Fast Facts: Brown v. Board of Education (1257)

Brown v. Board of Education

Question:
May 2024 marks the 70th anniversary of the Brown v. Board of Education Supreme Court decision; as we reflect on this landmark case, what data do you have on racial/ethnic diversity in U.S. schools?

Response:

Brief History of Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka

In the 1950s, there were various efforts to ensure equal education for all children, including a number of legal challenges to state segregation in public schools.¹ Among these cases was a class action suit filed against the Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas by Oliver Brown and several parents. Brown�s daughter, Linda, was not allowed to attend an all-White elementary school in her neighborhood and had to be bussed to a segregated Black school across town. The plaintiffs, represented by Thurgood Marshall,² argued that Black schools were not equal to White schools, and thus violated the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. The Fourteenth Amendment states, No state shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States.³ This case, and four other cases⁴ challenging educational discrimination, were consolidated and decided by the Supreme Court in its landmark decision Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka.

In May 1954, U.S. Supreme Court Justice Earl Warren delivered the unanimous ruling that separate educational facilities are inherently unequal, and, therefore, laws that impose them are unconstitutional, violating the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.⁵ The ruling paved the way for desegregation of educational institutions across the United States.

In 2024, we reflect on the 70th anniversary of the landmark Brown v. Board of Education Supreme Court decision and the National Center for Education Statistics� (NCES) key role in collecting, analyzing, and reporting data about teacher, principal, and student diversity in the United States.⁶ This Fast Fact, which covers data from 2011 to 2022, provides a snapshot of the evolving landscape of education. Learn more below.

Teacher, Principal, and Student Diversity

Figure 1. Percentage distribution of teachers in public elementary and secondary schools and percentage distribution of kindergarten through 12th-grade students enrolled in public schools, by race/ethnicity: School year 2020–21

The data in this figure is described in the surrounding text.

# Rounds to zero.
¹ Excludes teachers who teach only prekindergarten. Data are based on a head count of full-time and part-time teachers rather than on the number of full-time-equivalent teachers.
² Data are for fall 2020 and exclude prekindergarten students. Data represent the 50 states and the District of Columbia. Enrollment data for students not reported by race/ethnicity were prorated based on the known racial/ethnic composition of a state by grade to match state totals.

NOTE: Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. Although rounded numbers are displayed, the figures are based on unrounded data. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Teacher and Principal Survey (NTPS), �Public School Teacher Data File,� 2020–21; and Common Core of Data (CCD), �State Nonfiscal Survey of Public Elementary and Secondary Education,� 2020–21. See Digest of Education Statistics 2022, tables 203.65 and 209.22.

In 2020–21, of all public school teachers,⁷

80 percent were White;
9 percent were Hispanic;
6 percent were Black;
2 percent were Asian;
2 percent were of Two or more races;
Less than 1 percent were American Indian/Alaska Native; and
Less than one-half of 1 percent were Pacific Islander.⁸

From 2011–12 to 2020–21, the share of public school teachers in each of the racial/ethnic groups changed by 2 percentage points or less. Specifically, lower percentages of public school teachers in 2020–21 than in 2011–12 were White (80 vs. 82 percent) or Black (6 vs. 7 percent). In contrast, higher percentages of public school teachers in 2020–21 than in 2011–12 were Hispanic (9 vs. 8 percent), Asian (2.4 vs. 1.8 percent), or of Two or more races (2 vs. 1 percent).

In 2020–21, the proportion of K–12 public school teachers who were White (80 percent) was higher than the proportion of K–12 public school students who were White (46 percent), whereas the proportion of teachers of other racial/ethnic groups was lower than the proportion of students in those groups. For instance, 9 percent of public school teachers were Hispanic, compared with 28 percent of public school students (source).

Figure 2. Percentage distribution of principals and student enrollment in public and private elementary and secondary schools, by race/ethnicity: School year 2020–21

The data in this figure is described in the surrounding text.

# Rounds to zero.
! Interpret data with caution. The coefficient of variation (CV) for this estimate is between 30 and 50 percent.
‡ Reporting standards not met. Either there are too few cases for a reliable estimate or the coefficient of variation (CV) is 50 percent or greater.

NOTE: Data in this figure represent the 50 states and the District of Columbia. Data are based on a head count of full-time and part-time principals rather than on the number of full-time-equivalent principals. The public school student data are from the 2020�21 Common Core of Data (CCD), and the private school student data are from the 2019�20 Private School Universe Survey (PSS). The principal data are from the 2020�21 National Teacher and Principal Survey (NTPS). For more information on which CCD and PSS schools are eligible to participate in the NTPS, please see https://nces.ed.gov/pubs2022/2022111.pdf. Because the data are from different sources and years, readers should interpret the comparisons with caution. For public schools, enrollment data for students not reported by race/ethnicity were prorated based on the known racial/ethnic composition of a state by grade to match state totals. For private schools, race/ethnicity was not collected for prekindergarten students and percentage distribution is based on the students for whom race/ethnicity was reported. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. Although rounded numbers are displayed, the figures are based on unrounded data.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Teacher and Principal Survey (NTPS), �Public School Principal Data File,� 2020–21; and �Private School Principal Data File,� 2020–21; Common Core of Data (CCD), �State Nonfiscal Survey of Public Elementary and Secondary Education,� 2020�21 Preliminary; Private School Universe Survey (PSS), 2019–20. See Digest of Education Statistics 2022, tables 203.50 and 212.08; Digest of Education Statistics 2021, 205.30.

In 2020–21, of all public school principals,

77 percent were White;
10 percent were Black;
9 percent were Hispanic; and
1 percent or less each were of Two or more races, Asian, American Indian/Alaska Native, and Pacific Islander.

The percentage of public school principals who were White was lower in 2020–21 than in 2011–12 (77 vs. 80 percent), while the percentages who were Hispanic and Pacific Islander were higher in 2020–21 (9 and 0.3 percent, respectively) than in 2011–12 (7 and less than 0.1 percent, respectively). There were no measurable differences between 2011–12 and 2020–21 in the percentages of public school principals who were of other racial/ethnic groups.

Looking at the racial/ethnic composition of the principal population and of the student population in public schools in 2020–21, the proportion of principals who were White was higher than the proportion of students who were White, whereas the proportions of principals in other racial/ethnic groups were generally lower than the proportions of students in those groups (source).

Field of Main Teaching Assignment

Figure 3. Percentage of public school teachers of grades 9 through 12 who were Black, by field of main teaching assignment: School year 2020–21

The data in this figure is described in the surrounding text.

NOTE: Excludes persons of Hispanic ethnicity. Figures are plotted based on unrounded data.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Teacher and Principal Survey (NTPS), Public School Teacher Data File, 2020–21. See Digest of Education Statistics 2022, table 209.50.

In 2020–21, overall and for teachers in each field of main teaching assignment, the majority of public school teachers of grades 9–12 were White (ranging from 62 to 86 percent). There was also variation by field of main assignment in the percentage of grade 9–12 teachers who were Asian (1 to 5 percent), Black (4 to 8 percent), and Hispanic (6 to 27 percent). For example, the percentage of grade 9–12 public school teachers who were Black was higher in both vocational/technical fields (8 percent) and special education (7 percent) than in English or language arts (5 percent), social sciences (4 percent), foreign languages (4 percent), and arts and music (4 percent) (source).

Peer Diversity

Figure 4. Percentage distribution of public elementary and secondary school students, by student's race/ethnicity and percentage of students of color enrolled in the school: Fall 2022

The data in this figure is described in the surrounding text.

NOTE: Data are for the 50 states and the District of Columbia. Students of color include those who are American Indian/Alaska Native, Asian, Black, Hispanic, Pacific Islander, and of Two or more races. Data reflect racial/ethnic data reported by schools. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. Figures are plotted based on unrounded data. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding in the data labels.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Common Core of Data (CCD), Public Elementary/Secondary School Universe Survey, 2022–23. See Digest of Education Statistics 2023, table 216.50.

In fall 2022, about 33 percent of all public elementary and secondary school students attended schools where students of color⁹ made up at least 75 percent of total enrollment. More than half of students from the following racial/ethnic groups attended public schools in which the combined enrollment of students of color was at least 75 percent of total enrollment:

Hispanic (60 percent)
Black (60 percent)
Pacific Islander (53 percent)

In addition, 43 percent of American Indian/Alaska Native students, 42 percent of Asian students, and 23 percent of students of Two or more races attended schools in which the combined enrollment of students of color was at least 75 percent of total enrollment. In contrast, 7 percent of White students attended such schools (source).

Figure 5. Percentage distribution of public elementary and secondary school students, by student's race/ethnicity and percentage of student's own racial/ethnic group enrolled in the school: Fall 2022

The data in this figure is described in the surrounding text.

NOTE: Data are for the 50 states and the District of Columbia. Data for Two or more races are omitted from this figure; 99 percent of students of Two or more races were enrolled in schools where less than 25 percent of the students were of Two or more races. Data reflect racial/ethnic data reported by schools. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. Figures are plotted based on unrounded data. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding in the data labels.

Compared with White students, a higher proportion of students of color attended schools in which the combined enrollment of students of color was at least 75 percent of total enrollment in fall 2022. This does not necessarily mean that students of color attended schools with many students of their own racial/ethnic group. In fall 2022, the percentages of students who attended schools that were mostly composed of their own racial/ethnic group (i.e., at least 75 percent) were¹⁰

42 percent for White students;
30 percent for Hispanic students;
21 percent for Black students;
18 percent for American Indian/Alaska Native students;
4 percent for Asian students; and
1 percent for Pacific Islander students.

It was less common for students from less populous racial/ethnic groups to attend schools with many peers of the same racial/ethnic group compared to students from more populous racial/ethnic groups. Specifically, more than half of students who were American Indian/Alaska Native, Asian, or Pacific Islander were enrolled in public schools in which less than 25 percent of the students were of their own race/ethnicity (source).

Figure 6. Percentage of public elementary and secondary school students enrolled in schools with 75 percent or more students of color, by student's race/ethnicity: Fall 2012 through Fall 2022

The data in this figure is described in the surrounding text.

NOTE: Data are for the 50 states and the District of Columbia. The term students of color is being used synonymously with non-White students in Digest table 216.50. Students of color include those who are American Indian/Alaska Native, Asian, Black, Hispanic, Pacific Islander, and of Two or more races. Data reflect racial/ethnic data reported by schools. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. Figures are plotted based on unrounded data.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Common Core of Data (CCD), Public Elementary/Secondary School Universe Survey, 2021–13 through 2022–23. See Digest of Education Statistics 2023, table 216.50, Digest of Education Statistics 2022, table 216.50, and Digest of Education Statistics 2016, table 216.50.

The percentage of all public school students who attended schools where students of color made up at least 75 percent of total enrollment increased by 5 percentage points (from 28 percent in fall 2012 to 33 percent in fall 2022). This increase in students attending schools where students of color made up at least 75 percent of total enrollment held for most student racial/ethnic groups. Specifically, from 2012 to 2022, the percentages of students who attended schools where students of color made up at least 75 percent of total enrollment increased for

American Indian/Alaska Native students by 8 percentage points (from 35 to 43 percent);
Asian students by 5 percentage points (from 37 to 42 percent);
students who were of Two or more races by 4 percentage points (from 19 to 23 percent);
Black students by 4 percentage points (from 56 to 60 percent); and
White students by 2 percentage points (from 5 to 7 percent).

The percentage of Pacific Islander students who attended schools where students of color made up at least 75 percent of total enrollment was 53 percent in fall 2022, compared with 54 percent in fall 2012 (54 percent). For Hispanic students, these percentages were 60 percent in both 2012 and 2022 (source, source, source).

Public School Students Eligible for Free or Reduced-Price Lunch (FRPL) by Race/Ethnicity

In the United States, the National School Lunch Program (NSLP) provides eligible students with free or reduced-price lunch (FRPL).¹¹ The percentage of students in a school who are eligible for FRPL can provide a substitute measure for the concentration of low-income students in the school.¹² In this Fast Fact, public schools (including both traditional and charter) are divided into categories by FRPL eligibility.¹³ Low-poverty schools are defined as public schools where 25.0 percent or less of the students are eligible for FRPL. Mid-low poverty schools are those where 25.1 to 50.0 percent of the students are eligible for FRPL. Mid-high poverty schools are those where 50.1 to 75.0 percent of the students are eligible for FRPL. High-poverty schools are those where more than 75.0 percent of the students are eligible for FRPL. In fall 2021, about 10.5 million students attended high-poverty schools.¹⁴

In fall 2021, the percentage of public school students in high-poverty schools was lower than the percentage in low-poverty schools (21 vs. 24 percent). This was a departure from the pattern observed for most years in the prior decade, when there were higher percentages of public school students in high-poverty schools than in low-poverty schools (source).¹⁵^,¹⁶

Figure 7. Percentage distribution of public school students for each racial/ethnic group, by school poverty level: Fall 2021

The data in this figure is described in the surrounding text.

NOTE: Data are for the 50 states and the District of Columbia. Low-poverty schools are defined as public schools where 25.0 percent or less of the students are eligible for free or reduced-price lunch (FRPL); mid-low poverty schools are those where 25.1 to 50.0 percent of the students are eligible for FRPL; mid-high poverty schools are those where 50.1 to 75.0 percent of the students are eligible for FRPL; and high-poverty schools are those where more than 75.0 percent of the students are eligible for FRPL. Data include students whose National School Lunch Program eligibility has been determined through direct certification, which is a process conducted by the states and by local educational agencies (LEAs) to certify eligible children for free meals without the need for household applications (https://www.fns.usda.gov/direct-certification-national-school-lunch-program-report-congress-state-implementation-progress-1). For more information on eligibility for FRPL and its relationship to poverty, see the NCES blog post Free or reduced price lunch: A proxy for poverty? The FRPL counts show large shifts in the last several years in some states. Based on state explanations, one reason for these changes was due to the Seamless Summer Option (beginning October 1, 2020), which allowed schools to provide meals to all students, regardless of demonstrated need (https://ies.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2023152). Data are missing for Alaska. Students in schools with missing FRPL data are not included in this figure. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. Detail does not sum to 100 percent because of rounding and because students in schools with missing FRPL data are not included in this figure. Although rounded numbers are displayed, the figures are based on unrounded data.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Common Core of Data (CCD), Public Elementary/Secondary School Universe Survey, 2021–22; and Education Demographic and Geographic Estimates (EDGE), Public School File, 2020–21. See Digest of Education Statistics 2022, table 216.60.

In fall 2021, the percentages of students in high- and low-poverty public schools varied by race/ethnicity. Compared with the national averages, higher percentages of Hispanic, Black, American Indian/Alaska Native, and Pacific Islander students attended high-poverty and mid-high¹⁷ poverty schools. The percentage of students who attended high-poverty schools was highest for Hispanic students (38 percent), followed by

Black students (37 percent);
American Indian/Alaska Native students (30 percent);
Pacific Islander students (23 percent);
students of Two or more races (15 percent);
Asian students (13 percent); and
White students (7 percent).

Conversely, the percentage of students who attended low-poverty schools was highest for Asian students (42 percent), followed by

White students (34 percent);
students of Two or more races (27 percent);
Pacific Islander students (16 percent);
American Indian/Alaska Native students (12 percent);
Hispanic students (12 percent); and
Black students (12 percent).

(source)

¹ For more information, see School Segregation and Integration and The Traditionally Black Institutions of Higher Education 1860 to 1982, pages 41 and 89. Or listen to United States Courts Brown v. Board of Education Podcast.
² See Justice Thurgood Marshall Profile - Brown v. Board of Education Re-enactment.
³ U.S. const. amend. XIV
⁴ See Briggs v. Elliott, 342 U.S. 350 (1952), Davis v. County School Board of Prince Edward County, 103 F. Supp. 337 (E.D. Va. 1952), Gebhart v. Belton, 91 A.2d 137 (1952), and Bolling v. Sharpe, 347 U.S. 497 (1954).
⁵ See Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, 347 U.S. 483 (1954).
⁶ The United States is defined as the 50 states and the District of Columbia in this Fast Fact.
⁷ Excludes teachers who teach only prekindergarten.
⁸ Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity.
⁹ Students of color include those who are American Indian/Alaska Native, Asian, Black, Hispanic, Pacific Islander, and of Two or more races.
¹⁰ Data for Two or more races are omitted from this discussion; 99 percent of students of Two or more races were enrolled in schools where less than 25 percent of the students were of Two or more races.
¹¹ Students in households with incomes under 185 percent of the poverty threshold are eligible for FRPL under the NSLP. In addition, some groups of children—such as foster children, children participating in the Head Start and Migrant Education programs, and children receiving services under the Runaway and Homeless Youth Act—are assumed to be categorically eligible to participate in the NSLP. Data include students whose NSLP eligibility has been determined through direct certification, which is a process conducted by the states and by local educational agencies (LEAs) to certify eligible children for free meals without the need for household applications (https://www.fns.usda.gov/direct-certification-national-school-lunch-program-report-congress-state-implementation-progress-1). Also, under the Community Eligibility Provision, some children in households with incomes above 185 percent of the poverty threshold who attend school in a low-income area may participate if the district decides that it would be more efficient to provide free lunch to all children in the school. For more information, see https://www.fns.usda.gov/nslp.
¹² For more information on eligibility for FRPL and its relationship to poverty, see the NCES blog post Free or reduced price lunch: A proxy for poverty?
¹³ In fall 2021, information on school poverty level was not available for around 4 percent of public school students. This included students attending schools for which information on FRPL was missing and students attending schools that did not participate in the NSLP.
¹⁴ Data are missing for Alaska.
¹⁵ Analysis of the prior decade does not include data for fall 2020.
¹⁶ The FRPL counts show large shifts in the last several years in some states. Based on state explanations, one reason for these changes was due to the Seamless Summer Option (beginning October 1, 2020), which allowed schools to provide meals to all students, regardless of demonstrated need (https://ies.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2023152).
¹⁷ Although the percentage of students of Two or more races who attended mid-high poverty schools was also higher than the national average (though both rounded to 22 percent), the percentage of students of Two or more races who attended high-poverty schools was lower than the national average.

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