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'''Sewage''' (or '''domestic sewage''', '''domestic wastewater''', '''municipal wastewater''') is a type of [[wastewater]] that is produced by a [[community]] of people. It is characterized by [[volume]] or [[Volumetric flow rate|rate of flow]], physical condition, chemical and toxic constituents, and its [[bacteriology|bacteriologic]] status (which organisms it contains and in what quantities). It consists mostly of [[greywater]] (from sinks, bathtubs, showers, dishwashers, and clothes washers), [[blackwater (waste)|blackwater]] (the water used to flush [[toilet]]s, combined with the [[human waste]] that it flushes away); soaps and detergents; and [[toilet paper]] (less so in regions where [[bidet]]s are widely used instead of paper).
'''Sewage''' (or '''domestic sewage''', '''domestic wastewater''', '''municipal wastewater''') is a type of [[wastewater]] that is produced by a [[community]] of people. It is typically transported through a sewer system ([[sewerage]]).<ref name=":0" />{{rp|175}} Sewage consists of wastewater discharged from residences and from commercial, institutional and public facilities that exist in the locality.<ref name="Marcos" />{{rp|10}} It is characterized by [[volume]] or [[Volumetric flow rate|rate of flow]], physical condition, chemical and toxic constituents, and its [[bacteriology|bacteriologic]] status (which organisms it contains and in what quantities). Sub-types of sewage are [[greywater]] (from sinks, bathtubs, showers, dishwashers, and clothes washers) and [[blackwater (waste)|blackwater]] (the water used to flush [[toilet]]s, combined with the [[human waste]] that it flushes away). Sewage also contains soaps and detergents, food waste (more so if a [[garbage disposal unit]] is used); and [[toilet paper]] (less so in regions where [[bidet]]s are widely used instead of paper).


Sewage usually travels from a building's [[plumbing]] either into a [[sewerage|sewer]], which will carry it elsewhere, or into an [[onsite sewage facility]]. Whether it is combined with surface runoff in the sewer depends on the sewer design ([[sanitary sewer]] or [[combined sewer]]). In many developing countries the bulk of domestic and industrial wastewater is discharged without any treatment or after primary treatment only.
Sewage usually travels from a building's [[plumbing]] either into a [[sewerage|sewer]], which will carry it elsewhere, or into an [[onsite sewage facility]]. Whether it is combined with surface runoff in the sewer depends on the sewer design ([[sanitary sewer]] or [[combined sewer]]).


Sewage treatment is part of the broad term [[sanitation]] which includes not only the management of wastewater but also the management of [[human excreta]], [[Municipal solid waste|solid waste]] and stormwater.
The term sewage is an older term and sometimes replaced by "wastewater" in modern usage.


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* '''Commercial wastewater''' is the sewage from [[restaurant]]s, [[laundry|laundries]], [[hospital]]s, [[school]]s, [[office]]s, stores and establishments serving the local area of larger communities.<ref name="wpcf">{{cite book|title=Sewage Treatment Plant Design|date=1959|publisher=[[American Society of Civil Engineers]] and Water Pollution Control Federation|location=[[New York City]]|pages=5–10}}</ref><ref name=mjh>{{cite book |last=Hammer |first=Mark J. |title =Water and Waste-Water Technology |publisher =[[John Wiley & Son]] |edition = |date =1975 |location =[[New York City]] |isbn =0-471-34726-4}}</ref>{{rp|298}}
* '''Commercial wastewater''' is the sewage from [[restaurant]]s, [[laundry|laundries]], [[hospital]]s, [[school]]s, [[office]]s, stores and establishments serving the local area of larger communities.<ref name="wpcf">{{cite book|title=Sewage Treatment Plant Design|date=1959|publisher=[[American Society of Civil Engineers]] and Water Pollution Control Federation|location=[[New York City]]|pages=5–10}}</ref><ref name=mjh>{{cite book |last=Hammer |first=Mark J. |title =Water and Waste-Water Technology |publisher =[[John Wiley & Son]] |edition = |date =1975 |location =[[New York City]] |isbn =0-471-34726-4}}</ref>{{rp|298}}
* '''Industrial wastewater''', generated by industrial processes such as the production or manufacture of goods, may be significantly different from sewage and may be collected and [[Industrial wastewater treatment|treated or pre-treated separately]].<ref name=mjh/>{{rp|300}}
* '''Industrial wastewater''', generated by industrial processes such as the production or manufacture of goods, may be significantly different from sewage and may be collected and [[Industrial wastewater treatment|treated or pre-treated separately]].<ref name=mjh/>{{rp|300}}
* '''Wastewater''', in the context of [[sanitation]], is any [[water]] that has been contaminated by human use. Wastewater is "used water from any combination of domestic, industrial, commercial or agricultural activities, surface runoff or stormwater, and any [[Infiltration/Inflow|sewer inflow or sewer infiltration]]".<ref name=":0">{{cite book|isbn = 978-3-906484-57-0|url = http://www.eawag.ch/en/department/sandec/publications/compendium/|title = Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies –|last = Tilley, E., Ulrich, L., Lüthi, C., Reymond, Ph., Zurbrügg, C.|publisher = Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (Eawag), Duebendorf, Switzerland|url-status = live|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160408021403/http://www.eawag.ch/en/department/sandec/publications/compendium/|archive-date = 8 April 2016|df = dmy-all|year = 2014|edition = 2nd Revised}}</ref>{{rp|175}}
* '''Wastewater''', is any [[water]] that has been contaminated by human use. Wastewater is "used water from any combination of domestic, industrial, commercial or agricultural activities, surface runoff or stormwater, and any [[Infiltration/Inflow|sewer inflow or sewer infiltration]]".<ref name=":0">{{cite book|isbn = 978-3-906484-57-0|url = http://www.eawag.ch/en/department/sandec/publications/compendium/|title = Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies –|last = Tilley, E., Ulrich, L., Lüthi, C., Reymond, Ph., Zurbrügg, C.|publisher = Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (Eawag), Duebendorf, Switzerland|url-status = live|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160408021403/http://www.eawag.ch/en/department/sandec/publications/compendium/|archive-date = 8 April 2016|df = dmy-all|year = 2014|edition = 2nd Revised}}</ref>{{rp|175}}


=== Sub-types ===
=== Sub-types ===

Revision as of 13:27, 24 August 2021

Not to be confused with Sewerage.

Raw sewage arriving at a sewage treatment plant in Syria
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Sewage (or domestic sewage, domestic wastewater, municipal wastewater) is a type of wastewater that is produced by a community of people. It is typically transported through a sewer system (sewerage).[1]: 175  Sewage consists of wastewater discharged from residences and from commercial, institutional and public facilities that exist in the locality.[2]: 10  It is characterized by volume or rate of flow, physical condition, chemical and toxic constituents, and its bacteriologic status (which organisms it contains and in what quantities). Sub-types of sewage are greywater (from sinks, bathtubs, showers, dishwashers, and clothes washers) and blackwater (the water used to flush toilets, combined with the human waste that it flushes away). Sewage also contains soaps and detergents, food waste (more so if a garbage disposal unit is used); and toilet paper (less so in regions where bidets are widely used instead of paper).

Sewage usually travels from a building's plumbing either into a sewer, which will carry it elsewhere, or into an onsite sewage facility. Whether it is combined with surface runoff in the sewer depends on the sewer design (sanitary sewer or combined sewer).

Sewage treatment is part of the broad term sanitation which includes not only the management of wastewater but also the management of human excreta, solid waste and stormwater.

Definitions

Domestic sewage is made up of the wastewater from residences and institutions, carrying bodily wastes (primarily feces and urine), washing water, food preparation wastes, laundry wastes, and other waste products of normal living. This is classified as sewage or domestic wastewater.[3]: 9–1  Sewage is an older term often replaced by "wastewater", domestic wastewater or municipal wastewater in modern usage,[4] but useful to differentiate domestic sewage from the following terms:

  • Commercial wastewater is the sewage from restaurants, laundries, hospitals, schools, offices, stores and establishments serving the local area of larger communities.[5][6]: 298 
  • Industrial wastewater, generated by industrial processes such as the production or manufacture of goods, may be significantly different from sewage and may be collected and treated or pre-treated separately.[6]: 300 
  • Wastewater, is any water that has been contaminated by human use. Wastewater is "used water from any combination of domestic, industrial, commercial or agricultural activities, surface runoff or stormwater, and any sewer inflow or sewer infiltration".[1]: 175 

Sub-types

Pumping station lifting sewage to the treatment plant in Bujumbura, Burundi
Greywater (a type of wastewater) in a settling tank

Greywater

This section is an excerpt from Greywater.[edit]

Greywater (or grey water, sullage, also spelled gray water in the United States) refers to domestic wastewater generated in households or office buildings from streams without fecal contamination, i.e., all streams except for the wastewater from toilets. Sources of greywater include sinks, showers, baths, washing machines or dishwashers. As greywater contains fewer pathogens than blackwater, it is generally safer to handle and easier to treat and reuse onsite for toilet flushing, landscape or crop irrigation, and other non-potable uses. Greywater may still have some pathogen content from laundering soiled clothing or cleaning the anal area in the shower or bath.

The application of greywater reuse in urban water systems provides substantial benefits for both the water supply subsystem, by reducing the demand for fresh clean water, and the wastewater subsystems by reducing the amount of conveyed and treated wastewater.[7] Treated greywater has many uses, such as toilet flushing or irrigation.[8]

Blackwater

This section is an excerpt from Blackwater (waste).[edit]

Blackwater in a sanitation context denotes wastewater from toilets which likely contains pathogens that may spread by the fecal–oral route. Blackwater can contain feces, urine, water and toilet paper from flush toilets. Blackwater is distinguished from greywater, which comes from sinks, baths, washing machines, and other household appliances apart from toilets. Greywater results from washing food, clothing, dishes, as well as from showering or bathing.[9]

Blackwater and greywater are kept separate in "ecological buildings", such as autonomous buildings. Recreational vehicles often have separate holding tanks for greywater from showers and sinks, and blackwater from the toilet.

Characteristics

Overall appearance

The overall appearance of sewage is a follows:[2]: 30  The temperature tends to be slightly higher than in drinking water but is more stable than the ambient temperature. The color of fresh sewage is slightly grey, whereas older sewage (also called "septic sewage") is dark grey or black. The odor of fresh sewage is "oily" and relatively unpleasant, whereas older sewage has an unpleasant foul odor due to hydrogen sulfide gas and other decomposition by-products. Sewage can have high turbidity from suspended solids.

The pH value of sewage is usually near neutral, and can be in the range of 6.7–8.0.[2]: 57 

Quantity (flowrates)

The volume of domestic sewage produced per person varies with the water consumption in the respective locality.[2]: 11  A range of factors influence water consumption and hence the sewage flowrates per person. These include: Water availability (the opposite of water scarcity), water supply options, climate (warmer climates may lead to greater water consumption), community size, economic level of the community, level of industrialization, metering of household consumption, water cost, water pressure and system losses in the water supply network.[2]: 20 

The production of sewage generally corresponds to the water consumption. However some of the consumed water will not enter the sewer system (for example water used for lawn irrigation), whereas other water may enter the sewer system in addition to sewage, namely stormwater.[2]: 22  There are usually two peak flowrates of sewage arriving at a treatment plant: One peak is at the beginning of the morning and another peak is at the beginning of the evening.[2]: 24 

With regards to water consumption, a design figure that can be regarded as "world average" is 35-90 L per person per day (data from 1992).[10]: 163  The same publication estimated water consumption in China as 80 L per person per day, Africa as 15-35 L per person per day, and Latin America and Caribbean as 70-190 L per person per day.[10]: 163 

Typical sewage flowrates from urban residential sources in the United States are estimated as follows: 365 L/person/day (for one person households), 288 L/person/day (two person households), 200 L/person/day (four person households), 189 L/person/day (six person households).[10]: 156  This means the overall range for this example would be 189–365 L (42–80 imp gal; 50–96 US gal).

Addition of other flows

Sewage can become mixed with other waters in the sewer system during the collection process:

  • "Infiltration" in a sewerage system is caused by rainwater that has become groundwater and is entering sewer pipes through defective pipes, connections, joints or manholes.[2]: 26 [10]: 164  The amount of such infiltrated water depends on several parameters, such as the length of the collection network, pipeline diameters, drainage area, soil type, water table depth, topography and number of connections per unit area.[2]: 26  Older sewer systems that are in need of rehabilitation may also exfiltrate sewage into groundwater from the leaking sewer joints and service connections.[10]: 167  This can lead to groundwater pollution.[11]
  • "Inflow" is water discharged from cellar and foundation drains, cooling-water discharges, and any direct stormwater runoff connections to the sanitary collection system.[10]: 163  The "direct inflows" can result in peak sewage flowrates during wet weather events.[10]: 165 

Quality (pollutants and content)

The composition of sewage varies, depending on what the water was used for. These uses in turn vary with climate, social and economic situation and population habits.[2]: 28  In regions where water use is low, the strength of the sewage is much higher than that in the Untied States where water use per person is high.[10]: 183  Household income and diet also plays a role: For the case of Brazil, it has been found that the higher the household income, the higher is the BOD load per person and the lower is the BOD concentration.[2]: 57 

The main parameters in sewage that are measured to assess the sewage strength or quality as well as treatment options include: solids, indicators of organic matter, nitrogen, phosphorus, indicators of fecal contamination.[2]: 33 

Sewage contains urine and feces and the following quantities have been estimated: Per day, the median fecal wet mass production of an average person is 128 g/person/day, with a median dry mass of 29 g/cap/day (the main factor affecting fecal mass is the person's fiber intake.[12] The same research found that the median urine generation rate is about 1.42 L/cap/day.[12]

Solids and organic content

The organic matter in sewage can be classified in terms of form and size: Suspended (particulate) or dissolved (soluble). Secondly, it can be classified in terms of biodegradability: either inert or biodegradable.[2]: 35  The organic matter in sewage consists of protein compounds (about 40%), carbohydrates (about 25-50%), oils and grease (about 10%) and urea, surfactants, phenols, pesticides and others (lower quantity).[2]: 35  In order to quantify this organic matter, indirect methods are commonly used: mainly the Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) and the Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD).[2]: 36 

Sewage contains approximately 99.9% water, with the remainder being organic and inorganic, suspended and dissolved solids, and microorganisms.[2]: 28 

The mass load of organic content is calculated as the sewage flowrate multiplied with the concentration of the organic matter in the sewage.[2]: 55 

Typical values for physical–chemical characteristics of raw sewage in developing countries have been published as follows: 180 g/cap/d for total solids (1100 mg/L concentration), 50 g/cap/d for BOD (300 mg/L), 100 g/cap/d for COD (600 mg/L), 8 g/cap/d for total nitrogen (45 mg/L), 4.5 g/cap/d for ammonia-N (25 mg/L) and 1.0 g/cap/d for total phosphorus (7 mg/L).[2]: 57 

This compares with the following values for households in the United States, whereby the estimates are based on the assumption that 25% of the homes have kitchen waste-food grinders (sewage from such households contain more waste): 95 g/cap/d for total suspended solids (503 mg/L concentration), 85 g/cap/d for BOD (450 mg/L), 198 g/cap/d for COD (1050 mg/L), 13.3 g/cap/d for the sum of organic nitrogen and ammonia nitrogen (70.4 mg/L), 7.8 g/cap/d for ammonia-N (41.2 mg/L) and 3.28 g/cap/d for total phosphorus (17.3 mg/L). The concentration values given here are based on a flowrate of 190 L per person per day.[10]: 183 

Nitrogen and phosphorus

In raw sewage, nitrogen exists in the two forms of organic nitrogen or ammonia. The ammonia stems from the urea in urine. Urea is rapidly hydrolyzed and therefore not found in raw sewage.[2]: 43 

Total phosphorus is present in sewage in the form of phosphates.They are either inorganic (polyphosphates and orthophosphates) and their main source is from detergents and other household chemical products. Or they are organic phosphate, where the source is organic compounds to which the organic phosphate is bound.[2]: 45 

If sewage is discharged untreated, its nitrogen and phosphorus content can lead to pollution of lakes and reservoirs via a process called eutrophication.[2]: 77 

Pathogens

Sewage contains pathogens which stem mainly from fecal matter. The following four types of pathogens are found in sewage:[13][14]

Micro-pollutants

Sewage contains environmental persistent pharmaceutical pollutants. Trihalomethanes can also be present as a result of past disinfection. Sewage may contain microplastics such as polyethylene and polypropylene beads, or polyester and polyamide fragments[16] from synthetic clothing and bedding fabrics abraded by wear and laundering, or from plastic packaging and plastic-coated paper products disintegrated by lift station pumps. Pharmaceuticals, endocrine disrupting compounds, and hormones[17][18][19] may be excreted in urine or feces if not catabolized within the human body.

Solid and liquid wastes

Screening of the sewage with bar screens at a sewage treatment plant to remove larger objects in Norton, Zimbabwe
Screening of sewage at a sewage treatment plant in Bujumbura, Burundi

Households with flush toilets are often tempted to dispose of unwanted solid waste items through their toilet, even at the risk of causing blockages. For this reason the following solid waste items are often found in sewage: Wet wipes, diapers, sanitary napkins, tampons, tampon applicators, condoms, and expired medications. The privacy of a toilet offers a clandestine means of removing embarrassing evidence by flushing such things as drug paraphernalia, pregnancy test kits, combined oral contraceptive pill dispensers, and the packaging for those devices.

Some residential users tend to pour unwanted liquids like used cooking oil, lubricants, adhesives, paint, solvents, disinfectants, into their sewer connections.

Pollutants from industrial wastewater

Main article: Industrial wastewater treatment

Sewage from communities with industrial facilities may contain industrial wastewater with varying concentrations of raw materials, reagents, impurities, products, and by-products of manufacturing operations. Volumes of industrial wastewater vary widely with the type of industry.[3]: 9–9  Industrial wastewater often includes blackwater from employees and customers, but may contain very different pollutants at much higher concentrations than what is typically found in sewage.[3]: 9-92&9-96  Pollutants may be toxic or non-biodegradable waste including pharmaceuticals,[20] biocides, heavy metals, radionuclides, or thermal pollution. Industrial wastewater increases the volume of sewage per capita.

Quality indicators

Main article: Wastewater quality indicators

Sewage can be monitored for both disease-causing and benign organisms with a variety of techniques. Traditional techniques involve filtering, staining, and examining samples under a microscope. Much more sensitive and specific testing can be accomplished with DNA sequencing, such as when looking for rare organisms, attempting eradication, testing specifically for drug-resistant strains, or discovering new species.[21][22][23] Sequencing DNA from an environmental sample is known as metagenomics.

Sewage has also been analyzed to determine relative rates of use of prescription and illegal drugs among municipal populations.[24] General socioeconomic demographics may be inferred as well.[25]

Management

Sewage overflowing from a manhole into the street of an informal settlement near Cape Town, South Africa.

Sewage can cause water pollution when discharged to the environment. Proper collection and safe, nuisance-free disposal of the liquid wastes of a community are legally recognized as a necessity in an urbanized, industrialized society.[26] Management of sewage may include collection for release to surface water, infiltration to groundwater, or reuse,[27]: 9  with or without sewage treatment.[28]: 564  It is part of the broad term sanitation which includes not only the management of wastewater but also the management of human excreta, solid waste and stormwater.

Collection

Sewage may be collected and transported in a sanitary sewer or in a combined sewer that conveys stormwater runoff, sewage and industrial wastewater to an evaporation or infiltration basin, or to a stream, lake, or ocean.[3]: 9–41  The amount of treatment required depends upon the perceived ability of the receiving water to dilute and assimilate wastes within the sewage, and perceptions of individuals generating the sewage may differ from other segments of the population.

Types of sewers:

  • Combined sewers carry surface runoff in addition to sewage, which may significantly increase sewage volume during precipitation.[3]: 9–1  Uncontaminated stormwater simply dilutes sewage, but runoff may dissolve or suspend virtually anything it contacts on roofs, streets, and storage yards.[6]: 296  Combined sewers may receive dry weather drainage from landscape irrigation, construction dewatering, and washing buildings and sidewalks.
  • Sanitary sewers are typically much smaller than combined sewers, and they are not designed to transport stormwater. Backups of raw sewage can occur if excessive dilution by stormwater inflow and/or groundwater infiltration is allowed into a sanitary sewer system. Communities that have urbanized in the mid-20th century or later generally have built separate systems for sewage (sanitary sewers) and stormwater, because precipitation causes widely varying flows, reducing sewage treatment plant efficiency.[29] In general American English usage, the terms "sewage" and "sewerage" mean the same thing.[30][31][32] In common English usage, and in American technical and professional English usage, "sewerage" refers to the infrastructure that conveys sewage.[33]

Treatment

This section is an excerpt from Sewage treatment.[edit]

Sewage treatment (or domestic wastewater treatment, municipal wastewater treatment) is a type of wastewater treatment which aims to remove contaminants from sewage to produce an effluent that is suitable to discharge to the surrounding environment or an intended reuse application, thereby preventing water pollution from raw sewage discharges.[34] Sewage contains wastewater from households and businesses and possibly pre-treated industrial wastewater. There are a high number of sewage treatment processes to choose from. These can range from decentralized systems (including on-site treatment systems) to large centralized systems involving a network of pipes and pump stations (called sewerage) which convey the sewage to a treatment plant. For cities that have a combined sewer, the sewers will also carry urban runoff (stormwater) to the sewage treatment plant. Sewage treatment often involves two main stages, called primary and secondary treatment, while advanced treatment also incorporates a tertiary treatment stage with polishing processes and nutrient removal. Secondary treatment can reduce organic matter (measured as biological oxygen demand) from sewage,  using aerobic or anaerobic biological processes. A so-called quarternary treatment step (sometimes referred to as advanced treatment) can also be added for the removal of organic micropollutants, such as pharmaceuticals. This has been implemented in full-scale for example in Sweden.[35]

A large number of sewage treatment technologies have been developed, mostly using biological treatment processes. Design engineers and decision makers need to take into account technical and economical criteria of each alternative when choosing a suitable technology.[36]: 215  Often, the main criteria for selection are: desired effluent quality, expected construction and operating costs, availability of land, energy requirements and sustainability aspects. In developing countries and in rural areas with low population densities, sewage is often treated by various on-site sanitation systems and not conveyed in sewers. These systems include septic tanks connected to drain fields, on-site sewage systems (OSS), vermifilter systems and many more. On the other hand, advanced and relatively expensive sewage treatment plants may include tertiary treatment with disinfection and possibly even a fourth treatment stage to remove micropollutants.[35]

Non-treatment disposal options

Dilution

Ocean outfall pipes in Cape May, NJ, United Sates - pipes exposed after the sand was removed by severe storm

Dilution remained the most common method of sewage disposal into the late 20th century. Most sewage produced globally remains untreated, causing widespread water pollution, especially in low-income countries: a global estimate by UNDP and UN-Habitat is that 90% of all wastewater generated is released into the environment untreated.[37] The larger suspended or floating solids may be removed rather than released to the receiving water.[28]: 573  The amount of natural purification in receiving waters depends upon the volume of receiving water in comparison to the amount of waste, and the ability of the receiving water to sustain dissolved oxygen concentrations necessary to support organisms catabolizing organic waste.[27]: 9&673  Fish may die if dissolved oxygen levels are depressed below 5 mg/l.[28]: 573 

Combined sewer systems dilute sewage with stormwater runoff or urban runoff. This design was common when urban sewerage systems were first developed, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.[27]: 119  As rainfall travels over roofs and the ground, it may pick up various contaminants including soil particles and other sediment, heavy metals, organic compounds, animal waste, and oil and grease.

Ocean outfalls

This section is an excerpt from Marine outfall.[edit]
A marine outfall (or ocean outfall) is a pipeline or tunnel that discharges municipal or industrial wastewater, stormwater, combined sewer overflows (CSOs), cooling water, or brine effluents from water desalination plants to the sea. Usually they discharge under the sea's surface (submarine outfall). In the case of municipal wastewater, effluent is often being discharged after having undergone no or only primary treatment, with the intention of using the assimilative capacity of the sea for further treatment. Submarine outfalls are common throughout the world and probably number in the thousands. The light intensity and salinity in natural sea water disinfects the wastewater to ocean outfall system significantly.[38] More than 200 outfalls alone have been listed in a single international database maintained by the Institute for Hydromechanics at Karlsruhe University for the International Association of Hydraulic Engineering and Research (IAHR) / International Water Association (IWA) Committee on Marine Outfall Systems.[39]

Land disposal

Groundwater recharge is a method of treated sewage disposal to reduce saltwater intrusion, or replenish aquifers used for agricultural irrigation. Treatment is usually required to sustain percolation capacity of infiltration basins, and more extensive treatment is required for aquifers used as drinking water supplies.[27]: 700–703  Land disposal alternatives require consideration of land availability, groundwater quality, and possible soil deterioration.[40]

Sewage farms

This section is an excerpt from Sewage farm.[edit]
Sewage farms use sewage for irrigation and fertilizing agricultural land. The practice is common in warm, arid climates where irrigation is valuable while sources of fresh water are scarce. Suspended solids may be converted to humus by microbes and bacteria in order to supply nitrogen, phosphorus and other plant nutrients for crop growth. Many industrialized nations use conventional sewage treatment plants nowadays instead of sewage farms. These reduce vector and odor problems; but sewage farming remains a low-cost option for some developing countries. Sewage farming should not be confused with sewage disposal through infiltration basins or subsurface drains.

Legislation

Further information: Sewage regulation and administration

See also

References

  1. ^ a b Tilley, E., Ulrich, L., Lüthi, C., Reymond, Ph., Zurbrügg, C. (2014). Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies – (2nd Revised ed.). Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (Eawag), Duebendorf, Switzerland. ISBN 978-3-906484-57-0. Archived from the original on 8 April 2016.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u Von Sperling, M. (2015). "Wastewater Characteristics, Treatment and Disposal". Water Intelligence Online. 6 (0): 9781780402086–9781780402086. doi:10.2166/9781780402086. ISSN 1476-1777.
  3. ^ a b c d e Urquhart, Leonard Church (1959). Civil Engineering Handbook (Fourth ed.). New York City: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.
  4. ^ Wastewater engineering: treatment and reuse (4th ed.). Metcalf & Eddy, Inc., McGraw Hill, USA. 2003. p. 1807. ISBN 0-07-112250-8.
  5. ^ Sewage Treatment Plant Design. New York City: American Society of Civil Engineers and Water Pollution Control Federation. 1959. pp. 5–10.
  6. ^ a b c Hammer, Mark J. (1975). Water and Waste-Water Technology. New York City: John Wiley & Son. ISBN 0-471-34726-4.
  7. ^ Behzadian, k; Kapelan, Z (2015). "Advantages of integrated and sustainability based assessment for metabolism based strategic planning of urban water systems" (PDF). Science of the Total Environment. 527–528: 220–231. Bibcode:2015ScTEn.527..220B. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.04.097. hdl:10871/17351. PMID 25965035.
  8. ^ Duttle, Marsha (January 1990). "NM State greywater advice". New Mexico State University. Archived from the original on 13 February 2010. Retrieved 23 January 2010.
  9. ^ Tilley, E.; Ulrich, L.; Lüthi, C.; Reymond, Ph.; Zurbrügg, C. (2014). Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies (2nd Revised ed.). Duebendorf, Switzerland: Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (Eawag). p. 10. ISBN 978-3-906484-57-0.
  10. ^ a b c d e f g h i Wastewater engineering : treatment and reuse. George Tchobanoglous, Franklin L. Burton, H. David Stensel, Metcalf & Eddy (4th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill. 2003. ISBN 0-07-041878-0. OCLC 48053912.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  11. ^ UN-Water (2015). "Wastewater Management - A UN-Water Analytical Brief" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 30 November 2016. Retrieved 22 March 2017.
  12. ^ a b Rose, C.; Parker, A.; Jefferson, B.; Cartmell, E. (2015). "The Characterization of Feces and Urine: A Review of the Literature to Inform Advanced Treatment Technology". Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology. 45 (17): 1827–1879. doi:10.1080/10643389.2014.1000761. ISSN 1064-3389. PMC 4500995. PMID 26246784.
  13. ^ World Health Organization (2006). Guidelines for the safe use of wastewater, excreta, and greywater. World Health Organization. p. 31. ISBN 9241546859. OCLC 71253096.
  14. ^ Andersson, K., Rosemarin, A., Lamizana, B., Kvarnström, E., McConville, J., Seidu, R., Dickin, S. and Trimmer, C. (2016). Sanitation, Wastewater Management and Sustainability: from Waste Disposal to Resource Recovery Archived 2017-06-01 at the Wayback Machine. Nairobi and Stockholm: United Nations Environment Programme and Stockholm Environment Institute. ISBN 978-92-807-3488-1, p. 56
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