Jump to content

Solar power in the United States

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This is an old revision of this page, as edited by Johnfos (talk | contribs) at 22:41, 27 June 2014 (→‎Solar thermal power (CSP): collapse). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this revision, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

Part of the 354 MW SEGS solar complex in northern San Bernardino County, California.
President Barack Obama addressed an audience of more than 450 people at the Nellis Solar Power Plant on May 27, 2009.
A view of solar panels installed in 2011 on the roof of Space and Naval Warfare Systems Command Headquarters, San Diego. The rooftop photovoltaic installation supports the Department of Defense's goal of increasing renewable energy sources to 25 percent of all energy consumed by the year 2025.

Solar power in the United States includes utility-scale solar power plants as well as local distributed generation, mostly from rooftop photovoltaics. In mid-2013, the U.S. passed 10 GW of installed photovoltaic capacity[1] with an additional 0.5 GW of concentrated solar power. In the twelve months through April 2014, utility scale solar power generated 11.65 million megawatt-hours, 0.28% of total US electricity.[2]

The United States conducted much early research in photovoltaics and concentrated solar power. The U.S. is among the top countries in the world in electricity generated by the Sun and several of the world's largest utility-scale installations are located in the desert Southwest. The oldest solar power plant in the world is the 354 MW SEGS thermal power plant, in California.[3] The Ivanpah Solar Electric Generating System is a solar thermal power project in the California Mojave Desert, 40 miles (64 km) southwest of Las Vegas, with a gross capacity of 392 megawatts (MW).[4] The 280 MW Solana Generating Station is a solar power plant near Gila Bend, Arizona, about 70 miles (110 km) southwest of Phoenix, completed in 2013. When commissioned it was the largest parabolic trough plant in the world and the first U.S. solar plant with molten salt thermal energy storage.[5]

There are plans to build many other large solar plants in the United States. Many states have set individual renewable energy goals with solar power being included in various proportions. Governor Jerry Brown has signed legislation requiring California's utilities to obtain 33 percent of their electricity from renewable energy sources by the end of 2020.[6] A total of 4,324 MW of utility scale solar power plants are under construction and an additional 25,926 MW are under development, with 19,060 MW under construction or development in California.[when?]

Availability

US annual average solar energy received by a latitude tilt photovoltaic cell (modeled).

A 1993 report by the United States Department of Energy found available domestic solar energy (including biomass) technically accessible regardless of cost amounted to 586,687 Quadrillion BTUs (Quads); 95% of this was biomass. Coal represented the second largest resource, a distant 38,147 Quads. Predictions of how much solar power was economically feasible to collect amounted to 352 quads, compared with 5,266 quads from coal. The assumptions used in the report were based on a predicted 2010 price of a barrel of oil being $38, and multiplied annual renewable resources by 30 for comparison with non-renewable resources.[7] The total annual energy consumption of the United States in 2007 was approximately 100 Quads,[8] less than 0.5% of what is theoretically available from sunlight.

A 2012 report from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory described technically available renewable energy resources for each state and estimated that urban utility scale photovoltaics could supply 2,232 TWh/year, rural utility scale PV 280,613 TWh/year, rooftop PV 818 TWh/year, and CSP 116,146 TWh/year, for a total of almost 400,000 TWh/year, 100 times current consumption of 3,856 TWh in 2011.[9][10] Onshore wind potential is estimated at 32,784 TWh/year, and offshore wind at 16,976 TWh/year. The total available from all renewable resources is estimated at 481,963 TWh/year.[11]

Growth

US solar electricity production since 1985
Monthly solar power generation in the US since 2008
Trends in commercial solar electrical power generation in the top five states,1990-2012 (US EIA data)

Solar energy deployment increased at a record pace in the United States and throughout the world in 2008, according to industry reports. The Solar Energy Industries Association's "2008 U.S. Solar Industry Year in Review" found that U.S. solar energy capacity increased by 17% in 2007, reaching the total equivalent of 8,775 megawatts (MW). The SEIA report tallies all types of solar energy, and in 2007 the United States installed 342 MW of solar photovoltaic (PV) electric power, 139 thermal megawatts (MWth) of solar water heating, 762 MWth of pool heating, and 21 MWth of solar space heating and cooling.[12]

A report finds that solar power's contribution could grow to 10% of the nation's power needs by 2025:

"The report, prepared by research and publishing firm Clean Edge and the nonprofit Co-op America, projects nearly 2% of the nation's electricity coming from concentrating solar power systems, while solar photovoltaic systems will provide more than 8% of the nation's electricity. Those figures correlate to nearly 50,000 megawatts of solar photovoltaic systems and more than 6,600 megawatts of concentrating solar power.[13]
"As noted in the report, solar power has been expanding rapidly in the past eight years, growing at an average pace of 40% per year. The cost per kilowatt-hour of solar photovoltaic systems has also been dropping, while electricity generated from fossil fuels is becoming more expensive. As a result, the report projects that solar power will reach cost parity with conventional power sources in many U.S. markets by 2015. But to reach the 10% goal, solar photovoltaic companies will also need to streamline installations and make solar power a "plug-and-play" technology, that is, it must be simple and straightforward to buy the components of the system, connect them together, and connect the system to the power grid.[13]
"The report also places some of the responsibility with electric utilities, which will need to take advantage of the benefits of solar power, incorporate it into future "smart grid" technologies, and create new business models for building solar power capacity. The report also calls for establishing long-term extensions of today's investment and production tax credits, creating open standards for connecting solar power systems to the grid, and giving utilities the ability to include solar power in their rate base."[13]

According to a study by the Solar Energy Industries Association and GTM Research, 878 megawatts (MW) of photovoltaic (PV) capacity and 78 MW of concentrating solar power (CSP) were installed in the U.S. in 2010, enough to power roughly 200,000 homes. In addition, more than 65,000 homes and businesses added solar water heating (SWH) or solar pool heating (SPH) systems. This was double the 435 MW installed in 2009 around the U.S.[14]

According to a 2011 survey conducted by independent polling firm Kelton Research, nine out of 10 Americans support the use and development of solar technology. Eight out of 10 respondents indicated that "the federal government should support solar manufacturing in the U.S. and should give federal subsidies for solar energy".[15] According to the Energy Information Administration, in 2010, subsidies to the solar power industry amounted to 8.2% ($968 million) of all federal subsidies for electricity generation.[16]

Solar Energy Industries Association and GTM Research found that the amount of new solar electric capacity increased in 2012 by 76 percent from 2011, raising the United States’ market share of the world’s installations above 10 percent, up from roughly 5 to 7 percent in the last seven years.[17]

Solar thermal power

Nevada Solar One, with the Las Vegas Valley beyond the mountains behind it.

History

One of the first applications of concentrated solar was the 6 hp solar powered motor made by H.E. Willsie and John Boyle in 1904.[18]

An early solar pioneer of the 19th and 20th century, Frank Shuman, built a demonstration plant that used solar power to pump water using an array of mirrors in a trough to generate steam. Located in Philadelphia, the solar water pump station was capable of pumping 3000 gallons an hour (25 hp)[19] at that latitude. After seven weeks of testing the plant was disassembled and shipped to Egypt for testing as an irrigation plant.[20]

In 1973, Karl Böer of the University of Delaware built an experimental house called the Solar One, the first house to convert sunlight into energy.[21]

Selected list of plants

Main article: List of solar thermal power stations
Looking north towards the Ivanpah Solar Power Facility's eastern boiler tower from Interstate 15 in California.

The U.S. pioneered solar tower and trough technologies. A number of different solar thermal technologies are in use in the U.S.

The largest and oldest solar power plant in the world is the 354 MW SEGS thermal power plant, in California.[3] The 64 MW Nevada Solar One uses parabolic trough technology in one of the largest solar plants in the world.

The Ivanpah Solar Electric Generating System is a solar thermal power project in the California Mojave Desert, 40 miles (64 km) southwest of Las Vegas, with a planned gross capacity of 392 megawatts (MW).[4] It deploys 173,500 heliostats each with two mirrors focusing solar energy on boilers located on centralized solar power towers.[4] Unit 1 of the project was connected to the grid in September 2013 in an initial sync testing.[22] The facility formally opened on February 13, 2014,[23] and the three units should be fully operational before the end of 2014[24]

The Solana Generating Station is a solar power plant near Gila Bend, Arizona, about 70 miles (110 km) southwest of Phoenix, completed in 2013. When commissioned it was the largest parabolic trough plant in the world and the first U.S. solar plant with molten salt thermal energy storage.[5] Built by the Spanish company Abengoa Solar,[25] it has a total capacity of 280 megawatts (MW),[25] which is enough to power 70,000 homes while avoiding around 475,000 tons of carbon dioxide.[25] Its name is the Spanish term for "sunny spot".[26]

The Martin Next Generation Solar Energy Center is a hybrid 75-megawatt (MW) parabolic trough solar energy plant that is owned by Florida Power & Light Company (FPL). The solar plant is a component of the 3,705 MW Martin County Power Plant, which is currently the single largest fossil fuel burning power plant in the United States.[27] Completed at the end of 2010,[28] it is located in western Martin County, Florida, just north of Indiantown.

Mojave Solar Project near Harper Lake in California with parabolic troughs in their stow position

The Mojave Solar Project is a 280 MW solar thermal power facility under construction in the Mojave Desert in California, which should be completed in 2014. Abengoa has successfully secured a $1.2 billion loan guarantee from the US government for the project.[29]

The Crescent Dunes Solar Energy Project is a 110 megawatt (MW) solar thermal power project currently under construction near Tonopah, about 230 miles (370 km) northwest of Las Vegas.[30]

As of 26 April 2014, a total of 515 MW of solar thermal power plants are under construction in the United States, with another 3,684 MW under development.[31]

Solar photovoltaic power

Main article: List of photovoltaic power stations
The US EIA projects US solar generating capacity to increase more than tenfold between 2011 and 2040

Prospects

In 2012, 3,313 Megawatts of photovoltaics were installed, which amounts to a 76% growth over 2011's total installed base of 4,383 MW, which itself was a 73% increase over 2010's installed base of 2,528 MW. Projections indicate that upwards of 5,140 MW total photovoltaics will come online in 2013.[32]

Current trends indicate that a large number of photovoltaic power plants will be built in the south and southwest areas, where there is ample land in the sunny deserts of California, Nevada and Arizona. Large properties are being bought there with the aim of building more utility-scale PV power plants.[33] In addition, many of the projects are on BLM public land.[34]

Cell makers

SolarWorld plant in Hillsboro, Oregon

New manufacturing facilities for solar cells and modules in Massachusetts, Michigan, Ohio, Oregon, and Texas promise to add enough capacity to produce thousands of megawatts of solar devices per year within the next few years from 2008:[35]

In late September 2008, Sanyo Electric Company, Ltd. announced its decision to build a manufacturing plant for solar ingots and wafers (the building blocks for silicon solar cells) in Salem, Oregon. The plant will begin operating in October 2009 and will reach its full production capacity of 70 megawatts (MW) of solar wafers per year by April 2010.

In early October 2008, First Solar, Inc. broke ground on an expansion of its Perrysburg, Ohio, planned to add enough capacity to produce another 57 MW per year of solar modules at the facility, bringing its total capacity to roughly 192 MW per year. The company expects to complete construction early next year and reach full production by mid-2010. And in mid-October 2008, SolarWorld AG opened a manufacturing plant in Hillsboro, Oregon, that is expected to produce 500 MW of solar cells per year when it reaches full production in 2011.

Rapidly decreasing photovoltaics prices has put on hold General Electric's planned factory in Colorado,[36] and led to the bankruptcy of Konarka Technologies, which had expected to produce 1,000 MW of solar modules per year by 2011, and Solyndra, which defaulted on a $535 million loan guarantee, prompting Republican members of the Energy and Commerce committee to vote to cease accepting new applications to the loan program.

HelioVolt Corporation opened a manufacturing facility in Austin, Texas that will have an initial capacity to produce 20 MW of solar cells per year. Starting with solar "inks" developed at DOE's National Renewable Energy Laboratory that are deposited with ink jets, HelioVolt employs a proprietary "printing" process to produce solar cells consisting of thin films of copper indium gallium selenide, or CIGS. The technology won an R&D 100 Award in 2008 and it earned an Editor's Choice Award for Most Revolutionary Technology. HelioVolt's "FASST" reactive transfer printing process is 10–100 times faster than other CIGS production processes and can also be combined with vacuum evaporation or ultrasonic spray deposition techniques. At its new Austin manufacturing plant, HelioVolt plans to produce both solar modules and next-generation building-integrated solar products using its FASST process.

In 2012 a 31% tariff on cells made in China is expected to have little effect, as manufacturers such as Trina simply switch to less efficient cells made in Malaysia or Taiwan.[37]

Large-scale PV facilities

Solar array at Nellis Air Force Base. These panels track the sun in one axis. Credit: U.S. Air Force photo by Senior Airman Larry E. Reid Jr.

The largest photovoltaic array in the world is the 250 MW (AC) of the still under construction 290 MW (AC) Agua Caliente Solar Project in Yuma County, Arizona. The project is expected to be completed in 2014.[38][39]

The Mesquite Solar project is a 150 MW power plant in Arlington, Arizona. It will be 700 MW when completed.[40]

The Antelope Valley Solar Ranch is a 100 MW (AC) power plant in California's Antelope Valley. It will be 230 MW (AC) when completed, in 2013.[41]

The Copper Mountain Solar Facility is a 48 megawatt (MW) solar photovoltaic (PV) power plant in Boulder City, Nevada.[42] Sempra Generation constructed the plant in 2010. At its construction peak more than 350 workers were installing the 775,000 First Solar panels on the 380-acre (1.5 km2) site.[42]

The 47.7 megawatt Avenal Solar Facility is the largest photovoltaic (PV) solar project in California. It is located in Kings County, California, north of Los Angeles. Commercial operation began in August 2011. Electricity generated by the power plant is being sold to Pacific Gas and Electric Company under a 20-year power purchase agreement.

The 37 MW Long Island Solar Farm (LISF) is the largest photovoltaic array in the eastern U.S. It earned the Best Photovoltaic Project of Year Award from the New York Solar Energy Industries Association. The LISF is made up of 164,312 solar panels, which provide enough electricity for roughly 4,500 households. Additionally, the project will cause the abatement of more than 30,000 metric tons of carbon dioxide emissions per year.[43]

The DeSoto Next Generation Solar Energy Center is a photovoltaic solar power facility in Arcadia, DeSoto County, Florida owned by Florida Power & Light (FPL).[44] President Barack Obama attended the plant's commissioning on October 27, 2009.[45] It has a nameplate capacity of 25 megawatts (MW) DC[46] and produces an estimated 42,000 megawatt-hours (MW·h) of electricity per year.[47]

The Davidson County Solar Farm is a 17.2 megawatt solar power station located in the heart of North Carolina, near the community of Linwood. SunEdison built the array of photovoltaic panels, and Duke Energy buys all the output from the solar farm.[48]

The Nellis Solar Power Plant is located within Nellis Air Force Base in Clark County, Nevada, on the northeast side of Las Vegas. The Nellis solar energy system will generate in excess of 25 million kilowatt-hours (kW·h) of electricity annually and supply more than 25 percent of the power used at the base.[49] The system was inaugurated in a ceremony on December 17, 2007, with Nevada Governor Jim Gibbons activating full operation of the 14 megawatt (MW) array.[50][51]

A total of 4,995 MW are operating as of March 6, 2014. Other operational PV power plants include:[31]

Under construction

As of March 6, 2014, a total of 2,841 MW of utility scale photovoltaic power plants are under construction in the United States.[31]

The Desert Sunlight Solar Farm is a 550 MW solar power plant under construction in Riverside County, California, that will use thin-film solar photovoltaic modules made by First Solar.[52]

The Topaz Solar Farm is a 550 MW photovoltaic power plant, being built in San Luis Obispo County, California.[53]

The Blythe Solar Power Project is a 500 MW photovoltaic station under construction in Riverside County, California.

The Agua Caliente Solar Project is a 290 megawatt (AC) photovoltaic solar generating facility being built in Yuma County, Arizona. 250 MW (AC) is operational, making it the largest operating photovoltaic power plant in the world.

The California Valley Solar Ranch (CVSR) is a 250 megawatt (MW) solar photovoltaic power plant, which is being built by SunPower in the Carrizo Plain, northeast of California Valley.[54]

The 230 MW (AC) Antelope Valley Solar Ranch is a First Solar photovoltaic project which is under construction in the Antelope Valley area of the Western Mojave Desert, and due to be completed in 2013.[55]

The Mesquite Solar project is a 700 MW photovoltaic solar power plant being built in Arlington, Maricopa County, Arizona, owned by Sempra Generation.[56] Phase 1 has a nameplate capacity of 150 megawatts,[57] and was completed in January 2013.[40]

The 60 MW Pflugerville Solar Farm is under construction and will use 400,000 solar panels.[58]

Planned PV plants

A total of 19,459 MW of large-scale photovoltaic power plants are under development in the United States. The largest is the 2,700 MW Westlands Solar Park, in Kings County, California.[31]

The Amargosa Farm Road Solar Project is a proposed 500 megawatt (MW) solar power plant in Nye County, Nevada. The plant is expected online by 2014.[59]

The 300 MW Sonoran Solar Project in Arizona, is a photovoltaic solar power plant that is being planned by a subsidiary of NextEra Energy Resources. Secretary of the Interior Ken Salazar granted approval for the project in December 2011.[60]

The Centinela Solar Energy Project is an approved 275 megawatt solar power plant to be located on 2,067 acres of previously disturbed private land near El Centro, California. The project would support at least 367 jobs, generate more than $30 million in tax revenue over the life of the project, and deliver enough electricity to power about 82,500 homes.[61] Creative financing has increased the boom in home solar installation into 2012.[62]

SolarStrong is SolarCity's five-year plan to build more than $1 billion in solar photovoltaic projects for privatized military housing communities across the United States. SolarCity plans to work with the country's leading privatized military housing developers to install, own and operate rooftop solar installations and provide solar electricity at a lower cost than utility power. SolarStrong is ultimately expected to create up to 300 megawatts of solar generation capacity that could provide power to as many as 120,000 military housing units, making it the largest residential photovoltaic project in American history. In November 2011, SolarCity and Bank of America Merrill Lynch announced that they have agreed to terms on financing for SolarStrong.[63]

2012 priority proposals

In 2012, the Bureau of Land Management is giving priority status to 9 PV project proposals.[64] The 750 MW McCoy Solar Project has been proposed by NextEra. The 100 MW Desert Harvest project has been proposed by enXco. The 664 Calico Solar Project has been redesigned by K Power. The 350 MW Silver State South and 350 MW Moapa project have been proposed. The 600 MW Mount Signal Solar Farm #1 has also been proposed.[64]

In addition, 17 "Solar Energy Zones" were identified for priority development in April 2012. A total of 97,921,069 acres (39,627,251 ha; 153,002 sq mi) of BLM land is currently available for solar projects in Arizona, California, Nevada, New Mexico, and Utah, enough for at least 10,000,000 MW.[65][66]

  • Arizona
    • Brenda 3,865 acres (345 MW - 620 MW)
    • Gillespie 2,618 acres (233 MW - 419 MW)
  • California
    • Imperial East 5,717 acres (509 MW - 916 MW)
    • Riverside East 147,910 acres (18,035 MW - 32,463 MW)
  • Colorado
    • Antonito Southeast 9,712 acres (865 MW - 1,557 MW)
    • De Tilla Gulch 1,064 acres (135 MW - 243 MW)
    • Fourmile East 2,882 acres (345 MW - 621 MW)
    • Los Mogotes East 4,734 acres (526 MW - 947 MW)
  • Nevada
    • Amargosa Valley 8,479 acres (2,811 MW - 5,060 MW)
    • Dry Lake 5,717 acres (1,391 MW - 2,504 MW)
    • Dry Lake Valley North 25,069 acres (6,833 MW - 12,300 MW)
    • Gold Point 4,596 acres (428 MW - 770 MW)
    • Millers 16,534 acres (1,492 MW - 2,686 MW)
  • New Mexico
    • Afton 29,964 acres (6,900 MW - 12,400 MW)
  • Utah
    • Escalante Valley 6,533 acres (588 MW - 1,058 MW)
    • Milford Flats South 6,252 acres (576 MW - 1,037 MW)
    • Wah Wah Valley 5,873 acres (542 MW - 976 MW)

Total: 42,554 MW - 76,577 MW, depending on the technology used

Incentives

Main articles: Building-integrated photovoltaic, net metering, and Feed-in Tariff

A complete list of incentives is maintained at the Database of State Incentives for Renewable Energy (DSIRE) (see external link).

Most are grid connected and use net metering laws to allow use of electricity in the evening that was generated during the daytime. New Jersey leads the nation with the least restrictive net metering law,[67] while California leads in total number of homes which have solar panels installed. Many were installed because of the million solar roof initiative.[68]

Federal

The federal tax credit for solar was extended for eight years as part of the financial bail out bill, H.R. 1424, until the end of 2016. It was estimated this will create 440,000 jobs, 28 gigawatts of solar power, and lead to a $300 billion market for solar panels. This estimate did not take into account the removal of the $2,000 cap on residential tax credits at the end of 2008.[69]

  • A 30% tax credit is available for residential and commercial installations.[70][71] For 2009 through 2011 this was a 30% grant, not a tax credit, known as the 1603 grant program.[72]

Solar America Initiative

Barack Obama looking at solar panels at the Denver Museum of Nature and Science, Feb. 17, 2009.

The United States Department of Energy (DOE) announced on September 29, 2008 that it will invest $17.6 million, subject to annual appropriations, in six company-led, early-stage photovoltaic (PV) projects under the Solar America Initiative's "PV Incubator" funding opportunity. The "PV Incubator" project is designed to fund prototype PV components and systems with the goal of moving them through the commercialization process by 2010. The 2008 award is the second funding opportunity released under the PV Incubator project. With the cost share from industry, which will be at least 20%, up to $35.4 million will be invested in these projects. The projects will run for 18 months, and will be subcontracted through DOE's National Renewable Energy Laboratory.

Most of the projects were to receive up to $3 million in funding, with the exception of Solasta and Spire Semiconductor, which would receive up to $2.6 million and $2.97 million, respectively. Massachusetts-based 1366 Technologies will develop a new cell architecture for low-cost, multi-crystalline silicon cells, which will enhance cell performance through improved light-trapping texturing and grooves for self-aligned metallization fingers. California's Innovalight will use ink-jet printing to transfer their "silicon ink" onto thin-crystalline silicon wafers to produce high-efficiency, low-cost solar cells and modules. Skyline Solar, also in California, will develop an integrated, lightweight, single-axis tracked system that reflects and concentrates sunlight over 10 times onto silicon cells. Solasta, in Massachusetts, is working on a novel cell design that increases currents and lowers the materials cost. Solexel, another California-based company, will commercialize a disruptive, 3D high-efficiency mono-crystalline silicon cell technology that dramatically reduces manufacturing cost per watt. Finally, Spire Semiconductor in New Hampshire will develop three-junction tandem solar cells that better optimize the optical properties of their device layers; the company is targeting cell efficiencies over 42% using a low-cost manufacturing method.

The PV Incubator project is part of the Solar America Initiative, which aims to make solar energy cost-competitive with conventional forms of electricity by 2015 (grid parity).[73][74]

The U.S. Department of Energy Solar Energy Technology Program (SETP) will achieve the goals of the SAI through partnerships and strategic alliances by focusing primarily on four areas:

  • Market Transformation — activities that address marketplace barriers and offer the opportunity for market expansion
  • Device and Process Proof of Concept — R&D activities addressing novel devices or processes with potentially significant performance or cost advantages
  • Component Prototype and Pilot-Scale Production — R&D activities emphasizing development of prototype PV components or systems produced at pilot-scale with demonstrated cost, reliability, or performance advantages
  • System Development and Manufacturing — collaborative R&D activities among industry and university partners to develop and improve solar energy technologies

The Solar America Showcases activity is part of the Solar America Initiative (SAI), and preference is given to large-scale, highly visible, highly replicable installations that involve cutting-edge solar technologies or novel applications of solar.[75]

SunShot Initiative

The SunShot Initiative was announced by the Department of Energy and aims to reduce the cost of solar power by 75% from 2010 to 2020. The name is based on "moon shot", Kennedy's target of reaching the moon within the decade.[76]

Goals:

  • Residential system prices reduced from $6/W to $1.50/W
  • Commercial system prices reduced from $5/W to $1.25/W
  • Utility-scale system prices reduced from $4/W to $1.00/W (CSP, CPV and PV)

The Energy Department on December 7 announced a $29 million investment in four projects that will help advance affordable, reliable clean energy for U.S. families and businesses. The $29 million would be separated into two investments:

  • $21 million investment over five years to design plug-and-play photovoltaic (PV) systems that can be purchased, installed, and operational in one day.
  • $8 million investment in two projects to help utilities and grid operators better forecast when, where, and how much solar power will be produced at U.S. solar energy plants.

Fraunhofer USA’s Center for Sustainable Energy Systems in Cambridge, Massachusetts, will develop PV technologies that allow homeowners to easily select the right solar system for their house and install, wire and connect to the grid.

North Carolina State University will lead a project to create standard PV components and system designs that can adapt simply to any residential roof and can be installed and connected to the grid quickly and efficiently.

IBM Thomas J. Watson Research Center in Armonk, New York, will lead a new project based on the Watson computer system that uses big data processing and self-adjusting algorithms to integrate different prediction models and learning technologies.

These projects are working with the Energy Department and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Association to improve the accuracy of solar forecasts and share the results of this work with industry and academia.[77]

States and local

The 104kW solar highway along the interchange of Interstate 5 and Interstate 205 near Tualatin, Oregon in December 2008.
  • Governor Jerry Brown has signed legislation requiring California's utilities to get 33 percent of their electricity from renewable energy sources by the end of 2020.[6]
  • The San Francisco Board of Supervisors passed solar incentives of up to $6,000 for homeowners and up to $10,000 for businesses.[78] Applications for the program began on July 1, 2008.[79]
  • In 2008, Berkeley initiated a revolutionary pilot program where homeowners are able to add the cost of solar panels to their property tax assessment, and pay for them out of their electricity cost savings.[80] In 2009, more than a dozen states passed legislation allowing property tax financing. In all, 27 states offer loans for solar projects[81] (though after the conclusion of the pilot program, due to issues with Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac, Berkeley no longer offers this financing mechanism[82]).
  • The California Solar Initiative has set a goal to create 3,000 megawatts of new, solar-produced electricity by 2016.
  • New Hampshire has a $3,750 residential rebate program for up to 50% of system cost for systems less than 5 kWp ($6,000 from July 1, 2008 until 2010).[83]
  • Louisiana has a 50 per cent tax credit up to $12,500 for the installation of a wind or solar system.[84][85]

Feed-in Tariff

Experience has demonstrated that a feed-in tariff is both the least expensive and the most effective means of developing solar power. Investors need certainty, which they receive from a feed-in tariff.[86] California enacted a feed-in tariff which began on February 14, 2008.[87][88] Washington state has a feed-in tariff of 15 ¢/kWh which increases to 54 ¢/kWh if components are manufactured in the state.[89] Hawaii,[90] Michigan,[91] and Vermont[92] also have feed in tariffs.[93]

In 2010, the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) ruled that states were able to implement above-market feed-in tariffs for specific technologies.[94][95]

Solar Renewable Energy Certificates

In recent years, states that have passed Renewable Portfolio Standard (RPS) or Renewable Electricity Standard (RES) laws have relied on the use of Solar renewable energy certificates (SRECs) to meet state requirements. This is done by adding a specific solar carve-out to the state Renewable Portfolio Standard (RPS). The first SREC program was implemented in 2005 by the state of New Jersey and has since expanded to several other states, including Maryland, Delaware, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Massachusetts, North Carolina and Pennsylvania.[96]

An SREC program is an alternative to the feed-in tariff model popular in Europe. The key difference between the two models is the market-based mechanism that drives the value of the SRECs, and therefore the value of the subsidy for solar. In a feed-in tariff model, the government sets the value for the electricity produced by a solar facility. If the level is higher, more solar power is built and the program is more costly. If the feed-in tariff is set lower, less solar power is built and the program is ineffective. The problem with SRECs is a lack of certainty for investors. A feed-in tariff provides a known return on investment, while an SREC program provides a possible return on investment.

Power Purchase Agreement

In 2006 investors began offering free solar panel installation in return for a 25 year contract, or Power Purchase Agreement, to purchase electricity at a fixed price, normally set at or below current electric rates.[97][98] By 2009 over 90% of commercial photovoltaics installed in the United States were installed using a power purchase agreement.[99] Approximately 90% of the photovoltaics installed in the United States is in states that specifically address power purchase agreements.[100]

New Construction Mandates

In March 2013, Lancaster California became the first U.S. city to mandate the inclusion of solar panels on new homes, requiring that "every new housing development must average 1 kilowatt per house."[101]

PACE

Main article: PACE financing

An innovative financing arrangement pioneered in Berkeley, California, and Palm Springs, lends money to a homeowner for a solar system, to be repaid via an additional tax assessment on the property for 20 years. This allows installation of the solar system at "relatively little up-front cost to the property owner."[102] Now known as PACE, for Property Assessed Clean Energy, it is available in 28 states.[103] Freddie Mac and Fannie Mae have objected to the repayment of solar loans being senior to mortgage loans, and some states have relegated PACE loans to junior loans. HR 2599 was introduced to prevent interference with the PACE program by other lenders.[104] The principle feature of the program is that the balance of the loan is transferred to the new owners in the event the property is sold, and the loan is paid for entirely through electric bill savings. Unlike a mortgage loan, no funds are transferred when the property is sold - only the repayment obligation is transferred.

PACE programs are currently operating in eight states, California, Colorado, Florida, Maine, Michigan, Missouri, New York, and Wisconsin, and are on hold in many others, pending resolution of the Freddie Mac, Fannie Mae objection.[105]

Capacity

In the United States, 2,106 MW of PV was installed in the 4th quarter and 4,751 MW of PV installations were completed in 2013. Abengoa's 280 MWac of CSP project was brought online in the 3rd quarter and Genesis Solar's first phase of 125 MWac was brought online in the 4th quarter of 2013 bringing the total to 410 MWac for the year and 918 MWac total. Ivanpah is already completed during the first quarter of 2014 the current world's largest CSP power plant is 392 MWac and brings the total to 1310 MWac. The 110 MWac Crescent Dunes project started commissioning during February. The 250 MWac Mojave solar, second phase 125 MWac Genesis Solar, and Tooele Army Depot Solar's 1.5 MWac power plant are all expected to come online in 2014. The A total of around 6 GW of PV and over 840 MW of CSP capacity are expected to come on-line in 2014.[106]

The amount of electricity a unit is capable of producing over an extended period of time is determined by multiplying the capacity by the capacity factor. The capacity factor for solar photovoltaic units is largely a function of climate and latitude. The National Renewable Energy Laboratory has calculated that the highest statewide average solar voltaic capacity factors are in Arizona, New Mexico, and Nevada (each 26.3 percent), and the lowest is Alaska (10.5 percent). The lowest statewide average capacity factor in the contiguous 48 states is in West Virginia (17.2 percent).[107]

Solar thermal power (CSP)

Extended content
US Grid-Connected CSP Capacity (MW)
No Jurisdiction 2000 1999 1998 1997 1996 1995 1994 1993 1992 1991 1990 1989 1988 1987 1986 1985 1984 1983 1982
Vereinigte Staaten 354 354 364 364 364 364 364 364 364 364 284 204 144 114 54 24 10 10 10
1 California 354 354 364 364 364 364 364 364 364 364 284 204 144 114 54 24 10 10 10
US Grid-Connected CSP Capacity (MW)[108][109][110][111][112][113]
No Jurisdiction 2013 2012 2011 2010 2009 2008 2007 2006 2005 2004 2003 2002 2001
Vereinigte Staaten 918 546 516 507 430 419 419 355 354 354 354 354 354
1 California 489.5 364.5 364.5 364 364 354 354 354 354 354 354 354 354
2 Florida 75 75 75 75
3 Nevada 64 64 64 64 64 64 64
4 Colorado 31.8 31.8 2.4 1
5 New Mexico 6 6 6
6 Arizona 283.7 3.7 4.8 2.5 1 1 1 1 1
7 Hawaii 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8
Solar Thermal Electric Generation in the United States[114]
Year Summer Capacity (GW) Electrical energy (G kWh) Capacity factor Yearly growth of Generating Capacity Yearly growth of produced Energy Portion of renewable electrical energy Portion of total electrical energy
2013 1.24 0.926 0.178 160.50% 5.71% 0.18% 0.02%
2012 0.476 0.876 0.238 1.06% 8.68% 0.18% 0.02%
2011 0.471 0.806 0.239 2.15% 0.16% 0.02%
2010 0.789 0.245 7.35% 0.18% 0.02%
2009 0.735 0.236 -6.73% 0.18% 0.02%
2008 0.788 0.195 32.21% 0.21% 0.02%

Photovoltaics

Extended content
US Photovoltaics Capacity (MWp)[115][116][117][118]
2001 2000 1999 1998 1997 1996 1995 1994 1993 1992
Total 167.8 138.8 117.3 100.1 88.2 76.5 66.8 57.8 50.3 43.5
YOY Growth 20.9% 18.3% 17.2% 13.5% 15.3% 14.5% 15.6% 14.9% 15.6%
Installed 29 21.5 17.2 11.9 11.7 9.7 9.0 7.5 6.8
2011 2010 2009 2008 2007 2006 2005 2004 2003 2002
Total 4,383 2,534 1,641.6 1,168.5 830.5 624 479 376 275.2 212.2
YOY Growth 73.2% 55.9% 40.5% 40.7% 33.1% 30.3% 27.4% 36.6% 29.7% 26.5%
Installed 1,855 918 473.1 338 206.5 145 103 100.8 63.0 44.4
2013 2012
Total 11,972 7,221
YOY Growth 65.8% 75.6%
Installed 4,751 3,313
Solar Photovoltaic Electric Generation in the United States[114]
Year Summer Capacity (GW) Electrical energy (G kWh) Capacity factor Yearly growth of Generating Capacity Yearly growth of produced Energy Portion of renewable electrical energy Portion of total electrical energy
2013 4.98 8.33 0.194 85.13% 141.45% 1.59% 0.21%
2012 2.69 3.45 0.203 156.19% 241.58% 0.70% 0.09%
2011 1.05 1.01 0.191 138.77% 0.20% 0.02%
2010 0.423 0.203 169.43% 0.10% 0.01%
2009 0.157 0.206 106.58% 0.04% 0.00%
2008 0.076 0.225 375.00% 0.02% 0.00%

By State

Extended content
US Grid Connected Photovoltaics Capacity (MWp)[119][120][121][122][123][124]
No Jurisdiction 2012 2011 2010 2009 2008 2007
1 California 2,559.3 1,563.6 1,021.7 768.0 528.3 328.8
2 Arizona 1,106.4 397.6 109.8 46.2 25.3 18.9
3 New Jersey 955.7 565.9 259.9 127.5 70.2 43.6
4 Nevada 349.7 124.1 104.7 36.4 34.2 18.8
5 Colorado 299.6 196.7 121.1 59.1 35.7 14.6
6 North Carolina 207.9 85.5 40.0 12.5 4.7 0.7
7 Massachusetts 207.3 74.6 38.2 17.7 7.5 4.6
8 New Mexico 203.4 165.5 43.3 2.4 1.0 0.5
9 Hawaii 199.5 85.2 44.7 26.2 13.5 4.5
10 New York 179.4 123.8 55.5 33.9 21.9 15.4
11 Pennsylvania 164.3 133.1 54.8 7.3 3.9 0.9
12 Texas 140.3 85.6 34.5 8.6 4.4 3.2
13 Florida 116.9 95.0 73.5 38.7 3.0 2.0
14 Maryland 116.8 37.1 12.8 5.6 3.1 0.7
15 Ohio 79.9 31.6 20.7 2.0 1.4 1.0
16 Oregon 56.4 35.8 23.9 14.0 7.7 2.8
17 Delaware 46.1 26.5 5.6 3.2 1.8 1.2
18 Tennessee 45.0 22.0 5.7 0.9 0.4 0.4
19 Illinois 42.9 16.2 15.5 4.5 2.8 2.2
20 Connecticut 39.6 31.1 24.6 19.7 8.8 2.8
21 Vermont 28.0 11.7 3.9 1.7 1.1 0.7
22 Georgien 21.4 6.9 1.8 0.2 <0.1 <0.1
23 Wisconsin 21.1 12.9 8.7 5.3 3.1 1.4
24 Michigan 19.9 8.8 2.6 0.7 0.4 0.4
25 Washington 19.5 12.3 8.0 5.2 3.7 1.9
26 Missouri 18.5 2.0 0.7 0.2 <0.1 <0.1
27 Louisiana 18.2 13.4 2.6 0.2 <0.1 <0.1
28 Washington, D.C.D.C. 13.9 11.6 4.5 1.0 0.7 0.5
29 Minnesota 11.3 4.8 3.6 1.9 1.0 0.5
30 Virginia 10.5 4.5 2.8 0.8 0.2 0.2
31 Utah 10.0 4.4 2.1 0.6 0.2 0.2
32 New Hampshire 5.4 3.1 2.0 0.7 0.1 0.1
33 Kentucky 4.8 3.3 0.2 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1
34 South Carolina 4.6 4.1 0.9 0.1 <0.1 <0.1
35 Indiana 4.4 3.5 0.5 0.3 <0.1 <0.1
36 Maine 2.8 1.1 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.2
37 Montana 2.2 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.5
38 Rhode Island 1.9 1.2 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6
39 West Virginia 1.7 0.6 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1
40 Arkansas 1.5 1.1 1.0 0.2 <0.1 <0.1
41 Iowa 1.2 0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1
42 Alabama 1.1 0.5 0.4 0.2 <0.1 <0.1
43 Idaho 1.0 0.4 0.4 0.2 <0.1 <0.1
44 Mississippi 0.7 0.6 0.3 0.1 <0.1 <0.1
45 Wyoming 0.6 0.2 0.2 0.1 <0.1 <0.1
46 Kansas 0.5 0.2 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1
47 Nebraska 0.4 0.3 0.2 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1
48 Oklahoma 0.3 0.2 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1
49 North Dakota 0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1
50 Alaska <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1
51 South Dakota <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1
Vereinigte Staaten 7,373.8 4,010.7 2,165.7 1,261.6 791.7 474.8

The U.S. had approximately 440 MW of off-grid photovoltaics as of the end of 2010. Through the end of 2005, a majority of photovoltaics in the United States was off-grid.[110]: p.6 [125]

Generation (PV and CSP)

U.S. Solar Generation (GWh, Million kWh)
Year NREL
Total 		EIA
Total 		Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
1998 502
1999 495
2000 804 493
2001 822 543
2002 857 555 11 24 44 46 58 96 86 75 53 31 28 4
2003 929 534 13 18 50 60 68 91 63 62 56 36 14 4
2004 1,020 575 13 11 53 57 82 88 82 73 61 34 15 8
2005 1,145 550 8 13 37 57 81 87 71 75 60 37 12 2
2006 1,312 508 13 20 33 52 71 70 62 83 54 32 16 3
2007 1,718 612 13 19 48 54 84 84 86 75 68 48 23 3
2008 2,208 864 16 36 75 94 99 128 111 105 93 60 29 19
2009 2,922 891 7 30 78 99 110 103 121 116 95 68 40 21
2010 4,505 1,212 10 33 76 112 153 176 161 156 138 75 77 44
2011 7,454 1,818 40 85 122 164 191 223 191 229 186 159 107 121
2012 12,775 4,327 95 135 231 319 462 527 509 462 458 431 347 349
2013 9,253 318 479 668 734 826 930 861 1001 979 967 750 737
2014 4,595 775 858 1,355 1,607
2014 % OF TOTAL 0.21% 0.27% 0.41% 0.54%

Source: NREL[112] EIA[126] NREL includes distributed generation, EIA, including the monthly data above, includes only utility generation.

See also

References

  1. ^ US Joins 10-GW Solar PV Club, Prepares For Liftoff, James Montgomery, RenewableEnergyWorld.com, July 10, 2013
  2. ^ US Energy Information Administration, Table 1.1.A. Net Generation by Other Renewable Sources: Total (All Sectors), 2003-December 2013, Table 1.1. Net Generation by Energy Source: Total (All Sectors), 2003-Dec2013, accessed 26. Feb 2014.
  3. ^ a b "Segs Iii, Iv, V, Vi, Vii, Viii & Ix". Fplenergy.com. Retrieved 2012-01-31.
  4. ^ a b c "Brightsource Ivanpah".
  5. ^ a b Mearian, Lucas. U.S. flips switch on massive solar power array that also stores electricity: The array is first large U.S. solar plant with a thermal energy storage system, October 10, 2013. Retrieved October 18, 2013.
  6. ^ a b David R. Baker (April 12, 2011). "Brown signs law requiring 33% renewable energy". San Francisco Chronicle.
  7. ^ "Table 1. Accessible Resources, regardless of cost" (PDF). Retrieved 2012-01-31.
  8. ^ "Annual Energy Outlook 2009 with Projections to 2030". Eia.doe.gov. Retrieved 2012-01-31.
  9. ^ National Renewable Energy Laboratory: Solar Has The Most Potential Of Any Renewable Energy Source
  10. ^ Electricity in the United States
  11. ^ Renewable Energy Technical Potential
  12. ^ "Solar Energy Grew at a Record Pace in 2008". Apps1.eere.energy.gov. Retrieved 2012-01-31.
  13. ^ a b c Study: Solar Power Could Provide 10% of U.S. Electricity by 2025 June 25, 2008 retrieved 25 June 2009
  14. ^ "Arizona Solar Power Doubled Solar Capacity in 2010". Solar-energy-installers.com. 2011-03-10. Retrieved 2012-01-31.
  15. ^ Steve Leone (1 November 2011). "Survey Says ... 9 in 10 Americans Want More Solar Energy". RenewableEnergyWorld.
  16. ^ "Direct Federal Financial Interventions and Subsidies in Energy in Fiscal Year 2010". Energy Information Administration. August 1, 2011. Retrieved April 29, 2012.
  17. ^ Solar Trade Group Reports Surge in U.S. Installations March 13, 2013 NYT
  18. ^ Environmental History Timeline
  19. ^ The Power of Light: The Epic Story of Man's Quest to Harness the Sun, By Frank Kryza, ISBN 9780071400213 pg. 21
  20. ^ "Sun Power Operates Pumping Plant" Popular Mechanics, December 1911, pp. 843-844.
  21. ^ Kozlowski, Lori. "Solar Power: Karl Wolfgang Boer and a Lifetime of Green Discoveries". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 1 October 2010.
  22. ^ Business Wire: Ivanpah Solar Electric Generating System Reaches ‘First Sync’ Milestone
  23. ^ Holman, Michael (24 February 1986) "Nigeria, Politics; Religious Differences Intensify", Financial Times,
  24. ^ http://spectrum.ieee.org/energywise/energy/renewables/worlds-largest-solar-thermal-plant-syncs-to-the-grid
  25. ^ a b c "Solana, the largest parabolic trough plant in the world". Abengoa. Retrieved 2013-11-26.
  26. ^ "Solana" in wordreference.com
  27. ^ "The World's Largest Power Plants". industcards. 2009-02-21. Retrieved 2009-05-26.
  28. ^ Mouawad, Jad (March 4, 2010). "The Newest Hybrid Model". The New York Times. Retrieved 2010-03-09.
  29. ^ "US government backs Abengoa's solar project with $1.2 billion loan guarantee". Energy Efficiency News. 19 September 2011.
  30. ^ "DOE Finalizes $737 Million Loan Guarantee to Tonopah Solar Energy for Nevada Project" (Press release). Loan Programs Office (LPO), Dept. of Energy (DOE). September 28, 2011. Retrieved 29 September 2011.
  31. ^ a b c d "Major Solar Projects List". Solar Energy Industries Association. 2014-03-06. Retrieved 2014-04-08.
  32. ^ Solar Energy Industries Association (March 2013). "Solar Industry Data".
  33. ^ Renewables Insight (2010). PV Power Plants 2010: Industry Guide p. 12.
  34. ^ Active Renewable Energy Projects
  35. ^ U.S. Solar Power Manufacturing Growing Dramatically October 29, 2008 retrieved 28 March 2009
  36. ^ GE postpones thin-film solar factory plans
  37. ^ Implications of the US-China Solar Tariff on Project Development
  38. ^ "Excellence in Renewable Energy Awards Winners: Project of the Year and Readers' Choice". Renewable Energy World. 17 February 2012.
  39. ^ Agua Caliente Reaches 200-Megawatt Milestone
  40. ^ a b Sempra Completes first phase of Mesquite Solar Project
  41. ^ AV Solar Ranch One Solar Power Plant Achieves 100 MW Milestone
  42. ^ a b America's Largest PV Power Plant Is Now Live (December 6, 2010), Renewable Energy World.
  43. ^ "Long Island Solar Farm Opens in Upton". Long Island Press. November 21, 2011.
  44. ^ "eXenewable Project Profile Page - DeSoto, PV, US". Exenewable.com. 2011-03-22. Retrieved 2012-01-31.
  45. ^ "President Obama joins FPL for commissioning of nation's largest solar PV power plant; announces $200 million in smart grid funding for FPL's 'Energy Smart Florida'". Florida Power & Light (FPL). October 27, 2009. Retrieved 2009-11-01.
  46. ^ "FPL Commissions DeSoto Next Generation Solar Energy Center". LCG Consulting. October 28, 2009. Retrieved 2009-11-01.
  47. ^ "DeSoto Next Generation Solar Energy Center FAQs". FPL. Retrieved 2009-11-01. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help)
  48. ^ Chris Whitmore (27 January 2011). "Davidson County Solar Farm, North Carolina". PV Tech.
  49. ^ "Largest U.S. Solar Photovoltaic System Begins Construction at Nellis Air Force Base". Prnewswire.com. Retrieved 2012-01-31.
  50. ^ "Solar power system at Nellis AFB goes live". KVBC. 2007-12-18. Retrieved 2007-12-19. {{cite news}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  51. ^ "Air Force Switches on Largest Solar Power Plant". Ens-newswire.com. 2007-12-26. Retrieved 2012-01-31.
  52. ^ "DOE Closes on Four Major Solar Projects". Renewable Energy World. 30 September 2011.
  53. ^ Steve Leone (7 December 2011). "Billionaire Buffett Bets on Solar Energy". Renewable Energy World.
  54. ^ "NRG Energy Completes Acquisition of 250-Megawatt California Valley Solar Ranch from SunPower". MarketWatch. 30 September 2011.
  55. ^ "Exelon purchases 230 MW Antelope Valley Solar Ranch One from First Solar". Solar Server. 4 October 2011.
  56. ^ "Sempra Generation contracts with PG&E for 150 mw of solar power". Sempra Energy. October 12, 2010. Retrieved 2011-02-06.
  57. ^ "Mesquite Solar". Sempra Generation. Retrieved 2011-02-06. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help)
  58. ^ "RRE Power breaks ground on 60MW Pflugerville solar farm". Solar Server. 2010-12-17.
  59. ^ Carolyn Campbell (October 12, 2011). "Amargosa Farm Road Switches From CSP to PV". GreenTechMedia.
  60. ^ "Obama administration approves giant renewables projects". BusinessGreen. 22 Dec 2011.
  61. ^ "Secretary Salazar approves renewable energy projects". Power Engineering. 2011-12-29.
  62. ^ Solar Installers Offer Deals, Gaining Converts May 9, 2012
  63. ^ "SolarCity and Bank of America Merrill Lynch Move Forward With Project SolarStrong, Expected to Build More Than $1 Billion in Solar Projects". Marketwatch. 30 November 2011.
  64. ^ a b Bureau of Land Management (November 22, 2011). "2012 Renewable Energy Priority Projects".
  65. ^ Solar Energy Zones
  66. ^ Maps, including KMZ file
  67. ^ "Database of State Incentives for Renewables and Efficiency". Dsireusa.org. Retrieved 2012-01-31.
  68. ^ Million Solar Roofs Initiative
  69. ^ Solar Investment Credit FINALLY Passed! retrieved 13 October 2008.
  70. ^ Federal Solar Tax Credits Retrieved 15 August 2008.
  71. ^ Residential Solar and Fuel Cell Tax Credit Retrieved 15 August 2008.
  72. ^ Why the 1603 Treasury Grant Program Matters to Solar and RE
  73. ^ "DOE to Invest $17.6 Million in Six Early-Stage Photovoltaic Projects". Apps1.eere.energy.gov. Retrieved 2012-01-31.
  74. ^ "EERE: Solar Energy Technologies Program Home Page". .eere.energy.gov. Retrieved 2012-01-31.
  75. ^ DOE Announces Three Solar America Showcase Awards January 16, 2009 retrieved 28 March 2009
  76. ^ SunShot Initiative
  77. ^ Energy Department Invests $29 Million in Solar Energy Grid Solutions
  78. ^ "San Francisco Offers Solar Subsidies". Greentechmedia.com. 2008-06-10. Retrieved 2012-01-31.
  79. ^ "Final changes and logistics of the SF Solar Incentive Program Explained". Sfsolarsubsidy.com. Retrieved 2012-01-31.
  80. ^ Berkeley FIRST retrieved 25 June 2009
  81. ^ Loan Programs retrieved 19 December 2009
  82. ^ "Berkeley FIRST: Financing Initiative for Renewable and Solar Technology". City of Berkeley. Retrieved 26 March 2013.
  83. ^ Residential Small Renewable Electrical Generation Systems Rebate, New Hampshire Public Utilities Commission.
  84. ^ Tax Credit for Solar and Wind Energy Systems on Residential Property
  85. ^ Tax Credit for Solar and Wind Energy Systems on Residential Property
  86. ^ Feed-in tariffs: the cheapest and most effective promotion for solar photovoltaic electricity
  87. ^ "Are Feed-in Tariffs a Possibility in California?". Renewableenergyaccess.com. Retrieved 2012-01-31.
  88. ^ "California Approves Feed-In Tariffs, Rewards Energy Efficiency". Eere.energy.gov. 2012-01-25. Retrieved 2012-01-31.
  89. ^ "Washington State Passes Progressive Renewable Energy Legislation". Renewableenergyaccess.com. Retrieved 2012-01-31.
  90. ^ Hawaii FIT
  91. ^ Consumers Energy FIT
  92. ^ Vermont SPEED
  93. ^ Table of Financial Incentives
  94. ^ FERC Decision Clears the Way for Multi-Tiered State FITs
  95. ^ How to Design Feed-in Tariffs in the U.S. without Fear of Federal Preemption
  96. ^ Bird, Lori; Heeter, Jenny; Kreycik, Claire (November 2011). "Solar Renewable Energy Certificate (SREC) Markets: Status and Trends" (PDF). National Renewable Energy Laboratory. Retrieved 2011-12-23.
  97. ^ "MMA Renewable Ventures Solar Energy Program". Mmarenewableventures.com. Retrieved 2012-01-31.
  98. ^ "U.S. Retailers Save with Solar PV & Energy Efficiency". Renewableenergyaccess.com. Retrieved 2012-01-31.
  99. ^ Guice, Jon; King, John D.H. "Solar Power Services: How PPAs are Changing the PV Value Chain". greentechmedia.com. Green Tech Media. executive report
  100. ^ Power Purchase Agreement
  101. ^ "Lancaster, CA, Becomes First US City to Require Solar". Greentech Media. March 27, 2013.
  102. ^ Berkeley FIRST. Retrieved October 14, 2010.
  103. ^ Property Accessed Clean Energy
  104. ^ Bill Summary & Status
  105. ^ PACE Financing
  106. ^ SEIA (Dec 2013). "U.S. Solar Market Insight Q4 2013". SEIA. Retrieved 2014-03-06.
  107. ^ Anthony Lopez, Billy Roberts, Donna Heimiller, Nate Blair, and Gian Porro, U.S. Renewable Energy Technical Potentials: A GIS-Based Analysis, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Technical Report NREL/TP-6A20-51946, July 2012
  108. ^ National Renewable Energy Laboratory (October 2010). "2009 U.S. State Clean Energy Data Book" (PDF). United States Department of Energy. Retrieved 2010-12-09.
  109. ^ Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (September 2011). "2010 Renewable Energy Data Book" (PDF). United States Department of Energy. Retrieved 2012-02-11.
  110. ^ a b Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (November 2011). "2010 Solar Technologies Market Report" (PDF). United States Department of Energy. p. 10. Retrieved 2012-09-09.
  111. ^ 2011 Renewable Energy Data Book p.64
  112. ^ a b Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (November 2013). "2012 Renewable Energy Data Book" (PDF). United States Department of Energy. Retrieved 2013-12-04. Cite error: The named reference "NREL2012" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  113. ^ U.S. Solar Market Insight 2013 Year in Review
  114. ^ a b [1] retrieved 2014-3-26 Cite error: The named reference "Electric Power Monthly 3/14" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  115. ^ IEA PVPS Task 1 (2010), Trend Report 2009 (PDF), retrieved 28 March 2011{{citation}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  116. ^ EPIA Market Report (PDF), retrieved 23 February 2012
  117. ^ U.S. Solar Market Insight 2012 Year in Review
  118. ^ U.S. Solar Market Insight 2013 Year in Review
  119. ^ Sherwood, Larry (July 2013). "U.S. Solar Market Trends 2012" (PDF). Interstate Renewable Energy Council (IREC). Retrieved 2013-07-31.
  120. ^ Sherwood, Larry (August 2012). "U.S. Solar Market Trends 2011" (PDF). Interstate Renewable Energy Council (IREC). Retrieved 2012-08-22.
  121. ^ Sherwood, Larry (June 2011). "U.S. Solar Market Trends 2010" (PDF). Interstate Renewable Energy Council (IREC). Retrieved 2011-06-29.
  122. ^ Sherwood, Larry (July 2010). "U.S. Solar Market Trends 2009" (PDF). Interstate Renewable Energy Council (IREC). Retrieved 2010-07-28.
  123. ^ Sherwood, Larry (July 2009). "U.S. Solar Market Trends 2008" (PDF). Interstate Renewable Energy Council (IREC). Retrieved 2010-07-24.
  124. ^ Sherwood, Larry (August 2008). "U.S. Solar Market Trends 2007" (PDF). Interstate Renewable Energy Council (IREC). Retrieved 2010-07-24.
  125. ^ "2008 Solar Technologies Market Report" (PDF). NREL. January 2010. Retrieved 2012-09-09.
  126. ^ EIA (December 2013). "Electric Power Monthly" (PDF). United States Department of Energy. Retrieved 2014-02-26.

Further reading

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Solar power in the United States.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Solar_power_in_the_United_States&oldid=614694092"