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Grammar Book
Grammar Book
Construction and use of the Preterit* (Past ...Simple) Regular and Irregular Verbs The Present Perfect Differences between Present Perfect and ...Preterit* (Past Simple) Unit 1 Present The Present Perfect Continuous The verb to be and contractions For /Since / Ago The verb to have Present Simple 'Ever' / 'Never' The negative form verb to be, Present Expressions with the Present Perfect ...Simple Tags- short answers verb to be, Present The Preterit Continuous* (Past ...Continuous) ...Simple The Present Simple vs. Present Continuous Past Perfect Past Perfect Continuous The Present Continuous Used To The Affirmative Imperative The Negative Imperative Unit 3 Future Verbs without a continuous form Verbs without a continuous form: exceptions The Near Future be + -ing* (Present ...Continuous for Future) Always + Present Continuous The Future Will Future Continuous Will be doing The Future Will + To be going to Future Perfect Will have done The Future with be + Infinitive
Unit 4 Modals
Can ability and likelihood Can perception and knowledge Can, could, to be able to Should and Ought to: advice Should and Ought to: probability Must and have to Using must for obligation Strong probability using must Absence of necessity May and Might Shall Would like: expressing wishes Modal Auxiliaries Near certainty in the past: ...must have/ cant have
Unit 5 Questions
Questions without interrogative words Interrogative Words How long... Past Interrogatives Question Tags Which / What How long..(for)/ Since when' Short Questions Definite and Indefinite Articles The Plural Names of Countries: Capitals Countable and Uncountable Nouns Exclamations with what a Construction of Compound Nouns The use and omission of the Definite articles with geographical names Nouns without singular forms Negation of the indefinite article
Subject Pronouns Object Pronouns Possessive Pronouns Reflexive Pronouns No / None The Possessive More uses of the Possessive The Indefinite Possessive Use of Pronoun one Demonstrative Pronouns Here/ There Some and Any How much / How many As much as / As many as Some / Any: singular or plural? Eitheror Either. or / Neither .nor Everybody / Nobody Everybody / Somebody / Nobody Each other / One another Different meanings of all A little / A bit Use of both
Relative Pronouns and Adverbs That and Dependent Clauses When that may be left out To hope + Dependent Clause Possessive Adjectives Too / Too Much Placement of Enough Also / As well / Too Adverbs of Time / Frequency The Adverb that Yet / Not yet Still / Yet Compound Adjectives Adjectives ending in ing and ed Adjectives ending in ing The Past Participle as an adjective Adverbs of Degree Adverbs and Adjectives Uses of so The placement of even Even though / Even if Quite / Quite a few
Comparing equals using as..as Regular and Irregular Comparatives Regular and Irregular Superlatives The more . . . the more A use of the comparative Prepositions of Time Prepositions of Place Final Prepositions Verbs + prepositions Conjunctions Use of so to express a goal So that + may or can Similarity: like and as
Unit 11 Prepositions
Gerunds and Infinitives Use of be used to Use of get used to Verbs: Reactions and Preferences Verb + Infinitive Clause Verbs expressing a wish to act Expressions followed by the gerund Verbs introducing a second action
Unit 14 Conditionals
Unit 12 Conjunctions
Present Conditional* and Sequence ...of Tenses with if* (Zero, First, Second) The Perfect Conditional* (Third Conditional) The Perfect Conditional using should
Unit 16 Passive
Unit 20 Other
Unit 19 Expressions
To get + Adjective To look forward to Kind of followed by a noun To be likely To be left / To have left For the sake of Expressions with to have Baseball Expressions To be at stake Expressions of Increase
There is/are Time Have or make without to To let When / while + Present How + Adjective or Adverb Had better / Would rather Expressions of Preference Words ending in ever Whether Emphatic 'do Verbs expressing impressions ...and feelings I am told
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GRAMMAR BOOK
Present
Contraction of to be
Im Youre Hes / Shes / Its Were Theyre
Negative to be
I You He /She /It We They
Im not Youre not or You arent Hes / Shes / Its not or He / She / It isnt Were not or We arent
Negative contraction to be
Question
Am I? Is he/ she/ it? Are we / you / they?
Negative to have
Question
Examples
Examples
Examples
eClass English
Present Simple
We use the present simple for: things that are true in general things that happen sometimes or all the time to describe regular actions, events or habits
dont work dont work doesnt work dont work dont work
Examples
Examples
Examples
Also
do : does
go : goes
GRAMMAR BOOK
The negative form of the verb to be expresses the nonexistence, nonaction, or non occurrence of an action.
Structure The verb to be Examples
I You He /She /It We They am are is are are not not not not not (arent) (isnt)
Present Simple
Add : do not or dont does not or doesnt (I, you, we, they) (he, she, it)
They are not my friends. He is not my brother. I You He / She /It We They dont work. dont work. doesnt work. dont work. dont work.
When we answer a question with yes or no, it is usually followed by a tag which is a repetition of the verb to be or an auxiliary.
Am I a teacher? Are you a teacher? Is he a teacher? Is she a teacher? Are we teachers? Are they teachers?
The verb to be
Yes, you are. Yes, I am. Yes, he is. Yes, she is. Yes, we are. Yes, they are. Yes, you do. Yes, I do. Yes, he does. Yes, she does. Yes, we do. Yes, they do.
No, youre not. / you arent. No, Im not. No, hes not. / he isnt. No, shes not. / she isnt. No, were not. / we arent. No, theyre not. / they arent. No, you dont. No, I dont. No, he doesnt. No, she doesnt. No, we dont. No, they dont.
Present Simple
Do I like football? Do you like football? Does he like football? Does she like football? Do we like football? Do they like football?
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eClass English
The present simple describes a present condition, regular or general action; the present continuous describes the action that is currently taking place.
The Present Simple Use Examples
- Regular actions or events - When talking in general - Facts - Often used with adverbs of frequency sometimes, often, always, never etc. - The action is not happening at the time of speaking. I always eat eggs for breakfast. He often has English class. Banks lend money to make profits.
Catherine wants to work in Italy, so she is learning Italian. (but perhaps she isnt learning exactly at the time of speaking) He is having English class at the moment. Banks are lending more money (these days) to encourage businesses to expand.
Im eating.
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GRAMMAR BOOK
something is happening now / at the moment / currently Past Now Future Im working. Hes playing football. Theyre watching television.
Structure + Examples
I am He/she/it is We/you/they are
Question:
Im eating.
We are running.
It is raining.
Spelling
Verbs that end in e drop the e , add ing Make making, write writing, come coming, dance dancing Verbs that end in ie change to ying Lie lying, die dying, tie tying
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eClass English
You can use the imperative form to give an order, a warning or advice.
Affirmative Imperative
you (singular + plural) I, he, she, we, they
Structure
Infinitive without to
Examples
Let + object pronoun + infinitive without to Let + noun phrase + infinitive without to
Be Quiet! Walk down the street Let me check in the dictionary. Let Mark sit there. Lets (us) go to the beach. Let them do what they want.
The negative imperative form is used to give an order, warning or the advice to NOT perform a specific action.
Negative Imperative
you (singular + plural) I, he, she, we, they
Structure
Do not (dont) + Infinitive without to Do not (dont) let + object pronoun + infinitive without to Do not (dont) let + noun phrase + infinitive without to
Examples
Dont be quiet! Dont walk down the street Dont let me fall asleep. Dont let the children fall asleep.
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GRAMMAR BOOK
Some verbs are never or hardly ever used in continuous forms. Many of these non-continuous verbs refer to states rather than actions. Mental and emotional states
To believe
To doubt To feel (= have an opinion) To imagine To know To (dis)like To love To hate To prefer To recognize To remember To see (= understand) To suppose To think (= have an opinion) To understand To want To wish To realize To appear To hear To look (=seem) To see To seem To smell To sound To taste To agree To deny To impress To please To satisfy To mean To disagree
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eClass English
Certain verbs which do not normally take the continuous form may take it in some cases.
Verbs of perception
Stative verbs
Always is normally used with the simple present. However, sometimes it is used with the present continuous in these situations:
To express a repeated action which has an effect on the speaker. To talk about unexpected or unplanned events.
Use
Youre always running late! Compare: When Alice comes to see me, I always meet her at the station. (a regular, planned arrangement) Im always meeting Mrs. Jones at the supermarket. (accidental, unplanned meeting)
Example
15
2
begin break bring build buy catch come do drink eat
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GRAMMAR BOOK
For regular verbs add ed For regular verbs ending in y , drop the y , add ied I You He/she/it We They watched watched watched watched watched I You He/she/it We They didnt watch didnt watch didnt watch didnt watch didnt watch Did you watch? he/she/it we they
Regular Verbs:
Examples
Irregular Verbs: There is no rule for the construction of irregular verbs in the past, therefore you must memorize them. Here are some important irregular verbs:
began broke brought built bought caught came did drank ate fall find fly forget get give go have hear know fell found flew forgot got gave went had heard knew leave lose make meet pay put read ring say see left lost made met paid put read(red) rang said saw sell sit sleep speak stand take tell think win write sold sat slept spoke stood took told thought won wrote
eClass English
For the preterit (past simple) and past participle of regular verbs add -ed However, for irregular verbs there are no rules. You must memorize them.
Here are some common irregular verbs:
Irregular Verbs
Verb
Past Tense
was/were began caught chose did drank ate fell flew gave had
Past Participle
been begun caught chosen done drunk eaten fallen flown given had
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GRAMMAR BOOK
The Present Perfect is used to indicate actions that happened in a unfinished period of time.
Structure
Have Has I/you/we/they have He/she/it has + + past participle past participle past participle.? past participle?
Past Participles
go have take eat drink sing gone had taken eaten drunk sung
I/you/they/we + he/she/it +
Uses
Shows there is a connection with now. An action in the past has a result now.
Examples
Describes an action that started in the past and continues in the present. Shows that an action has recently happened. - (Just is used to show that something happened recently)
-Is Sally here? No, she has gone to the mall. (She is at the mall now.) -I have tried to learn French, but havent succeeded. -I have always studied a lot in university. -Ouch! I have (just) cut my finger. -The road is closed. There has (just) been an accident. -I have (just) finished a great book!
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eClass English
Examples
I saw three movies last week. (the action has finished in a specific time period in the past). I have seen three movies this week. (the week has not finished, so more actions in this time period may take place). Martin has crashed his car last year. Martin crashed his car again.
Past Simple To indicate old information Present Perfect When giving recent news Past Simple When the time of the action is clear Present Perfect When the time of action is not specific Past Simple For For is used in the past simple when we want to indicate the period of time that the action occurred but has already finished. Present Perfect For and since are used when we want to indicate the period of time that the action has been occurring, though the action has not finished yet.
I saw that movie on Thursday. (specific day) I have already seen that movie. (no specific day or date of the action) I lived in Victoria for five years.
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GRAMMAR BOOK
We use the Present Perfect Continuous to show that something started in the past and has continued up until this moment in the present.
Structure
rb ing been + ve rb ing have been + ve you/we/they has I/ ing .? He/she/it n + verb ing ? e bee I/you/they/w been + verb Have he/she/it Has
Uses
Describes an action that has recently stopped and has a connection with now. Describes an action that has been repeated over a certain amount of time.
Examples
-Paul is very tired. He has been working hard. -Why are your clothes so dirty? What have you been doing? -I have been learning English for three years. -She has been playing basketball since she was 6 years old. -They have been traveling to Europe every summer since 1995. It is raining now. It began raining two hours ago and it is still raining. How long has it been raining? It has been raining for two hours. We often use the present perfect continuous in this way, especially with How long, for and sinceThe activity is still happening (as in the example) or has just stopped.
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eClass English
Use
Examples
two hours 20 minutes five days six months
I have been studying English for 3 years. Since = the start of a period 8 oclock Monday 12 May April 1977 Christmas lunchtime they were at school
I have been studying English since 2000. Ago = expression of time + ago is usually used with the past tense six weeks ago a long time ago two days ago I studied English 5 years ago.
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GRAMMAR BOOK
Ever Never
Structure
Question Ever Used in present simple and present perfect Auxiliary + subject + ever + main verb Affirmative Ever Used with if or superlative Negative Negative Never + verb in affirmative
Examples
Do you ever play tennis? Have you ever been to Argentina? Shes the nicest person Ive ever met. (superlative) Visit the Eiffel Tower if you ever go to Paris. (if) I never drink and drive. Ive never been to Argentina.
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eClass English
The Present Perfect is used to indicate unfinished past actions, past actions when the time is not specified, and when a past action is relevant now.
Structure + Use
We can use these expressions with the present perfect: Today All day This week This year Already Just Yet Lately Recently In the last two months All my life So far Ever Never They refer to a period of time that is not yet over or is recent. We cannot use these expressions with the present perfect: Two months ago One year ago Last week Yesterday When I was a child They refer to a time in the past that is over.
Examples
Hes been in a bad mood all day. Ive visited my grandmother 2 times this week. Ive just started the class. I havent studied in the last two months. I havent heard about it so far.
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GRAMMAR BOOK
Sarah 4 Oclock
Sarah 6 Oclock
Its 6 oclock now. Sarah is at home. She is watching television. At 4 oclock she wasnt at home. She was playing tennis.
Positive
she/it was + verb ing
Negative
I/he/she/it was not (wasnt) + verb ing
Question
Was I/he/she/it + verb ing?
We/you/they were + verb -ing We/you/they were not (werent) + verb -ing Were we/you/they + verb-ing? It was raining. It wasnt raining. Was it raining?
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eClass English
Use
1. To express an action completed before a given time in the past. 2. A state or action beginning in the past continuing until some later time in the past.
I had never seen a movie before then. They had been friends for ten years when he left.
Examples
10 9 8
11 12 1 7 6 5
3 4
Bye
10 9 8
11 12 1 7 6 5
3 4
Paul
Sarah
Sarah went to a party last week. Paul went to the party too, but they didnt see each other. Paul went home at 10:30 and Sarah arrived at 11 oclock. So: When Sarah arrived at the party, Paul wasnt there. He had gone home.
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GRAMMAR BOOK
The Past Perfect Continuous is used for actions that were unfinished when another action took place.
Structure
+ +
(studying, working, listening, etc.) (sleeping, reading, eating, etc.) (helping, playing, talking, etc.)
had not been + verb-ing had not been + verb-ing been + verb ing .? been + verb ing ?
To show that something started in the past and continued up until the moment that something else happened. To show cause and effect.
Uses
Examples
Mary had been talking with John for 15 minutes until Lindsey arrived. Jason was tired because he had been jogging.
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eClass English
Used To
Structure + Use
I/you/he/she/it/we/you/they + to be + used to + verb + ing+ object. Is used for expressing habits or things which you are comfortable with or accustomed to. For expressing a point in the process of becoming accustomed to something. For expressing actions that were habitual in the past and implies that the action no longer takes place. In this sense it is used as a modal auxiliary.
Examples
I am used to reading before going to sleep. I have gotten used to walking to work. I used to eat seafood, but now I prefer meat.
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GRAMMAR BOOK
Future
for the future (tomorrow / next week) eating eating eating eating eating for fixed future arrangements
The present continuous for future indicates that a specific action will be taking place at a specific time in the future.
Structure
To be + verb-ing
Will
eClass English
Use
This is used to say you will be in the middle of doing something. It is used to talk about complete actions in the future.
The football games at 7:30 and ends at 9:15. At 8:15, Kevin will be watching the game. Q: If you see Sally, can you ask her to call me? A: Sure, Ill be seeing her this evening, so Ill tell her then.
Examples
Structure
Use
Examples
When we make a decision in the Its cold in here. moment of speaking. Ill close the window
To be + going to + infinitive I am (not) going to + verb Future plans and intention I am going to meet Jill for lunch today. (infinitive without to) (Ive decided to do something, my intention is to do it) He is not going to finish the project on time.
We also use to be going to when there is evidence in the present that something is going to happen in the future. It is clear now that it is sure to happen.
Example:
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GRAMMAR BOOK
Use
Examples
You will have perfected your English by the time you come back from the USA. By Monday, Susan will have had my book for a month.
Examples
Were to see them tomorrow. I was to become a priest. (but I didnt) Whats to be done? Youre not to read that letter. The medicine is to be taken twice a day.
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Can ability - to be able to do something. Example: He can carry the bag. Can likelihood / possibility Example: Sometimes when the weather is bad it can rain. ( It is possible that this happens.) It cant be true. (I certainly is not true, there is no possibility that it is true.)
Structure Use
Modals
eClass English
Examples
g. 30 K
Structure Question
Can +
verb
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GRAMMAR BOOK
Use
Structure Question
Can +
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eClass English
nguages. n speak 5 laery well. I ca gv He cant sin e piano. Can ould play thecause I was sick. a child I c Cant When I was o to class yesterday b I couldnt g uld Co blem. She out your pro nt ne ab Could Ask Catheri le to help you. might be ab be able to To you later. to meet with ve early because I will be able e able to lea . b They wont finish their homework be able to be able to Will ) they have to ill not (wont W
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GRAMMAR BOOK
Should / ought to =
I, you, we, they + should (not) + he, she, it Examples: Its a good film. You should go and see it. Tom shouldnt go to bed so late. I, you, we, they + ought (not) to + he, she, it Examples: Carol ought to buy some new clothes. You ought not to eat so much.
infinitive without to
infinitive without to
should or ought to +
We should have gone to the mountains. They ought to have invited her.
Use
To show something that is desirable or probable Implies an expectation or assumption
Example
The train should arrive soon.
eClass English
Example
Mustnt = an obligation to NOT do something. You must not do it. Must not
Structure
I, you, we, they + mustnt + infinitive without to He, she, it + mustnt + infinitive without to
Example
NO
SM
OK
ING
Example
Example
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GRAMMAR BOOK
I, you, we, they + mustnt + infinitive without to He, she, it + mustnt + infinitive without to
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eClass English
Structure
Subject + must + verb (infinitive without to) Negative: Subject + cannot + verb (infinitive without to) Subject + cant + verb (infinitive without to)
Example
You must be Mr. Brown. My sister has told me all about you. You cant be Maggies mother; youre not old enough!
: The past form is ast participle must + have + p ty in the past. sses near certaingone out. It expre st have Example: He mu
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GRAMMAR BOOK
To say it is not necessary to do something or it is optional you can use neednt and dont have to. It shows an absence of necessity.
Absence of necessity
Structure
Subject + neednt + infinitive without to Subject + dont / doesnt need to + infinitive without to This expresses the opinion of the speaker. Subject + dont / doesnt have to + infinitive without to This can imply the speakers opinion or not.
Examples
You neednt bring your bike; its not that far. You dont need to bring your bike. You dont have to do your homework.
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eClass English
To say it is not necessary to do something or it is optional you can use neednt and dont have to. It shows an absence of necessity.
May I, you, etc. + may + verb (infinitive To say that something may not without to) is about 50% possible. Might I, you, etc. + might + verb (infinitive To say that something might not without to) is less than 50% possible.
Use
Examples
I may go to the cinema later. He may call her. He might have a meeting. He might know.
The uses of may and might above are to talk about the present or future. These other structures are also possible. may/might + be + verb ing to talk about present or future I may be working at that time. He might be having lunch. may/might + have + past participle to talk about uncertain events in the past
She may have been asleep. She might have left it in the shop.
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GRAMMAR BOOK
In British English, shall can be used for will to express the future. In American English, it is not often used. Use shall with I/ we I shall be late tomorrow. ( I will be late) Shall we go to the museum later?
Shall
This is stronger and more formal than other modals of obligation (must, have to). It is used in legal texts and official rules.
Examples: 1. The insurance holder shall pay back the full amount within three years. 2. Students shall not play loud music after 10PM.
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eClass English
A modal auxiliary is a verb used with other verbs to express mood or tense. When a modal is used, the following verb is in the infinitive minus to form.
Modal
Can
Modal Auxiliaries
Use
Ability Negative: cannot / cant Past: could Future: will be able to Permission Possible actions now or in the future. (to make suggestions) Permission To say that something is about 50% possible. Permission To say that something is less than 50% possible. Obligation Negative: mustnt Deduction Negative: cant
Example
Can I leave the room? When you go to New York you could stay with Jane. Could I open the window? I may go to the cinema later. May I open the window? He might have a meeting. You must go to the bank You mustnt go to the bank. Youve been travelling all day, you must be tired. Youve been sleeping all day, you cant be tired.
Possibility in the past. Something you could have done but did not do / did not attempt to do. To say that it is possible that something happened or was true in the past. To say that it is possible that something happened or was true in the past. BUT did not happen.
I could have studied Architecture in university. Pollys very late. She may have missed her train. You were stupid to try climbing up there. You might have killed yourself.
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GRAMMAR BOOK
When we are unsure of occurrences in the past, we can use these expressions to indicate an assumption of the event that probably took place in a past moment.
Structure
Use
subject + cant have + past participle Example: I saw John in the pub. He cant have been sick.
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Questions
Questions without interrogative words
The Verb to be To be + subject Am I? Are you? Is he / she / it? Are we? Are they?
eClass English
Examples
Are you married? Is John a policeman?
Present Simple Do + subject + verb Does Do you / we / they? Does he / she / it? Does he study English? Do they have television?
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GRAMMAR BOOK
Interrogative words are used to ask very specific questions related to the person, place, reason, etc. that an action occurs.
Interrogative Words
Interrogative word
Who Which What How Why Where When Whose
refers to people refers to people or things when there is a choice refers to things refers to manner or means asks about reason refers to location refers to time or date refers to possession
Use
Example
Who is he? Who do you know? Which do you prefer tea or coffe What sport do you play? anner) How do you spell your name? (m) How do you go to work? (means Why dont you like her? Where is the museum? When does the store open? When do you leave? Whose pen is this? e?
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eClass English
How long
How long
Structure
How long is your vacation? How long are the books? How long do you take to eat breakfast? How long does it take to get to work?
Example
Beginner level should only study the two structures above. Below are some examples of how long with other tenses.
How long + preterit (past simple) How long + present perfect How long + present perfect continuous
How long + did + subject + verb How long did you spend in Italy? How long + have / has + subject + past participle How long + have / has + subject + been+ gerund How long have you had that car? How long have you been studying English?
Structure
Example
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GRAMMAR BOOK
Past Interrogatives
The verb to be
was
Where was Ann yesterday? Was the weather good? Were they expensive?
were
Did
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eClass English
Question tags are mini-questions placed at the end of a sentence. A positive sentence A negative sentence
Examples
The verb to be Youre a doctor, arent you? He is not here today, is he? Present Simple They work together, dont they? She doesnt eat meat, does she? Present Continuous He is studying English, isnt he? Youre not meeting Jim, are you? Preterit/ Past Simple He went on vacation, didnt he? They didnt work yesterday, did they?
Questions Tags
Question tags can be formed for all tenses. Your teacher will give you examples for the tenses you have learned so far. The meaning of a question tag depends on how you say it. If your voice Goes down
Its a beautiful day, isnt it? Yes, lovely.
You arent really asking a question; you are only inviting the listener to agree with you. Example: Its a beautiful day, isnt it? Yes, lovely.
Goes up
You are asking a real question. Example: You didnt see Mary, did you? No, Im afraid not.
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GRAMMAR BOOK
Which / What
Which, What = both are used for choices. They are often used interchangeably.
What - a choice between or among things. (usually objects) Which a choice between or among a limited number of things/possibilities (usually objects and people)
What books do you prefer? What kind of services do you want? Which do you prefer: romance novels or science fiction? Which of these shirts is yours?
Examples
Q: How long have you been waiting for? A: I have been waiting for over an hour.
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eClass English
In informal everyday and professional situations, you may use short questions.
Short Questions
You can only use them when the context has been clearly established.
They ask for feedback, check understanding, ask for clarification, ask for advice / suggestions, make requests and verify agreement.
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GRAMMAR BOOK
An article is a word that is combined with a noun to indicate the type of reference being made by the noun. A definite article indicates that its noun is a particular one. An indefinite article indicates that its noun is not yet a particular one.
Language Use Example
He is a teacher.
He is the teacher.
Sprache
is used before words that begin I am a man. with consonants. is used before words that begin This is an orange. with vowels (a,e,i,o,u) or vowels sounds Its an honor.
Use
Example
Exceptions:
an hour (h is not pronounced: an (h)our) a university (pronounced yuniversity) a European country (pronounced yeuropean)
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eClass English
The Plural
Plural rules
Examples
s a flower a book two flowers two books
es
bus : buses dish : dishes box : boxes church : churches Also: potato : potatoes tomato: tomatoes
For nouns ending in: y but ay / ey / oy For nouns ending in: f / fe ves shelf : shelves wife: wives man woman foot child person men women feet children people ies ys baby : babies day : days party : parties monkey: monkeys
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GRAMMAR BOOK
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eClass English
A noun can be
countable
Countable nouns
oder
uncountable
(a) car (a) man (a) house (an) idea I have a car. I have two cars.
You can use one/two/three etc. + countable nouns. (you can count them) Countable nouns can be singular or plural.
Examples
Uncountable nouns
You cannot say one/two/three etc. Uncountable nouns only have one form. You cannot use a/ an + uncountable nouns.
Examples
water rice money salt music I have money. I have some money.
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GRAMMAR BOOK
There are not many rules for joining compound nouns. You must check a dictionary for the correct form. 1. The two words are joined together. Example: tooth + paste = toothpaste | bed + room = bedroom 2. They are joined using a hyphen. Example: check-in 3. They appear as two separate words. Example: full moon Other Examples: ski boots, alarm clock , housework, great-grandfather
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eClass English
The
We use the before plural nouns or uncountable nouns when we are thinking of one particular thing. When we are talking about things or people in general, we do not use the. We do not use the with names of people, countries, continents, states, regions, islands, cities, mountains. But we do use the in names with Republic, Kingdom, States, oceans, seas, rivers and canals.
Use
Examples
Tom sat down on a chair. (perhaps one of many chairs) Tom sat on the chair nearest the door. (a particular chair) Im afraid of dogs. (not the dogs) Children learn a lot from playing. (children in general) I visited Europe last year. (not the Europe) I live in the USA. She is from the Republic of Ireland. The Atlantic Ocean is very big.
No the
No the
The
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GRAMMAR BOOK
Use
Singular name of a country, continent or region. Exceptions: the Sahara, the Congo, the South Pole.
Examples
The
The
The
No the
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eClass English
When used as a countable noun, use pair of Some collective nouns Clothes, goods, people, cattle, police, savings
Examples
I havent got a pen./ I dont have a pen. There arent any buses here. It doesnt require any equipment.
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Subject Pronouns
s
Object Pronouns
Object Pronouns
(subject pronoun) I You He She It We They (object pronoun) me you him her it us them
Examples
Ann knows me. Ann knows you. Ann knows him. Ann knows her. Ann knows it. Ann knows us. Ann knows them.
Use
We use:
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Possessive Pronouns
Mine Ours Yours His Hers Theirs
We use my/your etc. + a noun My hands are cold. We use mine/yours etc. without a noun Is this book mine or yours? Possessive pronouns show possession and answer the question whose.
Reflexive Pronouns
I You He She It We You They
Reflexive Pronouns
Use
We use reflexive pronouns when the subject and object of a sentence are the same person or non-person.
Examples
I talk to myself when I am nervous. We blame ourselves for the results of the test. It saw itself in the mirror.
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No / None
No
No + noun When we want to exclude all possibilities. When no part of something is left. When none exists, not even a group of people or a small amount of something.
Use Use
- We have no bread. - There were no problems. - Do you have any more pie? No, sorry, I have none. - When she returned to the office, none of us recognized her with her new haircut.
Examples Examples
None
None
The Possessive
To show possession for people, countries, groups and institutions we use s
Examples: It is Johns birthday. (not the birthday of John) Its my mothers umbrella. Chiles economy is doing well.
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Durations Distances
Structure
determiner + noun + of + possessive (s) determiner + noun + of + possessive (mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs)
Examples
I met a friend of Lucys. Have you heard this new idea of your bosss? ( a, this = determiners) Hows that brother of yours? Peter is a cousin of mine. ( a, that = determiners)
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Would you like one? = Would you like a chocolate? One = a /an (a chocolate / an apple etc.)
This one
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that
these
those
Refers to an object or person near the speaker Examples: Is this Johns house? This is a nice surprise!
Refers to an object or person further away Examples: Who owns that house? Thats nothing to do with me.
Position
a) Before a noun. b) Before the word one. c) Before an adjective + noun. d) Alone when the noun is understood.
Examples:
This car looks cleaner than that car. This one is more expensive. Do you remember that wonderful day in June? Ill never forget this.
Here / There
Here is used for something that is near to us. Here is the money (in my hand). There is used for something that is far from us. There is the bank, about 2 blocks away.
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Some / Any
Use some / any to describe an undetermined quantity. Use with both countable and uncountable nouns. Some: in positive sentences, offers and requests. I have got some money. Would you like some water? (offer) Can I have some bread? (request)
I have some money.
$
Any: to express total Feel free to ask questions at any time. permission, possibility, or restriction. Any of these designs are fine. Any: to express possibility or indifference.
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Use a lot of with mass and count nouns in positive sentences, negative sentences and questions. Use much with mass nouns in negative sentences and in questions. Use many with count nouns in negative sentences, positive sentences and in questions.
Ann has a lot of meetings. I have a lot of work to do. Ann doesnt have much time to see New York. How much coffee did you drink? I dont have many classes today. Did many people come to the party?
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As much as / As many as
To compare two things that are the same. as much as Use with: singular, uncountable nouns not as much as as many as not as many as plural, countable nouns Examples: You have as much money as I do. (= the same amount) You dont have as much money as I do. There are as many parks in Santiago as there are in Buenos Aires. There arent as many parks in Santiago as there are in Buenos Aires.
We can use as much as + as many as without a noun also. Here the comparative refers to the previous clause or an implied or previously stated noun. Its twice as much as the rent. (=Its twice as much money as the rent)
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Eitheror
A negative clause must never contain more than one negation. So, we use either after a negative verb. Either is always placed at the end of a clause. It means too / as well Im not happy. Im not happy either. (not Im not too)
Im not happy.
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Example
I want either fruit juice or coffee. Either you come to class or you do the work at home.
? or ?
Either Neither..nor neither (not + either) To exclude 2 things
I can neither read nor write French. Shes neither nice nor helpful.
Everybody / Nobody
singular
singular
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r verbs. owed by singula is in the plural. nobody are foll y, somebody,llowed by a question tag, the tag Everybod ey are fo However, if th s Everybody needey? r singula friends, dont th y (everyone) Everybod (all the people) one) Somebody (some singular now who) singular dont k a person but we ( Nobody (no one) s go Somebody hantto ey? shopping, do th ows, Nobody really kn they? do
Mike. (no people) ple: Nobody likes form. Exam rb in the positive Nobody + ve
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John and Paul looked at each other. (= John looked at Paul / Paul looked at John)
Each other and one another can be used in the possessive. They took each others hands. We often meet at one anothers places. Formerly, it was said that each other was used for a relationship between two subjects whereas one another was used for a relationship between more than two subjects. Today, however, most do not observe this distinction. Maria and Jorge love each other. (Two subjects) The children are sitting opposite one another. (More than two subjects)
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All = all of something limited. It is used with uncountable or plural countable nouns.
All + noun All (of) + the this/that/these/those (demonstrative) my/your etc. (possessive adjective)
All cities have the same problem. All the children at this school are tall. All these books are mine. I have spent all my money. Have you read these books? Ive read them all. Ive read all of them. The girls all left. We will all have some juice. They are all ready to go.
Personal Pronouns personal pronoun + all all of + personal pronoun with Subject Pronouns Subject (pronoun) + all + simple verb Subject (pronoun) + modal auxiliary / to be + all
With a singular countable noun = every Every student in the class passed the exam. Every country has a national flag.
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A little / A bit
Structure
A little
Use with uncountable nouns. It can also replace the noun to avoid repetition. Use with uncountable nouns. Adverb of degree.
Use
We want a little fresh air. Do you want some coffee? A little, please. We want a bit of fresh air. Were a little busy today. This tooth aches a little.
Examples
A bit of A little A little + adjective Verb + a little Little (negative connotation) A bit A few Few (negative connotation)
Use with countable nouns. Often replaces a little as an adverb. Use with countable nouns. It can also replace the noun to avoid repetition. Use with countable nouns.
I have little time to finish the report. Can you drive a bit slower? I have a few books I can lend you. How many science fiction novels do you have? A few. I am lonely. I have few friends.
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Use of both
Both of them are my sisters. She has invited both of us. She has invited us both. We have both gone to the beach. We both want to go.
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Relative pronouns are used in relative clauses. A clause is part of a sentence. A relative clause tells us which person or thing the speaker means. The woman who lives next door is a doctor. relative clause A relative clause joins two sentences: I met a woman. She speaks two languages. she who I met a woman who speaks two languages.
WHO people I know a lot of people who live in London. THAT things or people The man that lives next door is very friendly. Barbara works for a company that makes computers. WHICH things Emma lives in a house which is 500 years old. WHOSE possession (instead of his/her/their etc.) A widow is a woman whose husband is dead. WHERE a place That is the hotel where Tom got married. WHOM people (but when it is the object of the verb in the relative clause) The woman whom I wanted to see was away on holiday. ( I wanted to see her)
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The relative clause tells you which person or thing The relative clause does not tell you which person the speaker means. or thing the speaker means. (We already know which thing or person is meant.) This is extra information about the person or thing. We do NOT use commas. We use commas.
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A dependent clause cannot stand alone as a sentence. It is usually attached to an independent clause. When the main clause is in the preterit, the dependent clause (introduced by that or a relative pronoun) is also in the preterit. If it is in the present, then the dependent clause is in the present also. Reported Speech
When that is used in reported speech, the dependent clause should follow the rule of agreement. (see reported speech)
That is used as a relative pronoun in relative clauses. When the relative pronoun is an object pronoun it can be omitted in a defining relative clause*.
*see relative pronouns and adverbs for an explanation on the difference between a defining and non-defining clauses.
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Reported speech
After many reporting verbs that can be left out. Examples: said, thought, suggested However, that cannot be dropped after certain verbs Examples: replied, shouted, disagreed
James said (that) he was feeling better. James replied that he was feeling better. Im glad (that) youre all right. Come in quietly so (that) she doesnt hear you. I was having such a nice time (that) I didnt want to leave.
In that clauses after some adjectives, that can be left out. That can be left out in an informal style in some common two-word conjunctions such as: so that suchthat now that providing that provided that supposing that considering that assuming that
Relative structures
Leave out the relative pronoun that when it is the object in a relative clause. *See that + dependent clauses
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Structuree
To hope + future mple To hope + present si (refers to the future)
Examples
She hopes hell come. any problems getting home. I hope you wont have all right. He hopes the traffic is too cold. I hope the water is not
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A possessive adjective is used with a noun to indicate possession, ownership or close relationship.
Examples
We use: I like my job. You like your job. He likes his job She likes her job. It likes its food. (The dog) We like our jobs. They like their jobs.
Use
possessive adjective + a noun to show possession
my hat
our hats
your hat
her hat
their hats
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Structure
Too + adjective/adverb
Examples
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Placement of Enough
Enough = sufficient, adequate He cant reach the shelf. Hes not tall enough.
Structure
After adjectives and adverbs Before nouns and noun phrases After verbs (including past participles) Im not tall enough. You drive fast enough. There isnt enough time. He doesnt work enough. Ive eaten enough.
Examples
Also
At the end of a sentence I have a dog as well. She studies English as well. She is tall as well. We are Chinese as well.
As well
At the end of a clause or for emphasis (with commas) I have a dog too. I, too, have a dog. She studies English too. She, too, studies English. She is tall too. She, too, is tall. We are Chinese too. We, too, are Chinese.
Too
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An adverb modifies a verb. It helps to tell how, when or where the action took place.
To make an adverb: Adjective + ly Examples: Accidently Quickly Angrily Safely Badly
Adverbs
Exceptions and Irregular adverbs: These are some words that are adjectives and adverbs: hard, fast, late, early Good (adjective) well (adverb) Your English is very good. You speak English very well. Spelling Rules -If the adjective ends in /y/ add ily Easy Easily, Heavy Heavily -If the adjective ends in /e/, we keep /e/ before the /ly/ Polite Politely, Extreme Extremely -If the adjective end in /le/, we do not keep the /e/ before the /ly/ Simply Simply, Terrible Terribly
Adverbs of time or frequency are adverbs that tell us how often we do something. How often do you go to the mall? I sometimes go to the mall.
never seldom/rarely sometimes* often usually aways 0% Before a verb 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Adverb placement
Examples
I never go to the mall. I always play basketball on the weekends. She often practices English.
After verb to be
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I am always tired. She is usually late for English class. *Sometimes can also go before the subject.
eClass English
Structure
Use
Example
Are you that afraid? I had no idea I was that far from home.
Adverbs of manner tell us how something happens or how somebody does something. They are usually placed after the main verb or after the object.
Examples: The train stopped suddenly. I opened the door slowly.
Adverbs of Manner
Adjective
-Sue is very quiet. -It was a bad game. (Describes the game which is a noun) -I am nervous.
-Sue speaks very quietly. (Not speaks very quiet) -Our team played badly. (Describes how the team played) -I waited nervously.
Adverb
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They are still waiting for Bill. Bill hasnt come yet. Examples Where is Diane? She isnt here yet. Are you ready to go yet? No, not yet..
Yet
Use Use in negative sentences and questions Yet is usually at the end of a sentence.
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Still / Yet
An hour ago it was raining. It is still raining now. Example: I had a lot to eat but Im still hungry. (= I was hungry before and Im hungry now)
Twenty minutes ago they were waiting for Bill. Yet Use Use in negative sentences and questions Yet is usually at the end of a sentence.
They are still waiting for Bill. Bill hasnt come yet. Examples Where is Diane? She isnt here yet. Are you ready to go yet? Not yet.
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Compound Adjectives
A compound adjective is formed when two or more adjectives work together to modify the same noun. The second part of the compound adjective may be: An adjective A present participle A past participle A noun + ed Irregular (Do not follow the structures above) ice-cold heartbreaking well-deserved old-fashioned second-hand
HEART BREAKING
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Use
When the adjective ends in ing, it means that the particular person or thing causes a particular effect. When the adjective ends in ed, it means that the particular person or thing experiences a particular effect.
Examples
Ending in ed
Use
Examples
Adjectives ending in ing Tells you about the situation Examples: My job is boring. The news was shocking. It was surprising that he passed the exam.
Adjectives ending in ed Tells you how somebody feels. Examples: Im bored with my job. We were shocked when we heard the news. Everyone was surprised that he passed the exam.
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Some past participles can be used as adjectives. Regular Verbs add ed or d Examples: worked, finished, boiled Irregular Verbs No general rules
Examples: That is a broken cup. We are visiting the forgotten city of the Incas.
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Describe the strength or intensity of something that happens. Many adverbs are gradable, which means we can intensify them. They answer these questions: How much ..? or How little...?
Highest Intensity totally completely entirely thoroughly absolutely definitely positively +++ almost very extremely really quite practically ++ somewhat somehow fairly rather kind of Lowest Intensity hardly scarcely barely
Adverbs of Degree
Use / Structure
Place the adverb before the adjective or adverb they are modifying Place the adverb before the main verb Examples: Im really enjoying working on this project. The exam was fairly easy. He has barely worked this year.
Example
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Adverbs are used to modify nouns, verbs, adjectives or other adverbs. This way we can indicate how things are done. Refer to the chart below for examples:
Adverb
Adjective
Other uses
) deeply (feeling ) directly (=soonm) hardly (=seldove) highly (figuratitly) lately (=recen lly) mostly (=usuast) nearly (=almo prettily ) shortly (=soon
good difficult public deep direct hard high late most near pretty short
little, r, fast, hourly, early, fa daily, enough,nthly, much, straight, o es are long, low, mrly, owing adjectivs The foll as adverb weekly, yea sed also u tion) rmation ithout modifica (w give extra info o used to adverbs are tialss (or other adverbs). about adjec ve
well with difficulty publicly deep (place) direct hard high (place) late most near pretty (=rather) short
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Uses of so
Structure + Examples
So + adjective or adverb = an exclamation Youre so kind! Dont be so sensitive! that clauses sothat It was so cold that we stopped playing. (not It was very cold that we stopped playing) He was driving so fast that he went through a red light. Substitute word So can be used in some structures instead of repeating an adjective or adverb. The weather is stormy and will remain so over the weekend. We thank you for flying with us and hope youll do so again.
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Use
Example Tina loves watching television. She has a TV set in every room of the house, even the bathroom.
Use
We can use even + a comparative (cheaper / more expensive) Example I got up very early, but John got up even earlier.
Position of even
Even + nominal group* / pronoun + verb Even my sister will be there. Even you can come. Auxiliary + even + verb I dont even know you. I have even invited John. *A nominal group typically comprises a noun surrounded by other words that all in some way characterize that noun.
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Even if and even though mean basically the same thing: although. They have the following distinct meanings:
Structure
Even though
Even though youre my friend, I cant trust you. Even though she tried her best, she fell twice. Even if you were my friend, I wouldnt trust you. He wont transfer to Africa, even if they double his salary.
Examples
Even if
Something hypothetical or theoretical. A contradiction of some hypotheses. All conditional forms can be used.
Examples
Quite a few = modifies plural nouns to indicate large quantities. Example: I have quite a few letters for you. Quite also means completely. Example: Are you sure? Yes, quite sure. (= completely sure) With theses adjectives, quite means completely: sure right true clear different incredible amazing certain wrong safe obvious unnecessary extraordinary impossible
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40
KG
old older heavy
50
KG
heavier
Comparatives are used to compare two things. You can use sentences with than, or you can use a conjunction like but.
1 syllable adjectives old add -er older My brother is older than my sister. English is easier than Russian. Helen is more beautiful than Jane.
2 syllable adjectives ending in y add -ier easy easier 2 or more syllables beautiful add more (before the adjective) more beautiful
Spelling Rules
Example:
Words with one syllable ending with a vowel and a consonant at the end. (Double the consonant.)
hot
hotter
big
bigger
fat
fatter
Irregular Comparatives
good bad far much/many little
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Box A is bigger than Box B. Box A is bigger than all the other boxes. Box A is the biggest box. Superlatives are used to compare more than two things. Superlative sentences usually use the, because there is only one superlative.
1 syllable adjectives old 2 syllable adjectives ending in y easy 2 or more syllables beautiful add the -est the oldest add the -iest the easiest add the most (before the adjective) the most beautiful Helen is the most beautiful in her family. English is the easiest language to learn. My brother is the oldest of my siblings.
Spelling Rules
Example: hot hottest good bad far much/many little
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Words with one syllable ending with a vowel and a consonant at the end double the consonant. big biggest the best the worst the farthest/ the furthest the most the least fat fattest
Irregular Superlatives
eClass English
Examples
Use
Sometimes a comparative may express an opposition between 2 elements without actually stating both elements (the second element is implied)
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Prepositions
Time
A preposition of time connects words in a sentence showing the relationship of a noun and the moment/day/time/date of the action. Preposition
At
Prepositions of Time
Use
Example
On
In
MT W TFSS
1 8 15 22 29 2 3 9 10 16 17 May 23 24 30 31 4 11 18 25 5 12 19 26 6 13 20 27 7 14 21 28
By
Fixed expressions:
in the morning, in the afternoon, in the evening But on Monday morning, on Tuesday afternoon etc. At the weekend (British) / On the weekend (American) At night At the moment
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A preposition of place connects words in a sentence showing the relationship of a noun and the location/area/position/surface of an object. At General location Precise point in larger space
at the corner at the bus stop at the door at the front desk
Prepositions of Place
On Surface
on
above
over
in front of
beside
behind
under
below
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Final Preposition
A final preposition is a word which comes after the verb and requests the results between the action performed and the subject or object of the sentence.
Verb + preposition
Some verbs are commonly followed by a preposition in order to indicate a common action. Examples: Listen to Look at Look for (search for, try to find) Look after (take care of) Talk about Talk to Worry about Pay for Depend on Complain about Go to Go for Go on Go in
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And Yet
Conjunctions
Examples:
Karen sent in her applications and waited by the phone for a response. Kevin heard the weather report and packed his camping gear. Juan is brilliant, and Sandra has a pleasant personality. Melipilla is a beautiful town and suffers from severe pollution. Use your credit cards frequently, and youll soon find yourself deep in debt. My lazy friend Charlie failed the math test and that didnt surprise anyone. She is a simple, yet very intelligent woman.
eClass English
A conjunction is a word that joins the words in a sentence to each other in order to send a logical message. It literally connects parts of a sentence.
Frequently Used Conjunctions:
- To suggest that one idea is chronologically sequential to another. -To suggest that one idea is the result of another. - To suggest that one idea is in contrast to another. -To suggest an element of surprise. -To suggest that one clause is dependent upon another, conditionally. -To suggest a kind of comment on the first clause. -To suggest addition, more of something. -Despite, even though -To indicate that something can eventually occur.
Conjunctions
The story is unbelievable, yet supposedly its all true. They may yet win the game.
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Nor
-Used with neither for negative sentences. -Used with other negative expressions.
He is neither young nor ambitious. That is not what I meant, nor should you misinterpret my statement. Joey lost his job last year, but he still seems able to live quite comfortably. The students never studied for the test, but used their notes to work on the assignment in class. Everybody but Mark is trying out for the team.
But
- To suggest a contrast that is unexpected based on the first clause. - To suggest in an affirmative sense what the first part of the sentence implied in a negative way. - To use with the meaning of with the exception of.
Or
- To suggest that only one possibility can be achieved, excluding one or the other. - To suggest the inclusive combination of alternatives. - To suggest a refinement of the first clause. - To suggest a restatement or correction of the first part of the sentence. - To suggest a negative condition. - To suggest a negative alternative without the use of an imperative.
You can study hard for this exam or you can fail. (= only one of these things can happen) We can broil chicken on the grill tonight, or we can eat hamburgers. Smart English is the best language center in the country, or so it seems to most students at the UAI. There are no rattlesnakes in this canyon, or so our guide tells us. Either you participate in class or get a 1.0 grade for class participation. They must like her style or they wouldnt keep asking her to design the uniforms each year. John thought he had a good chance to get the job, for his father was on the companys board of trustees.
For
Though used as a preposition, we can use for as a conjunctive when we introduce the reason for the preceding clause.
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So
- To connect two independent clauses together with a comma. - To indicate as well or in addition. Steve has always been nervous in large gatherings, so it is no surprise that he avoids crowds when he is at the beach. John is not the only Olympic athlete in his family, so are his uncle, sister, and his aunt Sally.
- At the beginning of a sentence, so will act as a So, the sheriff promptly removed the child kind of summing up device or transition, and when it from the custody of his parents. does, it is often set off from the rest of the sentence with a comma.
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Hell take a taxi so that he arrives on time. He stayed after school so that he could help me with my homework. I wrote it in my daily planner so that I wouldnt forget.
In an informal style, that is often dropped. Example: Ive come early so I can talk to you.
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Structure
Like - is similar to a preposition Like + noun / pronoun We can use like to give examples As - is a conjunction As + clause (subject + verb) As comes before nouns designating tittles and functions
Example
You look like your sister. He ran like the wind. Shes good at scientific subjects, like chemistry.
s but Like and as can both be used as preposition Like = similar to As = in the position of, in the form of
ny Compare: pany. As the manager, she has to make ma As Brenda Casey is the manager of a com important decisions. nager) (As the manager = in her position as the ma enda Casey), she also has to the assistant manager. Like the manager (Br Like Mary Stone is make important decisions. (Like the manager = similar to the manager)
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The infinitive (to + verb) is used: To say why you do something I go to the gym to get some exercise. To say why something exists Heres an example to help you. After too and enough Its too cold to go swimming. The gerund (verb ending in ing) is used: After prepositions (see below) Hes made a lot of friends by joining the tennis club. As non-count nouns Climbing is safer than it looks
If verbs are followed by another verb, that verb is either in the infinitive or the gerund form. Verbs Followed by an Infinitive She agreed to speak before the game. agree aim appear arrange ask attempt be able beg begin bother care choose consent continue dare decide deserve expect fail forget get happen have hesitate hope hurry intend leap leave long mean neglect offer ought plan prefer prepare proceed promise propose refuse remember say shoot stop strive swear threaten try use wait want wish
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Verbs Followed by an Object and an Infinitive Everyone expected her to win. advise choose have order send allow command hire pay teach ask dare instruct permit tell beg direct invite persuade urge bring encourage lead prepare want build expect leave promise warn buy forbid let remind challenge force motivate require Note: Some of these verbs are included in the list above and may be used without an object. Verbs Followed by a Gerund They enjoyed working on the boat. admit delay advise deny appreciate enjoy avoid escape cant help excuse complete finish consider forbid
Verbs Followed by a Preposition and a Gerund We concentrated on doing well. admit to depend on approve of disapprove of argue about discourage from believe in dream about care about feel like complain about forget about concentrate on insist on confess to plan on Expressions followed by the gerund Its no good Its not worth Its a waste of time Cant stand Cant help Verbs followed by either an infinitive or a gerund begin love continue like
prevent (someone) from refrain from succeed in talk about think about worry about
dislike hate
prefer start
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We use get used to to say that an action or situation becomes less strange or new. We can use the expression in present simple, interrogative and present continuous forms. Structure: get used to + noun or gerund It took them a long time to get used to the new office. Have you got used to driving on the left side of the road yet? She is getting used to waking up early for her new job.
Get used to
We use the expression be used to to say that we have already become familiar with something/someone which was in the past new or strange. We can use the expression in the present simple, negative and affirmative sentences, in question form and when the object involves a verb, we use the gerund form. Structure: subject + be + used to + object. Mary is used to horses. Kurt is not used to horses. Are you used to horses? We are used to taking the bus.
Be used to
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Some verbs that express reactions and preferences are followed by a verb in the gerund (verb ending in ing). Some are followed by a verb in the infinitive (to + verb) or a gerund.
Followed by the gerund To enjoy To mind To resent To object to To miss Cannot stand They enjoy dancing very much. I miss going to my English class.
To like To love To dislike To hate To loathe To prefer Cannot bear I love eating. I love to eat.
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Verbs that express a command, wish, preference and prohibition follow this structure. Verbs: allow, command, forbid, hate, instruct, like, love, need, oblige, recommend, want verb + object + infinitive
Examples: He wants John to rent a car. They dont allow people to smoke.
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Verbs expressing a wish to act may be followed by infinitives (to + verb) or gerunds (verbs ending in ing).
To intend To propose To try (attempt to do, make an effort to ) To try (do something as an experiment or test) To agree To consent
Infinitive or gerund*
He intends to go to New York. He intends going to new York.* What did he propose doing? What did he propose to do? I am trying to do this exercise.
Gerund
Infinitive Infinitive
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Verb + Preposition at / to
Verb + at
Look / have a look / stare / glance AT. Laugh / smile AT Aim / point AT -Why are you looking at me? -I was laughing at his joke.
Verb + to
Talk / speak TO Listen TO Write TO Invite (somebody) TO Explain (something) TO (someone) Apologize TO (someone) -Can I speak to Jane please? -I invited 200 people to my wedding. -I need to apologize to my friend because I shouted at her yesterday.
Shout AT somebody when you are angry Shout TO somebody so that they can hear you Throw something AT somebody/something in order to hit them Throw something TO somebody for somebody to catch
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Zero First Second (present) Third (perfect)
Zero, First, and Second Conditionals (Sequence of tenses with if)* * For construction of the present conditional, see second in table below. For sequence of tenses with if see zero, first, second and third below.
Structure Examples Uses
Used to describe something that is generally or always true.
Conditionals
Conditionals
eClass English
If + subject + present simple , subject + present simple If water boils, it reaches 100 degrees. If + subject+ present simple, subject + will + infinitive without to If the weather is good, I will go to the beach. If + subject + past simple, subject + would + infinitive without to If I won a million pounds, I would buy a house.
Used to describe a situation that is not likely. Describes a hypothetical situation in the present.
If + subject + past perfect, subject + would + have + past participle If I had won the lottery, I would have bought a car.
Used to describe a hypothetical situation in the past. It describes a situation that is impossible.
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Use
Regret or reproach (to blame someone)
Example
I should have studied harder. (regret) You should have gotten up earlier. (reproach)
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FORM USE
Present Subjunctive
eClass English
Use the simple form of the verb. The simple form is the infinitive without the to. The simple form of the verb to go is go. The Subjunctive is only noticeable in certain forms and tenses. The Subjunctive is used to emphasize urgency or importance. It is used after certain expressions (see below). Examples: I suggest that he study. Is it essential that we be there? Don recommended that you join the committee.
NOTICE:
The Subjunctive is only noticeable in certain forms and tenses. In the examples below, the Subjunctive is not noticeable in the you-form of the verb, but it is noticeable in the he/sheform of the verb.
Examples:
YOU-FORM OF TRY: You try to study often. SUBJUNCTIVE FORM OF TRY LOOKS THE SAME: It is important that you try to study often. HE-FORM OF TRY: He tries to study often. SUBJUNCTIVE FORM OF TRY IS NOTICEABLE: It is important that he try to study often.
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The Subjunctive is used after the following verbs: to advise (that) to ask (that) to command (that) to demand (that) to desire (that) to insist (that) to propose (that) to recommend (that) to request (that) to suggest (that) to urge (that) Dr. Smith asked that Mark submit his research paper before the end of the month. Donna requested Frank come to the party. The teacher insists that her students be on time.
Examples
The Subjunctive is used after the following expressions: It is best (that) It is crucial (that) It is desirable (that) It is essential (that) It is imperative (that) It is important (that) It is recommended (that) It is urgent (that) It is vital (that) It is a good idea (that) It is a bad idea (that) It is crucial that you be there before Tom arrives. It is important she attend the meeting. It is recommended that he take a gallon of water with him if he wants to hike to the bottom of the Grand Canyon.
Examples
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The Subjunctive can be used in negative, continuous and passive forms. Examples: The boss insisted that Sam not be at the meeting. The company asked that employees not accept personal phone calls during business hours. I suggest that you not take the job without renegotiating the salary.
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Wishes in the present To make wishes about the present, use the past tense. For the verb to be, use were. Situation: My sister is untidy. Wish: I wish she were tidier. Wishes in the past (regret) To make wishes about the past, use the past perfect. Situation: I didnt go on a vacation this year. Wish: I wish I had gone on a vacation this year. Wishes about ability To make wishes about ability use could. Situation: I cant play a musical instrument. Wish: I wish I could play a musical instrument. Wishes about habit and free will To make wishes about habit and free will use would. Situation: He sings in the office. Wish: I wish he wouldnt sing in the office. (In this sentence you are stressing the fact he wants to sing and makes a habit of it.)
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Tense
Passives
eClass English
Present Simple Present Continuous Past Simple Past Continuous Future simple will To be going to future Present Perfect Past Perfect
He cleans the room. He is cleaning the room. He cleaned the room. He was cleaning the room. He will clean the room He is going to clean the room. He has cleaned the room. He had cleaned the room.
Active
The room is cleaned by him. The room is being cleaned by him. The room was cleaned by him. The room was being cleaned by him. The room will be cleaned by him. The room is going to be cleaned by him. The room has been cleaned by him. The room had been cleaned by him.
Passive
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An impersonal structure is used to talk about people in general. Here are some different ways to form an impersonal structure.
Passive form without the agent The personal pronouns we, you, they We are expected at 7pm. (Somebody expects us) We drive on the left side of the road. (the speaker is included in the group of people in question) You drink a lot of tea in Britain. (the listener is included) They are very friendly in Ireland. (neither the speaker nor listener is included) People (plural meaning) Somebody/someone (singular meaning) People in Ireland are very friendly. Someone is on the phone for you.
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Reported Speech
Im feeling ill.
eClass English
Reported Speech is used to communicate what someone else said, but without using the exact words.
You want to tell someone else what Tom said. There are 2 ways of doing this: 1. You can repeat Toms words (direct speech) Tom said, Im feeling ill 2. You can use reported speech. Tom said that he was feeling ill. Reported speech: -The main sentence of the verb is usually in the past tense. (said, told) -The rest of the sentence is usually in a past tense too. (each tense goes a step back in time) -That is optional. Here are the changes in tense (sequence of tenses) in reported speech: Direct speech She said I watch TV every day. She said I am watching. She said I watched TV. She said I have watched TV. She said I will watch TV. She said I am going to watch TV. She said I can watch TV. She said I may watch TV. She said I must watch TV. She said I should watch TV. She said I ought to watch TV. She said Watch TV. Reported speech She said (that) she watched TV every day. She said she was watching TV. She said she had watched TV. She said she had watched TV. She said she would watch TV. She said she was going to watch TV. She said she could watch TV. She said she might watch TV. She said she had to watch TV. She said she should watch TV. She said she ought to watch TV. She told someone to watch TV. *
*The imperative changes to the infinitive. Tell is usually used instead of say.
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3. If the sentence is a general truth, sometimes the present tense is retained. She said that Alaska is the largest state in the USA. 4. The past simple can stay the same in reported speech or you can change it to the past perfect.
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Away Back Down In Off On Out Over Up
Phrasal Verbs
Use Example
eClass English
A phrasal verb consists of a verb and a preposition or adverb that modifies or changes the meaning. Here are some common phrasal verbs in English.
Preposition
Estrangement: to go away Disappearance: to sweep away Backward movement: to stand back Return to point of departure: to bring back Reply: to answer back Downward movement: to go down Writing: to write down Decrease: to turn down Inward movement: to get in Visit: to drop in Averting: to put off Departure: to go off / to take off Start: to turn on / switch on Continuation: to go on Outward movement: to move out Outside: to eat out Distribution: to give out Repetition: to say over Action done with care: to think over Upward movement: to climb up Increased volume: to speak up All evidence of the crime was swept away. The student answered back to the teacher.
I will drop in later and see how you are doing. I have put off my dental appointment. because I have a class. Can you turn on the fan please? I always eat out on Fridays.
I will have to think over your offer carefully. Speak up, I cant hear you.
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Phrasal Verbs
A phrasal verb is a verb plus a preposition or adverb which creates a meaning different from the original verb. Example: I ran into my teacher at the movies last night. RUN + INTO = MEET He ran away when he was 15. RUN + AWAY = LEAVE HOME Some phrasal verbs are intransitive. An intransitive verb cannot be followed by an object. Example: He suddenly showed up. SHOW UP cannot take an object. Some phrasal verbs are transitive. A transitive verb can be followed by an object. Example: I made up the story. Story is the object of made up. Some transitive phrasal verbs are separable. The object is placed between the verb and the preposition. Example: I talked my mother into letting me borrow the car. TALK INTO = PERSUADE Some transitive phrasal verbs are inseparable. The object is placed after the preposition. Example: I ran into an old friend yesterday. RUN INTO = MEET BY CHANCE Some transitive phrasal verbs can take an object in both places. Example: I looked the number up in the phone book. I looked up the number in the phone book.
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eClass English
WARNING! Although many phrasal verbs can take an object in both places, you must put the object between the verb and the preposition if the object is a pronoun. Example: I looked the number up in the phone book. CORRECT I looked up the number in the phone book. CORRECT I looked it up in the phone book. CORRECT I looked up it in the phone book. INCORRECT
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Expressions
To get + adjective : to become, show a change of state Examples: It gets dark early in winter. Im getting tired of working such long hours. It is getting warmer. Some adjectives used with get get hungry get thirsty get tired get ready get serious get wet get better get prepared get dressed get bigger
To get + Adjective
Get dressed To look forward to = To think of a future event with anticipation Structure Verb to be + look forward to + noun Example: I am looking forward to the vacation. Structure Verb to be + look forward to + gerund Examples: I look forward to hearing from you. He is looking forward to seeing you.
To look forward to
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eClass English
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To be likely
Present To be likely + infinitive Past To be (was/were) likely + infinitive Negative To be unlikely + infinitive Related expression It is likely that
He is likely to pass the exam. The meeting is likely to be very long. The meeting was likely to be very long.
He is unlikely to come. Its likely that it will rain. Its unlikely that it is very cold there.
He is likely to have forgotten about the appointment. They are likely to have finished early.
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eClass English
Example
The weather was bad. Few people were left on the streets.
Examples
For Johns sake For the childrens sake For his sake For their sake For the sake of the children For the sake of saving
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Use
Here are some fixed expressions with the verb to have To have a bath To have lunch To have a rest To have a look To have reason to + infinitive ( to analyze causes and consequences) To have to do with something ( to say what the topic is)
Examples
Did you have a bath yesterday? We will have lunch later. Id like to have a rest before going out. Have a look at this! We have reason to hope for continued success. The report has to do with our financial results for the last quarter.
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eClass English
Baseball is an important part of American culture. Its influence is so strong that it has become the source of many expressions that are used in informal and business contexts.
Expression
Touch base Playing field On the ball Ballpark figure In the ballpark Big league To cover ones bases Home run Play hard ball Right off the bat Its good to touch base with clients regularly. Now that more companies have made offers, were dealing with a bigger playing field. Our new attorney seems to be on the ball. I can only give you a ballpark figure. The offer isnt in the ballpark yet. Well move into the big league if we secure this deal. This is a complicated transaction; make sure to cover your bases. Jenny hit a home run with that deal. Were going to have to play hard ball if we want to get this deal. Dan started criticizing right off the bat.
Baseball Expressions
Example
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To be at stake
Structure
To be + at stake To be threatened or endangered. This may be used to talk about threats to someone or somethings well-being or reputation.
Use
Example
If we dont respond to this crisis now, our financial stability will be at stake.
The firms reputation is at stake following the recall of its latest product.
These expressions are similar in meaning to be at stake: to be in jeopardy, to be on the line, to be at risk
Expressions of Increase
Use
To rise To climb
Expression
Example
Next year, productivity should climb sharply. Stocks crept up last quarter. Prices are inching up due to inflation. The company is only two years old, but it has really taken off. Stocks are skyrocketing following economic recovery.
To creep up To edge up To inch up To take off To skyrocket To shoot up To soar To go through the roof
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Other
eClass English
Affirmative
Singular: There is
Negative
There is not There isnt Theres not There are not There arent
Question
Is there.?
Are there..?
STATION
MT W TFSS
1 8 15 22 29 2 3 9 10 16 17 May 23 24 30 31 4 11 18 25 5 12 19 26 6 13 20 27 7 14 21 28
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Dates
First 1st, Second 2nd, Third 3rd Ordinal Numbers Fourth 4th, Fifth 5th, Sixth 6th, Seventh 7th, Eighth 8th, Ninth 9th, Tenth 10th 20th, 21st, 22nd, 23rd . 30th, 31st, 32nd, 33rd. Days
Weekly Calendar
Sunday Monday Tuesday Week of_______________ Saturday Wednesday Thursday Friday
Years Up until the year 2000, years are pronounced in two parts: 1925 = 19part1 25part2 = Nineteen1 twenty-five2
1998 = nineteen ninety-eight 2010 = two thousand (and) ten (twenty ten is also becoming popular)
1: American format = July 2, 2010 month / day / year = 07/02/2010 2: British format = 2 July 2010 day / month / year = 02/07/2010
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eClass English
Time
What time? = what time of day?
What time is it? What time do you get up?
Oclock
British English
11 10 9 8 7
12
1 2 3 4 9 8 7 10 11
12
1 2 3 4 9 8 10
11
12
1 2 3 4
To express a time after the half hour and before the hour we use to.
11 10 9 8 7
12
1 2 3 4 9 8 10
11
12
1 2 3 4
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American English
To express a time after the hour we use after. (except for the half hour)
11 10 9 8 7
12
1 2 3 4 9 8 10
11
12
1 2 3 4 9 8 10
11
12
1 2 3 4
To express a time after the half hour and before the hour we use to.
11 10 9 8 7
12
1 2 3 4 9 8 10
11
12
1 2 3 4
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eClass English
Structure
Example
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To Let
Let + object + infinitive without to Example: Please allow me to buy you a drink. Please let me buy you a drink. Example: My parents dont allow me to go out at night. My parents dont let me go out at night. Remember, in the third person present we use lets but in the past simple we use let. Conjugation of to let The present I You He/She/It We They let let lets let let The past simple I You He/She/It We They let let let let let
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eClass English
With conjunctions of time, like when and while, we use the present tense.
Structure
Will + verb, conjunction of time + present simple Examples: They will eat when they arrive. While I am in Santiago, Ill call you.
Conjunctions
of time
Use
Examples
How tall are you? I am very tall. / Im 1.60m How high is Mt Everest? It is extremely high. / Its 8848m How often do you go to the cinema? I hardly ever go.
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Had better
Use
-A firm suggestion -An order
Examples
You had better tell her the bad news. You had better not finish the cake!
Would rather
Subject + would rather + infinitive without to Subject + would rather + not + infinitive without to Would + subject + rather + infinitive without to -To show preference I would rather go for a swim. I would rather not go for a swim. Would you rather go for a swim?
Expression of Preference
Would prefer
Subject + would prefer + infinitive with to (d) Subject + would rather + infinitive without to (d) Used mainly in speech.
Examples
Would rather
Hed rather be on the beach. Would you rather stay here or go away?
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eClass English
The words whoever, whatever, whichever, however, whenever, wherever mean it doesnt matter who/ what / which etc. (any person who, any thing that etc. or the unknown person who, the unknown thing that)
Whatever you do, Ill always love you. Choose whichever book you like. However you travel, it will take you at least 3 days. Whenever I go to London, I try to see Vicky. Wherever you go, youll find Coca- Cola.
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Whether
Whether = to talk about choices or alternatives. Like if it expresses uncertainty.
Whether
eClass English
Emphatic do
Examples
Verbs that express impressions and feelings are: to look, to sound, to smell, to taste, to feel etc. They may be followed by:
Structure
the preposition like He looks like his father. It sounds like youre angry.
Examples
as if / as though an adjective
You look as if you dont understand me. It sounds as though you arent listening to me. He looks happy. This ice cream tastes good.
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I am told
The present sometimes stands in for the present perfect, as in: I am told (= I understand ) Instead of Ive been told I forget (= I cant remember) Instead of Ive forgotten I hear Instead of Ive heard
Structure
I am told that you are in charge of the sales department. What time is the match tonight? I forget. I hear you have been promoted.
Examples
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