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In 1933, Na'im Makhouly, a Christian Palestinian from Nazareth, who was an inspector for the Mandate Department of Antiquities at the time of the construction of the Samak-Tiberias highway that cut across Tel Bet Yerah, conducted a salvage excavation.<ref name="TBYREP-WN">http://www.tau.ac.il/humanities/archaeology/projects/betyerah/whatsnew.html</ref>
In 1933, Na'im Makhouly, a Christian Palestinian from Nazareth, who was an inspector for the Mandate Department of Antiquities at the time of the construction of the Samak-Tiberias highway that cut across Tel Bet Yerah, conducted a salvage excavation.<ref name="TBYREP-WN">http://www.tau.ac.il/humanities/archaeology/projects/betyerah/whatsnew.html</ref>


During the 1940s, parts of the tell were excavated by [[Benjamin Mazar]], Michael Avi-Yonah, Moshe Sheteklis, and Emanuel Dunayevsky.<ref>B. Maisler, M. Stekelis, and M. Avi-Yonah, The Excavations at Beth Yerah (Khirbet el-Kerak) 1944-1946, Israel Exploration Journal, vol. 2, pp. 165-173 and pp. 219-29, 1951</ref>In 1946, in the northern quadrant of the tell, a fortified compound consisting of a series of large structures, including a bathhouse adjoined to large apsidal hall that is decorated with colorful [[mosaics]], was discovered just above the granary (AKA the Circles Building), an Early Bronze Age structure uncovered in previous excavations.<ref name=TBY/>
During the 1940s, parts of the tell were excavated by [[Benjamin Mazar]], Michael Avi-Yonah, Moshe Sheteklis, and Emanuel Dunayevsky.<ref>B. Maisler, M. Stekelis, and M. Avi-Yonah, The Excavations at Beth Yerah (Khirbet el-Kerak) 1944-1946, Israel Exploration Journal, vol. 2, pp. 165-173 and pp. 219-29, 1951</ref> In 1946, in the northern quadrant of the tell, a fortified compound consisting of a series of large structures, including a bathhouse adjoined to large apsidal hall that is decorated with colorful [[mosaics]], was discovered just above the granary (AKA the Circles Building), an Early Bronze Age structure uncovered in previous excavations.<ref name=TBY/>
<ref name=Mazar>{{cite web|url=http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~semitic/wl/digsites/CLevant/AlSinnabra_08/|title=al-Sinnabra Overview|author=Amihai Mazar|accessdate=2010-03-16|publisher=The Shelby White-Leon Levy Program for Archaeological Excavations}}</ref>
<ref name=Mazar>{{cite web|url=http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~semitic/wl/digsites/CLevant/AlSinnabra_08/|title=al-Sinnabra Overview|author=Amihai Mazar|accessdate=2010-03-16|publisher=The Shelby White-Leon Levy Program for Archaeological Excavations}}</ref>


Between 1950 and 1953, P.L.O. Guy and [[Pesach Bar-Adon]], two [[Archaeology of Israel|Israeli archaeologists]], extensively excavated the site, though the work was largely unpublished and of uneven quality.<ref>P. Bar-Adon, Beth Yerah (News and Notes), IEJ, vol. 3, pp. 132, 1953</ref>
Between 1950 and 1953,<ref>P. Bar-Adon, Beth Yerah (News and Notes), IEJ, vol. 3, pp. 132, 1953</ref>
<ref>P. Bar-Adon, Beth Yerah (News and Notes), IEJ, vol. 4, pp. 128-129, 1954</ref>
<ref>P. Bar-Adon, Beth Yerah (News and Notes), IEJ, vol. 4, pp. 128-129, 1954</ref>
<ref>P. Bar-Adon, Beth Yerah (News and Notes), IEJ, vol. 5, pp. 273, 1955</ref> P.L.O. Guy and [[Pesach Bar-Adon]], two [[Archaeology of Israel|Israeli archaeologists]] excavated the compound, falsely identifying it a 5th-6th century Palestinian [[synagogue]], because of the presence of a stone engraved with a seven-branched [[candelabrum]].<ref name=TBY>{{cite web|url=http://www.tau.ac.il/humanities/archaeology/projects/betyerah/qasr.html|title=The Umayyad Qasr|publisher=Tel Bet Yerah Reserch and Excavation Project|accessdate=2010-03-18}}</ref><ref name=Whitcomb/><ref name=rtbf/><ref name=TAU/> The "synagogue" was incorporated into the Beth Yerah National Park which served as a popular tourist destination during the 1950s and 1960s, but has since been closed.<ref name=TAU/>
<ref>P. Bar-Adon, Beth Yerah (News and Notes), IEJ, vol. 5, pp. 273, 1955</ref>

They misidentified one structure as a 5th-6th century synagogue. It was incorporated into Bet Yerah National Park, a popular site for hikers in the 1950s and 1960s which has since been closed.<ref name=TAU/>
Excavations by the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago in 1960 uncovered a Byzantine church that shows signs of renewed habitation, possibly serving as a ''dar'', or manor house, during the early Islamic period.<ref name=Whitcombp245/> Questions as to the second structure to the south's identity as synagogue within a Roman era fort with ''hammam'' or bath attached were repeatedly raised.<ref name=TAU/><ref name=Whitcombp245/> [[Ronny Reich]], a prominent Israeli archaeologist, disproved that thesis in 1993, without offering an alternate explanation as to its identity.<ref name=Whitcomb/><ref name=Chanceyp110>Chancey, 2005, p. 110, footnote #74.</ref><ref name=Whitcombp246>Whitcomb in Schuzman, 2009, p. 246.</ref>


In 1976, [[Ruth Amiran]] conducted a salvage excavation. More salvage excavation was done by Nimrod Getzov in 1994 and 1995. <ref>Nimrod Getzov et al., The Tel Bet Yerah Excavations 1994-1995 (IAA Reports S. No. 28), Israel Antiquities Authority, 2006, ISBN 9654061864</ref>
In 1976, [[Ruth Amiran]] conducted a salvage excavation. More salvage excavation was done by Nimrod Getzov in 1994 and 1995. <ref>Nimrod Getzov et al., The Tel Bet Yerah Excavations 1994-1995 (IAA Reports S. No. 28), Israel Antiquities Authority, 2006, ISBN 9654061864</ref>
Line 107: Line 108:
In 2002 the Roman-Byzantine compound was hypothesized to be the palace of al-Sinnabra.<ref name=TAU/> [[Donald S. Whitcomb]] of the Oriental Institute at the [[University of Chicago]], made the identification after re-examining the plan and architectural features provided in the descriptions made by Israeli excavators.<ref name=TBY/><ref name=Whitcomb/> Noting the similarities between the features of the complex and those of [[Khirbat al-Mafjar]], another Islamic era palace, he suggested the site was one of the so-called desert castles (p. ''qusur''; s. ''qasr'') of the early Islamic [[Levant]].<ref name=TBY/><ref name=Whitcomb/> By comparing this information against the descriptions provided in historical geography texts, Whitcomb determined that the complex at Tel Bet Yerah was the early Islamic palace of al-Sinnabra.<ref name=Arabiya/><ref name=Whitcomb>{{cite web|url=http://oi.uchicago.edu/research/pubs/ar/01-02/is_whitcomb.html|title=Individual Scholarship: 2001-2002 Annual Report - Donald S. Whitcomb|publisher=The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago|date=Revised July 30, 2007|accessdate=2010-03-16}}</ref>
In 2002 the Roman-Byzantine compound was hypothesized to be the palace of al-Sinnabra.<ref name=TAU/> [[Donald S. Whitcomb]] of the Oriental Institute at the [[University of Chicago]], made the identification after re-examining the plan and architectural features provided in the descriptions made by Israeli excavators.<ref name=TBY/><ref name=Whitcomb/> Noting the similarities between the features of the complex and those of [[Khirbat al-Mafjar]], another Islamic era palace, he suggested the site was one of the so-called desert castles (p. ''qusur''; s. ''qasr'') of the early Islamic [[Levant]].<ref name=TBY/><ref name=Whitcomb/> By comparing this information against the descriptions provided in historical geography texts, Whitcomb determined that the complex at Tel Bet Yerah was the early Islamic palace of al-Sinnabra.<ref name=Arabiya/><ref name=Whitcomb>{{cite web|url=http://oi.uchicago.edu/research/pubs/ar/01-02/is_whitcomb.html|title=Individual Scholarship: 2001-2002 Annual Report - Donald S. Whitcomb|publisher=The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago|date=Revised July 30, 2007|accessdate=2010-03-16}}</ref>


In the summer of 2003, excavations were renewed in the northern part of the site with a pilot excavation in the granary.<ref>[http://www.tau.ac.il/humanities/archaeology/projects/betyerah/index.html TBYREP]</ref> Whitcomb's thesis was confirmed following research conducted by Taufik Deadle of [[Hebrew University]] and excavations undertaken by Israeli archaeologists headed by Raphael Greenberg from [[Tel Aviv University]]'s Institute of Archaeology in 2010.<ref name=Arabiya/><ref name=Zimbio>{{cite web|url=http://www.zimbio.com/AFP+Technology/articles/yD32CZFUXvw/Ruins+7th+century+Arab+palace+identified+Israel|title=Ruins of 7th century Arab palace identified in Israel|publisher=Zimbio|author=[[Agence France Presse]]|date=March 16, 2010|accessdate=2010-03-16}}</ref><ref name=TAU/> According to Whitcomb, the ''qasr'' is likely the earliest Umayyad complex of this type yet to be discovered.<ref name=TBY/> It differs from other ''qusur'' in that there are no ''buyūt'' ("houses") arranged around a central courtyard, suggesting either a more urban design, such as that found at [['Anjar]], or a more palatial one, like that at [[Qasr ibn Wardan]].<ref name=Whitcombp246/>
In the summer of 2003, excavations were renewed in the northern part of the site with a pilot excavation in the granary. <ref> [http://www.tau.ac.il/humanities/archaeology/projects/betyerah/index.html TBYREP]</ref> The expedition has continued under the direction of [[Rafi Greenberg]].

==See also==
==See also==
*[[Cities of the ancient Near East]]
*[[Cities of the ancient Near East]]

Revision as of 22:13, 21 July 2011

Al-Sinnabra
Al-Sinnabra is located in Israel
Al-Sinnabra
Shown within Israel
Alternative nameKhirbat al-Karak, Bet Yerah
StandortIsrael
Areac.250 Dunams
History
PeriodsBronze Age - Crusader period
Site notes
ArchaeologistsNa'im Makhouly, Benjamin Mazar, Michael Avi-Yonah, Moshe Sheteklis, Emanuel Dunayevsky, Pesach Bar-Adon, P.L.O. Guy, Ruth Amiran, Rafi Greenberg
WebsiteTel Bet Yerah Research and Excavation Project

Al-Sinnabra is the Arabic place name for a site identified with the tell of Khirbat al-Karak (Beth Yerah, Hebrew: בית ירח), situated on the southern shore of the Sea of Galilee in modern day Israel.[1] One of the country's largest tells, stretching over 50 acres,[2] excavations have shown that the site was settled continuously from the Early Bronze Age until the early Islamic Period.

A qasr (Arab Islamic palatial complex), located in al-Sinnabra and known by the same name, served as a winter resort to Mu'awiya, Marwan I, and other caliphs in Umayyad-era Palestine (c. 650-704 AD).[3][4][5] The qasr was constructed in the 7th century by Mu'awiya and Abdel Malik, another Umayyad caliph who also commissioned the building of the Dome of the Rock in the Old City of Jerusalem.[6][7] For decades, the complex of al-Sinnabra was falsely believed to be a Byzantine era (c. 330-620 CE) synagogue, a thesis definitively disproved by excavations carried out in 2010.[8][5][9]

Etymology

The name al-Sinnabra or Sinn-en-Nabra is Arabic.[10][11] In Greek sources the name is transcribed as Sennabris, while in Talmudic sources it is referred to as Sinnabri,[11][10] that sat alongside Bet Yerah.[12] All are likely variant designations for Bet Yerah; the Sinn/Senn element corresponding to Sin, the Assyro-Babylonian sun-god.[10] Yerah was a moon-god, and the name indicates the ties with early dynastic Egypt, also known as the Land of the moon.[13]

The tell upon which al-Sinnabra was situated is also known as Khirbet Kerak or Khirbet al-Karak and Bet Yerah.[10][14]

Standort

Though described in the writings of early Arab historians, the precise location of al-Sinnabra had long been unknown.[5] Josephus, the 1st century Jewish historian, described Sennabris as the northernmost point of the Jordan valley, situating it some 30 stadia from Tiberias.[1][15] In Buldan, Yaqut al-Hamawi (1179–1229), the Syrian geographer, situated al-Sinnabra opposite 'aqabat Afiq (meaning "the Afeq pass"), 3 miles (4.8 km) from Tiberias.[11]

Location of Sennabris on 1903 map

Al-Sinnabra was located just off the main Ramla-Beisan-Damascus highway about 6 kilometers (3.7 mi) south of Tabariyya (the Arabic name for Tiberias), a city that served as the capital of the el-Urdunn province under the Umayyad dynasty.[16] Today it is just off Highway 90, west from the Ohalo intersection.

The tell upon which it was situated lies where the Sea of Galilee empties into the Jordan river, and rises 15 meters above sea level. Its triangular shape is approximately 1.2 km by 380 m (at its widest point), covering 60-75 acres. The Jordan river runs south of the tel, although it previously (until the medieval period at the earliest[17]) ran north and west of it.[1]

History

Bronze Age

During the 2009 excavations, a stone palette was found, with Egyptian motifs, including an ankh.[18] The discovery points to trade/political relations with the First dynasty of Egypt, at approximately 3000 BCE.[19][20]

Early Bronze Age (3300/3500-2200 BCE) - Excavators have identified four levels of occupation from the Early Bronze Age (EB). Architectural development shows the procession from (sometimes oval) pit dwellings (I) to mud-brick (II), to basalt foundations with mud-brick (III), and then on to basalt structures (IV), over approximately 1000 years. The basalt houses belong to the same phase as the “Khirbet al-Kerak” pottery, dated to the Early Bronze Age III. From the earliest phases, the settlement was protected from the south and west by a city wall (the north and east facing the Sea of Galilee). The wall consisted of three connecting parallel walls, forming a massive wall, 25 feet (7.6 m) thick, built of mud-bricks. The gate was on the south and was built of basalt.[21] Evidence of an urban, orthogonal layout was found, dating to the EB II,[22] supporting the claim that the city was one of the regional urban centers of the period.[23]

A large (90*120 feet) building (“the circles building”) was built in the EBIII, at the northern part of the tel. Of this building only the basalt foundations of the walls remain, in the form of a pavement 30 feet (9.1 m) wide. In this pavement, ten sunken large circles were found. Each circle is intersected by two partition walls forming four compartments. In the courtyard were ovens in which Khirbet al-Kerak pottery was found. The building is generally identified as a public granary.[21] At full capacity, the granary could hold an estimated 1700 tons of grain.[24] Below this building, remains dated to both EB I(b) and EB II were found. At some point, the building was parceled out to various artisans during EB III––clearly not the original purpose for which the structure was built.[22]

Middle Bronze Age (2200–1550 BC) - From the Middle Bronze Age I, a paved street, a potters workshop and other remains were excavated. Middle Bronze Age II is represented by a tomb. Parts of the city walls are also dated to the MB.[21]

Hellenistic period

In Hellenistic times, the city was known as Sennabris.[10] It is sometimes identified with Philoteria, the city named by Ptolemy II Philadelphus for his sister, because of remains dating to the Ptolemaic rule (3rd century BCE).[25] Parts of the city walls from this period have been identified, and it is estimated that the wall (on the south and west of the tel) was at least 1600 meters long. The wall was built of piles of basalt, with bricks at he top.[17] The wall was strengthened by alternating rectangular and rounded towers with spiral staircases. Similar towers from this period have been found at Tel Zeror.[26] In the southern part of the mound a portion of the Hellenistic town was discovered. It included a street along which houses were built, one of which had a paved court around which were eleven rooms. Some of the houses facing the lake have survived to the height of the window sills.[21] Ceramic and other finds of the 3rd-2nd centuries BCE were abundant in this settlement, and some houses had remains of decorated wall plaster.[27]

Roman-Byzantine period

A depiction of the location of Sennabrin in the ancient Galilee, as recorded in The Historical Atlas (1923) by William R. Shepherd

According to Josephus, Vespasian encamped with three Roman legions in Sennabris.[15][28][29]

Excavations by the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago in 1960 uncovered a Byzantine church that shows signs of renewed habitation, possibly serving as a dar, or manor house, during the early Islamic period.[30]

Early Islamic period

Umayyad Caliphate (until 749 BCE)-Mu'awiya (602-680), the first Caliph of the Umayyad dynasty, settled in al-Sinnabra, dividing his time in Palestine between his residence there and Jerusalem.[31] Innovations he introduced to the palace structure at al-Sinnabra include the maqṣura, "a columned bay ... enclosed by a railing or screen" against which the caliph would lean to hear petitions from his subjects, and a mihrab associated with the apsidal form.[30]

A qasr (Islamic palatial complex) located there and known by the same name, served as a winter resort to Mu'awiya, Marwan I, and other caliphs in Umayyad-era Palestine (c. 650-704 AD).[5][3][4]

The qasr was constructed in the 7th century by Mu'awiya and Abdel Malik, another Umayyad caliph who also commissioned the building of the Dome of the Rock in the Old City of Jerusalem.[6][7] For decades, the complex of al-Sinnabra was believed to be a Roman fort containing a later, Byzantine era (c. 330-620 CE), synagogue. The inner space was identified as a synagogue because of a column base engraved with a seven-branched candelabrum.[6][9]. The thesis was first questioned by Ronny Reich in 1993[32], who did not offer an alternate explanation as to its identity. Donald Whitcomb offered an architectural analysis in 2002, suggesting the building to be an Islamic period qasr.[4][33][34] Excavations carried out in 2010 show Whitcomb's analysis to be correct.[5][9][8] Methodical reexamination of the compound, coins found at the site and its foundations indicate that the central building was built no earlier than 650 CE and that the bathhouse attached to the outer wall dates to the end of the 7th century. The foundations of the compound are made up of thick wall-stubs over two meters deep and provide an idea of the layout of the palace, the bathhouse and the wall and towers that surrounded them. The remains of water conduits and ceramic pipes from the bathhouse attest to the existence of a sophisticated water-distribution system, fed by an aqueduct.[9] According to Whitcomb, the qasr is likely the earliest Umayyad complex of this type yet to be discovered.[16] It differs from other qusur in that there are no buyūt ("houses") arranged around a central courtyard, suggesting either a more urban design, such as that found at 'Anjar, or a more palatial one, like that at Qasr ibn Wardan.[34]

Later caliphs also came to al-Sinnabra.[31] Abdel Malik, the fifth Caliph, who emulated many of Mu'awiya's practices, resided part of the year in Damascus and Baalbek, and would spend the winter season in al-Sinnabra and in al-Jabiya in the Golan, making it one of the four Marwanid capitals of the Umayyad dynasty.[30][35] He died in al-Sinnabra in 705.[35]

In 744, an army headed by Suleiman ibn Hisham, a general of the Umayyad caliphate sent by the new caliph Yazid III to quell resistance to his rule, reached al-Sinnabra, where the tribes of Urdunn came to pledge their loyalty to the caliph before him.[36]

10th-11th centuries -The site was apparently still in use in the 10th century; in 979 a meeting between Abu Taghlib (Fadlallah b. al-Hasan) of the Hamdanid dynasty, and Fadl, son of Salih, a Jew who headed the Fatimid forces took place there.[37]

Crusader period

During the Crusades, the army of Baldwin I, one of the leaders of the First Crusade, was defeated there in the Battle of Al-Sannabra in 1113 by the armies of Mawdud, the atabeg of Mosul who had formed an alliance with forces from Damascus.[38] In the lead up to the Battle of Hittin in 1187, Saladin and his forces passed through al-Sinnabra before moving on to command the roads around Kafr Sabt.[39]

Archaeology

The tell was first surveyed in the 1920s first by Eleazar Sukenik and then later by William Foxwell Albright. [40] [41]

In 1933, Na'im Makhouly, a Christian Palestinian from Nazareth, who was an inspector for the Mandate Department of Antiquities at the time of the construction of the Samak-Tiberias highway that cut across Tel Bet Yerah, conducted a salvage excavation.[42]

During the 1940s, parts of the tell were excavated by Benjamin Mazar, Michael Avi-Yonah, Moshe Sheteklis, and Emanuel Dunayevsky.[43] In 1946, in the northern quadrant of the tell, a fortified compound consisting of a series of large structures, including a bathhouse adjoined to large apsidal hall that is decorated with colorful mosaics, was discovered just above the granary (AKA the Circles Building), an Early Bronze Age structure uncovered in previous excavations.[16] [27]

Between 1950 and 1953,[44] [45] [46] P.L.O. Guy and Pesach Bar-Adon, two Israeli archaeologists excavated the compound, falsely identifying it a 5th-6th century Palestinian synagogue, because of the presence of a stone engraved with a seven-branched candelabrum.[16][4][6][9] The "synagogue" was incorporated into the Beth Yerah National Park which served as a popular tourist destination during the 1950s and 1960s, but has since been closed.[9]

Excavations by the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago in 1960 uncovered a Byzantine church that shows signs of renewed habitation, possibly serving as a dar, or manor house, during the early Islamic period.[30] Questions as to the second structure to the south's identity as synagogue within a Roman era fort with hammam or bath attached were repeatedly raised.[9][30] Ronny Reich, a prominent Israeli archaeologist, disproved that thesis in 1993, without offering an alternate explanation as to its identity.[4][33][34]

In 1976, Ruth Amiran conducted a salvage excavation. More salvage excavation was done by Nimrod Getzov in 1994 and 1995. [47]

In 2002 the Roman-Byzantine compound was hypothesized to be the palace of al-Sinnabra.[9] Donald S. Whitcomb of the Oriental Institute at the University of Chicago, made the identification after re-examining the plan and architectural features provided in the descriptions made by Israeli excavators.[16][4] Noting the similarities between the features of the complex and those of Khirbat al-Mafjar, another Islamic era palace, he suggested the site was one of the so-called desert castles (p. qusur; s. qasr) of the early Islamic Levant.[16][4] By comparing this information against the descriptions provided in historical geography texts, Whitcomb determined that the complex at Tel Bet Yerah was the early Islamic palace of al-Sinnabra.[5][4]

In the summer of 2003, excavations were renewed in the northern part of the site with a pilot excavation in the granary.[48] Whitcomb's thesis was confirmed following research conducted by Taufik Deadle of Hebrew University and excavations undertaken by Israeli archaeologists headed by Raphael Greenberg from Tel Aviv University's Institute of Archaeology in 2010.[5][8][9] According to Whitcomb, the qasr is likely the earliest Umayyad complex of this type yet to be discovered.[16] It differs from other qusur in that there are no buyūt ("houses") arranged around a central courtyard, suggesting either a more urban design, such as that found at 'Anjar, or a more palatial one, like that at Qasr ibn Wardan.[34]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b c Josephus, Flavius; Mason, Steve (2003). Life of Josephus (Reprint, illustrated ed.). Brill. p. 193. ISBN 039104205X, 9780391042056. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help)
  2. ^ The Holy Land: An Archaeological Guide from Earliest Times to 1700, Jerome Murphy O'Connor, Oxford University Press, 1980, p.159
  3. ^ a b Whitcomb in Schuzman, 2009, p. 241. Cite error: The named reference "Whitcombp241" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h "Individual Scholarship: 2001-2002 Annual Report - Donald S. Whitcomb". The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. Revised July 30, 2007. Retrieved 2010-03-16. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  5. ^ a b c d e f g "Ruins thought to be synagogue was Umayyad palace: 7th century Arab palace identified in Israel". Al-Arabiya. March 16, 2010. Retrieved 2010-03-16.
  6. ^ a b c d "Tibériade: identification des vestiges d'un palais omeyyade". RTBF.be. March 16, 2010. Retrieved 2010-03-16.
  7. ^ a b "Identifican el palacio de los primeros omeyas en el mar de Galilea". European Press Photo Agency. March 16, 2010. Retrieved 2010-03-16.
  8. ^ a b c Agence France Presse (March 16, 2010). "Ruins of 7th century Arab palace identified in Israel". Zimbio. Retrieved 2010-03-16.
  9. ^ a b c d e f g h i "Israeli archaeologists identified Caliph Mu'awiya's Lakeside Palace". Tel Aviv University: Division for Press Relations, Spokesperson & Communication Guidelines. March 15, 2010. Retrieved 2010-03-18.
  10. ^ a b c d e Milgrom et al., 1995, p. 630, footnote #2. Cite error: The named reference "Milgromp630" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  11. ^ a b c Cite error: The named reference Gilp78n was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  12. ^ Lightfoot, John (2007). From the Talmud and Hebraica, Volume 1. Cosimo Inc. p. 142. ISBN 9781602064065.
  13. ^ Natan, Yoel (2006). Moon-o-theism: Religion of a War and Moon God Prophet, Volume I. ISBN 978-1438299648. Retrieved 2010-06-23.
  14. ^ Geoffrey W. Bromiley (1982). Geoffrey W. Bromiley (ed.). International Standard Bible Encyclopedia: E-J (Revised ed.). Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN 0802837824, 9780802837820. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help)
  15. ^ a b Miller, Stuart S. (2006). Sages and commoners in late antique ʼEreẓ Israel: a philological inquiry into local traditions in Talmud Yerushalmi. Mohr Siebeck. p. 149, footnote #8. ISBN 316148567X, 9783161485671. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help)
  16. ^ a b c d e f g "The Umayyad Qasr". Tel Bet Yerah Research and Excavation Project. Retrieved 2010-03-18. Cite error: The named reference "TBY" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  17. ^ a b Hestrin, Ruth (1992). E.Stern (ed.). האנצקלופדיה החדשה לחפירות ארכיאולוגיות בארץ ישראל (in Hebrew). Vol. I. pp. 175–181. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)
  18. ^ Raphael, Greenberg (June 2010). "Cosmetic connections? An Egyptian relief carving from Early Bronze Age Tel Bet Yerah (Israel)". Antiquity. Retrieved 2010-07-11. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  19. ^ Greenberg, Rafi. "גן לאומי תל בית ירח" (in Hebrew). Israel Antiquities Authority. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)
  20. ^ Siegel, Judy (2009-07-09). "New discovery links ancient Egypt and Jordan valley site". Jpost.com. Retrieved 2010-07-04.
  21. ^ a b c d Negev, Avraham, ed. (2001). Beth Yerah. pp. 88–89. ISBN 0826413161. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
  22. ^ a b Greenberg, Raphael (2005-03-30). "Tel Bet Yerah". Excavations and Surveys in Israel. Israel Antiquities Authority.
  23. ^ Encyclopedia of Prehistory, p.97
  24. ^ Encyclopedia of Prehistory, p.92
  25. ^ Chancey, Mark A. (2002). The myth of a Gentile Galilee. Cambridge University Press. p. 98. ISBN 9780521814874. Retrieved 2010-07-11.
  26. ^ Broshi, Magen (1990). Devorah Dimant and Lawrence H. Schiffman (ed.). Time to prepare the way in the wilderness: papers on the Qumran scrolls. Hebrew University of Jerusalem. p. 19. ISBN 9789004102255. Retrieved 2010-07-11.
  27. ^ a b Amihai Mazar. "al-Sinnabra Overview". The Shelby White-Leon Levy Program for Archaeological Excavations. Retrieved 2010-03-16.
  28. ^ "Beth Yerah". Encyclopædia Britannica. {{cite web}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Missing or empty |url= (help); Text "http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/63392/Beth-Yerah" ignored (help)
  29. ^ Flavius, Josephus (1981-10-01). The Jewish War. p. 225. ISBN 9780140444209.
  30. ^ a b c d e Whitcomb in Schuzman, 2009, p. 245.
  31. ^ a b Gil, 1997, p. 78.
  32. ^ Ronny Reich (1993). "The Bet Yerah Synagogue Reconsidered" (Document). Atiqot. pp. 139–144.
  33. ^ a b Chancey, Mark A. (2005). Greco-Roman culture and the Galilee of Jesus (Illustrated ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 110, footnote #74. ISBN 0521846471, 9780521846479. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help) Cite error: The named reference "Chanceyp110" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  34. ^ a b c d Whitcomb in Schuzman, 2009, p. 246.
  35. ^ a b Bacharach, Jere L. (1996). Gulru Necipogulu (ed.). Muqarnas - An Annual on the Visual Culture of the Islamic World (Illustrated ed.). Brill. p. 38. ISBN 9004106332, 9789004106338. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help)
  36. ^ Gil, 1997, p. 86.
  37. ^ Gil, 1997, p. 355.
  38. ^ Tyerman, Christopher (2006). God's war: a new history of the Crusades (Illustrated ed.). Harvard University Press. p. 203. ISBN 0674023870, 9780674023871. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help)
  39. ^ Lane-Poole, Stanley (1985). Saladin and the Fall of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. The Other Press. p. 188. ISBN 9839541552, 9789839541557. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help)
  40. ^ L. Sukenik, The Ancient City of Philoteria (Beth-Yerah), Journal of the Palestine Oriental Society, vol. 11, pp. 101-108, 1922
  41. ^ W. F. Albright, Some Archaeological and Topographical Results of a Trip through Palestine, Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, no. 11, pp. 1-14, 1923
  42. ^ http://www.tau.ac.il/humanities/archaeology/projects/betyerah/whatsnew.html
  43. ^ B. Maisler, M. Stekelis, and M. Avi-Yonah, The Excavations at Beth Yerah (Khirbet el-Kerak) 1944-1946, Israel Exploration Journal, vol. 2, pp. 165-173 and pp. 219-29, 1951
  44. ^ P. Bar-Adon, Beth Yerah (News and Notes), IEJ, vol. 3, pp. 132, 1953
  45. ^ P. Bar-Adon, Beth Yerah (News and Notes), IEJ, vol. 4, pp. 128-129, 1954
  46. ^ P. Bar-Adon, Beth Yerah (News and Notes), IEJ, vol. 5, pp. 273, 1955
  47. ^ Nimrod Getzov et al., The Tel Bet Yerah Excavations 1994-1995 (IAA Reports S. No. 28), Israel Antiquities Authority, 2006, ISBN 9654061864
  48. ^ TBYREP

Bibliography

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