Usuario:Haylli/Diqueseco

"Biorritmo"

Biorhythm chart over a 66-day period:
    Physical     Emotional     Intellectual

Biorhythm is an attempt to predict various aspects of a person's life through simple mathematical cycles. Most scientists believe that the idea has no more predictive power than raw chance,​ and consider the concept an example of pseudoscience.​​​​

Beliefs

Basic rhythm details

---

• Physical cycle
  • 23 days; Circavigintan
  • coordination
  • strength
  • well-being
• Emotional cycle
  • 28 days; Circatrigintan
  • creativity
  • sensitivity
  • mood
  • perception
  • awareness
• Intellectual cycle
  • 33 days; Circatrigintan
  • alertness
  • analytical functioning
  • logical analysis
  • memory or recall
  • communication

According to believers in biorhythms, a person's life is affected by rhythmic biological cycles which affect one's ability in various domains, such as mental, physical, and emotional activity. These cycles begin at birth and oscillate in a steady sine wave fashion throughout life; thus, by modeling them mathematically, a person's level of ability in each of these domains can be predicted from day to day.

Most biorhythm models use three cycles: a 23-day "physical" cycle, a 28-day "emotional" cycle, and a 33-day "intellectual" cycle. Although the 28-day cycle is the same length as the average woman's menstrual cycle and was originally described as a "female" cycle (see below), the two are not necessarily in any particular synchronization. Each of these cycles varies between high and low extremes sinusoidally, with days where the cycle crosses the zero line described as "critical days" of greater risk or uncertainty.

In addition to the three popular cycles, various other cycles have been proposed, based on linear combination of the three, or on longer or shorter rhythms.​

Calculation

The equations for the cycles are:

• physical: $\sin(2\pi t/23)$,
• emotional: $\sin(2\pi t/28)$,
• intellectual: $\sin(2\pi t/33)$,

where $t$ indicates the number of days since birth.

Simple arithmetic shows that the simpler 23 & 28 day cycle repeats every 644 days (or 1 3/4 years) while the triple 23 & 28 & 33 day cycle repeats every 21,252 days (or 58.2+ years).

History

The notion of periodic cycles in human fortunes is ancient; found for instance in natal astrology and in folk beliefs about "lucky days." The 23- and 28-day rhythms used by biorhythmists, however, were first devised in the late 19th century by Wilhelm Fliess, a Berlin physician and patient of Sigmund Freud. Fliess believed that he observed regularities at 23- and 28-day intervals in a number of phenomena, including births and deaths. He labeled the 23-day rhythm "male" and the 28-day rhythm "female," matching the menstrual cycle.

In 1904, psychology professor Hermann Swoboda claimed to have independently discovered the same cycles. Later, Alfred Teltscher, professor of engineering at the University of Innsbruck, came to the conclusion that his students' good and bad days followed a rhythmic pattern of 33 days. Teltscher believed that the brain's ability to absorb, mental ability, and alertness ran in 33-day cycles.​

The practice of consulting biorhythms was popularized in the 1970s by a series of books by Bernard Gittelson, including Biorhythm — A Personal Science, Biorhythm Charts of the Famous and Infamous, and Biorhythm Sports Forecasting. Gittelson's company, Biorhythm Computers, Inc., made a business selling personal biorhythm charts and calculators, but his ability to predict sporting events was not substantiated.​

Charting biorhythms for personal use was popular in the United States during the 1970s; many places (especially video arcades and amusement areas) had a biorhythm machine that provided charts upon entry of date of birth. Biorhythm programs were a common application on personal computers; though biorhythms have declined in popularity, there are numerous websites on the Internet that offer free biorhythm readings. In addition, there exist free and proprietary software programs that offer more advanced charting and analysis capabilities.

In the workplace, railroads and airlines have experimented the most with biorhythms. A pilot describes the Japanese and American attitudes towards biorhythms.​ He acknowledges, researching his pilot logbook, that his greatest errors of judgment occurred during critical days, but concludes that an awareness of one's critical days and paying extra attention is sufficient to ensure safety. A former United Airlines pilot confirmed that United Airlines used biorhythms until the mid-1990s, while the Nippon Express air freight still uses biorhythms.​

Plausibility

Proponents of biorhythmics call it an established interdisciplinary area of scientific endeavor which is still speculative—a protoscience. Critics state that biorhythms are based only upon numerological associations. The plausibility of biorhythmics is contested by mathematicians, biologists and other scientists.^{[cita requerida]} The most basic assertion is that even if it is assumed that physiological rhythms do exist, it is not clear why they should necessarily begin on the day of one's birth.

In some ways, biorhythmics resembles chronobiology, the study of biological rhythms. Through medical research, doctors have found that there are periodic biological cycles in a person's lifespan, such as the circadian rhythm (from Latin circa diem; literally, "about a day"), but few doctors believe they correspond to those described as "biorhythms." To proponents, these discoveries (among others) demonstrate that people are affected by physiological, emotional and intellectual rhythms, though the exact relationships to the biorhythm cycles are not precisely understood. Studies regarding the effects of biorhythms on the human condition are still conducted.^{[cita requerida]}

The biorhythm theory is often presented as having scientific validity. Biorhythm critics' responses range from opposing it as harmful, to ignoring it, to treating it as entertainment. Some of the criticisms of the various theories in the category of biorhythmics are:

• The choices of periodical function, frequency and phase are arbitrary.
• The assumption is made that the cycles are the same for everyone.
• The frequency is assumed to be constant.
• Evidence tends to be anecdotal.
• Arguments are made based in ignorance of number theory (thus possibly being pseudomathematical as well as pseudoscientific).
• Tests of the hypothesis have basic flaws.
• The quantitative generalizations of complex human behavior are inadequate.
• Hypotheses are not formulated precisely.
• Experimental data fail peer review.
• Experiments cannot be replicated.
• Some unscrupulous practitioners resemble professional fortune-telling fraud artists.

Some biorhythm critics say that biorhythms can be thrown off by such occurrences in the calendar as the beginning of the new year, holidays, or something as simple as the start of the week.^{[cita requerida]}

There have been some three dozen studies supporting biorhythm theory but all of them have suffered from methodological and statistical errors.​ An examination of some 134 biorhythm studies found that the theory is not valid.​

Supporters continued defending the theory after Hines' review of 134 studies, causing other scientists to consider the field as pseudoscience:

See also

• Astrology
• Bioelectricity
• Fortune-telling

Further reading

Books

• Aschoff, Jurgen (ed.), Biological Rhythms (Handbooks of Behavioral Neurobiology). 1981.
• Bartel, Pauline C., "Biorhythm: discovering your natural ups and downs", An Impact book. ISBN 0-531-01355-3
• Bentley, Evie, Awareness: biorhythms, sleep, and dreaming. ISBN 0-415-18872-5
• Crawley, Jacyntha, The Biorhythm Kit, UK: ISBN 1-85906-032-3, London Biorhythm Company Limited.
• Edlund, Matthew. Psychological time and mental illness. 1987. ISBN 0-89876-122-0
• Evans, James R., (ed.) and Manfred Clynes (ed.), Rhythm in psychological, linguistic, and musical processes. ISBN 0-398-05235-2
• Gittelson, Bernard, Biorhythm: A Personal Science, Futura Publications. 1976 ISBN 0860073610
• Hodgkins, Zerrin Biomatch Z. 1998. ISBN 0-9531983-0-8
• Lapointe, Fernand, Biorythmie: comment prâevoir vos bons et mauvais jours. ISBN 0-88566-029-3
• Louis, Arthur M., Journalism and Other Atrocities. 2010. ISBN 9781453815205
• Roche, James, Biorhythms at your fingertips. ISBN 0-7137-1562-6
• Thommen, George S., Is This Your Day. 1973. ISBN 0-517-00742-8
• Debarbieux, Patrick, l'ABC des biorythmes. 1999. ISBN 2-7339-0615-1

Research publications

Biorhythmics

• Hines, T.M., "Comprehensive review of biorhythm theory". Psychology Department, Pace University, Pleasantville, NY. Psychol Rep. 1998 Aug;83(1):19–64. (ed. concluded that biorhythm theory is not valid.)
• D'Andrea, V.J., D.R. Black, and N.G. Stayrook, "Relation of the Fliess-Swoboda Biorhythm Theory to suicide occurrence". J Nerv Ment Dis. 1984 Aug;172(8):490–4. (ed. concluded that there was a validity to biorhythm when the innovative methods of the study are put to use.)
• Laxenaire M., and O. Laurent, "What is the current thinking on the biorhythm theory?". Ann Med Psychol (Paris). 1983 Apr;141(4):425–9. [French] (ed. Biorhythm theory is disregarded by the medical world though it has achieved a bit of fame with the public)
• Wolcott, J.H., R.R. McMeekin, R.E. Burgin, and R.E. Yanowitch, "Correlation of general aviation accidents with the biorhythm theory". Hum Factors. 1977 Jun;19(3):283–93.
• Khalil, T.M., and C.N. Kurucz, "The influence of 'biorhythm' on accident occurrence and performance". Ergonomics. 1977 Jul;20(4):389–98.
• "Biorhythm in gynecology--a renaissance of Fliess' theory of periodicity?". Arch Gynecol. 1979 20 July;228(1-4):642. [German]
• Nijsten, M.W., and S.E. Willemsen, "Accidents a matter of chance? The significance of lunar phases and biorhythms in trauma patients". Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd. 1991 21 December;135(51):2421–4. [Dutch] (ed. 'critical' biorhythm days were not found to increase the number of accidents experienced by subjects.)

Chronobiology related

• Hastings, Michael, "The brain, circadian rhythms, and clock genes". Clinical review. BMJ 1998;317:1704–1707 19 December.
• U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, "Biological Rhythms: Implications for the Worker". U.S. Government Printing Office, September 1991. Washington, DC. OTA-BA-463. NTIS PB92-117589
• Ashikari, M., Higuchi, S., Ishikawa, F., and Tsunetsugu, Y., "Interdisciplinary Symposium on 'Human Beings and Environments': Approaches from Biological Anthropology, Social Anthropology and Developmental Psychology". Sunday, 25 August 2002
• "Biorhythm experiment management plan", NASA, Ames Research Center. Moffett Field, 1983.
• "Biological Rhythms and Human Adaptation to the Environment". US Army Medical Research and Materiel Command (AMRMC), US Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine.
• Ebert, D., K.P. Ebmeier, T. Rechlin, and W.P. Kaschka, "Biological Rhythms and Behavior", Advances in Biological Psychiatry. ISSN 0378-7354

External links

Plantilla:Divination es:Biorritmo

Representación de los biorritmos

Los biorritmos (del griego bios, vida y rhythmos, cadencia) son ciclos de energía que afectarían a las personas de una manera repetida y constante. Según su definición (como puede observarse en el gráfico)inicia en el nacimiento de la persona, partiendo del centro de equilibrio o cero por ciento (0%); describen ciclos senoidales, es decir ciclos de doble curva (ascendente y descendente) durante toda su vida. Cada ciclo se divide en dos fases: la mitad de un ciclo la energía está en nivel alto y la otra mitad, en nivel bajo. El tope de cada fase ocurre cuando la energía alcanza el 100% positivo (+) o 100% negativo (-).

Existirían tres tipos de biorritmos con diferentes duraciones:

• Biorritmo físico. Regularía el estado físico de la persona, su salud y resistencia. Su ciclo dura 23 días.
• Biorritmo emocional. Tendría influencia en las emociones y sensibiidad. Tiene un ciclo de 28 días.
• Biorritmo intelectual. Regularía el nivel intelectual, la creatividad y el aprendizaje. Tiene un ciclo de 33 días.

Se les llama "días críticos" aquellos en que la energía pasa de una fase a otra, es decir, los días en que la curva cruza la línea base, ya sea de una fase negativa a una positiva o viceversa. Algunas personas experimentarían una gran inestabilidad en sus energías el día crítico aunque se supone que la intensidad debería variar por lo general para cada biorritmo y para cada persona. Los días críticos en cada ciclo serían:

• Biorritmo físico. Día 11,5 y día 23.
• Biorritmo emocional. Día 14 y día 28. Coincide siempre con el día de la semana en que se nació.
• Biorritmo intelectual. Día 16,5 y día 33.

Utilidad de los biorritmos

Los biorritmos, constituirían un medio para conocerse mejor uno mismo y asumir la existencia de periodos de debilidad, insensibilidad o torpeza a lo largo de la vida de la persona. El conocimiento de los biorritmos supondría entender que a un periodo de energías negativas le sigue necesariamente otro positivo de recuperación.

El control de los biorritmos podría servir además para evitar realizar actividades arriesgadas o peligrosas en los días críticos o de mayor debilidad: conducir, manejar maquinaria peligrosa, etc. En el ámbito lectivo, ante unos exámenes, el estudiante podría concentrar sus esfuerzos en los días de mayor energía intelectual relajándose los días de menor potencia.

Opinión de la ciencia sobre los biorritmos

Numerosos estudios rigurosos acerca de la eficacia de los biorritmos han concluido que no existe en ellos ninguna base científica, estando sus presuntos "aciertos" simplemente cubiertos por las leyes de la probabilidad (es decir, que se deben al azar). En palabras del investigador de lo paranormal James Randi, "La así llamada ciencia del biorritmo no es nada más que una numerología glorificada que, en base a una simple fecha de nacimiento y a una supuesta investigación, genera nociones infantiles acerca de ciclos predeterminados que rigen la existencia humana."

Referencias

• La astrología y los biorritmos. C. Cyrus. ISBN 84-241-2883-4
• Fraudes paranormales. J. Randi. ISBN 84-305-7855-2