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{{Otheruseslist|[[ヒンドゥー教]]の神|イギリスの競走馬|シーヴァ (競走馬)|日本のバンド|SeeVa}}
{{Otheruseslist|[[ヒンドゥー教]]の神|イギリスの競走馬|シーヴァ (競走馬)|日本のバンド|SeeVa}}
{{工事中}}
{{工事中}}
{{Infobox deity <!--Wikipedia:WikiProject Hindu mythology-->
{{Infobox deity
| type = Hindu
| type = Hindu
| image = Lord Shiva Images - An artistic representation of Lord Shiva and the 12 Jyotirlingas associated with him.jpg
| image = Lord Shiva Images - An artistic representation of Lord Shiva and the 12 Jyotirlingas associated with him.jpg
| image_size = 250px
| image_size = 250px
| alt =
| alt =
| caption = ドヴァーダシャ・ジョーティル・リンガに囲まれるシヴァ
| caption = An aristic representation of Shiva, surrounded by 12 ''Jyotirlingas''
| Devanagari = शिव
| Devanagari = शिव
| Sanskrit_Transliteration = {{IAST|Śiva}}
| Sanskrit_Transliteration = {{IAST|Śiva}}
| mantra = [[Om Namah Shivaya]]
| mantra = {{仮リンク|オーム・ナマ・シヴァーヤ|en|Om Namah Shivaya}}
| deity_of = God of Creation, Destruction, Regeneration, [[Meditation]], [[Arts]], [[Yoga]] and [[Moksha]]
| deity_of = 創造、破壊、再生、[[瞑想]][[芸術]][[ヨーガ]][[解脱]]の[[神]]
| affiliation = [[Brahman|Supreme Being]] (Shaivism),<br>[[Trimurti]],<br>[[Deva]]
| affiliation = [[ブラフマン]][[シヴァ派]]<br>[[三神一体|トリムルティ]]、{{仮リンク|デーヴァ|en|Deva}}
| weapon = [[Trishula]]
| weapon = [[トリシューラ]]
| symbols = [[Lingam]]
| symbols = [[リンガ (シンボル)|リンガ]]
| consort = [[パールヴァティ]]<!--{{仮リンク|アディ・パラシャクティ|en|Adi parashakti}}-->
| consort = [[Parvati]]
| children = [[Kartikeya]]<br>[[Ganesha]]
| children = [[スカンダ]]<br>[[ガネーシャ]]
| abode = [[Mount Kailash]]
| abode = [[カイラス山]]
| mount = [[Nandi (bull)]]
| mount = [[ナンディン]]
| festivals = [[Maha Shivaratri]]
| festivals = [[マハー・シヴァラートリー]]
}}
}}
{{Hinduism}}
{{Hinduism}}
{{インド系文字}}
{{インド系文字}}
'''''Shiva''''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|ʃ|i|v|ə}}; [[Sanskrit]]: {{IAST|Śiva}}, lit. ''the auspicious one'') is one of the [[Hindu deities|principal deities]] of [[Hinduism]]. He is the supreme god within [[Shaivism]], one of the three most influential denominations in contemporary Hinduism.<ref name="Flood 1996, p. 17">{{harvnb|Flood|1996|pp=17, 153}}</ref><ref>Tattwananda, p. 45.</ref>
'''''Shiva''''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|ʃ|i|v|ə}}; [[Sanskrit]]: {{IAST|Śiva}}, lit. ''the auspicious one'') is one of the [[Hindu deities|principal deities]] of [[Hinduism]]. He is the supreme god within [[Shaivism]], one of the three most influential denominations in contemporary Hinduism.<ref name="Flood 1996, p. 17">{{harvnb|Flood|1996|pp=17, 153}}</ref><ref>Tattwananda, p. 45.</ref>

'''[[シヴァ]]'''({{IPAc-en|ˈ|ʃ|i|v|ə}}; [[サンスクリット]]: {{翻字併記|sa|'''शिव'''|Śiva|N}}、「吉祥者」の意)は[[ヒンドゥー教]]の{{仮リンク|ヒンドゥー教の神|en|Hindu deities|label=神}}である。現代のヒンドゥー教では最も影響力を持つ3柱の主神の中の1人であり、特に[[シヴァ派]]では最高神に位置付けられている<ref name="Flood 1996, p. 17">{{Harvnb|Flood|1996|pp=17, 153}}</ref><ref>Tattwananda, p. 45.</ref>。


Shiva is "the transformer" within the [[Trimurti]], the Hindu trinity that includes [[Brahma]] and [[Vishnu]].<ref name="Zimmer 1972 p. 124">Zimmer (1972) p. 124.</ref><ref>Jan Gonda (1969), [http://www.jstor.org/stable/40457085 The Hindu Trinity], Anthropos, Bd 63/64, H 1/2, pages 212-226</ref> In Shaivism tradition, Shiva is the Supreme being who creates, protects and transforms the universe.{{Sfn|Arvind Sharma|2000|p=65}}{{Sfn|Issitt|Main|2014|pp=147, 168}}{{Sfn|Flood|1996|p=151}} In the goddess tradition of Hinduism called [[Shaktism]], the goddess is described as supreme, yet Shiva is revered along with Vishnu and Brahma. A goddess is stated to be the energy and creative power (Shakti) of each, with [[Parvati]] the equal complementary partner of Shiva.{{sfn|David Kinsley|1988|p=50, 103-104}}{{sfn|Tracy Pintchman|2015|pp=113, 119, 144, 171}} He is one of the five equivalent deities in [[Panchayatana puja]] of the [[Smarta Tradition|Smarta]] tradition of Hinduism.<ref name="Flood 1996, p. 17"/>
Shiva is "the transformer" within the [[Trimurti]], the Hindu trinity that includes [[Brahma]] and [[Vishnu]].<ref name="Zimmer 1972 p. 124">Zimmer (1972) p. 124.</ref><ref>Jan Gonda (1969), [http://www.jstor.org/stable/40457085 The Hindu Trinity], Anthropos, Bd 63/64, H 1/2, pages 212-226</ref> In Shaivism tradition, Shiva is the Supreme being who creates, protects and transforms the universe.{{Sfn|Arvind Sharma|2000|p=65}}{{Sfn|Issitt|Main|2014|pp=147, 168}}{{Sfn|Flood|1996|p=151}} In the goddess tradition of Hinduism called [[Shaktism]], the goddess is described as supreme, yet Shiva is revered along with Vishnu and Brahma. A goddess is stated to be the energy and creative power (Shakti) of each, with [[Parvati]] the equal complementary partner of Shiva.{{sfn|David Kinsley|1988|p=50, 103-104}}{{sfn|Tracy Pintchman|2015|pp=113, 119, 144, 171}} He is one of the five equivalent deities in [[Panchayatana puja]] of the [[Smarta Tradition|Smarta]] tradition of Hinduism.<ref name="Flood 1996, p. 17"/>

[[三神一体|トリムルティ]](ヒンドゥーの理論の1つ)ではシヴァは「(破壊/)再生」を司る神であり、[[ブラフマー]]、[[ヴィシュヌ]]とともに3柱の重要な神の中の1人として扱われている<ref name="Zimmer 1972 p. 124">Zimmer (1972) p. 124.</ref><ref>Jan Gonda (1969), [http://www.jstor.org/stable/40457085 The Hindu Trinity], Anthropos, Bd 63/64, H 1/2, pages 212-226</ref>。また、[[シヴァ派]]では世界の創造、維持、再生を司る最高神として位置づけられている{{Sfn|Arvind Sharma|2000|p=65}}{{Sfn|Issitt|Main|2014|pp=147, 168}}{{Sfn|Flood|1996|p=151}}。{{仮リンク|デーヴィ|en|Devi}}(ヒンドゥーの[[女神]])らを重視する[[シャクティ派]]では女神らが最高神として位置づけられている一方で、シヴァもヴィシュヌ、ブラフマーとともに崇拝の対象となっている。このシャクティ派では女神らがシヴァやそれぞれの神の根源であると考えられており、[[パールヴァティー]](女神)がシヴァに対応する相互補完的なパートナーであるとされている{{Sfn|David Kinsley|1988|p=50, 103-104}}{{Sfn|Tracy Pintchman|2015|pp=113, 119, 144, 171}}。[[スマールタ派]]の{{仮リンク|パンチャヤタナ・プージャ|en|Panchayatana puja}}(儀式)ではシヴァは礼拝の対象となる5柱の中の1人に数えられる<ref name="Flood 1996, p. 17"/>。


At the highest level, Shiva is regarded as formless, limitless, transcendent and unchanging absolute [[Brahman]],<ref name="Stella_param">{{harvnb|Kramrisch|1981| pp=184–188}}</ref> and the primal [[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]] (soul, self) of the universe.<ref name="Davis_param">Davis, pp. 113-114.</ref>{{sfn|William K. Mahony|1998|p=14}}{{Sfn|Arvind Sharma|2000|p=65}} Shiva has many benevolent and fearsome depictions. In benevolent aspects, he is depicted as an omniscient [[Yogi]] who lives an [[Asceticism|ascetic life]] on [[Mount Kailash]]<ref name="Zimmer 1972 p. 124"/> as well as a householder with wife [[Parvati]] and his two children, [[Ganesha]] and [[Kartikeya]]. In his fierce aspects, he is often depicted slaying demons. Shiva is also known as Adiyogi Shiva regarded as the patron god of [[yoga]], [[meditation]] and arts.<ref name=Shiv_samhita>Shiva Samhita, e.g. translation by Mallinson.</ref><ref name=Varenne>Varenne, p. 82.</ref><ref>Marchand for Jnana Yoga.</ref>
At the highest level, Shiva is regarded as formless, limitless, transcendent and unchanging absolute [[Brahman]],<ref name="Stella_param">{{harvnb|Kramrisch|1981| pp=184–188}}</ref> and the primal [[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]] (soul, self) of the universe.<ref name="Davis_param">Davis, pp. 113-114.</ref>{{sfn|William K. Mahony|1998|p=14}}{{Sfn|Arvind Sharma|2000|p=65}} Shiva has many benevolent and fearsome depictions. In benevolent aspects, he is depicted as an omniscient [[Yogi]] who lives an [[Asceticism|ascetic life]] on [[Mount Kailash]]<ref name="Zimmer 1972 p. 124"/> as well as a householder with wife [[Parvati]] and his two children, [[Ganesha]] and [[Kartikeya]]. In his fierce aspects, he is often depicted slaying demons. Shiva is also known as Adiyogi Shiva regarded as the patron god of [[yoga]], [[meditation]] and arts.<ref name=Shiv_samhita>Shiva Samhita, e.g. translation by Mallinson.</ref><ref name=Varenne>Varenne, p. 82.</ref><ref>Marchand for Jnana Yoga.</ref>

最も賞揚される文脈では、シヴァは形の無い、無限の、超越的な、不変絶対の[[ブラフマン]]であり<ref name="Stella_param">{{Harvnb|Kramrisch|1981| pp=184–188}}</ref>、同時に世界の根源的な[[アートマン]](自我、魂)であると語られる<ref name="Davis_param">Davis, pp. 113-114.</ref>{{Sfn|William K. Mahony|1998|p=14}}{{Sfn|Arvind Sharma|2000|p=65}}。シヴァに関する神話では慈悲深い様を示す描写や、逆に恐ろしい性質を見せる描写が多く見られる。例えばシヴァは[[カイラス山]]に住み<ref name="Zimmer 1972 p. 124"/>、[[禁欲主義|禁欲的な生活]]を送る全知なる{{仮リンク|ヨーギー|en|Yogi}}(修行者)であり、同時にパールヴァティーの夫であり2人の息子[[ガネーシャ]]と[[スカンダ]]の父親である。一方でシヴァが[[アスラ]](悪魔)を殺戮する様子もたびたび描写されている。また、アディヨーギー・シヴァ(Adiyogi、第一の修行者)とも呼ばれ、[[ヨーガ]]、[[瞑想]]、芸術の守護神でもある<ref name=Shiv_samhita>Shiva Samhita, e.g. translation by Mallinson.</ref><ref name=Varenne>Varenne, p. 82.</ref><ref>Marchand for Jnana Yoga.</ref>。


The main iconographical attributes of Shiva are the [[third eye]] on his forehead, the serpent around his neck, the adorning [[crescent]] moon, the holy river [[Ganga]] flowing from his matted hair, the [[trishula]] as his weapon and the [[damaru]]. Shiva is usually worshiped in the [[aniconic]] form of [[Lingam]].<ref name=Fuller>Fuller, p. 58.</ref> Shiva is a pan-Hindu deity, revered widely across [[India]], [[Nepal]] and [[Sri Lanka]].{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=17}}<ref name="Keayxxvii">Keay, p.xxvii.</ref>
The main iconographical attributes of Shiva are the [[third eye]] on his forehead, the serpent around his neck, the adorning [[crescent]] moon, the holy river [[Ganga]] flowing from his matted hair, the [[trishula]] as his weapon and the [[damaru]]. Shiva is usually worshiped in the [[aniconic]] form of [[Lingam]].<ref name=Fuller>Fuller, p. 58.</ref> Shiva is a pan-Hindu deity, revered widely across [[India]], [[Nepal]] and [[Sri Lanka]].{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=17}}<ref name="Keayxxvii">Keay, p.xxvii.</ref>


[[偶像]]上のシヴァの特徴としては、[[額]]の{{仮リンク|第三の目|en|third eye}}、[[首]]に巻かれた[[蛇]]、[[三日月]]の[[装飾具]]、絡まる[[髪の毛]]から流れる[[ガンジス川]]、[[武器]]である[[トリシューラ]](三叉の槍)、{{仮リンク|ダマル|en|damaru}}([[太鼓]])が挙げられる。シヴァは通常[[リンガ (シンボル)|リンガ]]という形に象徴化され信仰される<ref name=Fuller>Fuller, p. 58.</ref>。また、シヴァは地域によらず[[インド]]、[[ネパール]]、[[スリランカ]]など全土で信仰されている{{Sfn|Flood|1996|p=17}}<ref name="Keayxxvii">Keay, p.xxvii.</ref>。
== Etymology and other names ==

{{Main article|Shiva Sahasranama}}
== 名前 ==
{{Main|{{仮リンク|シヴァ・サハスラナーマ|en|Shiva Sahasranama}}}}
[[File:Siva With Moustache From Archaeological Museum GOA IMG 20141222 122455775.jpg|thumb|200px|A [[mukhalinga]] sculpture of Shiva depicting him with a moustache]]
[[File:Siva With Moustache From Archaeological Museum GOA IMG 20141222 122455775.jpg|thumb|200px|A [[mukhalinga]] sculpture of Shiva depicting him with a moustache]]
[[ファイル:Siva With Moustache From Archaeological Museum GOA IMG 20141222 122455775.jpg|thumb|200px|{{仮リンク|ムカリンガ|en|mukhalinga}}(シヴァの顔が彫られた[[リンガ (シンボル)|リンガ]])。髭を蓄えるシヴァが描かれている。]]
The Sanskrit word "Śiva" ([[Devanagari]]: {{lang|sa|शिव}}, transliterated as Shiva or Siva) means, states Monier Williams, "auspicious, propitious, gracious, benign, kind, benevolent, friendly".<ref name=mmwshiva>Monier Monier-Williams (1899), [http://www.ibiblio.org/sripedia/ebooks/mw/1100/mw__1107.html Sanskrit to English Dictionary with Etymology], Oxford University Press, pages 1074-1076</ref> The roots of Śiva in folk etymology is "śī" which means "in whom all things lie, pervasiveness" and ''va'' which means "embodiment of grace".<ref name=mmwshiva/><ref>{{cite book|author=Karen Pechilis Prentiss|title=The Embodiment of Bhakti|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vu95WgeUBfEC&pg=PA199|year=2000|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-535190-3|page=199}}</ref>
The Sanskrit word "Śiva" ([[Devanagari]]: {{lang|sa|शिव}}, transliterated as Shiva or Siva) means, states Monier Williams, "auspicious, propitious, gracious, benign, kind, benevolent, friendly".<ref name=mmwshiva>Monier Monier-Williams (1899), [http://www.ibiblio.org/sripedia/ebooks/mw/1100/mw__1107.html Sanskrit to English Dictionary with Etymology], Oxford University Press, pages 1074-1076</ref> The roots of Śiva in folk etymology is "śī" which means "in whom all things lie, pervasiveness" and ''va'' which means "embodiment of grace".<ref name=mmwshiva/><ref>{{cite book|author=Karen Pechilis Prentiss|title=The Embodiment of Bhakti|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vu95WgeUBfEC&pg=PA199|year=2000|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-535190-3|page=199}}</ref>

[[モニエル・モニエル=ウィリアムズ|モニエル=ウィリアムズ]]はシヴァ神の語源としてサンスクリット語の「シヴァ」(Śiva、{{Lang|sa|शिव}})を挙げる。「シヴァ」という語は「吉祥な」、「好都合な」、「慈悲深い」、「親切な」、「友好的な」という意味を持つ<ref name=mmwshiva>Monier Monier-Williams (1899), [http://www.ibiblio.org/sripedia/ebooks/mw/1100/mw__1107.html Sanskrit to English Dictionary with Etymology], Oxford University Press, pages 1074-1076</ref>。[[民間語源]]を辿ると「シヴァ」の「シ」は「内に全てを擁するもの、遍く広がる様」を意味し、「ヴァ」は「優雅さを体現する物」を意味する<ref name=mmwshiva/><ref>{{Cite book|author=Karen Pechilis Prentiss|title=The Embodiment of Bhakti|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vu95WgeUBfEC&pg=PA199|year=2000|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-535190-3|page=199}}</ref>。<!--この段落は日本人のサンスクリット学者の見解が望ましい。--><!--後付け段落に思える。まとまりが悪い-->


The word Shiva is used as an adjective in the Rig Veda, as an epithet for several [[Rigvedic deities]], including [[Rudra]].<ref>For use of the term ''{{IAST|śiva}}'' as an epithet for other Vedic deities, see: Chakravarti, p. 28.</ref> The term Shiva also connotes "liberation, final emancipation" and "the auspicious one", this adjective sense of usage is addressed to many deities in Vedic layers of literature.<ref name=mmwshiva/>{{Sfn|Chakravarti|1986|pp=21-22}} The term evolved from the Vedic ''Rudra-Shiva'' to the noun ''Shiva'' in the Epics and the Puranas, as an auspicious deity who is the "creator, reproducer and dissolver".<ref name=mmwshiva/>{{Sfn|Chakravarti|1986|pp=1, 7, 21-23}}
The word Shiva is used as an adjective in the Rig Veda, as an epithet for several [[Rigvedic deities]], including [[Rudra]].<ref>For use of the term ''{{IAST|śiva}}'' as an epithet for other Vedic deities, see: Chakravarti, p. 28.</ref> The term Shiva also connotes "liberation, final emancipation" and "the auspicious one", this adjective sense of usage is addressed to many deities in Vedic layers of literature.<ref name=mmwshiva/>{{Sfn|Chakravarti|1986|pp=21-22}} The term evolved from the Vedic ''Rudra-Shiva'' to the noun ''Shiva'' in the Epics and the Puranas, as an auspicious deity who is the "creator, reproducer and dissolver".<ref name=mmwshiva/>{{Sfn|Chakravarti|1986|pp=1, 7, 21-23}}

「シヴァ」という語は[[リグ・ヴェーダ]]では[[形容語句|添え名]]として使われており、例えば[[ルドラ]]など、いくつかの{{仮リンク|リグ・ヴェーダの神|en|Rigvedic deities|label=神}}の形容辞となっている<ref>For use of the term ''{{IAST|śiva}}'' as an epithet for other Vedic deities, see: Chakravarti, p. 28.</ref>。「シヴァ」はまた、「解放、解脱」や「吉祥者」という意味を含有する<!--上の段落とほぼ重複-->。この「シヴァ」という語の形容詞的用法は[[ヴェーダ]]時代の様々な文献にて、多くの神々に対して適用されている例を見ることができる<ref name=mmwshiva/>{{Sfn|Chakravarti|1986|pp=21-22}}。つまりヴェーダ時代には「ルドラ・シヴァ」というような形容詞的な使われ方をしていた「シヴァ」という語が、後の時代には名詞の「シヴァ」、すなわち創造、再生、破壊を司る縁起の良い神、シヴァ神へと発展している<ref name=mmwshiva/>{{Sfn|Chakravarti|1986|pp=1, 7, 21-23}}。


Sharma presents another etymology with the Sanskrit root ''{{IAST|śarv}}-'', which means "to injure" or "to kill",<ref>For root ''{{IAST|śarv}}-'' see: Apte, p. 910.</ref> interprets the name to connote "one who can kill the forces of darkness".{{Sfn|Sharma| 1996| p=306}}
Sharma presents another etymology with the Sanskrit root ''{{IAST|śarv}}-'', which means "to injure" or "to kill",<ref>For root ''{{IAST|śarv}}-'' see: Apte, p. 910.</ref> interprets the name to connote "one who can kill the forces of darkness".{{Sfn|Sharma| 1996| p=306}}

{{仮リンク|ラム・カラン・シャルマ|en|Ram Karan Sharma}}は語源に関する異説としてサンスクリット語の「シャルヴ」(śarv-)を挙げている。これは「傷つけること、殺すこと」という意味を持っており<ref>For root ''{{IAST|śarv}}-'' see: Apte, p. 910.</ref>、従ってシャルマによればシヴァ神の名前は「闇の軍勢を打ち倒す者」という意味を含んでいる{{Sfn|Sharma| 1996| p=306}}。


The Sanskrit word ''{{IAST|śaiva}}'' means "relating to the god Shiva", and this term is the Sanskrit name both for one of the principal sects of Hinduism and for a member of that sect.<ref>Apte, p. 927</ref> It is used as an adjective to characterize certain beliefs and practices, such as Shaivism.<ref>For the definition "Śaivism refers to the traditions which follow the teachings of {{IAST|Śiva}} (''{{IAST|śivaśāna}}'') and which focus on the deity {{IAST|Śiva}}... " see: Flood (1996), p. 149.</ref>
The Sanskrit word ''{{IAST|śaiva}}'' means "relating to the god Shiva", and this term is the Sanskrit name both for one of the principal sects of Hinduism and for a member of that sect.<ref>Apte, p. 927</ref> It is used as an adjective to characterize certain beliefs and practices, such as Shaivism.<ref>For the definition "Śaivism refers to the traditions which follow the teachings of {{IAST|Śiva}} (''{{IAST|śivaśāna}}'') and which focus on the deity {{IAST|Śiva}}... " see: Flood (1996), p. 149.</ref>

サンスクリット語の「シャイヴァ」({{IAST|śaiva}})は「シヴァに関する物」を意味する言葉であり、ヒンドゥー教主流派のひとつであるシヴァ派(शैव पंथ、Śaiva Paṁtha)及びその信者を表す名詞にもなっている<ref>Apte, p. 927</ref>。同様にある種の<!--シヴァに関係する-->信仰や儀式を特徴づける形容詞としても使われる<ref>For the definition "Śaivism refers to the traditions which follow the teachings of {{IAST|Śiva}} (''{{IAST|śivaśāna}}'') and which focus on the deity {{IAST|Śiva}}... " see: Flood (1996), p. 149.</ref>。


Some authors associate the name with the [[Tamil language|Tamil word]] ''{{IAST|śivappu}}'' meaning "red", noting that Shiva is linked to the Sun (''{{IAST|śivan}}'', "the Red one", in Tamil) and that Rudra is also called ''Babhru'' (brown, or red) in the Rigveda.<ref>{{cite book|last1=van Lysebeth|first1=Andre|title=Tantra: Cult of the Feminine|date=2002|publisher=Weiser Books|isbn=9780877288459|page=213|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R4W-DivEweIC&pg=FA213&}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Tyagi|first1=Ishvar Chandra|title=Shaivism in Ancient India: From the Earliest Times to C.A.D. 300|publisher=Meenakshi Prakashan|year=1982| page=81| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WH3XAAAAMAAJ&}}</ref> The ''[[Vishnu sahasranama]]'' interprets ''Shiva'' to have multiple meanings: "The Pure One", and "the One who is not affected by three [[Guṇa]]s of [[Prakṛti]] ([[Sattva]], [[Rajas]], and [[Tamas (philosophy)|Tamas]])".<ref>Sri Vishnu Sahasranama, Ramakrishna Math edition, pg.47 and pg. 122.</ref><ref>Swami Chinmayananda's translation of Vishnu sahasranama, p. 24, Central Chinmaya Mission Trust.</ref>
Some authors associate the name with the [[Tamil language|Tamil word]] ''{{IAST|śivappu}}'' meaning "red", noting that Shiva is linked to the Sun (''{{IAST|śivan}}'', "the Red one", in Tamil) and that Rudra is also called ''Babhru'' (brown, or red) in the Rigveda.<ref>{{cite book|last1=van Lysebeth|first1=Andre|title=Tantra: Cult of the Feminine|date=2002|publisher=Weiser Books|isbn=9780877288459|page=213|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R4W-DivEweIC&pg=FA213&}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Tyagi|first1=Ishvar Chandra|title=Shaivism in Ancient India: From the Earliest Times to C.A.D. 300|publisher=Meenakshi Prakashan|year=1982| page=81| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WH3XAAAAMAAJ&}}</ref> The ''[[Vishnu sahasranama]]'' interprets ''Shiva'' to have multiple meanings: "The Pure One", and "the One who is not affected by three [[Guṇa]]s of [[Prakṛti]] ([[Sattva]], [[Rajas]], and [[Tamas (philosophy)|Tamas]])".<ref>Sri Vishnu Sahasranama, Ramakrishna Math edition, pg.47 and pg. 122.</ref><ref>Swami Chinmayananda's translation of Vishnu sahasranama, p. 24, Central Chinmaya Mission Trust.</ref>

[[専門家]]の中には[[タミル語]]の「シャイヴァップ」(śivappu)にシヴァ神の名前の由来を求めるものもいる。「シャイヴァップ」は「赤」を意味しており、これはシヴァ神が太陽(タミル語でシヴァン、śivan)と結び付けて考えられること、およびリグ・ヴェーダにてルドラ神が「バブルー」(Babhru、茶色、あるいは赤の意)と呼ばれていることを根拠としている<ref>{{Cite book|last1=van Lysebeth|first1=Andre|title=Tantra: Cult of the Feminine|date=2002|publisher=Weiser Books|isbn=9780877288459|page=213|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R4W-DivEweIC&pg=FA213&}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Tyagi|first1=Ishvar Chandra|title=Shaivism in Ancient India: From the Earliest Times to C.A.D. 300|publisher=Meenakshi Prakashan|year=1982| page=81| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WH3XAAAAMAAJ&}}</ref>。{{仮リンク|ヴィシュヌ・サハスラナーマ|en|Vishnu sahasranama}}(ヴィシュヌ神の賛歌)ではシヴァ神に、例えば「純粋な者」、「[[プラクリティ]]の{{仮リンク|グナ (ヒンドゥー教)|en|Guṇa|label=グナ}}の影響を受けぬ者{{refn|group="注"|ブラクリティ: 物質世界; グナ: プラクリティを構成する要素、すなわちサットヴァ、ラジャス、タマス;}}」など複数の意味を与えている<ref>Sri Vishnu Sahasranama, Ramakrishna Math edition, pg.47 and pg. 122.</ref><ref>Swami Chinmayananda's translation of Vishnu sahasranama, p. 24, Central Chinmaya Mission Trust.</ref>。


Shiva is known by many names such Viswanathan (lord of the universe), Mahadeva, Mahesha, Maheshvara, Shankara, Shambhu, Rudra, Hara, Trilochana, Devendra (chief of the gods), Neelakanta, Subhankara, Trilokinatha (lord of the three realms),<ref name=Manmatha>For translation see: Dutt, Chapter 17 of Volume 13.</ref><ref name=Kisari>For translation see: Ganguli, Chapter 17 of Volume 13.</ref><ref name=Chidbhav>Chidbhavananda, "Siva Sahasranama Stotram".</ref> and Ghrneshwar (lord of compassion).<ref>{{Cite book | last = Lochtefeld | first = James G. | title = The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M | year = 2002 | publisher=Rosen Publishing Group | isbn=0-8239-3179-X | page=247 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5kl0DYIjUPgC}}</ref> The highest reverence for Shiva in Shaivism is reflected in his epithets ''{{IAST|Mahādeva}}'' ("Great god"; ''{{IAST|mahā}}'' "Great" and ''deva'' "god"),<ref name="auto">Kramrisch, p. 476.</ref><ref>For appearance of the name {{lang|sa|महादेव}} in the ''Shiva Sahasranama'' see: {{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=297}}</ref> ''{{IAST|Maheśvara}}'' ("Great Lord"; ''{{IAST|mahā}}'' "great" and ''{{IAST|īśvara}}'' "lord"),<ref>Kramrisch, p. 477.</ref><ref>For appearance of the name in the Shiva Sahasranama see:{{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=299}}</ref> and ''[[Parameshwara (God)|{{IAST|Parameśvara}}]]'' ("Supreme Lord").<ref>For {{IAST|Parameśhvara}} as "Supreme Lord" see: Kramrisch, p. 479.</ref>
Shiva is known by many names such Viswanathan (lord of the universe), Mahadeva, Mahesha, Maheshvara, Shankara, Shambhu, Rudra, Hara, Trilochana, Devendra (chief of the gods), Neelakanta, Subhankara, Trilokinatha (lord of the three realms),<ref name=Manmatha>For translation see: Dutt, Chapter 17 of Volume 13.</ref><ref name=Kisari>For translation see: Ganguli, Chapter 17 of Volume 13.</ref><ref name=Chidbhav>Chidbhavananda, "Siva Sahasranama Stotram".</ref> and Ghrneshwar (lord of compassion).<ref>{{Cite book | last = Lochtefeld | first = James G. | title = The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M | year = 2002 | publisher=Rosen Publishing Group | isbn=0-8239-3179-X | page=247 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5kl0DYIjUPgC}}</ref> The highest reverence for Shiva in Shaivism is reflected in his epithets ''{{IAST|Mahādeva}}'' ("Great god"; ''{{IAST|mahā}}'' "Great" and ''deva'' "god"),<ref name="auto">Kramrisch, p. 476.</ref><ref>For appearance of the name {{lang|sa|महादेव}} in the ''Shiva Sahasranama'' see: {{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=297}}</ref> ''{{IAST|Maheśvara}}'' ("Great Lord"; ''{{IAST|mahā}}'' "great" and ''{{IAST|īśvara}}'' "lord"),<ref>Kramrisch, p. 477.</ref><ref>For appearance of the name in the Shiva Sahasranama see:{{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=299}}</ref> and ''[[Parameshwara (God)|{{IAST|Parameśvara}}]]'' ("Supreme Lord").<ref>For {{IAST|Parameśhvara}} as "Supreme Lord" see: Kramrisch, p. 479.</ref>

シヴァは「マハーデーヴァ」、「[[マヘーシュヴァラ]]」、「トリローチャナ」など多くの異名を持つことで知られている{{refn|group=注|例えばヴィシュワナタン(宇宙の王)、マハーデーヴァ、マヘーシャ、マヘーシュヴァラ、シャンカラ、シャムブー、ルドラ、ハラ、トリローチャナ、デヴェンドラ(神々の長)、ニーラカンタ、スバンカラ、トリロキナータ(三界の王)<ref name=Manmatha>For translation see: Dutt, Chapter 17 of Volume 13.</ref><ref name=Kisari>For translation see: Ganguli, Chapter 17 of Volume 13.</ref><ref name=Chidbhav>Chidbhavananda, "Siva Sahasranama Stotram".</ref>、グルネシュワル(慈悲の王)<ref>{{Cite book | last = Lochtefeld | first = James G. | title = The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M | year = 2002 | publisher=Rosen Publishing Group | isbn=0-8239-3179-X | page=247 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5kl0DYIjUPgC}}</ref>などが挙げられる。}}。シヴァ派におけるシヴァ神の最高神としての位置づけは「マハーデーヴァ」(Mahādeva、偉大な神)<ref>Kramrisch, p. 477.</ref><ref>For appearance of the name in the Shiva Sahasranama see:{{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=299}}</ref>、マヘーシュヴァラ(Maheśvara、偉大な王)<ref>Kramrisch, p. 477.</ref><ref>For appearance of the name in the Shiva Sahasranama see:{{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=299}}</ref>、{{仮リンク|パラメシュヴァラ|en|Parameshwara (God)}}(Parameśvara、至高の王)<ref>For {{IAST|Parameśhvara}} as "Supreme Lord" see: Kramrisch, p. 479.</ref>といった異名に反映されている。


Sahasranama are medieval Indian texts that list a thousand names derived from aspects and epithets of a deity.<ref name=mmwsahasran>Sir Monier Monier-Williams, ''sahasranAman'', A Sanskrit-English Dictionary: Etymologically and Philologically Arranged with Special Reference to Cognate Indo-European Languages, Oxford University Press (Reprinted: Motilal Banarsidass), ISBN 978-8120831056</ref> There are at least eight different versions of the ''Shiva Sahasranama'', devotional hymns (stotras) listing many names of Shiva.<ref>{{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=viii-ix}}</ref> The version appearing in Book 13 ({{IAST|Anuśāsanaparvan}}) of the ''Mahabharata'' provides one such list.<ref>This is the source for the version presented in Chidbhavananda, who refers to it being from the Mahabharata but does not explicitly clarify which of the two Mahabharata versions he is using. See Chidbhavananda, p. 5.</ref> Shiva also has Dasha-Sahasranamas (10,000 names) that are found in the Mahanyasa. The ''Shri Rudram Chamakam'', also known as the ''Śatarudriya'', is a devotional hymn to Shiva hailing him by many names.<ref>For an overview of the ''Śatarudriya'' see: Kramrisch, pp. 71-74.</ref><ref>For complete Sanskrit text, translations, and commentary see: Sivaramamurti (1976).</ref>
Sahasranama are medieval Indian texts that list a thousand names derived from aspects and epithets of a deity.<ref name=mmwsahasran>Sir Monier Monier-Williams, ''sahasranAman'', A Sanskrit-English Dictionary: Etymologically and Philologically Arranged with Special Reference to Cognate Indo-European Languages, Oxford University Press (Reprinted: Motilal Banarsidass), ISBN 978-8120831056</ref> There are at least eight different versions of the ''Shiva Sahasranama'', devotional hymns (stotras) listing many names of Shiva.<ref>{{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=viii-ix}}</ref> The version appearing in Book 13 ({{IAST|Anuśāsanaparvan}}) of the ''Mahabharata'' provides one such list.<ref>This is the source for the version presented in Chidbhavananda, who refers to it being from the Mahabharata but does not explicitly clarify which of the two Mahabharata versions he is using. See Chidbhavananda, p. 5.</ref> Shiva also has Dasha-Sahasranamas (10,000 names) that are found in the Mahanyasa. The ''Shri Rudram Chamakam'', also known as the ''Śatarudriya'', is a devotional hymn to Shiva hailing him by many names.<ref>For an overview of the ''Śatarudriya'' see: Kramrisch, pp. 71-74.</ref><ref>For complete Sanskrit text, translations, and commentary see: Sivaramamurti (1976).</ref>


[[中世]]のインドの文献には{{仮リンク|サハスラナーマ|en|Sahasranama}}(千の名前の意)というジャンルがあり、それぞれの神の性質に由来する異名や添え名を集めている<ref name=mmwsahasran>Sir Monier Monier-Williams, ''sahasranAman'', A Sanskrit-English Dictionary: Etymologically and Philologically Arranged with Special Reference to Cognate Indo-European Languages, Oxford University Press (Reprinted: Motilal Banarsidass), ISBN 978-8120831056</ref>。シヴァのサハスラナーマに関しては少なくとも8つのバージョンが確認されており、多くのシヴァの異名が{{仮リンク|賛歌 (ヒンドゥー教)|en|Stotra|label=賛歌}}形式にまとめられている<ref>{{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=viii-ix}}</ref>。[[マハーバーラタ]]の13巻、{{仮リンク|アヌシャーサナ・パルヴァ|en|Anushasana Parva}}にもサハスラナーマが含まれている<ref>This is the source for the version presented in Chidbhavananda, who refers to it being from the Mahabharata but does not explicitly clarify which of the two Mahabharata versions he is using. See Chidbhavananda, p. 5.</ref><!--これはヴィシュヌのものだったはずで、蛇足に思われる-->。マハニヤーサ(Mahanyasa)にはシヴァのダシャー・サラスラナーマ(万の名前の意)が存在する。シャタルドリヤとしてもしられる{{仮リンク|シュリ・ルドラム・チャマカム|en|Shri Rudram Chamakam}}においても多くの名でシヴァが礼賛される<ref>For an overview of the ''Śatarudriya'' see: Kramrisch, pp. 71-74.</ref><ref>For complete Sanskrit text, translations, and commentary see: Sivaramamurti (1976).</ref>。<!--後付け段落に思える。まとまりが悪い-->
== Historical development and literature ==

{{See also|Shaivism#History|l1=History of Shaivism}}
== 主神としてのシヴァへの発展の歴史 ==
{{Main|{{仮リンク|シヴァ派|en|Shaivism|label=シヴァ派の歴史}}}}
The Shiva-related tradition is a major part of Hinduism, found all over India, [[Nepal]], [[Sri Lanka]],{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=17}}<ref name="Keayxxvii"/> and Bali (Indonesia).<ref>{{cite book|author=James A. Boon|title=The Anthropological Romance of Bali 1597-1972|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AzI7AAAAIAAJ |year=1977|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-21398-1|pages=143, 205}}</ref> Its historical roots are unclear and contested. Some scholars such Yashodhar Mathpal and Ali Javid have interpreted early prehistoric paintings at the [[Bhimbetka rock shelters]], carbon dated to be from pre-10,000 BCE period,<ref>{{Citation | title=A Survey of Hinduism, 3rd Edition | author=Klaus K. Klostermaier | authorlink = Klaus Klostermaier | year=2007 | isbn=978-0-7914-7082-4 | publisher=State University of University Press | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E_6-JbUiHB4C | pages=24–25| quote=''... prehistoric cave paintings at Bhimbetka (from ca. 100,000 to ca. 10,000 BCE) which were discovered only in 1967...''}}</ref> as Shiva dancing, Shiva's trident, and his mount Nandi.<ref name="Javidd2008">{{cite book|last=Javid| first= Ali|title=World Heritage Monuments and Related Edifices in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=54XBlIF9LFgC&pg=PA21&|date=January 2008|publisher=Algora Publishing|isbn=978-0-87586-484-6|pages=20–21}}</ref><ref name="Mathpal1984">{{cite book|last=Mathpal|first=Yashodhar|authorlink=Yashodhar Mathpal|title=Prehistoric Rock Paintings of Bhimbetka, Central India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GG7-CpvlU30C&pg=FA220|year=1984|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-81-7017-193-5|page=220}}</ref> However, Howard Morphy states that these prehistoric rock paintings of India, when seen in their context, are likely those of hunting party with animals, and that the figures in a group dance can be interpreted in many different ways.<ref>{{cite book|author=Howard Morphy|title=Animals Into Art|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XhchBQAAQBAJ |year=2014|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-59808-4|pages=364–366}}</ref>
The Shiva-related tradition is a major part of Hinduism, found all over India, [[Nepal]], [[Sri Lanka]],{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=17}}<ref name="Keayxxvii"/> and Bali (Indonesia).<ref>{{cite book|author=James A. Boon|title=The Anthropological Romance of Bali 1597-1972|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AzI7AAAAIAAJ |year=1977|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-21398-1|pages=143, 205}}</ref> Its historical roots are unclear and contested. Some scholars such Yashodhar Mathpal and Ali Javid have interpreted early prehistoric paintings at the [[Bhimbetka rock shelters]], carbon dated to be from pre-10,000 BCE period,<ref>{{Citation | title=A Survey of Hinduism, 3rd Edition | author=Klaus K. Klostermaier | authorlink = Klaus Klostermaier | year=2007 | isbn=978-0-7914-7082-4 | publisher=State University of University Press | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E_6-JbUiHB4C | pages=24–25| quote=''... prehistoric cave paintings at Bhimbetka (from ca. 100,000 to ca. 10,000 BCE) which were discovered only in 1967...''}}</ref> as Shiva dancing, Shiva's trident, and his mount Nandi.<ref name="Javidd2008">{{cite book|last=Javid| first= Ali|title=World Heritage Monuments and Related Edifices in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=54XBlIF9LFgC&pg=PA21&|date=January 2008|publisher=Algora Publishing|isbn=978-0-87586-484-6|pages=20–21}}</ref><ref name="Mathpal1984">{{cite book|last=Mathpal|first=Yashodhar|authorlink=Yashodhar Mathpal|title=Prehistoric Rock Paintings of Bhimbetka, Central India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GG7-CpvlU30C&pg=FA220|year=1984|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-81-7017-193-5|page=220}}</ref> However, Howard Morphy states that these prehistoric rock paintings of India, when seen in their context, are likely those of hunting party with animals, and that the figures in a group dance can be interpreted in many different ways.<ref>{{cite book|author=Howard Morphy|title=Animals Into Art|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XhchBQAAQBAJ |year=2014|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-59808-4|pages=364–366}}</ref>


シヴァに関わる神話や習慣といった伝統はヒンドゥー教の中で大きな位置を占めており、インド、ネパール、スリランカ{{Sfn|Flood|1996|p=17}}<ref name="Keayxxvii"/>、[[インドネシア]]([[バリ・ヒンドゥー]])<ref>{{Cite book|author=James A. Boon|title=The Anthropological Romance of Bali 1597-1972|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AzI7AAAAIAAJ |year=1977|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-21398-1|pages=143, 205}}</ref>とヒンドゥー文化圏の各地で信仰を集める。しかしシヴァのルーツに関してははっきりしておらず、議論が残っている。考古学者{{仮リンク|ヤショーダル・マトパル|en|Yashodhar Mathpal}}やアリ・ジャヴィッド(Ali Javid)らは{{仮リンク|ビンベットカの岩陰遺跡群|en|Bhimbetka rock shelters}}の先史時代の[[壁画]]に描かれているものが、踊っているシヴァであり、シヴァのトリシューラ(三叉の槍)であり、彼の[[ヴァーハナ]](乗り物とされる動物)の[[ナンディン]]であると解釈している<ref name="Javidd2008">{{Cite book|last=Javid| first= Ali|title=World Heritage Monuments and Related Edifices in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=54XBlIF9LFgC&pg=PA21&|date=January 2008|publisher=Algora Publishing|isbn=978-0-87586-484-6|pages=20–21}}</ref><ref name="Mathpal1984">{{Cite book|last=Mathpal|first=Yashodhar|authorlink=Yashodhar Mathpal|title=Prehistoric Rock Paintings of Bhimbetka, Central India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GG7-CpvlU30C&pg=FA220|year=1984|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-81-7017-193-5|page=220}}</ref>。これらの壁画は[[放射性炭素年代測定]]によって紀元前1万年以前のものであると見積もられている<ref>{{Citation | title=A Survey of Hinduism, 3rd Edition | author=Klaus K. Klostermaier | authorlink = Klaus Klostermaier | year=2007 | isbn=978-0-7914-7082-4 | publisher=State University of University Press | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E_6-JbUiHB4C | pages=24–25| quote=''... prehistoric cave paintings at Bhimbetka (from ca. 100,000 to ca. 10,000 BCE) which were discovered only in 1967...''}}</ref>。しかしハワード・モーフィー(Howard Morphy)は動物に関する古代の壁画に関してまとめた著作の中で、ビンベットカの件の壁画を、狩りをする集団と動物と解釈しており、そのうえ踊っている集団は様々に受け取ることができるとしている<ref>{{Cite book|author=Howard Morphy|title=Animals Into Art|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XhchBQAAQBAJ |year=2014|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-59808-4|pages=364–366}}</ref>。<!--不親切にもシヴァが踊るものだという説明がない--><!--ビンベットカの件ハワード・モーフィーはシヴァ説を否定しているわけでもない。歯牙にもかけられていない説に思える-->
===Indus Valley origins===

{{Main article|Pashupati seal}}
=== インダス文明起源 ===
{{Main|{{仮リンク|パシュパティの印章|en|Pashupati seal}}}}
[[File:Shiva Pashupati.jpg|upright|thumb|200px|Seal discovered during excavation of the [[Indus Valley Civilization|Indus Valley]] archaeological site in the Indus Valley has drawn attention as a possible representation of a "yogi" or "proto-Shiva" figure.]]
[[File:Shiva Pashupati.jpg|upright|thumb|200px|Seal discovered during excavation of the [[Indus Valley Civilization|Indus Valley]] archaeological site in the Indus Valley has drawn attention as a possible representation of a "yogi" or "proto-Shiva" figure.]]
[[ファイル:Shiva Pashupati.jpg|upright|thumb|200px|インダス谷の遺跡発掘の中で見つかった印章。[[結跏趺坐]]を組む[[ヨーギー]](修行者)、あるいはシヴァともとれる[[意匠]]は注目を集めた。]]


Many Indus valley seals show animals but one seal that has attracted attention shows a figure, either horned or wearing a horned headdress and possibly [[ithyphallic]]<ref name="Figure 1 1996 p. 29">For a drawing of the seal see Figure 1 ''in'': Flood (1996), p. 29.</ref><ref>Singh, S.P., ''Rgvedic Base of the Pasupati Seal of Mohenjo-Daro''(Approx 2500-3000 BC), Puratattva 19: 19-26. 1989</ref><ref>Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark. ''Ancient Cities of the Indus Valley Civilization''. Karachi: Oxford University Press, 1998.</ref> figure seated in a posture reminiscent of the [[Lotus position]] and surrounded by animals was named by early excavators of [[Mohenjo-daro]] ''[[Pashupati]]'' (lord of cattle), an epithet of the later [[Hindu deities|Hindu gods]] Shiva and Rudra.<ref name="Figure 1 1996 p. 29"/><ref>{{cite book| title = The Making of India: A Historical Survey| author = Ranbir Vohra| publisher = M.E. Sharpe| year = 2000| page = 15}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| title = Ancient Indian Civilization| author = Grigoriĭ Maksimovich Bongard-Levin| publisher = Arnold-Heinemann| year = 1985| page = 45}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| title = Essential Hinduism|author1=Steven Rosen |author2=Graham M. Schweig | publisher = Greenwood Publishing Group| year = 2006| page = 45}}</ref> <!-- [[Sir John Marshall]] and others have claimed that this figure is a prototype of Shiva and have described the figure as having three faces seated in a "yoga posture" with the knees out and feet joined.{{citation needed|date=June 2016}} -->
Many Indus valley seals show animals but one seal that has attracted attention shows a figure, either horned or wearing a horned headdress and possibly [[ithyphallic]]<ref name="Figure 1 1996 p. 29">For a drawing of the seal see Figure 1 ''in'': Flood (1996), p. 29.</ref><ref>Singh, S.P., ''Rgvedic Base of the Pasupati Seal of Mohenjo-Daro''(Approx 2500-3000 BC), Puratattva 19: 19-26. 1989</ref><ref>Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark. ''Ancient Cities of the Indus Valley Civilization''. Karachi: Oxford University Press, 1998.</ref> figure seated in a posture reminiscent of the [[Lotus position]] and surrounded by animals was named by early excavators of [[Mohenjo-daro]] ''[[Pashupati]]'' (lord of cattle), an epithet of the later [[Hindu deities|Hindu gods]] Shiva and Rudra.<ref name="Figure 1 1996 p. 29"/><ref>{{cite book| title = The Making of India: A Historical Survey| author = Ranbir Vohra| publisher = M.E. Sharpe| year = 2000| page = 15}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| title = Ancient Indian Civilization| author = Grigoriĭ Maksimovich Bongard-Levin| publisher = Arnold-Heinemann| year = 1985| page = 45}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| title = Essential Hinduism|author1=Steven Rosen |author2=Graham M. Schweig | publisher = Greenwood Publishing Group| year = 2006| page = 45}}</ref> <!-- [[Sir John Marshall]] and others have claimed that this figure is a prototype of Shiva and have described the figure as having three faces seated in a "yoga posture" with the knees out and feet joined.{{citation needed|date=June 2016}} -->

インダス谷([[インダス文明]])で見つかった印章の多くに動物が描かれているが、そのうちの1つにシヴァ神の面影を読み取れる物があり注目を集めた。その印章には、角を生やし、あるいは角を形どった何かを身に着け、[[勃起]]した[[ファルス (性)|ファルス]]([[陰茎]])を誇っているようにも読み取れる<ref name="Figure 1 1996 p. 29">For a drawing of the seal see Figure 1 ''in'': Flood (1996), p. 29.</ref><ref>Singh, S.P., ''Rgvedic Base of the Pasupati Seal of Mohenjo-Daro''(Approx 2500-3000 BC), Puratattva 19: 19-26. 1989</ref><ref>Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark. ''Ancient Cities of the Indus Valley Civilization''. Karachi: Oxford University Press, 1998.</ref>人物が、動物に囲まれて[[結跏趺坐]]を組んでいるかのような様子が描かれており、[[モヘンジョダロ]]のパシュパティ(牛の王<!--字義は動物のはず。執筆者が余計な気をきかせた?--><!--追記:調べたらpazuに牛という意味もあった-->)と名付けられた({{仮リンク|パシュパティの印章|en|Pashupati seal|label=}})<ref name="Figure 1 1996 p. 29"/><ref>{{Cite book| title = The Making of India: A Historical Survey| author = Ranbir Vohra| publisher = M.E. Sharpe| year = 2000| page = 15}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book| title = Ancient Indian Civilization| author = Grigoriĭ Maksimovich Bongard-Levin| publisher = Arnold-Heinemann| year = 1985| page = 45}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book| title = Essential Hinduism|author1=Steven Rosen |author2=Graham M. Schweig | publisher = Greenwood Publishing Group| year = 2006| page = 45}}</ref>。パシュパティとはすなわち後のヒンドゥー教の神、シヴァとルドラの共通の異名である。<!--不親切にも紀元前2500-3000年ものだという記述がない。「牛とリンガはシヴァの特徴」もあるべきでは -->


Some academics like [[Gavin Flood]]{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=28-29}}{{sfn|Flood|2003|pp=204-205}} and [[John Keay]] have expressed doubts about this claim. John Keay writes that "He may indeed be an early manifestation of Lord Shiva as Pashu- pati", but a couple of his specialties of this figure does not match with Rudra.<ref>{{cite book|title=India: A History|publisher=Grove Press|author=John Keay|page=14}}</ref> Writing in 1997 [[Doris Meth Srinivasan]] rejected Marshall's package of proto-Shiva features, including that of three heads. She interprets what [[John Marshall (archaeologist)|John Marshall]] interpreted as facial as not human but more bovine, possibly a divine buffalo-man.<ref>{{cite book|last=Srinivasan|first=Doris Meth|title=Many Heads, Arms and Eyes: Origin, Meaning and Form in Multiplicity in Indian Art|year=1997|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-9004107588}}</ref>
Some academics like [[Gavin Flood]]{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=28-29}}{{sfn|Flood|2003|pp=204-205}} and [[John Keay]] have expressed doubts about this claim. John Keay writes that "He may indeed be an early manifestation of Lord Shiva as Pashu- pati", but a couple of his specialties of this figure does not match with Rudra.<ref>{{cite book|title=India: A History|publisher=Grove Press|author=John Keay|page=14}}</ref> Writing in 1997 [[Doris Meth Srinivasan]] rejected Marshall's package of proto-Shiva features, including that of three heads. She interprets what [[John Marshall (archaeologist)|John Marshall]] interpreted as facial as not human but more bovine, possibly a divine buffalo-man.<ref>{{cite book|last=Srinivasan|first=Doris Meth|title=Many Heads, Arms and Eyes: Origin, Meaning and Form in Multiplicity in Indian Art|year=1997|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-9004107588}}</ref>

{{仮リンク|ギャビン・フラッド|en|Gavin Flood}}や{{Sfn|Flood|1996|pp=28-29}}{{Sfn|Flood|2003|pp=204-205}}{{仮リンク|ジョン・ケイ|en|John Keay}}といった研究者たちはこの主張に懐疑的な見解を示している。ジョン・ケイによれば印章の人物がパシュパティ、すなわちシヴァ神の初期の姿である可能性は考えられるが、このデザインの持つ2つの特徴<!--気になって出典あたった部分{{refn|gorup=注|ジョン・ケイ曰く「禁欲と瞑想はルドラの特徴ではないし、牛以外の動物と関連づけられることもない」。}}-->がルドラの持っている特徴と結びつかない<ref>{{Cite book|title=India: A History|publisher=Grove Press|author=John Keay|page=14}}</ref>。また{{仮リンク|ジョン・マーシャル (考古学者)|en|John Marshall (archaeologist)|label=ジョン・マーシャル}}は印章に描かれる人物がシヴァの前身である根拠として3つの顔やその他の特徴を挙げているが、{{仮リンク|ドリス・メス・スリニバサン|en|Doris Meth Srinivasan}}はその主張を1997年に否定している。すなわち彼女はジョン・マーシャルが人物であるとした印象のデザインを人でなく牛であり、おそらくは聖なるバッファロー・マンであると解釈している<ref>{{Cite book|last=Srinivasan|first=Doris Meth|title=Many Heads, Arms and Eyes: Origin, Meaning and Form in Multiplicity in Indian Art|year=1997|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-9004107588}}</ref><!--ページ抜け調べた。p180-181 下段落のマーシャルの孫引きがここにある-->。


Writing in 2002, Gregory L. Possehl concluded that while it would be appropriate to recognize the figure as a deity, its association with the water buffalo, and its posture as one of ritual discipline, regarding it as a proto-Shiva would "go too far."<ref>{{cite book|last=Possehl|first=Gregory L. |authorlink=Gregory Possehl|title=The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XVgeAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA154|date=11 November 2002|publisher=Rowman Altamira|isbn=978-0-7591-1642-9|ref=harv|pages=140–144}}</ref>
Writing in 2002, Gregory L. Possehl concluded that while it would be appropriate to recognize the figure as a deity, its association with the water buffalo, and its posture as one of ritual discipline, regarding it as a proto-Shiva would "go too far."<ref>{{cite book|last=Possehl|first=Gregory L. |authorlink=Gregory Possehl|title=The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XVgeAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA154|date=11 November 2002|publisher=Rowman Altamira|isbn=978-0-7591-1642-9|ref=harv|pages=140–144}}</ref>

{{仮リンク|グレゴリー・ポセル|en|Gregory Possehl}}も2002年に否定的な意見を発表しており、印章の人物が神であり、[[水牛]]とつながりを持っていて、そして何らかの修行をしているところだという考えには賛同できるが、シヴァの前身とするのは無理がある、と結論づけている<ref>{{Cite book|last=Possehl|first=Gregory L. |authorlink=Gregory Possehl|title=The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XVgeAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA154|date=11 November 2002|publisher=Rowman Altamira|isbn=978-0-7591-1642-9|ref=harv|pages=140–144}}</ref>。


A seal discovered during excavation of the [[Mohenjodaro|Mohenjo-daro]] archaeological site in the [[Indus Valley Civilization|Indus Valley]] has drawn attention as a possible representation of a "proto-Shiva" figure.<ref name="Flood 1996, pp. 28-29">Flood (1996), pp. 28–29.</ref> This "Pashupati" (Lord of Animals, [[Sanskrit]] ''{{IAST|paśupati}}'')<ref>For translation of ''{{IAST|paśupati}}'' as "Lord of Animals" see: Michaels, p. 312.</ref> seal shows a large central figure that is surrounded by animals. The central figure is often described as a seated figure, possibly [[phallic|ithyphallic]], surrounded by animals.<ref name="Figure 1 1996 p. 29"/> [[John Marshall (archaeologist)|Sir John Marshall]] and others have claimed that this figure is a prototype of Shiva, and have described the figure as having three faces, seated in a "[[yoga]] posture" with the knees out and feet joined. Semi-circular shapes on the head are often interpreted as two horns. [[Gavin Flood]] characterizes these views as "speculative", saying that while it is not clear from the seal that the figure has three faces, is seated in a yoga posture, or even that the shape is intended to represent a human figure, it is nevertheless possible that there are echoes of Shaiva [[iconographic]] themes, such as half-moon shapes resembling the horns of a [[bull]].<ref name="Flood 1996, pp. 28-29"/><ref>Flood (2003), pp. 204–205.</ref>
A seal discovered during excavation of the [[Mohenjodaro|Mohenjo-daro]] archaeological site in the [[Indus Valley Civilization|Indus Valley]] has drawn attention as a possible representation of a "proto-Shiva" figure.<ref name="Flood 1996, pp. 28-29">Flood (1996), pp. 28–29.</ref> This "Pashupati" (Lord of Animals, [[Sanskrit]] ''{{IAST|paśupati}}'')<ref>For translation of ''{{IAST|paśupati}}'' as "Lord of Animals" see: Michaels, p. 312.</ref> seal shows a large central figure that is surrounded by animals. The central figure is often described as a seated figure, possibly [[phallic|ithyphallic]], surrounded by animals.<ref name="Figure 1 1996 p. 29"/> [[John Marshall (archaeologist)|Sir John Marshall]] and others have claimed that this figure is a prototype of Shiva, and have described the figure as having three faces, seated in a "[[yoga]] posture" with the knees out and feet joined. Semi-circular shapes on the head are often interpreted as two horns. [[Gavin Flood]] characterizes these views as "speculative", saying that while it is not clear from the seal that the figure has three faces, is seated in a yoga posture, or even that the shape is intended to represent a human figure, it is nevertheless possible that there are echoes of Shaiva [[iconographic]] themes, such as half-moon shapes resembling the horns of a [[bull]].<ref name="Flood 1996, pp. 28-29"/><ref>Flood (2003), pp. 204–205.</ref>


インダス谷([[インダス文明]])の[[モヘンジョダロ]]の発掘で見つかった印章のひとつは、シヴァの前身を思わせる人物が描かれており、注目を集めた<ref name="Flood 1996, pp. 28-29">Flood (1996), pp. 28–29.</ref>。この「パシュパティ」(paśupati、獣の王<ref>For translation of ''{{IAST|paśupati}}'' as "Lord of Animals" see: Michaels, p. 312.</ref>)の印章の中心には動物らに囲まれる人物が描かれている。しばしばこの人物は座っており、勃起したファルスと思しき物が描かれており、そして動物に囲まれていると解釈される<ref name="Figure 1 1996 p. 29"/>。考古学者の{{仮リンク|ジョン・マーシャル (考古学者)|en|John Marshall (archaeologist)|label=ジョン・マーシャル}}をはじめとする学者らはこの印章に描かれた人物がシヴァの前身ではないかと主張した。すなわちマーシャルはこの人物は3つの顔を持っていて、足を組み、[[ヨーガ]]のポーズをとっていると解釈している。頭部に見られる半円形の図像はしばしば2本の角であると解釈される。{{仮リンク|ギャビン・フラッド|en|Gavin Flood}}はこれらの特徴は「不確かなもの」としている。ギャビン・フラッドによれば、牛の角にも見える三日月の形などはシヴァの特徴を反映しているように思われるが、一方で印章の人物が3つの顔を持っているかどうか、ヨーガのポーズをとっているかどうかはっきりしないし、人物を表しているのかどうかも判然としない<ref name="Flood 1996, pp. 28-29"/><ref>Flood (2003), pp. 204–205.</ref>。<!--まとめ甲斐のあるパラグラフ-->
===Indo-Aryan origins===

{{Main article|Dionysus}}
=== インド=アーリア人起源 ===
{{Main|ディオニューソス}}
The similarities between the iconography and mythologies of Shiva with Greek and European deities have led to proposals for an Indo-European link for Shiva,<ref name=woodward60/><ref>{{cite book|author=Alain Daniélou|title=Gods of Love and Ecstasy: The Traditions of Shiva and Dionysus|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QDQK7l13WIIC |year=1992|publisher=Inner Traditions / Bear & Co|isbn=978-0-89281-374-2|pages=49–50}}, Quote: "The parallels between the names and legends of Shiva, Osiris and Dionysus are so numerous that there can be little doubt as to their original sameness".</ref> or lateral exchanges with ancient central Asian cultures.<ref>{{cite book|author=Namita Gokhale|title=The Book of Shiva|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pFN15nX9_zsC|year=2009|publisher=Penguin Books|isbn=978-0-14-306761-0|pages=10–11}}</ref><ref>Pierfrancesco Callieri (2005), [http://www.jstor.org/stable/29757637 A Dionysian Scheme on a Seal from Gupta India], East and West, Vol. 55, No. 1/4 (December 2005), pages 71-80</ref> His contrasting aspects such as being terrifying or blissful depending on the situation, are similar to those of the Greek god [[Dionysus]],<ref>{{cite journal | last=Long | first=J. Bruce | title=Siva and Dionysos: Visions of Terror and Bliss | journal=Numen | volume=18 | issue=3 | year=1971 | page=180 | doi=10.2307/3269768 }}</ref> as are their iconic associations with bull, snakes, anger, bravery, dancing and carefree life.<ref name=flahertyds81/><ref>{{cite book|author=Patrick Laude|title=Divine Play, Sacred Laughter, and Spiritual Understanding|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cTDIAAAAQBAJ |year=2005|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-1-4039-8058-8|pages=41–60}}</ref> The ancient Greek texts of the time of Alexander the Great call Shiva as "Indian Dionysius", or alternatively call Dionysius as "god of the Orient".<ref name=flahertyds81>Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty (1980), [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1062337 Dionysus and Siva: Parallel Patterns in Two Pairs of Myths], History of Religions, Vol. 20, No. 1/2 (Aug. - Nov., 1980), pages 81-111</ref> Similarly, the use of phallic symbol as an icon for Shiva is also found for Irish, Nordic, Greek (Dionysus<ref>{{cite book|author1=Walter Friedrich Otto|author2=Robert B. Palmer|title=Dionysus: Myth and Cult|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XCDvuoZ8IzsC&pg=PA164 |year=1965|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=0-253-20891-2|page=164}}</ref>) and Roman deities, as was the idea of this aniconic column linking heaven and earth among early Indo-Aryans, states Roger Woodward.<ref name=woodward60>{{cite book|author=Roger D. Woodard|title=Indo-European Sacred Space: Vedic and Roman Cult|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EB4fB0inNYEC |year=2010|publisher=University of Illinois Press|isbn=978-0-252-09295-4|pages=60–67, 79–80}}</ref> Others contest such proposals, and suggest Shiva to have emerged from indigenous pre-Aryan tribal origins.<ref>{{cite book|author=Dineschandra Sircar|title=The Śākta Pīṭhas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I969qn5fpvcC&pg=PA3 |year=1998|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-0879-9|pages=3 with footnote 2, 102–105}}</ref>
The similarities between the iconography and mythologies of Shiva with Greek and European deities have led to proposals for an Indo-European link for Shiva,<ref name=woodward60/><ref>{{cite book|author=Alain Daniélou|title=Gods of Love and Ecstasy: The Traditions of Shiva and Dionysus|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QDQK7l13WIIC |year=1992|publisher=Inner Traditions / Bear & Co|isbn=978-0-89281-374-2|pages=49–50}}, Quote: "The parallels between the names and legends of Shiva, Osiris and Dionysus are so numerous that there can be little doubt as to their original sameness".</ref> or lateral exchanges with ancient central Asian cultures.<ref>{{cite book|author=Namita Gokhale|title=The Book of Shiva|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pFN15nX9_zsC|year=2009|publisher=Penguin Books|isbn=978-0-14-306761-0|pages=10–11}}</ref><ref>Pierfrancesco Callieri (2005), [http://www.jstor.org/stable/29757637 A Dionysian Scheme on a Seal from Gupta India], East and West, Vol. 55, No. 1/4 (December 2005), pages 71-80</ref> His contrasting aspects such as being terrifying or blissful depending on the situation, are similar to those of the Greek god [[Dionysus]],<ref>{{cite journal | last=Long | first=J. Bruce | title=Siva and Dionysos: Visions of Terror and Bliss | journal=Numen | volume=18 | issue=3 | year=1971 | page=180 | doi=10.2307/3269768 }}</ref> as are their iconic associations with bull, snakes, anger, bravery, dancing and carefree life.<ref name=flahertyds81/><ref>{{cite book|author=Patrick Laude|title=Divine Play, Sacred Laughter, and Spiritual Understanding|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cTDIAAAAQBAJ |year=2005|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-1-4039-8058-8|pages=41–60}}</ref> The ancient Greek texts of the time of Alexander the Great call Shiva as "Indian Dionysius", or alternatively call Dionysius as "god of the Orient".<ref name=flahertyds81>Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty (1980), [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1062337 Dionysus and Siva: Parallel Patterns in Two Pairs of Myths], History of Religions, Vol. 20, No. 1/2 (Aug. - Nov., 1980), pages 81-111</ref> Similarly, the use of phallic symbol as an icon for Shiva is also found for Irish, Nordic, Greek (Dionysus<ref>{{cite book|author1=Walter Friedrich Otto|author2=Robert B. Palmer|title=Dionysus: Myth and Cult|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XCDvuoZ8IzsC&pg=PA164 |year=1965|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=0-253-20891-2|page=164}}</ref>) and Roman deities, as was the idea of this aniconic column linking heaven and earth among early Indo-Aryans, states Roger Woodward.<ref name=woodward60>{{cite book|author=Roger D. Woodard|title=Indo-European Sacred Space: Vedic and Roman Cult|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EB4fB0inNYEC |year=2010|publisher=University of Illinois Press|isbn=978-0-252-09295-4|pages=60–67, 79–80}}</ref> Others contest such proposals, and suggest Shiva to have emerged from indigenous pre-Aryan tribal origins.<ref>{{cite book|author=Dineschandra Sircar|title=The Śākta Pīṭhas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I969qn5fpvcC&pg=PA3 |year=1998|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-0879-9|pages=3 with footnote 2, 102–105}}</ref>


シヴァの偶像に描かれる姿や神話に語られる特徴と、[[ギリシャ]]や[[ヨーロッパ]]の神々との類似からシヴァ神とインド・ヨーロッパ人<!--アーリア人?-->とのつながりが<ref name=woodward60/><ref>{{Cite book|author=Alain Daniélou|title=Gods of Love and Ecstasy: The Traditions of Shiva and Dionysus|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QDQK7l13WIIC |year=1992|publisher=Inner Traditions / Bear & Co|isbn=978-0-89281-374-2|pages=49–50}}, Quote: "The parallels between the names and legends of Shiva, Osiris and Dionysus are so numerous that there can be little doubt as to their original sameness".</ref>、あるいは古代[[中央アジア]]文化との横断的交流が指摘されている<ref>{{Cite book|author=Namita Gokhale|title=The Book of Shiva|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pFN15nX9_zsC|year=2009|publisher=Penguin Books|isbn=978-0-14-306761-0|pages=10–11}}</ref><ref>Pierfrancesco Callieri (2005), [http://www.jstor.org/stable/29757637 A Dionysian Scheme on a Seal from Gupta India], East and West, Vol. 55, No. 1/4 (December 2005), pages 71-80</ref>。例えば恐ろしい姿に描かれたり、慈悲深さを示したりといったシヴァの持つ二面的な性質はギリシャの神、[[ディオニューソス]]に通じるものがある<ref>{{Cite journal | last=Long | first=J. Bruce | title=Siva and Dionysos: Visions of Terror and Bliss | journal=Numen | volume=18 | issue=3 | year=1971 | page=180 | doi=10.2307/3269768 }}</ref>。加えて両者には牛、蛇、怒り、勇猛さ、踊り、そして楽観的な性格といった共通点がみられる<ref name=flahertyds81/><ref>{{Cite book|author=Patrick Laude|title=Divine Play, Sacred Laughter, and Spiritual Understanding|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cTDIAAAAQBAJ |year=2005|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-1-4039-8058-8|pages=41–60}}</ref>。[[アレクサンドロス3世|アレクサンドロス大王]]の時代の複数の文献でシヴァを「インドのディオニューソス」と呼び、逆にディオニューソスを「オリエントの神」として言及している様子が確認できる<ref name=flahertyds81>Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty (1980), [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1062337 Dionysus and Siva: Parallel Patterns in Two Pairs of Myths], History of Religions, Vol. 20, No. 1/2 (Aug. - Nov., 1980), pages 81-111</ref>。同様にシヴァに見られるようなファルス(男性器)を象徴として扱う習慣は、ロジャー・ウッドワード(Roger Woodward)によれば[[アイルランド]]、[[ノルド]]、ギリシャ(すなわちディオニューソス<ref>{{Cite book|author1=Walter Friedrich Otto|author2=Robert B. Palmer|title=Dionysus: Myth and Cult|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XCDvuoZ8IzsC&pg=PA164 |year=1965|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=0-253-20891-2|page=164}}</ref>)、[[ローマ]]の神々にも見られ、同様に初期の[[インド・アーリア人]]に見られる「天と地を結ぶ柱」という形での象徴も各地に残っている<ref name=woodward60>{{Cite book|author=Roger D. Woodard|title=Indo-European Sacred Space: Vedic and Roman Cult|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EB4fB0inNYEC |year=2010|publisher=University of Illinois Press|isbn=978-0-252-09295-4|pages=60–67, 79–80}}</ref>。一方ではインド=アーリア人を起源とする説に反対する意見もあり、彼らはアーリア人がインド亜大陸に侵入する以前の土着の部族に起源を求めている<ref>{{Cite book|author=Dineschandra Sircar|title=The Śākta Pīṭhas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I969qn5fpvcC&pg=PA3 |year=1998|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-0879-9|pages=3 with footnote 2, 102–105}}</ref>。<!--不親切にもシヴァが柱に象徴されることに言及されていない-->
===Vedic origins===

ヴェーダ神話に登場する暴風雨神[[ルドラ]]がシヴァの前身と考えられている<ref name="菅沼編p159-160">『[[#インド神話伝説辞典|インド神話伝説辞典]]』 159-160頁。(シヴァ)</ref>。もともと「シヴァ」は恐るべき神ルドラの名を直接呼ばないための、「吉祥者」「吉祥な」を意味する形容詞であった<ref name="神の文化史事典p253">『[[#神の文化史事典|神の文化史事典]]』 253頁。(シヴァ)</ref>。時代が下るにつれてルドラは形容詞のシヴァをたびたび添えられるようになり、[[プラーナ文献]]の一つ『{{仮リンク|シヴァ・プラーナ|en|Shiva Purana}}』では、シヴァ神が語る言葉の中に「私の化身であるルドラ」という表現すら現れた。こうしてシヴァはルドラと同一視されていった<ref group="注">ヴェーダ神話の時代からヒンドゥー教神話の時代に移行しつつある時期に、ルドラがアスラの築いた3つの砦を1本の矢で破壊する物語が成立している。時代が下ると物語はやや変容し、アスラの築いた「三都」を矢で破壊するのはシヴァだとされた。詳細は「[[トリプラースラ]]」を参照。</ref>。暴風雨は、破壊的な風水害ももたらすが、同時に土地に水をもたらして植物を育てるという二面性がある。このような災いと恩恵を共にもたらす性格は<ref>『[[#インド神話伝説辞典|インド神話伝説辞典]]』 352-354頁。(ルドラ)</ref>、後のシヴァにも受け継がれている<ref name="菅沼編p159-160" />。
===ヴェーダ時代のシヴァ===
ヴェーダ神話に登場する暴風雨神[[ルドラ]]がシヴァの前身と考えられている<ref name="菅沼編p159-160">『[[#インド神話伝説辞典|インド神話伝説辞典]]』 159-160頁。(シヴァ)</ref>。もともと「シヴァ」は恐るべき神ルドラの名を直接呼ばないための、「吉祥者」「吉祥な」を意味する形容詞であった<ref name="神の文化史事典p253">『[[#神の文化史事典|神の文化史事典]]』 253頁。(シヴァ)</ref>。時代が下るにつれてルドラは形容詞のシヴァをたびたび添えられるようになり、[[プラーナ文献]]の一つ『{{仮リンク|シヴァ・プラーナ|en|Shiva Purana}}』では、シヴァ神が語る言葉の中に「私の化身であるルドラ」という表現すら現れた。こうしてシヴァはルドラと同一視されていった<ref group="注">ヴェーダ神話の時代からヒンドゥー教神話の時代に移行しつつある時期に、ルドラがアスラの築いた3つの砦を1本の矢で破壊する物語が成立している。時代が下ると物語はやや変容し、アスラの築いた「三都」を矢で破壊するのはシヴァだとされた。詳細は「[[トリプラースラ]]」を参照。</ref>。暴風雨は、破壊的な風水害ももたらすが、同時に土地に水をもたらして植物を育てるという二面性がある。このような災いと恩恵を共にもたらす性格は<ref>『[[#インド神話伝説辞典|インド神話伝説辞典]]』 352-354頁。(ルドラ)</ref>、後のシヴァにも受け継がれている<ref name="菅沼編p159-160" />。※ここは加筆前の記事


The Vedic literature refers to a minor atmospheric deity, with fearsome powers called Rudra. The Rigveda, for example, has 3 out of 1,028 hymns dedicated to Rudra, and he finds occasional mention in other hymns of the same text.{{Sfn|Chakravarti|1986|pp=1-2}} The term Shiva also appears in the Rigveda, but simply as an epithet that means "kind, auspicious", one of the adjectives used to describe many different Vedic deities. While fierce ruthless natural phenomenon and storm-related Rudra is feared in the hymns of the Rigveda, the beneficial rains he brings are welcomed as Shiva aspect of him.{{Sfn|Chakravarti|1986|pp=2-3}} This healing, nurturing, life-enabling aspect emerges in the Vedas as Rudra-Shiva, and in post-Vedic literature ultimately as Shiva who combines the destructive and constructive powers, the terrific and the pacific, as the ultimate recycler and rejuvenator of all existence.{{Sfn|Chakravarti|1986|pp=1-9}}
The Vedic literature refers to a minor atmospheric deity, with fearsome powers called Rudra. The Rigveda, for example, has 3 out of 1,028 hymns dedicated to Rudra, and he finds occasional mention in other hymns of the same text.{{Sfn|Chakravarti|1986|pp=1-2}} The term Shiva also appears in the Rigveda, but simply as an epithet that means "kind, auspicious", one of the adjectives used to describe many different Vedic deities. While fierce ruthless natural phenomenon and storm-related Rudra is feared in the hymns of the Rigveda, the beneficial rains he brings are welcomed as Shiva aspect of him.{{Sfn|Chakravarti|1986|pp=2-3}} This healing, nurturing, life-enabling aspect emerges in the Vedas as Rudra-Shiva, and in post-Vedic literature ultimately as Shiva who combines the destructive and constructive powers, the terrific and the pacific, as the ultimate recycler and rejuvenator of all existence.{{Sfn|Chakravarti|1986|pp=1-9}}


ヴェーダ時代の文献では天候に関係し、恐ろしい力を持つルドラという神について言及されている。例えばリグ・ヴェーダでは1,028の賛歌の内の3つはルドラに捧げられており、この3つ以外からもルドラに関する記述が散見される{{Sfn|Chakravarti|1986|pp=1-2}}。リグ・ヴェーダでは「シヴァ」という名前を見つけることもできるが、これは単純に「慈悲深い、吉祥な」という意味での添え名として使われているにとどまり、ヴェーダ時代の様々な神に対して使われる修飾辞のうちのひとつである。苛烈で容赦ない自然現象であり[[嵐]]にまつわる神、ルドラはリグ・ヴェーダの中で恐ろしいものとして描写されている。しかしその一方でルドラは恵みの[[雨]]をもたらす存在でもあり、こういった特徴はルドラの持つシヴァ的な一面と捉えられている{{Sfn|Chakravarti|1986|pp=2-3}}。この癒し、育み、生きる糧を与えてくれる存在という側面はルドラ・シヴァという名前でヴェーダに登場し、ヴェーダ後の文献では最終的に破壊と創造を司り、恐ろしくも穏やかな、そしてすべての存在を再生し賦活する神としての発展を遂げる{{Sfn|Chakravarti|1986|pp=1-9}}。<!--ルドラがマイナーな神であることに触れておきたい。ちょっと出典少ない?-->
====Rudra====

====ルドラ====
[[File:ThreeHeadedShivaGandhara2ndCentury.jpg|upright|thumb|200px|Three-headed Shiva, Gandhara, 2nd century AD]]
[[File:ThreeHeadedShivaGandhara2ndCentury.jpg|upright|thumb|200px|Three-headed Shiva, Gandhara, 2nd century AD]]
[[ファイル:ThreeHeadedShivaGandhara2ndCentury.jpg|upright|thumb|200px|3つの顔を持つシヴァ。[[ガンダーラ]]。2世紀ごろのもの。]]<!--この画像の位置は適切でない-->
Shiva as we know him today shares many features with the Vedic god [[Rudra]],<ref name="Michaels, p. 316">Michaels, p. 316.</ref> and both Shiva and Rudra are viewed as the same personality in [[Hindu texts|Hindu scriptures]]. The two names are used synonymously. Rudra, the god of the roaring [[storm]], is usually portrayed in accordance with the element he represents as a fierce, destructive deity.<ref>Flood (2003), p. 73.</ref>
Shiva as we know him today shares many features with the Vedic god [[Rudra]],<ref name="Michaels, p. 316">Michaels, p. 316.</ref> and both Shiva and Rudra are viewed as the same personality in [[Hindu texts|Hindu scriptures]]. The two names are used synonymously. Rudra, the god of the roaring [[storm]], is usually portrayed in accordance with the element he represents as a fierce, destructive deity.<ref>Flood (2003), p. 73.</ref>

現代のヒンドゥー教で知られているシヴァの特徴は、ヴェーダ時代のルドラの持つ特徴と多くが共通しており<ref name="Michaels, p. 316">Michaels, p. 316.</ref>、加えてその時代にはシヴァとルドラは聖典の中で同一の神格とみなされ、類語のように扱われていた。うなる嵐の神であるルドラは通常恐ろしい、破壊的な神という特徴に基づいて描写される<ref>Flood (2003), p. 73.</ref>。<!--まとまりが-->


The oldest surviving text of Hinduism is the [[Rigveda|Rig Veda]], which is dated to between 1700 and 1100 BC based on [[Linguistics|linguistic]] and [[philology|philological]] evidence.<ref>For dating based on "cumulative evidence" see: Oberlies, p. 158.</ref> A god named Rudra is mentioned in the Rig Veda. The name Rudra is still used as a name for Shiva. In RV 2.33, he is described as the "Father of the [[Rudras]]", a group of storm gods.<ref>Doniger, pp. 221-223.</ref>
The oldest surviving text of Hinduism is the [[Rigveda|Rig Veda]], which is dated to between 1700 and 1100 BC based on [[Linguistics|linguistic]] and [[philology|philological]] evidence.<ref>For dating based on "cumulative evidence" see: Oberlies, p. 158.</ref> A god named Rudra is mentioned in the Rig Veda. The name Rudra is still used as a name for Shiva. In RV 2.33, he is described as the "Father of the [[Rudras]]", a group of storm gods.<ref>Doniger, pp. 221-223.</ref>

リンドゥー教の最古の文献である[[リグ・ヴェーダ]]であり、これは[[言語学]]的、[[文献学]]的な証拠から紀元前1700年から1100年の間に書かれたものだと推定されている<ref>For dating based on "cumulative evidence" see: Oberlies, p. 158.</ref>。ルドラという名前の神がリグ・ヴェーダにて言及されている。ルドラという名前はまた、シヴァの名前としても使用されている。リグ・ヴェーダの2巻の33詩では{{仮リンク|ルドラス|en|Rudras}}(11柱からなる嵐の神々、[[マルト神群]]の前身)の父と言及される<ref>Doniger, pp. 221-223.</ref>。


The hymn 10.92 of the Rigveda states that deity Rudra has two natures, one wild and cruel (rudra), another that is kind and tranquil (shiva).<ref>{{cite book|author=Stella Kramrisch|title=The Presence of Siva|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O5BanndcIgUC |year=1993|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=0-691-01930-4|page=7}}</ref> The Vedic texts do not mention bull or any animal as the transport vehicle (''vahana'') of Rudra or other deities. However, post-Vedic texts such as the Mahabharata and the Puranas state the Nandi bull, the Indian zebu, in particular, as the vehicle of Rudra and of Shiva, thereby unmistakably linking them as same.<ref>{{cite book|author=Stella Kramrisch|title=The Presence of Siva|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O5BanndcIgUC |year=1993|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=0-691-01930-4|pages=14–15}}</ref>
The hymn 10.92 of the Rigveda states that deity Rudra has two natures, one wild and cruel (rudra), another that is kind and tranquil (shiva).<ref>{{cite book|author=Stella Kramrisch|title=The Presence of Siva|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O5BanndcIgUC |year=1993|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=0-691-01930-4|page=7}}</ref> The Vedic texts do not mention bull or any animal as the transport vehicle (''vahana'') of Rudra or other deities. However, post-Vedic texts such as the Mahabharata and the Puranas state the Nandi bull, the Indian zebu, in particular, as the vehicle of Rudra and of Shiva, thereby unmistakably linking them as same.<ref>{{cite book|author=Stella Kramrisch|title=The Presence of Siva|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O5BanndcIgUC |year=1993|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=0-691-01930-4|pages=14–15}}</ref>


リグ・ヴェーダ10巻の92詩ではルドラは荒っぽく、残酷な側面(ルドラ)と、慈悲深く穏やかな側面(シヴァ)の2つの性質を持つことが語られている<ref>{{Cite book|author=Stella Kramrisch|title=The Presence of Siva|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O5BanndcIgUC |year=1993|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=0-691-01930-4|page=7}}</ref>。ヴェーダ時代の文献ではルドラに関して牛やその他の動物を[[ヴァーハナ]](乗り物)としているような記述は見られない。しかしヴェーダ後のたとえばマハーバーラタや[[プラーナ文献]]などでは[[ナンディン]]が特にルドラとシヴァのヴァーハナであると言及されており、彼らは明白に同じ神格として結び付けられている<ref>{{Cite book|author=Stella Kramrisch|title=The Presence of Siva|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O5BanndcIgUC |year=1993|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=0-691-01930-4|pages=14–15}}</ref>。
==== Agni ====

==== アグニ ====
Rudra and Agni have a close relationship.<ref>For general statement of the close relationship, and example shared epithets, see: Sivaramamurti, p. 11.</ref><ref>For an overview of the Rudra-Fire complex of ideas, see: Kramrisch, pp. 15-19.</ref> The identification between Agni and Rudra in the Vedic literature was an important factor in the process of Rudra's gradual development into the later character as Rudra-Shiva.<ref>For quotation "An important factor in the process of Rudra's growth is his identification with Agni in the Vedic literature and this identification contributed much to the transformation of his character as {{IAST|Rudra-Śiva}}." see: Chakravarti, p. 17.</ref> The identification of Agni with Rudra is explicitly noted in the ''[[Nirukta]]'', an important early text on etymology, which says, "Agni is also called Rudra."<ref>For translation from ''Nirukta'' 10.7, see: Sarup (1927), p. 155.</ref> The interconnections between the two deities are complex, and according to Stella Kramrisch:
Rudra and Agni have a close relationship.<ref>For general statement of the close relationship, and example shared epithets, see: Sivaramamurti, p. 11.</ref><ref>For an overview of the Rudra-Fire complex of ideas, see: Kramrisch, pp. 15-19.</ref> The identification between Agni and Rudra in the Vedic literature was an important factor in the process of Rudra's gradual development into the later character as Rudra-Shiva.<ref>For quotation "An important factor in the process of Rudra's growth is his identification with Agni in the Vedic literature and this identification contributed much to the transformation of his character as {{IAST|Rudra-Śiva}}." see: Chakravarti, p. 17.</ref> The identification of Agni with Rudra is explicitly noted in the ''[[Nirukta]]'', an important early text on etymology, which says, "Agni is also called Rudra."<ref>For translation from ''Nirukta'' 10.7, see: Sarup (1927), p. 155.</ref> The interconnections between the two deities are complex, and according to Stella Kramrisch:
{{quote|The fire myth of {{IAST|Rudra-Śiva}} plays on the whole gamut of fire, valuing all its potentialities and phases, from conflagration to illumination.<ref>Kramrisch, p. 18.</ref>}}
{{quote|The fire myth of {{IAST|Rudra-Śiva}} plays on the whole gamut of fire, valuing all its potentialities and phases, from conflagration to illumination.<ref>Kramrisch, p. 18.</ref>}}

ルドラと[[アグニ]]は深い関係を持っている<ref>For general statement of the close relationship, and example shared epithets, see: Sivaramamurti, p. 11.</ref><ref>For an overview of the Rudra-Fire complex of ideas, see: Kramrisch, pp. 15-19.</ref>。後にルドラ・シヴァというキャラクターへと徐々に発展していくルドラの過程を語る上で、アグニとルドラの同一性は重要な意味を持ってくる<ref>For quotation "An important factor in the process of Rudra's growth is his identification with Agni in the Vedic literature and this identification contributed much to the transformation of his character as {{IAST|Rudra-Śiva}}." see: Chakravarti, p. 17.</ref>。アグニとルドラの同一性は[[ニルクタ]]にて明確に言及されている。ニルクタはサンスクリット語の語源について書かれた初期の文献で、そこにはアグニはルドラとも呼ばれるとしるされてる<ref>For translation from ''Nirukta'' 10.7, see: Sarup (1927), p. 155.</ref>。アグニとルドラの相互関係は複雑である。{{仮リンク|ステラ・クラムリッシュ|en|Stella Kramrisch}}によればルドラ・シヴァの炎にまつわる神話を挙げれば多岐にわたり、大火災から灯りの火に至るまで、火と呼べるもの全てに及んでいる<ref>Kramrisch, p. 18.</ref>。<!--ここ不親切にもアグニが火の神だって触れてないけど-->


In the [[Shri Rudram Chamakam|''Śatarudrīya'']], some epithets of Rudra, such as {{IAST|Sasipañjara}} ("Of golden red hue as of flame") and {{IAST|Tivaṣīmati}} ("Flaming bright"), suggest a fusing of the two deities.<ref>For "Note Agni-Rudra concept fused" in epithets {{IAST|Sasipañjara}} and {{IAST|Tivaṣīmati}} see: Sivaramamurti, p. 45.</ref> Agni is said to be a bull,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv06048.htm |title=Rig Veda: Rig-Veda, Book 6: HYMN XLVIII. Agni and Others |publisher=Sacred-texts.com |accessdate=2010-06-06}}</ref> and Lord Shiva possesses a bull as his vehicle, [[Nandi (bull)|Nandi]]. The horns of Agni, who is sometimes characterized as a bull, are mentioned.<ref>For the parallel between the horns of Agni as bull, and Rudra, see: Chakravarti, p. 89.</ref><ref>RV 8.49; 10.155.</ref> In medieval sculpture, both Agni and the form of Shiva known as Bhairava have flaming hair as a special feature.<ref>For flaming hair of Agni and Bhairava see: Sivaramamurti, p. 11.</ref>
In the [[Shri Rudram Chamakam|''Śatarudrīya'']], some epithets of Rudra, such as {{IAST|Sasipañjara}} ("Of golden red hue as of flame") and {{IAST|Tivaṣīmati}} ("Flaming bright"), suggest a fusing of the two deities.<ref>For "Note Agni-Rudra concept fused" in epithets {{IAST|Sasipañjara}} and {{IAST|Tivaṣīmati}} see: Sivaramamurti, p. 45.</ref> Agni is said to be a bull,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv06048.htm |title=Rig Veda: Rig-Veda, Book 6: HYMN XLVIII. Agni and Others |publisher=Sacred-texts.com |accessdate=2010-06-06}}</ref> and Lord Shiva possesses a bull as his vehicle, [[Nandi (bull)|Nandi]]. The horns of Agni, who is sometimes characterized as a bull, are mentioned.<ref>For the parallel between the horns of Agni as bull, and Rudra, see: Chakravarti, p. 89.</ref><ref>RV 8.49; 10.155.</ref> In medieval sculpture, both Agni and the form of Shiva known as Bhairava have flaming hair as a special feature.<ref>For flaming hair of Agni and Bhairava see: Sivaramamurti, p. 11.</ref>


{{仮リンク|シュリ・ルドラム・チャマカム|en|Shri Rudram Chamakam}}に登場するルドラの添え名、例えばサシパンジャラ(Sasipañjara、「炎のように赤く金色の」)やティヴァシマティ(Tivaṣīmati、「まぶしく燃える」)はアグニとルドラが融合した様子をうかがわせる<ref>For "Note Agni-Rudra concept fused" in epithets {{IAST|Sasipañjara}} and {{IAST|Tivaṣīmati}} see: Sivaramamurti, p. 45.</ref>。アグニは牛であると言われており<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv06048.htm |title=Rig Veda: Rig-Veda, Book 6: HYMN XLVIII. Agni and Others |publisher=Sacred-texts.com |accessdate=2010-06-06}}</ref>、シヴァのヴァーハナは牛のナンディンである。アグニには角が生えているという言及もある<ref>For the parallel between the horns of Agni as bull, and Rudra, see: Chakravarti, p. 89.</ref><ref>RV 8.49; 10.155.</ref>。中世の聖典にはアグニも、{{仮リンク|バイラヴァ|en|Bhairava}}すなわちシヴァの別の姿もともに燃え盛る髪を持つとされている<ref>For flaming hair of Agni and Bhairava see: Sivaramamurti, p. 11.</ref>。
==== Indra ====

==== インドラ ====
[[File:Statère d'electrum du royaume de Kouchan à l'effigie de Vasou Deva I.jpg|upright|thumb|220px|Coin of the [[Kushan Empire]] (1st-century BCE to 2nd-century CE). The right image has been interpreted as Shiva with trident and bull.<ref>Hans Loeschner (2012), Victor Mair (Editor), [http://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp227_kanishka_stupa_casket.pdf The Stūpa of the Kushan Emperor Kanishka the Great Sino-Platonic Papers], No. 227, pages 11, 19</ref>]]
[[File:Statère d'electrum du royaume de Kouchan à l'effigie de Vasou Deva I.jpg|upright|thumb|220px|Coin of the [[Kushan Empire]] (1st-century BCE to 2nd-century CE). The right image has been interpreted as Shiva with trident and bull.<ref>Hans Loeschner (2012), Victor Mair (Editor), [http://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp227_kanishka_stupa_casket.pdf The Stūpa of the Kushan Emperor Kanishka the Great Sino-Platonic Papers], No. 227, pages 11, 19</ref>]]
[[ファイル:Statère d'electrum du royaume de Kouchan à l'effigie de Vasou Deva I.jpg|upright|thumb|220px|[[クシャーナ朝]](紀元前1世紀から紀元1世紀)の[[コイン]]。右側のデザインは[[トリシューラ]](三叉の槍)を持ち、牛の前に立つシヴァと解釈されている<ref>Hans Loeschner (2012), Victor Mair (Editor), [http://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp227_kanishka_stupa_casket.pdf The Stūpa of the Kushan Emperor Kanishka the Great Sino-Platonic Papers], No. 227, pages 11, 19</ref>。]]
According to [[Wendy Doniger]], the Puranic Shiva is a continuation of the Vedic Indra.<ref>{{cite book|last= Doniger|first=Wendy|authorlink=Wendy Doniger|title=Śiva, the erotic ascetic|year=1973|publisher=Oxford University Press US|pages=84–9|chapter = The Vedic Antecedents }}</ref> Doniger gives several reasons for her hypothesis. Both are associated with mountains, rivers, male fertility, fierceness, fearlessness, warfare, transgression of established mores, the [[Om|Aum]] sound, the Supreme Self. In the Rig Veda the term ''{{IAST|śiva}}'' is used to refer to Indra. (2.20.3,<ref>For text of RV 2.20.3a as {{lang|sa|स नो युवेन्द्रो जोहूत्रः सखा शिवो नरामस्तु पाता ।}} and translation as "May that young adorable ''Indra'', ever be the friend, the benefactor, and protector of us, his worshipper" see: Arya & Joshi (2001), p. 48, volume 2.</ref> 6.45.17,<ref>For text of RV 6.45.17 as {{lang|sa|यो गृणतामिदासिथापिरूती शिवः सखा । स त्वं न इन्द्र मृलय ॥ }} and translation as "''Indra'', who has ever been the friend of those who praise you, and the insurer of their happiness by your protection, grant us felicity" see: Arya & Joshi (2001), p. 91, volume 3.</ref><ref>For translation of RV 6.45.17 as "Thou who hast been the singers' Friend, a Friend auspicious with thine aid, As such, O Indra, favour us" see: {{Harvnb|Griffith|1973|p=310}}.</ref> and 8.93.3.<ref>For text of RV 8.93.3 as {{lang|sa|स न इन्द्रः सिवः सखाश्चावद् गोमद्यवमत् । उरूधारेव दोहते ॥}} and translation as "May ''Indra'', our auspicious friend, milk for us, like a richly-streaming (cow), wealth of horses, kine, and barley" see: Arya & Joshi (2001), p. 48, volume 2.</ref>) Indra, like Shiva, is likened to a bull.<ref>For the bull parallel between Indra and Rudra see: Chakravarti, p. 89.</ref><ref>RV 7.19.</ref> In the Rig Veda, Rudra is the father of the [[Maruts]], but he is never associated with their warlike exploits as is Indra.<ref>For the lack of warlike connections and difference between Indra and Rudra, see: Chakravarti, p. 8.</ref>
According to [[Wendy Doniger]], the Puranic Shiva is a continuation of the Vedic Indra.<ref>{{cite book|last= Doniger|first=Wendy|authorlink=Wendy Doniger|title=Śiva, the erotic ascetic|year=1973|publisher=Oxford University Press US|pages=84–9|chapter = The Vedic Antecedents }}</ref> Doniger gives several reasons for her hypothesis. Both are associated with mountains, rivers, male fertility, fierceness, fearlessness, warfare, transgression of established mores, the [[Om|Aum]] sound, the Supreme Self. In the Rig Veda the term ''{{IAST|śiva}}'' is used to refer to Indra. (2.20.3,<ref>For text of RV 2.20.3a as {{lang|sa|स नो युवेन्द्रो जोहूत्रः सखा शिवो नरामस्तु पाता ।}} and translation as "May that young adorable ''Indra'', ever be the friend, the benefactor, and protector of us, his worshipper" see: Arya & Joshi (2001), p. 48, volume 2.</ref> 6.45.17,<ref>For text of RV 6.45.17 as {{lang|sa|यो गृणतामिदासिथापिरूती शिवः सखा । स त्वं न इन्द्र मृलय ॥ }} and translation as "''Indra'', who has ever been the friend of those who praise you, and the insurer of their happiness by your protection, grant us felicity" see: Arya & Joshi (2001), p. 91, volume 3.</ref><ref>For translation of RV 6.45.17 as "Thou who hast been the singers' Friend, a Friend auspicious with thine aid, As such, O Indra, favour us" see: {{Harvnb|Griffith|1973|p=310}}.</ref> and 8.93.3.<ref>For text of RV 8.93.3 as {{lang|sa|स न इन्द्रः सिवः सखाश्चावद् गोमद्यवमत् । उरूधारेव दोहते ॥}} and translation as "May ''Indra'', our auspicious friend, milk for us, like a richly-streaming (cow), wealth of horses, kine, and barley" see: Arya & Joshi (2001), p. 48, volume 2.</ref>) Indra, like Shiva, is likened to a bull.<ref>For the bull parallel between Indra and Rudra see: Chakravarti, p. 89.</ref><ref>RV 7.19.</ref> In the Rig Veda, Rudra is the father of the [[Maruts]], but he is never associated with their warlike exploits as is Indra.<ref>For the lack of warlike connections and difference between Indra and Rudra, see: Chakravarti, p. 8.</ref>

{{仮リンク|ウェンディー・ドニガー|en|Wendy Doniger}}によれば[[プラーナ文献]]で語られるシヴァはヴェーダ時代のインドラからつながっている<ref>{{Cite book|last= Doniger|first=Wendy|authorlink=Wendy Doniger|title=Śiva, the erotic ascetic|year=1973|publisher=Oxford University Press US|pages=84–9|chapter = The Vedic Antecedents }}</ref>。ドニガーは、インドラもシヴァも山、川、精力、凶暴さ、恐れをしらぬ大胆さ、戦争、確立された慣習[[風俗]]の破戒、オウム([[真言]])、最高の存在であること、などと関連づけられていることをその根拠として挙げている。リグ・ヴェーダではシヴァ(śiva)という語がインドラを指して使われている{{refn|group=注|2.20.3,<ref>For text of RV 2.20.3a as {{Lang|sa|स नो युवेन्द्रो जोहूत्रः सखा शिवो नरामस्तु पाता ।}} and translation as "May that young adorable ''Indra'', ever be the friend, the benefactor, and protector of us, his worshipper" see: Arya & Joshi (2001), p. 48, volume 2.</ref> 6.45.17,<ref>For text of RV 6.45.17 as {{Lang|sa|यो गृणतामिदासिथापिरूती शिवः सखा । स त्वं न इन्द्र मृलय ॥ }} and translation as "''Indra'', who has ever been the friend of those who praise you, and the insurer of their happiness by your protection, grant us felicity" see: Arya & Joshi (2001), p. 91, volume 3.</ref><ref>For translation of RV 6.45.17 as "Thou who hast been the singers' Friend, a Friend auspicious with thine aid, As such, O Indra, favour us" see: {{Harvnb|Griffith|1973|p=310}}.</ref> and 8.93.3.<ref>For text of RV 8.93.3 as {{Lang|sa|स न इन्द्रः सिवः सखाश्चावद् गोमद्यवमत् । उरूधारेव दोहते ॥}} and translation as "May ''Indra'', our auspicious friend, milk for us, like a richly-streaming (cow), wealth of horses, kine, and barley" see: Arya & Joshi (2001), p. 48, volume 2.</ref>}}。インドラもシヴァと同様に牛と結び付けられている<ref>For the bull parallel between Indra and Rudra see: Chakravarti, p. 89.</ref><ref>RV 7.19.</ref>。リグ・ヴェーダではルドラは[[マルト神群]](ルドラの息子たちであり、インドラの従者)の父であるが、ルドラはマルト神群の特徴である好戦的な性格を持っていない。その一方でインドラ<!--(とシヴァ)-->はそれを持ち合わせている<ref>For the lack of warlike connections and difference between Indra and Rudra, see: Chakravarti, p. 8.</ref>。


The Vedic beliefs and practices of the pre-classical era were closely related to the hypothesised [[Proto-Indo-European religion]],<ref name="Woodard2006">{{cite book|author=Roger D. Woodard|title=Indo-European Sacred Space: Vedic and Roman Cult|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EB4fB0inNYEC&pg=FA242|date=18 August 2006|publisher=University of Illinois Press|isbn=978-0-252-09295-4|pages=242–}}</ref> and the pre-Islamic Indo-Iranian religion.{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|p=32}} The earliest iconic artworks of Shiva may be from Gandhara and northwest parts of ancient India. There is some uncertainty as the artwork that has survived is damaged and they show some overlap with meditative Buddha-related artwork, but the presence of Shiva's trident and phallic symbolism in this art suggests it was likely Shiva.<ref>{{cite book|author=T. Richard Blurton|title=Hindu Art|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xJ-lzU_nj_MC&pg=PA84|year=1993|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-39189-5|pages=84, 103}}</ref> [[Numismatics]] research suggests that numerous coins of the ancient Kushan Empire that have survived, were images of a god who is probably Shiva.<ref>{{cite book|author=T. Richard Blurton|title=Hindu Art|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xJ-lzU_nj_MC&pg=PA84|year=1993|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-39189-5|page=84}}</ref> The Shiva in Kushan coins is referred to as Oesho of unclear etymology and origins, but the simultaneous presence of Indra and Shiva in the Kushan era artwork suggest that they were revered deities by the start of the Kushan Empire.<ref>{{cite book|author=Pratapaditya Pal|title=Indian Sculpture: Circa 500 B.C.-A.D. 700|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=clUmKaWRFTkC |year=1986|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-05991-7|pages=75–80}}</ref><ref name= Sivaramamurti41>{{cite book|author=C. Sivaramamurti|title=Satarudriya: Vibhuti Or Shiva's Iconography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rOrilkdu-_MC |year=2004|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-81-7017-038-9|pages=41, 59}}</ref>
The Vedic beliefs and practices of the pre-classical era were closely related to the hypothesised [[Proto-Indo-European religion]],<ref name="Woodard2006">{{cite book|author=Roger D. Woodard|title=Indo-European Sacred Space: Vedic and Roman Cult|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EB4fB0inNYEC&pg=FA242|date=18 August 2006|publisher=University of Illinois Press|isbn=978-0-252-09295-4|pages=242–}}</ref> and the pre-Islamic Indo-Iranian religion.{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|p=32}} The earliest iconic artworks of Shiva may be from Gandhara and northwest parts of ancient India. There is some uncertainty as the artwork that has survived is damaged and they show some overlap with meditative Buddha-related artwork, but the presence of Shiva's trident and phallic symbolism in this art suggests it was likely Shiva.<ref>{{cite book|author=T. Richard Blurton|title=Hindu Art|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xJ-lzU_nj_MC&pg=PA84|year=1993|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-39189-5|pages=84, 103}}</ref> [[Numismatics]] research suggests that numerous coins of the ancient Kushan Empire that have survived, were images of a god who is probably Shiva.<ref>{{cite book|author=T. Richard Blurton|title=Hindu Art|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xJ-lzU_nj_MC&pg=PA84|year=1993|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-39189-5|page=84}}</ref> The Shiva in Kushan coins is referred to as Oesho of unclear etymology and origins, but the simultaneous presence of Indra and Shiva in the Kushan era artwork suggest that they were revered deities by the start of the Kushan Empire.<ref>{{cite book|author=Pratapaditya Pal|title=Indian Sculpture: Circa 500 B.C.-A.D. 700|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=clUmKaWRFTkC |year=1986|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-05991-7|pages=75–80}}</ref><ref name= Sivaramamurti41>{{cite book|author=C. Sivaramamurti|title=Satarudriya: Vibhuti Or Shiva's Iconography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rOrilkdu-_MC |year=2004|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-81-7017-038-9|pages=41, 59}}</ref>

古典期以前のヴェーダの信仰と習慣は、仮説上の{{仮リンク|プロト・インド・ヨーロッパ宗教|en|Proto-Indo-European religion}}<ref name="Woodard2006">{{Cite book|author=Roger D. Woodard|title=Indo-European Sacred Space: Vedic and Roman Cult|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EB4fB0inNYEC&pg=FA242|date=18 August 2006|publisher=University of Illinois Press|isbn=978-0-252-09295-4|pages=242–}}</ref>、そしてイスラム以前のインド・イラン宗教と{{Sfn|Beckwith|2009|p=32}}密接に関係している。シヴァが偶像化されたものとして最も早い時期の物、すなわち彫像は[[ガンダーラ]]や古代インドの北西部で見つかっている。この彫像は損傷しており、加えて仏教に関係の彫刻とも特徴が重なるため、はっきりとこれがシヴァであると言い切れない部分もあるのだが、シヴァの武器であるトリシューラと特徴のひとつであるファルスが確認できるのでおそらくシヴァであろうと思われる<ref>{{Cite book|author=T. Richard Blurton|title=Hindu Art|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xJ-lzU_nj_MC&pg=PA84|year=1993|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-39189-5|page=84}}</ref>。<!--このシヴァの最古の像は紀元後1世紀としているみたい。新しすぎる気がする-->[[貨幣学]]の分野からは、古代のクシャーナ朝のコインに描かれている神がシヴァではないかという指摘がある<ref>{{Cite book|author=T. Richard Blurton|title=Hindu Art|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xJ-lzU_nj_MC&pg=PA84|year=1993|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-39189-5|page=84}}</ref>。クシャーナのコインではシヴァと思しき人物を指し{{仮リンク|ウェーショー|en|Oesho}}(または{{仮リンク|オエーショ|en|Oesho}})と記されているが、ウェーショーの語源や由来ははっきりしていない。それでもインドラとシヴァがクシャーナ朝にて同時に存在した可能性は、彼らに対する信仰がクシャーナ朝から始まった可能性を示唆している<ref>{{Cite book|author=Pratapaditya Pal|title=Indian Sculpture: Circa 500 B.C.-A.D. 700|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=clUmKaWRFTkC |year=1986|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-05991-7|pages=75–80}}</ref><!--貨幣学の本。"Very likely the Kushans placed such emphasis on Siva because most major tribes with whom hey came into contact, such as the Audumbaras, Kunindas,... venerated Siva and either included on their coins Siva himself, his mount..."--><ref name= Sivaramamurti41>{{Cite book|author=C. Sivaramamurti|title=Satarudriya: Vibhuti Or Shiva's Iconography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rOrilkdu-_MC |year=2004|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-81-7017-038-9|pages=41, 59}}</ref><!--The Kushanas had great veneration for Siva...-->。<!--このへん気になる。言いすぎてるインドラと関係ない。だいたい1世紀から2世紀ならヴェーダ時代おわってる-->


The texts and artwork of [[Jainism]] show Indra as a dancer, although not identical but generally resembling the dancing Shiva artwork found in Hinduism, particularly in their respective mudras.<ref name=lisaowen25/> For example, in the Jain caves at [[Ellora Caves|Ellora]], extensive carvings show dancing Indra next to the images of [[Tirthankara]]s in a manner similar to Shiva Nataraja. The similarities in the dance iconography suggests that there may be a link between ancient Indra and Shiva.<ref name= Sivaramamurti41/><ref name=lisaowen25>{{cite book|author=Lisa Owen|title=Carving Devotion in the Jain Caves at Ellora|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vHK2WE8xAzYC|year=2012|publisher=BRILL Academic|isbn=90-04-20629-9|pages=25–29}}</ref>
The texts and artwork of [[Jainism]] show Indra as a dancer, although not identical but generally resembling the dancing Shiva artwork found in Hinduism, particularly in their respective mudras.<ref name=lisaowen25/> For example, in the Jain caves at [[Ellora Caves|Ellora]], extensive carvings show dancing Indra next to the images of [[Tirthankara]]s in a manner similar to Shiva Nataraja. The similarities in the dance iconography suggests that there may be a link between ancient Indra and Shiva.<ref name= Sivaramamurti41/><ref name=lisaowen25>{{cite book|author=Lisa Owen|title=Carving Devotion in the Jain Caves at Ellora|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vHK2WE8xAzYC|year=2012|publisher=BRILL Academic|isbn=90-04-20629-9|pages=25–29}}</ref>


[[ジャイナ教]]ではインドラは踊る姿で表現される。明示的に同一とされているわけではないが、ヒンドゥー教で見られる踊っているシヴァ<!--ナタラージャと同様-->と[[印相|ムドラ]](ポーズ)が似通っている<ref name=lisaowen25/>。[[エローラ石窟群]](ヒンドゥー、仏教、ジャイナ、3宗教の遺跡)のジャイナ教窟では{{仮リンク|ティールタンカラ|en|Tirthankaras}}(ジャイナの神)の隣でインドラがシヴァ・ナタラージャと同じ調子で踊る彫刻が見られる。この踊りの類似は古代のインドラとシヴァとのつながりを示しているようにも思われる<ref name= Sivaramamurti41/><ref name=lisaowen25>{{Cite book|author=Lisa Owen|title=Carving Devotion in the Jain Caves at Ellora|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vHK2WE8xAzYC|year=2012|publisher=BRILL Academic|isbn=90-04-20629-9|pages=25–29}}</ref>。
=== Later literature ===

=== マイナーな神、ルドラから最高神へ ===
Rudra's evolution from a minor Vedic deity to a supreme being is first evidenced in the ''[[Shvetashvatara Upanishad]]'' (400-200 BC), according to Gavin Flood.{{sfn|Flood|2003|pp=204-205}}{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=86}} Prior to it, the Upanishadic literature is [[Advaita|monistic]], and the ''Shvetashvatara'' text presents the earliest seeds of theistic devotion to Rudra-Shiva.{{sfn|Flood|2003|pp=204-205}} Here Rudra-Shiva is identified as the creator of the cosmos and [[Saṃsāra|liberator of souls]] from the birth-rebirth cycle. The period of 200 BC to 100 AD also marks the beginning of the Shaiva tradition focused on the worship of Shiva as evidenced in other literature of this period.{{sfn|Flood|2003|pp=204-205}} Shaiva devotees and ascetics are mentioned in [[Patanjali]]'s ''[[Mahābhāṣya]]'' (2nd-century BC) and in the ''[[Mahabharata]]''.{{sfn|Flood|2003|p=205, for date of Mahabhasya see: Peter M. Scharf (1996), The Denotation of Generic Terms in Ancient Indian Philosophy: Grammar, Nyāya, and Mīmāṃsā, American Philosophical Society, ISBN 978-0-87169-863-6, page 1 with footnote 2}} Other scholars such as Robert Hume and Doris Srinivasan state that the ''Shvetashvatara Upanishad'' presents pluralism, [[pantheism]], or [[henotheism]], rather than being a text just on Shiva theism.<ref>Robert Hume, [https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n419/mode/2up Shvetashvatara Upanishad], The Thirteen Principal Upanishads, Oxford University Press, pages 399, 403</ref><ref>M. Hiriyanna (2000), The Essentials of Indian Philosophy, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120813304, pages 32-36</ref><ref>[a] A Kunst, Some notes on the interpretation of the Ṥvetāṥvatara Upaniṣad, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, Vol. 31, Issue 02, June 1968, pages 309-314; {{doi|10.1017/S0041977X00146531}};<br>[b] Doris Srinivasan (1997), Many Heads, Arms, and Eyes, Brill, ISBN 978-9004107588, pages 96-97 and Chapter 9</ref>
Rudra's evolution from a minor Vedic deity to a supreme being is first evidenced in the ''[[Shvetashvatara Upanishad]]'' (400-200 BC), according to Gavin Flood.{{sfn|Flood|2003|pp=204-205}}{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=86}} Prior to it, the Upanishadic literature is [[Advaita|monistic]], and the ''Shvetashvatara'' text presents the earliest seeds of theistic devotion to Rudra-Shiva.{{sfn|Flood|2003|pp=204-205}} Here Rudra-Shiva is identified as the creator of the cosmos and [[Saṃsāra|liberator of souls]] from the birth-rebirth cycle. The period of 200 BC to 100 AD also marks the beginning of the Shaiva tradition focused on the worship of Shiva as evidenced in other literature of this period.{{sfn|Flood|2003|pp=204-205}} Shaiva devotees and ascetics are mentioned in [[Patanjali]]'s ''[[Mahābhāṣya]]'' (2nd-century BC) and in the ''[[Mahabharata]]''.{{sfn|Flood|2003|p=205, for date of Mahabhasya see: Peter M. Scharf (1996), The Denotation of Generic Terms in Ancient Indian Philosophy: Grammar, Nyāya, and Mīmāṃsā, American Philosophical Society, ISBN 978-0-87169-863-6, page 1 with footnote 2}} Other scholars such as Robert Hume and Doris Srinivasan state that the ''Shvetashvatara Upanishad'' presents pluralism, [[pantheism]], or [[henotheism]], rather than being a text just on Shiva theism.<ref>Robert Hume, [https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n419/mode/2up Shvetashvatara Upanishad], The Thirteen Principal Upanishads, Oxford University Press, pages 399, 403</ref><ref>M. Hiriyanna (2000), The Essentials of Indian Philosophy, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120813304, pages 32-36</ref><ref>[a] A Kunst, Some notes on the interpretation of the Ṥvetāṥvatara Upaniṣad, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, Vol. 31, Issue 02, June 1968, pages 309-314; {{doi|10.1017/S0041977X00146531}};<br>[b] Doris Srinivasan (1997), Many Heads, Arms, and Eyes, Brill, ISBN 978-9004107588, pages 96-97 and Chapter 9</ref>

ヴェーダのマイナーな神であったルドラが最高神としての神格へと発展していく過程の最初の痕跡は、ギャビン・フラッドによれば紀元前400年から紀元前200年頃の[[シュヴェーターシュヴァタラ・ウパニシャッド]]に見られる{{Sfn|Flood|2003|pp=204-205}}{{Sfn|Flood|1996|p=86}}。これ以前のウパニシャッドの世界は[[不二一元論]]であり、シュヴェーターシュヴァタラ・ウパニシャッドはルドラ・シヴァに対する有神論的な信仰の最初のきっかけを与えている{{Sfn|Flood|2003|pp=204-205}}。すなわちこの文献で、ルドラ・シヴァが宇宙(ブラフマン)の創造者であり、魂(アートマン)を[[輪廻]]から解放する者であると同定される。シヴァ派の信徒、苦行者らは[[パタンジャリ]]の{{仮リンク|マハーバーシャ|en|Mahābhāṣya}}やマハーバーラタにて触れられていることから{{Sfn|Flood|2003|p=205, for date of Mahabhasya see: Peter M. Scharf (1996), The Denotation of Generic Terms in Ancient Indian Philosophy: Grammar, Nyāya, and Mīmāṃsā, American Philosophical Society, ISBN 978-0-87169-863-6, page 1 with footnote 2}}、紀元前200年から紀元後100年には、シヴァへの帰依に焦点を絞るシヴァ派の歴史が始まっていることがわかっている{{Sfn|Flood|2003|pp=204-205}}。一方ロバート・ヒューム(Robert Hume)やドリス・スリニヴァサン(Doris Srinivasan)らはシュヴェーターシュヴァタラ・ウパニシャッドが提示するのはシヴァに焦点を当てた有神論ではなく、[[多元論]]、[[汎神論]]、[[単一神教]]であると述べている<ref>Robert Hume, [https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n419/mode/2up Shvetashvatara Upanishad], The Thirteen Principal Upanishads, Oxford University Press, pages 399, 403</ref><ref>M. Hiriyanna (2000), The Essentials of Indian Philosophy, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120813304, pages 32-36</ref><ref>[a] A Kunst, Some notes on the interpretation of the Ṥvetāṥvatara Upaniṣad, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, Vol. 31, Issue 02, June 1968, pages 309-314; {{Doi|10.1017/S0041977X00146531}};<br>[b] Doris Srinivasan (1997), Many Heads, Arms, and Eyes, Brill, ISBN 978-9004107588, pages 96-97 and Chapter 9</ref>。


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The [[Shaiva Upanishads]] are a group of 14 minor Upanishads of Hinduism variously dated from the last centuries of the 1st millennium BCE through the 17th century.{{Sfn|Deussen| 1997|p=556, 769 footnote 1}} These extol Shiva as the metaphysical unchanging reality [[Brahman]] and the [[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]] (soul, self),{{Sfn|Deussen|1997|p=769}} and include sections about rites and symbolisms related to Shiva.{{Sfn|Klostermaier|1984|pp=134, 371}}
The [[Shaiva Upanishads]] are a group of 14 minor Upanishads of Hinduism variously dated from the last centuries of the 1st millennium BCE through the 17th century.{{Sfn|Deussen| 1997|p=556, 769 footnote 1}} These extol Shiva as the metaphysical unchanging reality [[Brahman]] and the [[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]] (soul, self),{{Sfn|Deussen|1997|p=769}} and include sections about rites and symbolisms related to Shiva.{{Sfn|Klostermaier|1984|pp=134, 371}}

古いものでは紀元前10世紀の終わりから新しいものでは17世紀までと様々な時期に書かれた14のウパニシャッドから成る{{仮リンク|シャイヴァ・ウパニシャッド|en|Shaiva Upanishads}}では{{Sfn|Deussen| 1997|p=556, 769 footnote 1}}、シヴァを物理世界を超越した普遍の存在ブラフマンとアートマンとして賞揚し{{Sfn|Deussen|1997|p=769}}、さらにシヴァに関する儀式と象徴主義について語られている{{Sfn|Klostermaier|1984|pp=134, 371}}。


A few texts such as ''[[Atharvashiras Upanishad]]'' mention [[Rudra]], and assert all gods are Rudra, everyone and everything is Rudra, and Rudra is the principle found in all things, their highest goal, the innermost essence of all reality that is visible or invisible.{{Sfn|Deussen|1997|p=769}} The ''Kaivalya Upanishad'' similarly, states [[Paul Deussen]] – a German Indologist and professor of Philosophy, describes the self-realized man as who "feels himself only as the one divine essence that lives in all", who feels identity of his and everyone's consciousness with Shiva (highest Atman), who has found this highest Atman within, in the depths of his heart.{{Sfn|Deussen|1997|pp=792-793}}{{Sfn|Radhakrishnan|1953|p=929}}
A few texts such as ''[[Atharvashiras Upanishad]]'' mention [[Rudra]], and assert all gods are Rudra, everyone and everything is Rudra, and Rudra is the principle found in all things, their highest goal, the innermost essence of all reality that is visible or invisible.{{Sfn|Deussen|1997|p=769}} The ''Kaivalya Upanishad'' similarly, states [[Paul Deussen]] – a German Indologist and professor of Philosophy, describes the self-realized man as who "feels himself only as the one divine essence that lives in all", who feels identity of his and everyone's consciousness with Shiva (highest Atman), who has found this highest Atman within, in the depths of his heart.{{Sfn|Deussen|1997|pp=792-793}}{{Sfn|Radhakrishnan|1953|p=929}}

ルドラに関して触れられる文献はわずかにとどまるが、例えば{{仮リンク|アタルヴァシラス・ウパニシャッド|en|Atharvashiras Upanishad}}(紀元前5世紀頃)では、すべての神はルドラであり、全ての生命と全ての物質はルドラであり、ルドラは全ての中に存在する根源であり、最終目標([[ジュニャーナ]])であり、全ての見える物と見えない物の最も内側にある要素であると主張される{{Sfn|Deussen|1997|p=769}}。[[パウル・ドイセン]]によれば{{仮リンク|カイヴァリャ・ウパニシャッド|en|Kaivalya Upanishad}}(紀元前10世紀頃)にもルドラがシヴァに置き換わったバージョンの、同様な記述がみられる。すなわち、[[ジュニャーナ|アートマ・ジュニャーナ]]に達する人は自らをすべての中に住まう神聖な要素として感じ、自ら及びすべての意識とシヴァ(すなわち至高のアートマン)との一体感を感じ、この至高のアートマンを自らの心の奥底に見つけるものである、と語られている{{Sfn|Deussen|1997|pp=792-793}}{{Sfn|Radhakrishnan|1953|p=929}}。


The [[Puranas#Classification|Shaiva Purana]]s, particularly the [[Shiva Purana]] and the [[Linga Purana]], present the various aspects of Shiva, mythologies, cosmology and pilgrimage (''[[Tirtha (Hinduism)|Tirtha]]'') associated with him.{{sfn|Flood|2003|pp=205-206}}{{Sfn|Rocher|1986|pp=187-188, 222-228}} The Shiva-related [[Tantra]] literature, composed between the 8th and 11th centuries, are regarded in devotional dualistic Shaivism as [[Sruti]]. Dualistic [[Āgama (Hinduism)#Philosophy|Shaiva Agamas]] which consider soul within each living being and Shiva as two separate realities (dualism, ''dvaita''), are the foundational texts for [[Shaiva Siddhanta]].{{sfn|Flood|2003|pp=208-212}} Other Shaiva Agamas teach that these are one reality (monism, ''advaita''), and that Shiva is the soul, the perfection and truth within each living being.<ref>DS Sharma (1990), The Philosophy of Sadhana, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791403471, pages 9-14</ref><ref name=richdavis167>Richard Davis (2014), Ritual in an Oscillating Universe: Worshipping Siva in Medieval India, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691603087, page 167 note 21, '''Quote (page 13):''' "Some agamas argue a monist metaphysics, while others are decidedly dualist. Some claim ritual is the most efficacious means of religious attainment, while others assert that knowledge is more important".</ref> In Shiva related sub-traditions, there are ten dualistic Agama texts, eighteen qualified monism-cum-dualism Agama texts and sixty four monism Agama texts.<ref>Mark Dyczkowski (1989), The Canon of the Śaivāgama, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120805958, pages 43-44</ref><ref>JS Vasugupta (2012), Śiva Sūtras, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120804074, pages 252, 259</ref>{{Sfn|Flood|1996|pp=162-169}}
The [[Puranas#Classification|Shaiva Purana]]s, particularly the [[Shiva Purana]] and the [[Linga Purana]], present the various aspects of Shiva, mythologies, cosmology and pilgrimage (''[[Tirtha (Hinduism)|Tirtha]]'') associated with him.{{sfn|Flood|2003|pp=205-206}}{{Sfn|Rocher|1986|pp=187-188, 222-228}} The Shiva-related [[Tantra]] literature, composed between the 8th and 11th centuries, are regarded in devotional dualistic Shaivism as [[Sruti]]. Dualistic [[Āgama (Hinduism)#Philosophy|Shaiva Agamas]] which consider soul within each living being and Shiva as two separate realities (dualism, ''dvaita''), are the foundational texts for [[Shaiva Siddhanta]].{{sfn|Flood|2003|pp=208-212}} Other Shaiva Agamas teach that these are one reality (monism, ''advaita''), and that Shiva is the soul, the perfection and truth within each living being.<ref>DS Sharma (1990), The Philosophy of Sadhana, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791403471, pages 9-14</ref><ref name=richdavis167>Richard Davis (2014), Ritual in an Oscillating Universe: Worshipping Siva in Medieval India, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691603087, page 167 note 21, '''Quote (page 13):''' "Some agamas argue a monist metaphysics, while others are decidedly dualist. Some claim ritual is the most efficacious means of religious attainment, while others assert that knowledge is more important".</ref> In Shiva related sub-traditions, there are ten dualistic Agama texts, eighteen qualified monism-cum-dualism Agama texts and sixty four monism Agama texts.<ref>Mark Dyczkowski (1989), The Canon of the Śaivāgama, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120805958, pages 43-44</ref><ref>JS Vasugupta (2012), Śiva Sūtras, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120804074, pages 252, 259</ref>{{Sfn|Flood|1996|pp=162-169}}

シャイヴァ・プラーナ{{refn|group=注|シヴァ・プラーナ、リンガ・プラーナ、スカンダ・プラーナ、アグニ・プラーナ}}、特に{{仮リンク|シヴァ・プラーナ|en|Shiva Purana}}(10-11世紀)と{{仮リンク|リンガ・プラーナ|en|Linga Purana}}(5-10世紀)にはシヴァの様々な姿、シヴァに関する神話や宇宙論、巡礼地({{仮リンク|ティルサ (ヒンドゥー教)|en|Tirtha (Hinduism)|label=ティルサ}})などが紹介されている{{Sfn|Flood|2003|pp=205-206}}{{Sfn|Rocher|1986|pp=187-188, 222-228}}。シヴァに関する[[タントラ]]文献は8世紀から11世紀の間に纏められており、シヴァ派の中でも二元論を固持する信徒にとっての{{仮リンク|シュルティ|en|Sruti}}([[ヴェーダ#シュルティとスムリティ]])となっている。(略)<!--下の[[シヴァ派]]とかさねる-->


Shiva-related literature developed extensively across India in the 1st millennium CE and through the 13th century, particularly in Kashmir and Tamil Shaiva traditions.{{Sfn|Flood|1996|pp=162-169}} The monist Shiva literature posit absolute oneness, that is Shiva is within every man and woman, Shiva is within every living being, Shiva is present everywhere in the world including all non-living being, and there is no spiritual difference between life, matter, man and Shiva.<ref>Ganesh Tagare (2002), The Pratyabhijñā Philosophy, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120818927, pages 16-19</ref> The various dualistic and monist Shiva-related ideas were welcomed in medieval southeast Asia, inspiring numerous Shiva-related temples, artwork and texts in Indonesia, Myanmar, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, Thailand and Malaysia, with syncretic integration of local pre-existing theologies.{{sfn|Flood|2003|pp=208-212}}<ref>{{cite book|author=Jan Gonda|title=Handbook of Oriental Studies. Section 3 Southeast Asia, Religions |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X7YfAAAAIAAJ |year=1975 |authorlink=Jan Gonda |publisher=BRILL Academic|isbn=90-04-04330-6|pages=3–20, 35–36, 49–51}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Upendra Thakur|title=Some Aspects of Asian History and Culture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m42TldA_OvAC |year=1986|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-81-7017-207-9|pages=83–94}}</ref>
Shiva-related literature developed extensively across India in the 1st millennium CE and through the 13th century, particularly in Kashmir and Tamil Shaiva traditions.{{Sfn|Flood|1996|pp=162-169}} The monist Shiva literature posit absolute oneness, that is Shiva is within every man and woman, Shiva is within every living being, Shiva is present everywhere in the world including all non-living being, and there is no spiritual difference between life, matter, man and Shiva.<ref>Ganesh Tagare (2002), The Pratyabhijñā Philosophy, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120818927, pages 16-19</ref> The various dualistic and monist Shiva-related ideas were welcomed in medieval southeast Asia, inspiring numerous Shiva-related temples, artwork and texts in Indonesia, Myanmar, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, Thailand and Malaysia, with syncretic integration of local pre-existing theologies.{{sfn|Flood|2003|pp=208-212}}<ref>{{cite book|author=Jan Gonda|title=Handbook of Oriental Studies. Section 3 Southeast Asia, Religions |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X7YfAAAAIAAJ |year=1975 |authorlink=Jan Gonda |publisher=BRILL Academic|isbn=90-04-04330-6|pages=3–20, 35–36, 49–51}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Upendra Thakur|title=Some Aspects of Asian History and Culture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m42TldA_OvAC |year=1986|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-81-7017-207-9|pages=83–94}}</ref>


(略)シヴァに関する文献は10世紀から13世紀にかけてインド全土で発展しており、特に[[カシミール]]({{仮リンク|カシミール・シヴァ派|en|enKashmir Shaivism}})と[[タミル]]({{仮リンク|シヴァ・シッダーンダ|en|Shaiva Siddhanta}}、あるいは聖典シヴァ派とも)での受容が顕著である{{Sfn|Flood|1996|pp=162-169}}。(略)<!--下の[[シヴァ派]]とかさねる-->
===Assimilation of traditions===
{{See also|Hinduism#Roots of Hinduism|l1=Roots of Hinduism}}


===シヴァによる信仰の融合===
{{See also|ヒンドゥー教のルーツ|l1=ヒンドゥー教のルーツ}}
The figure of Shiva as we know him today may be an amalgamation of various older deities into a single figure.<ref name="Keayxxvii"/><ref>Phyllis Granoff (2003), [http://www.jstor.org/stable/41913237 Mahakala's Journey: from Gana to God], Rivista degli studi orientali, Vol. 77, Fasc. 1/4 (2003), pages 95-114</ref> How the persona of Shiva converged as a composite deity is not understood, a challenge to trace and has attracted much speculation.<ref>For Shiva as a composite deity whose history is not well documented, see: Keay, p. 147.</ref> According to Vijay Nath, for example:
The figure of Shiva as we know him today may be an amalgamation of various older deities into a single figure.<ref name="Keayxxvii"/><ref>Phyllis Granoff (2003), [http://www.jstor.org/stable/41913237 Mahakala's Journey: from Gana to God], Rivista degli studi orientali, Vol. 77, Fasc. 1/4 (2003), pages 95-114</ref> How the persona of Shiva converged as a composite deity is not understood, a challenge to trace and has attracted much speculation.<ref>For Shiva as a composite deity whose history is not well documented, see: Keay, p. 147.</ref> According to Vijay Nath, for example:

現代わたしたちが知るシヴァの姿は様々な古い神々がひとつの神格へと融合された結果であるかもしれない<ref name="Keayxxvii"/><ref>Phyllis Granoff (2003), [http://www.jstor.org/stable/41913237 Mahakala's Journey: from Gana to God], Rivista degli studi orientali, Vol. 77, Fasc. 1/4 (2003), pages 95-114</ref>。複合的なシヴァの神格がどのような過程を経て収束していったのかはわからないが、由来を辿る試みは行われており、いくつかの推測も存在する<ref>For Shiva as a composite deity whose history is not well documented, see: Keay, p. 147.</ref>。例えばヴィジャイ・ナート(Vijay Nath)によれば、

{{quote|Vishnu and Siva [...] began to absorb countless local cults and deities within their folds. The latter were either taken to represent the multiple facets of the same god or else were supposed to denote different forms and appellations by which the god came to be known and worshipped. [...] Siva became identified with countless local cults by the sheer suffixing of ''Isa'' or ''Isvara'' to the name of the local deity, e.g., Bhutesvara, Hatakesvara, Chandesvara."{{sfn|Nath|2001|p=31}}}}
{{quote|Vishnu and Siva [...] began to absorb countless local cults and deities within their folds. The latter were either taken to represent the multiple facets of the same god or else were supposed to denote different forms and appellations by which the god came to be known and worshipped. [...] Siva became identified with countless local cults by the sheer suffixing of ''Isa'' or ''Isvara'' to the name of the local deity, e.g., Bhutesvara, Hatakesvara, Chandesvara."{{sfn|Nath|2001|p=31}}}}

{{Quote|ヴィシュヌとシヴァは(中略)彼らの信徒の信仰に、無数の地方の信仰と神々を取り入れ始めた。後者(地方の神々)は、例えば同じ神の様々な様相を表すものとして、あるいは同じ神の違った姿として、またはそれによって信仰されるようになった称号として取り入れられた。(中略)シヴァは無数の地方の信仰の中で、神々の名前に「イーシャ」(Isa)、「イーシュヴァラ」(Isvara)という接尾辞をつけることによって同一視されるようになった。例えば、ブテーシュヴァラ(Bhutesvara)、ハタケシュヴァラ(Hatakesvara)、チャンデシュヴァラ(Chandesvara)などのように{{Sfn|Nath|2001|p=31}}。}}<!--しゅばらしい-->


An example of assimilation took place in [[Maharashtra]], where a regional deity named [[Khandoba]] is a patron deity of farming and herding [[caste]]s.<ref name="Courtright, p. 205">Courtright, p. 205.</ref> The foremost center of worship of Khandoba in Maharashtra is in [[Jejuri]].<ref>For Jejuri as the foremost center of worship see: Mate, p. 162.</ref> Khandoba has been assimilated as a form of Shiva himself,<ref>''Biroba, Mhaskoba und Khandoba: Ursprung, Geschichte und Umwelt von pastoralen Gottheiten in Maharastra'', Wiesbaden 1976 (German with English Synopsis) pp. 180-98, "Khandoba is a local deity in Maharashtra and been Sanskritised as an incarnation of Shiva."</ref> in which case he is worshipped in the form of a lingam.<ref name="Courtright, p. 205"/><ref>For worship of Khandoba in the form of a lingam and possible identification with Shiva based on that, see: Mate, p. 176.</ref> Khandoba's varied associations also include an identification with [[Surya]]<ref name="Courtright, p. 205"/> and [[Karttikeya]].<ref>For use of the name Khandoba as a name for Karttikeya in Maharashtra, see: Gupta, ''Preface'', and p. 40.</ref>
An example of assimilation took place in [[Maharashtra]], where a regional deity named [[Khandoba]] is a patron deity of farming and herding [[caste]]s.<ref name="Courtright, p. 205">Courtright, p. 205.</ref> The foremost center of worship of Khandoba in Maharashtra is in [[Jejuri]].<ref>For Jejuri as the foremost center of worship see: Mate, p. 162.</ref> Khandoba has been assimilated as a form of Shiva himself,<ref>''Biroba, Mhaskoba und Khandoba: Ursprung, Geschichte und Umwelt von pastoralen Gottheiten in Maharastra'', Wiesbaden 1976 (German with English Synopsis) pp. 180-98, "Khandoba is a local deity in Maharashtra and been Sanskritised as an incarnation of Shiva."</ref> in which case he is worshipped in the form of a lingam.<ref name="Courtright, p. 205"/><ref>For worship of Khandoba in the form of a lingam and possible identification with Shiva based on that, see: Mate, p. 176.</ref> Khandoba's varied associations also include an identification with [[Surya]]<ref name="Courtright, p. 205"/> and [[Karttikeya]].<ref>For use of the name Khandoba as a name for Karttikeya in Maharashtra, see: Gupta, ''Preface'', and p. 40.</ref>


例えば、[[マハーラーシュトラ州]]では地方の神として{{仮リンク|カンドーバ|en|Khandoba}}が信仰されている。カンドーバは[[農業]]と[[牧畜]]の[[カースト]]の守護神であった<ref name="Courtright, p. 205">Courtright, p. 205.</ref>。{{仮リンク|ジェジュリ|en|Jejuri}}がカンドーバ信仰の最縁部となる<ref>For Jejuri as the foremost center of worship see: Mate, p. 162.</ref>。カンドーバはシヴァの姿に取り込まれており<ref>''Biroba, Mhaskoba und Khandoba: Ursprung, Geschichte und Umwelt von pastoralen Gottheiten in Maharastra'', Wiesbaden 1976 (German with English Synopsis) pp. 180-98, "Khandoba is a local deity in Maharashtra and been Sanskritised as an incarnation of Shiva."</ref>、信仰はリンガを通して行われる<ref name="Courtright, p. 205"/><ref>For worship of Khandoba in the form of a lingam and possible identification with Shiva based on that, see: Mate, p. 176.</ref>。カンドーバはまた、[[スールヤ]]<ref name="Courtright, p. 205"/>、カールッティーケーヤ([[スカンダ]])とも同一視されている<ref>For use of the name Khandoba as a name for Karttikeya in Maharashtra, see: Gupta, ''Preface'', and p. 40.</ref>。<!--ここは雑多な情報かな-->
==Position within Hinduism==

==ヒンドゥー教の中での位置づけ==
[[File:Lingothbhavar.jpg|thumb|[[Lingodbhava]] is a Shaiva sectarian icon where Shiva is depicted rising from the [[Lingam]] (an infinite fiery pillar) that narrates how Shiva is the foremost of the Trimurti; Brahma and Vishnu are depicted bowing to Lingodbhava Shiva in the centre.]]
[[File:Lingothbhavar.jpg|thumb|[[Lingodbhava]] is a Shaiva sectarian icon where Shiva is depicted rising from the [[Lingam]] (an infinite fiery pillar) that narrates how Shiva is the foremost of the Trimurti; Brahma and Vishnu are depicted bowing to Lingodbhava Shiva in the centre.]]
[[ファイル:Lingothbhavar.jpg|thumb|[[リンガ (シンボル)|リンガ]]から現れるシヴァを描く{{仮リンク|リンゴドバーヴァ|en|Lingodbhava}}はシヴァ派の間で象徴的に信仰される。[[トリムルティ]]においてシヴァがいかに傑出しているかを物語る。両脇の[[ブラフマー]]と[[ヴィシュヌ]]はリンゴドバーヴァ・シヴァに会釈をしている。]]


=== Shaivism ===
=== シヴァ派 ===
{{Main|シヴァ派|ヒンドゥー哲学#シヴァ派}}
{{Main article|Shaivism|History of Shaivism}}


Shaivism is one of the four major sects of Hinduism, the others being [[Vaishnavism]], [[Shaktism]] and the [[Smarta Tradition]]. Followers of Shaivism, called "Shaivas", revere Shiva as the Supreme Being. Shaivas believe that Shiva is All and in all, the creator, preserver, destroyer, revealer and concealer of all that is.{{Sfn|Issitt|Main|2014|pp=147, 168}}{{Sfn|Arvind Sharma|2000|p=65}} He is not only the creator in Shaivism, he is the creation that results from him, he is everything and everywhere. Shiva is the primal soul, the pure consciousness and [[Brahman|Absolute Reality]] in the Shaiva traditions.{{Sfn|Arvind Sharma|2000|p=65}}
Shaivism is one of the four major sects of Hinduism, the others being [[Vaishnavism]], [[Shaktism]] and the [[Smarta Tradition]]. Followers of Shaivism, called "Shaivas", revere Shiva as the Supreme Being. Shaivas believe that Shiva is All and in all, the creator, preserver, destroyer, revealer and concealer of all that is.{{Sfn|Issitt|Main|2014|pp=147, 168}}{{Sfn|Arvind Sharma|2000|p=65}} He is not only the creator in Shaivism, he is the creation that results from him, he is everything and everywhere. Shiva is the primal soul, the pure consciousness and [[Brahman|Absolute Reality]] in the Shaiva traditions.{{Sfn|Arvind Sharma|2000|p=65}}

[[シヴァ派]]は[[ヴィシュヌ派]]、[[シャクティ派]]、[[スマールタ派]]と並び[[ヒンドゥー教]]四大宗派のひとつとなっている。シヴァ派(シャイヴィズム)の信徒は「シャイヴァ」と呼ばれシヴァを最高神として崇めている。シヴァ派においては、シヴァは全ての中の全て、創造神、維持神、破壊神、[[啓示]]を与える者であり、全てを覆い隠すものだと信じられている{{Sfn|Issitt|Main|2014|pp=147, 168}}{{Sfn|Arvind Sharma|2000|p=65}}。シヴァ派にとってシヴァは単なる創造者ではなく、彼自身も彼の作品であり、シヴァは全てであり、普遍的な存在である。シヴァ派においてシヴァは根本的な魂であり、純粋な魂であり、[[ブラフマン]]である{{Sfn|Arvind Sharma|2000|p=65}}。


The Shaivism theology is broadly grouped into two: the popular theology influenced by Shiva-Rudra in the Vedas, Epics and the Puranas; and the esoteric theology influenced by the Shiva and Shakti-related Tantra texts.{{Sfn|Michaels|2004|p=216}} The Vedic-Brahmanic Shiva theology includes both monist (''advaita'') and devotional traditions (''dvaita'') such as Tamil [[Shaiva Siddhanta]] and [[Lingayatism]] with temples featuring items such as linga, Shiva-Parvati iconography, bull Nandi within the premises, relief artwork showing mythologies and aspects of Shiva.{{Sfn|Michaels|2004|pp=216-218}}<ref>{{cite book|author=Surendranath Dasgupta|title=A History of Indian Philosophy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aohGsuUuXuMC |year=1973|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-81-208-0416-6|pages=17, 48–49, 65–67, 155–161}}</ref>
The Shaivism theology is broadly grouped into two: the popular theology influenced by Shiva-Rudra in the Vedas, Epics and the Puranas; and the esoteric theology influenced by the Shiva and Shakti-related Tantra texts.{{Sfn|Michaels|2004|p=216}} The Vedic-Brahmanic Shiva theology includes both monist (''advaita'') and devotional traditions (''dvaita'') such as Tamil [[Shaiva Siddhanta]] and [[Lingayatism]] with temples featuring items such as linga, Shiva-Parvati iconography, bull Nandi within the premises, relief artwork showing mythologies and aspects of Shiva.{{Sfn|Michaels|2004|pp=216-218}}<ref>{{cite book|author=Surendranath Dasgupta|title=A History of Indian Philosophy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aohGsuUuXuMC |year=1973|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-81-208-0416-6|pages=17, 48–49, 65–67, 155–161}}</ref>

シヴァ派の理論は2つに大別できる。比較的大きな勢力なのが(バラモン教時代の)[[ヴェーダ]]や[[叙事詩]]、[[プラーナ文献]]に見られるシヴァ・ルドラの影響を受ける理論。もう1つがシヴァ、[[シャクティ]]に関する[[タントラ|タントラ文献]]の影響をうける[[密教]]的な理論である{{Sfn|Michaels|2004|p=216}}。ヴェーダ・バラモン教のシヴァ理論は[[一元論]]([[不二一元論]])的性格と、神への帰依([[二元論]])的な性格が見られる。神への帰依とは例えば[[タミル]](南インド)の{{仮リンク|シヴァ・シッダーンタ派|en|Shaiva Siddhanta}}や{{仮リンク|リンガーヤタ派|en|Lingayatism}}{{refn|group=注|あるいは{{仮リンク|ビーラ・シバ派|en|Lingayatism}}}}のように[[寺院]]内に[[リンガ (シンボル)|リンガ]]やシヴァと[[パールヴァティ]]の宗教画、[[ナンディン]]などといった偶像や象徴を奉り、シヴァに纏わる[[神話]]をモチーフにした[[レリーフ]]で飾る{{Sfn|Michaels|2004|pp=216-218}}<ref>{{Cite book|author=Surendranath Dasgupta|title=A History of Indian Philosophy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aohGsuUuXuMC |year=1973|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-81-208-0416-6|pages=17, 48–49, 65–67, 155–161}}</ref>。


The [[Tantra|Tantric]] Shiva tradition ignored the mythologies and Puranas related to Shiva, and depending on the sub-school developed a spectrum of practices. For example, historical records suggest the tantric [[Kapalika]]s (literally, the "skull-men") co-existed with and shared many Vajrayana Buddhist rituals, engaged in esoteric practices that revered Shiva and Shakti wearing skulls, begged with empty skulls, used meat, alcohol and sexuality as a part of ritual.<ref>{{cite book|author=David N. Lorenzen|title=The Kāpālikas and Kālāmukhas: Two Lost Śaivite Sects|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q4hm-k6fKs4C |year=1972|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-01842-6|pages=2–5, 15–17, 38, 80}}</ref> In contrast, the esoteric tradition within [[Kashmir Shaivism]] has featured the ''Krama'' and ''Trika'' sub-traditions.<ref name=patil125>{{cite book|author=Narendranath B. Patil|title=The Variegated Plumage: Encounters with Indian Philosophy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3C1GWkeyXnQC |year=2003|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-1953-5|pages=125–126}}</ref> The Krama sub-tradition focussed on esoteric rituals around Shiva-Kali pair.<ref>{{cite book|author=Mark S. G. Dyczkowski|title=The Doctrine of Vibration: An Analysis of the Doctrines and Practices Associated with Kashmir Shaivism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QXn5n4gdfcIC |year=1987|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0-88706-431-9|page=9}}</ref> The Trika sub-tradition developed a theology of triads involving Shiva, combined it with an ascetic lifestyle focusing on personal Shiva in the pursuit of monistic self liberation.{{Sfn|Michaels|2004|pp=215-216}}<ref name=patil125/><ref>David Lawrence, [http://www.iep.utm.edu/kashmiri/#SH1d Kashmiri Shaiva Philosophy], University of Manitoba, Canada, IEP, Section 1(d)</ref>
The [[Tantra|Tantric]] Shiva tradition ignored the mythologies and Puranas related to Shiva, and depending on the sub-school developed a spectrum of practices. For example, historical records suggest the tantric [[Kapalika]]s (literally, the "skull-men") co-existed with and shared many Vajrayana Buddhist rituals, engaged in esoteric practices that revered Shiva and Shakti wearing skulls, begged with empty skulls, used meat, alcohol and sexuality as a part of ritual.<ref>{{cite book|author=David N. Lorenzen|title=The Kāpālikas and Kālāmukhas: Two Lost Śaivite Sects|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q4hm-k6fKs4C |year=1972|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-01842-6|pages=2–5, 15–17, 38, 80}}</ref> In contrast, the esoteric tradition within [[Kashmir Shaivism]] has featured the ''Krama'' and ''Trika'' sub-traditions.<ref name=patil125>{{cite book|author=Narendranath B. Patil|title=The Variegated Plumage: Encounters with Indian Philosophy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3C1GWkeyXnQC |year=2003|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-1953-5|pages=125–126}}</ref> The Krama sub-tradition focussed on esoteric rituals around Shiva-Kali pair.<ref>{{cite book|author=Mark S. G. Dyczkowski|title=The Doctrine of Vibration: An Analysis of the Doctrines and Practices Associated with Kashmir Shaivism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QXn5n4gdfcIC |year=1987|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0-88706-431-9|page=9}}</ref> The Trika sub-tradition developed a theology of triads involving Shiva, combined it with an ascetic lifestyle focusing on personal Shiva in the pursuit of monistic self liberation.{{Sfn|Michaels|2004|pp=215-216}}<ref name=patil125/><ref>David Lawrence, [http://www.iep.utm.edu/kashmiri/#SH1d Kashmiri Shaiva Philosophy], University of Manitoba, Canada, IEP, Section 1(d)</ref>


シヴァ派の[[タントリズム]]は実践的な信仰の領域から派生した分派にて発展し、シヴァに関する神話やプラーナ文献を無視する。例えば(今は途絶えた){{仮リンク|カーパーリカ|en|Kapalika}}派(髑髏男の意)信徒と[[大乗仏教]]がかつて共存し、多くの習慣を共有し、髑髏を身に着けたシヴァと[[シャクティ]]を崇拝し、空の髑髏の鉢で施しを求め、肉や酒や性的関心を儀式に用いていたという記録が残されている<ref>{{Cite book|author=David N. Lorenzen|title=The Kāpālikas and Kālāmukhas: Two Lost Śaivite Sects|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q4hm-k6fKs4C |year=1972|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-01842-6|pages=2–5, 15–17, 38, 80}}</ref><!--今は途絶えている前提の文章。しかし今もいると言えばいる気がする-->。対照的に{{仮リンク|カシミール・シヴァ派|en|Kashmir Shivism}}の密教的信仰はクラマ派(Krama)とトリカ派(Trika)を特徴とする<ref name=patil125>{{Cite book|author=Narendranath B. Patil|title=The Variegated Plumage: Encounters with Indian Philosophy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3C1GWkeyXnQC |year=2003|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-1953-5|pages=125–126}}</ref>。クラマ派はシヴァと[[カーリー]]のペアを重視する<ref>{{Cite book|author=Mark S. G. Dyczkowski|title=The Doctrine of Vibration: An Analysis of the Doctrines and Practices Associated with Kashmir Shaivism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QXn5n4gdfcIC |year=1987|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0-88706-431-9|page=9}}</ref>。一方のトリカ派は[[トリムルティ]]の理論を発展させ、不二一元論的な[[解脱]]を追い求めるために、個人的な「シヴァ」に焦点を当てた禁欲的な生活を伴う{{Sfn|Michaels|2004|pp=215-216}}<ref name=patil125/><ref>David Lawrence, [http://www.iep.utm.edu/kashmiri/#SH1d Kashmiri Shaiva Philosophy], University of Manitoba, Canada, IEP, Section 1(d)</ref>。
=== Vaishnavism ===

=== ヴィシュヌ派 ===
{{Main|ヴィシュヌ派}}
The Vaishnava (Vishnu-oriented) literature acknowledges and discusses Shiva. Like Shaiva literature that presents Shiva as supreme, the Vaishnava literature presents Vishnu as supreme. However, both traditions are pluralistic and revere both Shiva and Vishnu (along with Devi), their texts do not show exclusivism, and Vaishnava texts such as the ''Bhagavata Purana'' while praising Krishna as the Ultimate Reality, also present Shiva and Shakti as a personalized form and equivalent to the same Ultimate Reality.<ref>Edwin Bryant (2003), Krishna: The Beautiful Legend of God: Srimad Bhagavata Purana, Penguin, ISBN 978-0141913377, pages 10-12, Quote: "(...) accept and indeed extol the transcendent and absolute nature of the other, and of the Goddess Devi too"</ref><ref>Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, page 23 with footnotes</ref><ref>EO James (1997), The Tree of Life, BRILL Academic, ISBN 978-9004016125, pages 150-153</ref> The texts of Shaivism tradition similarly praise Vishnu. The Skanda Purana, for example, states:
The Vaishnava (Vishnu-oriented) literature acknowledges and discusses Shiva. Like Shaiva literature that presents Shiva as supreme, the Vaishnava literature presents Vishnu as supreme. However, both traditions are pluralistic and revere both Shiva and Vishnu (along with Devi), their texts do not show exclusivism, and Vaishnava texts such as the ''Bhagavata Purana'' while praising Krishna as the Ultimate Reality, also present Shiva and Shakti as a personalized form and equivalent to the same Ultimate Reality.<ref>Edwin Bryant (2003), Krishna: The Beautiful Legend of God: Srimad Bhagavata Purana, Penguin, ISBN 978-0141913377, pages 10-12, Quote: "(...) accept and indeed extol the transcendent and absolute nature of the other, and of the Goddess Devi too"</ref><ref>Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, page 23 with footnotes</ref><ref>EO James (1997), The Tree of Life, BRILL Academic, ISBN 978-9004016125, pages 150-153</ref> The texts of Shaivism tradition similarly praise Vishnu. The Skanda Purana, for example, states:

ヴィシュヌ派の聖典でもシヴァについて語られている。シヴァ派の信仰でシヴァが最高神に位置付けられるのとと同様に、ヴィシュヌ派では[[ヴィシュヌ]]が最高神として扱われる。しかしいずれの宗派でも信仰は多神教的な性格をもっており、それぞれでシヴァとヴィシュヌが、加えて[[デーヴィ]](ヒンドゥーの女神ら)が崇拝される。どちらの聖典にも排他的要素は含まれておらず、例えばヴィシュヌ派の[[バーガヴァタ・プラーナ]]では[[クリシュナ]](ヴィシュヌの[[アヴァターラ|化身]])を[[ブラフマン]]として礼賛する一方でシヴァと[[シャクティ]](シヴァの配偶神の1柱)も同じブラフマンの顕現した姿だとして称える<ref>Edwin Bryant (2003), Krishna: The Beautiful Legend of God: Srimad Bhagavata Purana, Penguin, ISBN 978-0141913377, pages 10-12, Quote: "(...) accept and indeed extol the transcendent and absolute nature of the other, and of the Goddess Devi too"</ref><ref>Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, page 23 with footnotes</ref><ref>EO James (1997), The Tree of Life, BRILL Academic, ISBN 978-9004016125, pages 150-153</ref>。一方のシヴァ派にも同様にヴィシュヌが称えられる。例えば{{仮リンク|スカンダ・プラーナ|en|Skanda Purana}}では以下のように語られている。


{{Quote|
{{Quote|
Vishnu is nobody but Shiva, and he who is called Shiva is but identical with Vishnu.
Vishnu is nobody but Shiva, and he who is called Shiva is but identical with Vishnu.
|Skanda Purana |1.8.20-21<ref>Gregor Maehle (2009), Ashtanga Yoga, New World, ISBN 978-1577316695, page 17; for Sanskrit, see: [https://archive.org/stream/SriSkandaPuranam-SankaraSamhitaPart1#page/n31/mode/2up Skanda Purana] Shankara Samhita Part 1, Verses 1.8.20-21 (Sanskrit)</ref>}}
|Skanda Purana |1.8.20-21<ref>Gregor Maehle (2009), Ashtanga Yoga, New World, ISBN 978-1577316695, page 17; for Sanskrit, see: [https://archive.org/stream/SriSkandaPuranam-SankaraSamhitaPart1#page/n31/mode/2up Skanda Purana] Shankara Samhita Part 1, Verses 1.8.20-21 (Sanskrit)</ref>}}

{{Quote|
ヴィシュヌはシヴァ以外の何者でもない。そしてシヴァと呼ばれる神は他でもないヴィシュヌと同一である。|スカンダ・プラーナ|1.8.20-21<ref>Gregor Maehle (2009), Ashtanga Yoga, New World, ISBN 978-1577316695, page 17; for Sanskrit, see: [https://archive.org/stream/SriSkandaPuranam-SankaraSamhitaPart1#page/n31/mode/2up Skanda Purana] Shankara Samhita Part 1, Verses 1.8.20-21 (Sanskrit)</ref>}}


Mythologies of both traditions include legends about who is superior, about Shiva paying homage to Vishnu, and Vishnu paying homage to Shiva. However, in texts and artwork of either tradition, the mutual salutes are symbolism for complementarity.<ref>{{cite book|author=Saroj Panthey|title=Iconography of Śiva in Pahāṛī Paintings|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GUBXNueBQo0C|year=1987|publisher=Mittal Publications|isbn=978-81-7099-016-1|page=94}}</ref> The Mahabharata declares the unchanging Ultimate Reality (Brahman) to be identical to Shiva and to Vishnu,<ref>{{cite book|author=Barbara Holdrege|editor=Hananya Goodman|title=Between Jerusalem and Benares: Comparative Studies in Judaism and Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XF_a3cfrcLQC&pg=PA122|year=2012|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-1-4384-0437-0|pages=120–125 with footnotes}}</ref> that Vishnu is the highest manifestation of Shiva, and Shiva is the highest manifestation of Vishnu.<ref>{{cite book|author=Charles Johnston|title=The Atlantic Monthly|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SGACAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA835|volume=CXII|year=1913|publisher=Riverside Press, Cambridge|pages=835–836}}</ref>
Mythologies of both traditions include legends about who is superior, about Shiva paying homage to Vishnu, and Vishnu paying homage to Shiva. However, in texts and artwork of either tradition, the mutual salutes are symbolism for complementarity.<ref>{{cite book|author=Saroj Panthey|title=Iconography of Śiva in Pahāṛī Paintings|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GUBXNueBQo0C|year=1987|publisher=Mittal Publications|isbn=978-81-7099-016-1|page=94}}</ref> The Mahabharata declares the unchanging Ultimate Reality (Brahman) to be identical to Shiva and to Vishnu,<ref>{{cite book|author=Barbara Holdrege|editor=Hananya Goodman|title=Between Jerusalem and Benares: Comparative Studies in Judaism and Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XF_a3cfrcLQC&pg=PA122|year=2012|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-1-4384-0437-0|pages=120–125 with footnotes}}</ref> that Vishnu is the highest manifestation of Shiva, and Shiva is the highest manifestation of Vishnu.<ref>{{cite book|author=Charles Johnston|title=The Atlantic Monthly|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SGACAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA835|volume=CXII|year=1913|publisher=Riverside Press, Cambridge|pages=835–836}}</ref>


双方の信仰にシヴァとヴィシュヌのどちらが優れているを競うエピソードや、シヴァがヴィシュヌに敬意を払う、またはヴィシュヌがシヴァに敬意を払う神話が存在している。サロジ・パンゼイ(Saroj Panthey)によればこれら双方の聖典、絵画などに見られるお互いを敬う描写は彼らの持つ相互補完的な役割の象徴である<ref>{{Cite book|author=Saroj Panthey|title=Iconography of Śiva in Pahāṛī Paintings|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GUBXNueBQo0C|year=1987|publisher=Mittal Publications|isbn=978-81-7099-016-1|page=94}}</ref>。マハーバーラタではブラフマンはシヴァとヴィシュヌと同一であると<ref>{{Cite book|author=Barbara Holdrege|editor=Hananya Goodman|title=Between Jerusalem and Benares: Comparative Studies in Judaism and Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XF_a3cfrcLQC&pg=PA122|year=2012|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-1-4384-0437-0|pages=120–125 with footnotes}}</ref>、そしてヴィシュヌはシヴァの至高の姿であり、シヴァはヴィシュヌの至高の姿であると語られている<ref>{{Cite book|author=Charles Johnston|title=The Atlantic Monthly|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SGACAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA835|volume=CXII|year=1913|publisher=Riverside Press, Cambridge|pages=835–836}}</ref>。<!--ちょっと出典少ないかな-->
=== Shaktism ===

=== シャクティ派 ===
{{Main|シャクティ派}}
The goddess-oriented Shakti tradition of Hinduism is based on the premise that the Supreme Principle and the Ultimate Reality called Brahman is female ([[Devi]]),{{Sfn|Coburn|2002|pp=1, 53-56, 280}}{{Sfn|Lochtefeld|2002|p=426}}{{Sfn|David Kinsley|1988|pp=101-105}} but it treats the male as her equal and complementary partner.{{sfn|David Kinsley|1988|p=50, 103-104}}{{sfn|Tracy Pintchman|2015|pp=113, 119, 144, 171}} This partner is either Shiva or an avatar of Vishnu.{{sfn|Tracy Pintchman|2014|pp=85-86, 119, 144, 171}}{{Sfn|Coburn|1991|pp=19-24, 40, 65, Narayani p. 232}}
The goddess-oriented Shakti tradition of Hinduism is based on the premise that the Supreme Principle and the Ultimate Reality called Brahman is female ([[Devi]]),{{Sfn|Coburn|2002|pp=1, 53-56, 280}}{{Sfn|Lochtefeld|2002|p=426}}{{Sfn|David Kinsley|1988|pp=101-105}} but it treats the male as her equal and complementary partner.{{sfn|David Kinsley|1988|p=50, 103-104}}{{sfn|Tracy Pintchman|2015|pp=113, 119, 144, 171}} This partner is either Shiva or an avatar of Vishnu.{{sfn|Tracy Pintchman|2014|pp=85-86, 119, 144, 171}}{{Sfn|Coburn|1991|pp=19-24, 40, 65, Narayani p. 232}}

ヒンドゥーの女神を重視する[[シャクティ派]]では、根本原理、普遍の現実であるブラフマンを女神({{仮リンク|デーヴィ|en|Devi}})であるとし{{Sfn|Coburn|2002|pp=1, 53-56, 280}}{{Sfn|Lochtefeld|2002|p=426}}{{Sfn|David Kinsley|1988|pp=101-105}}、男性神を女神の同等かつ補完的なパートナーとして扱う{{Sfn|David Kinsley|1988|p=50, 103-104}}{{Sfn|Tracy Pintchman|2015|pp=113, 119, 144, 171}} 。このパートナーはシヴァか、ヴィシュヌのアバターラ(化身)である{{Sfn|Tracy Pintchman|2014|pp=85-86, 119, 144, 171}}{{Sfn|Coburn|1991|pp=19-24, 40, 65, Narayani p. 232}}。


The earliest evidence of the tradition of reverence for the feminine with Rudra-Shiva context, is found in the Hindu scripture ''[[Rigveda]]'', in a hymn called the Devi Sukta:{{Sfn| McDaniel |2004|p=90}}{{Sfn| Brown |1998|p=26}}
The earliest evidence of the tradition of reverence for the feminine with Rudra-Shiva context, is found in the Hindu scripture ''[[Rigveda]]'', in a hymn called the Devi Sukta:{{Sfn| McDaniel |2004|p=90}}{{Sfn| Brown |1998|p=26}}

リグ・ヴェーダの賛歌、デーヴィ・スークタには女神を崇拝するこの信仰の最も早い痕跡がシヴァ・ルドラの文脈とともに見つけられる{{Sfn| McDaniel |2004|p=90}}{{Sfn| Brown |1998|p=26}}。


{{Quote|
{{Quote|
166行目: 272行目:
</poem>
</poem>
|Devi Sukta, ''Rigveda'' 10.125.3 – 10.125.8|{{Sfn| McDaniel |2004|p=90}}{{Sfn| Brown |1998|p=26}}<ref name="Hymn 125">[https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Rig_Veda/Mandala_10/Hymn_125 The Rig Veda/Mandala 10/Hymn 125] Ralph T.H. Griffith (Translator); for Sanskrit original see: [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऋग्वेद:_सूक्तं_१०.१२५ ऋग्वेद: सूक्तं १०.१२५]</ref>}}
|Devi Sukta, ''Rigveda'' 10.125.3 – 10.125.8|{{Sfn| McDaniel |2004|p=90}}{{Sfn| Brown |1998|p=26}}<ref name="Hymn 125">[https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Rig_Veda/Mandala_10/Hymn_125 The Rig Veda/Mandala 10/Hymn 125] Ralph T.H. Griffith (Translator); for Sanskrit original see: [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऋग्वेद:_सूक्तं_१०.१२५ ऋग्वेद: सूक्तं १०.१२५]</ref>}}

{{Quote|
<poem>
私は女王であり、宝を集めるものであり、もっとも慈悲深く、何よりもまず帰依する価値のある存在である。
こうして神々は私をあらゆる場所に、わたしが住まう家とともに作り出した。
物を見、息をし、発せられた言葉を聴く者たちは、私を通してのみ日々の糧を得る。
彼らは、私が宇宙の原理の中に住まうことを知らない。一同皆聴け、私の宣言する真実を。

私はたしかに宣言する。神も人も同様に歓迎しよう。
私は私を慕うものを並外れて強い者にしよう。彼を豊かに育まれた者にしよう。賢人にしよう。ブラフマンを知るものにしよう。
ルドラ(シヴァ)のために弓を曲げよう。彼の放つ矢は不信心な者を滅ぼすだろう。
私は人々のために戦えと命令を下そう。私は地上と天界とつくり、彼らの内側の支配者として住んでいる。
(以下略)
</poem>
|リグ・ヴェーダ、デーヴィースークタ 10.125.3 – 10.125.8|{{Sfn| McDaniel |2004|p=90}}{{Sfn| Brown |1998|p=26}}<ref name="Hymn 125">[https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Rig_Veda/Mandala_10/Hymn_125 The Rig Veda/Mandala 10/Hymn 125] Ralph T.H. Griffith (Translator); for Sanskrit original see: [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऋग्वेद:_सूक्तं_१०.१२५ ऋग्वेद: सूक्तं १०.१२५]</ref>}}


The ''[[Devi Upanishad]]'' in its explanation of the theology of Shaktism, mentions and praises Shiva such as in its verse 19.{{Sfn|Brown|1998|p=77}}{{Sfn|Warrier|1967|pp=77-84}} Shiva, along with Vishnu, is a revered god in the ''[[Devi Mahatmya]]'', a text of Shaktism considered by the tradition to be as important as the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]''.{{Sfn|Rocher|1986|p=193}}<ref>{{cite book|author=David R. Kinsley|title=The Sword and the Flute: Kālī and Kṛṣṇa, Dark Visions of the Terrible and the Sublime in Hindu Mythology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ih1By08_Yj0C |year=1975|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-02675-9|pages=102 with footnote 42}}, Quote: "In the Devi Mahatmya, it is quite clear that [[Durga]] is an independent deity, great in her own right, and only loosely associated with any of the great male deities. And if any one of the great gods can be said to be her closest associate, it is Visnu rather than Siva".</ref> The [[Ardhanarisvara]] concept co-mingles god Shiva and goddess Shakti by presenting an icon that is half man and half woman, a representation and theme of union found in many Hindu texts and temples.<ref>{{cite book|author=Gupteshwar Prasad|title=I.A. Richards and Indian Theory of Rasa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hmy5cnSbsWYC&pg=PA117 |year=1994|publisher=Sarup & Sons|isbn=978-81-85431-37-6|pages=117–118}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Jaideva Vasugupta|title=The Yoga of Delight, Wonder, and Astonishment|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aVc5JCnO1VgC|year=1991|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0-7914-1073-8|page=xix}}</ref>
The ''[[Devi Upanishad]]'' in its explanation of the theology of Shaktism, mentions and praises Shiva such as in its verse 19.{{Sfn|Brown|1998|p=77}}{{Sfn|Warrier|1967|pp=77-84}} Shiva, along with Vishnu, is a revered god in the ''[[Devi Mahatmya]]'', a text of Shaktism considered by the tradition to be as important as the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]''.{{Sfn|Rocher|1986|p=193}}<ref>{{cite book|author=David R. Kinsley|title=The Sword and the Flute: Kālī and Kṛṣṇa, Dark Visions of the Terrible and the Sublime in Hindu Mythology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ih1By08_Yj0C |year=1975|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-02675-9|pages=102 with footnote 42}}, Quote: "In the Devi Mahatmya, it is quite clear that [[Durga]] is an independent deity, great in her own right, and only loosely associated with any of the great male deities. And if any one of the great gods can be said to be her closest associate, it is Visnu rather than Siva".</ref> The [[Ardhanarisvara]] concept co-mingles god Shiva and goddess Shakti by presenting an icon that is half man and half woman, a representation and theme of union found in many Hindu texts and temples.<ref>{{cite book|author=Gupteshwar Prasad|title=I.A. Richards and Indian Theory of Rasa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hmy5cnSbsWYC&pg=PA117 |year=1994|publisher=Sarup & Sons|isbn=978-81-85431-37-6|pages=117–118}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Jaideva Vasugupta|title=The Yoga of Delight, Wonder, and Astonishment|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aVc5JCnO1VgC|year=1991|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0-7914-1073-8|page=xix}}</ref>


シャクティ派の理論を説明している{{仮リンク|デーヴィ・ウパニシャッド|en|Devi Upanishad}}では第19詩にてシヴァに触れられ、称えられている{{Sfn|Brown|1998|p=77}}{{Sfn|Warrier|1967|pp=77-84}}。シャクティ派にとって[[バガヴァッド・ギーター]]と同等の価値を与えられている聖典、[[デーヴィー・マーハートミャ]]ではシヴァはヴィシュヌとともに礼賛されている{{Sfn|Rocher|1986|p=193}}<ref>{{Cite book|author=David R. Kinsley|title=The Sword and the Flute: Kālī and Kṛṣṇa, Dark Visions of the Terrible and the Sublime in Hindu Mythology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ih1By08_Yj0C |year=1975|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-02675-9|pages=102 with footnote 42}}, Quote: "In the Devi Mahatmya, it is quite clear that [[ドゥルガー|Durga]] is an independent deity, great in her own right, and only loosely associated with any of the great male deities. And if any one of the great gods can be said to be her closest associate, it is Visnu rather than Siva".</ref>。[[アルダナーリーシュヴァラ]]という神格のコンセプトは、多くのヒンドゥー寺院、文献に見られるテーマ、半分は男性で半分は女性であるという状態が象徴的に表現され、シヴァと女神シャクティが混じりあっている(ちょっと何言ってるか)<ref>{{Cite book|author=Gupteshwar Prasad|title=I.A. Richards and Indian Theory of Rasa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hmy5cnSbsWYC&pg=PA117 |year=1994|publisher=Sarup & Sons|isbn=978-81-85431-37-6|pages=117–118}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|author=Jaideva Vasugupta|title=The Yoga of Delight, Wonder, and Astonishment|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aVc5JCnO1VgC|year=1991|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0-7914-1073-8|page=xix}}</ref>。<!--"a representation and theme of union found in many Hindu texts and temples".の部分を出典で抱えきれていない気がする-->
===Smarta Tradition===

{{Main article|Panchayatana puja}}
===スマールタ派===
{{Main|{{仮リンク|パンチャヤタナ・プージャ|en|Panchayatana puja}}}}


In the [[Smarta Tradition|Smarta]] tradition of Hinduism, Shiva is a part of its [[Panchayatana puja]].<ref name="Bühnemann2003p60">{{cite book|author=Gudrun Bühnemann|title=Mandalas and Yantras in the Hindu Traditions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kQf2m8VaC_oC&pg=PA60 |year=2003|publisher=BRILL Academic|isbn=978-9004129023|page=60}}</ref> This practice consists of the use of icons or anicons of five deities considered equivalent,<ref name="Bühnemann2003p60"/> set in a [[quincunx]] pattern.<ref name="Harle1994p141">{{cite book|author=James C. Harle|title=The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LwcBVvdqyBkC&pg=PA140 |year=1994|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-06217-5|pages=140–142, 191, 201–203}}</ref> Shiva is one of the five deities, others being Vishnu, [[Devi]] (such as [[Parvati]]), [[Surya]] and an [[Ishta Devata]] such as [[Ganesha]] or [[Kartikeya|Skanda]] or any personal god of devotee's preference.<ref name="Flood1996p17">{{cite book|author=Gavin D. Flood|title=An Introduction to Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KpIWhKnYmF0C|year=1996|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-43878-0|page=17}}</ref>
In the [[Smarta Tradition|Smarta]] tradition of Hinduism, Shiva is a part of its [[Panchayatana puja]].<ref name="Bühnemann2003p60">{{cite book|author=Gudrun Bühnemann|title=Mandalas and Yantras in the Hindu Traditions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kQf2m8VaC_oC&pg=PA60 |year=2003|publisher=BRILL Academic|isbn=978-9004129023|page=60}}</ref> This practice consists of the use of icons or anicons of five deities considered equivalent,<ref name="Bühnemann2003p60"/> set in a [[quincunx]] pattern.<ref name="Harle1994p141">{{cite book|author=James C. Harle|title=The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LwcBVvdqyBkC&pg=PA140 |year=1994|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-06217-5|pages=140–142, 191, 201–203}}</ref> Shiva is one of the five deities, others being Vishnu, [[Devi]] (such as [[Parvati]]), [[Surya]] and an [[Ishta Devata]] such as [[Ganesha]] or [[Kartikeya|Skanda]] or any personal god of devotee's preference.<ref name="Flood1996p17">{{cite book|author=Gavin D. Flood|title=An Introduction to Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KpIWhKnYmF0C|year=1996|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-43878-0|page=17}}</ref>

スマールタ派ではシヴァは{{仮リンク|パンチャヤタナ・プージャ|en|Panchayatana puja}}(儀式)で信仰されるの神の内の1人である<ref name="Bühnemann2003p60">{{Cite book|author=Gudrun Bühnemann|title=Mandalas and Yantras in the Hindu Traditions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kQf2m8VaC_oC&pg=PA60 |year=2003|publisher=BRILL Academic|isbn=978-9004129023|page=60}}</ref>。この儀式には5柱の神々を象徴する偶像が用いられる。パンチャヤタナ・プージャにおいてはこの5柱は同等なものとして考えられており<ref name="Bühnemann2003p60"/>、それぞれが{{仮リンク|五つ目型|en|quincunx}}([[さいころ]]の5の形)に並べられる<ref name="Harle1994p141">{{Cite book|author=James C. Harle|title=The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LwcBVvdqyBkC&pg=PA140 |year=1994|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-06217-5|pages=140–142, 191, 201–203}}</ref>。シヴァ以外にはヴィシュヌ、いずれかのデーヴィ(女神、例えばパールヴァティなど)、[[スーリヤ]]、{{仮リンク|イシュタデーヴァター|en|Ishta Devata}}(例えば[[ガネーシャ]]、[[スカンダ]]など自分の帰依する神)の偶像がこの儀式に用いられ信仰される<ref name="Flood1996p17">{{Cite book|author=Gavin D. Flood|title=An Introduction to Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KpIWhKnYmF0C|year=1996|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-43878-0|page=17}}</ref>。


Philosophically, the Smarta tradition emphasizes that all idols ([[murti]]) are icons to help focus on and visualize aspects of Brahman, rather than distinct beings. The ultimate goal in this practice is to transition past the use of icons, recognize the Absolute symbolized by the icons,<ref>{{cite book|author=J. N. Farquhar|title=Outline of the Religious Literature of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lwggjSPrjxUC |year=1984|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-2086-9|page=180}}</ref> on the path to realizing the [[Advaita Vedanta|nondual]] identity of one's Atman (soul, self) and the Brahman.<ref>{{cite book|author=Edwin F. Bryant|title=Krishna: A Sourcebook|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2n4VDAAAQBAJ |year=2007|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-972431-4|pages=313–314}}</ref> Popularized by [[Adi Shankara]], many Panchayatana mandalas and temples have been uncovered that are from the [[Gupta Empire]] period, and one Panchayatana set from the village of Nand (about 24 kilometers from [[Ajmer]]) has been dated to belong to the [[Kushan Empire]] era (pre-300 CE).<ref name="Williams1981p2">{{cite book|author=Frederick Asher|editor=Joanna Gottfried Williams|title=Kalādarśana: American Studies in the Art of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-qoeAAAAIAAJ |year=1981|publisher=BRILL Academic|isbn=90-04-06498-2|pages=1–4}}</ref> The Kushan period set includes Shiva, Vishnu, Surya, Brahma and one deity whose identity is unclear.<ref name="Williams1981p2"/>
Philosophically, the Smarta tradition emphasizes that all idols ([[murti]]) are icons to help focus on and visualize aspects of Brahman, rather than distinct beings. The ultimate goal in this practice is to transition past the use of icons, recognize the Absolute symbolized by the icons,<ref>{{cite book|author=J. N. Farquhar|title=Outline of the Religious Literature of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lwggjSPrjxUC |year=1984|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-2086-9|page=180}}</ref> on the path to realizing the [[Advaita Vedanta|nondual]] identity of one's Atman (soul, self) and the Brahman.<ref>{{cite book|author=Edwin F. Bryant|title=Krishna: A Sourcebook|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2n4VDAAAQBAJ |year=2007|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-972431-4|pages=313–314}}</ref> Popularized by [[Adi Shankara]], many Panchayatana mandalas and temples have been uncovered that are from the [[Gupta Empire]] period, and one Panchayatana set from the village of Nand (about 24 kilometers from [[Ajmer]]) has been dated to belong to the [[Kushan Empire]] era (pre-300 CE).<ref name="Williams1981p2">{{cite book|author=Frederick Asher|editor=Joanna Gottfried Williams|title=Kalādarśana: American Studies in the Art of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-qoeAAAAIAAJ |year=1981|publisher=BRILL Academic|isbn=90-04-06498-2|pages=1–4}}</ref> The Kushan period set includes Shiva, Vishnu, Surya, Brahma and one deity whose identity is unclear.<ref name="Williams1981p2"/>


(略)<!--蛇足に思われる-->
===Yoga===

===ヨーガ===
{{Main|ヨーガ}}
The theory and practice of [[Yoga]], in different styles, has been a part of all major traditions of Hinduism, and Shiva has been the patron or spokesperson in numerous Hindu Yoga texts.<ref name=shivayoga1/><ref name=shivayoga2/> These contain the philosophy and techniques for Yoga. These ideas are estimated to be from or after the late centuries of the 1st millennium CE, and have survived as Yoga texts such as the ''Isvara Gita'' (literally, "Shiva's song"), which [[Andrew J. Nicholson|Andrew Nicholson]] – a professor of Hinduism and Indian Intellectual History – states have had "a profound and lasting influence on the development of Hinduism".<ref>{{cite book|author=Andrew J. Nicholson|title=Lord Siva's Song: The Isvara Gita|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IAEvAwAAQBAJ|year=2014|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-1-4384-5102-2|pages=1–2}}</ref>
The theory and practice of [[Yoga]], in different styles, has been a part of all major traditions of Hinduism, and Shiva has been the patron or spokesperson in numerous Hindu Yoga texts.<ref name=shivayoga1/><ref name=shivayoga2/> These contain the philosophy and techniques for Yoga. These ideas are estimated to be from or after the late centuries of the 1st millennium CE, and have survived as Yoga texts such as the ''Isvara Gita'' (literally, "Shiva's song"), which [[Andrew J. Nicholson|Andrew Nicholson]] – a professor of Hinduism and Indian Intellectual History – states have had "a profound and lasting influence on the development of Hinduism".<ref>{{cite book|author=Andrew J. Nicholson|title=Lord Siva's Song: The Isvara Gita|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IAEvAwAAQBAJ|year=2014|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-1-4384-5102-2|pages=1–2}}</ref>

様々なスタイルの[[ヨーガ]]の理論と実践はヒンドゥー教の大きな流れの一部であり続けてきた。そしてシヴァはヨーガの多くの文献で守護神として描かれ、また語り手となっている<ref name=shivayoga1/><ref name=shivayoga2/>。ヨーガは10世紀ごろか、それよりも後に体系化されていると見積もられており、例えばイシュヴァラ・ギーター(Isvara Gita、シヴァの歌の意)といった文献とともに後世に伝えられている。{{仮リンク|アンドリュー・ニコルソン|en|Andrew J. Nicholson}}によればこのイシュヴァラ・ギーターはヒンドゥー教に深く、永続的な影響を与えている<ref>{{Cite book|author=Andrew J. Nicholson|title=Lord Siva's Song: The Isvara Gita|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IAEvAwAAQBAJ|year=2014|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-1-4384-5102-2|pages=1–2}}</ref>。


Other famed Shiva-related texts influenced [[Hatha Yoga]], integrated monistic (''Advaita Vedanta'') ideas with Yoga philosophy and inspired the theoretical development of [[Indian classical dance]]. These include the ''Shiva Sutras'', the ''Shiva Samhita'', and those by the scholars of Kashmir Shaivism such as the 10th-century scholar [[Abhinavagupta]].<ref name=shivayoga1>[a] {{cite book|author1=Vasugupta|author2=Jaideva|title=Śiva Sūtras|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j4SOIISR9PUC|year=1979|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-0407-4|pages=xv–xx}};<br>[b] {{cite book|author=James Mallinson|title=The Shiva Samhita: A Critical Edition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hlQRnDOr178C|year=2007|publisher=Yoga|oclc= 76143968 |isbn=978-0-9716466-5-0|pages=xiii–xiv}}</ref><ref name=shivayoga2>[a] {{cite book|author=Jaideva Vasugupta|title=The Yoga of Delight, Wonder, and Astonishment: A Translation of the Vijnana-bhairava with an Introduction and Notes by Jaideva Singh|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aVc5JCnO1VgC|year=1991|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0-7914-1073-8|pages=xii–xvi}};<br>[b] {{cite book|author1=Vasugupta|author2=Jaideva|title=The Yoga of Vibration and Divine Pulsation: A Translation of the Spanda Karika with Ksemaraja's Commentary, the Spanda Nirnaya|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sQwtCrGERjkC |year=1980|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0-7914-1179-7|pages=xxv–xxxii, 2–4}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=David Smith|title=The Dance of Siva: Religion, Art and Poetry in South India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fTLlcGlkdjkC&pg=PA237 |year=2003|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-52865-8|pages=237–239}}</ref> Abhinavagupta writes in his notes on the relevance of ideas related to Shiva and Yoga, by stating that "people, occupied as they are with their own affairs, normally do nothing for others", and Shiva and Yoga spirituality helps one look beyond, understand interconnectedness, and thus benefit both the individual and the world towards a more blissful state of existence.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Jaideva Vasugupta|author2=Mark S. G. Dyczkowski|title=The Aphorisms of Siva: The Siva Sutra with Bhaskara's Commentary, the Varttika|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o6-n4ulAsdIC|year=1992|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0-7914-1264-0|pages=7–8}}</ref>
Other famed Shiva-related texts influenced [[Hatha Yoga]], integrated monistic (''Advaita Vedanta'') ideas with Yoga philosophy and inspired the theoretical development of [[Indian classical dance]]. These include the ''Shiva Sutras'', the ''Shiva Samhita'', and those by the scholars of Kashmir Shaivism such as the 10th-century scholar [[Abhinavagupta]].<ref name=shivayoga1>[a] {{cite book|author1=Vasugupta|author2=Jaideva|title=Śiva Sūtras|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j4SOIISR9PUC|year=1979|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-0407-4|pages=xv–xx}};<br>[b] {{cite book|author=James Mallinson|title=The Shiva Samhita: A Critical Edition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hlQRnDOr178C|year=2007|publisher=Yoga|oclc= 76143968 |isbn=978-0-9716466-5-0|pages=xiii–xiv}}</ref><ref name=shivayoga2>[a] {{cite book|author=Jaideva Vasugupta|title=The Yoga of Delight, Wonder, and Astonishment: A Translation of the Vijnana-bhairava with an Introduction and Notes by Jaideva Singh|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aVc5JCnO1VgC|year=1991|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0-7914-1073-8|pages=xii–xvi}};<br>[b] {{cite book|author1=Vasugupta|author2=Jaideva|title=The Yoga of Vibration and Divine Pulsation: A Translation of the Spanda Karika with Ksemaraja's Commentary, the Spanda Nirnaya|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sQwtCrGERjkC |year=1980|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0-7914-1179-7|pages=xxv–xxxii, 2–4}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=David Smith|title=The Dance of Siva: Religion, Art and Poetry in South India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fTLlcGlkdjkC&pg=PA237 |year=2003|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-52865-8|pages=237–239}}</ref> Abhinavagupta writes in his notes on the relevance of ideas related to Shiva and Yoga, by stating that "people, occupied as they are with their own affairs, normally do nothing for others", and Shiva and Yoga spirituality helps one look beyond, understand interconnectedness, and thus benefit both the individual and the world towards a more blissful state of existence.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Jaideva Vasugupta|author2=Mark S. G. Dyczkowski|title=The Aphorisms of Siva: The Siva Sutra with Bhaskara's Commentary, the Varttika|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o6-n4ulAsdIC|year=1992|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0-7914-1264-0|pages=7–8}}</ref>


さらに{{仮リンク|シヴァ・スートラ (ヴァスグプタ)|en|Shiva Sutras of Vasugupta|label=シヴァ・スートラ}}や{{仮リンク|シヴァ・サンヒター|en|Shiva Samhita}}、加えて例えば10世紀の{{仮リンク|アビナヴァグプタ|en|Abhinavagupta}}といったカシミール・シヴァ派の学者たちの記した文献は、[[ハタ・ヨーガ]]に影響を与え不二一元論の思想とヨーガの哲学を融合し、また{{仮リンク|インド古典舞踊|en|Indian classical dance}}の理論的発展にも貢献している<ref name=shivayoga1>[a] {{Cite book|author1=Vasugupta|author2=Jaideva|title=Śiva Sūtras|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j4SOIISR9PUC|year=1979|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-0407-4|pages=xv–xx}};<br>[b] {{Cite book|author=James Mallinson|title=The Shiva Samhita: A Critical Edition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hlQRnDOr178C|year=2007|publisher=Yoga|oclc= 76143968 |isbn=978-0-9716466-5-0|pages=xiii–xiv}}</ref><ref name=shivayoga2>[a] {{Cite book|author=Jaideva Vasugupta|title=The Yoga of Delight, Wonder, and Astonishment: A Translation of the Vijnana-bhairava with an Introduction and Notes by Jaideva Singh|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aVc5JCnO1VgC|year=1991|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0-7914-1073-8|pages=xii–xvi}};<br>[b] {{Cite book|author1=Vasugupta|author2=Jaideva|title=The Yoga of Vibration and Divine Pulsation: A Translation of the Spanda Karika with Ksemaraja's Commentary, the Spanda Nirnaya|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sQwtCrGERjkC |year=1980|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0-7914-1179-7|pages=xxv–xxxii, 2–4}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|author=David Smith|title=The Dance of Siva: Religion, Art and Poetry in South India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fTLlcGlkdjkC&pg=PA237 |year=2003|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-52865-8|pages=237–239}}</ref>。(以下略)
===Trimurti===

{{Main article|Trimurti}}
===トリムルティ===
{{Main|トリムルティ}}


The Trimurti is a concept in Hinduism in which the cosmic functions of creation, maintenance, and destruction are personified by the forms of [[Brahma]] the creator, Vishnu the maintainer or preserver and Shiva the destroyer or transformer.<ref>For quotation defining the trimurti see Matchett, Freda. "The {{IAST|Purāṇas}}", in: Flood (2003), p. 139.</ref><ref>For the Trimurti system having Brahma as the creator, Vishnu as the maintainer or preserver, and Shiva as the transformer or destroyer see: Zimmer (1972) p. 124.</ref> These three deities have been called "the Hindu triad"<ref>For definition of trimurti as "the unified form" of Brahmā, {{IAST|Viṣṇu}} and Śiva and use of the phrase "the Hindu triad" see: Apte, p. 485.</ref> or the "Great Trinity".<ref>For the term "Great Trinity" in relation to the Trimurti see: Jansen, p. 83.</ref> However, the ancient and medieval texts of Hinduism feature many triads of gods and goddesses, some of which do not include Shiva.<ref>The Trimurti idea of Hinduism, states [[Jan Gonda]], "seems to have developed from ancient cosmological and ritualistic speculations about the triple character of an individual god, in the first place of ''Agni'', whose births are three or threefold, and who is threefold light, has three bodies and three stations". See: Jan Gonda (1969), [http://www.jstor.org/stable/40457085 The Hindu Trinity], Anthropos, Bd 63/64, H 1/2, pages 218-219; Other trinities, beyond the more common "Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva", mentioned in ancient and medieval Hindu texts include: "Indra, Vishnu, Brahmanaspati", "Agni, Indra, Surya", "Agni, Vayu, Aditya", "Mahalakshmi, Mahasarasvati, and Mahakali", and others. See: [a] David White (2006), Kiss of the Yogini, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0226894843, pages 4, 29<br>[b] Jan Gonda (1969), [http://www.jstor.org/stable/40457085 The Hindu Trinity], Anthropos, Bd 63/64, H 1/2, pages 212-226</ref>
The Trimurti is a concept in Hinduism in which the cosmic functions of creation, maintenance, and destruction are personified by the forms of [[Brahma]] the creator, Vishnu the maintainer or preserver and Shiva the destroyer or transformer.<ref>For quotation defining the trimurti see Matchett, Freda. "The {{IAST|Purāṇas}}", in: Flood (2003), p. 139.</ref><ref>For the Trimurti system having Brahma as the creator, Vishnu as the maintainer or preserver, and Shiva as the transformer or destroyer see: Zimmer (1972) p. 124.</ref> These three deities have been called "the Hindu triad"<ref>For definition of trimurti as "the unified form" of Brahmā, {{IAST|Viṣṇu}} and Śiva and use of the phrase "the Hindu triad" see: Apte, p. 485.</ref> or the "Great Trinity".<ref>For the term "Great Trinity" in relation to the Trimurti see: Jansen, p. 83.</ref> However, the ancient and medieval texts of Hinduism feature many triads of gods and goddesses, some of which do not include Shiva.<ref>The Trimurti idea of Hinduism, states [[Jan Gonda]], "seems to have developed from ancient cosmological and ritualistic speculations about the triple character of an individual god, in the first place of ''Agni'', whose births are three or threefold, and who is threefold light, has three bodies and three stations". See: Jan Gonda (1969), [http://www.jstor.org/stable/40457085 The Hindu Trinity], Anthropos, Bd 63/64, H 1/2, pages 218-219; Other trinities, beyond the more common "Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva", mentioned in ancient and medieval Hindu texts include: "Indra, Vishnu, Brahmanaspati", "Agni, Indra, Surya", "Agni, Vayu, Aditya", "Mahalakshmi, Mahasarasvati, and Mahakali", and others. See: [a] David White (2006), Kiss of the Yogini, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0226894843, pages 4, 29<br>[b] Jan Gonda (1969), [http://www.jstor.org/stable/40457085 The Hindu Trinity], Anthropos, Bd 63/64, H 1/2, pages 212-226</ref>


トリムルティとは、宇宙における創造と維持と破壊の機能を3柱の神に神格化させるというヒンドゥー教の理論である。[[ブラフマー]]が創造を司り、ヴィシュヌが維持を司り、シヴァが破壊/再生を司る<ref>For quotation defining the trimurti see Matchett, Freda. "The {{IAST|Purāṇas}}", in: Flood (2003), p. 139.</ref><ref>For the Trimurti system having Brahma as the creator, Vishnu as the maintainer or preserver, and Shiva as the transformer or destroyer see: Zimmer (1972) p. 124.</ref>。(キリスト教視点なので中略)しかし古代の、あるいは中世の文献には様々なトリムルティが存在しており、いろいろな神々や女神がトリムルティに数えられており、中にはシヴァの含まれないものも存在する<ref>The Trimurti idea of Hinduism, states {{仮リンク|Jan Gonda|en|Jan Gonda}}, "seems to have developed from ancient cosmological and ritualistic speculations about the triple character of an individual god, in the first place of ''Agni'', whose births are three or threefold, and who is threefold light, has three bodies and three stations". See: Jan Gonda (1969), [http://www.jstor.org/stable/40457085 The Hindu Trinity], Anthropos, Bd 63/64, H 1/2, pages 218-219; Other trinities, beyond the more common "Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva", mentioned in ancient and medieval Hindu texts include: "Indra, Vishnu, Brahmanaspati", "Agni, Indra, Surya", "Agni, Vayu, Aditya", "Mahalakshmi, Mahasarasvati, and Mahakali", and others. See: [a] David White (2006), Kiss of the Yogini, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0226894843, pages 4, 29<br>[b] Jan Gonda (1969), [http://www.jstor.org/stable/40457085 The Hindu Trinity], Anthropos, Bd 63/64, H 1/2, pages 212-226</ref>。
==Attributes==

== シヴァ像に共通する付加的な要素 ==
[[File:6 Śiva and Pārvatī seated on a terrace. 1800 (circa) BM.jpg|thumb|Shiva with Parvati. Shiva is depicted three-eyed, the [[Ganges]] flowing through his matted hair, wearing ornaments of serpents and a skull garland, and covered in ashes, and seated on a tiger skin]]
[[File:6 Śiva and Pārvatī seated on a terrace. 1800 (circa) BM.jpg|thumb|Shiva with Parvati. Shiva is depicted three-eyed, the [[Ganges]] flowing through his matted hair, wearing ornaments of serpents and a skull garland, and covered in ashes, and seated on a tiger skin]]
[[ファイル:6 Śiva and Pārvatī seated on a terrace. 1800 (circa) BM.jpg|thumb|シヴァとパールヴァティ。シヴァには3つの[[目]]が描かれている。もつれた[[髪]]から[[ガンジス川]]が流れ、[[蛇]]のアクセサリーに[[髑髏]]の[[花輪]]を身に着けている。体には[[灰]]({{仮リンク|ヴィブーティ|en|vibhuti}})を塗りたくり、[[虎]]の毛皮に座っている。]]
[[File:Indian - Festival Image of Shiva - Walters 543084.jpg|thumb|A seated Shiva holds an axe and deer in his hands.]]
[[File:Indian - Festival Image of Shiva - Walters 543084.jpg|thumb|A seated Shiva holds an axe and deer in his hands.]]
[[ファイル:Indian - Festival Image of Shiva - Walters 543084.jpg|thumb|[[斧]]と[[鹿]]を手に座るシヴァ。]]
* '''Third eye''': Shiva is often depicted with a [[third eye]], with which he burned Desire ({{IAST|[[Kāma]]}}) to ashes,<ref>For Shiva as depicted with a third eye, and mention of the story of the destruction of Kama with it, see: Flood (1996), p. 151.</ref> called "Tryambakam" (Sanskrit: ''त्र्यम्बकम् ''), which occurs in many scriptural sources.<ref>For a review of 4 theories about the meaning of ''tryambaka'', see: Chakravarti, pp. 37-39.</ref> In classical Sanskrit, the word ''ambaka'' denotes "an eye", and in the ''Mahabharata'', Shiva is depicted as three-eyed, so this name is sometimes translated as "having three eyes".<ref>For usage of the word ''ambaka'' in classical Sanskrit and connection to the Mahabharata depiction, see: Chakravarti, pp. 38-39.</ref> However, in Vedic Sanskrit, the word ''{{IAST|ambā}}'' or ''{{IAST|ambikā}}'' means "mother", and this early meaning of the word is the basis for the translation "three mothers".<ref>For translation of Tryambakam as "having three mother eyes" and as an epithet of Rudra, see: Kramrisch, p. 483.</ref><ref>For vedic Sanskrit meaning Lord has three mother eyes which symbolize eyes are the Sun, Moon and Fire.</ref> These three mother-goddesses who are collectively called the {{IAST|Ambikās}}.<ref>For discussion of the problems in translation of this name, and the hypothesis regarding the {{IAST|Ambikās}} see: Hopkins (1968), p. 220.</ref> Other related translations have been based on the idea that the name actually refers to the oblations given to Rudra, which according to some traditions were shared with the goddess {{IAST|Ambikā}}.<ref>For the {{IAST|Ambikā}} variant, see: Chakravarti, pp. 17, 37.</ref>
* '''Third eye''': Shiva is often depicted with a [[third eye]], with which he burned Desire ({{IAST|[[Kāma]]}}) to ashes,<ref>For Shiva as depicted with a third eye, and mention of the story of the destruction of Kama with it, see: Flood (1996), p. 151.</ref> called "Tryambakam" (Sanskrit: ''त्र्यम्बकम् ''), which occurs in many scriptural sources.<ref>For a review of 4 theories about the meaning of ''tryambaka'', see: Chakravarti, pp. 37-39.</ref> In classical Sanskrit, the word ''ambaka'' denotes "an eye", and in the ''Mahabharata'', Shiva is depicted as three-eyed, so this name is sometimes translated as "having three eyes".<ref>For usage of the word ''ambaka'' in classical Sanskrit and connection to the Mahabharata depiction, see: Chakravarti, pp. 38-39.</ref> However, in Vedic Sanskrit, the word ''{{IAST|ambā}}'' or ''{{IAST|ambikā}}'' means "mother", and this early meaning of the word is the basis for the translation "three mothers".<ref>For translation of Tryambakam as "having three mother eyes" and as an epithet of Rudra, see: Kramrisch, p. 483.</ref><ref>For vedic Sanskrit meaning Lord has three mother eyes which symbolize eyes are the Sun, Moon and Fire.</ref> These three mother-goddesses who are collectively called the {{IAST|Ambikās}}.<ref>For discussion of the problems in translation of this name, and the hypothesis regarding the {{IAST|Ambikās}} see: Hopkins (1968), p. 220.</ref> Other related translations have been based on the idea that the name actually refers to the oblations given to Rudra, which according to some traditions were shared with the goddess {{IAST|Ambikā}}.<ref>For the {{IAST|Ambikā}} variant, see: Chakravarti, pp. 17, 37.</ref>
* '''第三の目''': シヴァは[[第三の目]]を持った姿で表現されることが珍しくなく、この目は欲望({{仮リンク|カマ (ヒンドゥー教) |en|Kāma|label=カマ}}、[[カーマ (ヒンドゥー教)|カーマ(神)]])を焼いて灰にするとされている<ref>For Shiva as depicted with a third eye, and mention of the story of the destruction of Kama with it, see: Flood (1996), p. 151.</ref>。シヴァの異名として「トリャンバカ<!--ム-->」(Tryambakam、त्र्यम्बकम्)という名がたびたび文献に登場する<ref>For a review of 4 theories about the meaning of ''tryambaka'', see: Chakravarti, pp. 37-39.</ref>。古典期の[[サンスクリット語]]では「トリャンバカ」にふくまれる「アンバカ」(ambaka)は「目」を意味し、また[[マハーバーラタ]]ではシヴァは3つの目を持つと描写されているため、しばしば「トリャンバカ」は「3つの目を持つ者」と翻訳される<ref>For usage of the word ''ambaka'' in classical Sanskrit and connection to the Mahabharata depiction, see: Chakravarti, pp. 38-39.</ref>。しかし[[ヴェーダ語]]では「アンバ」または「アンビカ」(ambā、ambikā)は「母親」を意味する。そのため(マハーバーラタよりも)早い時期のこの単語を基に考えると、トリャンバカは「3人の母を持つ者」と翻訳され、[[フリードリヒ・マックス・ミュラー|マックス・ミューラー]]と[[アーサー・アンソニー・マクドネル|アーサー・マクドネル]]はこれを採用している<ref>For translation of Tryambakam as "having three mother eyes" and as an epithet of Rudra, see: Kramrisch, p. 483.</ref>。しかしシヴァが3人の母を持つというエピソードは存在しないので、{{仮リンク|エドワード・ウォッシュバーン・ホプキンズ|en|Edward Washburn Hopkins|label=エドワード・ホプキンス}}は「3人の母親」ではなく、「アンビカス」(Ambikās)という集合名で呼ばれる女神達<!--Gauri, Kali, Umaの3柱-->を指すのではないかとしている<ref>For discussion of the problems in translation of this name, and the hypothesis regarding the {{IAST|Ambikās}} see: Hopkins (1968), p. 220.</ref>。その他、「3人の妻を持つ者」、「3人の妹を持つ者」など、またはこの名前はルドラに与えられた捧げものを指しているのではないか{{Refn|group=注|ルドラは妹の{{仮リンク|アンビカー (神)|en|Ambika (goddess)}}と所有物を共有していると言われている。}}など様々に推測されている<ref>For the {{IAST|Ambikā}} variant, see: Chakravarti, pp. 17, 37.</ref>。<!--英文がおかしいので oldid=375170909 参考-->
* '''Crescent moon''': Shiva bears on his head the crescent moon.<ref>For the moon on the forehead see: Chakravarti, p. 109.</ref> The epithet {{IAST|Candraśekhara}} (Sanskrit: {{lang|sa|चन्द्रशेखर}} "Having the moon as his crest" - ''[[chandra|{{IAST|candra}}]]'' = "moon"; ''{{IAST|śekhara}}'' = "crest, crown")<ref>For ''{{IAST|śekhara}}'' as crest or crown, see: Apte, p. 926.</ref><ref>For {{IAST|Candraśekhara}} as an iconographic form, see: Sivaramamurti (1976), p. 56.</ref><ref>For translation "Having the moon as his crest" see: Kramrisch, p. 472.</ref> refers to this feature. The placement of the moon on his head as a standard iconographic feature dates to the period when Rudra rose to prominence and became the major deity Rudra-Shiva.<ref>For the moon iconography as marking the rise of Rudra-Shiva, see: Chakravarti, p. 58.</ref> The origin of this linkage may be due to the identification of the moon with Soma, and there is a hymn in the Rig Veda where Soma and Rudra are jointly implored, and in later literature, Soma and Rudra came to be identified with one another, as were Soma and the moon.<ref>For discussion of the linkages between Soma, Moon, and Rudra, and citation to RV 7.74, see: Chakravarti, pp. 57-58.</ref>
* '''Crescent moon''': Shiva bears on his head the crescent moon.<ref>For the moon on the forehead see: Chakravarti, p. 109.</ref> The epithet {{IAST|Candraśekhara}} (Sanskrit: {{lang|sa|चन्द्रशेखर}} "Having the moon as his crest" - ''[[chandra|{{IAST|candra}}]]'' = "moon"; ''{{IAST|śekhara}}'' = "crest, crown")<ref>For ''{{IAST|śekhara}}'' as crest or crown, see: Apte, p. 926.</ref><ref>For {{IAST|Candraśekhara}} as an iconographic form, see: Sivaramamurti (1976), p. 56.</ref><ref>For translation "Having the moon as his crest" see: Kramrisch, p. 472.</ref> refers to this feature. The placement of the moon on his head as a standard iconographic feature dates to the period when Rudra rose to prominence and became the major deity Rudra-Shiva.<ref>For the moon iconography as marking the rise of Rudra-Shiva, see: Chakravarti, p. 58.</ref> The origin of this linkage may be due to the identification of the moon with Soma, and there is a hymn in the Rig Veda where Soma and Rudra are jointly implored, and in later literature, Soma and Rudra came to be identified with one another, as were Soma and the moon.<ref>For discussion of the linkages between Soma, Moon, and Rudra, and citation to RV 7.74, see: Chakravarti, pp. 57-58.</ref>
* '''三日月''': シヴァは頭に[[三日月]]を身に着けた姿で描写される<ref>For the moon on the forehead see: Chakravarti, p. 109.</ref>。そのため「チャンドラセカラ」(Candraśekhara、चन्द्रशेखर、[[月]]の[[冠]]を戴くもの)という異名を持つ<ref>For ''{{IAST|śekhara}}'' as crest or crown, see: Apte, p. 926.</ref><ref>For {{IAST|Candraśekhara}} as an iconographic form, see: Sivaramamurti (1976), p. 56.</ref><ref>For translation "Having the moon as his crest" see: Kramrisch, p. 472.</ref>。この三日月を伴った姿が定着したのはマイナーだった神ルドラが注目を集めルドラ・シヴァへと発展する頃までさかのぼる<ref>For the moon iconography as marking the rise of Rudra-Shiva, see: Chakravarti, p. 58.</ref>。このルドラと月の関係の発端は月と[[ソーマ]]が同一視されたことによる。リグ・ヴェーダではソーマとルドラが共に希求される賛歌が存在する。ソーマとルドラはそれぞれソーマと月同様に同一視されるようになった<ref>For discussion of the linkages between Soma, Moon, and Rudra, and citation to RV 7.74, see: Chakravarti, pp. 57-58.</ref>。<!--ルドラは癒し属性、ソーマは霊薬、月が満ち欠けするのは神々がソーマを飲むため、という背景がある-->
* '''Ashes''': Shiva iconography shows his body covered with ashes ([[bhasma]], vibhuti).<ref name="Flood 1996, p. 151">Flood (1996), p. 151.</ref><ref>This smearing of cremation ashes emerged into a practice of some Tantra-oriented ascetics, where they would also offer meat, alcohol and sexual fluids to Bhairava (a form of Shiva), and these groups were probably not of [[Brahmanism|Brahmanic]] origin. These ascetics are mentioned in the ancient Pali Canon of Thervada Buddhism. See: Flood (1996), pp. 92, 161.</ref> The ashes represent a reminder that all of material existence is impermanent, comes to an end becoming ash, and the pursuit of eternal soul and spiritual liberation is important.<ref>Antonio Rigopoulos (2013), Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Volume 5, Brill Academic, ISBN 978-9004178960, pages 182-183</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Paul Deussen|title=Sechzig Upaniṣad's des Veda|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XYepeIGUY0gC |year=1980|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-1467-7|pages=775–776, 789–790, 551}}</ref>
* '''Ashes''': Shiva iconography shows his body covered with ashes ([[bhasma]], vibhuti).<ref name="Flood 1996, p. 151">Flood (1996), p. 151.</ref><ref>This smearing of cremation ashes emerged into a practice of some Tantra-oriented ascetics, where they would also offer meat, alcohol and sexual fluids to Bhairava (a form of Shiva), and these groups were probably not of [[Brahmanism|Brahmanic]] origin. These ascetics are mentioned in the ancient Pali Canon of Thervada Buddhism. See: Flood (1996), pp. 92, 161.</ref> The ashes represent a reminder that all of material existence is impermanent, comes to an end becoming ash, and the pursuit of eternal soul and spiritual liberation is important.<ref>Antonio Rigopoulos (2013), Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Volume 5, Brill Academic, ISBN 978-9004178960, pages 182-183</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Paul Deussen|title=Sechzig Upaniṣad's des Veda|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XYepeIGUY0gC |year=1980|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-1467-7|pages=775–776, 789–790, 551}}</ref>
* '''灰''': シヴァは体に[[灰]]({{仮リンク|バスマ|en|bhasma}}、または{{仮リンク|ヴィブーティ|en|vibhuti}})を塗りたくった姿で描写される<ref name="Flood 1996, p. 151">Flood (1996), p. 151.</ref><ref>This smearing of cremation ashes emerged into a practice of some Tantra-oriented ascetics, where they would also offer meat, alcohol and sexual fluids to Bhairava (a form of Shiva), and these groups were probably not of [[バラモン教|Brahmanic]] origin. These ascetics are mentioned in the ancient Pali Canon of Thervada Buddhism. See: Flood (1996), pp. 92, 161.</ref>。この灰は、全ての形あるものは永遠ではなくいつかは灰に帰ること、そして永遠の魂と精神的解放を追い求めることの重要さを表現している<ref>Antonio Rigopoulos (2013), Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Volume 5, Brill Academic, ISBN 978-9004178960, pages 182-183</ref><ref>{{Cite book|author=Paul Deussen|title=Sechzig Upaniṣad's des Veda|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XYepeIGUY0gC |year=1980|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-1467-7|pages=775–776, 789–790, 551}}</ref>。
* '''Matted hair''': Shiva's distinctive hair style is noted in the epithets {{IAST|Jaṭin}}, "the one with matted hair",<ref>Chidbhavananda, p. 22.</ref> and Kapardin, "endowed with matted hair"<ref>For translation of Kapardin as "Endowed with matted hair" see: {{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=279}}.</ref> or "wearing his hair wound in a braid in a shell-like (kaparda) fashion".<ref>Kramrisch, p. 475.</ref> A kaparda is a cowrie shell, or a braid of hair in the form of a shell, or, more generally, hair that is shaggy or curly.<ref>For Kapardin as a name of Shiva, and description of the kaparda hair style, see, Macdonell, p. 62.</ref>
* '''Matted hair''': Shiva's distinctive hair style is noted in the epithets {{IAST|Jaṭin}}, "the one with matted hair",<ref>Chidbhavananda, p. 22.</ref> and Kapardin, "endowed with matted hair"<ref>For translation of Kapardin as "Endowed with matted hair" see: {{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=279}}.</ref> or "wearing his hair wound in a braid in a shell-like (kaparda) fashion".<ref>Kramrisch, p. 475.</ref> A kaparda is a cowrie shell, or a braid of hair in the form of a shell, or, more generally, hair that is shaggy or curly.<ref>For Kapardin as a name of Shiva, and description of the kaparda hair style, see, Macdonell, p. 62.</ref>
* '''もつれた髪の毛''': シヴァのこの特徴的な髪型もまたいくつかの異名の元になっている。例えば「ジャティン」(Jaṭin、もつれた髪を持つ者)<ref>Chidbhavananda, p. 22.</ref>、「カパルディン」(Kapardin)など。カバルディンは「もつれた髪を与えられた者<ref>For translation of Kapardin as "Endowed with matted hair" see: {{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=279}}.</ref>」、「貝殻(カパルダ)のようなひも状に編んだ髪を持つ者<ref>Kramrisch, p. 475.</ref>」などと翻訳される。カパルダ(kaparda)は[[タカラガイ]]、[[コヤスガイ]]など、あるいは貝殻状に編んだ髪、あるいはもじゃもじゃの髪、くるくるに丸まった髪を意味する<ref>For Kapardin as a name of Shiva, and description of the kaparda hair style, see, Macdonell, p. 62.</ref>。
* '''Blue throat''': The epithet {{IAST|Nīlakaṇtha}} (Sanskrit {{lang|sa|नीलकण्ठ}}; ''nīla'' = "blue", ''{{IAST|kaṇtha}}'' = "throat").<ref>{{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=290}}</ref><ref>See: name #93 in Chidbhavananda, p. 31.</ref> Since Shiva drank the [[Halahala]] poison churned up from the [[Samudra manthan|Samudra Manthan]] to eliminate its destructive capacity. Shocked by his act, Parvati squeezed his neck and stopped it in his neck to prevent it from spreading all over the universe, supposed to be in Shiva's stomach. However the poison was so potent that it changed the color of his neck to blue.<ref>For Shiva drinking the poison churned from the world ocean see: Flood (1996), p. 78.</ref><ref name="Kramrisch, p. 473">Kramrisch, p. 473.</ref>
* '''Blue throat''': The epithet {{IAST|Nīlakaṇtha}} (Sanskrit {{lang|sa|नीलकण्ठ}}; ''nīla'' = "blue", ''{{IAST|kaṇtha}}'' = "throat").<ref>{{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=290}}</ref><ref>See: name #93 in Chidbhavananda, p. 31.</ref> Since Shiva drank the [[Halahala]] poison churned up from the [[Samudra manthan|Samudra Manthan]] to eliminate its destructive capacity. Shocked by his act, Parvati squeezed his neck and stopped it in his neck to prevent it from spreading all over the universe, supposed to be in Shiva's stomach. However the poison was so potent that it changed the color of his neck to blue.<ref>For Shiva drinking the poison churned from the world ocean see: Flood (1996), p. 78.</ref><ref name="Kramrisch, p. 473">Kramrisch, p. 473.</ref>
* '''青い喉''': 「ニーラカンタ」(Nīlakaṇtha、नीलकण्ठ、青い首の意)というシヴァの異名の元になる特徴<ref>{{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=290}}</ref><ref>See: name #93 in Chidbhavananda, p. 31.</ref>。[[乳海攪拌]]によって猛毒{{仮リンク|ハラーハラ|en|Halahala}}<!--日本では[[ヴァースキ]]が吐いたバリエーションが一般的?-->が湧き上がってくると、シヴァはそれを無毒化するために飲み込む。シヴァの[[胃]]の中には[[宇宙]]が存在しているため、それを見たシヴァの配偶神[[パールヴァティ]]は慌ててシヴァの首を締めあげ毒が宇宙に回ることを防いだ。しかし毒はシヴァの喉を青く変色させた<ref>For Shiva drinking the poison churned from the world ocean see: Flood (1996), p. 78.</ref><ref name="Kramrisch, p. 473">Kramrisch, p. 473.</ref>。
* '''Meditating yogi''': his iconography often shows him in a [[Yoga]] pose, meditating, sometimes on a symbolic Himalayan Mount Kailasha as the Lord of Yoga.<ref name="Flood 1996, p. 151"/>
* '''Meditating yogi''': his iconography often shows him in a [[Yoga]] pose, meditating, sometimes on a symbolic Himalayan Mount Kailasha as the Lord of Yoga.<ref name="Flood 1996, p. 151"/>
* '''瞑想するヨーギー''': シヴァは[[ヨーガ]]のポーズ、[[結跏趺坐]]を組み瞑想に耽る姿で、また場合によっては[[ヒマラヤ]]の[[カイラス山]]の上で瞑想する姿で、ヨーガの王として表現されることも珍しくない<ref name="Flood 1996, p. 151"/>。
* '''Sacred Ganga''': The epithet ''Gangadhara'', "Bearer of the river [[Ganga]]" (Ganges). The Ganga flows from the matted hair of Shiva.<ref>For alternate stories about this feature, and use of the name {{IAST|Gaṅgādhara}} see: Chakravarti, pp. 59 and 109.</ref><ref>For description of the {{IAST|Gaṅgādhara}} form, see: Sivaramamurti (1976), p. 8.</ref> The ''{{IAST|Gaṅgā}}'' (Ganga), one of the major rivers of the country, is said to have made her abode in Shiva's hair.<ref>For Shiva supporting {{IAST|Gaṅgā}} upon his head, see: Kramrisch, p. 473.</ref>
* '''Sacred Ganga''': The epithet ''Gangadhara'', "Bearer of the river [[Ganga]]" (Ganges). The Ganga flows from the matted hair of Shiva.<ref>For alternate stories about this feature, and use of the name {{IAST|Gaṅgādhara}} see: Chakravarti, pp. 59 and 109.</ref><ref>For description of the {{IAST|Gaṅgādhara}} form, see: Sivaramamurti (1976), p. 8.</ref> The ''{{IAST|Gaṅgā}}'' (Ganga), one of the major rivers of the country, is said to have made her abode in Shiva's hair.<ref>For Shiva supporting {{IAST|Gaṅgā}} upon his head, see: Kramrisch, p. 473.</ref>
* '''聖なるガンジス''': シヴァはまた、「ガンガーダラ」(ガンジス川をもたらす者)という異名を持つ。ガンジス川はシヴァのもつれた髪から流れ出ている<ref>For alternate stories about this feature, and use of the name {{IAST|Gaṅgādhara}} see: Chakravarti, pp. 59 and 109.</ref><ref>For description of the {{IAST|Gaṅgādhara}} form, see: Sivaramamurti (1976), p. 8.</ref>。インドの主要な河川のひとつであるガンジス川は、シヴァのもつれた髪をその住処としていると言われる<ref>For Shiva supporting {{IAST|Gaṅgā}} upon his head, see: Kramrisch, p. 473.</ref>。<!--[[ガンガー]]女神を一般常識にしてる?-->
* '''Tiger skin''': Shiva is often shown seated upon a tiger skin.<ref name="Flood 1996, p. 151"/>
* '''Tiger skin''': Shiva is often shown seated upon a tiger skin.<ref name="Flood 1996, p. 151"/>
* '''虎の毛皮''': シヴァは虎の毛皮の上に座った姿で描写されることも多い<ref name="Flood 1996, p. 151"/>。
* '''Serpents''': Shiva is often shown garlanded with a [[Nāga|snake]].<ref>Flood (1996), p. 151</ref>
* '''Serpents''': Shiva is often shown garlanded with a [[Nāga|snake]].<ref>Flood (1996), p. 151</ref>
* '''蛇''': シヴァは[[ナーガ]](蛇)を首に巻いた姿で度々表現される<ref>Flood (1996), p. 151</ref>。
* '''Trident''': Shiva typically carries a [[trident]] called ''[[Trishula]]''.<ref name="Flood 1996, p. 151"/> The trident is a weapon or a symbol in different Hindu texts.{{sfn | Wayman | Singh | 1991 | p=266}} As a symbol, the ''Trishul'' represents Shiva's three aspects of "creator, preserver and destroyer",{{sfn|Suresh Chandra|1998|p=309}} or alternatively it represents the equilibrium of three [[Gunas]] of "sattva, rajas and tamas".{{sfn|Sitansu S. Chakravarti|1991|p=51}}
* '''Trident''': Shiva typically carries a [[trident]] called ''[[Trishula]]''.<ref name="Flood 1996, p. 151"/> The trident is a weapon or a symbol in different Hindu texts.{{sfn | Wayman | Singh | 1991 | p=266}} As a symbol, the ''Trishul'' represents Shiva's three aspects of "creator, preserver and destroyer",{{sfn|Suresh Chandra|1998|p=309}} or alternatively it represents the equilibrium of three [[Gunas]] of "sattva, rajas and tamas".{{sfn|Sitansu S. Chakravarti|1991|p=51}}
* '''三叉の槍''': シヴァは通常[[トリシューラ]]と呼ばれる[[三叉槍]]を持った姿で表現される<ref name="Flood 1996, p. 151"/>。この槍は[[武器]]、あるいは象徴として様々な文献に登場する{{Sfn | Wayman | Singh | 1991 | p=266}}。シンボルとしてのトリシューラは「創造する者」、「維持する者」、「破壊する者」というシヴァの3つの側面を表している{{Sfn|Suresh Chandra|1998|p=309}}。あるいは3つの{{仮リンク|グナ|en|Gunas}}(トリグナ)、サットヴァ、ラジャス、タマスの平衡状態を表現している{{Sfn|Sitansu S. Chakravarti|1991|p=51}}。
* '''Drum''': A small drum shaped like an hourglass is known as a ''[[damaru]]''.<ref>Michaels, p. 218.</ref><ref>For definition and shape, see: Apte, p. 461.</ref> This is one of the attributes of Shiva in his famous dancing representation<ref>Jansen, p. 44.</ref> known as [[Nataraja]]. A specific hand gesture ([[mudra]]) called ''{{IAST|ḍamaru-hasta}}'' (Sanskrit for "{{IAST|ḍamaru}}-hand") is used to hold the drum.<ref>Jansen, p. 25.</ref> This drum is particularly used as an emblem by members of the {{IAST|Kāpālika}} sect.<ref>For use by {{IAST|Kāpālikas}}, see: Apte, p. 461.</ref>
* '''Drum''': A small drum shaped like an hourglass is known as a ''[[damaru]]''.<ref>Michaels, p. 218.</ref><ref>For definition and shape, see: Apte, p. 461.</ref> This is one of the attributes of Shiva in his famous dancing representation<ref>Jansen, p. 44.</ref> known as [[Nataraja]]. A specific hand gesture ([[mudra]]) called ''{{IAST|ḍamaru-hasta}}'' (Sanskrit for "{{IAST|ḍamaru}}-hand") is used to hold the drum.<ref>Jansen, p. 25.</ref> This drum is particularly used as an emblem by members of the {{IAST|Kāpālika}} sect.<ref>For use by {{IAST|Kāpālikas}}, see: Apte, p. 461.</ref>
* '''太鼓''': [[砂時計]]のような形の[[太鼓]]、{{仮リンク|ダマル|en|damaru}}を持つ<ref>Michaels, p. 218.</ref><ref>For definition and shape, see: Apte, p. 461.</ref>。これはナタラージャ(Nataraja)という名で知られるシヴァの踊る姿を表した偶像に良く見られる特徴である<ref>Jansen, p. 44.</ref>。このダマルの持つ際にはダマル・ハスタ(ḍamaru-hasta)と呼ばれる独特の手のポーズ([[印相|ムドラ]])が用いられる<ref>Jansen, p. 25.</ref>。ダマルはカーピーリカ派([[シヴァ派]]の一派)シンボルとして用いられることでも特徴的である<ref>For use by {{IAST|Kāpālikas}}, see: Apte, p. 461.</ref>。
* '''Axe''' (''[[Parashu]]'') and '''Deer''' are held in Shiva's hands in south Indian icons.<ref>{{Cite book|title=South Indian Bronzes|last=C. Sivaramamurti|first=|publisher=Lalit Kalā Akademi|year=1963|isbn=|location=|pages=41|via=}}</ref>
* '''Axe''' (''[[Parashu]]'') and '''Deer''' are held in Shiva's hands in south Indian icons.<ref>{{Cite book|title=South Indian Bronzes|last=C. Sivaramamurti|first=|publisher=Lalit Kalā Akademi|year=1963|isbn=|location=|pages=41|via=}}</ref>
* '''斧''': 南インドではシヴァはよく{{仮リンク|パラシュ|en|Parashu}}(斧)と鹿を手に持った姿で表される<ref>{{Cite book|title=South Indian Bronzes|last=C. Sivaramamurti|first=|publisher=Lalit Kalā Akademi|year=1963|isbn=|location=|pages=41|via=}}</ref>。
* '''Rosary beads''': he is garlanded with or carries a string of rosary beads in his right hand, typically made of ''[[Rudraksha]]''.<ref name="Flood 1996, p. 151"/> This is a symbolism of grace, mendicant life and meditation.<ref>{{cite book|author=John A. Grimes|title=A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qcoUFYOX0bEC&pg=PA257 |year=1996|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0-7914-3067-5|page=257}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Prabhavati C. Reddy|title=Hindu Pilgrimage: Shifting Patterns of Worldview of Srisailam in South India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TkUsAwAAQBAJ |year=2014|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-80631-8|pages=114–115}}</ref>
* '''Rosary beads''': he is garlanded with or carries a string of rosary beads in his right hand, typically made of ''[[Rudraksha]]''.<ref name="Flood 1996, p. 151"/> This is a symbolism of grace, mendicant life and meditation.<ref>{{cite book|author=John A. Grimes|title=A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qcoUFYOX0bEC&pg=PA257 |year=1996|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0-7914-3067-5|page=257}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Prabhavati C. Reddy|title=Hindu Pilgrimage: Shifting Patterns of Worldview of Srisailam in South India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TkUsAwAAQBAJ |year=2014|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-80631-8|pages=114–115}}</ref>
* '''数珠''': シヴァは右手に[[数珠]]を巻いた姿で描写される。この数珠は通常[[ルドラークシャ]](菩提樹の実)でできているとされる<ref name="Flood 1996, p. 151"/>。優雅さと[[托鉢|乞食]]と瞑想を象徴する<ref>{{Cite book|author=John A. Grimes|title=A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qcoUFYOX0bEC&pg=PA257 |year=1996|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0-7914-3067-5|page=257}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|author=Prabhavati C. Reddy|title=Hindu Pilgrimage: Shifting Patterns of Worldview of Srisailam in South India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TkUsAwAAQBAJ |year=2014|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-80631-8|pages=114–115}}</ref>。
* '''{{IAST|Nandī}}:''' [[Nandi (bull)|Nandī]], also known as "Nandin", is the name of the [[Bull (mythology)|bull]] that serves as Shiva's mount (Sanskrit: ''[[Vahana|{{IAST|vāhana}}]]'').<ref>For a review of issues related to the evolution of the bull (Nandin) as Shiva's mount, see: Chakravarti, pp. 99-105.</ref><ref>For spelling of alternate proper names {{IAST|Nandī}} and Nandin see: Stutley, p. 98.</ref> Shiva's association with cattle is reflected in his name {{IAST|Paśupati}}, or [[Pashupati]] (Sanskrit: पशुपति), translated by Sharma as "lord of cattle"<ref>{{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=291}}</ref> and by Kramrisch as "lord of animals", who notes that it is particularly used as an epithet of Rudra.<ref>Kramrisch, p. 479.</ref>
* '''{{IAST|Nandī}}:''' [[Nandi (bull)|Nandī]], also known as "Nandin", is the name of the [[Bull (mythology)|bull]] that serves as Shiva's mount (Sanskrit: ''[[Vahana|{{IAST|vāhana}}]]'').<ref>For a review of issues related to the evolution of the bull (Nandin) as Shiva's mount, see: Chakravarti, pp. 99-105.</ref><ref>For spelling of alternate proper names {{IAST|Nandī}} and Nandin see: Stutley, p. 98.</ref> Shiva's association with cattle is reflected in his name {{IAST|Paśupati}}, or [[Pashupati]] (Sanskrit: पशुपति), translated by Sharma as "lord of cattle"<ref>{{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=291}}</ref> and by Kramrisch as "lord of animals", who notes that it is particularly used as an epithet of Rudra.<ref>Kramrisch, p. 479.</ref>
* '''牛''' シヴァの[[ヴァーハナ]](神の乗り物となる動物)である[[ナンディン]](またはナンディー)がシヴァとともに描かれる<ref>For a review of issues related to the evolution of the bull (Nandin) as Shiva's mount, see: Chakravarti, pp. 99-105.</ref><ref>For spelling of alternate proper names {{IAST|Nandī}} and Nandin see: Stutley, p. 98.</ref>。シヴァと牛のつながりは彼の異名である「パシュパティ」(Paśupati、पशुपति、牛の王の意)にも表れている<ref>{{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=291}}</ref>。ステラ・クラムリッシュは「パシュパティ」を「獣の王」という意味にとる。彼女は「獣の王」は特にルドラにあてられる異名であるとする<ref>Kramrisch, p. 479.</ref>。
* '''Mount {{IAST|Kailāsa}}:''' [[Mount Kailash]] in the [[Himalayas]] is his traditional abode.<ref name="Flood 1996, p. 151"/><ref>For the name ''Kailāsagirivāsī'' (''Sanskrit'' कैलासिगिरवासी), "With his abode on Mount Kailāsa", as a name appearing in the ''Shiva Sahasranama'', see: {{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=281}}.</ref> In Hindu mythology, Mount {{IAST|Kailāsa}} is conceived as resembling a ''[[Linga]]'', representing the center of the universe.<ref>For identification of Mount {{IAST|Kailāsa}} as the central ''linga'', see: Stutley (1985), p. 62.</ref>
* '''Mount {{IAST|Kailāsa}}:''' [[Mount Kailash]] in the [[Himalayas]] is his traditional abode.<ref name="Flood 1996, p. 151"/><ref>For the name ''Kailāsagirivāsī'' (''Sanskrit'' कैलासिगिरवासी), "With his abode on Mount Kailāsa", as a name appearing in the ''Shiva Sahasranama'', see: {{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=281}}.</ref> In Hindu mythology, Mount {{IAST|Kailāsa}} is conceived as resembling a ''[[Linga]]'', representing the center of the universe.<ref>For identification of Mount {{IAST|Kailāsa}} as the central ''linga'', see: Stutley (1985), p. 62.</ref>
* '''カイラス山''': [[ヒマラヤ山脈]]の[[カイラス山]]は伝統的にシヴァの住居であるとされている<ref name="Flood 1996, p. 151"/><ref>For the name ''Kailāsagirivāsī'' (''Sanskrit'' कैलासिगिरवासी), "With his abode on Mount Kailāsa", as a name appearing in the ''Shiva Sahasranama'', see: {{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=281}}.</ref>。[[ヒンドゥー神話]]ではカイラス山は[[リンガ (シンボル)|リンガ]]の形をしていると見なされ、世界の中心であると考えられている<ref>For identification of Mount {{IAST|Kailāsa}} as the central ''linga'', see: Stutley (1985), p. 62.</ref>。
* '''{{IAST|Gaṇa}}:''' The [[Gana|{{IAST|Gaṇa}}s]] are attendants of Shiva and live in Kailash. They are often referred to as the bhutaganas, or ghostly hosts, on account of their nature. Generally benign, except when their lord is transgressed against, they are often invoked to intercede with the lord on behalf of the devotee. His son [[Ganesha]] was chosen as their leader by Shiva, hence Ganesha's title ''{{IAST|gaṇa-īśa}}'' or ''{{IAST|gaṇa-pati}}'', "lord of the {{IAST|gaṇas}}".<ref>[[Dictionary of Hindu Lore and Legend]] (ISBN 0-500-51088-1) by Anna L. Dallapiccola</ref>
* '''{{IAST|Gaṇa}}:''' The [[Gana|{{IAST|Gaṇa}}s]] are attendants of Shiva and live in Kailash. They are often referred to as the bhutaganas, or ghostly hosts, on account of their nature. Generally benign, except when their lord is transgressed against, they are often invoked to intercede with the lord on behalf of the devotee. His son [[Ganesha]] was chosen as their leader by Shiva, hence Ganesha's title ''{{IAST|gaṇa-īśa}}'' or ''{{IAST|gaṇa-pati}}'', "lord of the {{IAST|gaṇas}}".<ref>[[Dictionary of Hindu Lore and Legend]] (ISBN 0-500-51088-1) by Anna L. Dallapiccola</ref>
* '''ガナ''': {{仮リンク|ガナ|en|Gana}}はカイラス山に住むと言われるシヴァの眷属たちである。彼らの性質からしばしばブタガナス(bhutaganas、幽霊の軍隊)などとも呼ばれる。彼らの主人が侮辱された場合などを除いては基本的におとなしく、シヴァをとりなす存在として信仰の対象となる。シヴァの息子[[ガネーシャ]]はガナたちの長を任されており、そのため「ガナ・イーサ」、「ガナ・パティ」(ガナの王)と呼ばれる<ref>{{仮リンク|Dictionary of Hindu Lore and Legend|en|Dictionary of Hindu Lore and Legend}} (ISBN 0-500-51088-1) by Anna L. Dallapiccola</ref> 。
* '''Varanasi:''' [[Varanasi]] (Benares) is considered to be the city specially loved by Shiva, and is one of the holiest places of pilgrimage in India. It is referred to, in religious contexts, as Kashi.<ref>Keay, p. 33.</ref>
* '''Varanasi:''' [[Varanasi]] (Benares) is considered to be the city specially loved by Shiva, and is one of the holiest places of pilgrimage in India. It is referred to, in religious contexts, as Kashi.<ref>Keay, p. 33.</ref>
* '''ヴァーラーナシー''': [[ヴァーラーナシー]]は特にシヴァのお気に入りの街と言われており、インドの聖地のひとつに数えられている。宗教的文脈ではヴァーラーナシーは「カーシー」とも呼ばれる<ref>Keay, p. 33.</ref>。


== 偶像や神話に見られる描写 ==
== Forms and depictions ==
According to [[Gavin Flood]], "Shiva is a god of ambiguity and paradox," whose attributes include opposing themes.<ref>For quotation "Shiva is a god of ambiguity and paradox" and overview of conflicting attributes see: Flood (1996), p. 150.</ref> The ambivalent nature of this deity is apparent in some of his names and the stories told about him.
According to [[Gavin Flood]], "Shiva is a god of ambiguity and paradox," whose attributes include opposing themes.<ref>For quotation "Shiva is a god of ambiguity and paradox" and overview of conflicting attributes see: Flood (1996), p. 150.</ref> The ambivalent nature of this deity is apparent in some of his names and the stories told about him.


シヴァはその性質にまったく正反対のものを抱えているため、{{仮リンク|ギャヴィン・フラッド|en|Gavin Flood}}はシヴァを曖昧さと[[パラドックス]]の神であると表現している<ref>For quotation "Shiva is a god of ambiguity and paradox" and overview of conflicting attributes see: Flood (1996), p. 150.</ref>。シヴァの相反する性質は彼に与えられた名前や、彼について語られるエピソードからも明らかである。
=== Destroyer and Benefactor ===

=== 破壊を司る神と、恩寵を与える存在の対比 ===
{{double image|left|Masque de Bhairava (musée dart asiatique de Berlin) (2707467043).jpg|150|Shiva meditating Rishikesh.jpg|118|Shiva is represented in his many aspects.<ref>{{cite book|author=George Michell|title=The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ajgImLs62gwC |year=1977|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-53230-1|pages=25–26}}</ref> Left: [[Bhairava]] icon of the fierce form of Shiva, from 17th/18th century Nepal; Right: Shiva as a meditating yogi in [[Rishikesh]].}}
{{double image|left|Masque de Bhairava (musée dart asiatique de Berlin) (2707467043).jpg|150|Shiva meditating Rishikesh.jpg|118|Shiva is represented in his many aspects.<ref>{{cite book|author=George Michell|title=The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ajgImLs62gwC |year=1977|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-53230-1|pages=25–26}}</ref> Left: [[Bhairava]] icon of the fierce form of Shiva, from 17th/18th century Nepal; Right: Shiva as a meditating yogi in [[Rishikesh]].}}
{{Double image aside|left|Masque de Bhairava (musée dart asiatique de Berlin) (2707467043).jpg|150|Shiva meditating Rishikesh.jpg|118|シヴァは数多くの様相を併せ持つ<ref>{{Cite book|author=George Michell|title=The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ajgImLs62gwC |year=1977|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-53230-1|pages=25–26}}</ref>。左: {{仮リンク|バイラヴァ|en|Bhairava}}、シヴァの恐ろしい側面を象徴的に表現する。17世紀から18世紀、[[ネパール]]。右: 瞑想に耽る[[ヨーギー]]としてのシヴァ。[[リシケーシュ]]。}}

In [[Yajurveda]], two contrary sets of attributes for both malignant or terrific (Sanskrit: ''{{IAST|rudra}}'') and benign or auspicious (Sanskrit: ''{{IAST|śiva}}'') forms can be found, leading Chakravarti to conclude that "all the basic elements which created the complex Rudra-Śiva sect of later ages are to be found here".<ref>For quotation regarding Yajur Veda as containing contrary sets of attributes, and marking point for emergence of all basic elements of later sect forms, see: Chakravarti, p. 7.</ref> In the Mahabharata, Shiva is depicted as "the standard of invincibility, might, and terror", as well as a figure of honor, delight, and brilliance.<ref>For summary of Shiva's contrasting depictions in the Mahabharata, see: {{Harvnb|Sharma|1988|pp=20–21}}.</ref>
In [[Yajurveda]], two contrary sets of attributes for both malignant or terrific (Sanskrit: ''{{IAST|rudra}}'') and benign or auspicious (Sanskrit: ''{{IAST|śiva}}'') forms can be found, leading Chakravarti to conclude that "all the basic elements which created the complex Rudra-Śiva sect of later ages are to be found here".<ref>For quotation regarding Yajur Veda as containing contrary sets of attributes, and marking point for emergence of all basic elements of later sect forms, see: Chakravarti, p. 7.</ref> In the Mahabharata, Shiva is depicted as "the standard of invincibility, might, and terror", as well as a figure of honor, delight, and brilliance.<ref>For summary of Shiva's contrasting depictions in the Mahabharata, see: {{Harvnb|Sharma|1988|pp=20–21}}.</ref>

[[ヤジュル・ヴェーダ]]では対極にある2対の表現が見られる。すなわち「害のある」と「恐ろしい」(サンスクリット語: rudra)および、「害のない」と「吉祥な」(サンスクリット語: śiva)であり、マハデーヴ・チャクラヴァティ(Mahadev Chakravarti)はこのことが後にルドラ・シヴァ派という複雑な宗派を生み出す要因になったと結論づけている<ref>For quotation regarding Yajur Veda as containing contrary sets of attributes, and marking point for emergence of all basic elements of later sect forms, see: Chakravarti, p. 7.</ref>。マハーバーラタではシヴァは無敵で、強くて、恐ろしい存在の典型として、そして同時に誉れ高く、喜ばしく、素晴らしい神として描かれる<ref>For summary of Shiva's contrasting depictions in the Mahabharata, see: {{Harvnb|Sharma|1988|pp=20–21}}.</ref>。


The duality of Shiva's fearful and auspicious attributes appears in contrasted names. The name Rudra reflects Shiva's fearsome aspects. According to traditional etymologies, the Sanskrit name ''Rudra'' is derived from the root ''rud-'', which means "to cry, howl".<ref>For ''rud-'' meaning "cry, howl" as a traditional etymology see: Kramrisch, p. 5.</ref> [[Stella Kramrisch]] notes a different etymology connected with the adjectival form ''raudra'', which means "wild, of ''rudra'' nature", and translates the name ''[[Rudra]]'' as "the wild one" or "the fierce god".<ref>Citation to M. Mayrhofer, ''Concise Etymological Sanskrit Dictionary'', ''s.v.'' "rudra", is provided in: Kramrisch, p. 5.</ref> R. K. Sharma follows this alternate etymology and translates the name as "terrible".{{sfn|Sharma|1996|p=301}} Hara is an important name that occurs three times in the Anushasanaparvan version of the ''[[Shiva Sahasranama|Shiva sahasranama]]'', where it is translated in different ways each time it occurs, following a commentorial tradition of not repeating an interpretation. Sharma translates the three as "one who captivates", "one who consolidates", and "one who destroys".{{sfn|Sharma|1996|p=314}} Kramrisch translates it as "the ravisher".<ref name="Kramrisch, p. 473"/> Another of Shiva's fearsome forms is as {{IAST|Kāla}} "time" and {{IAST|Mahākāla}} "great time", which ultimately destroys all things.<ref name="auto"/><ref>Kramrisch, p. 474.</ref> The name {{IAST|Kāla}} appears in the ''Shiva Sahasranama'', where it is translated by Ram Karan Sharma as "(the Supreme Lord of) Time."{{sfn|Sharma|1996|p=280}} [[Bhairava]] "terrible" or "frightful"<ref>Apte, p. 727, left column.</ref> is a fierce form associated with annihilation.In contrast, the name {{IAST|Śaṇkara}}, "beneficent"{{Sfn|Sharma| 1996| p=306}} or "conferring happiness"<ref name="auto1">Kramrisch, p. 481.</ref> reflects his benign form. This name was adopted by the great [[Vedanta]] philosopher [[Adi Shankara]] (c. 788-820),<ref>Flood (1996), p. 92.</ref> who is also known as Shankaracharya.<ref name="auto" /> The name {{IAST|Śambhu}} (Sanskrit: {{lang|sa|शम्भु}} swam-on its own; bhu-burn/shine) "self-shining/ shining on its own", also reflects this benign aspect.<ref name="auto" />{{sfn|Chakravarti|1986| pp= 28 (note 7), and p. 177}}
The duality of Shiva's fearful and auspicious attributes appears in contrasted names. The name Rudra reflects Shiva's fearsome aspects. According to traditional etymologies, the Sanskrit name ''Rudra'' is derived from the root ''rud-'', which means "to cry, howl".<ref>For ''rud-'' meaning "cry, howl" as a traditional etymology see: Kramrisch, p. 5.</ref> [[Stella Kramrisch]] notes a different etymology connected with the adjectival form ''raudra'', which means "wild, of ''rudra'' nature", and translates the name ''[[Rudra]]'' as "the wild one" or "the fierce god".<ref>Citation to M. Mayrhofer, ''Concise Etymological Sanskrit Dictionary'', ''s.v.'' "rudra", is provided in: Kramrisch, p. 5.</ref> R. K. Sharma follows this alternate etymology and translates the name as "terrible".{{sfn|Sharma|1996|p=301}} Hara is an important name that occurs three times in the Anushasanaparvan version of the ''[[Shiva Sahasranama|Shiva sahasranama]]'', where it is translated in different ways each time it occurs, following a commentorial tradition of not repeating an interpretation. Sharma translates the three as "one who captivates", "one who consolidates", and "one who destroys".{{sfn|Sharma|1996|p=314}} Kramrisch translates it as "the ravisher".<ref name="Kramrisch, p. 473"/> Another of Shiva's fearsome forms is as {{IAST|Kāla}} "time" and {{IAST|Mahākāla}} "great time", which ultimately destroys all things.<ref name="auto"/><ref>Kramrisch, p. 474.</ref> The name {{IAST|Kāla}} appears in the ''Shiva Sahasranama'', where it is translated by Ram Karan Sharma as "(the Supreme Lord of) Time."{{sfn|Sharma|1996|p=280}} [[Bhairava]] "terrible" or "frightful"<ref>Apte, p. 727, left column.</ref> is a fierce form associated with annihilation.In contrast, the name {{IAST|Śaṇkara}}, "beneficent"{{Sfn|Sharma| 1996| p=306}} or "conferring happiness"<ref name="auto1">Kramrisch, p. 481.</ref> reflects his benign form. This name was adopted by the great [[Vedanta]] philosopher [[Adi Shankara]] (c. 788-820),<ref>Flood (1996), p. 92.</ref> who is also known as Shankaracharya.<ref name="auto" /> The name {{IAST|Śambhu}} (Sanskrit: {{lang|sa|शम्भु}} swam-on its own; bhu-burn/shine) "self-shining/ shining on its own", also reflects this benign aspect.<ref name="auto" />{{sfn|Chakravarti|1986| pp= 28 (note 7), and p. 177}}


恐ろしくも喜ばしいというシヴァの持つ二面性は、彼の対照的な名前にも表れている。「ルドラ」という名前はシヴァの恐ろしい側面を映し出している。歴史的に受け入れられているルドラの語源は、語根にあたる「ルド」(rud-、「叫ぶ」または「吠えたける」)に由来する<ref>For ''rud-'' meaning "cry, howl" as a traditional etymology see: Kramrisch, p. 5.</ref>。一方ステラ・クラムリッシュはラウドラ(raudra、「乱暴な」)に語源を求めている。乱暴さはルドラの持つ性格でもあり、彼女はしたがってルドラの名前を「乱暴な者」、「凶暴な神」と翻訳する<ref>Citation to M. Mayrhofer, ''Concise Etymological Sanskrit Dictionary'', ''s.v.'' "rudra", is provided in: Kramrisch, p. 5.</ref>。シャルマも彼女に倣い、ルドラの名前を「恐ろしい」と翻訳した{{Sfn|Sharma|1996|p=301}}。
=== Ascetic and Householder ===

異名のひとつ、ハラ(Hara)は重要な意味を持っていると考えられており、マハーバーラタの{{仮リンク|アヌシャサナ・パルヴァ|en|Anushasana Parva}}に語られる{{仮リンク|シヴァ・サハスラナーマ|en|Shiva Sahasranama}}(千の名前の賛歌)にはハラが3度登場する。このハラは、そうでない場合もあるが、それぞれ違う意味に翻訳される伝統がある。シャルマはこれらをそれぞれ「魅了する者」、「強固にする者」、「破壊する者」と翻訳した{{Sfn|Sharma|1996|p=314}}。クラムリッシュはハラを「夢中にさせるもの」と(辞書的な文脈で)紹介している<ref name="Kramrisch, p. 473"/>。

他にも、シヴァの恐ろしい側面を表した様相として「カーラ」(Kāla、時間)あるいは「マハーカーラ」(Mahākāla、偉大な時間)<!--時代のような気がする。黒と両義にとれると注がほしい-->が挙げられ、究極的にすべてを破壊するというニュアンスが含まれる<ref name="auto"/><ref>Kramrisch, p. 474.</ref>。カーラという名前はシヴァ・サハスラナーマに登場し、ラム・カラン・シャルマはこれを「時間を司る至高の王」と翻訳した{{Sfn|Sharma|1996|p=280}}。また「{{仮リンク|バイラヴァ|en|Bhairava}}」(恐ろしい<ref>Apte, p. 727, left column.</ref>)という名は「絶滅」という意味をほのめかすシヴァの凶暴な様相のひとつである。対照的に「シャンカラ」(Śaṇkara)という名は「慈悲深い者{{Sfn|Sharma| 1996| p=306}}」、「幸福を与える者<ref name="auto1">Kramrisch, p. 481.</ref>」を意味し、シヴァの持つやさしい一面を反映している。このシャンカラという名前は、[[シャンカラ・アーチャーリヤ]](Shankaracharya)<ref name="auto" /><!--だそく?-->としても知られる[[ヴェーダーンタ学派]]の偉大な哲学者[[シャンカラ]](788-820)が名祖となっている<ref>Flood (1996), p. 92.</ref><!--シャンカラはシヴァのアバターラ-->。シャムブー(Śambhu、शम्भु、自ずから輝く者)という異名もまた温和な一面を反映する<ref name="auto" />{{Sfn|Chakravarti|1986| pp= 28 (note 7), and p. 177}}。

=== 苦行者としての姿、一家の主としての一面の対比 ===
[[File:A religious poster that depicts Shiva's family history.jpg|thumb|Shiva surrounded by various events in his life.]]
[[File:A religious poster that depicts Shiva's family history.jpg|thumb|Shiva surrounded by various events in his life.]]
[[ファイル:A religious poster that depicts Shiva's family history.jpg|thumb|自身にまつわる神話に囲まれるシヴァ。]]
Shiva is depicted as both an ascetic [[yogi]] and as a householder, roles which have been traditionally mutually exclusive in Hindu society.<ref>For the contrast between ascetic and householder depictions, see: Flood (1996), pp. 150-151.</ref> When depicted as a yogi, he may be shown sitting and meditating.<ref>For Shiva's representation as a yogi, see: Chakravarti, p. 32.</ref> His epithet Mahāyogi ("the great Yogi: ''{{IAST|Mahā}}'' = "great", ''Yogi'' = "one who practices Yoga") refers to his association with yoga.<ref>For name Mahāyogi and associations with yoga, see, Chakravarti, pp. 23, 32, 150.</ref> While [[Historical Vedic religion|Vedic religion]] was conceived mainly in terms of sacrifice, it was during the [[Indian epic poetry|Epic period]] that the concepts of [[Tapas (Sanskrit)|tapas]], yoga, and asceticism became more important, and the depiction of Shiva as an ascetic sitting in philosophical isolation reflects these later concepts.<ref>For the ascetic yogin form as reflecting Epic period influences, see: Chakravarti, p. 32.</ref>
Shiva is depicted as both an ascetic [[yogi]] and as a householder, roles which have been traditionally mutually exclusive in Hindu society.<ref>For the contrast between ascetic and householder depictions, see: Flood (1996), pp. 150-151.</ref> When depicted as a yogi, he may be shown sitting and meditating.<ref>For Shiva's representation as a yogi, see: Chakravarti, p. 32.</ref> His epithet Mahāyogi ("the great Yogi: ''{{IAST|Mahā}}'' = "great", ''Yogi'' = "one who practices Yoga") refers to his association with yoga.<ref>For name Mahāyogi and associations with yoga, see, Chakravarti, pp. 23, 32, 150.</ref> While [[Historical Vedic religion|Vedic religion]] was conceived mainly in terms of sacrifice, it was during the [[Indian epic poetry|Epic period]] that the concepts of [[Tapas (Sanskrit)|tapas]], yoga, and asceticism became more important, and the depiction of Shiva as an ascetic sitting in philosophical isolation reflects these later concepts.<ref>For the ascetic yogin form as reflecting Epic period influences, see: Chakravarti, p. 32.</ref>

シヴァは禁欲的な{{仮リンク|ヨーギー|en|yogi}}として描かれ、同時に一家の主としての顔も持つ。本来両者はヒンドゥー教社会においては相いれない存在である<ref>For the contrast between ascetic and householder depictions, see: Flood (1996), pp. 150-151.</ref>。シヴァがヨーギーとして描かれる場合、シヴァは通常座り、瞑想をしている姿で表現される<ref>For Shiva's representation as a yogi, see: Chakravarti, p. 32.</ref>。シヴァの異名のひとつである「マハーヨーギー」(Mahāyogi、偉大なヨーギー)は彼とヨーガとの関係を物語っている<ref>For name Mahāyogi and associations with yoga, see, Chakravarti, pp. 23, 32, 150.</ref>。ヴェーダ時代(紀元前1500年-紀元前600年頃)の信仰は主に捧げものによる儀式を通して行われていたと考えられており、[[苦行|タパス(苦行)]]、ヨーガ、禁欲主義が重要な意味を持つようになったのはそれより後の、叙事詩が編纂される時代である。シヴァが世間を離れ禁欲的に瞑想に耽る姿で描かれるようになったことには、こういったヴェーダ時代後の宗教観が反映されている<ref>For the ascetic yogin form as reflecting Epic period influences, see: Chakravarti, p. 32.</ref>。


As a family man and householder, he has a wife, Parvati and two sons, Ganesha and Kartikeya. His epithet {{IAST|Umāpati}} ("The husband of {{IAST|Umā}}") refers to this idea, and Sharma notes that two other variants of this name that mean the same thing, {{IAST|Umākānta}} and {{IAST|Umādhava}}, also appear in the sahasranama.<ref>For {{IAST|Umāpati}}, {{IAST|Umākānta}} and {{IAST|Umādhava}} as names in the Shiva Sahasranama literature, see: {{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=278}}.</ref> {{IAST|Umā}} in epic literature is known by many names, including the benign {{IAST|Pārvatī}}.<ref>For {{IAST|Umā}} as the oldest name, and variants including {{IAST|Pārvatī}}, see: Chakravarti, p. 40.</ref><ref>For {{IAST|Pārvatī}} identified as the wife of Shiva, see: Kramrisch, p. 479.</ref> She is identified with [[Devi]], the Divine Mother; Shakti (divine energy) as well as goddesses like [[Tripura Sundari]], [[Durga]], [[Kali]], [[Kamakshi]] and [[Minakshi]]. The consorts of Shiva are the source of his creative energy. They represent the dynamic extension of Shiva onto this universe.<ref name="Search for Meaning">Search for Meaning By Antonio R. Gualtieri</ref> His son Ganesha is worshipped throughout [[India]] and [[Nepal]] as the Remover of Obstacles, Lord of Beginnings and Lord of Obstacles. Kartikeya is worshipped in [[South India]] (especially in [[Tamil Nadu]], [[Kerala]] and [[Karnataka]]) by the names Subrahmanya, Subrahmanyan, Shanmughan, Swaminathan and Murugan, and in [[North India|Northern India]] by the names Skanda, Kumara, or Karttikeya.<ref>For regional name variants of Karttikeya see: Gupta, ''Preface''.</ref>
As a family man and householder, he has a wife, Parvati and two sons, Ganesha and Kartikeya. His epithet {{IAST|Umāpati}} ("The husband of {{IAST|Umā}}") refers to this idea, and Sharma notes that two other variants of this name that mean the same thing, {{IAST|Umākānta}} and {{IAST|Umādhava}}, also appear in the sahasranama.<ref>For {{IAST|Umāpati}}, {{IAST|Umākānta}} and {{IAST|Umādhava}} as names in the Shiva Sahasranama literature, see: {{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=278}}.</ref> {{IAST|Umā}} in epic literature is known by many names, including the benign {{IAST|Pārvatī}}.<ref>For {{IAST|Umā}} as the oldest name, and variants including {{IAST|Pārvatī}}, see: Chakravarti, p. 40.</ref><ref>For {{IAST|Pārvatī}} identified as the wife of Shiva, see: Kramrisch, p. 479.</ref> She is identified with [[Devi]], the Divine Mother; Shakti (divine energy) as well as goddesses like [[Tripura Sundari]], [[Durga]], [[Kali]], [[Kamakshi]] and [[Minakshi]]. The consorts of Shiva are the source of his creative energy. They represent the dynamic extension of Shiva onto this universe.<ref name="Search for Meaning">Search for Meaning By Antonio R. Gualtieri</ref> His son Ganesha is worshipped throughout [[India]] and [[Nepal]] as the Remover of Obstacles, Lord of Beginnings and Lord of Obstacles. Kartikeya is worshipped in [[South India]] (especially in [[Tamil Nadu]], [[Kerala]] and [[Karnataka]]) by the names Subrahmanya, Subrahmanyan, Shanmughan, Swaminathan and Murugan, and in [[North India|Northern India]] by the names Skanda, Kumara, or Karttikeya.<ref>For regional name variants of Karttikeya see: Gupta, ''Preface''.</ref>

シヴァには妻パールヴァティと2人の息子、[[ガネーシャ]]と[[スカンダ|カールッティーケーヤ]](スカンダ)がおり、家族の一員であり一家の主としての顔を持つ。シヴァの異名である「ウマーパティ」(Umāpati、ウマーの夫)はそんなシヴァの一面を表している。シヴァ・サハスラナーマにはさらに「ウマーカーンタ」(Umākānta)、「ウマーダーヴァ」(Umādhava)という名前に触れられており、シャルマはこれらも「ウマーパティ」と同様の意味で用いられているとしている<ref>For {{IAST|Umāpati}}, {{IAST|Umākānta}} and {{IAST|Umādhava}} as names in the Shiva Sahasranama literature, see: {{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=278}}.</ref>。叙事詩に登場するウマーは多くの意味で知られており、温和なパールヴァティの異名のひとつでもある<ref>For {{IAST|Umā}} as the oldest name, and variants including {{IAST|Pārvatī}}, see: Chakravarti, p. 40.</ref><ref>For {{IAST|Pārvatī}} identified as the wife of Shiva, see: Kramrisch, p. 479.</ref>。パールヴァティは聖なる母、{{仮リンク|デーヴィ|en|Devi}}<!--マハーデーヴィのこと?-->や[[シャクティ]](聖なる力)、{{仮リンク|トリプラスンダリ|en|Tripura Sundari}}、[[ドゥルガー]]、[[カーリー]]、{{仮リンク|カマクシ|en|Kamakshi}}、{{仮リンク|ミナクシ|en|Minakshi}}と同一視される。シヴァの配偶神はシヴァの司る創造の源であるとされており、ゆえに彼女たちは宇宙に対するシヴァの影響力の広がりを示している<ref name="Search for Meaning">Search for Meaning By Antonio R. Gualtieri</ref>。シヴァの息子ガネーシャは障害を取り除く神として、物事を始めるための神として[[インド]]全土、ネパールで広く信仰されている。カールッティーケーヤは[[南インド]]、特に[[タミル・ナードゥ州]]、[[ケーララ州]]、[[カルナータカ州]]で良く信仰される。カールッティーケーヤにも様々な異名があり、南インドではスブラマニア(Subrahmanya)、ムルガン(Murugan)など、北インドではスカンダ、クマラ(Kumara)、カールッティーケーヤなどと呼ばれる<ref>For regional name variants of Karttikeya see: Gupta, ''Preface''.</ref>。<!--デーヴィがよくわからない。余計な記述が多い。-->


Some regional deities are also identified as Shiva's children. As one story goes, Shiva is enticed by the beauty and charm of [[Mohini]], Vishnu's female avatar, and procreates with her. As a result of this union, [[Shasta (deity)|Shasta]] - identified with regional deities [[Ayyappan]] and [[Aiyanar]] - is born.<ref>{{cite book|last=Doniger|first= Wendy |title=Splitting the difference: gender and myth in ancient Greece and India|publisher=University of Chicago Press|location=London|year=1999|url=https://books.google.com/?id=JZ8qfQbEJB4C&pg=PA263&dq=mohini+Vishnu&cd=2#v=onepage&q=mohini%20Vishnu|pages= 263–5 | isbn=978-0-226-15641-5}}</ref><ref name=Vanita69>{{cite book |title= Same-sex love in India: readings from literature and history|last= Vanita|first= Ruth |authorlink= |author2=Kidwai, Saleem |year= 2001|publisher= Palgrave Macmillan|location= |isbn=978-0-312-29324-6|page = 69}}</ref><ref name = "P71">{{cite book |title= The man who was a woman and other queer tales of Hindu lore|last= Pattanaik|first= Devdutt |year= 2001|publisher= Routledge|location= |isbn=978-1-56023-181-3|url = https://books.google.com/?id=Odsk9xfOp6oC&pg=PA71&dq=mohini&cd=2#v=onepage&q=mohini|page = 71}}</ref><ref>See [[Mohini#Relationship with Shiva]] for details</ref> In some traditions, Shiva has daughters like the serpent-goddess [[Manasa]] and [[Ashokasundari]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Offering Flowers, Feeding Skulls: Popular Goddess Worship in West Benegal|first= June|last= McDaniel|year= 2004|publisher= Oxford University Press, US|page= 156|isbn= 0-19-516790-2 }}</ref><ref name="mani">{{cite book |title = Puranic Encyclopaedia: a Comprehensive Dictionary with Special Reference to the Epic and Puranic Literature | publisher = Motilal Banarsidass Publishers |year = 1975| isbn = 978-0-8426-0822-0 | author = Vettam Mani|pages= 62, 515–6}}</ref> <!-- The demons [[Andhaka]] and [[Jalandhara]] and the god [[Vettakkorumakan]], [[Mangala]] are considered children of Shiva. -->
Some regional deities are also identified as Shiva's children. As one story goes, Shiva is enticed by the beauty and charm of [[Mohini]], Vishnu's female avatar, and procreates with her. As a result of this union, [[Shasta (deity)|Shasta]] - identified with regional deities [[Ayyappan]] and [[Aiyanar]] - is born.<ref>{{cite book|last=Doniger|first= Wendy |title=Splitting the difference: gender and myth in ancient Greece and India|publisher=University of Chicago Press|location=London|year=1999|url=https://books.google.com/?id=JZ8qfQbEJB4C&pg=PA263&dq=mohini+Vishnu&cd=2#v=onepage&q=mohini%20Vishnu|pages= 263–5 | isbn=978-0-226-15641-5}}</ref><ref name=Vanita69>{{cite book |title= Same-sex love in India: readings from literature and history|last= Vanita|first= Ruth |authorlink= |author2=Kidwai, Saleem |year= 2001|publisher= Palgrave Macmillan|location= |isbn=978-0-312-29324-6|page = 69}}</ref><ref name = "P71">{{cite book |title= The man who was a woman and other queer tales of Hindu lore|last= Pattanaik|first= Devdutt |year= 2001|publisher= Routledge|location= |isbn=978-1-56023-181-3|url = https://books.google.com/?id=Odsk9xfOp6oC&pg=PA71&dq=mohini&cd=2#v=onepage&q=mohini|page = 71}}</ref><ref>See [[Mohini#Relationship with Shiva]] for details</ref> In some traditions, Shiva has daughters like the serpent-goddess [[Manasa]] and [[Ashokasundari]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Offering Flowers, Feeding Skulls: Popular Goddess Worship in West Benegal|first= June|last= McDaniel|year= 2004|publisher= Oxford University Press, US|page= 156|isbn= 0-19-516790-2 }}</ref><ref name="mani">{{cite book |title = Puranic Encyclopaedia: a Comprehensive Dictionary with Special Reference to the Epic and Puranic Literature | publisher = Motilal Banarsidass Publishers |year = 1975| isbn = 978-0-8426-0822-0 | author = Vettam Mani|pages= 62, 515–6}}</ref> <!-- The demons [[Andhaka]] and [[Jalandhara]] and the god [[Vettakkorumakan]], [[Mangala]] are considered children of Shiva. -->


地方の土着の神々がシヴァの息子として語られる例がある。例えば、シヴァは{{仮リンク|モヒニ|en|Mohini}}([[ヴィシュヌ]]の女性としての[[アヴァターラ]])の美しさと魅力に絆されてモヒニとの間に子をもうけ、結果{{仮リンク|シャスタ|en|Shasta (deity)}}が生まれた。このシャスタは土着の神である{{仮リンク|アイヤッパ|en|Ayyappan}}、{{仮リンク|アイヤナル|en|Aiyanar}}と同一視される<ref>{{Cite book|last=Doniger|first= Wendy |title=Splitting the difference: gender and myth in ancient Greece and India|publisher=University of Chicago Press|location=London|year=1999|url=https://books.google.com/?id=JZ8qfQbEJB4C&pg=PA263&dq=mohini+Vishnu&cd=2#v=onepage&q=mohini%20Vishnu|pages= 263–5 | isbn=978-0-226-15641-5}}</ref><ref name=Vanita69>{{Cite book |title= Same-sex love in India: readings from literature and history|last= Vanita|first= Ruth |authorlink= |author2=Kidwai, Saleem |year= 2001|publisher= Palgrave Macmillan|location= |isbn=978-0-312-29324-6|page = 69}}</ref><ref name = "P71">{{Cite book |title= The man who was a woman and other queer tales of Hindu lore|last= Pattanaik|first= Devdutt |year= 2001|publisher= Routledge|location= |isbn=978-1-56023-181-3|url = https://books.google.com/?id=Odsk9xfOp6oC&pg=PA71&dq=mohini&cd=2#v=onepage&q=mohini|page = 71}}</ref><ref>See {{仮リンク|Mohini#Relationship with Shiva|en|Mohini#Relationship with Shiva}} for details</ref>。また蛇の女神[[マナサー]]や{{仮リンク|アショーカスンダリ|en|Ashokasundari}}がシヴァの娘であると語られることもある<ref>{{Cite book|title=Offering Flowers, Feeding Skulls: Popular Goddess Worship in West Benegal|first= June|last= McDaniel|year= 2004|publisher= Oxford University Press, US|page= 156|isbn= 0-19-516790-2 }}</ref><ref name="mani">{{Cite book |title = Puranic Encyclopaedia: a Comprehensive Dictionary with Special Reference to the Epic and Puranic Literature | publisher = Motilal Banarsidass Publishers |year = 1975| isbn = 978-0-8426-0822-0 | author = Vettam Mani|pages= 62, 515–6}}</ref>。
=== Iconograhical forms ===

=== 偶像に表される形 ===
[[File:Shiva as the Lord of Dance LACMA edit.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Chola dynasty]] statue depicting Shiva dancing as [[Nataraja]] ([[Los Angeles County Museum of Art]])]]
[[File:Shiva as the Lord of Dance LACMA edit.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Chola dynasty]] statue depicting Shiva dancing as [[Nataraja]] ([[Los Angeles County Museum of Art]])]]
[[ファイル:Shiva as the Lord of Dance LACMA edit.jpg|thumb|200px|{{仮リンク|ナタラージャ|en|Nataraja}}として踊っているシヴァ。[[チョーラ朝]]時代の物。[[ロサンゼルス・カウンティ美術館]]。]]
The depiction of Shiva as [[Nataraja]] (Sanskrit: ''{{IAST|naṭarāja}}'', "Lord of Dance") is popular.<ref>For description of the nataraja form see: Jansen, pp. 110-111.</ref><ref>For interpretation of the ''{{IAST|naṭarāja}}'' form see: Zimmer, pp. 151-157.</ref> The names Nartaka ("dancer") and Nityanarta ("eternal dancer") appear in the Shiva Sahasranama.<ref>For names Nartaka (''Sanskrit'' नर्तक) and Nityanarta (Sanskrit नित्यनर्त) as names of Shiva, see: {{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=289}}.</ref> His association with dance and also with music is prominent in the [[Puranas|Puranic]] period.<ref>For prominence of these associations in puranic times, see: Chakravarti, p. 62.</ref> In addition to the specific iconographic form known as Nataraja, various other types of dancing forms (Sanskrit: ''{{IAST|nṛtyamūrti}}'') are found in all parts of India, with many well-defined varieties in Tamil Nadu in particular.<ref>For popularity of the ''{{IAST|nṛtyamūrti}}'' and prevalence in South India, see: Chakravarti, p. 63.</ref> The two most common forms of the dance are the [[Tandava]], which later came to denote the powerful and masculine dance as Kala-Mahakala associated with the destruction of the world. When it requires the world or universe to be destroyed, Shiva does it by the Tandava,<ref>{{cite book|last=Kramrisch|first=Stella |title=The Presence of Siva|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|year=1994|page=439|chapter=Siva's Dance}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Klostermaier|first=Klaus K.|authorlink=Klaus Klostermaier |title=Mythologies and Philosophies of Salvation in the Theistic Traditions of India|publisher=Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Press|page=151|chapter=Shiva the Dancer}}</ref> and [[Lasya]], which is graceful and delicate and expresses emotions on a gentle level and is considered the feminine dance attributed to the goddess Parvati.<ref>{{cite book|last=Massey|first=Reginald |title=India's Kathak Dance, Past Present, Future|publisher=Abhinav Publications|page=8|chapter=India's Kathak Dance}}</ref><ref name="VMoorthy">{{cite book|last=Moorthy|first=Vijaya |title=Romance of the Raga|publisher=Abhinav Publications|year=2001|page=96}}</ref> ''Lasya'' is regarded as the female counterpart of ''Tandava''.<ref name="VMoorthy" /> The ''Tandava''-''Lasya'' dances are associated with the destruction-creation of the world.<ref>{{cite book|last=Leeming|first=David Adams |title=A Dictionary of Asian Mythology|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|year=2001|page=45}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Radha|first=Sivananda |title=Kuṇḍalinī Yoga|publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]]|year=1992|page=304|chapter=Mantra of Muladhara Chakra}}</ref><ref>[http://web.archive.org/web/20101123213949/http://vedabase.net/sb/1/2/23/en when it requires to be destroyed, Lord Śiva does it by the tāṇḍavanṛtya]</ref>
The depiction of Shiva as [[Nataraja]] (Sanskrit: ''{{IAST|naṭarāja}}'', "Lord of Dance") is popular.<ref>For description of the nataraja form see: Jansen, pp. 110-111.</ref><ref>For interpretation of the ''{{IAST|naṭarāja}}'' form see: Zimmer, pp. 151-157.</ref> The names Nartaka ("dancer") and Nityanarta ("eternal dancer") appear in the Shiva Sahasranama.<ref>For names Nartaka (''Sanskrit'' नर्तक) and Nityanarta (Sanskrit नित्यनर्त) as names of Shiva, see: {{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=289}}.</ref> His association with dance and also with music is prominent in the [[Puranas|Puranic]] period.<ref>For prominence of these associations in puranic times, see: Chakravarti, p. 62.</ref> In addition to the specific iconographic form known as Nataraja, various other types of dancing forms (Sanskrit: ''{{IAST|nṛtyamūrti}}'') are found in all parts of India, with many well-defined varieties in Tamil Nadu in particular.<ref>For popularity of the ''{{IAST|nṛtyamūrti}}'' and prevalence in South India, see: Chakravarti, p. 63.</ref> The two most common forms of the dance are the [[Tandava]], which later came to denote the powerful and masculine dance as Kala-Mahakala associated with the destruction of the world. When it requires the world or universe to be destroyed, Shiva does it by the Tandava,<ref>{{cite book|last=Kramrisch|first=Stella |title=The Presence of Siva|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|year=1994|page=439|chapter=Siva's Dance}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Klostermaier|first=Klaus K.|authorlink=Klaus Klostermaier |title=Mythologies and Philosophies of Salvation in the Theistic Traditions of India|publisher=Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Press|page=151|chapter=Shiva the Dancer}}</ref> and [[Lasya]], which is graceful and delicate and expresses emotions on a gentle level and is considered the feminine dance attributed to the goddess Parvati.<ref>{{cite book|last=Massey|first=Reginald |title=India's Kathak Dance, Past Present, Future|publisher=Abhinav Publications|page=8|chapter=India's Kathak Dance}}</ref><ref name="VMoorthy">{{cite book|last=Moorthy|first=Vijaya |title=Romance of the Raga|publisher=Abhinav Publications|year=2001|page=96}}</ref> ''Lasya'' is regarded as the female counterpart of ''Tandava''.<ref name="VMoorthy" /> The ''Tandava''-''Lasya'' dances are associated with the destruction-creation of the world.<ref>{{cite book|last=Leeming|first=David Adams |title=A Dictionary of Asian Mythology|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|year=2001|page=45}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Radha|first=Sivananda |title=Kuṇḍalinī Yoga|publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]]|year=1992|page=304|chapter=Mantra of Muladhara Chakra}}</ref><ref>[http://web.archive.org/web/20101123213949/http://vedabase.net/sb/1/2/23/en when it requires to be destroyed, Lord Śiva does it by the tāṇḍavanṛtya]</ref>

ナタラージャ(naṭarāja、踊りの王)という形で表現されるシヴァも広く受け入れられている<ref>For description of the nataraja form see: Jansen, pp. 110-111.</ref><ref>For interpretation of the ''{{IAST|naṭarāja}}'' form see: Zimmer, pp. 151-157.</ref>。「ナルタカ」(Nartaka、踊り手)とニチャナルタ(Nityanarta、永遠の踊り手)という名前もシヴァ・サハスラナーマに紹介されている<ref>For names Nartaka (''Sanskrit'' नर्तक) and Nityanarta (Sanskrit नित्यनर्त) as names of Shiva, see: {{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=289}}.</ref>。シヴァと踊り、シヴァと音楽とのつながりが顕著になるのはプラーナ文献の時代(4世紀から14世紀)である<ref>For prominence of these associations in puranic times, see: Chakravarti, p. 62.</ref>。特徴的なナタラージャのポーズの他にもインド各地で様々な踊りの形(nṛtyamūrti、リチャムールタ)が見られ、[[タミル・ナードゥ州]]では特によく体系化されている<ref>For popularity of the ''{{IAST|nṛtyamūrti}}'' and prevalence in South India, see: Chakravarti, p. 63.</ref>。ダンスの形で最も有名なものとして、{{仮リンク|ターンダヴァ|en|Tandava}}と{{仮リンク|ラースヤ|en|Lasya}}が挙げられる。ターンダヴァは後に、世界の破壊を司るカーラ・マハーカーラ(Kala-Mahakala)のような力強く、男らしい踊りを意味するようになった<!--{{インド舞踊|en|Indian classical dance}}で?-->。世界の破壊が必要になった時にはシヴァ舞うターンダヴァと<ref>{{Cite book|last=Kramrisch|first=Stella |title=The Presence of Siva|publisher=[[プリンストン大学出版局|Princeton University Press]]|year=1994|page=439|chapter=Siva's Dance}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Klostermaier|first=Klaus K.|authorlink=Klaus Klostermaier |title=Mythologies and Philosophies of Salvation in the Theistic Traditions of India|publisher=Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Press|page=151|chapter=Shiva the Dancer}}</ref>、パールバティの踊るラースヤ、優美で繊細で穏やかな感情が特徴的な女性の舞踊によって、世界の破壊が遂行される<ref>{{Cite book|last=Massey|first=Reginald |title=India's Kathak Dance, Past Present, Future|publisher=Abhinav Publications|page=8|chapter=India's Kathak Dance}}</ref><ref name="VMoorthy">{{Cite book|last=Moorthy|first=Vijaya |title=Romance of the Raga|publisher=Abhinav Publications|year=2001|page=96}}</ref>。ラースヤは女性的な踊りとしてターンダヴァと対を成す<ref name="VMoorthy" />。ターンダヴァとラースヤは世界の破壊と再生に結び付けて考えられる<ref>{{Cite book|last=Leeming|first=David Adams |title=A Dictionary of Asian Mythology|publisher=[[オックスフォード大学出版局|Oxford University Press]]|year=2001|page=45}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Radha|first=Sivananda |title=Kuṇḍalinī Yoga|publisher={{仮リンク|Motilal Banarsidass|en|Motilal Banarsidass}}|year=1992|page=304|chapter=Mantra of Muladhara Chakra}}</ref><ref>[http://web.archive.org/web/20101123213949/http://vedabase.net/sb/1/2/23/en when it requires to be destroyed, Lord Śiva does it by the tāṇḍavanṛtya]</ref>。<!--削れる-->


[[Dakshinamurthy]] ''({{IAST|Dakṣiṇāmūrti}})''<ref>For iconographic description of the {{IAST|Dakṣiṇāmūrti}} form, see: Sivaramamurti (1976), p. 47.</ref> literally describes a form (''{{IAST|mūrti}}'') of Shiva facing south (''{{IAST|dakṣiṇa}}''). This form represents Shiva in his aspect as a teacher of yoga, music, and wisdom and giving exposition on the shastras.<ref>For description of the form as representing teaching functions, see: Kramrisch, p. 472.</ref> This iconographic form for depicting Shiva in Indian art is mostly from Tamil Nadu.<ref>For characterization of {{IAST|Dakṣiṇāmūrti}} as a mostly south Indian form, see: Chakravarti, p. 62.</ref> Elements of this motif can include Shiva seated upon a deer-throne and surrounded by sages who are receiving his instruction.<ref>For the deer-throne and the audience of sages as {{IAST|Dakṣiṇāmūrti}}, see: Chakravarti, p. 155.</ref>
[[Dakshinamurthy]] ''({{IAST|Dakṣiṇāmūrti}})''<ref>For iconographic description of the {{IAST|Dakṣiṇāmūrti}} form, see: Sivaramamurti (1976), p. 47.</ref> literally describes a form (''{{IAST|mūrti}}'') of Shiva facing south (''{{IAST|dakṣiṇa}}''). This form represents Shiva in his aspect as a teacher of yoga, music, and wisdom and giving exposition on the shastras.<ref>For description of the form as representing teaching functions, see: Kramrisch, p. 472.</ref> This iconographic form for depicting Shiva in Indian art is mostly from Tamil Nadu.<ref>For characterization of {{IAST|Dakṣiṇāmūrti}} as a mostly south Indian form, see: Chakravarti, p. 62.</ref> Elements of this motif can include Shiva seated upon a deer-throne and surrounded by sages who are receiving his instruction.<ref>For the deer-throne and the audience of sages as {{IAST|Dakṣiṇāmūrti}}, see: Chakravarti, p. 155.</ref>
{{仮リンク|ダクシナムルティ|en|Dakshinamurthy}}(Dakṣiṇāmūrti<ref>For iconographic description of the {{IAST|Dakṣiṇāmūrti}} form, see: Sivaramamurti (1976), p. 47.</ref>)という様相は教師([[グル]])としてシヴァを表現している。この形ではシヴァをヨーガの、そして音楽の、知識の教師として、[[シャーストラ]]について議論を繰り広げる論客として表現する<ref>For description of the form as representing teaching functions, see: Kramrisch, p. 472.</ref>。インド芸術の中にシヴァを描くこの習慣はほとんどが[[タミルナードゥ州]](南インド)を起源としている<ref>For characterization of {{IAST|Dakṣiṇāmūrti}} as a mostly south Indian form, see: Chakravarti, p. 62.</ref>。ダクシナムルティではシヴァは鹿の[[玉座]]に座り、シヴァの教えに傾聴する[[リシ]]([[賢者]])たちに囲まれた姿で描かれる<ref>For the deer-throne and the audience of sages as {{IAST|Dakṣiṇāmūrti}}, see: Chakravarti, p. 155.</ref>。

[[File:Khajuraho Ardharnareshvar.jpg|thumb|left|Ardhanarishvara sculpture, [[Khajuraho]], depicting Shiva with goddess Parvati as his equal half.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Constance Jones|author2=James D. Ryan|title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OgMmceadQ3gC&pg=PA43 |year=2006|publisher=Infobase |isbn=978-0-8160-7564-5|page=43}}</ref>]]
[[File:Khajuraho Ardharnareshvar.jpg|thumb|left|Ardhanarishvara sculpture, [[Khajuraho]], depicting Shiva with goddess Parvati as his equal half.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Constance Jones|author2=James D. Ryan|title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OgMmceadQ3gC&pg=PA43 |year=2006|publisher=Infobase |isbn=978-0-8160-7564-5|page=43}}</ref>]]
[[ファイル:Khajuraho Ardharnareshvar.jpg|thumb|left|[[アルダナーリーシュヴァラ|Ardhanarishvara]]、男性神シヴァと女性神パールヴァティが半分ずつ描かれる。{{仮リンク|カジュラーホー寺院群|en|Khajuraho}}<ref>{{Cite book|author1=Constance Jones|author2=James D. Ryan|title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OgMmceadQ3gC&pg=PA43 |year=2006|publisher=Infobase |isbn=978-0-8160-7564-5|page=43}}</ref>。]]
An iconographic representation of Shiva called [[Ardhanarishvara]] (''{{IAST|Ardhanārīśvara}}'') shows him with one half of the body as male and the other half as female. According to Ellen Goldberg, the traditional Sanskrit name for this form is best translated as "the lord who is half woman", not as "half-man, half-woman".<ref>Goldberg specifically rejects the translation by Frederique Marglin (1989) as "half-man, half-woman", and instead adopts the translation by Marglin as "the lord who is half woman" as given in Marglin (1989, 216). Goldberg, p. 1.</ref>
An iconographic representation of Shiva called [[Ardhanarishvara]] (''{{IAST|Ardhanārīśvara}}'') shows him with one half of the body as male and the other half as female. According to Ellen Goldberg, the traditional Sanskrit name for this form is best translated as "the lord who is half woman", not as "half-man, half-woman".<ref>Goldberg specifically rejects the translation by Frederique Marglin (1989) as "half-man, half-woman", and instead adopts the translation by Marglin as "the lord who is half woman" as given in Marglin (1989, 216). Goldberg, p. 1.</ref>
[[アルダナーリーシュヴァラ]]はシヴァの体の半分を男性として、のこり半分を女性として描く。エレン・ゴールドバーグ(Ellen Goldberg)は、アルダナーリーシュヴァラという語は「半男、半女」ではなく、「半分が女性の王」と翻訳するのがふさわしいとしている<ref>Goldberg specifically rejects the translation by Frederique Marglin (1989) as "half-man, half-woman", and instead adopts the translation by Marglin as "the lord who is half woman" as given in Marglin (1989, 216). Goldberg, p. 1.</ref>。

Shiva is often depicted as an archer in the act of destroying the triple fortresses, ''Tripura'', of the Asuras.<ref>For evolution of this story from early sources to the epic period, when it was used to enhance Shiva's increasing influence, see: Chakravarti, p.46.</ref> Shiva's name [[Tripurantaka]] ( ''{{IAST|Tripurāntaka}}''), "ender of Tripura", refers to this important story.<ref>For the {{IAST|Tripurāntaka}} form, see: Sivaramamurti (1976), pp. 34, 49.</ref>
Shiva is often depicted as an archer in the act of destroying the triple fortresses, ''Tripura'', of the Asuras.<ref>For evolution of this story from early sources to the epic period, when it was used to enhance Shiva's increasing influence, see: Chakravarti, p.46.</ref> Shiva's name [[Tripurantaka]] ( ''{{IAST|Tripurāntaka}}''), "ender of Tripura", refers to this important story.<ref>For the {{IAST|Tripurāntaka}} form, see: Sivaramamurti (1976), pp. 34, 49.</ref>


<!-- Major other forms list needed: Other forms include [[Virabhadra]] and [[Sharabha]]. -->
<!-- Major other forms list needed: Other forms include [[Virabhadra]] and [[Sharabha]]. -->
シヴァは[[アスラ]]たちの三重構造の要塞トリプラに向かって弓を構える姿で描写されることがある<ref>For evolution of this story from early sources to the epic period, when it was used to enhance Shiva's increasing influence, see: Chakravarti, p.46.</ref>。シヴァの異名のひとつである「{{仮リンク|トリプランタカ|en|Tripurantaka}}」(トリプラを終わらせる者)はこの物語が由来となっている<ref>For the {{IAST|Tripurāntaka}} form, see: Sivaramamurti (1976), pp. 34, 49.</ref>。


===Lingam===
=== リンガ信仰 ===
[[File:Aikya Linga in Varanasi.jpg|thumb|Traditional flower offering to a lingam in [[Varanasi]]]]
[[File:Aikya Linga in Varanasi.jpg|thumb|Traditional flower offering to a lingam in [[Varanasi]]]]
[[ファイル:Aikya Linga in Varanasi.jpg|thumb|[[リンガ (シンボル)|リンガ]]への献花。[[ヴァーラーナシー]]。]]
{{Main article|Lingam}}
{{Main|リンガ (シンボル)}}
Apart from anthropomorphic images of Shiva, he is also represented in aniconic form of a lingam.<ref name="Michaels, p. 216">Michaels, p. 216.</ref><ref>Flood (1996), p. 29.</ref><ref>Tattwananda, pp. 49-52.</ref> These are depicted in various designs. One common form is the shape of a vertical rounded column in the centre of a lipped, disk-shaped object, the ''yoni'', symbolism for the goddess Shakti.<ref name=britannicalingam>[https://www.britannica.com/topic/lingam Lingam: Hindu symbol] Encyclopedia Britannica</ref> In Shiva temples, the ''linga'' is typically present in its sanctum sanctorum and is the focus of votary offerings such as milk, water, flower petals, fruit, fresh leaves, and rice.<ref name=britannicalingam/> According to Monier Williams and Yudit Greenberg, ''linga'' literally means "mark, sign or emblem", and also refers to a "mark or sign from which the existence of something else can be reliably inferred". It implies the regenerative divine energy innate in nature, symbolized by Shiva.<ref>Monier Williams (1899), Sanskrit to English Dictionary, लिङ्ग, page 901</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Yudit Kornberg Greenberg|title=Encyclopedia of Love in World Religions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nGoag6b3JvYC&pg=PA572 |year=2008|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-85109-980-1|pages=572–573}}</ref> Some scholars, such as [[Wendy Doniger]], view ''linga'' merely as an erotic phallic symbol,<ref>{{cite book |author=O'Flaherty, Wendy Doniger |title=Śiva, the erotic ascetic |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |year=1981 |pages= |isbn=0-19-520250-3 |oclc= |doi= }}</ref> although this interpretation is disputed by others, including [[Swami Vivekananda]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Sen|first=Amiya P.|title=The Indispensable Vivekananda|publisher=Orient Blackswan|year=2006|pages=25–26|chapter=Editor's Introduction }}</ref> [[Sivananda Saraswati]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Sivananda|first=Swami|title=Lord Siva and His Worship|publisher=The Divine Life Trust Society|year=1996|chapter=Worship of Siva Linga|url=http://www.dlshq.org/download/lordsiva.htm#_VPID_80}}</ref> and [[S. N. Balagangadhara]].<ref>{{cite journal|author=Balagangadhara, S.N., Sarah Claerhout|date=Spring 2008|title=Are Dialogues Antidotes to Violence? Two Recent Examples From Hinduism Studies|journal=Journal for the Study of Religions and Ideologies|volume=7|issue=19|pages=118–143|url=http://www.jsri.ro/new/?download=19_balagangadhara_claerhout.pdf|ref=harv}}</ref> According to [[Moriz Winternitz]], the ''linga'' in the Shiva tradition is "only a symbol of the productive and creative principle of nature as embodied in Shiva", and it has no historical trace in any obscene phallic cult.<ref>{{cite book|last=Winternitz|first=Moriz|author2=V. Srinivasa Sarma |title=A History of Indian Literature, Volume 1 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass| year=1981| page=543 footnote 4| isbn=978-81-208-0264-3| url=https://books.google.com/?id=JRfuJFRV_O8C&pg=PA543}}</ref>
Apart from anthropomorphic images of Shiva, he is also represented in aniconic form of a lingam.<ref name="Michaels, p. 216">Michaels, p. 216.</ref><ref>Flood (1996), p. 29.</ref><ref>Tattwananda, pp. 49-52.</ref> These are depicted in various designs. One common form is the shape of a vertical rounded column in the centre of a lipped, disk-shaped object, the ''yoni'', symbolism for the goddess Shakti.<ref name=britannicalingam>[https://www.britannica.com/topic/lingam Lingam: Hindu symbol] Encyclopedia Britannica</ref> In Shiva temples, the ''linga'' is typically present in its sanctum sanctorum and is the focus of votary offerings such as milk, water, flower petals, fruit, fresh leaves, and rice.<ref name=britannicalingam/> According to Monier Williams and Yudit Greenberg, ''linga'' literally means "mark, sign or emblem", and also refers to a "mark or sign from which the existence of something else can be reliably inferred". It implies the regenerative divine energy innate in nature, symbolized by Shiva.<ref>Monier Williams (1899), Sanskrit to English Dictionary, लिङ्ग, page 901</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Yudit Kornberg Greenberg|title=Encyclopedia of Love in World Religions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nGoag6b3JvYC&pg=PA572 |year=2008|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-85109-980-1|pages=572–573}}</ref> Some scholars, such as [[Wendy Doniger]], view ''linga'' merely as an erotic phallic symbol,<ref>{{cite book |author=O'Flaherty, Wendy Doniger |title=Śiva, the erotic ascetic |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |year=1981 |pages= |isbn=0-19-520250-3 |oclc= |doi= }}</ref> although this interpretation is disputed by others, including [[Swami Vivekananda]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Sen|first=Amiya P.|title=The Indispensable Vivekananda|publisher=Orient Blackswan|year=2006|pages=25–26|chapter=Editor's Introduction }}</ref> [[Sivananda Saraswati]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Sivananda|first=Swami|title=Lord Siva and His Worship|publisher=The Divine Life Trust Society|year=1996|chapter=Worship of Siva Linga|url=http://www.dlshq.org/download/lordsiva.htm#_VPID_80}}</ref> and [[S. N. Balagangadhara]].<ref>{{cite journal|author=Balagangadhara, S.N., Sarah Claerhout|date=Spring 2008|title=Are Dialogues Antidotes to Violence? Two Recent Examples From Hinduism Studies|journal=Journal for the Study of Religions and Ideologies|volume=7|issue=19|pages=118–143|url=http://www.jsri.ro/new/?download=19_balagangadhara_claerhout.pdf|ref=harv}}</ref> According to [[Moriz Winternitz]], the ''linga'' in the Shiva tradition is "only a symbol of the productive and creative principle of nature as embodied in Shiva", and it has no historical trace in any obscene phallic cult.<ref>{{cite book|last=Winternitz|first=Moriz|author2=V. Srinivasa Sarma |title=A History of Indian Literature, Volume 1 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass| year=1981| page=543 footnote 4| isbn=978-81-208-0264-3| url=https://books.google.com/?id=JRfuJFRV_O8C&pg=PA543}}</ref>

人の姿での表現のみならず、シヴァは[[リンガ (シンボル)|リンガ]](リンガムとも)という形に象徴化される<ref name="Michaels, p. 216">Michaels, p. 216.</ref><ref>Flood (1996), p. 29.</ref><ref>Tattwananda, pp. 49-52.</ref>。リンガの形は様々である<!--大まかには同じ-->。一般的なものでは、{{仮リンク|ヨーニ|en|yoni}}と呼ばれる注ぎ口が付いた円盤上のオブジェクトの真ん中から、円柱が垂直にそそり立つという形をしている。このヨーニは女神シャクティを象徴化している<ref name=britannicalingam>[https://www.britannica.com/topic/lingam Lingam: Hindu symbol] Encyclopedia Britannica</ref>。シヴァを祀る寺院であれば通常リンガは寺院内の聖所に置かれ、[[牛乳]]、[[花]]、[[花びら]]、[[果物]]、[[葉っぱ]]、[[お米]]などが捧げられる<ref name=britannicalingam/>。[[モニエル・モニエル=ウィリアムズ|モニエル・ウィリアムズ]]、ユディット・グリーンバーグ(Yudit Greenberg)らによれば、リンガは字義をとれば「印」、「符号」、「紋」に翻訳され、また、「それによって何か他の物が存在することを確かに推測できる印」を意味する。すなわちシヴァという存在に象徴されている、自然界に備わっている、神聖な再生の力を暗示するとする<ref>Monier Williams (1899), Sanskrit to English Dictionary, लिङ्ग, page 901</ref><ref>{{Cite book|author=Yudit Kornberg Greenberg|title=Encyclopedia of Love in World Religions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nGoag6b3JvYC&pg=PA572 |year=2008|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-85109-980-1|pages=572–573}}</ref>。{{仮リンク|ウェンディー・ドニガー|en|Wendy Doniger}}をはじめとする一部の学者は、リンガは単純に[[ファルス]]を象徴化したものに過ぎないとするが<ref>{{Cite book |author=O'Flaherty, Wendy Doniger |title=Śiva, the erotic ascetic |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |year=1981 |pages= |isbn=0-19-520250-3 |oclc= |doi= }}</ref>、[[ヴィヴェーカーナンダ]]<ref>{{Cite book|last=Sen|first=Amiya P.|title=The Indispensable Vivekananda|publisher=Orient Blackswan|year=2006|pages=25–26|chapter=Editor's Introduction }}</ref>、{{仮リンク|シヴァナンダ・サラスヴァティ|en|Sivananda Saraswati}}<ref>{{Cite book|last=Sivananda|first=Swami|title=Lord Siva and His Worship|publisher=The Divine Life Trust Society|year=1996|chapter=Worship of Siva Linga|url=http://www.dlshq.org/download/lordsiva.htm#_VPID_80}}</ref>、{{仮リンク|バラガンガダーラ|en|S. N. Balagangadhara}}らは<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Balagangadhara, S.N., Sarah Claerhout|date=Spring 2008|title=Are Dialogues Antidotes to Violence? Two Recent Examples From Hinduism Studies|journal=Journal for the Study of Religions and Ideologies|volume=7|issue=19|pages=118–143|url=http://www.jsri.ro/new/?download=19_balagangadhara_claerhout.pdf|ref=harv}}</ref>この評価に反対の立場をとる。{{仮リンク|M・ヴィンテルニッツ|en|Moriz Winternitz}}は、リンガの象徴するものは単純に、シヴァに内在する自然のもつ生産と創造の原則であり、歴史の中に猥褻な[[生殖器崇拝|性器信仰]]の存在した痕跡は認められないとしている<ref>{{Cite book|last=Winternitz|first=Moriz|author2=V. Srinivasa Sarma |title=A History of Indian Literature, Volume 1 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass| year=1981| page=543 footnote 4| isbn=978-81-208-0264-3| url=https://books.google.com/?id=JRfuJFRV_O8C&pg=PA543}}</ref>。


The worship of the lingam originated from the famous hymn in the ''Atharva-Veda Samhitâ'' sung in praise of the ''Yupa-Stambha'', the sacrificial post. In that hymn, a description is found of the beginningless and endless ''[[Stambha]]'' or ''Skambha'', and it is shown that the said ''Skambha'' is put in place of the eternal [[Brahman]]. Just as the [[Yajna]] (sacrificial) fire, its smoke, ashes, and flames, the ''Soma'' plant, and the ox that used to carry on its back the wood for the [[Historical Vedic religion|Vedic sacrifice]] gave place to the conceptions of the brightness of Shiva's body, his tawny matted hair, his blue throat, and the riding on the bull of the Shiva, the ''Yupa-Skambha'' gave place in time to the ''Shiva-Linga''.<ref name="E.U.Harding">{{cite book | last = Harding | first = Elizabeth U. | title = Kali: The Black Goddess of Dakshineswar | chapter = God, the Father | publisher = Motilal Banarsidass | year = 1998 | pages = 156–157 | isbn = 978-81-208-1450-9}}</ref><ref name="paris_congress">{{cite book | last = Vivekananda | first = Swami | title = The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda | chapter = The Paris congress of the history of religions | chapterurl = http://www.ramakrishnavivekananda.info/vivekananda/volume_4/translation_prose/the_paris_congress.htm | volume = 4}}</ref> In the text ''Linga Purana'', the same hymn is expanded in the shape of stories, meant to establish the glory of the great Stambha and the superiority of Shiva as Mahadeva.<ref name="paris_congress"/>
The worship of the lingam originated from the famous hymn in the ''Atharva-Veda Samhitâ'' sung in praise of the ''Yupa-Stambha'', the sacrificial post. In that hymn, a description is found of the beginningless and endless ''[[Stambha]]'' or ''Skambha'', and it is shown that the said ''Skambha'' is put in place of the eternal [[Brahman]]. Just as the [[Yajna]] (sacrificial) fire, its smoke, ashes, and flames, the ''Soma'' plant, and the ox that used to carry on its back the wood for the [[Historical Vedic religion|Vedic sacrifice]] gave place to the conceptions of the brightness of Shiva's body, his tawny matted hair, his blue throat, and the riding on the bull of the Shiva, the ''Yupa-Skambha'' gave place in time to the ''Shiva-Linga''.<ref name="E.U.Harding">{{cite book | last = Harding | first = Elizabeth U. | title = Kali: The Black Goddess of Dakshineswar | chapter = God, the Father | publisher = Motilal Banarsidass | year = 1998 | pages = 156–157 | isbn = 978-81-208-1450-9}}</ref><ref name="paris_congress">{{cite book | last = Vivekananda | first = Swami | title = The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda | chapter = The Paris congress of the history of religions | chapterurl = http://www.ramakrishnavivekananda.info/vivekananda/volume_4/translation_prose/the_paris_congress.htm | volume = 4}}</ref> In the text ''Linga Purana'', the same hymn is expanded in the shape of stories, meant to establish the glory of the great Stambha and the superiority of Shiva as Mahadeva.<ref name="paris_congress"/>

リンガ信仰の由来を辿ると[[アタルヴァ・ヴェーダ]](紀元前1200年-紀元前1000年)に収録されている賛歌にまで遡る。ユパ・スタンバ(Yupa-Stambha)、儀式のための柱を称える歌であり、始まりも終わりもない{{仮リンク|スタンバ|en|Stambha}}(Stambha)あるいはスカンバ(Skambha)という記述がみられ、これは、このスタンバが永遠の[[ブラフマン]]の象徴として建てられていることを示している。ちょうど{{仮リンク|ヤジナ|en|Yajna}}(儀式)の火が、煙が、灰が、炎が、ソーマが、この[[ヴェーダの宗教|ヴェーダの儀式]]に用いられる薪を運ぶのに使われた牛が輝かしいシヴァの体に、彼の褐色のもつれた髪に、青い喉に、シヴァの乗り物としての牛に置き換えられたように、ユパ・スタンバはやがてシヴァ・リンガに置き換えられた<ref name="E.U.Harding">{{Cite book | last = Harding | first = Elizabeth U. | title = Kali: The Black Goddess of Dakshineswar | chapter = God, the Father | publisher = Motilal Banarsidass | year = 1998 | pages = 156–157 | isbn = 978-81-208-1450-9}}</ref><ref name="paris_congress">{{Cite book | last = Vivekananda | first = Swami | title = The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda | chapter = The Paris congress of the history of religions | chapterurl = http://www.ramakrishnavivekananda.info/vivekananda/volume_4/translation_prose/the_paris_congress.htm | volume = 4}}</ref>。リンガ・プラーナでは同じ賛歌が偉大なスタンバの栄光とマハーデーヴァの優位性を確立するためのストーリーに展開される<ref name="paris_congress"/>。<!--出典確認したい-->


The oldest known archaeological ''linga'' as an anicon of Shiva is the Gudimallam lingam from 3rd-century BCE.<ref name=britannicalingam/> In Shaivism pilgrimage tradition, twelve major temples of Shiva are called [[Jyotirlinga]], which means "linga of light", and these are located across India.<ref>{{cite book|author=Swati Mitra|title=Omkareshwar and Maheshwar|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_0RpUoGiou4C&pg=PA25|year=2011|publisher=Eicher Goodearth and Madhya Pradesh Government|isbn=978-93-80262-24-6|page=25}}</ref>
The oldest known archaeological ''linga'' as an anicon of Shiva is the Gudimallam lingam from 3rd-century BCE.<ref name=britannicalingam/> In Shaivism pilgrimage tradition, twelve major temples of Shiva are called [[Jyotirlinga]], which means "linga of light", and these are located across India.<ref>{{cite book|author=Swati Mitra|title=Omkareshwar and Maheshwar|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_0RpUoGiou4C&pg=PA25|year=2011|publisher=Eicher Goodearth and Madhya Pradesh Government|isbn=978-93-80262-24-6|page=25}}</ref>


シヴァの象徴として作られたもので現存する最も古いリンガは紀元前3世紀に作られたもので{{仮リンク|グディマラム|en|Gudimallam}}村に見つかっている<ref name=britannicalingam/>。シヴァ派の巡礼の習慣ではインド各地に散らばる主要な12のシヴァ寺院を{{仮リンク|ジョーティルリンガ|en|Jyotirlinga}}(光のリンガの意)と呼ぶ<ref>{{Cite book|author=Swati Mitra|title=Omkareshwar and Maheshwar|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_0RpUoGiou4C&pg=PA25|year=2011|publisher=Eicher Goodearth and Madhya Pradesh Government|isbn=978-93-80262-24-6|page=25}}</ref>。
===The five mantras===

=== 5つのマントラ ===
[[File:10th century five headed Shiva Sadashiva Cambodia Metmuseum.jpg|thumb|left|The 10th century five headed Shiva, Sadashiva, Cambodia.]]
[[File:10th century five headed Shiva Sadashiva Cambodia Metmuseum.jpg|thumb|left|The 10th century five headed Shiva, Sadashiva, Cambodia.]]
[[ファイル:10th century five headed Shiva Sadashiva Cambodia Metmuseum.jpg|thumb|left|サダシヴァ、5つの頭を持つシヴァ。[[カンボジア]]、10世紀。]]
Five is a sacred number for Shiva.<ref>For five as a sacred number, see: Kramrisch, p. 182.</ref> One of his most important mantras has five syllables ({{IAST|namaḥ śivāya}}).<ref>It is first encountered in an almost identical form in the Rudram. For the five syllable mantra see: Kramrisch, p. 182.</ref>
Five is a sacred number for Shiva.<ref>For five as a sacred number, see: Kramrisch, p. 182.</ref> One of his most important mantras has five syllables ({{IAST|namaḥ śivāya}}).<ref>It is first encountered in an almost identical form in the Rudram. For the five syllable mantra see: Kramrisch, p. 182.</ref>

「5」はシヴァと結び付けられて考えられる神聖な数字になる<ref>For five as a sacred number, see: Kramrisch, p. 182.</ref>。シヴァの[[マントラ]]の中でも最も重要なもののひとつ、「ナマシバヤ」(namaḥ śivāya)も5音節である<ref>It is first encountered in an almost identical form in the Rudram. For the five syllable mantra see: Kramrisch, p. 182.</ref>。


Shiva's body is said to consist of five mantras, called the {{IAST|pañcabrahmans}}.<ref>For discussion of these five forms and a table summarizing the associations of these five mantras see: Kramrisch, pp. 182-189.</ref> As forms of God, each of these have their own names and distinct iconography:<ref>For distinct iconography, see Kramrisch, p. 185.</ref>
Shiva's body is said to consist of five mantras, called the {{IAST|pañcabrahmans}}.<ref>For discussion of these five forms and a table summarizing the associations of these five mantras see: Kramrisch, pp. 182-189.</ref> As forms of God, each of these have their own names and distinct iconography:<ref>For distinct iconography, see Kramrisch, p. 185.</ref>

シヴァの体はパーンチャブラフマンス(pañcabrahmans)と呼ばれる5つのマントラから成ると言われている<ref>For discussion of these five forms and a table summarizing the associations of these five mantras see: Kramrisch, pp. 182-189.</ref>。これら5つはそれぞれ神という形をとり、名前と偶像上の特徴を持っている<ref>For distinct iconography, see Kramrisch, p. 185.</ref>。


* [[Sadyojata|{{IAST|Sadyojāta}}]]
* [[Sadyojata|{{IAST|Sadyojāta}}]]
257行目: 450行目:
* [[Tatpurusa|{{IAST|Tatpuruṣa}}]]
* [[Tatpurusa|{{IAST|Tatpuruṣa}}]]
* [[Ishana|{{IAST|Īsāna}}]]
* [[Ishana|{{IAST|Īsāna}}]]

* {{仮リンク|サドヨジャータ|en|Sadyojata}}(Sadyojāta)
* {{仮リンク|ヴァマデーヴァ|en|Vamadeva}}(Vāmadeva)
* {{仮リンク|バイラヴァ|en|Bhairava}}
* {{仮リンク|タトプルシャ|en|Tatpurusa}}(Tatpuruṣa)
* [[伊舎那天|イシャーナ]](Īsāna)<!--スペルちがう?-->


These are represented as the five faces of Shiva and are associated in various texts with the five elements, the five senses, the five organs of perception, and the five organs of action.<ref>For association with the five faces and other groups of five, see: Kramrisch, p. 182.</ref><ref>For the epithets ''{{IAST|pañcamukha}}'' and ''{{IAST|pañcavaktra}}'', both of which mean "five faces", as epithets of {{IAST|Śiva}}, see: Apte, p. 578, middle column.</ref> Doctrinal differences and, possibly, errors in transmission, have resulted in some differences between texts in details of how these five forms are linked with various attributes.<ref>For variation in attributions among texts, see: Kramrisch, p. 187.</ref> The overall meaning of these associations is summarized by Stella Kramrisch:
These are represented as the five faces of Shiva and are associated in various texts with the five elements, the five senses, the five organs of perception, and the five organs of action.<ref>For association with the five faces and other groups of five, see: Kramrisch, p. 182.</ref><ref>For the epithets ''{{IAST|pañcamukha}}'' and ''{{IAST|pañcavaktra}}'', both of which mean "five faces", as epithets of {{IAST|Śiva}}, see: Apte, p. 578, middle column.</ref> Doctrinal differences and, possibly, errors in transmission, have resulted in some differences between texts in details of how these five forms are linked with various attributes.<ref>For variation in attributions among texts, see: Kramrisch, p. 187.</ref> The overall meaning of these associations is summarized by Stella Kramrisch:

これらはシヴァの5つの顔として表現され、また様々な文献にて5つの要素、5つの感覚、5つの知覚の器官<!--ジャナネンドリヤス。聴覚、接触覚、視覚、味覚、臭覚-->、5つの活動の感覚器官<!--カルメンドリヤス。耳、皮膚、目、舌、鼻-->と結び付けられている<ref>For association with the five faces and other groups of five, see: Kramrisch, p. 182.</ref><ref>For the epithets ''{{IAST|pañcamukha}}'' and ''{{IAST|pañcavaktra}}'', both of which mean "five faces", as epithets of {{IAST|Śiva}}, see: Apte, p. 578, middle column.</ref>。教義の違いによって、あるいはもしかすると伝達の失敗から、これらの5つの顔がどの特性と結び付けられているのかに関してはバリエーションが存在する<ref>For variation in attributions among texts, see: Kramrisch, p. 187.</ref>。全体としての意味合いはクラムリッシュによって以下のように要約されている。

{{quote|Through these transcendent categories, Śiva, the ultimate reality, becomes the efficient and material cause of all that exists.<ref>Kramrisch, p. 184.</ref>}}
{{quote|Through these transcendent categories, Śiva, the ultimate reality, becomes the efficient and material cause of all that exists.<ref>Kramrisch, p. 184.</ref>}}

{{Quote|これらの超越的な[[カテゴリ]]を通して、究極の現実(ブラフマン)であるシヴァは全ての存在するものの[[作用因]]、[[質料因]]となる<ref>Kramrisch, p. 184.</ref>。}}


According to the ''Pañcabrahma Upanishad'':
According to the ''Pañcabrahma Upanishad'':
{{quote|One should know all things of the phenomenal world as of a fivefold character, for the reason that the eternal verity of {{IAST|Śiva}} is of the character of the fivefold Brahman. (''Pañcabrahma Upanishad'' 31)<ref>Quotation from ''Pañcabrahma Upanishad'' 31 is from: Kramrisch, p. 182.</ref>}}
{{quote|One should know all things of the phenomenal world as of a fivefold character, for the reason that the eternal verity of {{IAST|Śiva}} is of the character of the fivefold Brahman. (''Pañcabrahma Upanishad'' 31)<ref>Quotation from ''Pañcabrahma Upanishad'' 31 is from: Kramrisch, p. 182.</ref>}}


{{仮リンク|パーンチャブラフマ・ウパニシャッド|en|Pancabrahma Upanishad}}には以下のように語られている。
===Avatars===
{{Quote|全ての現象世界は5つの性質からなると知りなさい。シヴァの永遠の真理は5つのブラフマンから成る性質なのだから。|パーンチャブラフマ・ウパニシャッド 31<ref>Quotation from ''Pañcabrahma Upanishad'' 31 is from: Kramrisch, p. 182.</ref>}}

=== アヴァターラ ===
[[Puranas|Puranic scriptures]] contain occasional references to "ansh" – literally portion, or avatars of Shiva, but the idea of Shiva avatars is not universally accepted in [[Saivism]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Parrinder| first= Edward Geoffrey |title=Avatar and incarnation |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |year=1982 |page= 88 |isbn=0-19-520361-5 }}</ref> The Linga Purana mentions twenty-eight forms of Shiva which are sometimes seen as avatars,<ref>{{cite book|last=Winternitz|first=Moriz|author2=V. Srinivasa Sarma |title=A History of Indian Literature, Volume 1 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass| year=1981| pages=543–544| isbn=978-81-208-0264-3| url=https://books.google.com/?id=JRfuJFRV_O8C&pg=PA543}}</ref> however such mention is unusual and the avatars of Shiva is relatively rare in Shaivism compared to the well emphasized concept of Vishnu avatars in [[Vaishnavism]].<ref>James Lochtefeld (2002), "Shiva" in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 2: N-Z, Rosen Publishing, ISBN 0-8239-2287-1, page 635</ref><ref name=ryanjonesavatar>{{cite book|author1=Constance Jones |author2=James D. Ryan |title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OgMmceadQ3gC |year=2006|publisher=Infobase |isbn=978-0-8160-7564-5 |pages=474 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Parrinder| first= Edward Geoffrey |title=Avatar and incarnation |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |year=1982 |pages= 87–88 |isbn=0-19-520361-5 }}</ref>
[[Puranas|Puranic scriptures]] contain occasional references to "ansh" – literally portion, or avatars of Shiva, but the idea of Shiva avatars is not universally accepted in [[Saivism]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Parrinder| first= Edward Geoffrey |title=Avatar and incarnation |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |year=1982 |page= 88 |isbn=0-19-520361-5 }}</ref> The Linga Purana mentions twenty-eight forms of Shiva which are sometimes seen as avatars,<ref>{{cite book|last=Winternitz|first=Moriz|author2=V. Srinivasa Sarma |title=A History of Indian Literature, Volume 1 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass| year=1981| pages=543–544| isbn=978-81-208-0264-3| url=https://books.google.com/?id=JRfuJFRV_O8C&pg=PA543}}</ref> however such mention is unusual and the avatars of Shiva is relatively rare in Shaivism compared to the well emphasized concept of Vishnu avatars in [[Vaishnavism]].<ref>James Lochtefeld (2002), "Shiva" in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 2: N-Z, Rosen Publishing, ISBN 0-8239-2287-1, page 635</ref><ref name=ryanjonesavatar>{{cite book|author1=Constance Jones |author2=James D. Ryan |title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OgMmceadQ3gC |year=2006|publisher=Infobase |isbn=978-0-8160-7564-5 |pages=474 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Parrinder| first= Edward Geoffrey |title=Avatar and incarnation |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |year=1982 |pages= 87–88 |isbn=0-19-520361-5 }}</ref>

プラーナ文献には時折「アンシュ」(ansh)という言葉が現れる。これは「一部」という意味で、同時にシヴァの[[アヴァターラ]](化身)を意味する言葉である。しかしこの(「アンシュ」がシヴァのアヴァターラを意味するという<!--出典確認したい-->)アイデアはシヴァ派の中でも全体に受け入れられているわけではない<ref>{{Cite book |last=Parrinder| first= Edward Geoffrey |title=Avatar and incarnation |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |year=1982 |page= 88 |isbn=0-19-520361-5 }}</ref>。リンガ・プラーナに語られるシヴァの姿形は合計で28種類に及び、そのうち何回かはアヴァターラとして語られる<ref>{{Cite book|last=Winternitz|first=Moriz|author2=V. Srinivasa Sarma |title=A History of Indian Literature, Volume 1 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass| year=1981| pages=543–544| isbn=978-81-208-0264-3| url=https://books.google.com/?id=JRfuJFRV_O8C&pg=PA543}}</ref>。しかしこういう表現は(全体から見ると)稀で、シヴァ派の信仰の中でシヴァのアヴァターラが語られることは珍しい。これは「ヴィシュヌのアヴァターラ」というコンセプトをことさら強調するヴィシュヌ派とは対照的である<ref>James Lochtefeld (2002), "Shiva" in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 2: N-Z, Rosen Publishing, ISBN 0-8239-2287-1, page 635</ref><ref name=ryanjonesavatar>{{Cite book|author1=Constance Jones |author2=James D. Ryan |title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OgMmceadQ3gC |year=2006|publisher=Infobase |isbn=978-0-8160-7564-5 |pages=474 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Parrinder| first= Edward Geoffrey |title=Avatar and incarnation |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |year=1982 |pages= 87–88 |isbn=0-19-520361-5 }}</ref>。


Some Vaishnava literature reverentially link Shiva to characters in its mythologies. For example, in the ''[[Hanuman Chalisa]]'', [[Hanuman]] is identified as the eleventh avatar of Shiva.<ref>{{cite book|last= Lutgendorf|first=Philip|title=Hanuman's tale: the messages of a divine monkey|publisher=Oxford University Press US|year=2007|page=44|url=https://books.google.com/?id=fVFC2Nx-LP8C&pg=PT333&dq=avatara+Hanuman&cd=1#v=snippet&q=avatara%20%20Shiva | isbn=978-0-19-530921-8}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Catherine Ludvík|title=Hanumān in the Rāmāyaṇa of Vālmīki and the Rāmacaritamānasa of Tulasī Dāsa|pages=10–11|url=https://books.google.com/?id=KCXQN0qoAe0C&pg=PA10&dq=Hanuman+Rudra&cd=2#v=onepage&q=Hanuman%20Rudra | isbn=978-81-208-1122-5 | year=1994 | publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ.}}</ref><ref>Sri Ramakrishna Math (1985) "Hanuman Chalisa" p. 5</ref> The ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]'' and the ''[[Vishnu Purana]]'' claim sage [[Durvasa]] to be a portion of Shiva.<ref name="Footnote 1 HH Wilson">{{cite web | url= http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/vp/vp044.htm#fn_229 | title= Footnote 70:1 to Horace Hayman Wilson's English translation of The Vishnu Purana: Book I - Chapter IX}}</ref><ref name="Footnote 2 HH Wilson">{{cite web | url= http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/vp/vp045.htm#fn_243 | title= Footnote 83:4 to Horace Hayman Wilson's English translation of The Vishnu Purana: Book I - Chapter X}}</ref><ref name="Bhagavata Purana 4.1">{{cite web | url= http://vedabase.net/sb/4/1/en1 | title= Srimad Bhagavatam Canto 4 Chapter 1 - English translation by A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada}}</ref> Some medieval era writers have called the [[Advaita Vedanta]] philosopher [[Adi Shankara]] as an incarnation of Shiva.<ref>{{cite book|author=Sengaku Mayeda (Translator)|title=A Thousand Teachings: The Upadesasahasri of Sankara|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8fkLggRFFBwC|year=1979|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0-7914-0943-5|page=4}}</ref>
Some Vaishnava literature reverentially link Shiva to characters in its mythologies. For example, in the ''[[Hanuman Chalisa]]'', [[Hanuman]] is identified as the eleventh avatar of Shiva.<ref>{{cite book|last= Lutgendorf|first=Philip|title=Hanuman's tale: the messages of a divine monkey|publisher=Oxford University Press US|year=2007|page=44|url=https://books.google.com/?id=fVFC2Nx-LP8C&pg=PT333&dq=avatara+Hanuman&cd=1#v=snippet&q=avatara%20%20Shiva | isbn=978-0-19-530921-8}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Catherine Ludvík|title=Hanumān in the Rāmāyaṇa of Vālmīki and the Rāmacaritamānasa of Tulasī Dāsa|pages=10–11|url=https://books.google.com/?id=KCXQN0qoAe0C&pg=PA10&dq=Hanuman+Rudra&cd=2#v=onepage&q=Hanuman%20Rudra | isbn=978-81-208-1122-5 | year=1994 | publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ.}}</ref><ref>Sri Ramakrishna Math (1985) "Hanuman Chalisa" p. 5</ref> The ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]'' and the ''[[Vishnu Purana]]'' claim sage [[Durvasa]] to be a portion of Shiva.<ref name="Footnote 1 HH Wilson">{{cite web | url= http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/vp/vp044.htm#fn_229 | title= Footnote 70:1 to Horace Hayman Wilson's English translation of The Vishnu Purana: Book I - Chapter IX}}</ref><ref name="Footnote 2 HH Wilson">{{cite web | url= http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/vp/vp045.htm#fn_243 | title= Footnote 83:4 to Horace Hayman Wilson's English translation of The Vishnu Purana: Book I - Chapter X}}</ref><ref name="Bhagavata Purana 4.1">{{cite web | url= http://vedabase.net/sb/4/1/en1 | title= Srimad Bhagavatam Canto 4 Chapter 1 - English translation by A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada}}</ref> Some medieval era writers have called the [[Advaita Vedanta]] philosopher [[Adi Shankara]] as an incarnation of Shiva.<ref>{{cite book|author=Sengaku Mayeda (Translator)|title=A Thousand Teachings: The Upadesasahasri of Sankara|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8fkLggRFFBwC|year=1979|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0-7914-0943-5|page=4}}</ref>


いくつかのヴィシュヌ派の文献では、敬意をもってシヴァと神話の中の登場人物とをリンクさせている。例えば、{{仮リンク|ハヌマン・チャーリーサ|en|Hanuman Chalisa}}(賛歌)ではハヌマンはシヴァの11番目のアヴァターであるとされている<ref>{{Cite book|last= Lutgendorf|first=Philip|title=Hanuman's tale: the messages of a divine monkey|publisher=Oxford University Press US|year=2007|page=44|url=https://books.google.com/?id=fVFC2Nx-LP8C&pg=PT333&dq=avatara+Hanuman&cd=1#v=snippet&q=avatara%20%20Shiva | isbn=978-0-19-530921-8}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Catherine Ludvík|title=Hanumān in the Rāmāyaṇa of Vālmīki and the Rāmacaritamānasa of Tulasī Dāsa|pages=10–11|url=https://books.google.com/?id=KCXQN0qoAe0C&pg=PA10&dq=Hanuman+Rudra&cd=2#v=onepage&q=Hanuman%20Rudra | isbn=978-81-208-1122-5 | year=1994 | publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ.}}</ref><ref>Sri Ramakrishna Math (1985) "Hanuman Chalisa" p. 5</ref>。{{仮リンク|バーガヴァタ・プラーナ|en|Bhagavata Purana}}、{{仮リンク|ヴィシュヌ・プラーナ|en|Vishnu Purana}}では[[リシ]]、{{仮リンク|ドゥルヴァーサ|en|Durvasa}}がシヴァの一部であると語られている<ref name="Footnote 1 HH Wilson">{{Cite web | url= http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/vp/vp044.htm#fn_229 | title= Footnote 70:1 to Horace Hayman Wilson's English translation of The Vishnu Purana: Book I - Chapter IX}}</ref><ref name="Footnote 2 HH Wilson">{{Cite web | url= http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/vp/vp045.htm#fn_243 | title= Footnote 83:4 to Horace Hayman Wilson's English translation of The Vishnu Purana: Book I - Chapter X}}</ref><ref name="Bhagavata Purana 4.1">{{Cite web | url= http://vedabase.net/sb/4/1/en1 | title= Srimad Bhagavatam Canto 4 Chapter 1 - English translation by A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada}}</ref>。中世の著述家たちの中には[[不二一元論]]で知られる哲学者[[シャンカラ]]をシヴァの生まれ変わりであるとする者もいる<ref>{{Cite book|author=Sengaku Mayeda (Translator)|title=A Thousand Teachings: The Upadesasahasri of Sankara|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8fkLggRFFBwC|year=1979|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0-7914-0943-5|page=4}}</ref>。
==Festivals==

{{Main article|Maha Shivaratri}}
== 祭り ==
{{Main|マハー・シヴァラートリー}}
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Maha Shivaratri is a Shiva-related [[Hinduism|Hindu]] festival celebrated annually. There is a ''Shivaratri'' in every lunar month on its 13th night /14th day,<ref name="Raj2012p152">{{cite book|author=Karen Pechilis|editor=Selva J. Raj|title=Dealing with Deities: The Ritual Vow in South Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h80yOTwlAUcC&pg=PA152 |year=2012|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0-7914-8200-1|pages=152–153}}</ref> but once a year in late winter (February/March) and before the arrival of spring, marks ''Maha Shivaratri'' which means "the Great Night of Shiva".<ref name=dalal137>{{cite book|author=Roshen Dalal|title=Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DH0vmD8ghdMC |year=2010|publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-14-341421-6|pages=137, 186 }}</ref><ref name="JonesRyan2006p269"/>
Maha Shivaratri is a Shiva-related [[Hinduism|Hindu]] festival celebrated annually. There is a ''Shivaratri'' in every lunar month on its 13th night /14th day,<ref name="Raj2012p152">{{cite book|author=Karen Pechilis|editor=Selva J. Raj|title=Dealing with Deities: The Ritual Vow in South Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h80yOTwlAUcC&pg=PA152 |year=2012|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0-7914-8200-1|pages=152–153}}</ref> but once a year in late winter (February/March) and before the arrival of spring, marks ''Maha Shivaratri'' which means "the Great Night of Shiva".<ref name=dalal137>{{cite book|author=Roshen Dalal|title=Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DH0vmD8ghdMC |year=2010|publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-14-341421-6|pages=137, 186 }}</ref><ref name="JonesRyan2006p269"/>

マハー・シヴァラートリーは毎年開催されるシヴァの[[お祭り]]である。[[太陰暦]]で毎月の13日の夜と14日に「シヴァラートリー」が行われるが<ref name="Raj2012p152">{{Cite book|author=Karen Pechilis|editor=Selva J. Raj|title=Dealing with Deities: The Ritual Vow in South Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h80yOTwlAUcC&pg=PA152 |year=2012|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0-7914-8200-1|pages=152–153}}</ref>、1年に一度、太陽暦の2月か3月、春の訪れの前に「マハー・シヴァラートリー」(偉大なシヴァの夜の意)が開催される<ref name=dalal137>{{Cite book|author=Roshen Dalal|title=Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DH0vmD8ghdMC |year=2010|publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-14-341421-6|pages=137, 186 }}</ref><ref name="JonesRyan2006p269"/>。


Maha Shivaratri is a major festival in [[Hinduism]], but one that is solemn and theologically marks a remembrance of "overcoming darkness and ignorance" in life and the world,<ref name="JonesRyan2006p269"/> and meditation about the polarities of existence, of Shiva and a devotion to humankind.<ref name="Raj2012p152"/> It is observed by reciting Shiva-related poems, chanting prayers, remembering Shiva, fasting, doing [[Yoga]] and meditating on ethics and virtues such as self-restraint, honesty, noninjury to others, forgiveness, introspection, self-repentance and the discovery of Shiva.<ref name="JonesRyan2006p269"/><ref>{{cite book|author=Bruce Long|editor=Guy Richard Welbon and Glenn E. Yocum|title=Religious Festivals in South India and Sri Lanka (Chapter: "Mahāśivaratri: the Saiva festival of repentance") |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PozZAAAAMAAJ |year=1982|publisher=Manohar|pages=189–217}}</ref> The ardent devotees keep awake all night. Others visit one of the Shiva temples or go on pilgrimage to [[Jyotirlingam]]s. Those who visit temples, offer milk, fruits, flowers, fresh leaves and sweets to the lingam.<ref name=dalal137/> Some communities organize special dance events, to mark Shiva as the lord of dance, with individual and group performances.<ref>{{cite book|author=Cath Senker|title=My Hindu Year|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lGZ5dWKRw5EC&pg=PA12|year=2007|publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group|isbn=978-1-4042-3731-5|pages=12–13}}</ref> According to Jones and Ryan, Maha Sivaratri is an ancient Hindu festival which probably originated around the 5th-century.<ref name="JonesRyan2006p269">{{cite book|author1=Constance Jones|author2=James D. Ryan|title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OgMmceadQ3gC&pg=PA269|year=2006|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-0-8160-7564-5|page=269}}</ref>
Maha Shivaratri is a major festival in [[Hinduism]], but one that is solemn and theologically marks a remembrance of "overcoming darkness and ignorance" in life and the world,<ref name="JonesRyan2006p269"/> and meditation about the polarities of existence, of Shiva and a devotion to humankind.<ref name="Raj2012p152"/> It is observed by reciting Shiva-related poems, chanting prayers, remembering Shiva, fasting, doing [[Yoga]] and meditating on ethics and virtues such as self-restraint, honesty, noninjury to others, forgiveness, introspection, self-repentance and the discovery of Shiva.<ref name="JonesRyan2006p269"/><ref>{{cite book|author=Bruce Long|editor=Guy Richard Welbon and Glenn E. Yocum|title=Religious Festivals in South India and Sri Lanka (Chapter: "Mahāśivaratri: the Saiva festival of repentance") |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PozZAAAAMAAJ |year=1982|publisher=Manohar|pages=189–217}}</ref> The ardent devotees keep awake all night. Others visit one of the Shiva temples or go on pilgrimage to [[Jyotirlingam]]s. Those who visit temples, offer milk, fruits, flowers, fresh leaves and sweets to the lingam.<ref name=dalal137/> Some communities organize special dance events, to mark Shiva as the lord of dance, with individual and group performances.<ref>{{cite book|author=Cath Senker|title=My Hindu Year|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lGZ5dWKRw5EC&pg=PA12|year=2007|publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group|isbn=978-1-4042-3731-5|pages=12–13}}</ref> According to Jones and Ryan, Maha Sivaratri is an ancient Hindu festival which probably originated around the 5th-century.<ref name="JonesRyan2006p269">{{cite book|author1=Constance Jones|author2=James D. Ryan|title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OgMmceadQ3gC&pg=PA269|year=2006|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-0-8160-7564-5|page=269}}</ref>

マハー・シヴァラートリーはヒンドゥー教の主要な祭礼のひとつであり、厳粛な性格のものである。宗教的には、この祭りには世界と人生に存在する「暗闇と無知の克服」を心に刻むという意味があり<ref name="JonesRyan2006p269"/>、シヴァの神格と人々の信仰といった両極性について瞑想する日でもある<ref name="Raj2012p152"/><!--...Mahashivaratri to be a mediation between polarities, including the personality of Shiva and the devotion of humankind....-->。シヴァに関係する詩が詠唱され、祈りがささげられ、シヴァが心にとどめられ、[[断食]]とヨーガが実践され、自制、誠実さ、[[アヒンサー|非暴力]]、寛容、内省と懺悔、そしてシヴァへの到達についての瞑想が行われる<ref name="JonesRyan2006p269"/><ref>{{Cite book|author=Bruce Long|editor=Guy Richard Welbon and Glenn E. Yocum|title=Religious Festivals in South India and Sri Lanka (Chapter: "Mahāśivaratri: the Saiva festival of repentance") |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PozZAAAAMAAJ |year=1982|publisher=Manohar|pages=189–217}}</ref>。熱心な信者は夜を徹する。そうでない者はシヴァの寺院を訪れたり、ジョーティルリンガ(主要な12のシヴァ寺院)を巡礼する。寺院を訪れた者は牛乳、果物、花、葉っぱ、甘味をリンガに捧げる<ref name=dalal137/>。コミュニティによっては、シヴァが踊りの神であることにちなみ、ダンスイベントを開催する<ref>{{Cite book|author=Cath Senker|title=My Hindu Year|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lGZ5dWKRw5EC&pg=PA12|year=2007|publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group|isbn=978-1-4042-3731-5|pages=12–13}}</ref>。コンスタンス・ジョーンズ(Constance Jones)とジェームズ・リャン(James D. Ryan)によればマハー・シヴァラートリーの起源は古代ヒンドゥー教の祝祭まで、おそらく5世紀頃までさかのぼる<ref name="JonesRyan2006p269">{{Cite book|author1=Constance Jones|author2=James D. Ryan|title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OgMmceadQ3gC&pg=PA269|year=2006|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-0-8160-7564-5|page=269}}</ref>。


Regional festivals dedicated to Shiva include the Chittirai festival in [[Madurai]] around April/May, one of the largest festivals in South India, celebrating the wedding of [[Minakshi]] (Parvati) and Shiva. The festival is one where both the Vaishnava and Shaiva communities join the celebrations, because Vishnu gives away his sister Minakshi in marriage to Shiva.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Constance Jones|author2=James D. Ryan|title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OgMmceadQ3gC |year=2006|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-0-8160-7564-5| pages=112–113}}</ref> During the [[Diwali]] festivities, Shaiva communities in Tamil Nadu mark ''Karttikai Deepam'' offering prayers to Shiva and Murugan during the festival of lights.<ref name=dalal137/>
Regional festivals dedicated to Shiva include the Chittirai festival in [[Madurai]] around April/May, one of the largest festivals in South India, celebrating the wedding of [[Minakshi]] (Parvati) and Shiva. The festival is one where both the Vaishnava and Shaiva communities join the celebrations, because Vishnu gives away his sister Minakshi in marriage to Shiva.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Constance Jones|author2=James D. Ryan|title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OgMmceadQ3gC |year=2006|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-0-8160-7564-5| pages=112–113}}</ref> During the [[Diwali]] festivities, Shaiva communities in Tamil Nadu mark ''Karttikai Deepam'' offering prayers to Shiva and Murugan during the festival of lights.<ref name=dalal137/>

シヴァにまつわる地域のお祭りとしては[[マドゥライ]]のチッティライ祭が挙げられる。これは4月か5月に開催され、南インドでは最大級のお祭りとなり、{{仮リンク|ミナクシ|en|Minakshi}}(パールヴァティのアヴァターラ)とシヴァの[[結婚]]を祝う。ヴィシュヌが彼の女兄弟であるミナクシをシヴァに嫁がせたという背景があるため、この祭りはヴィシュヌ派とシヴァ派がともに祝うものとなっている<!--ミナクシというより、地域によってパールヴァディとヴィシュヌ兄弟説がある--><ref>{{Cite book|author1=Constance Jones|author2=James D. Ryan|title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OgMmceadQ3gC |year=2006|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-0-8160-7564-5| pages=112–113}}</ref>。[[ディーワーリー]](新年の祭り)の期間に[[タミルナードゥ州]]のシヴァ派コミュニティはカールティッカイ・デーパム(Karttikai Deepam)という祭りでシヴァとムルガン([[スカンダ]]、シヴァの息子)に祈りを捧げる<ref name=dalal137/>。


Some Shaktism-related festivals revere Shiva along with the goddess considered primary and Supreme. These include festivals dedicated to Annapurna such as ''Annakuta'' and those related to Durga.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Constance Jones|author2=James D. Ryan|title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OgMmceadQ3gC |year=2006|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-0-8160-7564-5| pages=39, 140}}</ref> In Himalayan regions such as Nepal, as well as in northern, central and western India, the festival of [[Teej]] is celebrated by girls and women in the monsoon season, in honor of goddess Parvati, with group singing, dancing and by offering prayers in Parvati-Shiva temples.<ref>{{cite journal| author=Manju Bhatnagar| title=The Monsoon Festival Teej in Rajasthan| year=1988|volume=47|number=1| jstor=1178252| journal=Asian Folklore Studies|pages=63–72}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last=Skinner | first=Debra | last2=Holland | first2=Dorothy | last3=Adhikari | first3=G. B. | title=The Songs of Tij: A Genre of Critical Commentary for Women in Nepal | journal=Asian Folklore Studies | volume=53 | issue=2 | year=1994 | pages=259–305 }}</ref>
Some Shaktism-related festivals revere Shiva along with the goddess considered primary and Supreme. These include festivals dedicated to Annapurna such as ''Annakuta'' and those related to Durga.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Constance Jones|author2=James D. Ryan|title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OgMmceadQ3gC |year=2006|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-0-8160-7564-5| pages=39, 140}}</ref> In Himalayan regions such as Nepal, as well as in northern, central and western India, the festival of [[Teej]] is celebrated by girls and women in the monsoon season, in honor of goddess Parvati, with group singing, dancing and by offering prayers in Parvati-Shiva temples.<ref>{{cite journal| author=Manju Bhatnagar| title=The Monsoon Festival Teej in Rajasthan| year=1988|volume=47|number=1| jstor=1178252| journal=Asian Folklore Studies|pages=63–72}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last=Skinner | first=Debra | last2=Holland | first2=Dorothy | last3=Adhikari | first3=G. B. | title=The Songs of Tij: A Genre of Critical Commentary for Women in Nepal | journal=Asian Folklore Studies | volume=53 | issue=2 | year=1994 | pages=259–305 }}</ref>

シャクティ派の祝祭にも、最高神である女神とともにシヴァを信仰する祭り、例えば女神{{仮リンク|アンナプールナ|en|Annapoorna devi}}に捧げられるアンナクタ(Annakuta)祭や、その他[[ドゥルガー]]に関するお祭りがいくつか存在する<ref>{{Cite book|author1=Constance Jones|author2=James D. Ryan|title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OgMmceadQ3gC |year=2006|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-0-8160-7564-5| pages=39, 140}}</ref>。[[ネパール]]、やインド北部、中部、西部などヒマラヤに近い地域では雨季に女性が中心となって{{仮リンク|ティージ|en|Teej}}祭が開催される。パールヴァティを称える祭りであり、パールヴァティ・シヴァ寺院に集まりみんなで歌い、踊り、そして祈りがささげられる<ref>{{Cite journal| author=Manju Bhatnagar| title=The Monsoon Festival Teej in Rajasthan| year=1988|volume=47|number=1| jstor=1178252| journal=Asian Folklore Studies|pages=63–72}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last=Skinner | first=Debra | last2=Holland | first2=Dorothy | last3=Adhikari | first3=G. B. | title=The Songs of Tij: A Genre of Critical Commentary for Women in Nepal | journal=Asian Folklore Studies | volume=53 | issue=2 | year=1994 | pages=259–305 }}</ref>。


The ascetic, Vedic and Tantric sub-traditions related to Shiva, such as those that became [[Sannyasa#Warrior ascetics|ascetic warriors]] during the Islamic rule period of India,<ref name=david>David N. Lorenzen (1978), [http://www.jstor.org/stable/600151 Warrior Ascetics in Indian History], Journal of the American Oriental Society, 98(1): 61-75</ref><ref name=pinch>William Pinch (2012), Warrior Ascetics and Indian Empires, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-1107406377</ref> celebrate the Kumbha Mela festival.<ref name=jonesryan301/> This festival cycles every 12 years, in four pilgrimage sites within India, with the event moving to the next site after a gap of three years. The biggest is in Prayaga (renamed Allahabad during the Mughal rule era), where millions of Hindus of different traditions gather at the confluence of rivers Ganges and Yamuna. In the Hindu tradition, the Shiva-linked ascetic warriors (''Nagas'') get the honor of starting the event by entering the ''sangam'' first for bathing and prayers.<ref name=jonesryan301>{{cite book|author1=Constance Jones|author2=James D. Ryan|title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OgMmceadQ3gC |year=2006|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-0-8160-7564-5| page=301}}</ref>
The ascetic, Vedic and Tantric sub-traditions related to Shiva, such as those that became [[Sannyasa#Warrior ascetics|ascetic warriors]] during the Islamic rule period of India,<ref name=david>David N. Lorenzen (1978), [http://www.jstor.org/stable/600151 Warrior Ascetics in Indian History], Journal of the American Oriental Society, 98(1): 61-75</ref><ref name=pinch>William Pinch (2012), Warrior Ascetics and Indian Empires, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-1107406377</ref> celebrate the Kumbha Mela festival.<ref name=jonesryan301/> This festival cycles every 12 years, in four pilgrimage sites within India, with the event moving to the next site after a gap of three years. The biggest is in Prayaga (renamed Allahabad during the Mughal rule era), where millions of Hindus of different traditions gather at the confluence of rivers Ganges and Yamuna. In the Hindu tradition, the Shiva-linked ascetic warriors (''Nagas'') get the honor of starting the event by entering the ''sangam'' first for bathing and prayers.<ref name=jonesryan301>{{cite book|author1=Constance Jones|author2=James D. Ryan|title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OgMmceadQ3gC |year=2006|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-0-8160-7564-5| page=301}}</ref>


かつては、イスラム教の支配の広がった時代に戦士となった苦行者など<ref name=david>David N. Lorenzen (1978), [http://www.jstor.org/stable/600151 Warrior Ascetics in Indian History], Journal of the American Oriental Society, 98(1): 61-75</ref><ref name=pinch>William Pinch (2012), Warrior Ascetics and Indian Empires, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-1107406377</ref>{{refn|group=注|参照: [[:en:Sannyasa]]}}、現代でもシヴァに関係するヴェーダや[[タントリズム]]の信仰から派生した禁欲主義者、苦行者など(サンニヤーシ、[[サドゥ]]ら)は[[クンブ・メーラ]]という祝祭を祝う<ref name=jonesryan301/>。この祭りは4つの場所で12年に1度ずつ、それぞれ3年ずつ時期をずらして開催される。つまり3年に1度どこかでクンブ・メーラが開催される。プラヤーグ([[イラーハーバード]])で行われるものが最も大きなクンブ・メーラとなり、数100万人に及ぶ様々な宗派のヒンドゥー教徒が[[ガンジス川]]と[[ヤムナー川]]の合流地点に集まる。伝統的にシヴァを信仰する禁欲派の戦士(ナーガ)達が最初に川に入り、沐浴と祈祷を行うという栄誉に与っている<ref name=jonesryan301>{{Cite book|author1=Constance Jones|author2=James D. Ryan|title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OgMmceadQ3gC |year=2006|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-0-8160-7564-5| page=301}}</ref>。
== Beyond Hinduism ==

== ヒンドゥー教以外での受容 ==
[[File:4 Buddha and Shiva Linga Vajrayana Buddhism.jpg|thumb|left|180px|One of many Buddha and Shiva linga-yoni co-carved in a 15th-century Himalayan Buddhist temple.]]
[[File:4 Buddha and Shiva Linga Vajrayana Buddhism.jpg|thumb|left|180px|One of many Buddha and Shiva linga-yoni co-carved in a 15th-century Himalayan Buddhist temple.]]
[[ファイル:4 Buddha and Shiva Linga Vajrayana Buddhism.jpg|thumb|left|180px|ヒマラヤにある15世紀の仏教寺院の[[仏陀]]像。台座としてシヴァ・リンガと仏陀が彫られている。]]
Shiva is mentioned in [[Vajrayana|Buddhist Tantra]]. Shiva as ''[[Upaya]]'' and Shakti as ''[[Prajñā (Buddhism)|Prajna]]''.<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x_FJcRDXhfQC&pg=PA95 | title=Buddhist Thought and Ritual | publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publications | author=[[David Kalupahana]] | year=2001 | page=95 | isbn=8120817737 |accessdate=13 October 2013}}</ref> In cosmologies of Buddhist tantra, Shiva is depicted as passive, with Shakti being his active counterpart.<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9aWyaaw9pC0C&pg=PA43 | title=What Is Tantric Practice? | author=Barnaby B. Dhs | page=43 |accessdate=13 October 2013}}</ref>
Shiva is mentioned in [[Vajrayana|Buddhist Tantra]]. Shiva as ''[[Upaya]]'' and Shakti as ''[[Prajñā (Buddhism)|Prajna]]''.<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x_FJcRDXhfQC&pg=PA95 | title=Buddhist Thought and Ritual | publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publications | author=[[David Kalupahana]] | year=2001 | page=95 | isbn=8120817737 |accessdate=13 October 2013}}</ref> In cosmologies of Buddhist tantra, Shiva is depicted as passive, with Shakti being his active counterpart.<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9aWyaaw9pC0C&pg=PA43 | title=What Is Tantric Practice? | author=Barnaby B. Dhs | page=43 |accessdate=13 October 2013}}</ref>

シヴァは(仏教の)[[密教]]にも登場し、彼は[[方便|ウパーヤ]]<!--誤リンクかも-->として、シャクティは[[般若|プラジュニャー]]として描かれている<ref>{{Cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x_FJcRDXhfQC&pg=PA95 | title=Buddhist Thought and Ritual | publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publications | author={{仮リンク|David Kalupahana|en|David Kalupahana}} | year=2001 | page=95 | isbn=8120817737 |accessdate=13 October 2013}}</ref>。(仏教の)密教の宇宙観ではシヴァは受動的に描かれ、逆にシャクティが能動的に描かれている<ref>{{Cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9aWyaaw9pC0C&pg=PA43 | title=What Is Tantric Practice? | author=Barnaby B. Dhs | page=43 |accessdate=13 October 2013}}</ref>。<!--よくわからない-->


The Japuji Sahib of the [[Guru Granth Sahib]] says, "The Guru is Shiva, the Guru is Vishnu and Brahma; the Guru is Paarvati and Lakhshmi."<ref>{{cite book|title=Neighboring Faiths: A Christian Introduction to World Religions|page=377|author=Winfried Corduan|publisher=InterVarsiry Press}}</ref> In the same chapter, it also says, "Shiva speaks, and the Siddhas listen." In [[Dasam Granth]], Guru Gobind Singh has mentioned two avtars of Rudra: [[Dattatreya]] Avtar and [[Parasnath]] Avtar.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8-h8ptzp0lUC&pg=PA16&dq=chaubis+avtar&hl=en&sa=X&ei=IuXcT6XCHYunrAeB0_DGDQ&ved=0CDMQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=chaubis%20avtar&f=false|title=Dasam Granth|publisher=}}</ref>
The Japuji Sahib of the [[Guru Granth Sahib]] says, "The Guru is Shiva, the Guru is Vishnu and Brahma; the Guru is Paarvati and Lakhshmi."<ref>{{cite book|title=Neighboring Faiths: A Christian Introduction to World Religions|page=377|author=Winfried Corduan|publisher=InterVarsiry Press}}</ref> In the same chapter, it also says, "Shiva speaks, and the Siddhas listen." In [[Dasam Granth]], Guru Gobind Singh has mentioned two avtars of Rudra: [[Dattatreya]] Avtar and [[Parasnath]] Avtar.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8-h8ptzp0lUC&pg=PA16&dq=chaubis+avtar&hl=en&sa=X&ei=IuXcT6XCHYunrAeB0_DGDQ&ved=0CDMQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=chaubis%20avtar&f=false|title=Dasam Granth|publisher=}}</ref>

[[シク教]]の聖典、{{仮リンク|グル・グラント・サーヒブ|en|Guru Granth Sahib}}に収録される{{仮リンク|ジャプジ・サーヒブ|en|Japji Sahib}}(祈り)には「[[グル]](指導者)はシヴァであり、グルはヴィシュヌとブラフマーである。グルはパールヴァティと[[ラクシュミー]]である」という一節がある<ref>{{Cite book|title=Neighboring Faiths: A Christian Introduction to World Religions|page=377|author=Winfried Corduan|publisher=InterVarsiry Press}}</ref>。同じ章には「シヴァが語る。シッダ(Siddha、達した者)らが耳を傾ける。」ともある。また別の聖典、{{仮リンク|ダサム・グラント|en|Dasam Granth}}では{{仮リンク|グル・ゴービンド・シング|en|Guru Gobind Singh}}がルドラの2つのアヴァターラについて触れている<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8-h8ptzp0lUC&pg=PA16&dq=chaubis+avtar&hl=en&sa=X&ei=IuXcT6XCHYunrAeB0_DGDQ&ved=0CDMQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=chaubis%20avtar&f=false|title=Dasam Granth|publisher=}}</ref><!--There are two avtars of Rudra (shiv) in the Dasam Granth. The first one is Datta and the second one is Paras Nath....-->。


{{double image|right|Daikoku.jpg|150|Fudo Myoo Museum Rietberg RJP 21.jpg|122|Shiva has been adopted and merged with Buddhist deities. Left: [[Daikokuten]] is a Shiva-[[Ōkuninushi]] fusion deity in Japan;<ref>{{cite book|author=Ronald Morse|title=Folk Legends from Tono: Japan's Spirits, Deities, and Phantastic Creatures|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rkmwCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA131 |year=2015|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-1-4422-4823-6|page=131}}</ref> Right: [[Fudō Myōō]] is a fierce Shiva adaptation.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Charles Russell Coulter|author2=Patricia Turner|title=Encyclopedia of Ancient Deities|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sEIngqiKOugC&pg=PA182 |year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-96390-3|page=182}}</ref>}}
{{double image|right|Daikoku.jpg|150|Fudo Myoo Museum Rietberg RJP 21.jpg|122|Shiva has been adopted and merged with Buddhist deities. Left: [[Daikokuten]] is a Shiva-[[Ōkuninushi]] fusion deity in Japan;<ref>{{cite book|author=Ronald Morse|title=Folk Legends from Tono: Japan's Spirits, Deities, and Phantastic Creatures|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rkmwCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA131 |year=2015|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-1-4422-4823-6|page=131}}</ref> Right: [[Fudō Myōō]] is a fierce Shiva adaptation.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Charles Russell Coulter|author2=Patricia Turner|title=Encyclopedia of Ancient Deities|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sEIngqiKOugC&pg=PA182 |year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-96390-3|page=182}}</ref>}}
{{Double image aside|right|Daikoku.jpg|150|Fudo Myoo Museum Rietberg RJP 21.jpg|122|シヴァは仏教の神として取り入れられ、あるいは融合している<!--大黒様は神道よりな気がする-->。左: [[日本]]の[[大黒天]]はシヴァと[[大国主]]が融合した神格である<ref>{{Cite book|author=Ronald Morse|title=Folk Legends from Tono: Japan's Spirits, Deities, and Phantastic Creatures|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rkmwCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA131 |year=2015|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-1-4422-4823-6|page=131}}</ref>。右: [[不動明王]]は恐ろしい姿で適応したシヴァである<ref>{{Cite book|author1=Charles Russell Coulter|author2=Patricia Turner|title=Encyclopedia of Ancient Deities|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sEIngqiKOugC&pg=PA182 |year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-96390-3|page=182}}</ref>。}}

The worship of Shiva became popular in Central Asia through the [[Hephthalite Empire]],<ref name="ReferenceA">P. 377 ''Classical Hinduism'' By Mariasusai Dhavamony</ref> and [[Kushan Empire]]. Shaivism was also popular in [[Sogdia]] and the [[Kingdom of Yutian]] as found from the wall painting from Penjikent on the river Zervashan.<ref name="ReferenceB">Puri, P. 133 Buddhism in Central Asia</ref> In this depiction, Shiva is portrayed with a sacred halo and a sacred thread ("Yajnopavita").<ref name="ReferenceB"/> He is clad in tiger skin while his attendants are wearing Sogdian dress.<ref name="ReferenceB"/> A panel from [[Dandanwulike]] shows Shiva in His Trimurti form with Shakti kneeling on her right thigh.<ref name="ReferenceB"/><ref name="unesco427">[http://en.unesco.org/silkroad/sites/silkroad/files/knowledge-bank-article/vol_III%20silk%20road_religions%20and%20religious%20movements%20II.pdf Religions and Religious Movements – II, p. 427]</ref> Another site in the [[Taklamakan Desert]] depicts him with four legs, seated cross-legged on a cushioned seat supported by two bulls.<ref name="ReferenceB"/> It is also noted that [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrian]] wind god [[Vayu-Vata]] took on the iconographic appearance of Shiva.<ref name="unesco427"/>
The worship of Shiva became popular in Central Asia through the [[Hephthalite Empire]],<ref name="ReferenceA">P. 377 ''Classical Hinduism'' By Mariasusai Dhavamony</ref> and [[Kushan Empire]]. Shaivism was also popular in [[Sogdia]] and the [[Kingdom of Yutian]] as found from the wall painting from Penjikent on the river Zervashan.<ref name="ReferenceB">Puri, P. 133 Buddhism in Central Asia</ref> In this depiction, Shiva is portrayed with a sacred halo and a sacred thread ("Yajnopavita").<ref name="ReferenceB"/> He is clad in tiger skin while his attendants are wearing Sogdian dress.<ref name="ReferenceB"/> A panel from [[Dandanwulike]] shows Shiva in His Trimurti form with Shakti kneeling on her right thigh.<ref name="ReferenceB"/><ref name="unesco427">[http://en.unesco.org/silkroad/sites/silkroad/files/knowledge-bank-article/vol_III%20silk%20road_religions%20and%20religious%20movements%20II.pdf Religions and Religious Movements – II, p. 427]</ref> Another site in the [[Taklamakan Desert]] depicts him with four legs, seated cross-legged on a cushioned seat supported by two bulls.<ref name="ReferenceB"/> It is also noted that [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrian]] wind god [[Vayu-Vata]] took on the iconographic appearance of Shiva.<ref name="unesco427"/>

シヴァ信仰は[[エフタル]](遊牧国家)と<ref name="ReferenceA">P. 377 ''Classical Hinduism'' By Mariasusai Dhavamony</ref>[[クシャーナ朝]]を通して中央アジアに広まった<!--クシャーナのソースあたかも-->。[[ザラフシャン川]]沿いの[[パンジケント]]の壁画からは[[ソグディアナ]]や[[ホータン王国]]でもシヴァ派の信仰が盛んだったことが示されている<ref name="ReferenceB">Puri, P. 133 Buddhism in Central Asia</ref>。この壁画ではシヴァは後光をバックにヤジノパヴィタ(Yajnopavita、肩から下げる聖紐)を身に着け<ref name="ReferenceB"/>、虎の毛皮を身にまとった姿で描かれるが、この壁画では彼の眷属らはソグディアナの民族衣装を身に着けている<ref name="ReferenceB"/>。[[ダンダン・ウィリク]]で見つかった[[羽目板]]には[[トリムルティ]]の1柱として描かれるシヴァにシャクティが跪く姿が描かれている<ref name="ReferenceB"/><ref name="unesco427">[http://en.unesco.org/silkroad/sites/silkroad/files/knowledge-bank-article/vol_III%20silk%20road_religions%20and%20religious%20movements%20II.pdf Religions and Religious Movements – II, p. 427]</ref>。また[[タクラマカン砂漠]]<!--のどこ?-->にも4つの足をもつシヴァが、2頭の牛が支える玉座に足を組んで座る様子が描かれた(壁画)が存在する<ref name="ReferenceB"/>。加えて[[ゾロアスター教]]の[[風神|風の神]]{{仮リンク|ヴァーユ・ヴァータ|en|Vayu-Vata}}がシヴァの特徴を受け継いでいる点も注目に値する<ref name="unesco427"/>。


In Indonesia, Shiva is also worshiped as [[Batara Guru]]. In the ancient times, all kingdoms were located on top of mountains. When he was young, before receiving his authority of power, his name was Sang Hyang Manikmaya. He is first of the children who hatched from the eggs laid by Manuk Patiaraja, wife of god Mulajadi na Bolon. This avatar is also worshiped in Malaysia. Shiva's other form in Indonesian Hinduism is "Mahadewa" (Mahadeva).<ref>{{cite book|title=Wayang, its significance in Indonesian society|page=37|author=Moerdowo (R. M.)|year=1982}}</ref>
In Indonesia, Shiva is also worshiped as [[Batara Guru]]. In the ancient times, all kingdoms were located on top of mountains. When he was young, before receiving his authority of power, his name was Sang Hyang Manikmaya. He is first of the children who hatched from the eggs laid by Manuk Patiaraja, wife of god Mulajadi na Bolon. This avatar is also worshiped in Malaysia. Shiva's other form in Indonesian Hinduism is "Mahadewa" (Mahadeva).<ref>{{cite book|title=Wayang, its significance in Indonesian society|page=37|author=Moerdowo (R. M.)|year=1982}}</ref>

[[インドネシア]]ではシヴァは{{仮リンク|バタラ・グル|en|Batara Guru}}として崇拝される。古代、全ての王国は山の頂に位置いていた。バタラ・グルが即位する前、サンヒャン・マニクマヤ(Sang Hyang Manikmaya)というのが彼の名前であった。彼は{{仮リンク|ムラジャディ・ナ・ボロン|id|Mulajadi na Bolon}}の妻、{{仮リンク|マヌク・パティアラジャ|id|Manuk Patiaraja}}が産んだ卵から一番最初に孵化した子供である。このシヴァのアヴァターラは同様に[[マレーシア]]でも信仰される。インドネシアのヒンドゥー教ではシヴァはマハーデーワ(Mahadewa)としても信仰されている<ref>{{Cite book|title=Wayang, its significance in Indonesian society|page=37|author=Moerdowo (R. M.)|year=1982}}</ref>。<!--前半がなぞ文章-->


[[Daikokuten]], one of the [[Seven Lucky Gods]] in Japan, is considered to be evolved from Shiva. The god enjoys an exalted position as a household deity in Japan and is worshipped as the god of wealth and fortune.<ref>{{cite book|first=Jeremy|last=Roberts|title=Japanese Mythology A to Z|publisher=Infobase Publishing|year=2009|page=28|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xdfgjV2kw6oC}}</ref> The name is the Japanese equivalent of [[Mahākāla]], the Buddhist name for Shiva.<ref>{{cite book|first=Pratapaditya|last=Pal|title=Indian Sculpture: 700-1800|publisher=Los Angeles County Museum of Art|page=180}}</ref>
[[Daikokuten]], one of the [[Seven Lucky Gods]] in Japan, is considered to be evolved from Shiva. The god enjoys an exalted position as a household deity in Japan and is worshipped as the god of wealth and fortune.<ref>{{cite book|first=Jeremy|last=Roberts|title=Japanese Mythology A to Z|publisher=Infobase Publishing|year=2009|page=28|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xdfgjV2kw6oC}}</ref> The name is the Japanese equivalent of [[Mahākāla]], the Buddhist name for Shiva.<ref>{{cite book|first=Pratapaditya|last=Pal|title=Indian Sculpture: 700-1800|publisher=Los Angeles County Museum of Art|page=180}}</ref>

[[日本]]の[[七福神]]の1柱である[[大黒天]]はシヴァから発展した神格であると考えられている。日本では[[屋敷神]]として祀られ、財と幸運の神として信仰を集めている<ref>{{Cite book|first=Jeremy|last=Roberts|title=Japanese Mythology A to Z|publisher=Infobase Publishing|year=2009|page=28|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xdfgjV2kw6oC}}</ref>。「大黒天」という名前は[[マハーカーラ]]の[[漢訳]]である<ref>{{Cite book|first=Pratapaditya|last=Pal|title=Indian Sculpture: 700-1800|publisher=Los Angeles County Museum of Art|page=180}}</ref>。


== 脚注 ==
== 脚注 ==

2016年12月2日 (金) 12:25時点における版

シヴァ
創造、破壊、再生、瞑想芸術ヨーガ解脱
ファイル:Lord Shiva Images - An artistic representation of Lord Shiva and the 12 Jyotirlingas associated with him.jpg
ドヴァーダシャ・ジョーティル・リンガに囲まれるシヴァ
デーヴァナーガリー शिव
サンスクリット Śiva
位置づけ ブラフマンシヴァ派
トリムルティデーヴァ
住処 カイラス山
マントラ オーム・ナマ・シヴァーヤ英語版
武器 トリシューラ
シンボル リンガ
配偶神 パールヴァティ
子供 スカンダ
ガネーシャ
ヴァーハナ ナンディン
祝祭 マハー・シヴァラートリー
テンプレートを表示

Shiva ([ˈʃivə]; Sanskrit: Śiva, lit. the auspicious one) is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the supreme god within Shaivism, one of the three most influential denominations in contemporary Hinduism.[1][2]

シヴァ[ˈʃivə]; サンスクリット: शिव, Śiva、「吉祥者」の意)はヒンドゥー教英語版である。現代のヒンドゥー教では最も影響力を持つ3柱の主神の中の1人であり、特にシヴァ派では最高神に位置付けられている[1][3]

Shiva is "the transformer" within the Trimurti, the Hindu trinity that includes Brahma and Vishnu.[4][5] In Shaivism tradition, Shiva is the Supreme being who creates, protects and transforms the universe.[6][7][8] In the goddess tradition of Hinduism called Shaktism, the goddess is described as supreme, yet Shiva is revered along with Vishnu and Brahma. A goddess is stated to be the energy and creative power (Shakti) of each, with Parvati the equal complementary partner of Shiva.[9][10] He is one of the five equivalent deities in Panchayatana puja of the Smarta tradition of Hinduism.[1]

トリムルティ(ヒンドゥーの理論の1つ)ではシヴァは「(破壊/)再生」を司る神であり、ブラフマーヴィシュヌとともに3柱の重要な神の中の1人として扱われている[4][11]。また、シヴァ派では世界の創造、維持、再生を司る最高神として位置づけられている[6][7][8]デーヴィ英語版(ヒンドゥーの女神)らを重視するシャクティ派では女神らが最高神として位置づけられている一方で、シヴァもヴィシュヌ、ブラフマーとともに崇拝の対象となっている。このシャクティ派では女神らがシヴァやそれぞれの神の根源であると考えられており、パールヴァティー(女神)がシヴァに対応する相互補完的なパートナーであるとされている[9][10]スマールタ派パンチャヤタナ・プージャ英語版(儀式)ではシヴァは礼拝の対象となる5柱の中の1人に数えられる[1]

At the highest level, Shiva is regarded as formless, limitless, transcendent and unchanging absolute Brahman,[12] and the primal Atman (soul, self) of the universe.[13][14][6] Shiva has many benevolent and fearsome depictions. In benevolent aspects, he is depicted as an omniscient Yogi who lives an ascetic life on Mount Kailash[4] as well as a householder with wife Parvati and his two children, Ganesha and Kartikeya. In his fierce aspects, he is often depicted slaying demons. Shiva is also known as Adiyogi Shiva regarded as the patron god of yoga, meditation and arts.[15][16][17]

最も賞揚される文脈では、シヴァは形の無い、無限の、超越的な、不変絶対のブラフマンであり[12]、同時に世界の根源的なアートマン(自我、魂)であると語られる[13][14][6]。シヴァに関する神話では慈悲深い様を示す描写や、逆に恐ろしい性質を見せる描写が多く見られる。例えばシヴァはカイラス山に住み[4]禁欲的な生活を送る全知なるヨーギー(修行者)であり、同時にパールヴァティーの夫であり2人の息子ガネーシャスカンダの父親である。一方でシヴァがアスラ(悪魔)を殺戮する様子もたびたび描写されている。また、アディヨーギー・シヴァ(Adiyogi、第一の修行者)とも呼ばれ、ヨーガ瞑想、芸術の守護神でもある[15][16][18]

The main iconographical attributes of Shiva are the third eye on his forehead, the serpent around his neck, the adorning crescent moon, the holy river Ganga flowing from his matted hair, the trishula as his weapon and the damaru. Shiva is usually worshiped in the aniconic form of Lingam.[19] Shiva is a pan-Hindu deity, revered widely across India, Nepal and Sri Lanka.[20][21]

偶像上のシヴァの特徴としては、第三の目英語版に巻かれた三日月装飾具、絡まる髪の毛から流れるガンジス川武器であるトリシューラ(三叉の槍)、ダマル英語版太鼓)が挙げられる。シヴァは通常リンガという形に象徴化され信仰される[19]。また、シヴァは地域によらずインドネパールスリランカなど全土で信仰されている[20][21]

名前

A mukhalinga sculpture of Shiva depicting him with a moustache
ムカリンガ英語版(シヴァの顔が彫られたリンガ)。髭を蓄えるシヴァが描かれている。

The Sanskrit word "Śiva" (Devanagari: शिव, transliterated as Shiva or Siva) means, states Monier Williams, "auspicious, propitious, gracious, benign, kind, benevolent, friendly".[22] The roots of Śiva in folk etymology is "śī" which means "in whom all things lie, pervasiveness" and va which means "embodiment of grace".[22][23]

モニエル=ウィリアムズはシヴァ神の語源としてサンスクリット語の「シヴァ」(Śiva、शिव)を挙げる。「シヴァ」という語は「吉祥な」、「好都合な」、「慈悲深い」、「親切な」、「友好的な」という意味を持つ[22]民間語源を辿ると「シヴァ」の「シ」は「内に全てを擁するもの、遍く広がる様」を意味し、「ヴァ」は「優雅さを体現する物」を意味する[22][24]

The word Shiva is used as an adjective in the Rig Veda, as an epithet for several Rigvedic deities, including Rudra.[25] The term Shiva also connotes "liberation, final emancipation" and "the auspicious one", this adjective sense of usage is addressed to many deities in Vedic layers of literature.[22][26] The term evolved from the Vedic Rudra-Shiva to the noun Shiva in the Epics and the Puranas, as an auspicious deity who is the "creator, reproducer and dissolver".[22][27]

「シヴァ」という語はリグ・ヴェーダでは添え名として使われており、例えばルドラなど、いくつかの英語版の形容辞となっている[28]。「シヴァ」はまた、「解放、解脱」や「吉祥者」という意味を含有する。この「シヴァ」という語の形容詞的用法はヴェーダ時代の様々な文献にて、多くの神々に対して適用されている例を見ることができる[22][26]。つまりヴェーダ時代には「ルドラ・シヴァ」というような形容詞的な使われ方をしていた「シヴァ」という語が、後の時代には名詞の「シヴァ」、すなわち創造、再生、破壊を司る縁起の良い神、シヴァ神へと発展している[22][27]

Sharma presents another etymology with the Sanskrit root śarv-, which means "to injure" or "to kill",[29] interprets the name to connote "one who can kill the forces of darkness".[30]

ラム・カラン・シャルマ英語版は語源に関する異説としてサンスクリット語の「シャルヴ」(śarv-)を挙げている。これは「傷つけること、殺すこと」という意味を持っており[31]、従ってシャルマによればシヴァ神の名前は「闇の軍勢を打ち倒す者」という意味を含んでいる[30]

The Sanskrit word śaiva means "relating to the god Shiva", and this term is the Sanskrit name both for one of the principal sects of Hinduism and for a member of that sect.[32] It is used as an adjective to characterize certain beliefs and practices, such as Shaivism.[33]

サンスクリット語の「シャイヴァ」(śaiva)は「シヴァに関する物」を意味する言葉であり、ヒンドゥー教主流派のひとつであるシヴァ派(शैव पंथ、Śaiva Paṁtha)及びその信者を表す名詞にもなっている[34]。同様にある種の信仰や儀式を特徴づける形容詞としても使われる[35]

Some authors associate the name with the Tamil word śivappu meaning "red", noting that Shiva is linked to the Sun (śivan, "the Red one", in Tamil) and that Rudra is also called Babhru (brown, or red) in the Rigveda.[36][37] The Vishnu sahasranama interprets Shiva to have multiple meanings: "The Pure One", and "the One who is not affected by three Guṇas of Prakṛti (Sattva, Rajas, and Tamas)".[38][39]

専門家の中にはタミル語の「シャイヴァップ」(śivappu)にシヴァ神の名前の由来を求めるものもいる。「シャイヴァップ」は「赤」を意味しており、これはシヴァ神が太陽(タミル語でシヴァン、śivan)と結び付けて考えられること、およびリグ・ヴェーダにてルドラ神が「バブルー」(Babhru、茶色、あるいは赤の意)と呼ばれていることを根拠としている[40][41]ヴィシュヌ・サハスラナーマ英語版(ヴィシュヌ神の賛歌)ではシヴァ神に、例えば「純粋な者」、「プラクリティグナ英語版の影響を受けぬ者[注 1]」など複数の意味を与えている[42][43]

Shiva is known by many names such Viswanathan (lord of the universe), Mahadeva, Mahesha, Maheshvara, Shankara, Shambhu, Rudra, Hara, Trilochana, Devendra (chief of the gods), Neelakanta, Subhankara, Trilokinatha (lord of the three realms),[44][45][46] and Ghrneshwar (lord of compassion).[47] The highest reverence for Shiva in Shaivism is reflected in his epithets Mahādeva ("Great god"; mahā "Great" and deva "god"),[48][49] Maheśvara ("Great Lord"; mahā "great" and īśvara "lord"),[50][51] and Parameśvara ("Supreme Lord").[52]

シヴァは「マハーデーヴァ」、「マヘーシュヴァラ」、「トリローチャナ」など多くの異名を持つことで知られている[注 2]。シヴァ派におけるシヴァ神の最高神としての位置づけは「マハーデーヴァ」(Mahādeva、偉大な神)[54][55]、マヘーシュヴァラ(Maheśvara、偉大な王)[56][57]パラメシュヴァラ英語版(Parameśvara、至高の王)[58]といった異名に反映されている。

Sahasranama are medieval Indian texts that list a thousand names derived from aspects and epithets of a deity.[59] There are at least eight different versions of the Shiva Sahasranama, devotional hymns (stotras) listing many names of Shiva.[60] The version appearing in Book 13 (Anuśāsanaparvan) of the Mahabharata provides one such list.[61] Shiva also has Dasha-Sahasranamas (10,000 names) that are found in the Mahanyasa. The Shri Rudram Chamakam, also known as the Śatarudriya, is a devotional hymn to Shiva hailing him by many names.[62][63]

中世のインドの文献にはサハスラナーマ英語版(千の名前の意)というジャンルがあり、それぞれの神の性質に由来する異名や添え名を集めている[59]。シヴァのサハスラナーマに関しては少なくとも8つのバージョンが確認されており、多くのシヴァの異名が賛歌英語版形式にまとめられている[64]マハーバーラタの13巻、アヌシャーサナ・パルヴァ英語版にもサハスラナーマが含まれている[65]。マハニヤーサ(Mahanyasa)にはシヴァのダシャー・サラスラナーマ(万の名前の意)が存在する。シャタルドリヤとしてもしられるシュリ・ルドラム・チャマカム英語版においても多くの名でシヴァが礼賛される[66][67]

主神としてのシヴァへの発展の歴史

The Shiva-related tradition is a major part of Hinduism, found all over India, Nepal, Sri Lanka,[20][21] and Bali (Indonesia).[68] Its historical roots are unclear and contested. Some scholars such Yashodhar Mathpal and Ali Javid have interpreted early prehistoric paintings at the Bhimbetka rock shelters, carbon dated to be from pre-10,000 BCE period,[69] as Shiva dancing, Shiva's trident, and his mount Nandi.[70][71] However, Howard Morphy states that these prehistoric rock paintings of India, when seen in their context, are likely those of hunting party with animals, and that the figures in a group dance can be interpreted in many different ways.[72]

シヴァに関わる神話や習慣といった伝統はヒンドゥー教の中で大きな位置を占めており、インド、ネパール、スリランカ[20][21]インドネシアバリ・ヒンドゥー[73]とヒンドゥー文化圏の各地で信仰を集める。しかしシヴァのルーツに関してははっきりしておらず、議論が残っている。考古学者ヤショーダル・マトパル英語版やアリ・ジャヴィッド(Ali Javid)らはビンベットカの岩陰遺跡群英語版の先史時代の壁画に描かれているものが、踊っているシヴァであり、シヴァのトリシューラ(三叉の槍)であり、彼のヴァーハナ(乗り物とされる動物)のナンディンであると解釈している[70][71]。これらの壁画は放射性炭素年代測定によって紀元前1万年以前のものであると見積もられている[74]。しかしハワード・モーフィー(Howard Morphy)は動物に関する古代の壁画に関してまとめた著作の中で、ビンベットカの件の壁画を、狩りをする集団と動物と解釈しており、そのうえ踊っている集団は様々に受け取ることができるとしている[75]

インダス文明起源

Seal discovered during excavation of the Indus Valley archaeological site in the Indus Valley has drawn attention as a possible representation of a "yogi" or "proto-Shiva" figure.
インダス谷の遺跡発掘の中で見つかった印章。結跏趺坐を組むヨーギー(修行者)、あるいはシヴァともとれる意匠は注目を集めた。

Many Indus valley seals show animals but one seal that has attracted attention shows a figure, either horned or wearing a horned headdress and possibly ithyphallic[76][77][78] figure seated in a posture reminiscent of the Lotus position and surrounded by animals was named by early excavators of Mohenjo-daro Pashupati (lord of cattle), an epithet of the later Hindu gods Shiva and Rudra.[76][79][80][81]

インダス谷(インダス文明)で見つかった印章の多くに動物が描かれているが、そのうちの1つにシヴァ神の面影を読み取れる物があり注目を集めた。その印章には、角を生やし、あるいは角を形どった何かを身に着け、勃起したファルス陰茎)を誇っているようにも読み取れる[76][82][83]人物が、動物に囲まれて結跏趺坐を組んでいるかのような様子が描かれており、モヘンジョダロのパシュパティ(牛の王)と名付けられた(パシュパティの印章英語版[76][84][85][86]。パシュパティとはすなわち後のヒンドゥー教の神、シヴァとルドラの共通の異名である。

Some academics like Gavin Flood[87][88] and John Keay have expressed doubts about this claim. John Keay writes that "He may indeed be an early manifestation of Lord Shiva as Pashu- pati", but a couple of his specialties of this figure does not match with Rudra.[89] Writing in 1997 Doris Meth Srinivasan rejected Marshall's package of proto-Shiva features, including that of three heads. She interprets what John Marshall interpreted as facial as not human but more bovine, possibly a divine buffalo-man.[90]

ギャビン・フラッド英語版[87][88]ジョン・ケイといった研究者たちはこの主張に懐疑的な見解を示している。ジョン・ケイによれば印章の人物がパシュパティ、すなわちシヴァ神の初期の姿である可能性は考えられるが、このデザインの持つ2つの特徴がルドラの持っている特徴と結びつかない[91]。またジョン・マーシャル英語版は印章に描かれる人物がシヴァの前身である根拠として3つの顔やその他の特徴を挙げているが、ドリス・メス・スリニバサン英語版はその主張を1997年に否定している。すなわち彼女はジョン・マーシャルが人物であるとした印象のデザインを人でなく牛であり、おそらくは聖なるバッファロー・マンであると解釈している[92]

Writing in 2002, Gregory L. Possehl concluded that while it would be appropriate to recognize the figure as a deity, its association with the water buffalo, and its posture as one of ritual discipline, regarding it as a proto-Shiva would "go too far."[93]

グレゴリー・ポセル英語版も2002年に否定的な意見を発表しており、印章の人物が神であり、水牛とつながりを持っていて、そして何らかの修行をしているところだという考えには賛同できるが、シヴァの前身とするのは無理がある、と結論づけている[94]

A seal discovered during excavation of the Mohenjo-daro archaeological site in the Indus Valley has drawn attention as a possible representation of a "proto-Shiva" figure.[95] This "Pashupati" (Lord of Animals, Sanskrit paśupati)[96] seal shows a large central figure that is surrounded by animals. The central figure is often described as a seated figure, possibly ithyphallic, surrounded by animals.[76] Sir John Marshall and others have claimed that this figure is a prototype of Shiva, and have described the figure as having three faces, seated in a "yoga posture" with the knees out and feet joined. Semi-circular shapes on the head are often interpreted as two horns. Gavin Flood characterizes these views as "speculative", saying that while it is not clear from the seal that the figure has three faces, is seated in a yoga posture, or even that the shape is intended to represent a human figure, it is nevertheless possible that there are echoes of Shaiva iconographic themes, such as half-moon shapes resembling the horns of a bull.[95][97]

インダス谷(インダス文明)のモヘンジョダロの発掘で見つかった印章のひとつは、シヴァの前身を思わせる人物が描かれており、注目を集めた[95]。この「パシュパティ」(paśupati、獣の王[98])の印章の中心には動物らに囲まれる人物が描かれている。しばしばこの人物は座っており、勃起したファルスと思しき物が描かれており、そして動物に囲まれていると解釈される[76]。考古学者のジョン・マーシャル英語版をはじめとする学者らはこの印章に描かれた人物がシヴァの前身ではないかと主張した。すなわちマーシャルはこの人物は3つの顔を持っていて、足を組み、ヨーガのポーズをとっていると解釈している。頭部に見られる半円形の図像はしばしば2本の角であると解釈される。ギャビン・フラッド英語版はこれらの特徴は「不確かなもの」としている。ギャビン・フラッドによれば、牛の角にも見える三日月の形などはシヴァの特徴を反映しているように思われるが、一方で印章の人物が3つの顔を持っているかどうか、ヨーガのポーズをとっているかどうかはっきりしないし、人物を表しているのかどうかも判然としない[95][99]

インド=アーリア人起源

The similarities between the iconography and mythologies of Shiva with Greek and European deities have led to proposals for an Indo-European link for Shiva,[100][101] or lateral exchanges with ancient central Asian cultures.[102][103] His contrasting aspects such as being terrifying or blissful depending on the situation, are similar to those of the Greek god Dionysus,[104] as are their iconic associations with bull, snakes, anger, bravery, dancing and carefree life.[105][106] The ancient Greek texts of the time of Alexander the Great call Shiva as "Indian Dionysius", or alternatively call Dionysius as "god of the Orient".[105] Similarly, the use of phallic symbol as an icon for Shiva is also found for Irish, Nordic, Greek (Dionysus[107]) and Roman deities, as was the idea of this aniconic column linking heaven and earth among early Indo-Aryans, states Roger Woodward.[100] Others contest such proposals, and suggest Shiva to have emerged from indigenous pre-Aryan tribal origins.[108]

シヴァの偶像に描かれる姿や神話に語られる特徴と、ギリシャヨーロッパの神々との類似からシヴァ神とインド・ヨーロッパ人とのつながりが[100][109]、あるいは古代中央アジア文化との横断的交流が指摘されている[110][111]。例えば恐ろしい姿に描かれたり、慈悲深さを示したりといったシヴァの持つ二面的な性質はギリシャの神、ディオニューソスに通じるものがある[112]。加えて両者には牛、蛇、怒り、勇猛さ、踊り、そして楽観的な性格といった共通点がみられる[105][113]アレクサンドロス大王の時代の複数の文献でシヴァを「インドのディオニューソス」と呼び、逆にディオニューソスを「オリエントの神」として言及している様子が確認できる[105]。同様にシヴァに見られるようなファルス(男性器)を象徴として扱う習慣は、ロジャー・ウッドワード(Roger Woodward)によればアイルランドノルド、ギリシャ(すなわちディオニューソス[114])、ローマの神々にも見られ、同様に初期のインド・アーリア人に見られる「天と地を結ぶ柱」という形での象徴も各地に残っている[100]。一方ではインド=アーリア人を起源とする説に反対する意見もあり、彼らはアーリア人がインド亜大陸に侵入する以前の土着の部族に起源を求めている[115]

ヴェーダ時代のシヴァ

ヴェーダ神話に登場する暴風雨神ルドラがシヴァの前身と考えられている[116]。もともと「シヴァ」は恐るべき神ルドラの名を直接呼ばないための、「吉祥者」「吉祥な」を意味する形容詞であった[117]。時代が下るにつれてルドラは形容詞のシヴァをたびたび添えられるようになり、プラーナ文献の一つ『シヴァ・プラーナ英語版』では、シヴァ神が語る言葉の中に「私の化身であるルドラ」という表現すら現れた。こうしてシヴァはルドラと同一視されていった[注 3]。暴風雨は、破壊的な風水害ももたらすが、同時に土地に水をもたらして植物を育てるという二面性がある。このような災いと恩恵を共にもたらす性格は[118]、後のシヴァにも受け継がれている[116]。※ここは加筆前の記事

The Vedic literature refers to a minor atmospheric deity, with fearsome powers called Rudra. The Rigveda, for example, has 3 out of 1,028 hymns dedicated to Rudra, and he finds occasional mention in other hymns of the same text.[119] The term Shiva also appears in the Rigveda, but simply as an epithet that means "kind, auspicious", one of the adjectives used to describe many different Vedic deities. While fierce ruthless natural phenomenon and storm-related Rudra is feared in the hymns of the Rigveda, the beneficial rains he brings are welcomed as Shiva aspect of him.[120] This healing, nurturing, life-enabling aspect emerges in the Vedas as Rudra-Shiva, and in post-Vedic literature ultimately as Shiva who combines the destructive and constructive powers, the terrific and the pacific, as the ultimate recycler and rejuvenator of all existence.[121]

ヴェーダ時代の文献では天候に関係し、恐ろしい力を持つルドラという神について言及されている。例えばリグ・ヴェーダでは1,028の賛歌の内の3つはルドラに捧げられており、この3つ以外からもルドラに関する記述が散見される[119]。リグ・ヴェーダでは「シヴァ」という名前を見つけることもできるが、これは単純に「慈悲深い、吉祥な」という意味での添え名として使われているにとどまり、ヴェーダ時代の様々な神に対して使われる修飾辞のうちのひとつである。苛烈で容赦ない自然現象でありにまつわる神、ルドラはリグ・ヴェーダの中で恐ろしいものとして描写されている。しかしその一方でルドラは恵みのをもたらす存在でもあり、こういった特徴はルドラの持つシヴァ的な一面と捉えられている[120]。この癒し、育み、生きる糧を与えてくれる存在という側面はルドラ・シヴァという名前でヴェーダに登場し、ヴェーダ後の文献では最終的に破壊と創造を司り、恐ろしくも穏やかな、そしてすべての存在を再生し賦活する神としての発展を遂げる[121]

ルドラ

Three-headed Shiva, Gandhara, 2nd century AD
3つの顔を持つシヴァ。ガンダーラ。2世紀ごろのもの。

Shiva as we know him today shares many features with the Vedic god Rudra,[122] and both Shiva and Rudra are viewed as the same personality in Hindu scriptures. The two names are used synonymously. Rudra, the god of the roaring storm, is usually portrayed in accordance with the element he represents as a fierce, destructive deity.[123]

現代のヒンドゥー教で知られているシヴァの特徴は、ヴェーダ時代のルドラの持つ特徴と多くが共通しており[122]、加えてその時代にはシヴァとルドラは聖典の中で同一の神格とみなされ、類語のように扱われていた。うなる嵐の神であるルドラは通常恐ろしい、破壊的な神という特徴に基づいて描写される[124]

The oldest surviving text of Hinduism is the Rig Veda, which is dated to between 1700 and 1100 BC based on linguistic and philological evidence.[125] A god named Rudra is mentioned in the Rig Veda. The name Rudra is still used as a name for Shiva. In RV 2.33, he is described as the "Father of the Rudras", a group of storm gods.[126]

リンドゥー教の最古の文献であるリグ・ヴェーダであり、これは言語学的、文献学的な証拠から紀元前1700年から1100年の間に書かれたものだと推定されている[127]。ルドラという名前の神がリグ・ヴェーダにて言及されている。ルドラという名前はまた、シヴァの名前としても使用されている。リグ・ヴェーダの2巻の33詩ではルドラス英語版(11柱からなる嵐の神々、マルト神群の前身)の父と言及される[128]

The hymn 10.92 of the Rigveda states that deity Rudra has two natures, one wild and cruel (rudra), another that is kind and tranquil (shiva).[129] The Vedic texts do not mention bull or any animal as the transport vehicle (vahana) of Rudra or other deities. However, post-Vedic texts such as the Mahabharata and the Puranas state the Nandi bull, the Indian zebu, in particular, as the vehicle of Rudra and of Shiva, thereby unmistakably linking them as same.[130]

リグ・ヴェーダ10巻の92詩ではルドラは荒っぽく、残酷な側面(ルドラ)と、慈悲深く穏やかな側面(シヴァ)の2つの性質を持つことが語られている[131]。ヴェーダ時代の文献ではルドラに関して牛やその他の動物をヴァーハナ(乗り物)としているような記述は見られない。しかしヴェーダ後のたとえばマハーバーラタやプラーナ文献などではナンディンが特にルドラとシヴァのヴァーハナであると言及されており、彼らは明白に同じ神格として結び付けられている[132]

アグニ

Rudra and Agni have a close relationship.[133][134] The identification between Agni and Rudra in the Vedic literature was an important factor in the process of Rudra's gradual development into the later character as Rudra-Shiva.[135] The identification of Agni with Rudra is explicitly noted in the Nirukta, an important early text on etymology, which says, "Agni is also called Rudra."[136] The interconnections between the two deities are complex, and according to Stella Kramrisch:

The fire myth of Rudra-Śiva plays on the whole gamut of fire, valuing all its potentialities and phases, from conflagration to illumination.[137]

ルドラとアグニは深い関係を持っている[138][139]。後にルドラ・シヴァというキャラクターへと徐々に発展していくルドラの過程を語る上で、アグニとルドラの同一性は重要な意味を持ってくる[140]。アグニとルドラの同一性はニルクタにて明確に言及されている。ニルクタはサンスクリット語の語源について書かれた初期の文献で、そこにはアグニはルドラとも呼ばれるとしるされてる[141]。アグニとルドラの相互関係は複雑である。ステラ・クラムリッシュ英語版によればルドラ・シヴァの炎にまつわる神話を挙げれば多岐にわたり、大火災から灯りの火に至るまで、火と呼べるもの全てに及んでいる[142]

In the Śatarudrīya, some epithets of Rudra, such as Sasipañjara ("Of golden red hue as of flame") and Tivaṣīmati ("Flaming bright"), suggest a fusing of the two deities.[143] Agni is said to be a bull,[144] and Lord Shiva possesses a bull as his vehicle, Nandi. The horns of Agni, who is sometimes characterized as a bull, are mentioned.[145][146] In medieval sculpture, both Agni and the form of Shiva known as Bhairava have flaming hair as a special feature.[147]

シュリ・ルドラム・チャマカム英語版に登場するルドラの添え名、例えばサシパンジャラ(Sasipañjara、「炎のように赤く金色の」)やティヴァシマティ(Tivaṣīmati、「まぶしく燃える」)はアグニとルドラが融合した様子をうかがわせる[148]。アグニは牛であると言われており[149]、シヴァのヴァーハナは牛のナンディンである。アグニには角が生えているという言及もある[150][151]。中世の聖典にはアグニも、バイラヴァすなわちシヴァの別の姿もともに燃え盛る髪を持つとされている[152]

インドラ

Coin of the Kushan Empire (1st-century BCE to 2nd-century CE). The right image has been interpreted as Shiva with trident and bull.[153]
クシャーナ朝(紀元前1世紀から紀元1世紀)のコイン。右側のデザインはトリシューラ(三叉の槍)を持ち、牛の前に立つシヴァと解釈されている[154]

According to Wendy Doniger, the Puranic Shiva is a continuation of the Vedic Indra.[155] Doniger gives several reasons for her hypothesis. Both are associated with mountains, rivers, male fertility, fierceness, fearlessness, warfare, transgression of established mores, the Aum sound, the Supreme Self. In the Rig Veda the term śiva is used to refer to Indra. (2.20.3,[156] 6.45.17,[157][158] and 8.93.3.[159]) Indra, like Shiva, is likened to a bull.[160][161] In the Rig Veda, Rudra is the father of the Maruts, but he is never associated with their warlike exploits as is Indra.[162]

ウェンディー・ドニガー英語版によればプラーナ文献で語られるシヴァはヴェーダ時代のインドラからつながっている[163]。ドニガーは、インドラもシヴァも山、川、精力、凶暴さ、恐れをしらぬ大胆さ、戦争、確立された慣習風俗の破戒、オウム(真言)、最高の存在であること、などと関連づけられていることをその根拠として挙げている。リグ・ヴェーダではシヴァ(śiva)という語がインドラを指して使われている[注 4]。インドラもシヴァと同様に牛と結び付けられている[168][169]。リグ・ヴェーダではルドラはマルト神群(ルドラの息子たちであり、インドラの従者)の父であるが、ルドラはマルト神群の特徴である好戦的な性格を持っていない。その一方でインドラはそれを持ち合わせている[170]

The Vedic beliefs and practices of the pre-classical era were closely related to the hypothesised Proto-Indo-European religion,[171] and the pre-Islamic Indo-Iranian religion.[172] The earliest iconic artworks of Shiva may be from Gandhara and northwest parts of ancient India. There is some uncertainty as the artwork that has survived is damaged and they show some overlap with meditative Buddha-related artwork, but the presence of Shiva's trident and phallic symbolism in this art suggests it was likely Shiva.[173] Numismatics research suggests that numerous coins of the ancient Kushan Empire that have survived, were images of a god who is probably Shiva.[174] The Shiva in Kushan coins is referred to as Oesho of unclear etymology and origins, but the simultaneous presence of Indra and Shiva in the Kushan era artwork suggest that they were revered deities by the start of the Kushan Empire.[175][176]

古典期以前のヴェーダの信仰と習慣は、仮説上のプロト・インド・ヨーロッパ宗教英語版[171]、そしてイスラム以前のインド・イラン宗教と[172]密接に関係している。シヴァが偶像化されたものとして最も早い時期の物、すなわち彫像はガンダーラや古代インドの北西部で見つかっている。この彫像は損傷しており、加えて仏教に関係の彫刻とも特徴が重なるため、はっきりとこれがシヴァであると言い切れない部分もあるのだが、シヴァの武器であるトリシューラと特徴のひとつであるファルスが確認できるのでおそらくシヴァであろうと思われる[177]貨幣学の分野からは、古代のクシャーナ朝のコインに描かれている神がシヴァではないかという指摘がある[178]。クシャーナのコインではシヴァと思しき人物を指しウェーショー英語版(またはオエーショ英語版)と記されているが、ウェーショーの語源や由来ははっきりしていない。それでもインドラとシヴァがクシャーナ朝にて同時に存在した可能性は、彼らに対する信仰がクシャーナ朝から始まった可能性を示唆している[179][176]

The texts and artwork of Jainism show Indra as a dancer, although not identical but generally resembling the dancing Shiva artwork found in Hinduism, particularly in their respective mudras.[180] For example, in the Jain caves at Ellora, extensive carvings show dancing Indra next to the images of Tirthankaras in a manner similar to Shiva Nataraja. The similarities in the dance iconography suggests that there may be a link between ancient Indra and Shiva.[176][180]

ジャイナ教ではインドラは踊る姿で表現される。明示的に同一とされているわけではないが、ヒンドゥー教で見られる踊っているシヴァとムドラ(ポーズ)が似通っている[180]エローラ石窟群(ヒンドゥー、仏教、ジャイナ、3宗教の遺跡)のジャイナ教窟ではティールタンカラ(ジャイナの神)の隣でインドラがシヴァ・ナタラージャと同じ調子で踊る彫刻が見られる。この踊りの類似は古代のインドラとシヴァとのつながりを示しているようにも思われる[176][180]

マイナーな神、ルドラから最高神へ

Rudra's evolution from a minor Vedic deity to a supreme being is first evidenced in the Shvetashvatara Upanishad (400-200 BC), according to Gavin Flood.[88][181] Prior to it, the Upanishadic literature is monistic, and the Shvetashvatara text presents the earliest seeds of theistic devotion to Rudra-Shiva.[88] Here Rudra-Shiva is identified as the creator of the cosmos and liberator of souls from the birth-rebirth cycle. The period of 200 BC to 100 AD also marks the beginning of the Shaiva tradition focused on the worship of Shiva as evidenced in other literature of this period.[88] Shaiva devotees and ascetics are mentioned in Patanjali's Mahābhāṣya (2nd-century BC) and in the Mahabharata.[182] Other scholars such as Robert Hume and Doris Srinivasan state that the Shvetashvatara Upanishad presents pluralism, pantheism, or henotheism, rather than being a text just on Shiva theism.[183][184][185]

ヴェーダのマイナーな神であったルドラが最高神としての神格へと発展していく過程の最初の痕跡は、ギャビン・フラッドによれば紀元前400年から紀元前200年頃のシュヴェーターシュヴァタラ・ウパニシャッドに見られる[88][181]。これ以前のウパニシャッドの世界は不二一元論であり、シュヴェーターシュヴァタラ・ウパニシャッドはルドラ・シヴァに対する有神論的な信仰の最初のきっかけを与えている[88]。すなわちこの文献で、ルドラ・シヴァが宇宙(ブラフマン)の創造者であり、魂(アートマン)を輪廻から解放する者であると同定される。シヴァ派の信徒、苦行者らはパタンジャリマハーバーシャ英語版やマハーバーラタにて触れられていることから[182]、紀元前200年から紀元後100年には、シヴァへの帰依に焦点を絞るシヴァ派の歴史が始まっていることがわかっている[88]。一方ロバート・ヒューム(Robert Hume)やドリス・スリニヴァサン(Doris Srinivasan)らはシュヴェーターシュヴァタラ・ウパニシャッドが提示するのはシヴァに焦点を当てた有神論ではなく、多元論汎神論単一神教であると述べている[186][187][188]

Self-realization and Shaiva Upanishads

He who sees himself in all beings,
And all beings in him,
attains the highest Brahman,
not by any other means.

Kaivalya Upanishad 10 [189][190]
ジュニャーナの獲得

自らの内に全てを見、
全ての内に自らを見る者が、
ブラフマンに至る、
それ以外に道はない。

カイヴァリャ・ウパニシャッド英語版 10 [189][190]

The Shaiva Upanishads are a group of 14 minor Upanishads of Hinduism variously dated from the last centuries of the 1st millennium BCE through the 17th century.[191] These extol Shiva as the metaphysical unchanging reality Brahman and the Atman (soul, self),[192] and include sections about rites and symbolisms related to Shiva.[193]

古いものでは紀元前10世紀の終わりから新しいものでは17世紀までと様々な時期に書かれた14のウパニシャッドから成るシャイヴァ・ウパニシャッド英語版では[191]、シヴァを物理世界を超越した普遍の存在ブラフマンとアートマンとして賞揚し[192]、さらにシヴァに関する儀式と象徴主義について語られている[193]

A few texts such as Atharvashiras Upanishad mention Rudra, and assert all gods are Rudra, everyone and everything is Rudra, and Rudra is the principle found in all things, their highest goal, the innermost essence of all reality that is visible or invisible.[192] The Kaivalya Upanishad similarly, states Paul Deussen – a German Indologist and professor of Philosophy, describes the self-realized man as who "feels himself only as the one divine essence that lives in all", who feels identity of his and everyone's consciousness with Shiva (highest Atman), who has found this highest Atman within, in the depths of his heart.[189][194]

ルドラに関して触れられる文献はわずかにとどまるが、例えばアタルヴァシラス・ウパニシャッド英語版(紀元前5世紀頃)では、すべての神はルドラであり、全ての生命と全ての物質はルドラであり、ルドラは全ての中に存在する根源であり、最終目標(ジュニャーナ)であり、全ての見える物と見えない物の最も内側にある要素であると主張される[192]パウル・ドイセンによればカイヴァリャ・ウパニシャッド英語版(紀元前10世紀頃)にもルドラがシヴァに置き換わったバージョンの、同様な記述がみられる。すなわち、アートマ・ジュニャーナに達する人は自らをすべての中に住まう神聖な要素として感じ、自ら及びすべての意識とシヴァ(すなわち至高のアートマン)との一体感を感じ、この至高のアートマンを自らの心の奥底に見つけるものである、と語られている[189][194]

The Shaiva Puranas, particularly the Shiva Purana and the Linga Purana, present the various aspects of Shiva, mythologies, cosmology and pilgrimage (Tirtha) associated with him.[195][196] The Shiva-related Tantra literature, composed between the 8th and 11th centuries, are regarded in devotional dualistic Shaivism as Sruti. Dualistic Shaiva Agamas which consider soul within each living being and Shiva as two separate realities (dualism, dvaita), are the foundational texts for Shaiva Siddhanta.[197] Other Shaiva Agamas teach that these are one reality (monism, advaita), and that Shiva is the soul, the perfection and truth within each living being.[198][199] In Shiva related sub-traditions, there are ten dualistic Agama texts, eighteen qualified monism-cum-dualism Agama texts and sixty four monism Agama texts.[200][201][202]

シャイヴァ・プラーナ[注 5]、特にシヴァ・プラーナ英語版(10-11世紀)とリンガ・プラーナ英語版(5-10世紀)にはシヴァの様々な姿、シヴァに関する神話や宇宙論、巡礼地(ティルサ英語版)などが紹介されている[195][196]。シヴァに関するタントラ文献は8世紀から11世紀の間に纏められており、シヴァ派の中でも二元論を固持する信徒にとってのシュルティ英語版ヴェーダ#シュルティとスムリティ)となっている。(略)

Shiva-related literature developed extensively across India in the 1st millennium CE and through the 13th century, particularly in Kashmir and Tamil Shaiva traditions.[202] The monist Shiva literature posit absolute oneness, that is Shiva is within every man and woman, Shiva is within every living being, Shiva is present everywhere in the world including all non-living being, and there is no spiritual difference between life, matter, man and Shiva.[203] The various dualistic and monist Shiva-related ideas were welcomed in medieval southeast Asia, inspiring numerous Shiva-related temples, artwork and texts in Indonesia, Myanmar, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, Thailand and Malaysia, with syncretic integration of local pre-existing theologies.[197][204][205]

(略)シヴァに関する文献は10世紀から13世紀にかけてインド全土で発展しており、特にカシミールカシミール・シヴァ派英語版)とタミルシヴァ・シッダーンダ英語版、あるいは聖典シヴァ派とも)での受容が顕著である[202]。(略)

シヴァによる信仰の融合

The figure of Shiva as we know him today may be an amalgamation of various older deities into a single figure.[21][206] How the persona of Shiva converged as a composite deity is not understood, a challenge to trace and has attracted much speculation.[207] According to Vijay Nath, for example:

現代わたしたちが知るシヴァの姿は様々な古い神々がひとつの神格へと融合された結果であるかもしれない[21][208]。複合的なシヴァの神格がどのような過程を経て収束していったのかはわからないが、由来を辿る試みは行われており、いくつかの推測も存在する[209]。例えばヴィジャイ・ナート(Vijay Nath)によれば、

Vishnu and Siva [...] began to absorb countless local cults and deities within their folds. The latter were either taken to represent the multiple facets of the same god or else were supposed to denote different forms and appellations by which the god came to be known and worshipped. [...] Siva became identified with countless local cults by the sheer suffixing of Isa or Isvara to the name of the local deity, e.g., Bhutesvara, Hatakesvara, Chandesvara."[210]
ヴィシュヌとシヴァは(中略)彼らの信徒の信仰に、無数の地方の信仰と神々を取り入れ始めた。後者(地方の神々)は、例えば同じ神の様々な様相を表すものとして、あるいは同じ神の違った姿として、またはそれによって信仰されるようになった称号として取り入れられた。(中略)シヴァは無数の地方の信仰の中で、神々の名前に「イーシャ」(Isa)、「イーシュヴァラ」(Isvara)という接尾辞をつけることによって同一視されるようになった。例えば、ブテーシュヴァラ(Bhutesvara)、ハタケシュヴァラ(Hatakesvara)、チャンデシュヴァラ(Chandesvara)などのように[210]

An example of assimilation took place in Maharashtra, where a regional deity named Khandoba is a patron deity of farming and herding castes.[211] The foremost center of worship of Khandoba in Maharashtra is in Jejuri.[212] Khandoba has been assimilated as a form of Shiva himself,[213] in which case he is worshipped in the form of a lingam.[211][214] Khandoba's varied associations also include an identification with Surya[211] and Karttikeya.[215]

例えば、マハーラーシュトラ州では地方の神としてカンドーバ英語版が信仰されている。カンドーバは農業牧畜カーストの守護神であった[211]ジェジュリ英語版がカンドーバ信仰の最縁部となる[216]。カンドーバはシヴァの姿に取り込まれており[217]、信仰はリンガを通して行われる[211][218]。カンドーバはまた、スールヤ[211]、カールッティーケーヤ(スカンダ)とも同一視されている[219]

ヒンドゥー教の中での位置づけ

Lingodbhava is a Shaiva sectarian icon where Shiva is depicted rising from the Lingam (an infinite fiery pillar) that narrates how Shiva is the foremost of the Trimurti; Brahma and Vishnu are depicted bowing to Lingodbhava Shiva in the centre.
リンガから現れるシヴァを描くリンゴドバーヴァ英語版はシヴァ派の間で象徴的に信仰される。トリムルティにおいてシヴァがいかに傑出しているかを物語る。両脇のブラフマーヴィシュヌはリンゴドバーヴァ・シヴァに会釈をしている。

シヴァ派

Shaivism is one of the four major sects of Hinduism, the others being Vaishnavism, Shaktism and the Smarta Tradition. Followers of Shaivism, called "Shaivas", revere Shiva as the Supreme Being. Shaivas believe that Shiva is All and in all, the creator, preserver, destroyer, revealer and concealer of all that is.[7][6] He is not only the creator in Shaivism, he is the creation that results from him, he is everything and everywhere. Shiva is the primal soul, the pure consciousness and Absolute Reality in the Shaiva traditions.[6]

シヴァ派ヴィシュヌ派シャクティ派スマールタ派と並びヒンドゥー教四大宗派のひとつとなっている。シヴァ派(シャイヴィズム)の信徒は「シャイヴァ」と呼ばれシヴァを最高神として崇めている。シヴァ派においては、シヴァは全ての中の全て、創造神、維持神、破壊神、啓示を与える者であり、全てを覆い隠すものだと信じられている[7][6]。シヴァ派にとってシヴァは単なる創造者ではなく、彼自身も彼の作品であり、シヴァは全てであり、普遍的な存在である。シヴァ派においてシヴァは根本的な魂であり、純粋な魂であり、ブラフマンである[6]

The Shaivism theology is broadly grouped into two: the popular theology influenced by Shiva-Rudra in the Vedas, Epics and the Puranas; and the esoteric theology influenced by the Shiva and Shakti-related Tantra texts.[220] The Vedic-Brahmanic Shiva theology includes both monist (advaita) and devotional traditions (dvaita) such as Tamil Shaiva Siddhanta and Lingayatism with temples featuring items such as linga, Shiva-Parvati iconography, bull Nandi within the premises, relief artwork showing mythologies and aspects of Shiva.[221][222]

シヴァ派の理論は2つに大別できる。比較的大きな勢力なのが(バラモン教時代の)ヴェーダ叙事詩プラーナ文献に見られるシヴァ・ルドラの影響を受ける理論。もう1つがシヴァ、シャクティに関するタントラ文献の影響をうける密教的な理論である[220]。ヴェーダ・バラモン教のシヴァ理論は一元論不二一元論)的性格と、神への帰依(二元論)的な性格が見られる。神への帰依とは例えばタミル(南インド)のシヴァ・シッダーンタ派英語版リンガーヤタ派英語版[注 6]のように寺院内にリンガやシヴァとパールヴァティの宗教画、ナンディンなどといった偶像や象徴を奉り、シヴァに纏わる神話をモチーフにしたレリーフで飾る[221][223]

The Tantric Shiva tradition ignored the mythologies and Puranas related to Shiva, and depending on the sub-school developed a spectrum of practices. For example, historical records suggest the tantric Kapalikas (literally, the "skull-men") co-existed with and shared many Vajrayana Buddhist rituals, engaged in esoteric practices that revered Shiva and Shakti wearing skulls, begged with empty skulls, used meat, alcohol and sexuality as a part of ritual.[224] In contrast, the esoteric tradition within Kashmir Shaivism has featured the Krama and Trika sub-traditions.[225] The Krama sub-tradition focussed on esoteric rituals around Shiva-Kali pair.[226] The Trika sub-tradition developed a theology of triads involving Shiva, combined it with an ascetic lifestyle focusing on personal Shiva in the pursuit of monistic self liberation.[227][225][228]

シヴァ派のタントリズムは実践的な信仰の領域から派生した分派にて発展し、シヴァに関する神話やプラーナ文献を無視する。例えば(今は途絶えた)カーパーリカ英語版派(髑髏男の意)信徒と大乗仏教がかつて共存し、多くの習慣を共有し、髑髏を身に着けたシヴァとシャクティを崇拝し、空の髑髏の鉢で施しを求め、肉や酒や性的関心を儀式に用いていたという記録が残されている[229]。対照的にカシミール・シヴァ派英語版の密教的信仰はクラマ派(Krama)とトリカ派(Trika)を特徴とする[225]。クラマ派はシヴァとカーリーのペアを重視する[230]。一方のトリカ派はトリムルティの理論を発展させ、不二一元論的な解脱を追い求めるために、個人的な「シヴァ」に焦点を当てた禁欲的な生活を伴う[227][225][231]

ヴィシュヌ派

The Vaishnava (Vishnu-oriented) literature acknowledges and discusses Shiva. Like Shaiva literature that presents Shiva as supreme, the Vaishnava literature presents Vishnu as supreme. However, both traditions are pluralistic and revere both Shiva and Vishnu (along with Devi), their texts do not show exclusivism, and Vaishnava texts such as the Bhagavata Purana while praising Krishna as the Ultimate Reality, also present Shiva and Shakti as a personalized form and equivalent to the same Ultimate Reality.[232][233][234] The texts of Shaivism tradition similarly praise Vishnu. The Skanda Purana, for example, states:

ヴィシュヌ派の聖典でもシヴァについて語られている。シヴァ派の信仰でシヴァが最高神に位置付けられるのとと同様に、ヴィシュヌ派ではヴィシュヌが最高神として扱われる。しかしいずれの宗派でも信仰は多神教的な性格をもっており、それぞれでシヴァとヴィシュヌが、加えてデーヴィ(ヒンドゥーの女神ら)が崇拝される。どちらの聖典にも排他的要素は含まれておらず、例えばヴィシュヌ派のバーガヴァタ・プラーナではクリシュナ(ヴィシュヌの化身)をブラフマンとして礼賛する一方でシヴァとシャクティ(シヴァの配偶神の1柱)も同じブラフマンの顕現した姿だとして称える[235][236][237]。一方のシヴァ派にも同様にヴィシュヌが称えられる。例えばスカンダ・プラーナ英語版では以下のように語られている。

Vishnu is nobody but Shiva, and he who is called Shiva is but identical with Vishnu.

Skanda Purana、1.8.20-21[238]
ヴィシュヌはシヴァ以外の何者でもない。そしてシヴァと呼ばれる神は他でもないヴィシュヌと同一である。
スカンダ・プラーナ、1.8.20-21[239]

Mythologies of both traditions include legends about who is superior, about Shiva paying homage to Vishnu, and Vishnu paying homage to Shiva. However, in texts and artwork of either tradition, the mutual salutes are symbolism for complementarity.[240] The Mahabharata declares the unchanging Ultimate Reality (Brahman) to be identical to Shiva and to Vishnu,[241] that Vishnu is the highest manifestation of Shiva, and Shiva is the highest manifestation of Vishnu.[242]

双方の信仰にシヴァとヴィシュヌのどちらが優れているを競うエピソードや、シヴァがヴィシュヌに敬意を払う、またはヴィシュヌがシヴァに敬意を払う神話が存在している。サロジ・パンゼイ(Saroj Panthey)によればこれら双方の聖典、絵画などに見られるお互いを敬う描写は彼らの持つ相互補完的な役割の象徴である[243]。マハーバーラタではブラフマンはシヴァとヴィシュヌと同一であると[244]、そしてヴィシュヌはシヴァの至高の姿であり、シヴァはヴィシュヌの至高の姿であると語られている[245]

シャクティ派

The goddess-oriented Shakti tradition of Hinduism is based on the premise that the Supreme Principle and the Ultimate Reality called Brahman is female (Devi),[246][247][248] but it treats the male as her equal and complementary partner.[9][10] This partner is either Shiva or an avatar of Vishnu.[249][250]

ヒンドゥーの女神を重視するシャクティ派では、根本原理、普遍の現実であるブラフマンを女神(デーヴィ英語版)であるとし[246][247][248]、男性神を女神の同等かつ補完的なパートナーとして扱う[9][10] 。このパートナーはシヴァか、ヴィシュヌのアバターラ(化身)である[249][250]

The earliest evidence of the tradition of reverence for the feminine with Rudra-Shiva context, is found in the Hindu scripture Rigveda, in a hymn called the Devi Sukta:[251][252]

リグ・ヴェーダの賛歌、デーヴィ・スークタには女神を崇拝するこの信仰の最も早い痕跡がシヴァ・ルドラの文脈とともに見つけられる[251][252]

I am the Queen, the gatherer-up of treasures, most thoughtful, first of those who merit worship.
     Thus gods have established me in many places with many homes to enter and abide in.
Through me alone all eat the food that feeds them, – each man who sees, breathes, hears the word outspoken.
     They know it not, yet I reside in the essence of the Universe. Hear, one and all, the truth as I declare it.

I, verily, myself announce and utter the word that gods and men alike shall welcome.
     I make the man I love exceeding mighty, make him nourished, a sage, and one who knows Brahman.
I bend the bow for Rudra [Shiva], that his arrow may strike, and slay the hater of devotion.
     I rouse and order battle for the people, I created Earth and Heaven and reside as their Inner Controller.
(...)

Devi Sukta, Rigveda 10.125.3 – 10.125.8、[251][252][253]

私は女王であり、宝を集めるものであり、もっとも慈悲深く、何よりもまず帰依する価値のある存在である。
    こうして神々は私をあらゆる場所に、わたしが住まう家とともに作り出した。
物を見、息をし、発せられた言葉を聴く者たちは、私を通してのみ日々の糧を得る。
    彼らは、私が宇宙の原理の中に住まうことを知らない。一同皆聴け、私の宣言する真実を。

私はたしかに宣言する。神も人も同様に歓迎しよう。
    私は私を慕うものを並外れて強い者にしよう。彼を豊かに育まれた者にしよう。賢人にしよう。ブラフマンを知るものにしよう。
ルドラ(シヴァ)のために弓を曲げよう。彼の放つ矢は不信心な者を滅ぼすだろう。
    私は人々のために戦えと命令を下そう。私は地上と天界とつくり、彼らの内側の支配者として住んでいる。
(以下略)

リグ・ヴェーダ、デーヴィースークタ 10.125.3 – 10.125.8、[251][252][253]

The Devi Upanishad in its explanation of the theology of Shaktism, mentions and praises Shiva such as in its verse 19.[254][255] Shiva, along with Vishnu, is a revered god in the Devi Mahatmya, a text of Shaktism considered by the tradition to be as important as the Bhagavad Gita.[256][257] The Ardhanarisvara concept co-mingles god Shiva and goddess Shakti by presenting an icon that is half man and half woman, a representation and theme of union found in many Hindu texts and temples.[258][259]

シャクティ派の理論を説明しているデーヴィ・ウパニシャッド英語版では第19詩にてシヴァに触れられ、称えられている[254][255]。シャクティ派にとってバガヴァッド・ギーターと同等の価値を与えられている聖典、デーヴィー・マーハートミャではシヴァはヴィシュヌとともに礼賛されている[256][260]アルダナーリーシュヴァラという神格のコンセプトは、多くのヒンドゥー寺院、文献に見られるテーマ、半分は男性で半分は女性であるという状態が象徴的に表現され、シヴァと女神シャクティが混じりあっている(ちょっと何言ってるか)[261][262]

スマールタ派

In the Smarta tradition of Hinduism, Shiva is a part of its Panchayatana puja.[263] This practice consists of the use of icons or anicons of five deities considered equivalent,[263] set in a quincunx pattern.[264] Shiva is one of the five deities, others being Vishnu, Devi (such as Parvati), Surya and an Ishta Devata such as Ganesha or Skanda or any personal god of devotee's preference.[265]

スマールタ派ではシヴァはパンチャヤタナ・プージャ英語版(儀式)で信仰されるの神の内の1人である[263]。この儀式には5柱の神々を象徴する偶像が用いられる。パンチャヤタナ・プージャにおいてはこの5柱は同等なものとして考えられており[263]、それぞれが五つ目型英語版さいころの5の形)に並べられる[264]。シヴァ以外にはヴィシュヌ、いずれかのデーヴィ(女神、例えばパールヴァティなど)、スーリヤイシュタデーヴァター英語版(例えばガネーシャスカンダなど自分の帰依する神)の偶像がこの儀式に用いられ信仰される[265]

Philosophically, the Smarta tradition emphasizes that all idols (murti) are icons to help focus on and visualize aspects of Brahman, rather than distinct beings. The ultimate goal in this practice is to transition past the use of icons, recognize the Absolute symbolized by the icons,[266] on the path to realizing the nondual identity of one's Atman (soul, self) and the Brahman.[267] Popularized by Adi Shankara, many Panchayatana mandalas and temples have been uncovered that are from the Gupta Empire period, and one Panchayatana set from the village of Nand (about 24 kilometers from Ajmer) has been dated to belong to the Kushan Empire era (pre-300 CE).[268] The Kushan period set includes Shiva, Vishnu, Surya, Brahma and one deity whose identity is unclear.[268]

(略)

ヨーガ

The theory and practice of Yoga, in different styles, has been a part of all major traditions of Hinduism, and Shiva has been the patron or spokesperson in numerous Hindu Yoga texts.[269][270] These contain the philosophy and techniques for Yoga. These ideas are estimated to be from or after the late centuries of the 1st millennium CE, and have survived as Yoga texts such as the Isvara Gita (literally, "Shiva's song"), which Andrew Nicholson – a professor of Hinduism and Indian Intellectual History – states have had "a profound and lasting influence on the development of Hinduism".[271]

様々なスタイルのヨーガの理論と実践はヒンドゥー教の大きな流れの一部であり続けてきた。そしてシヴァはヨーガの多くの文献で守護神として描かれ、また語り手となっている[269][270]。ヨーガは10世紀ごろか、それよりも後に体系化されていると見積もられており、例えばイシュヴァラ・ギーター(Isvara Gita、シヴァの歌の意)といった文献とともに後世に伝えられている。アンドリュー・ニコルソンによればこのイシュヴァラ・ギーターはヒンドゥー教に深く、永続的な影響を与えている[272]

Other famed Shiva-related texts influenced Hatha Yoga, integrated monistic (Advaita Vedanta) ideas with Yoga philosophy and inspired the theoretical development of Indian classical dance. These include the Shiva Sutras, the Shiva Samhita, and those by the scholars of Kashmir Shaivism such as the 10th-century scholar Abhinavagupta.[269][270][273] Abhinavagupta writes in his notes on the relevance of ideas related to Shiva and Yoga, by stating that "people, occupied as they are with their own affairs, normally do nothing for others", and Shiva and Yoga spirituality helps one look beyond, understand interconnectedness, and thus benefit both the individual and the world towards a more blissful state of existence.[274]

さらにシヴァ・スートラ英語版シヴァ・サンヒター英語版、加えて例えば10世紀のアビナヴァグプタ英語版といったカシミール・シヴァ派の学者たちの記した文献は、ハタ・ヨーガに影響を与え不二一元論の思想とヨーガの哲学を融合し、またインド古典舞踊英語版の理論的発展にも貢献している[269][270][275]。(以下略)

トリムルティ

The Trimurti is a concept in Hinduism in which the cosmic functions of creation, maintenance, and destruction are personified by the forms of Brahma the creator, Vishnu the maintainer or preserver and Shiva the destroyer or transformer.[276][277] These three deities have been called "the Hindu triad"[278] or the "Great Trinity".[279] However, the ancient and medieval texts of Hinduism feature many triads of gods and goddesses, some of which do not include Shiva.[280]

トリムルティとは、宇宙における創造と維持と破壊の機能を3柱の神に神格化させるというヒンドゥー教の理論である。ブラフマーが創造を司り、ヴィシュヌが維持を司り、シヴァが破壊/再生を司る[281][282]。(キリスト教視点なので中略)しかし古代の、あるいは中世の文献には様々なトリムルティが存在しており、いろいろな神々や女神がトリムルティに数えられており、中にはシヴァの含まれないものも存在する[283]

シヴァ像に共通する付加的な要素

Shiva with Parvati. Shiva is depicted three-eyed, the Ganges flowing through his matted hair, wearing ornaments of serpents and a skull garland, and covered in ashes, and seated on a tiger skin
シヴァとパールヴァティ。シヴァには3つのが描かれている。もつれたからガンジス川が流れ、のアクセサリーに髑髏花輪を身に着けている。体にはヴィブーティ英語版)を塗りたくり、の毛皮に座っている。
A seated Shiva holds an axe and deer in his hands.
鹿を手に座るシヴァ。
  • Third eye: Shiva is often depicted with a third eye, with which he burned Desire (Kāma) to ashes,[284] called "Tryambakam" (Sanskrit: त्र्यम्बकम् ), which occurs in many scriptural sources.[285] In classical Sanskrit, the word ambaka denotes "an eye", and in the Mahabharata, Shiva is depicted as three-eyed, so this name is sometimes translated as "having three eyes".[286] However, in Vedic Sanskrit, the word ambā or ambikā means "mother", and this early meaning of the word is the basis for the translation "three mothers".[287][288] These three mother-goddesses who are collectively called the Ambikās.[289] Other related translations have been based on the idea that the name actually refers to the oblations given to Rudra, which according to some traditions were shared with the goddess Ambikā.[290]
  • 第三の目: シヴァは第三の目を持った姿で表現されることが珍しくなく、この目は欲望(カマカーマ(神))を焼いて灰にするとされている[291]。シヴァの異名として「トリャンバカ」(Tryambakam、त्र्यम्बकम्)という名がたびたび文献に登場する[292]。古典期のサンスクリット語では「トリャンバカ」にふくまれる「アンバカ」(ambaka)は「目」を意味し、またマハーバーラタではシヴァは3つの目を持つと描写されているため、しばしば「トリャンバカ」は「3つの目を持つ者」と翻訳される[293]。しかしヴェーダ語では「アンバ」または「アンビカ」(ambā、ambikā)は「母親」を意味する。そのため(マハーバーラタよりも)早い時期のこの単語を基に考えると、トリャンバカは「3人の母を持つ者」と翻訳され、マックス・ミューラーアーサー・マクドネルはこれを採用している[294]。しかしシヴァが3人の母を持つというエピソードは存在しないので、エドワード・ホプキンス英語版は「3人の母親」ではなく、「アンビカス」(Ambikās)という集合名で呼ばれる女神達を指すのではないかとしている[295]。その他、「3人の妻を持つ者」、「3人の妹を持つ者」など、またはこの名前はルドラに与えられた捧げものを指しているのではないか[注 7]など様々に推測されている[296]
  • Crescent moon: Shiva bears on his head the crescent moon.[297] The epithet Candraśekhara (Sanskrit: चन्द्रशेखर "Having the moon as his crest" - candra = "moon"; śekhara = "crest, crown")[298][299][300] refers to this feature. The placement of the moon on his head as a standard iconographic feature dates to the period when Rudra rose to prominence and became the major deity Rudra-Shiva.[301] The origin of this linkage may be due to the identification of the moon with Soma, and there is a hymn in the Rig Veda where Soma and Rudra are jointly implored, and in later literature, Soma and Rudra came to be identified with one another, as were Soma and the moon.[302]
  • 三日月: シヴァは頭に三日月を身に着けた姿で描写される[303]。そのため「チャンドラセカラ」(Candraśekhara、चन्द्रशेखर、を戴くもの)という異名を持つ[304][305][306]。この三日月を伴った姿が定着したのはマイナーだった神ルドラが注目を集めルドラ・シヴァへと発展する頃までさかのぼる[307]。このルドラと月の関係の発端は月とソーマが同一視されたことによる。リグ・ヴェーダではソーマとルドラが共に希求される賛歌が存在する。ソーマとルドラはそれぞれソーマと月同様に同一視されるようになった[308]
  • Ashes: Shiva iconography shows his body covered with ashes (bhasma, vibhuti).[309][310] The ashes represent a reminder that all of material existence is impermanent, comes to an end becoming ash, and the pursuit of eternal soul and spiritual liberation is important.[311][312]
  • : シヴァは体にバスマ英語版、またはヴィブーティ英語版)を塗りたくった姿で描写される[309][313]。この灰は、全ての形あるものは永遠ではなくいつかは灰に帰ること、そして永遠の魂と精神的解放を追い求めることの重要さを表現している[314][315]
  • Matted hair: Shiva's distinctive hair style is noted in the epithets Jaṭin, "the one with matted hair",[316] and Kapardin, "endowed with matted hair"[317] or "wearing his hair wound in a braid in a shell-like (kaparda) fashion".[318] A kaparda is a cowrie shell, or a braid of hair in the form of a shell, or, more generally, hair that is shaggy or curly.[319]
  • もつれた髪の毛: シヴァのこの特徴的な髪型もまたいくつかの異名の元になっている。例えば「ジャティン」(Jaṭin、もつれた髪を持つ者)[320]、「カパルディン」(Kapardin)など。カバルディンは「もつれた髪を与えられた者[321]」、「貝殻(カパルダ)のようなひも状に編んだ髪を持つ者[322]」などと翻訳される。カパルダ(kaparda)はタカラガイコヤスガイなど、あるいは貝殻状に編んだ髪、あるいはもじゃもじゃの髪、くるくるに丸まった髪を意味する[323]
  • Blue throat: The epithet Nīlakaṇtha (Sanskrit नीलकण्ठ; nīla = "blue", kaṇtha = "throat").[324][325] Since Shiva drank the Halahala poison churned up from the Samudra Manthan to eliminate its destructive capacity. Shocked by his act, Parvati squeezed his neck and stopped it in his neck to prevent it from spreading all over the universe, supposed to be in Shiva's stomach. However the poison was so potent that it changed the color of his neck to blue.[326][327]
  • 青い喉: 「ニーラカンタ」(Nīlakaṇtha、नीलकण्ठ、青い首の意)というシヴァの異名の元になる特徴[328][329]乳海攪拌によって猛毒ハラーハラが湧き上がってくると、シヴァはそれを無毒化するために飲み込む。シヴァのの中には宇宙が存在しているため、それを見たシヴァの配偶神パールヴァティは慌ててシヴァの首を締めあげ毒が宇宙に回ることを防いだ。しかし毒はシヴァの喉を青く変色させた[330][327]
  • Meditating yogi: his iconography often shows him in a Yoga pose, meditating, sometimes on a symbolic Himalayan Mount Kailasha as the Lord of Yoga.[309]
  • 瞑想するヨーギー: シヴァはヨーガのポーズ、結跏趺坐を組み瞑想に耽る姿で、また場合によってはヒマラヤカイラス山の上で瞑想する姿で、ヨーガの王として表現されることも珍しくない[309]
  • Sacred Ganga: The epithet Gangadhara, "Bearer of the river Ganga" (Ganges). The Ganga flows from the matted hair of Shiva.[331][332] The Gaṅgā (Ganga), one of the major rivers of the country, is said to have made her abode in Shiva's hair.[333]
  • 聖なるガンジス: シヴァはまた、「ガンガーダラ」(ガンジス川をもたらす者)という異名を持つ。ガンジス川はシヴァのもつれた髪から流れ出ている[334][335]。インドの主要な河川のひとつであるガンジス川は、シヴァのもつれた髪をその住処としていると言われる[336]
  • Tiger skin: Shiva is often shown seated upon a tiger skin.[309]
  • 虎の毛皮: シヴァは虎の毛皮の上に座った姿で描写されることも多い[309]
  • Serpents: Shiva is often shown garlanded with a snake.[337]
  • : シヴァはナーガ(蛇)を首に巻いた姿で度々表現される[338]
  • Trident: Shiva typically carries a trident called Trishula.[309] The trident is a weapon or a symbol in different Hindu texts.[339] As a symbol, the Trishul represents Shiva's three aspects of "creator, preserver and destroyer",[340] or alternatively it represents the equilibrium of three Gunas of "sattva, rajas and tamas".[341]
  • 三叉の槍: シヴァは通常トリシューラと呼ばれる三叉槍を持った姿で表現される[309]。この槍は武器、あるいは象徴として様々な文献に登場する[339]。シンボルとしてのトリシューラは「創造する者」、「維持する者」、「破壊する者」というシヴァの3つの側面を表している[340]。あるいは3つのグナ(トリグナ)、サットヴァ、ラジャス、タマスの平衡状態を表現している[341]
  • Drum: A small drum shaped like an hourglass is known as a damaru.[342][343] This is one of the attributes of Shiva in his famous dancing representation[344] known as Nataraja. A specific hand gesture (mudra) called ḍamaru-hasta (Sanskrit for "ḍamaru-hand") is used to hold the drum.[345] This drum is particularly used as an emblem by members of the Kāpālika sect.[346]
  • 太鼓: 砂時計のような形の太鼓ダマル英語版を持つ[347][348]。これはナタラージャ(Nataraja)という名で知られるシヴァの踊る姿を表した偶像に良く見られる特徴である[349]。このダマルの持つ際にはダマル・ハスタ(ḍamaru-hasta)と呼ばれる独特の手のポーズ(ムドラ)が用いられる[350]。ダマルはカーピーリカ派(シヴァ派の一派)シンボルとして用いられることでも特徴的である[351]
  • Axe (Parashu) and Deer are held in Shiva's hands in south Indian icons.[352]
  • : 南インドではシヴァはよくパラシュ(斧)と鹿を手に持った姿で表される[353]
  • Rosary beads: he is garlanded with or carries a string of rosary beads in his right hand, typically made of Rudraksha.[309] This is a symbolism of grace, mendicant life and meditation.[354][355]
  • 数珠: シヴァは右手に数珠を巻いた姿で描写される。この数珠は通常ルドラークシャ(菩提樹の実)でできているとされる[309]。優雅さと乞食と瞑想を象徴する[356][357]
  • Nandī: Nandī, also known as "Nandin", is the name of the bull that serves as Shiva's mount (Sanskrit: vāhana).[358][359] Shiva's association with cattle is reflected in his name Paśupati, or Pashupati (Sanskrit: पशुपति), translated by Sharma as "lord of cattle"[360] and by Kramrisch as "lord of animals", who notes that it is particularly used as an epithet of Rudra.[361]
  • シヴァのヴァーハナ(神の乗り物となる動物)であるナンディン(またはナンディー)がシヴァとともに描かれる[362][363]。シヴァと牛のつながりは彼の異名である「パシュパティ」(Paśupati、पशुपति、牛の王の意)にも表れている[364]。ステラ・クラムリッシュは「パシュパティ」を「獣の王」という意味にとる。彼女は「獣の王」は特にルドラにあてられる異名であるとする[365]
  • Mount Kailāsa: Mount Kailash in the Himalayas is his traditional abode.[309][366] In Hindu mythology, Mount Kailāsa is conceived as resembling a Linga, representing the center of the universe.[367]
  • カイラス山: ヒマラヤ山脈カイラス山は伝統的にシヴァの住居であるとされている[309][368]ヒンドゥー神話ではカイラス山はリンガの形をしていると見なされ、世界の中心であると考えられている[369]
  • Gaṇa: The Gaṇas are attendants of Shiva and live in Kailash. They are often referred to as the bhutaganas, or ghostly hosts, on account of their nature. Generally benign, except when their lord is transgressed against, they are often invoked to intercede with the lord on behalf of the devotee. His son Ganesha was chosen as their leader by Shiva, hence Ganesha's title gaṇa-īśa or gaṇa-pati, "lord of the gaṇas".[370]
  • ガナ: ガナ英語版はカイラス山に住むと言われるシヴァの眷属たちである。彼らの性質からしばしばブタガナス(bhutaganas、幽霊の軍隊)などとも呼ばれる。彼らの主人が侮辱された場合などを除いては基本的におとなしく、シヴァをとりなす存在として信仰の対象となる。シヴァの息子ガネーシャはガナたちの長を任されており、そのため「ガナ・イーサ」、「ガナ・パティ」(ガナの王)と呼ばれる[371]
  • Varanasi: Varanasi (Benares) is considered to be the city specially loved by Shiva, and is one of the holiest places of pilgrimage in India. It is referred to, in religious contexts, as Kashi.[372]
  • ヴァーラーナシー: ヴァーラーナシーは特にシヴァのお気に入りの街と言われており、インドの聖地のひとつに数えられている。宗教的文脈ではヴァーラーナシーは「カーシー」とも呼ばれる[373]

偶像や神話に見られる描写

According to Gavin Flood, "Shiva is a god of ambiguity and paradox," whose attributes include opposing themes.[374] The ambivalent nature of this deity is apparent in some of his names and the stories told about him.

シヴァはその性質にまったく正反対のものを抱えているため、ギャヴィン・フラッド英語版はシヴァを曖昧さとパラドックスの神であると表現している[375]。シヴァの相反する性質は彼に与えられた名前や、彼について語られるエピソードからも明らかである。

破壊を司る神と、恩寵を与える存在の対比

Shiva is represented in his many aspects.[376] Left: Bhairava icon of the fierce form of Shiva, from 17th/18th century Nepal; Right: Shiva as a meditating yogi in Rishikesh. Shiva is represented in his many aspects.[376] Left: Bhairava icon of the fierce form of Shiva, from 17th/18th century Nepal; Right: Shiva as a meditating yogi in Rishikesh.
Shiva is represented in his many aspects.[376] Left: Bhairava icon of the fierce form of Shiva, from 17th/18th century Nepal; Right: Shiva as a meditating yogi in Rishikesh.
シヴァは数多くの様相を併せ持つ[377]。左: バイラヴァ、シヴァの恐ろしい側面を象徴的に表現する。17世紀から18世紀、ネパール。右: 瞑想に耽るヨーギーとしてのシヴァ。リシケーシュ。 シヴァは数多くの様相を併せ持つ[377]。左: バイラヴァ、シヴァの恐ろしい側面を象徴的に表現する。17世紀から18世紀、ネパール。右: 瞑想に耽るヨーギーとしてのシヴァ。リシケーシュ。
シヴァは数多くの様相を併せ持つ[377]。左: バイラヴァ、シヴァの恐ろしい側面を象徴的に表現する。17世紀から18世紀、ネパール。右: 瞑想に耽るヨーギーとしてのシヴァ。リシケーシュ

In Yajurveda, two contrary sets of attributes for both malignant or terrific (Sanskrit: rudra) and benign or auspicious (Sanskrit: śiva) forms can be found, leading Chakravarti to conclude that "all the basic elements which created the complex Rudra-Śiva sect of later ages are to be found here".[378] In the Mahabharata, Shiva is depicted as "the standard of invincibility, might, and terror", as well as a figure of honor, delight, and brilliance.[379]

ヤジュル・ヴェーダでは対極にある2対の表現が見られる。すなわち「害のある」と「恐ろしい」(サンスクリット語: rudra)および、「害のない」と「吉祥な」(サンスクリット語: śiva)であり、マハデーヴ・チャクラヴァティ(Mahadev Chakravarti)はこのことが後にルドラ・シヴァ派という複雑な宗派を生み出す要因になったと結論づけている[380]。マハーバーラタではシヴァは無敵で、強くて、恐ろしい存在の典型として、そして同時に誉れ高く、喜ばしく、素晴らしい神として描かれる[381]

The duality of Shiva's fearful and auspicious attributes appears in contrasted names. The name Rudra reflects Shiva's fearsome aspects. According to traditional etymologies, the Sanskrit name Rudra is derived from the root rud-, which means "to cry, howl".[382] Stella Kramrisch notes a different etymology connected with the adjectival form raudra, which means "wild, of rudra nature", and translates the name Rudra as "the wild one" or "the fierce god".[383] R. K. Sharma follows this alternate etymology and translates the name as "terrible".[384] Hara is an important name that occurs three times in the Anushasanaparvan version of the Shiva sahasranama, where it is translated in different ways each time it occurs, following a commentorial tradition of not repeating an interpretation. Sharma translates the three as "one who captivates", "one who consolidates", and "one who destroys".[385] Kramrisch translates it as "the ravisher".[327] Another of Shiva's fearsome forms is as Kāla "time" and Mahākāla "great time", which ultimately destroys all things.[48][386] The name Kāla appears in the Shiva Sahasranama, where it is translated by Ram Karan Sharma as "(the Supreme Lord of) Time."[387] Bhairava "terrible" or "frightful"[388] is a fierce form associated with annihilation.In contrast, the name Śaṇkara, "beneficent"[30] or "conferring happiness"[389] reflects his benign form. This name was adopted by the great Vedanta philosopher Adi Shankara (c. 788-820),[390] who is also known as Shankaracharya.[48] The name Śambhu (Sanskrit: शम्भु swam-on its own; bhu-burn/shine) "self-shining/ shining on its own", also reflects this benign aspect.[48][391]

恐ろしくも喜ばしいというシヴァの持つ二面性は、彼の対照的な名前にも表れている。「ルドラ」という名前はシヴァの恐ろしい側面を映し出している。歴史的に受け入れられているルドラの語源は、語根にあたる「ルド」(rud-、「叫ぶ」または「吠えたける」)に由来する[392]。一方ステラ・クラムリッシュはラウドラ(raudra、「乱暴な」)に語源を求めている。乱暴さはルドラの持つ性格でもあり、彼女はしたがってルドラの名前を「乱暴な者」、「凶暴な神」と翻訳する[393]。シャルマも彼女に倣い、ルドラの名前を「恐ろしい」と翻訳した[384]

異名のひとつ、ハラ(Hara)は重要な意味を持っていると考えられており、マハーバーラタのアヌシャサナ・パルヴァ英語版に語られるシヴァ・サハスラナーマ英語版(千の名前の賛歌)にはハラが3度登場する。このハラは、そうでない場合もあるが、それぞれ違う意味に翻訳される伝統がある。シャルマはこれらをそれぞれ「魅了する者」、「強固にする者」、「破壊する者」と翻訳した[385]。クラムリッシュはハラを「夢中にさせるもの」と(辞書的な文脈で)紹介している[327]

他にも、シヴァの恐ろしい側面を表した様相として「カーラ」(Kāla、時間)あるいは「マハーカーラ」(Mahākāla、偉大な時間)が挙げられ、究極的にすべてを破壊するというニュアンスが含まれる[48][394]。カーラという名前はシヴァ・サハスラナーマに登場し、ラム・カラン・シャルマはこれを「時間を司る至高の王」と翻訳した[387]。また「バイラヴァ」(恐ろしい[395])という名は「絶滅」という意味をほのめかすシヴァの凶暴な様相のひとつである。対照的に「シャンカラ」(Śaṇkara)という名は「慈悲深い者[30]」、「幸福を与える者[389]」を意味し、シヴァの持つやさしい一面を反映している。このシャンカラという名前は、シャンカラ・アーチャーリヤ(Shankaracharya)[48]としても知られるヴェーダーンタ学派の偉大な哲学者シャンカラ(788-820)が名祖となっている[396]。シャムブー(Śambhu、शम्भु、自ずから輝く者)という異名もまた温和な一面を反映する[48][391]

苦行者としての姿、一家の主としての一面の対比

ファイル:A religious poster that depicts Shiva's family history.jpg
Shiva surrounded by various events in his life.
ファイル:A religious poster that depicts Shiva's family history.jpg
自身にまつわる神話に囲まれるシヴァ。

Shiva is depicted as both an ascetic yogi and as a householder, roles which have been traditionally mutually exclusive in Hindu society.[397] When depicted as a yogi, he may be shown sitting and meditating.[398] His epithet Mahāyogi ("the great Yogi: Mahā = "great", Yogi = "one who practices Yoga") refers to his association with yoga.[399] While Vedic religion was conceived mainly in terms of sacrifice, it was during the Epic period that the concepts of tapas, yoga, and asceticism became more important, and the depiction of Shiva as an ascetic sitting in philosophical isolation reflects these later concepts.[400]

シヴァは禁欲的なヨーギーとして描かれ、同時に一家の主としての顔も持つ。本来両者はヒンドゥー教社会においては相いれない存在である[401]。シヴァがヨーギーとして描かれる場合、シヴァは通常座り、瞑想をしている姿で表現される[402]。シヴァの異名のひとつである「マハーヨーギー」(Mahāyogi、偉大なヨーギー)は彼とヨーガとの関係を物語っている[403]。ヴェーダ時代(紀元前1500年-紀元前600年頃)の信仰は主に捧げものによる儀式を通して行われていたと考えられており、タパス(苦行)、ヨーガ、禁欲主義が重要な意味を持つようになったのはそれより後の、叙事詩が編纂される時代である。シヴァが世間を離れ禁欲的に瞑想に耽る姿で描かれるようになったことには、こういったヴェーダ時代後の宗教観が反映されている[404]

As a family man and householder, he has a wife, Parvati and two sons, Ganesha and Kartikeya. His epithet Umāpati ("The husband of Umā") refers to this idea, and Sharma notes that two other variants of this name that mean the same thing, Umākānta and Umādhava, also appear in the sahasranama.[405] Umā in epic literature is known by many names, including the benign Pārvatī.[406][407] She is identified with Devi, the Divine Mother; Shakti (divine energy) as well as goddesses like Tripura Sundari, Durga, Kali, Kamakshi and Minakshi. The consorts of Shiva are the source of his creative energy. They represent the dynamic extension of Shiva onto this universe.[408] His son Ganesha is worshipped throughout India and Nepal as the Remover of Obstacles, Lord of Beginnings and Lord of Obstacles. Kartikeya is worshipped in South India (especially in Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka) by the names Subrahmanya, Subrahmanyan, Shanmughan, Swaminathan and Murugan, and in Northern India by the names Skanda, Kumara, or Karttikeya.[409]

シヴァには妻パールヴァティと2人の息子、ガネーシャカールッティーケーヤ(スカンダ)がおり、家族の一員であり一家の主としての顔を持つ。シヴァの異名である「ウマーパティ」(Umāpati、ウマーの夫)はそんなシヴァの一面を表している。シヴァ・サハスラナーマにはさらに「ウマーカーンタ」(Umākānta)、「ウマーダーヴァ」(Umādhava)という名前に触れられており、シャルマはこれらも「ウマーパティ」と同様の意味で用いられているとしている[410]。叙事詩に登場するウマーは多くの意味で知られており、温和なパールヴァティの異名のひとつでもある[411][412]。パールヴァティは聖なる母、デーヴィ英語版シャクティ(聖なる力)、トリプラスンダリ英語版ドゥルガーカーリーカマクシ英語版ミナクシ英語版と同一視される。シヴァの配偶神はシヴァの司る創造の源であるとされており、ゆえに彼女たちは宇宙に対するシヴァの影響力の広がりを示している[408]。シヴァの息子ガネーシャは障害を取り除く神として、物事を始めるための神としてインド全土、ネパールで広く信仰されている。カールッティーケーヤは南インド、特にタミル・ナードゥ州ケーララ州カルナータカ州で良く信仰される。カールッティーケーヤにも様々な異名があり、南インドではスブラマニア(Subrahmanya)、ムルガン(Murugan)など、北インドではスカンダ、クマラ(Kumara)、カールッティーケーヤなどと呼ばれる[413]

Some regional deities are also identified as Shiva's children. As one story goes, Shiva is enticed by the beauty and charm of Mohini, Vishnu's female avatar, and procreates with her. As a result of this union, Shasta - identified with regional deities Ayyappan and Aiyanar - is born.[414][415][416][417] In some traditions, Shiva has daughters like the serpent-goddess Manasa and Ashokasundari.[418][419]

地方の土着の神々がシヴァの息子として語られる例がある。例えば、シヴァはモヒニ英語版ヴィシュヌの女性としてのアヴァターラ)の美しさと魅力に絆されてモヒニとの間に子をもうけ、結果シャスタ英語版が生まれた。このシャスタは土着の神であるアイヤッパ英語版アイヤナル英語版と同一視される[420][415][416][421]。また蛇の女神マナサーアショーカスンダリ英語版がシヴァの娘であると語られることもある[422][419]

偶像に表される形

Chola dynasty statue depicting Shiva dancing as Nataraja (Los Angeles County Museum of Art)
ナタラージャ英語版として踊っているシヴァ。チョーラ朝時代の物。ロサンゼルス・カウンティ美術館

The depiction of Shiva as Nataraja (Sanskrit: naṭarāja, "Lord of Dance") is popular.[423][424] The names Nartaka ("dancer") and Nityanarta ("eternal dancer") appear in the Shiva Sahasranama.[425] His association with dance and also with music is prominent in the Puranic period.[426] In addition to the specific iconographic form known as Nataraja, various other types of dancing forms (Sanskrit: nṛtyamūrti) are found in all parts of India, with many well-defined varieties in Tamil Nadu in particular.[427] The two most common forms of the dance are the Tandava, which later came to denote the powerful and masculine dance as Kala-Mahakala associated with the destruction of the world. When it requires the world or universe to be destroyed, Shiva does it by the Tandava,[428][429] and Lasya, which is graceful and delicate and expresses emotions on a gentle level and is considered the feminine dance attributed to the goddess Parvati.[430][431] Lasya is regarded as the female counterpart of Tandava.[431] The Tandava-Lasya dances are associated with the destruction-creation of the world.[432][433][434]

ナタラージャ(naṭarāja、踊りの王)という形で表現されるシヴァも広く受け入れられている[435][436]。「ナルタカ」(Nartaka、踊り手)とニチャナルタ(Nityanarta、永遠の踊り手)という名前もシヴァ・サハスラナーマに紹介されている[437]。シヴァと踊り、シヴァと音楽とのつながりが顕著になるのはプラーナ文献の時代(4世紀から14世紀)である[438]。特徴的なナタラージャのポーズの他にもインド各地で様々な踊りの形(nṛtyamūrti、リチャムールタ)が見られ、タミル・ナードゥ州では特によく体系化されている[439]。ダンスの形で最も有名なものとして、ターンダヴァ英語版ラースヤ英語版が挙げられる。ターンダヴァは後に、世界の破壊を司るカーラ・マハーカーラ(Kala-Mahakala)のような力強く、男らしい踊りを意味するようになった。世界の破壊が必要になった時にはシヴァ舞うターンダヴァと[440][441]、パールバティの踊るラースヤ、優美で繊細で穏やかな感情が特徴的な女性の舞踊によって、世界の破壊が遂行される[442][431]。ラースヤは女性的な踊りとしてターンダヴァと対を成す[431]。ターンダヴァとラースヤは世界の破壊と再生に結び付けて考えられる[443][444][445]

Dakshinamurthy (Dakṣiṇāmūrti)[446] literally describes a form (mūrti) of Shiva facing south (dakṣiṇa). This form represents Shiva in his aspect as a teacher of yoga, music, and wisdom and giving exposition on the shastras.[447] This iconographic form for depicting Shiva in Indian art is mostly from Tamil Nadu.[448] Elements of this motif can include Shiva seated upon a deer-throne and surrounded by sages who are receiving his instruction.[449]

ダクシナムルティ英語版(Dakṣiṇāmūrti[450])という様相は教師(グル)としてシヴァを表現している。この形ではシヴァをヨーガの、そして音楽の、知識の教師として、シャーストラについて議論を繰り広げる論客として表現する[451]。インド芸術の中にシヴァを描くこの習慣はほとんどがタミルナードゥ州(南インド)を起源としている[452]。ダクシナムルティではシヴァは鹿の玉座に座り、シヴァの教えに傾聴するリシ賢者)たちに囲まれた姿で描かれる[453]

Ardhanarishvara sculpture, Khajuraho, depicting Shiva with goddess Parvati as his equal half.[454]
Ardhanarishvara、男性神シヴァと女性神パールヴァティが半分ずつ描かれる。カジュラーホー寺院群[455]

An iconographic representation of Shiva called Ardhanarishvara (Ardhanārīśvara) shows him with one half of the body as male and the other half as female. According to Ellen Goldberg, the traditional Sanskrit name for this form is best translated as "the lord who is half woman", not as "half-man, half-woman".[456]

アルダナーリーシュヴァラはシヴァの体の半分を男性として、のこり半分を女性として描く。エレン・ゴールドバーグ(Ellen Goldberg)は、アルダナーリーシュヴァラという語は「半男、半女」ではなく、「半分が女性の王」と翻訳するのがふさわしいとしている[457]

Shiva is often depicted as an archer in the act of destroying the triple fortresses, Tripura, of the Asuras.[458] Shiva's name Tripurantaka ( Tripurāntaka), "ender of Tripura", refers to this important story.[459]

シヴァはアスラたちの三重構造の要塞トリプラに向かって弓を構える姿で描写されることがある[460]。シヴァの異名のひとつである「トリプランタカ英語版」(トリプラを終わらせる者)はこの物語が由来となっている[461]

リンガ信仰

Traditional flower offering to a lingam in Varanasi
リンガへの献花。ヴァーラーナシー

Apart from anthropomorphic images of Shiva, he is also represented in aniconic form of a lingam.[462][463][464] These are depicted in various designs. One common form is the shape of a vertical rounded column in the centre of a lipped, disk-shaped object, the yoni, symbolism for the goddess Shakti.[465] In Shiva temples, the linga is typically present in its sanctum sanctorum and is the focus of votary offerings such as milk, water, flower petals, fruit, fresh leaves, and rice.[465] According to Monier Williams and Yudit Greenberg, linga literally means "mark, sign or emblem", and also refers to a "mark or sign from which the existence of something else can be reliably inferred". It implies the regenerative divine energy innate in nature, symbolized by Shiva.[466][467] Some scholars, such as Wendy Doniger, view linga merely as an erotic phallic symbol,[468] although this interpretation is disputed by others, including Swami Vivekananda,[469] Sivananda Saraswati,[470] and S. N. Balagangadhara.[471] According to Moriz Winternitz, the linga in the Shiva tradition is "only a symbol of the productive and creative principle of nature as embodied in Shiva", and it has no historical trace in any obscene phallic cult.[472]

人の姿での表現のみならず、シヴァはリンガ(リンガムとも)という形に象徴化される[462][473][474]。リンガの形は様々である。一般的なものでは、ヨーニ英語版と呼ばれる注ぎ口が付いた円盤上のオブジェクトの真ん中から、円柱が垂直にそそり立つという形をしている。このヨーニは女神シャクティを象徴化している[465]。シヴァを祀る寺院であれば通常リンガは寺院内の聖所に置かれ、牛乳花びら果物葉っぱお米などが捧げられる[465]モニエル・ウィリアムズ、ユディット・グリーンバーグ(Yudit Greenberg)らによれば、リンガは字義をとれば「印」、「符号」、「紋」に翻訳され、また、「それによって何か他の物が存在することを確かに推測できる印」を意味する。すなわちシヴァという存在に象徴されている、自然界に備わっている、神聖な再生の力を暗示するとする[475][476]ウェンディー・ドニガー英語版をはじめとする一部の学者は、リンガは単純にファルスを象徴化したものに過ぎないとするが[477]ヴィヴェーカーナンダ[478]シヴァナンダ・サラスヴァティ英語版[479]バラガンガダーラ英語版らは[480]この評価に反対の立場をとる。M・ヴィンテルニッツは、リンガの象徴するものは単純に、シヴァに内在する自然のもつ生産と創造の原則であり、歴史の中に猥褻な性器信仰の存在した痕跡は認められないとしている[481]

The worship of the lingam originated from the famous hymn in the Atharva-Veda Samhitâ sung in praise of the Yupa-Stambha, the sacrificial post. In that hymn, a description is found of the beginningless and endless Stambha or Skambha, and it is shown that the said Skambha is put in place of the eternal Brahman. Just as the Yajna (sacrificial) fire, its smoke, ashes, and flames, the Soma plant, and the ox that used to carry on its back the wood for the Vedic sacrifice gave place to the conceptions of the brightness of Shiva's body, his tawny matted hair, his blue throat, and the riding on the bull of the Shiva, the Yupa-Skambha gave place in time to the Shiva-Linga.[482][483] In the text Linga Purana, the same hymn is expanded in the shape of stories, meant to establish the glory of the great Stambha and the superiority of Shiva as Mahadeva.[483]

リンガ信仰の由来を辿るとアタルヴァ・ヴェーダ(紀元前1200年-紀元前1000年)に収録されている賛歌にまで遡る。ユパ・スタンバ(Yupa-Stambha)、儀式のための柱を称える歌であり、始まりも終わりもないスタンバ(Stambha)あるいはスカンバ(Skambha)という記述がみられ、これは、このスタンバが永遠のブラフマンの象徴として建てられていることを示している。ちょうどヤジナ英語版(儀式)の火が、煙が、灰が、炎が、ソーマが、このヴェーダの儀式に用いられる薪を運ぶのに使われた牛が輝かしいシヴァの体に、彼の褐色のもつれた髪に、青い喉に、シヴァの乗り物としての牛に置き換えられたように、ユパ・スタンバはやがてシヴァ・リンガに置き換えられた[482][483]。リンガ・プラーナでは同じ賛歌が偉大なスタンバの栄光とマハーデーヴァの優位性を確立するためのストーリーに展開される[483]

The oldest known archaeological linga as an anicon of Shiva is the Gudimallam lingam from 3rd-century BCE.[465] In Shaivism pilgrimage tradition, twelve major temples of Shiva are called Jyotirlinga, which means "linga of light", and these are located across India.[484]

シヴァの象徴として作られたもので現存する最も古いリンガは紀元前3世紀に作られたものでグディマラム英語版村に見つかっている[465]。シヴァ派の巡礼の習慣ではインド各地に散らばる主要な12のシヴァ寺院をジョーティルリンガ英語版(光のリンガの意)と呼ぶ[485]

5つのマントラ

The 10th century five headed Shiva, Sadashiva, Cambodia.
サダシヴァ、5つの頭を持つシヴァ。カンボジア、10世紀。

Five is a sacred number for Shiva.[486] One of his most important mantras has five syllables (namaḥ śivāya).[487]

「5」はシヴァと結び付けられて考えられる神聖な数字になる[488]。シヴァのマントラの中でも最も重要なもののひとつ、「ナマシバヤ」(namaḥ śivāya)も5音節である[489]

Shiva's body is said to consist of five mantras, called the pañcabrahmans.[490] As forms of God, each of these have their own names and distinct iconography:[491]

シヴァの体はパーンチャブラフマンス(pañcabrahmans)と呼ばれる5つのマントラから成ると言われている[492]。これら5つはそれぞれ神という形をとり、名前と偶像上の特徴を持っている[493]

These are represented as the five faces of Shiva and are associated in various texts with the five elements, the five senses, the five organs of perception, and the five organs of action.[494][495] Doctrinal differences and, possibly, errors in transmission, have resulted in some differences between texts in details of how these five forms are linked with various attributes.[496] The overall meaning of these associations is summarized by Stella Kramrisch:

これらはシヴァの5つの顔として表現され、また様々な文献にて5つの要素、5つの感覚、5つの知覚の器官、5つの活動の感覚器官と結び付けられている[497][498]。教義の違いによって、あるいはもしかすると伝達の失敗から、これらの5つの顔がどの特性と結び付けられているのかに関してはバリエーションが存在する[499]。全体としての意味合いはクラムリッシュによって以下のように要約されている。

Through these transcendent categories, Śiva, the ultimate reality, becomes the efficient and material cause of all that exists.[500]
これらの超越的なカテゴリを通して、究極の現実(ブラフマン)であるシヴァは全ての存在するものの作用因質料因となる[501]

According to the Pañcabrahma Upanishad:

One should know all things of the phenomenal world as of a fivefold character, for the reason that the eternal verity of Śiva is of the character of the fivefold Brahman. (Pañcabrahma Upanishad 31)[502]

パーンチャブラフマ・ウパニシャッド英語版には以下のように語られている。

全ての現象世界は5つの性質からなると知りなさい。シヴァの永遠の真理は5つのブラフマンから成る性質なのだから。
パーンチャブラフマ・ウパニシャッド 31[503]

アヴァターラ

Puranic scriptures contain occasional references to "ansh" – literally portion, or avatars of Shiva, but the idea of Shiva avatars is not universally accepted in Saivism.[504] The Linga Purana mentions twenty-eight forms of Shiva which are sometimes seen as avatars,[505] however such mention is unusual and the avatars of Shiva is relatively rare in Shaivism compared to the well emphasized concept of Vishnu avatars in Vaishnavism.[506][507][508]

プラーナ文献には時折「アンシュ」(ansh)という言葉が現れる。これは「一部」という意味で、同時にシヴァのアヴァターラ(化身)を意味する言葉である。しかしこの(「アンシュ」がシヴァのアヴァターラを意味するという)アイデアはシヴァ派の中でも全体に受け入れられているわけではない[509]。リンガ・プラーナに語られるシヴァの姿形は合計で28種類に及び、そのうち何回かはアヴァターラとして語られる[510]。しかしこういう表現は(全体から見ると)稀で、シヴァ派の信仰の中でシヴァのアヴァターラが語られることは珍しい。これは「ヴィシュヌのアヴァターラ」というコンセプトをことさら強調するヴィシュヌ派とは対照的である[511][507][512]

Some Vaishnava literature reverentially link Shiva to characters in its mythologies. For example, in the Hanuman Chalisa, Hanuman is identified as the eleventh avatar of Shiva.[513][514][515] The Bhagavata Purana and the Vishnu Purana claim sage Durvasa to be a portion of Shiva.[516][517][518] Some medieval era writers have called the Advaita Vedanta philosopher Adi Shankara as an incarnation of Shiva.[519]

いくつかのヴィシュヌ派の文献では、敬意をもってシヴァと神話の中の登場人物とをリンクさせている。例えば、ハヌマン・チャーリーサ英語版(賛歌)ではハヌマンはシヴァの11番目のアヴァターであるとされている[520][521][522]バーガヴァタ・プラーナ英語版ヴィシュヌ・プラーナ英語版ではリシドゥルヴァーサがシヴァの一部であると語られている[516][517][518]。中世の著述家たちの中には不二一元論で知られる哲学者シャンカラをシヴァの生まれ変わりであるとする者もいる[523]

祭り

Maha Sivaratri festival is observed in the night, usually in lighted temples or special prabha (above).
マハー・シヴァラートリー。通常は灯りのともる寺院で、あるいは特別に作られたプラバ(prabha、写真)と呼ばれる塔で夜に開催される。

Maha Shivaratri is a Shiva-related Hindu festival celebrated annually. There is a Shivaratri in every lunar month on its 13th night /14th day,[524] but once a year in late winter (February/March) and before the arrival of spring, marks Maha Shivaratri which means "the Great Night of Shiva".[525][526]

マハー・シヴァラートリーは毎年開催されるシヴァのお祭りである。太陰暦で毎月の13日の夜と14日に「シヴァラートリー」が行われるが[524]、1年に一度、太陽暦の2月か3月、春の訪れの前に「マハー・シヴァラートリー」(偉大なシヴァの夜の意)が開催される[525][526]

Maha Shivaratri is a major festival in Hinduism, but one that is solemn and theologically marks a remembrance of "overcoming darkness and ignorance" in life and the world,[526] and meditation about the polarities of existence, of Shiva and a devotion to humankind.[524] It is observed by reciting Shiva-related poems, chanting prayers, remembering Shiva, fasting, doing Yoga and meditating on ethics and virtues such as self-restraint, honesty, noninjury to others, forgiveness, introspection, self-repentance and the discovery of Shiva.[526][527] The ardent devotees keep awake all night. Others visit one of the Shiva temples or go on pilgrimage to Jyotirlingams. Those who visit temples, offer milk, fruits, flowers, fresh leaves and sweets to the lingam.[525] Some communities organize special dance events, to mark Shiva as the lord of dance, with individual and group performances.[528] According to Jones and Ryan, Maha Sivaratri is an ancient Hindu festival which probably originated around the 5th-century.[526]

マハー・シヴァラートリーはヒンドゥー教の主要な祭礼のひとつであり、厳粛な性格のものである。宗教的には、この祭りには世界と人生に存在する「暗闇と無知の克服」を心に刻むという意味があり[526]、シヴァの神格と人々の信仰といった両極性について瞑想する日でもある[524]。シヴァに関係する詩が詠唱され、祈りがささげられ、シヴァが心にとどめられ、断食とヨーガが実践され、自制、誠実さ、非暴力、寛容、内省と懺悔、そしてシヴァへの到達についての瞑想が行われる[526][529]。熱心な信者は夜を徹する。そうでない者はシヴァの寺院を訪れたり、ジョーティルリンガ(主要な12のシヴァ寺院)を巡礼する。寺院を訪れた者は牛乳、果物、花、葉っぱ、甘味をリンガに捧げる[525]。コミュニティによっては、シヴァが踊りの神であることにちなみ、ダンスイベントを開催する[530]。コンスタンス・ジョーンズ(Constance Jones)とジェームズ・リャン(James D. Ryan)によればマハー・シヴァラートリーの起源は古代ヒンドゥー教の祝祭まで、おそらく5世紀頃までさかのぼる[526]

Regional festivals dedicated to Shiva include the Chittirai festival in Madurai around April/May, one of the largest festivals in South India, celebrating the wedding of Minakshi (Parvati) and Shiva. The festival is one where both the Vaishnava and Shaiva communities join the celebrations, because Vishnu gives away his sister Minakshi in marriage to Shiva.[531] During the Diwali festivities, Shaiva communities in Tamil Nadu mark Karttikai Deepam offering prayers to Shiva and Murugan during the festival of lights.[525]

シヴァにまつわる地域のお祭りとしてはマドゥライのチッティライ祭が挙げられる。これは4月か5月に開催され、南インドでは最大級のお祭りとなり、ミナクシ英語版(パールヴァティのアヴァターラ)とシヴァの結婚を祝う。ヴィシュヌが彼の女兄弟であるミナクシをシヴァに嫁がせたという背景があるため、この祭りはヴィシュヌ派とシヴァ派がともに祝うものとなっている[532]ディーワーリー(新年の祭り)の期間にタミルナードゥ州のシヴァ派コミュニティはカールティッカイ・デーパム(Karttikai Deepam)という祭りでシヴァとムルガン(スカンダ、シヴァの息子)に祈りを捧げる[525]

Some Shaktism-related festivals revere Shiva along with the goddess considered primary and Supreme. These include festivals dedicated to Annapurna such as Annakuta and those related to Durga.[533] In Himalayan regions such as Nepal, as well as in northern, central and western India, the festival of Teej is celebrated by girls and women in the monsoon season, in honor of goddess Parvati, with group singing, dancing and by offering prayers in Parvati-Shiva temples.[534][535]

シャクティ派の祝祭にも、最高神である女神とともにシヴァを信仰する祭り、例えば女神アンナプールナ英語版に捧げられるアンナクタ(Annakuta)祭や、その他ドゥルガーに関するお祭りがいくつか存在する[536]ネパール、やインド北部、中部、西部などヒマラヤに近い地域では雨季に女性が中心となってティージ英語版祭が開催される。パールヴァティを称える祭りであり、パールヴァティ・シヴァ寺院に集まりみんなで歌い、踊り、そして祈りがささげられる[537][538]

The ascetic, Vedic and Tantric sub-traditions related to Shiva, such as those that became ascetic warriors during the Islamic rule period of India,[539][540] celebrate the Kumbha Mela festival.[541] This festival cycles every 12 years, in four pilgrimage sites within India, with the event moving to the next site after a gap of three years. The biggest is in Prayaga (renamed Allahabad during the Mughal rule era), where millions of Hindus of different traditions gather at the confluence of rivers Ganges and Yamuna. In the Hindu tradition, the Shiva-linked ascetic warriors (Nagas) get the honor of starting the event by entering the sangam first for bathing and prayers.[541]

かつては、イスラム教の支配の広がった時代に戦士となった苦行者など[539][540][注 8]、現代でもシヴァに関係するヴェーダやタントリズムの信仰から派生した禁欲主義者、苦行者など(サンニヤーシ、サドゥら)はクンブ・メーラという祝祭を祝う[541]。この祭りは4つの場所で12年に1度ずつ、それぞれ3年ずつ時期をずらして開催される。つまり3年に1度どこかでクンブ・メーラが開催される。プラヤーグ(イラーハーバード)で行われるものが最も大きなクンブ・メーラとなり、数100万人に及ぶ様々な宗派のヒンドゥー教徒がガンジス川ヤムナー川の合流地点に集まる。伝統的にシヴァを信仰する禁欲派の戦士(ナーガ)達が最初に川に入り、沐浴と祈祷を行うという栄誉に与っている[541]

ヒンドゥー教以外での受容

One of many Buddha and Shiva linga-yoni co-carved in a 15th-century Himalayan Buddhist temple.
ヒマラヤにある15世紀の仏教寺院の仏陀像。台座としてシヴァ・リンガと仏陀が彫られている。

Shiva is mentioned in Buddhist Tantra. Shiva as Upaya and Shakti as Prajna.[542] In cosmologies of Buddhist tantra, Shiva is depicted as passive, with Shakti being his active counterpart.[543]

シヴァは(仏教の)密教にも登場し、彼はウパーヤとして、シャクティはプラジュニャーとして描かれている[544]。(仏教の)密教の宇宙観ではシヴァは受動的に描かれ、逆にシャクティが能動的に描かれている[545]

The Japuji Sahib of the Guru Granth Sahib says, "The Guru is Shiva, the Guru is Vishnu and Brahma; the Guru is Paarvati and Lakhshmi."[546] In the same chapter, it also says, "Shiva speaks, and the Siddhas listen." In Dasam Granth, Guru Gobind Singh has mentioned two avtars of Rudra: Dattatreya Avtar and Parasnath Avtar.[547]

シク教の聖典、グル・グラント・サーヒブに収録されるジャプジ・サーヒブ英語版(祈り)には「グル(指導者)はシヴァであり、グルはヴィシュヌとブラフマーである。グルはパールヴァティとラクシュミーである」という一節がある[548]。同じ章には「シヴァが語る。シッダ(Siddha、達した者)らが耳を傾ける。」ともある。また別の聖典、ダサム・グラント英語版ではグル・ゴービンド・シングがルドラの2つのアヴァターラについて触れている[549]

Shiva has been adopted and merged with Buddhist deities. Left: Daikokuten is a Shiva-Ōkuninushi fusion deity in Japan;[550] Right: Fudō Myōō is a fierce Shiva adaptation.[551] Shiva has been adopted and merged with Buddhist deities. Left: Daikokuten is a Shiva-Ōkuninushi fusion deity in Japan;[550] Right: Fudō Myōō is a fierce Shiva adaptation.[551]
Shiva has been adopted and merged with Buddhist deities. Left: Daikokuten is a Shiva-Ōkuninushi fusion deity in Japan;[550] Right: Fudō Myōō is a fierce Shiva adaptation.[551]
シヴァは仏教の神として取り入れられ、あるいは融合している。左: 日本の大黒天はシヴァと大国主が融合した神格である[552]。右: 不動明王は恐ろしい姿で適応したシヴァである[553]。 シヴァは仏教の神として取り入れられ、あるいは融合している。左: 日本の大黒天はシヴァと大国主が融合した神格である[552]。右: 不動明王は恐ろしい姿で適応したシヴァである[553]。
シヴァは仏教の神として取り入れられ、あるいは融合している。左: 日本大黒天はシヴァと大国主が融合した神格である[552]。右: 不動明王は恐ろしい姿で適応したシヴァである[553]

The worship of Shiva became popular in Central Asia through the Hephthalite Empire,[554] and Kushan Empire. Shaivism was also popular in Sogdia and the Kingdom of Yutian as found from the wall painting from Penjikent on the river Zervashan.[555] In this depiction, Shiva is portrayed with a sacred halo and a sacred thread ("Yajnopavita").[555] He is clad in tiger skin while his attendants are wearing Sogdian dress.[555] A panel from Dandanwulike shows Shiva in His Trimurti form with Shakti kneeling on her right thigh.[555][556] Another site in the Taklamakan Desert depicts him with four legs, seated cross-legged on a cushioned seat supported by two bulls.[555] It is also noted that Zoroastrian wind god Vayu-Vata took on the iconographic appearance of Shiva.[556]

シヴァ信仰はエフタル(遊牧国家)と[554]クシャーナ朝を通して中央アジアに広まった。ザラフシャン川沿いのパンジケントの壁画からはソグディアナホータン王国でもシヴァ派の信仰が盛んだったことが示されている[555]。この壁画ではシヴァは後光をバックにヤジノパヴィタ(Yajnopavita、肩から下げる聖紐)を身に着け[555]、虎の毛皮を身にまとった姿で描かれるが、この壁画では彼の眷属らはソグディアナの民族衣装を身に着けている[555]ダンダン・ウィリクで見つかった羽目板にはトリムルティの1柱として描かれるシヴァにシャクティが跪く姿が描かれている[555][556]。またタクラマカン砂漠にも4つの足をもつシヴァが、2頭の牛が支える玉座に足を組んで座る様子が描かれた(壁画)が存在する[555]。加えてゾロアスター教風の神ヴァーユ・ヴァータ英語版がシヴァの特徴を受け継いでいる点も注目に値する[556]

In Indonesia, Shiva is also worshiped as Batara Guru. In the ancient times, all kingdoms were located on top of mountains. When he was young, before receiving his authority of power, his name was Sang Hyang Manikmaya. He is first of the children who hatched from the eggs laid by Manuk Patiaraja, wife of god Mulajadi na Bolon. This avatar is also worshiped in Malaysia. Shiva's other form in Indonesian Hinduism is "Mahadewa" (Mahadeva).[557]

インドネシアではシヴァはバタラ・グル英語版として崇拝される。古代、全ての王国は山の頂に位置いていた。バタラ・グルが即位する前、サンヒャン・マニクマヤ(Sang Hyang Manikmaya)というのが彼の名前であった。彼はムラジャディ・ナ・ボロンインドネシア語版の妻、マヌク・パティアラジャインドネシア語版が産んだ卵から一番最初に孵化した子供である。このシヴァのアヴァターラは同様にマレーシアでも信仰される。インドネシアのヒンドゥー教ではシヴァはマハーデーワ(Mahadewa)としても信仰されている[558]

Daikokuten, one of the Seven Lucky Gods in Japan, is considered to be evolved from Shiva. The god enjoys an exalted position as a household deity in Japan and is worshipped as the god of wealth and fortune.[559] The name is the Japanese equivalent of Mahākāla, the Buddhist name for Shiva.[560]

日本七福神の1柱である大黒天はシヴァから発展した神格であると考えられている。日本では屋敷神として祀られ、財と幸運の神として信仰を集めている[561]。「大黒天」という名前はマハーカーラ漢訳である[562]

脚注

注釈

  1. ^ ブラクリティ: 物質世界; グナ: プラクリティを構成する要素、すなわちサットヴァ、ラジャス、タマス;
  2. ^ 例えばヴィシュワナタン(宇宙の王)、マハーデーヴァ、マヘーシャ、マヘーシュヴァラ、シャンカラ、シャムブー、ルドラ、ハラ、トリローチャナ、デヴェンドラ(神々の長)、ニーラカンタ、スバンカラ、トリロキナータ(三界の王)[44][45][46]、グルネシュワル(慈悲の王)[53]などが挙げられる。
  3. ^ ヴェーダ神話の時代からヒンドゥー教神話の時代に移行しつつある時期に、ルドラがアスラの築いた3つの砦を1本の矢で破壊する物語が成立している。時代が下ると物語はやや変容し、アスラの築いた「三都」を矢で破壊するのはシヴァだとされた。詳細は「トリプラースラ」を参照。
  4. ^ 2.20.3,[164] 6.45.17,[165][166] and 8.93.3.[167]
  5. ^ シヴァ・プラーナ、リンガ・プラーナ、スカンダ・プラーナ、アグニ・プラーナ
  6. ^ あるいはビーラ・シバ派英語版
  7. ^ ルドラは妹のアンビカー (神)英語版と所有物を共有していると言われている。
  8. ^ 参照: en:Sannyasa

出典

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  3. ^ Tattwananda, p. 45.
  4. ^ a b c d Zimmer (1972) p. 124.
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  91. ^ John Keay. India: A History. Grove Press. p. 14 
  92. ^ Srinivasan, Doris Meth (1997). Many Heads, Arms and Eyes: Origin, Meaning and Form in Multiplicity in Indian Art. Brill. ISBN 978-9004107588 
  93. ^ Possehl, Gregory L. (11 November 2002). The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective. Rowman Altamira. pp. 140–144. ISBN 978-0-7591-1642-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=XVgeAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA154 
  94. ^ Possehl, Gregory L. (11 November 2002). The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective. Rowman Altamira. pp. 140–144. ISBN 978-0-7591-1642-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=XVgeAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA154 
  95. ^ a b c d Flood (1996), pp. 28–29.
  96. ^ For translation of paśupati as "Lord of Animals" see: Michaels, p. 312.
  97. ^ Flood (2003), pp. 204–205.
  98. ^ For translation of paśupati as "Lord of Animals" see: Michaels, p. 312.
  99. ^ Flood (2003), pp. 204–205.
  100. ^ a b c d Roger D. Woodard (2010). Indo-European Sacred Space: Vedic and Roman Cult. University of Illinois Press. pp. 60–67, 79–80. ISBN 978-0-252-09295-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=EB4fB0inNYEC  引用エラー: 無効な <ref> タグ; name "woodward60"が異なる内容で複数回定義されています
  101. ^ Alain Daniélou (1992). Gods of Love and Ecstasy: The Traditions of Shiva and Dionysus. Inner Traditions / Bear & Co. pp. 49–50. ISBN 978-0-89281-374-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=QDQK7l13WIIC , Quote: "The parallels between the names and legends of Shiva, Osiris and Dionysus are so numerous that there can be little doubt as to their original sameness".
  102. ^ Namita Gokhale (2009). The Book of Shiva. Penguin Books. pp. 10–11. ISBN 978-0-14-306761-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=pFN15nX9_zsC 
  103. ^ Pierfrancesco Callieri (2005), A Dionysian Scheme on a Seal from Gupta India, East and West, Vol. 55, No. 1/4 (December 2005), pages 71-80
  104. ^ Long, J. Bruce (1971). “Siva and Dionysos: Visions of Terror and Bliss”. Numen 18 (3): 180. doi:10.2307/3269768. 
  105. ^ a b c d Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty (1980), Dionysus and Siva: Parallel Patterns in Two Pairs of Myths, History of Religions, Vol. 20, No. 1/2 (Aug. - Nov., 1980), pages 81-111
  106. ^ Patrick Laude (2005). Divine Play, Sacred Laughter, and Spiritual Understanding. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 41–60. ISBN 978-1-4039-8058-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=cTDIAAAAQBAJ 
  107. ^ Walter Friedrich Otto; Robert B. Palmer (1965). Dionysus: Myth and Cult. Indiana University Press. p. 164. ISBN 0-253-20891-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=XCDvuoZ8IzsC&pg=PA164 
  108. ^ Dineschandra Sircar (1998). The Śākta Pīṭhas. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 3 with footnote 2, 102–105. ISBN 978-81-208-0879-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=I969qn5fpvcC&pg=PA3 
  109. ^ Alain Daniélou (1992). Gods of Love and Ecstasy: The Traditions of Shiva and Dionysus. Inner Traditions / Bear & Co. pp. 49–50. ISBN 978-0-89281-374-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=QDQK7l13WIIC , Quote: "The parallels between the names and legends of Shiva, Osiris and Dionysus are so numerous that there can be little doubt as to their original sameness".
  110. ^ Namita Gokhale (2009). The Book of Shiva. Penguin Books. pp. 10–11. ISBN 978-0-14-306761-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=pFN15nX9_zsC 
  111. ^ Pierfrancesco Callieri (2005), A Dionysian Scheme on a Seal from Gupta India, East and West, Vol. 55, No. 1/4 (December 2005), pages 71-80
  112. ^ Long, J. Bruce (1971). “Siva and Dionysos: Visions of Terror and Bliss”. Numen 18 (3): 180. doi:10.2307/3269768. 
  113. ^ Patrick Laude (2005). Divine Play, Sacred Laughter, and Spiritual Understanding. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 41–60. ISBN 978-1-4039-8058-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=cTDIAAAAQBAJ 
  114. ^ Walter Friedrich Otto; Robert B. Palmer (1965). Dionysus: Myth and Cult. Indiana University Press. p. 164. ISBN 0-253-20891-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=XCDvuoZ8IzsC&pg=PA164 
  115. ^ Dineschandra Sircar (1998). The Śākta Pīṭhas. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 3 with footnote 2, 102–105. ISBN 978-81-208-0879-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=I969qn5fpvcC&pg=PA3 
  116. ^ a b インド神話伝説辞典』 159-160頁。(シヴァ)
  117. ^ 神の文化史事典』 253頁。(シヴァ)
  118. ^ インド神話伝説辞典』 352-354頁。(ルドラ)
  119. ^ a b Chakravarti 1986, pp. 1–2.
  120. ^ a b Chakravarti 1986, pp. 2–3.
  121. ^ a b Chakravarti 1986, pp. 1–9.
  122. ^ a b Michaels, p. 316.
  123. ^ Flood (2003), p. 73.
  124. ^ Flood (2003), p. 73.
  125. ^ For dating based on "cumulative evidence" see: Oberlies, p. 158.
  126. ^ Doniger, pp. 221-223.
  127. ^ For dating based on "cumulative evidence" see: Oberlies, p. 158.
  128. ^ Doniger, pp. 221-223.
  129. ^ Stella Kramrisch (1993). The Presence of Siva. Princeton University Press. p. 7. ISBN 0-691-01930-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=O5BanndcIgUC 
  130. ^ Stella Kramrisch (1993). The Presence of Siva. Princeton University Press. pp. 14–15. ISBN 0-691-01930-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=O5BanndcIgUC 
  131. ^ Stella Kramrisch (1993). The Presence of Siva. Princeton University Press. p. 7. ISBN 0-691-01930-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=O5BanndcIgUC 
  132. ^ Stella Kramrisch (1993). The Presence of Siva. Princeton University Press. pp. 14–15. ISBN 0-691-01930-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=O5BanndcIgUC 
  133. ^ For general statement of the close relationship, and example shared epithets, see: Sivaramamurti, p. 11.
  134. ^ For an overview of the Rudra-Fire complex of ideas, see: Kramrisch, pp. 15-19.
  135. ^ For quotation "An important factor in the process of Rudra's growth is his identification with Agni in the Vedic literature and this identification contributed much to the transformation of his character as Rudra-Śiva." see: Chakravarti, p. 17.
  136. ^ For translation from Nirukta 10.7, see: Sarup (1927), p. 155.
  137. ^ Kramrisch, p. 18.
  138. ^ For general statement of the close relationship, and example shared epithets, see: Sivaramamurti, p. 11.
  139. ^ For an overview of the Rudra-Fire complex of ideas, see: Kramrisch, pp. 15-19.
  140. ^ For quotation "An important factor in the process of Rudra's growth is his identification with Agni in the Vedic literature and this identification contributed much to the transformation of his character as Rudra-Śiva." see: Chakravarti, p. 17.
  141. ^ For translation from Nirukta 10.7, see: Sarup (1927), p. 155.
  142. ^ Kramrisch, p. 18.
  143. ^ For "Note Agni-Rudra concept fused" in epithets Sasipañjara and Tivaṣīmati see: Sivaramamurti, p. 45.
  144. ^ Rig Veda: Rig-Veda, Book 6: HYMN XLVIII. Agni and Others”. Sacred-texts.com. 2010年6月6日閲覧。
  145. ^ For the parallel between the horns of Agni as bull, and Rudra, see: Chakravarti, p. 89.
  146. ^ RV 8.49; 10.155.
  147. ^ For flaming hair of Agni and Bhairava see: Sivaramamurti, p. 11.
  148. ^ For "Note Agni-Rudra concept fused" in epithets Sasipañjara and Tivaṣīmati see: Sivaramamurti, p. 45.
  149. ^ Rig Veda: Rig-Veda, Book 6: HYMN XLVIII. Agni and Others”. Sacred-texts.com. 2010年6月6日閲覧。
  150. ^ For the parallel between the horns of Agni as bull, and Rudra, see: Chakravarti, p. 89.
  151. ^ RV 8.49; 10.155.
  152. ^ For flaming hair of Agni and Bhairava see: Sivaramamurti, p. 11.
  153. ^ Hans Loeschner (2012), Victor Mair (Editor), The Stūpa of the Kushan Emperor Kanishka the Great Sino-Platonic Papers, No. 227, pages 11, 19
  154. ^ Hans Loeschner (2012), Victor Mair (Editor), The Stūpa of the Kushan Emperor Kanishka the Great Sino-Platonic Papers, No. 227, pages 11, 19
  155. ^ Doniger, Wendy (1973). “The Vedic Antecedents”. Śiva, the erotic ascetic. Oxford University Press US. pp. 84–9 
  156. ^ For text of RV 2.20.3a as स नो युवेन्द्रो जोहूत्रः सखा शिवो नरामस्तु पाता । and translation as "May that young adorable Indra, ever be the friend, the benefactor, and protector of us, his worshipper" see: Arya & Joshi (2001), p. 48, volume 2.
  157. ^ For text of RV 6.45.17 as यो गृणतामिदासिथापिरूती शिवः सखा । स त्वं न इन्द्र मृलय ॥ and translation as "Indra, who has ever been the friend of those who praise you, and the insurer of their happiness by your protection, grant us felicity" see: Arya & Joshi (2001), p. 91, volume 3.
  158. ^ For translation of RV 6.45.17 as "Thou who hast been the singers' Friend, a Friend auspicious with thine aid, As such, O Indra, favour us" see: Griffith 1973, p. 310.
  159. ^ For text of RV 8.93.3 as स न इन्द्रः सिवः सखाश्चावद् गोमद्यवमत् । उरूधारेव दोहते ॥ and translation as "May Indra, our auspicious friend, milk for us, like a richly-streaming (cow), wealth of horses, kine, and barley" see: Arya & Joshi (2001), p. 48, volume 2.
  160. ^ For the bull parallel between Indra and Rudra see: Chakravarti, p. 89.
  161. ^ RV 7.19.
  162. ^ For the lack of warlike connections and difference between Indra and Rudra, see: Chakravarti, p. 8.
  163. ^ Doniger, Wendy (1973). “The Vedic Antecedents”. Śiva, the erotic ascetic. Oxford University Press US. pp. 84–9 
  164. ^ For text of RV 2.20.3a as स नो युवेन्द्रो जोहूत्रः सखा शिवो नरामस्तु पाता । and translation as "May that young adorable Indra, ever be the friend, the benefactor, and protector of us, his worshipper" see: Arya & Joshi (2001), p. 48, volume 2.
  165. ^ For text of RV 6.45.17 as यो गृणतामिदासिथापिरूती शिवः सखा । स त्वं न इन्द्र मृलय ॥ and translation as "Indra, who has ever been the friend of those who praise you, and the insurer of their happiness by your protection, grant us felicity" see: Arya & Joshi (2001), p. 91, volume 3.
  166. ^ For translation of RV 6.45.17 as "Thou who hast been the singers' Friend, a Friend auspicious with thine aid, As such, O Indra, favour us" see: Griffith 1973, p. 310.
  167. ^ For text of RV 8.93.3 as स न इन्द्रः सिवः सखाश्चावद् गोमद्यवमत् । उरूधारेव दोहते ॥ and translation as "May Indra, our auspicious friend, milk for us, like a richly-streaming (cow), wealth of horses, kine, and barley" see: Arya & Joshi (2001), p. 48, volume 2.
  168. ^ For the bull parallel between Indra and Rudra see: Chakravarti, p. 89.
  169. ^ RV 7.19.
  170. ^ For the lack of warlike connections and difference between Indra and Rudra, see: Chakravarti, p. 8.
  171. ^ a b Roger D. Woodard (18 August 2006). Indo-European Sacred Space: Vedic and Roman Cult. University of Illinois Press. pp. 242–. ISBN 978-0-252-09295-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=EB4fB0inNYEC&pg=FA242  引用エラー: 無効な <ref> タグ; name "Woodard2006"が異なる内容で複数回定義されています
  172. ^ a b Beckwith 2009, p. 32.
  173. ^ T. Richard Blurton (1993). Hindu Art. Harvard University Press. pp. 84, 103. ISBN 978-0-674-39189-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=xJ-lzU_nj_MC&pg=PA84 
  174. ^ T. Richard Blurton (1993). Hindu Art. Harvard University Press. p. 84. ISBN 978-0-674-39189-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=xJ-lzU_nj_MC&pg=PA84 
  175. ^ Pratapaditya Pal (1986). Indian Sculpture: Circa 500 B.C.-A.D. 700. University of California Press. pp. 75–80. ISBN 978-0-520-05991-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=clUmKaWRFTkC 
  176. ^ a b c d C. Sivaramamurti (2004). Satarudriya: Vibhuti Or Shiva's Iconography. Abhinav Publications. pp. 41, 59. ISBN 978-81-7017-038-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=rOrilkdu-_MC  引用エラー: 無効な <ref> タグ; name "Sivaramamurti41"が異なる内容で複数回定義されています
  177. ^ T. Richard Blurton (1993). Hindu Art. Harvard University Press. p. 84. ISBN 978-0-674-39189-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=xJ-lzU_nj_MC&pg=PA84 
  178. ^ T. Richard Blurton (1993). Hindu Art. Harvard University Press. p. 84. ISBN 978-0-674-39189-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=xJ-lzU_nj_MC&pg=PA84 
  179. ^ Pratapaditya Pal (1986). Indian Sculpture: Circa 500 B.C.-A.D. 700. University of California Press. pp. 75–80. ISBN 978-0-520-05991-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=clUmKaWRFTkC 
  180. ^ a b c d Lisa Owen (2012). Carving Devotion in the Jain Caves at Ellora. BRILL Academic. pp. 25–29. ISBN 90-04-20629-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=vHK2WE8xAzYC  引用エラー: 無効な <ref> タグ; name "lisaowen25"が異なる内容で複数回定義されています
  181. ^ a b Flood 1996, p. 86.
  182. ^ a b Flood 2003, p. 205, for date of Mahabhasya see: Peter M. Scharf (1996), The Denotation of Generic Terms in Ancient Indian Philosophy: Grammar, Nyāya, and Mīmāṃsā, American Philosophical Society, ISBN 978-0-87169-863-6, page 1 with footnote 2.
  183. ^ Robert Hume, Shvetashvatara Upanishad, The Thirteen Principal Upanishads, Oxford University Press, pages 399, 403
  184. ^ M. Hiriyanna (2000), The Essentials of Indian Philosophy, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120813304, pages 32-36
  185. ^ [a] A Kunst, Some notes on the interpretation of the Ṥvetāṥvatara Upaniṣad, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, Vol. 31, Issue 02, June 1968, pages 309-314; doi:10.1017/S0041977X00146531;
    [b] Doris Srinivasan (1997), Many Heads, Arms, and Eyes, Brill, ISBN 978-9004107588, pages 96-97 and Chapter 9
  186. ^ Robert Hume, Shvetashvatara Upanishad, The Thirteen Principal Upanishads, Oxford University Press, pages 399, 403
  187. ^ M. Hiriyanna (2000), The Essentials of Indian Philosophy, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120813304, pages 32-36
  188. ^ [a] A Kunst, Some notes on the interpretation of the Ṥvetāṥvatara Upaniṣad, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, Vol. 31, Issue 02, June 1968, pages 309-314; doi:10.1017/S0041977X00146531;
    [b] Doris Srinivasan (1997), Many Heads, Arms, and Eyes, Brill, ISBN 978-9004107588, pages 96-97 and Chapter 9
  189. ^ a b c d Deussen 1997, pp. 792–793.
  190. ^ a b Sastri 1898, pp. 80–82.
  191. ^ a b Deussen 1997, p. 556, 769 footnote 1.
  192. ^ a b c d Deussen 1997, p. 769.
  193. ^ a b Klostermaier 1984, pp. 134, 371.
  194. ^ a b Radhakrishnan 1953, p. 929.
  195. ^ a b Flood 2003, pp. 205–206.
  196. ^ a b Rocher 1986, pp. 187–188, 222–228.
  197. ^ a b Flood 2003, pp. 208–212.
  198. ^ DS Sharma (1990), The Philosophy of Sadhana, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791403471, pages 9-14
  199. ^ Richard Davis (2014), Ritual in an Oscillating Universe: Worshipping Siva in Medieval India, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691603087, page 167 note 21, Quote (page 13): "Some agamas argue a monist metaphysics, while others are decidedly dualist. Some claim ritual is the most efficacious means of religious attainment, while others assert that knowledge is more important".
  200. ^ Mark Dyczkowski (1989), The Canon of the Śaivāgama, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120805958, pages 43-44
  201. ^ JS Vasugupta (2012), Śiva Sūtras, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120804074, pages 252, 259
  202. ^ a b c Flood 1996, pp. 162–169.
  203. ^ Ganesh Tagare (2002), The Pratyabhijñā Philosophy, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120818927, pages 16-19
  204. ^ Jan Gonda (1975). Handbook of Oriental Studies. Section 3 Southeast Asia, Religions. BRILL Academic. pp. 3–20, 35–36, 49–51. ISBN 90-04-04330-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=X7YfAAAAIAAJ 
  205. ^ Upendra Thakur (1986). Some Aspects of Asian History and Culture. Abhinav Publications. pp. 83–94. ISBN 978-81-7017-207-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=m42TldA_OvAC 
  206. ^ Phyllis Granoff (2003), Mahakala's Journey: from Gana to God, Rivista degli studi orientali, Vol. 77, Fasc. 1/4 (2003), pages 95-114
  207. ^ For Shiva as a composite deity whose history is not well documented, see: Keay, p. 147.
  208. ^ Phyllis Granoff (2003), Mahakala's Journey: from Gana to God, Rivista degli studi orientali, Vol. 77, Fasc. 1/4 (2003), pages 95-114
  209. ^ For Shiva as a composite deity whose history is not well documented, see: Keay, p. 147.
  210. ^ a b Nath 2001, p. 31.
  211. ^ a b c d e f Courtright, p. 205.
  212. ^ For Jejuri as the foremost center of worship see: Mate, p. 162.
  213. ^ Biroba, Mhaskoba und Khandoba: Ursprung, Geschichte und Umwelt von pastoralen Gottheiten in Maharastra, Wiesbaden 1976 (German with English Synopsis) pp. 180-98, "Khandoba is a local deity in Maharashtra and been Sanskritised as an incarnation of Shiva."
  214. ^ For worship of Khandoba in the form of a lingam and possible identification with Shiva based on that, see: Mate, p. 176.
  215. ^ For use of the name Khandoba as a name for Karttikeya in Maharashtra, see: Gupta, Preface, and p. 40.
  216. ^ For Jejuri as the foremost center of worship see: Mate, p. 162.
  217. ^ Biroba, Mhaskoba und Khandoba: Ursprung, Geschichte und Umwelt von pastoralen Gottheiten in Maharastra, Wiesbaden 1976 (German with English Synopsis) pp. 180-98, "Khandoba is a local deity in Maharashtra and been Sanskritised as an incarnation of Shiva."
  218. ^ For worship of Khandoba in the form of a lingam and possible identification with Shiva based on that, see: Mate, p. 176.
  219. ^ For use of the name Khandoba as a name for Karttikeya in Maharashtra, see: Gupta, Preface, and p. 40.
  220. ^ a b Michaels 2004, p. 216.
  221. ^ a b Michaels 2004, pp. 216–218.
  222. ^ Surendranath Dasgupta (1973). A History of Indian Philosophy. Cambridge University Press. pp. 17, 48–49, 65–67, 155–161. ISBN 978-81-208-0416-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=aohGsuUuXuMC 
  223. ^ Surendranath Dasgupta (1973). A History of Indian Philosophy. Cambridge University Press. pp. 17, 48–49, 65–67, 155–161. ISBN 978-81-208-0416-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=aohGsuUuXuMC 
  224. ^ David N. Lorenzen (1972). The Kāpālikas and Kālāmukhas: Two Lost Śaivite Sects. University of California Press. pp. 2–5, 15–17, 38, 80. ISBN 978-0-520-01842-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=Q4hm-k6fKs4C 
  225. ^ a b c d Narendranath B. Patil (2003). The Variegated Plumage: Encounters with Indian Philosophy. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 125–126. ISBN 978-81-208-1953-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=3C1GWkeyXnQC  引用エラー: 無効な <ref> タグ; name "patil125"が異なる内容で複数回定義されています
  226. ^ Mark S. G. Dyczkowski (1987). The Doctrine of Vibration: An Analysis of the Doctrines and Practices Associated with Kashmir Shaivism. State University of New York Press. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-88706-431-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=QXn5n4gdfcIC 
  227. ^ a b Michaels 2004, pp. 215–216.
  228. ^ David Lawrence, Kashmiri Shaiva Philosophy, University of Manitoba, Canada, IEP, Section 1(d)
  229. ^ David N. Lorenzen (1972). The Kāpālikas and Kālāmukhas: Two Lost Śaivite Sects. University of California Press. pp. 2–5, 15–17, 38, 80. ISBN 978-0-520-01842-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=Q4hm-k6fKs4C 
  230. ^ Mark S. G. Dyczkowski (1987). The Doctrine of Vibration: An Analysis of the Doctrines and Practices Associated with Kashmir Shaivism. State University of New York Press. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-88706-431-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=QXn5n4gdfcIC 
  231. ^ David Lawrence, Kashmiri Shaiva Philosophy, University of Manitoba, Canada, IEP, Section 1(d)
  232. ^ Edwin Bryant (2003), Krishna: The Beautiful Legend of God: Srimad Bhagavata Purana, Penguin, ISBN 978-0141913377, pages 10-12, Quote: "(...) accept and indeed extol the transcendent and absolute nature of the other, and of the Goddess Devi too"
  233. ^ Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, page 23 with footnotes
  234. ^ EO James (1997), The Tree of Life, BRILL Academic, ISBN 978-9004016125, pages 150-153
  235. ^ Edwin Bryant (2003), Krishna: The Beautiful Legend of God: Srimad Bhagavata Purana, Penguin, ISBN 978-0141913377, pages 10-12, Quote: "(...) accept and indeed extol the transcendent and absolute nature of the other, and of the Goddess Devi too"
  236. ^ Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, page 23 with footnotes
  237. ^ EO James (1997), The Tree of Life, BRILL Academic, ISBN 978-9004016125, pages 150-153
  238. ^ Gregor Maehle (2009), Ashtanga Yoga, New World, ISBN 978-1577316695, page 17; for Sanskrit, see: Skanda Purana Shankara Samhita Part 1, Verses 1.8.20-21 (Sanskrit)
  239. ^ Gregor Maehle (2009), Ashtanga Yoga, New World, ISBN 978-1577316695, page 17; for Sanskrit, see: Skanda Purana Shankara Samhita Part 1, Verses 1.8.20-21 (Sanskrit)
  240. ^ Saroj Panthey (1987). Iconography of Śiva in Pahāṛī Paintings. Mittal Publications. p. 94. ISBN 978-81-7099-016-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=GUBXNueBQo0C 
  241. ^ Barbara Holdrege (2012). Hananya Goodman. ed. Between Jerusalem and Benares: Comparative Studies in Judaism and Hinduism. State University of New York Press. pp. 120–125 with footnotes. ISBN 978-1-4384-0437-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=XF_a3cfrcLQC&pg=PA122 
  242. ^ Charles Johnston (1913). The Atlantic Monthly. CXII. Riverside Press, Cambridge. pp. 835–836. https://books.google.com/books?id=SGACAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA835 
  243. ^ Saroj Panthey (1987). Iconography of Śiva in Pahāṛī Paintings. Mittal Publications. p. 94. ISBN 978-81-7099-016-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=GUBXNueBQo0C 
  244. ^ Barbara Holdrege (2012). Hananya Goodman. ed. Between Jerusalem and Benares: Comparative Studies in Judaism and Hinduism. State University of New York Press. pp. 120–125 with footnotes. ISBN 978-1-4384-0437-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=XF_a3cfrcLQC&pg=PA122 
  245. ^ Charles Johnston (1913). The Atlantic Monthly. CXII. Riverside Press, Cambridge. pp. 835–836. https://books.google.com/books?id=SGACAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA835 
  246. ^ a b Coburn 2002, pp. 1, 53–56, 280.
  247. ^ a b Lochtefeld 2002, p. 426.
  248. ^ a b David Kinsley 1988, pp. 101–105.
  249. ^ a b Tracy Pintchman 2014, pp. 85–86, 119, 144, 171.
  250. ^ a b Coburn 1991, pp. 19–24, 40, 65, Narayani p. 232.
  251. ^ a b c d McDaniel 2004, p. 90.
  252. ^ a b c d Brown 1998, p. 26.
  253. ^ a b The Rig Veda/Mandala 10/Hymn 125 Ralph T.H. Griffith (Translator); for Sanskrit original see: ऋग्वेद: सूक्तं १०.१२५
  254. ^ a b Brown 1998, p. 77.
  255. ^ a b Warrier 1967, pp. 77–84.
  256. ^ a b Rocher 1986, p. 193.
  257. ^ David R. Kinsley (1975). The Sword and the Flute: Kālī and Kṛṣṇa, Dark Visions of the Terrible and the Sublime in Hindu Mythology. University of California Press. pp. 102 with footnote 42. ISBN 978-0-520-02675-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=Ih1By08_Yj0C , Quote: "In the Devi Mahatmya, it is quite clear that Durga is an independent deity, great in her own right, and only loosely associated with any of the great male deities. And if any one of the great gods can be said to be her closest associate, it is Visnu rather than Siva".
  258. ^ Gupteshwar Prasad (1994). I.A. Richards and Indian Theory of Rasa. Sarup & Sons. pp. 117–118. ISBN 978-81-85431-37-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=hmy5cnSbsWYC&pg=PA117 
  259. ^ Jaideva Vasugupta (1991). The Yoga of Delight, Wonder, and Astonishment. State University of New York Press. p. xix. ISBN 978-0-7914-1073-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=aVc5JCnO1VgC 
  260. ^ David R. Kinsley (1975). The Sword and the Flute: Kālī and Kṛṣṇa, Dark Visions of the Terrible and the Sublime in Hindu Mythology. University of California Press. pp. 102 with footnote 42. ISBN 978-0-520-02675-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=Ih1By08_Yj0C , Quote: "In the Devi Mahatmya, it is quite clear that Durga is an independent deity, great in her own right, and only loosely associated with any of the great male deities. And if any one of the great gods can be said to be her closest associate, it is Visnu rather than Siva".
  261. ^ Gupteshwar Prasad (1994). I.A. Richards and Indian Theory of Rasa. Sarup & Sons. pp. 117–118. ISBN 978-81-85431-37-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=hmy5cnSbsWYC&pg=PA117 
  262. ^ Jaideva Vasugupta (1991). The Yoga of Delight, Wonder, and Astonishment. State University of New York Press. p. xix. ISBN 978-0-7914-1073-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=aVc5JCnO1VgC 
  263. ^ a b c d Gudrun Bühnemann (2003). Mandalas and Yantras in the Hindu Traditions. BRILL Academic. p. 60. ISBN 978-9004129023. https://books.google.com/books?id=kQf2m8VaC_oC&pg=PA60  引用エラー: 無効な <ref> タグ; name "Bühnemann2003p60"が異なる内容で複数回定義されています
  264. ^ a b James C. Harle (1994). The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent. Yale University Press. pp. 140–142, 191, 201–203. ISBN 978-0-300-06217-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=LwcBVvdqyBkC&pg=PA140  引用エラー: 無効な <ref> タグ; name "Harle1994p141"が異なる内容で複数回定義されています
  265. ^ a b Gavin D. Flood (1996). An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge University Press. p. 17. ISBN 978-0-521-43878-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=KpIWhKnYmF0C  引用エラー: 無効な <ref> タグ; name "Flood1996p17"が異なる内容で複数回定義されています
  266. ^ J. N. Farquhar (1984). Outline of the Religious Literature of India. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 180. ISBN 978-81-208-2086-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=lwggjSPrjxUC 
  267. ^ Edwin F. Bryant (2007). Krishna: A Sourcebook. Oxford University Press. pp. 313–314. ISBN 978-0-19-972431-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=2n4VDAAAQBAJ 
  268. ^ a b Frederick Asher (1981). Joanna Gottfried Williams. ed. Kalādarśana: American Studies in the Art of India. BRILL Academic. pp. 1–4. ISBN 90-04-06498-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=-qoeAAAAIAAJ 
  269. ^ a b c d [a] Vasugupta; Jaideva (1979). Śiva Sūtras. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. xv–xx. ISBN 978-81-208-0407-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=j4SOIISR9PUC ;
    [b] James Mallinson (2007). The Shiva Samhita: A Critical Edition. Yoga. pp. xiii–xiv. ISBN 978-0-9716466-5-0. OCLC 76143968. https://books.google.com/books?id=hlQRnDOr178C  引用エラー: 無効な <ref> タグ; name "shivayoga1"が異なる内容で複数回定義されています
  270. ^ a b c d [a] Jaideva Vasugupta (1991). The Yoga of Delight, Wonder, and Astonishment: A Translation of the Vijnana-bhairava with an Introduction and Notes by Jaideva Singh. State University of New York Press. pp. xii–xvi. ISBN 978-0-7914-1073-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=aVc5JCnO1VgC ;
    [b] Vasugupta; Jaideva (1980). The Yoga of Vibration and Divine Pulsation: A Translation of the Spanda Karika with Ksemaraja's Commentary, the Spanda Nirnaya. State University of New York Press. pp. xxv–xxxii, 2–4. ISBN 978-0-7914-1179-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=sQwtCrGERjkC  引用エラー: 無効な <ref> タグ; name "shivayoga2"が異なる内容で複数回定義されています
  271. ^ Andrew J. Nicholson (2014). Lord Siva's Song: The Isvara Gita. State University of New York Press. pp. 1–2. ISBN 978-1-4384-5102-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=IAEvAwAAQBAJ 
  272. ^ Andrew J. Nicholson (2014). Lord Siva's Song: The Isvara Gita. State University of New York Press. pp. 1–2. ISBN 978-1-4384-5102-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=IAEvAwAAQBAJ 
  273. ^ David Smith (2003). The Dance of Siva: Religion, Art and Poetry in South India. Cambridge University Press. pp. 237–239. ISBN 978-0-521-52865-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=fTLlcGlkdjkC&pg=PA237 
  274. ^ Jaideva Vasugupta; Mark S. G. Dyczkowski (1992). The Aphorisms of Siva: The Siva Sutra with Bhaskara's Commentary, the Varttika. State University of New York Press. pp. 7–8. ISBN 978-0-7914-1264-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=o6-n4ulAsdIC 
  275. ^ David Smith (2003). The Dance of Siva: Religion, Art and Poetry in South India. Cambridge University Press. pp. 237–239. ISBN 978-0-521-52865-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=fTLlcGlkdjkC&pg=PA237 
  276. ^ For quotation defining the trimurti see Matchett, Freda. "The Purāṇas", in: Flood (2003), p. 139.
  277. ^ For the Trimurti system having Brahma as the creator, Vishnu as the maintainer or preserver, and Shiva as the transformer or destroyer see: Zimmer (1972) p. 124.
  278. ^ For definition of trimurti as "the unified form" of Brahmā, Viṣṇu and Śiva and use of the phrase "the Hindu triad" see: Apte, p. 485.
  279. ^ For the term "Great Trinity" in relation to the Trimurti see: Jansen, p. 83.
  280. ^ The Trimurti idea of Hinduism, states Jan Gonda, "seems to have developed from ancient cosmological and ritualistic speculations about the triple character of an individual god, in the first place of Agni, whose births are three or threefold, and who is threefold light, has three bodies and three stations". See: Jan Gonda (1969), The Hindu Trinity, Anthropos, Bd 63/64, H 1/2, pages 218-219; Other trinities, beyond the more common "Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva", mentioned in ancient and medieval Hindu texts include: "Indra, Vishnu, Brahmanaspati", "Agni, Indra, Surya", "Agni, Vayu, Aditya", "Mahalakshmi, Mahasarasvati, and Mahakali", and others. See: [a] David White (2006), Kiss of the Yogini, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0226894843, pages 4, 29
    [b] Jan Gonda (1969), The Hindu Trinity, Anthropos, Bd 63/64, H 1/2, pages 212-226
  281. ^ For quotation defining the trimurti see Matchett, Freda. "The Purāṇas", in: Flood (2003), p. 139.
  282. ^ For the Trimurti system having Brahma as the creator, Vishnu as the maintainer or preserver, and Shiva as the transformer or destroyer see: Zimmer (1972) p. 124.
  283. ^ The Trimurti idea of Hinduism, states Jan Gonda英語版, "seems to have developed from ancient cosmological and ritualistic speculations about the triple character of an individual god, in the first place of Agni, whose births are three or threefold, and who is threefold light, has three bodies and three stations". See: Jan Gonda (1969), The Hindu Trinity, Anthropos, Bd 63/64, H 1/2, pages 218-219; Other trinities, beyond the more common "Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva", mentioned in ancient and medieval Hindu texts include: "Indra, Vishnu, Brahmanaspati", "Agni, Indra, Surya", "Agni, Vayu, Aditya", "Mahalakshmi, Mahasarasvati, and Mahakali", and others. See: [a] David White (2006), Kiss of the Yogini, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0226894843, pages 4, 29
    [b] Jan Gonda (1969), The Hindu Trinity, Anthropos, Bd 63/64, H 1/2, pages 212-226
  284. ^ For Shiva as depicted with a third eye, and mention of the story of the destruction of Kama with it, see: Flood (1996), p. 151.
  285. ^ For a review of 4 theories about the meaning of tryambaka, see: Chakravarti, pp. 37-39.
  286. ^ For usage of the word ambaka in classical Sanskrit and connection to the Mahabharata depiction, see: Chakravarti, pp. 38-39.
  287. ^ For translation of Tryambakam as "having three mother eyes" and as an epithet of Rudra, see: Kramrisch, p. 483.
  288. ^ For vedic Sanskrit meaning Lord has three mother eyes which symbolize eyes are the Sun, Moon and Fire.
  289. ^ For discussion of the problems in translation of this name, and the hypothesis regarding the Ambikās see: Hopkins (1968), p. 220.
  290. ^ For the Ambikā variant, see: Chakravarti, pp. 17, 37.
  291. ^ For Shiva as depicted with a third eye, and mention of the story of the destruction of Kama with it, see: Flood (1996), p. 151.
  292. ^ For a review of 4 theories about the meaning of tryambaka, see: Chakravarti, pp. 37-39.
  293. ^ For usage of the word ambaka in classical Sanskrit and connection to the Mahabharata depiction, see: Chakravarti, pp. 38-39.
  294. ^ For translation of Tryambakam as "having three mother eyes" and as an epithet of Rudra, see: Kramrisch, p. 483.
  295. ^ For discussion of the problems in translation of this name, and the hypothesis regarding the Ambikās see: Hopkins (1968), p. 220.
  296. ^ For the Ambikā variant, see: Chakravarti, pp. 17, 37.
  297. ^ For the moon on the forehead see: Chakravarti, p. 109.
  298. ^ For śekhara as crest or crown, see: Apte, p. 926.
  299. ^ For Candraśekhara as an iconographic form, see: Sivaramamurti (1976), p. 56.
  300. ^ For translation "Having the moon as his crest" see: Kramrisch, p. 472.
  301. ^ For the moon iconography as marking the rise of Rudra-Shiva, see: Chakravarti, p. 58.
  302. ^ For discussion of the linkages between Soma, Moon, and Rudra, and citation to RV 7.74, see: Chakravarti, pp. 57-58.
  303. ^ For the moon on the forehead see: Chakravarti, p. 109.
  304. ^ For śekhara as crest or crown, see: Apte, p. 926.
  305. ^ For Candraśekhara as an iconographic form, see: Sivaramamurti (1976), p. 56.
  306. ^ For translation "Having the moon as his crest" see: Kramrisch, p. 472.
  307. ^ For the moon iconography as marking the rise of Rudra-Shiva, see: Chakravarti, p. 58.
  308. ^ For discussion of the linkages between Soma, Moon, and Rudra, and citation to RV 7.74, see: Chakravarti, pp. 57-58.
  309. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Flood (1996), p. 151.
  310. ^ This smearing of cremation ashes emerged into a practice of some Tantra-oriented ascetics, where they would also offer meat, alcohol and sexual fluids to Bhairava (a form of Shiva), and these groups were probably not of Brahmanic origin. These ascetics are mentioned in the ancient Pali Canon of Thervada Buddhism. See: Flood (1996), pp. 92, 161.
  311. ^ Antonio Rigopoulos (2013), Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Volume 5, Brill Academic, ISBN 978-9004178960, pages 182-183
  312. ^ Paul Deussen (1980). Sechzig Upaniṣad's des Veda. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 775–776, 789–790, 551. ISBN 978-81-208-1467-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=XYepeIGUY0gC 
  313. ^ This smearing of cremation ashes emerged into a practice of some Tantra-oriented ascetics, where they would also offer meat, alcohol and sexual fluids to Bhairava (a form of Shiva), and these groups were probably not of Brahmanic origin. These ascetics are mentioned in the ancient Pali Canon of Thervada Buddhism. See: Flood (1996), pp. 92, 161.
  314. ^ Antonio Rigopoulos (2013), Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Volume 5, Brill Academic, ISBN 978-9004178960, pages 182-183
  315. ^ Paul Deussen (1980). Sechzig Upaniṣad's des Veda. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 775–776, 789–790, 551. ISBN 978-81-208-1467-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=XYepeIGUY0gC 
  316. ^ Chidbhavananda, p. 22.
  317. ^ For translation of Kapardin as "Endowed with matted hair" see: Sharma 1996, p. 279.
  318. ^ Kramrisch, p. 475.
  319. ^ For Kapardin as a name of Shiva, and description of the kaparda hair style, see, Macdonell, p. 62.
  320. ^ Chidbhavananda, p. 22.
  321. ^ For translation of Kapardin as "Endowed with matted hair" see: Sharma 1996, p. 279.
  322. ^ Kramrisch, p. 475.
  323. ^ For Kapardin as a name of Shiva, and description of the kaparda hair style, see, Macdonell, p. 62.
  324. ^ Sharma 1996, p. 290
  325. ^ See: name #93 in Chidbhavananda, p. 31.
  326. ^ For Shiva drinking the poison churned from the world ocean see: Flood (1996), p. 78.
  327. ^ a b c d Kramrisch, p. 473.
  328. ^ Sharma 1996, p. 290
  329. ^ See: name #93 in Chidbhavananda, p. 31.
  330. ^ For Shiva drinking the poison churned from the world ocean see: Flood (1996), p. 78.
  331. ^ For alternate stories about this feature, and use of the name Gaṅgādhara see: Chakravarti, pp. 59 and 109.
  332. ^ For description of the Gaṅgādhara form, see: Sivaramamurti (1976), p. 8.
  333. ^ For Shiva supporting Gaṅgā upon his head, see: Kramrisch, p. 473.
  334. ^ For alternate stories about this feature, and use of the name Gaṅgādhara see: Chakravarti, pp. 59 and 109.
  335. ^ For description of the Gaṅgādhara form, see: Sivaramamurti (1976), p. 8.
  336. ^ For Shiva supporting Gaṅgā upon his head, see: Kramrisch, p. 473.
  337. ^ Flood (1996), p. 151
  338. ^ Flood (1996), p. 151
  339. ^ a b Wayman & Singh 1991, p. 266.
  340. ^ a b Suresh Chandra 1998, p. 309.
  341. ^ a b Sitansu S. Chakravarti 1991, p. 51.
  342. ^ Michaels, p. 218.
  343. ^ For definition and shape, see: Apte, p. 461.
  344. ^ Jansen, p. 44.
  345. ^ Jansen, p. 25.
  346. ^ For use by Kāpālikas, see: Apte, p. 461.
  347. ^ Michaels, p. 218.
  348. ^ For definition and shape, see: Apte, p. 461.
  349. ^ Jansen, p. 44.
  350. ^ Jansen, p. 25.
  351. ^ For use by Kāpālikas, see: Apte, p. 461.
  352. ^ C. Sivaramamurti (1963). South Indian Bronzes. Lalit Kalā Akademi. pp. 41 
  353. ^ C. Sivaramamurti (1963). South Indian Bronzes. Lalit Kalā Akademi. pp. 41 
  354. ^ John A. Grimes (1996). A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English. State University of New York Press. p. 257. ISBN 978-0-7914-3067-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=qcoUFYOX0bEC&pg=PA257 
  355. ^ Prabhavati C. Reddy (2014). Hindu Pilgrimage: Shifting Patterns of Worldview of Srisailam in South India. Routledge. pp. 114–115. ISBN 978-1-317-80631-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=TkUsAwAAQBAJ 
  356. ^ John A. Grimes (1996). A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English. State University of New York Press. p. 257. ISBN 978-0-7914-3067-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=qcoUFYOX0bEC&pg=PA257 
  357. ^ Prabhavati C. Reddy (2014). Hindu Pilgrimage: Shifting Patterns of Worldview of Srisailam in South India. Routledge. pp. 114–115. ISBN 978-1-317-80631-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=TkUsAwAAQBAJ 
  358. ^ For a review of issues related to the evolution of the bull (Nandin) as Shiva's mount, see: Chakravarti, pp. 99-105.
  359. ^ For spelling of alternate proper names Nandī and Nandin see: Stutley, p. 98.
  360. ^ Sharma 1996, p. 291
  361. ^ Kramrisch, p. 479.
  362. ^ For a review of issues related to the evolution of the bull (Nandin) as Shiva's mount, see: Chakravarti, pp. 99-105.
  363. ^ For spelling of alternate proper names Nandī and Nandin see: Stutley, p. 98.
  364. ^ Sharma 1996, p. 291
  365. ^ Kramrisch, p. 479.
  366. ^ For the name Kailāsagirivāsī (Sanskrit कैलासिगिरवासी), "With his abode on Mount Kailāsa", as a name appearing in the Shiva Sahasranama, see: Sharma 1996, p. 281.
  367. ^ For identification of Mount Kailāsa as the central linga, see: Stutley (1985), p. 62.
  368. ^ For the name Kailāsagirivāsī (Sanskrit कैलासिगिरवासी), "With his abode on Mount Kailāsa", as a name appearing in the Shiva Sahasranama, see: Sharma 1996, p. 281.
  369. ^ For identification of Mount Kailāsa as the central linga, see: Stutley (1985), p. 62.
  370. ^ Dictionary of Hindu Lore and Legend (ISBN 0-500-51088-1) by Anna L. Dallapiccola
  371. ^ Dictionary of Hindu Lore and Legend英語版 (ISBN 0-500-51088-1) by Anna L. Dallapiccola
  372. ^ Keay, p. 33.
  373. ^ Keay, p. 33.
  374. ^ For quotation "Shiva is a god of ambiguity and paradox" and overview of conflicting attributes see: Flood (1996), p. 150.
  375. ^ For quotation "Shiva is a god of ambiguity and paradox" and overview of conflicting attributes see: Flood (1996), p. 150.
  376. ^ George Michell (1977). The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms. University of Chicago Press. pp. 25–26. ISBN 978-0-226-53230-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=ajgImLs62gwC 
  377. ^ George Michell (1977). The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms. University of Chicago Press. pp. 25–26. ISBN 978-0-226-53230-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=ajgImLs62gwC 
  378. ^ For quotation regarding Yajur Veda as containing contrary sets of attributes, and marking point for emergence of all basic elements of later sect forms, see: Chakravarti, p. 7.
  379. ^ For summary of Shiva's contrasting depictions in the Mahabharata, see: Sharma 1988, pp. 20–21.
  380. ^ For quotation regarding Yajur Veda as containing contrary sets of attributes, and marking point for emergence of all basic elements of later sect forms, see: Chakravarti, p. 7.
  381. ^ For summary of Shiva's contrasting depictions in the Mahabharata, see: Sharma 1988, pp. 20–21.
  382. ^ For rud- meaning "cry, howl" as a traditional etymology see: Kramrisch, p. 5.
  383. ^ Citation to M. Mayrhofer, Concise Etymological Sanskrit Dictionary, s.v. "rudra", is provided in: Kramrisch, p. 5.
  384. ^ a b Sharma 1996, p. 301.
  385. ^ a b Sharma 1996, p. 314.
  386. ^ Kramrisch, p. 474.
  387. ^ a b Sharma 1996, p. 280.
  388. ^ Apte, p. 727, left column.
  389. ^ a b Kramrisch, p. 481.
  390. ^ Flood (1996), p. 92.
  391. ^ a b Chakravarti 1986, pp. 28 (note 7), and p. 177.
  392. ^ For rud- meaning "cry, howl" as a traditional etymology see: Kramrisch, p. 5.
  393. ^ Citation to M. Mayrhofer, Concise Etymological Sanskrit Dictionary, s.v. "rudra", is provided in: Kramrisch, p. 5.
  394. ^ Kramrisch, p. 474.
  395. ^ Apte, p. 727, left column.
  396. ^ Flood (1996), p. 92.
  397. ^ For the contrast between ascetic and householder depictions, see: Flood (1996), pp. 150-151.
  398. ^ For Shiva's representation as a yogi, see: Chakravarti, p. 32.
  399. ^ For name Mahāyogi and associations with yoga, see, Chakravarti, pp. 23, 32, 150.
  400. ^ For the ascetic yogin form as reflecting Epic period influences, see: Chakravarti, p. 32.
  401. ^ For the contrast between ascetic and householder depictions, see: Flood (1996), pp. 150-151.
  402. ^ For Shiva's representation as a yogi, see: Chakravarti, p. 32.
  403. ^ For name Mahāyogi and associations with yoga, see, Chakravarti, pp. 23, 32, 150.
  404. ^ For the ascetic yogin form as reflecting Epic period influences, see: Chakravarti, p. 32.
  405. ^ For Umāpati, Umākānta and Umādhava as names in the Shiva Sahasranama literature, see: Sharma 1996, p. 278.
  406. ^ For Umā as the oldest name, and variants including Pārvatī, see: Chakravarti, p. 40.
  407. ^ For Pārvatī identified as the wife of Shiva, see: Kramrisch, p. 479.
  408. ^ a b Search for Meaning By Antonio R. Gualtieri
  409. ^ For regional name variants of Karttikeya see: Gupta, Preface.
  410. ^ For Umāpati, Umākānta and Umādhava as names in the Shiva Sahasranama literature, see: Sharma 1996, p. 278.
  411. ^ For Umā as the oldest name, and variants including Pārvatī, see: Chakravarti, p. 40.
  412. ^ For Pārvatī identified as the wife of Shiva, see: Kramrisch, p. 479.
  413. ^ For regional name variants of Karttikeya see: Gupta, Preface.
  414. ^ Doniger, Wendy (1999). Splitting the difference: gender and myth in ancient Greece and India. London: University of Chicago Press. pp. 263–5. ISBN 978-0-226-15641-5. https://books.google.com/?id=JZ8qfQbEJB4C&pg=PA263&dq=mohini+Vishnu&cd=2#v=onepage&q=mohini%20Vishnu 
  415. ^ a b Vanita, Ruth; Kidwai, Saleem (2001). Same-sex love in India: readings from literature and history. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 69. ISBN 978-0-312-29324-6  引用エラー: 無効な <ref> タグ; name "Vanita69"が異なる内容で複数回定義されています
  416. ^ a b Pattanaik, Devdutt (2001). The man who was a woman and other queer tales of Hindu lore. Routledge. p. 71. ISBN 978-1-56023-181-3. https://books.google.com/?id=Odsk9xfOp6oC&pg=PA71&dq=mohini&cd=2#v=onepage&q=mohini  引用エラー: 無効な <ref> タグ; name "P71"が異なる内容で複数回定義されています
  417. ^ See Mohini#Relationship with Shiva for details
  418. ^ McDaniel, June (2004). Offering Flowers, Feeding Skulls: Popular Goddess Worship in West Benegal. Oxford University Press, US. p. 156. ISBN 0-19-516790-2 
  419. ^ a b Vettam Mani (1975). Puranic Encyclopaedia: a Comprehensive Dictionary with Special Reference to the Epic and Puranic Literature. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. pp. 62, 515–6. ISBN 978-0-8426-0822-0  引用エラー: 無効な <ref> タグ; name "mani"が異なる内容で複数回定義されています
  420. ^ Doniger, Wendy (1999). Splitting the difference: gender and myth in ancient Greece and India. London: University of Chicago Press. pp. 263–5. ISBN 978-0-226-15641-5. https://books.google.com/?id=JZ8qfQbEJB4C&pg=PA263&dq=mohini+Vishnu&cd=2#v=onepage&q=mohini%20Vishnu 
  421. ^ See Mohini#Relationship with Shiva英語版 for details
  422. ^ McDaniel, June (2004). Offering Flowers, Feeding Skulls: Popular Goddess Worship in West Benegal. Oxford University Press, US. p. 156. ISBN 0-19-516790-2 
  423. ^ For description of the nataraja form see: Jansen, pp. 110-111.
  424. ^ For interpretation of the naṭarāja form see: Zimmer, pp. 151-157.
  425. ^ For names Nartaka (Sanskrit नर्तक) and Nityanarta (Sanskrit नित्यनर्त) as names of Shiva, see: Sharma 1996, p. 289.
  426. ^ For prominence of these associations in puranic times, see: Chakravarti, p. 62.
  427. ^ For popularity of the nṛtyamūrti and prevalence in South India, see: Chakravarti, p. 63.
  428. ^ Kramrisch, Stella (1994). “Siva's Dance”. The Presence of Siva. Princeton University Press. p. 439 
  429. ^ Klostermaier, Klaus K.. “Shiva the Dancer”. Mythologies and Philosophies of Salvation in the Theistic Traditions of India. Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Press. p. 151 
  430. ^ Massey, Reginald. “India's Kathak Dance”. India's Kathak Dance, Past Present, Future. Abhinav Publications. p. 8 
  431. ^ a b c d Moorthy, Vijaya (2001). Romance of the Raga. Abhinav Publications. p. 96  引用エラー: 無効な <ref> タグ; name "VMoorthy"が異なる内容で複数回定義されています
  432. ^ Leeming, David Adams (2001). A Dictionary of Asian Mythology. Oxford University Press. p. 45 
  433. ^ Radha, Sivananda (1992). “Mantra of Muladhara Chakra”. Kuṇḍalinī Yoga. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 304 
  434. ^ when it requires to be destroyed, Lord Śiva does it by the tāṇḍavanṛtya
  435. ^ For description of the nataraja form see: Jansen, pp. 110-111.
  436. ^ For interpretation of the naṭarāja form see: Zimmer, pp. 151-157.
  437. ^ For names Nartaka (Sanskrit नर्तक) and Nityanarta (Sanskrit नित्यनर्त) as names of Shiva, see: Sharma 1996, p. 289.
  438. ^ For prominence of these associations in puranic times, see: Chakravarti, p. 62.
  439. ^ For popularity of the nṛtyamūrti and prevalence in South India, see: Chakravarti, p. 63.
  440. ^ Kramrisch, Stella (1994). “Siva's Dance”. The Presence of Siva. Princeton University Press. p. 439 
  441. ^ Klostermaier, Klaus K.. “Shiva the Dancer”. Mythologies and Philosophies of Salvation in the Theistic Traditions of India. Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Press. p. 151 
  442. ^ Massey, Reginald. “India's Kathak Dance”. India's Kathak Dance, Past Present, Future. Abhinav Publications. p. 8 
  443. ^ Leeming, David Adams (2001). A Dictionary of Asian Mythology. Oxford University Press. p. 45 
  444. ^ Radha, Sivananda (1992). “Mantra of Muladhara Chakra”. Kuṇḍalinī Yoga. Motilal Banarsidass英語版. p. 304 
  445. ^ when it requires to be destroyed, Lord Śiva does it by the tāṇḍavanṛtya
  446. ^ For iconographic description of the Dakṣiṇāmūrti form, see: Sivaramamurti (1976), p. 47.
  447. ^ For description of the form as representing teaching functions, see: Kramrisch, p. 472.
  448. ^ For characterization of Dakṣiṇāmūrti as a mostly south Indian form, see: Chakravarti, p. 62.
  449. ^ For the deer-throne and the audience of sages as Dakṣiṇāmūrti, see: Chakravarti, p. 155.
  450. ^ For iconographic description of the Dakṣiṇāmūrti form, see: Sivaramamurti (1976), p. 47.
  451. ^ For description of the form as representing teaching functions, see: Kramrisch, p. 472.
  452. ^ For characterization of Dakṣiṇāmūrti as a mostly south Indian form, see: Chakravarti, p. 62.
  453. ^ For the deer-throne and the audience of sages as Dakṣiṇāmūrti, see: Chakravarti, p. 155.
  454. ^ Constance Jones; James D. Ryan (2006). Encyclopedia of Hinduism. Infobase. p. 43. ISBN 978-0-8160-7564-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=OgMmceadQ3gC&pg=PA43 
  455. ^ Constance Jones; James D. Ryan (2006). Encyclopedia of Hinduism. Infobase. p. 43. ISBN 978-0-8160-7564-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=OgMmceadQ3gC&pg=PA43 
  456. ^ Goldberg specifically rejects the translation by Frederique Marglin (1989) as "half-man, half-woman", and instead adopts the translation by Marglin as "the lord who is half woman" as given in Marglin (1989, 216). Goldberg, p. 1.
  457. ^ Goldberg specifically rejects the translation by Frederique Marglin (1989) as "half-man, half-woman", and instead adopts the translation by Marglin as "the lord who is half woman" as given in Marglin (1989, 216). Goldberg, p. 1.
  458. ^ For evolution of this story from early sources to the epic period, when it was used to enhance Shiva's increasing influence, see: Chakravarti, p.46.
  459. ^ For the Tripurāntaka form, see: Sivaramamurti (1976), pp. 34, 49.
  460. ^ For evolution of this story from early sources to the epic period, when it was used to enhance Shiva's increasing influence, see: Chakravarti, p.46.
  461. ^ For the Tripurāntaka form, see: Sivaramamurti (1976), pp. 34, 49.
  462. ^ a b Michaels, p. 216.
  463. ^ Flood (1996), p. 29.
  464. ^ Tattwananda, pp. 49-52.
  465. ^ a b c d e f Lingam: Hindu symbol Encyclopedia Britannica
  466. ^ Monier Williams (1899), Sanskrit to English Dictionary, लिङ्ग, page 901
  467. ^ Yudit Kornberg Greenberg (2008). Encyclopedia of Love in World Religions. ABC-CLIO. pp. 572–573. ISBN 978-1-85109-980-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=nGoag6b3JvYC&pg=PA572 
  468. ^ O'Flaherty, Wendy Doniger (1981). Śiva, the erotic ascetic. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-520250-3 
  469. ^ Sen, Amiya P. (2006). “Editor's Introduction”. The Indispensable Vivekananda. Orient Blackswan. pp. 25–26 
  470. ^ Sivananda, Swami (1996). “Worship of Siva Linga”. Lord Siva and His Worship. The Divine Life Trust Society. http://www.dlshq.org/download/lordsiva.htm#_VPID_80 
  471. ^ Balagangadhara, S.N., Sarah Claerhout (Spring 2008). “Are Dialogues Antidotes to Violence? Two Recent Examples From Hinduism Studies”. Journal for the Study of Religions and Ideologies 7 (19): 118–143. http://www.jsri.ro/new/?download=19_balagangadhara_claerhout.pdf. 
  472. ^ Winternitz, Moriz; V. Srinivasa Sarma (1981). A History of Indian Literature, Volume 1. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 543 footnote 4. ISBN 978-81-208-0264-3. https://books.google.com/?id=JRfuJFRV_O8C&pg=PA543 
  473. ^ Flood (1996), p. 29.
  474. ^ Tattwananda, pp. 49-52.
  475. ^ Monier Williams (1899), Sanskrit to English Dictionary, लिङ्ग, page 901
  476. ^ Yudit Kornberg Greenberg (2008). Encyclopedia of Love in World Religions. ABC-CLIO. pp. 572–573. ISBN 978-1-85109-980-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=nGoag6b3JvYC&pg=PA572 
  477. ^ O'Flaherty, Wendy Doniger (1981). Śiva, the erotic ascetic. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-520250-3 
  478. ^ Sen, Amiya P. (2006). “Editor's Introduction”. The Indispensable Vivekananda. Orient Blackswan. pp. 25–26 
  479. ^ Sivananda, Swami (1996). “Worship of Siva Linga”. Lord Siva and His Worship. The Divine Life Trust Society. http://www.dlshq.org/download/lordsiva.htm#_VPID_80 
  480. ^ Balagangadhara, S.N., Sarah Claerhout (Spring 2008). “Are Dialogues Antidotes to Violence? Two Recent Examples From Hinduism Studies”. Journal for the Study of Religions and Ideologies 7 (19): 118–143. http://www.jsri.ro/new/?download=19_balagangadhara_claerhout.pdf. 
  481. ^ Winternitz, Moriz; V. Srinivasa Sarma (1981). A History of Indian Literature, Volume 1. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 543 footnote 4. ISBN 978-81-208-0264-3. https://books.google.com/?id=JRfuJFRV_O8C&pg=PA543 
  482. ^ a b Harding, Elizabeth U. (1998). “God, the Father”. Kali: The Black Goddess of Dakshineswar. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 156–157. ISBN 978-81-208-1450-9  引用エラー: 無効な <ref> タグ; name "E.U.Harding"が異なる内容で複数回定義されています
  483. ^ a b c d Vivekananda, Swami. “The Paris congress of the history of religions”. The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda. 4. http://www.ramakrishnavivekananda.info/vivekananda/volume_4/translation_prose/the_paris_congress.htm  引用エラー: 無効な <ref> タグ; name "paris_congress"が異なる内容で複数回定義されています
  484. ^ Swati Mitra (2011). Omkareshwar and Maheshwar. Eicher Goodearth and Madhya Pradesh Government. p. 25. ISBN 978-93-80262-24-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=_0RpUoGiou4C&pg=PA25 
  485. ^ Swati Mitra (2011). Omkareshwar and Maheshwar. Eicher Goodearth and Madhya Pradesh Government. p. 25. ISBN 978-93-80262-24-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=_0RpUoGiou4C&pg=PA25 
  486. ^ For five as a sacred number, see: Kramrisch, p. 182.
  487. ^ It is first encountered in an almost identical form in the Rudram. For the five syllable mantra see: Kramrisch, p. 182.
  488. ^ For five as a sacred number, see: Kramrisch, p. 182.
  489. ^ It is first encountered in an almost identical form in the Rudram. For the five syllable mantra see: Kramrisch, p. 182.
  490. ^ For discussion of these five forms and a table summarizing the associations of these five mantras see: Kramrisch, pp. 182-189.
  491. ^ For distinct iconography, see Kramrisch, p. 185.
  492. ^ For discussion of these five forms and a table summarizing the associations of these five mantras see: Kramrisch, pp. 182-189.
  493. ^ For distinct iconography, see Kramrisch, p. 185.
  494. ^ For association with the five faces and other groups of five, see: Kramrisch, p. 182.
  495. ^ For the epithets pañcamukha and pañcavaktra, both of which mean "five faces", as epithets of Śiva, see: Apte, p. 578, middle column.
  496. ^ For variation in attributions among texts, see: Kramrisch, p. 187.
  497. ^ For association with the five faces and other groups of five, see: Kramrisch, p. 182.
  498. ^ For the epithets pañcamukha and pañcavaktra, both of which mean "five faces", as epithets of Śiva, see: Apte, p. 578, middle column.
  499. ^ For variation in attributions among texts, see: Kramrisch, p. 187.
  500. ^ Kramrisch, p. 184.
  501. ^ Kramrisch, p. 184.
  502. ^ Quotation from Pañcabrahma Upanishad 31 is from: Kramrisch, p. 182.
  503. ^ Quotation from Pañcabrahma Upanishad 31 is from: Kramrisch, p. 182.
  504. ^ Parrinder, Edward Geoffrey (1982). Avatar and incarnation. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 88. ISBN 0-19-520361-5 
  505. ^ Winternitz, Moriz; V. Srinivasa Sarma (1981). A History of Indian Literature, Volume 1. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 543–544. ISBN 978-81-208-0264-3. https://books.google.com/?id=JRfuJFRV_O8C&pg=PA543 
  506. ^ James Lochtefeld (2002), "Shiva" in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 2: N-Z, Rosen Publishing, ISBN 0-8239-2287-1, page 635
  507. ^ a b Constance Jones; James D. Ryan (2006). Encyclopedia of Hinduism. Infobase. pp. 474. ISBN 978-0-8160-7564-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=OgMmceadQ3gC  引用エラー: 無効な <ref> タグ; name "ryanjonesavatar"が異なる内容で複数回定義されています
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  509. ^ Parrinder, Edward Geoffrey (1982). Avatar and incarnation. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 88. ISBN 0-19-520361-5 
  510. ^ Winternitz, Moriz; V. Srinivasa Sarma (1981). A History of Indian Literature, Volume 1. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 543–544. ISBN 978-81-208-0264-3. https://books.google.com/?id=JRfuJFRV_O8C&pg=PA543 
  511. ^ James Lochtefeld (2002), "Shiva" in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 2: N-Z, Rosen Publishing, ISBN 0-8239-2287-1, page 635
  512. ^ Parrinder, Edward Geoffrey (1982). Avatar and incarnation. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 87–88. ISBN 0-19-520361-5 
  513. ^ Lutgendorf, Philip (2007). Hanuman's tale: the messages of a divine monkey. Oxford University Press US. p. 44. ISBN 978-0-19-530921-8. https://books.google.com/?id=fVFC2Nx-LP8C&pg=PT333&dq=avatara+Hanuman&cd=1#v=snippet&q=avatara%20%20Shiva 
  514. ^ Catherine Ludvík (1994). Hanumān in the Rāmāyaṇa of Vālmīki and the Rāmacaritamānasa of Tulasī Dāsa. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.. pp. 10–11. ISBN 978-81-208-1122-5. https://books.google.com/?id=KCXQN0qoAe0C&pg=PA10&dq=Hanuman+Rudra&cd=2#v=onepage&q=Hanuman%20Rudra 
  515. ^ Sri Ramakrishna Math (1985) "Hanuman Chalisa" p. 5
  516. ^ a b Footnote 70:1 to Horace Hayman Wilson's English translation of The Vishnu Purana: Book I - Chapter IX”. Template:Cite webの呼び出しエラー:引数 accessdate は必須です。 引用エラー: 無効な <ref> タグ; name "Footnote 1 HH Wilson"が異なる内容で複数回定義されています
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  520. ^ Lutgendorf, Philip (2007). Hanuman's tale: the messages of a divine monkey. Oxford University Press US. p. 44. ISBN 978-0-19-530921-8. https://books.google.com/?id=fVFC2Nx-LP8C&pg=PT333&dq=avatara+Hanuman&cd=1#v=snippet&q=avatara%20%20Shiva 
  521. ^ Catherine Ludvík (1994). Hanumān in the Rāmāyaṇa of Vālmīki and the Rāmacaritamānasa of Tulasī Dāsa. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.. pp. 10–11. ISBN 978-81-208-1122-5. https://books.google.com/?id=KCXQN0qoAe0C&pg=PA10&dq=Hanuman+Rudra&cd=2#v=onepage&q=Hanuman%20Rudra 
  522. ^ Sri Ramakrishna Math (1985) "Hanuman Chalisa" p. 5
  523. ^ Sengaku Mayeda (Translator) (1979). A Thousand Teachings: The Upadesasahasri of Sankara. State University of New York Press. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-7914-0943-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=8fkLggRFFBwC 
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