniversary Special Paper: Vapor Transport of Metals and the Formation of Magmatic-Hydrothermal Ore Deposits". Economic Geology. 100 (7): 1287–1312. doi:10.2113/100.7.1287. ISSN 0361-0128.
  26. ^ "GEORGE FRANCIS ATKINSON". Science. 49 (1268): 371–372. 1919-04-18. doi:10.1126/science.49.1268.371. ISSN 0036-8075.
  27. ^ a b "The Meanings and Features of Skarns", W-Sn Skarn Deposits and Related Metamorphic Skarns and Granitoids, Elsevier, pp. 27–53, 1987, ISBN 9780444428202, retrieved 2018-11-12
  28. ^ Meinert, Lawrence D.; Hefton, Kristopher K.; Mayes, David; Tasiran, Ian (1997-08-01). "Geology, zonation, and fluid evolution of the Big Gossan Cu-Au skarn deposit, Ertsberg District, Irian Jaya". Economic Geology. 92 (5): 509–534. doi:10.2113/gsecongeo.92.5.509. ISSN 1554-0774.
  29. ^ Edwards, Richard; Atkinson, Keith (1986). "Ore Deposit Geology and its Influence on Mineral Exploration". doi:10.1007/978-94-011-8056-6. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  30. ^ Rowland, J. V.; Simmons, S. F. (2012-04-04). "Hydrologic, Magmatic, and Tectonic Controls on Hydrothermal Flow, Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand: Implications for the Formation of Epithermal Vein Deposits". Economic Geology. 107 (3): 427–457. doi:10.2113/econgeo.107.3.427. ISSN 0361-0128.
  31. ^ Deb, Mihir; Sarkar, Sanjib Chandra (2017), "Energy Resources", Minerals and Allied Natural Resources and their Sustainable Development, Springer Singapore, pp. 351–419, ISBN 9789811045639, retrieved 2018-11-12
  32. ^ Lindgren, J. (1933). "Komet 1933 a (Peltier)". Astronomische Nachrichten. 249 (17): 307–308. doi:10.1002/asna.19332491705. ISSN 0004-6337.
  33. ^ W., Hedenquist, J. (1996). Epithermal gold deposits : styles, characteristics, and exploration. Society of Resource Geology. OCLC 38057627.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  34. ^ Hannington, Mark D.; Jamieson, John; Petersen, Sven (2015-05). "Seafloor massive sulfide deposits: Continuing efforts toward a global estimate of seafloor massive sulfides". OCEANS 2015 - Genova. IEEE. doi:10.1109/oceans-genova.2015.7271526. ISBN 9781479987368. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  35. ^ Sangster, D F (1977). "Some Grade and Tonnage Relationships Among Canadian Volcanogenic Massive Sulphide Deposits". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  36. ^ Davis, Franklin A.; et al. (2005-08-23). "Asymmetric Synthesis Using Sulfinimines (N-Sulfinyl Imines)". ChemInform. 36 (34). doi:10.1002/chin.200534036. ISSN 0931-7597. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |first2= (help); Explicit use of et al. in: |last2= (help)
  37. ^ Herrington, Richard; Maslennikov, Valeriy; Zaykov, Victor; Seravkin, Igor; Kosarev, Alexander; Buschmann, Bernd; Orgeval, Jean-Jacques; Holland, Nicola; Tesalina, Svetlana (2005-11). "6: Classification of VMS deposits: Lessons from the South Uralides". Ore Geology Reviews. 27 (1–4): 203–237. doi:10.1016/j.oregeorev.2005.07.014. ISSN 0169-1368. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  38. ^ Hannington, Mark D.; Jamieson, John; Petersen, Sven (2015-05). "Seafloor massive sulfide deposits: Continuing efforts toward a global estimate of seafloor massive sulfides". OCEANS 2015 - Genova. IEEE. doi:10.1109/oceans-genova.2015.7271526. ISBN 9781479987368. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  39. ^ Allen, Rodney L.; Weihed, Par; Svenson, Sven-Ake (1996-10-01). "Setting of Zn-Cu-Au-Ag massive sulfide deposits in the evolution and facies architecture of a 1.9 Ga marine volcanic arc, Skellefte District, Sweden". Economic Geology. 91 (6): 1022–1053. doi:10.2113/gsecongeo.91.6.1022. ISSN 1554-0774.
  40. ^ Herrington, Richard; Maslennikov, Valeriy; Zaykov, Victor; Seravkin, Igor; Kosarev, Alexander; Buschmann, Bernd; Orgeval, Jean-Jacques; Holland, Nicola; Tesalina, Svetlana (2005-11). "6: Classification of VMS deposits: Lessons from the South Uralides". Ore Geology Reviews. 27 (1–4): 203–237. doi:10.1016/j.oregeorev.2005.07.014. ISSN 0169-1368. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  41. ^ Sangster, Donald F. (2001-10-17). "The role of dense brines in the formation of vent-distal sedimentary-exhalative (SEDEX) lead–zinc deposits: field and laboratory evidence". Mineralium Deposita. 37 (2): 149–157. doi:10.1007/s00126-001-0216-9. ISSN 0026-4598.
  42. ^ Laznicka, Peter (2010), "From trace metals to giant deposits", Giant Metallic Deposits, Springer Berlin Heidelberg, pp. 59–68, ISBN 9783642124044, retrieved 2018-11-13
  43. ^ Taylor, Cliff D.; Johnson, Craig A. (2010). "Geology, geochemistry, and genesis of the Greens Creek massive sulfide deposit, Admiralty Island, southeastern Alaska". Professional Paper. doi:10.3133/pp1763. ISSN 2330-7102.
  44. ^ a b Taylor, Cliff D.; Johnson, Craig A. (2010). "Geology, geochemistry, and genesis of the Greens Creek massive sulfide deposit, Admiralty Island, southeastern Alaska". Professional Paper. doi:10.3133/pp1763. ISSN 2330-7102.
  45. ^ Song, X. (1994), "Sediment-Hosted Pb-Zn Deposits in China: Mineralogy, Geochemistry and Comparison with Some Similar Deposits in the World", Sediment-Hosted Zn-Pb Ores, Springer Berlin Heidelberg, pp. 333–353, ISBN 9783662030561, retrieved 2018-11-12
  46. ^ Song, X. (1994), "Sediment-Hosted Pb-Zn Deposits in China: Mineralogy, Geochemistry and Comparison with Some Similar Deposits in the World", Sediment-Hosted Zn-Pb Ores, Springer Berlin Heidelberg, pp. 333–353, ISBN 9783662030561, retrieved 2018-11-12

https://www.geologyforinvestors.com/

Look up hydrothermal mineral deposit in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hydrothermal_mineral_deposit&oldid=869069371"