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IGCSE Economics Notes With Syllabus Statments
IGCSE Economics Notes With Syllabus Statments
IGCSE
Cambridge
Economics Notes
When economics gets pwned...
Page |2
Syllabus Statements
4.1 Basic economic problem: choice and the allocation of resources
Candidates should be able to:
define the nature of the economic problem (finite resources and unlimited
wants);
define the factors of production (land, labour, capital, enterprise);
define opportunity cost and analyse particular circumstances to illustrate
the concept;
evaluate the implications of particular courses of action in terms of
opportunity cost.
4.2 The allocation of resources: how the market works; market failure
Candidates should be able to:
describe the allocation of resources in market and mixed economic
systems;
demonstrate the principle of equilibrium price and analyse simple market
situations with changes in demand and supply;
describe the causes of changes in demand and supply conditions and
analyse such changes to show effects in the market;
define price elasticity of demand and supply and perform simple
calculations;
demonstrate the usefulness of price elasticity in particular situations such
as revenue changes, consumer expenditure;
describe the concept of market failure and explain the reasons for its
occurrence;
evaluate the merits of the market system;
define private and social costs1 and benefits and discuss conflicts of
interest in relation to these costs and benefits in the short term and long
term through studies of the following issues:
1. conserving resources versus using resources;
2. public expenditure versus private expenditure.
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Page |4
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Land
Labour
Capital
Enterprise
Page |6
What
Page |7
EQUILIBRIUM PRICE
When supply and demand are equal the economy is said to
be at equilibrium. At this point, the allocation of goods is at
its most efficient because the amount of goods being
supplied is exactly the same as the amount of goods being
demanded. Thus, everyone (individuals, firms, or countries)
is satisfied with the current economic condition.
Excess
Supply
Page |8
Excess
Demand
A drought causes pepper to die in India. This means that in this season,
there will be less pepper exported. This leads to the supply curve shifting
inwards.
Everyone loves the new iPhone 4S. Prices are rising for it and yet people
still buy it. This causes the demand curve to shift outwards.
Due to an economic downfall, peoples incomes have decreased. Many
people cant afford Frances famous wine. This causes the demand curve
to shift inwards.
PRICE MECHANISM
Price mechanism basically sums up the reasons for movements or shifts in the
supply and demand curve. This mnemonic will help you remember:
Allocate Where to allocate resources.
Ration How much should it cost according to the degree of scarcity.
Signal Shows entrepreneurs what to produce.
Incentive Will entrepreneurs continue producing that product.
define price elasticity of demand and supply and perform simple calculations
demonstrate the usefulness of price elasticity in particular situations such as
revenue changes, consumer expenditure
PRICE ELASTICITY OF DEMAND
Inelastic
Demand
Page |9
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P a g e | 10
It is shown by the degree in the supply curve the concept is similar to the
PEd.
Inelastic
Supply
Elastic
Supply
P a g e | 11
Tax
Subsi
dy
Describe the concept of market failure and explain the reasons for its
occurrence
Market failure occurs
when the market
mechanism fails to allocate
scarce resources efficiently,
so social costs are greater
than social benefits. This
would arise if:
Define private and social costs and benefits and discuss conflicts of interest in
relation to these costs and benefits in the short term and long term through
studies of the following issues:
conserving resources versus using resources
public expenditure versus private expenditure
P a g e | 12
CONFLICTS OF INTEREST
Conserving vs. Consuming
A major opportunity cost for society is that when resources are used for a
particular purpose, they are not available for other uses. Many people argue that
it is important to conserve resources for the future. In the long-term view,
conservationists argue that this generation should pass on to future generations
at least as many resources as our own generation has inherited. Conflicts often
arise between businesses seeking to develop new mines, factories and roads,
and environmentalists, local communities and other groups seeking to conserve
natural capital.
Public Expenditure vs. Private Expenditure
Expenditure is spending. In a mixed economy, there is a considerable debate
about how much expenditure should be public and how much should be private.
Public
Expendit
ure
Private
Expendit
ure
Public expenditure
is carried out by
national and local
government, and
public sector
enterprises.
Private expenditure
is carried out by
individuals and
businesses that are
not governmentowned.
P a g e | 13
PADDS
Commercial banks provide a safe place to keep and lend money. Examples
include HSBC. The basic functions are:
Keeping money safe: a banks vaults are more secure than a safe deposit
box in a private house. Individuals and businesses can open bank accounts.
Banks also keep documents and other valuables items in safe deposit boxes.
Lending there are three types:
Loans borrowing a fixed sum for a set period of time but borrower
must pay back interest.
Overdraft taking more than is put into the account, but with interest.
Credit cards are offered for users to buy goods and pay for them
later. If they pay back the bill by a given date, no interest is set, but if
not, they are charged with a high rate of interest.
Mortgages banks lend firms and households big amounts of money.
They are usually for long periods of time and must be paid back over
years.
Means of Making Payment cheques so the bank then transfers money to
the recipients that the person needs to pay.
Providing Foreign Currency
Every country has a central bank whose job it is to supervise banking system.
Examples include the Bank of England, Deutsche Baundesbank and the Central
Bank of Bahrain. Functions include:
P a g e | 14
Printing notes and minting coins that are legal tender (notes and coins
that are accepted as payment) as well as destroying torn notes and worn-out
coins.
Setting interest rates
Lender of Last Resort if a bank needs cash in a hurry, they can borrow
from central bank.
Supervising monetary policy Heads of the central bank holds meetings
with officials from other banks to determine the interest rate and quantity of
money in the economy. If there is too little spending in the economy, banks
might be requested to lend more.
Banker for Commercial Banks and the Government Government
accounts and spending are carried out with the central bank. It helps
Government to borrow money. The total amount the government owes to
lenders is called the national debt.
Helping to manage the international financial system (Govs lending
each other money)
STOCK EXCHANGE
Stock exchanges are institutions in which shares of stock are bought and sold. A
shareholder in a company is a part-owner of that company. Shareholders will
receive a payment known as a dividend, which is their reward and share of
company profits. Shareholders are protected by limited liability a legal
protection so that if a company gets into financial difficulty, the limit that a
shareholder may lose is the value of their shareholding the company. Stock
exchanges also protect shareholders.
Wage Factors
Non-Wage
Basic pay
Earnings the total amount an individual receives
when additional payments are added, including
overtime, bonuses and commission.
Overtime hours worked in addition to the basic
contracted number of hours. It will be paid at a
higher rate.
Bonuses are used as incentives to persuade
employees to work harder or longer.
Commission a payment made as a percentage of
the sales a salesperson makes.
Job satisfaction - many people are prepared to
P a g e | 15
Factors
Entry
Skilled
Workers
End-ofCareer
Employee
s
P a g e | 16
Skilled workers are also inelastic in demand because a rise in wage rates will
have little change in the number of workers employed. Skilled workers are also
able to have a higher wage with a smaller increase in working hours hence,
they are inelastic in supply.
Rise in demand will lead to a shift in demand for labour outwards, meaning
employers will have to set higher wage rates to encourage workers to join.
Rise in supply would mean the supply curve shifts out, so wage rates will
decrease as there is more of that type of labour available.
Public
and
Private
Sectors
In many countries, the public sector earns more than the private sector
generally. Reasons include the high level of education and professional training
required to work in public jobs such as teaching and healthcare work that is
essential. Other reasons include the strong bargaining power of the trade unions.
Male/Female Workers
In most countries, wages for men are higher than women. The wage gap refers
to a comparison between the wages of men and women and is expressed as a
percentage, e.g. women earn 80% as much as men, so the wage gap is 80%.
Explanations of this include:
Women spend a shorter period of time working so they are less likely to be
skilled.
Discrimination of women.
Agriculture and Manufacturing/Services
Demand for labour is derived demand you dont want the workers
themselves, but what they can provide/produce. Low wages in agriculture lead to
migration of populations from poorer areas to higher-wage occupations in cities.
Employers in manufacturing are able to tempt workers from agriculture to
manufacturing. Also, services such as banking, health and insurance where there
is the biggest demand for workers offer some of the highest wages.
Describe trade unions and their role in an economy.
A trade union is an organization of workers formed to promote and protect the
interest of its members concerning wages, benefits and working conditions. Their
functions include:
P a g e | 17
Shop
Open
shop
Single
Union
Agreem
ent
place of work
must belong to
a trade union
A firm can
employ both
unionized and
non-unionized
labour
A firm agrees a
single union can
represent all its
workers
The process of negotiating wages and other working conditions between trade
unions and employers is called collective bargaining. It will be in a stronger
bargaining position if it represents most or all of the workers in a firm or industry
or if union members provide goods and services that consumers need and for
which there are few alternatives, such as electricity and water supplies, health
care and education.
Taking industrial action can
help a union increase its
bargaining strength to force
employers to agree to their
demands. Industrial action is
taken when collective bargaining
fails to result in an agreement.
Consequences of industrial
action:
Overtime ban
Work to rule
Go-slow
Strike
Workers refuse to
work more than their
normal hours
Workers deliberately
slow down
production by
complying with every
rule and regulation
Workers deliberately
work slowly
Workers refuse to
work and may
protest/picket
outside their
workplace to stop
deliveries or nonunionized workers
from entering
P a g e | 18
Consumers may be unable to obtain the goods and services they need and
may also have to pay higher prices if firms pass on their increased costs.
The reputation of an economy as a good place for business may be damaged.
Firms may decide to set up businesses elsewhere, increasing unemployment
and lower incomes.
Possible benefits:
Possible disadvantages:
NOTE: Trade unions are also a wage factor and a reason for difference
in pay in different occupations.
Describe the benefits and disadvantages of specialization for the individual.
The division of labour is a system whereby workers concentrate on
performing a few tasks and then exchange their production for other goods and
services. Specialisation is where individuals, firms and economies do this,
with a comparative advantage and the production process is broken up into a
series of different tasks.
Advantages
Employees can make best use
of their particular talents and
skills and can increase them
by repeating tasks
Employees can produce more
output and reduce business
costs if they concentrate on
the same job/tasks
More productive employees
can earn higher wages
Disadvantages
Doing the same job or
repetitive tasks can become
boring and stressful
Individuals must rely on
others to produce goods and
services they want but cannot
produce themselves
Many repetitive tasks can now
be done by machines, leading
to unemployment of lowskilled workers
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Spending enables a person to buy goods and services to satisfy their needs and
wants. Saving involves delaying consumption. As interest rates rise, people may
save more and spend less. Borrowing allows a person to increase their current
level of spending; enabling them to buy goods they cannot afford now. People
with low disposable incomes may spend less in total than people with high
incomes but will tend to spend all or most of their income meeting their basic
needs. The amount of income we earn tends to rise as we get older, until we
retire, because:
Annual Income:
$5000
Total Spending:
$4800 (96% of
income) mostly
on basic needs
Total Saving:
$200 (4%)
An increase in
Real income
Direct tax
Wealth
Interest rates
Availability of
saving schemes
Availability of
credit
Consumer
confidence
Spendin
g
Annual Income:
$160,000
Total Spending:
$112,000 mostly on
luxury items and
designer clothes
Total Saving:
$48,000 (30%)
Savin
g
Borrowing
P a g e | 20
Business
Sole trader
About
Owned and
controlled by one
person.
Partnershi
p
Private
Limited
Company
Public
Limited
Company
Legal agreement
between two or
more people to
own/finance/run
a business.
Unlimited liability
unless its a
silent/sleeping
partner.
Advantages
Disadvantages
A sole trader is
Full
his/her own boss.
responsibility
Can choose
- may lose
hours of work.
revenue if off
Receives all
sick or on
profits.
holiday.
Easy to set up
Lacks capital
Unlimited liability
to finance
business
growth.
Easy to set up.
Disagreemen
More capital.
ts
Partners bring
Can lack
new skills and
capital to
ideas and share
finance
responsibility for
growth.
decisions.
Many are local
businesses
offering
professional
services.
Shareholders
Companies
have limited
must publish
liability and
annual
receive dividends
accounts.
from profits.
Original
Companies have
business
a separate legal
owners can
identity.
lose control.
Share sales can
Directors
raise significant
may run the
capital.
business in
P a g e | 21
through stock
exchange to
many investors
Managed by a
board of
directors.
Cooperatives
Multination
als
Owned and
controlled by its
members
Each member
has an equal
share of
ownership
Worker co-ops
are owned and
controlled by
their workers.
Consumer co-ops
are retail
businesses
owned by their
consumers
(supermarkets,
banks, travel
agencies)
Operates in more
than one country
and are some of
the largest
companies in the
world.
Governments
often compete to
attract
multinationals
because they can
provide jobs,
incomes,
business
knowledge, skills
and technologies
which can help
other firms, as
well as pay taxes
on their profits to
boost
government
revenue.
Public Limited
Companies can
sell shares to
many more
investors on the
stock market.
Limited liability
Limited liability
Workers in
worker cooperatives take
business
decisions and
share profits.
Members of
consumer cooperatives enjoy
profit dividends
or lower prices.
It can reach
many more
consumers
globally and sell
far more than
other types of
businesses.
It can minimize
transport costs
by locating
plants in
different
countries to be
near the sources
of raw materials
or big consumer
markets.
Minimize wage
costs by locating
operations in
countries with
low wages.
Can enjoy low
their own
interests
rather than
for
shareholders.
Many
consumer cooperatives
have been
forced out of
business by
larger
companies.
Worker cooperatives
may be badly
run.
They can
switch their
profits to
other
countries to
avoid paying
taxes on
their profits.
Can force
smaller firms
out of
business.
May exploit
workers in
low wage
economies.
May use their
power to get
generous
subsidies
and tax
advantages
from the
P a g e | 22
Headquarters are
based in one
country.
They make up
65% of world
trade.
PUBLIC CORPORATIONS
Public corporations are
owned and controlled by
the government. Examples
include Amtrak, a train
operator owned by the US
government. Some
corporations aim to make a
profit while others will
deliver public services at
cost or will receive grants
from the government to
provide services for free.
Board of
Directors
Controlling
Interest
Sleeping
or Silent
Partner
average
production costs
and can raise
lots of capital for
employment of
skilled workers/ R
& D...
Ownershi
p and
Control
Legal
Status
Finanzbranche
government.
Quick Notes
Some large limited companies have many thousands of
shareholders and they cannot all manage the business, so
they elect a board of directors do so. Many shareholders
have voting rights and can vote on how to best run the
company.
Selling shares to other investors means the original owners
can lose control of their business. A shareholder with more
than 50% of shares holds controlling interest because they
can out-vote all other shareholders.
These types of partners will provide money to the partnership
in return for a share of the profits, but will not be involved in
the management of the organization and has limited liability.
P a g e | 23
Number of employees: firms with less than 50 are often classed as small.
Amount of capital employed: large firms often invest millions of dollars in
fixed assets such as machinery and equipment needed for large-scale
production and running business operations, often at many different
locations.
Market share: the relative size of firms can be compared according to their
percentage share of the total market supply or total market revenue.
Organization: large firms may be divided up into many different
departments and have offices, shops and/or factories spread over many
locations.
Size
Large Firms
Advantages
Can enjoy significant
economies of scale
Growing into a large firms can
make it more well known,
produce and sell on a larger
scale and penetrate a sell to
a wider range of markets
Can draw talented people
from around the world to
work for the company
Small Firms
Disadvantages
If it gets too big, the
firm may experience
diseconomies of
scale
Going public may
make the company
become subject to a
hostile takeover
(50% of shares
bought by another
business)
Markets cannot raise
enough capital to
expand their
business
P a g e | 24
Price of labour and capital the higher the cost, the less labour and
capital demanded. Firms may also decide to substitute labour for more
capital and vice versa depending on its productivity levels.
Productivity of labour and capital the more output or revenue labour
and capital help to produce, the more profit they will generate over and
above the cost of employing them. Productivity can be measured by
dividing total output in a given time by number of workers.
Define total and average cost, fixed and variable cost and perform simple
calculations.
Analyze particular situations to show changes in total and average cost as
output changes.
Define total and average revenue and perform simple calculations.
Fixed costs do not vary with the level of output. Examples include loan
repayments, purchase and maintenance of equipment, insurance premiums
and cleaning costs.
Variable costs vary directly with the level of output. Examples include
purchases of materials and component parts, electric power to run machinery
and wages.
Revenue is the sum of money that a business receives from making sales.
Fixed costs
per week
($)
Machin 10
es
0
Factory 10
rents
0
Total:
20
0
Variable
costs per
beat ($)
Materia 6
ls
Wages
2
Total:
Bears
produce
d
Fixed
Costs
($)
Variabl
e Costs
($)
Total
Costs
($)
100
200
300
400
500
200
200
200
200
200
800
1600
2400
3200
4000
1000
1800
2600
3400
4200
Averag
e
Costs
($)
10
9
8.7
8.5
8.4
Number of Bears
Sold per Week
($10 each)
0
100
200
300
400
Total Revenue
($)
Profit/Loss ($)
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
200
1000
1800
2600
3400
-200
0
200
400
600
P a g e | 25
500
5000
4200
800
P a g e | 26
Agglomeration
diseconomies: Occur if a
company takes over or
merges with too many other
firms producing different
products, making it hard for
business owners and
managers to co-ordinate all
the different activities.
INTEGRATION
Growth by a takeover or merger involves integration with other firms. A
takeover occurs when a company acquires ownership and control of another
company by purchasing its shares. A merger occurs when two or more firms
agree to form a new company and issues new shares.
Horizontal
Integration
Vertical
Integration
Lateral
Integration or
Conglomerate
Merger
P a g e | 27
Businesses will charge the same price, a price that would be the minimum
they could charge without going out of business.
The price will be equivalent to the lowest average cost of producing goods.
At the market price, the average cost of production would be the same as the
average revenue for selling.
No firm would risk charging more than the market price.
Oligopoly
A handful of firms dominate the
market supply.
To avoid price wars, firms may
act together to maximize their
profits, setting market price high
by restricting their combined
market supply.
A cartel is a formal agreement
between firms to control market
supply and price.
They may create barriers to
entry together.
Pricing Strategy
Penetration
Pricing
Expansion
Pricing
Market
Skimming
Price Leadership
Predatory
Pricing
Pure Monopoly
One firm controls the entire
market supply.
A monopoly may use predatory
pricing and other artificial
barriers to entry to force
competing firms out of the
market.
Other firms may also be deterred
from competing because of its
inability to match its size in
terms of its capital
employed/market share.
About
Setting price low to encourage sales. Used to attract
demand for a new product.
Setting price low to expand demand for an existing
product. Firms can then increase their scale of
production and reduce average costs.
Initially charging a high price for a new product to
maximize profit. Often observed in the market for new
electronic goods.
Smaller firms set their prices at a similar level to a
larger, more dominant firm. This can help to avoid
aggressive price competition and price wars with a
larger firm.
Aggressive price cutting by a large dominant firm
intended to drive smaller firms out of business because
they have higher costs and wont be able to match the
price cuts.
P a g e | 28
The government is also a major employer. Some people work directly for the
government as civil servants, for example, as tax collectors, accountants,
passport checkers; or provide public services such as education and healthcare.
Employees in the public sector may have more secure employment because the
P a g e | 29
government can raise funds through taxes to pay them. They often receive state
pensions when they retire. Money earned by government employees will mainly
be spent in the national economy.
Describe the aims of government policies, such as full employment, price
stability, economic growth, redistribution of income, balance of payments
stability.
Full employment is where the number of employment vacancies is equal to
the number of unemployed in the economy. All unemployment is voluntary.
Price stability means having a low/steady rate of inflation so governments and
businesses can make better economic decisions.
Economic growth is when there is an increase in real output over time. In
other words, there is in increase in real GDP and national income
(measured in GDP, GNP or NNP). There is also an increase in productive
potential/possibilities in an economy. It is important as it can increase the
standard of living in an economy.
Redistribution of income involves transferring income or benefits from the
rich to the poor, so that income is distributed more equally. Inequalities between
the rich and poor can mean, for some, high levels of infant mortality,
malnutrition, starvation, ill health and low life expectancy.
The balance of payments is a financial statement that sets out the monetary
transactions between a country and the rest of the world. The most important
part of this is the current account balance which compares a countrys exports
and imports. When the value of exports is greater than the value of imports, then
there is a current account surplus. The opposite of this is having a deficit.
Having a surplus is good for growing economies such as in China, because its
exports enables the country to earn foreign currency to buy essential raw
materials that it needs from other countries.
Policy
Expansionar
y Fiscal
Policy
Contraction
ary Fiscal
Policy
Contraction
ary
Monetary
Policy
Expansionar
About
Reducing taxes to boost demand, so employment and
output rises. May be used to reduce recession.
Increasing taxes to reduce demand, so employment and
output rises. May be used to reduce price inflation.
May be used to reduce price inflation by increasing interest
rates charged by the central bank. This means commercial
banks will also raise interest to encourage more savings.
May be used during a recession to boost demand and
P a g e | 30
y Monetary
Policy
Supply-side
Reducing taxes on profits and small
policies aim to
firms can encourage enterprise. It can
increase economic
also encourage investments in new
growth by raising
equipment.
the productive
Subsidies/G To reduce production costs and help
potential of the
rants
firms fund the research and
economy. An
development of new technologies.
increase in the total
supply of goods and
Education
Teaching new/existing workers new
services will require
and Training skills to make them more productive.
more labour and
Labour
Include minimum wage laws to
other resources to
Market
encourage more people into work, and
be employed. It will
Regulations legislation to restrict the power of
reduce market
trade unions.
prices and provide
Competition Regulations that outlaw unfair trading
more goods and
Policy
practices by monopolies and other
services to export.
large, powerful firms.
Free trade
Removing barriers
to international
Quick
Summary
agreements trade allow countries to trade their
Fiscal Policy
Involves changing the total level of taxation or
goods and services more freely and
government spending in an economy to influence the
cheaply
level of demand for goods and services
Deregulatio Removing old, unnecessary and costly
Monetary Policy Uses the interest rate of the central bank to influence
n
rules and regulations on business
demand
activities
Supply-side
To encourage higher levels of output and employment.
Policy
Tax
incentives
P a g e | 31
Types of
Taxation
Progressive
Tax
Regressive
Tax
Proportional
Tax
Direct Tax
Indirect Tax
Annual
Income $
$5 000
$20 000
$50 000
$100 000
Description
Examples
Income tax
Progressive % Tax
Rate
0%
10%
20%
40%
Indirect taxes
Corporate income
tax (35%)
Personal income
tax, payroll taxes,
corporation tax (on
company profits),
import taxes etc.
Ad valorem taxes,
value-added tax
(VAT), tariffs, excise
duties (applied to
specific goods such
as cigarettes), user
charges (such as
tolls for using
publicly owned
bridges and
motorways) etc.
P a g e | 32
Benefits of
Regulation
s
Disadvant
ages of
Regulation
s
Improv Some
e
people
efficien
complai
cy and
n that
redistri
they
bute
are
income.
overAllows
regulat
govern
ed.
ment to
They
regulat
have to
e firms
spend
and
so
industr
much
y where
time
there
and
are
money
monop
complyi
oly
ng with
powers.
regulati
To limit
ons
the
they
effect
cannot
of
concent
externa
rate on
Methods of
Production
Setting Up A
New
Business
Rules About
Prices
Product
Standards
Disclosure of
Information
Supply of
Harmful
Products
Management of
waste/pollution. Rules
protecting health/safety of
workers.
Paperwork for filling in such
as rules protecting
shareholders and paying tax.
Prices that can be charged for
supplying certain products.
Quality of food products,
labeling of contents of a
product.
Companies must produce
reports to shareholders.
Health warnings on
cigarettes.
P a g e | 33
lities.
Makes it possible to strike a
balance between private firms
seeking to make a profit and the
interests of the people who use
their services and wider public.
SUBSIDIES
Subsidies are incentives provided by the government to individuals and
households in order to carry out desired activities. Other reasons for subsidies
include:
To provide support for industries that are in decline and that are
major employers of labour if the industry did not receive a subsidy, it
might not make a profit. Closing an industry could result in unemployment,
so a subsidy solves the problem.
To protect domestic industries against foreign competition the
subsidy lowers the cost to the supplier.
P a g e | 34
TAXES
Taxes discourage certain activities as well as to raise
revenue. They are seen as a cost to business. It
causes the supply curve to shift left.
The incidence of tax refers to who pays the major
part of the tax.
In an elastic good, the incidence of tax mainly falls on
the seller.
In an inelastic good however, its the opposite.
Knowledge of elasticity and the impact of indirect taxes is useful because it helps
government to set tax rates for VAT and other sales taxes. The government
should also consider elasticity in tax levels for licenses for example, car
licenses, waste/pollution charges and local business taxes. Imposing taxes that
are too high can lead to falling sales and falling incomes, leading to
unemployment as businesses close; as well as tax evasion.
PRIVATISATION
In the past, governments have nationalized industries this means the
government has made entire industries its own. Heres why:
Privatization involves private sector firms taking over public sector activities in
the following ways:
P a g e | 35
The sale of public sector assets this involves the government selling
shares in the ownership of nationalized industries to private firms and
individuals.
Joint ventures with private firms this can involve public sector
organizations and private firms working together to supply a public service.
Contracting out this involves the government awarding contracts to
private firms to provide services it formerly provided.
Removing barriers to competition allowing private firms to compete
with public sector organizations.
In favour of privatization
Against privatization
If industries are forced to
Private sector organizations will
compete, prices will be lower and
not protect public services and
product quality will improve.
may cut services and raise costs
Wider variety of goods for
in the long run.
Many privatized industries still
consumers
Sale of shares raises government
dominate the markets they
supply and have been able to
revenue and can be used to
raise their prices and cut
lower taxes.
services.
P a g e | 36
Product
s
Food
Travel
Clothing
Proportion of
Weekly Household
Income Spent on
Each Category
60%
10%
30%
Average
Price ($)
$60.00
$20.00
$40.00
Total = 100%
Year 2
Product
s
Food
Travel
Clothing
Proportion of
Weekly Household
Income Spent on
Each Category
60%
15%
25%
Average
Price ($)
$70.00
$40.00
$48.00
Total = 100%
CPI in Year 2 =
Weighted Average
Price ($)
0.60 x $60.00 =
$36.00
0.10 x $20.00 =
$2.00
0.30 x $40.00 =
$12.00
Price of Basket =
$50
Weighted Average
Price ($)
0.60 x $70.00 =
$42.00
0.15 x $40.00 =
$6.00
0.25 x $48.00 =
$12.00
Price of Basket =
$60
Price
Index
=100
Price
Index
=120
= ($60/$50) x
100 = 120
The annual inflation rate is 20%.
Discuss the causes and consequences of inflation.
Inflation is a general and persistent/sustained increase in the level of prices
of goods/services in an economy over a period of time.
Demand-pull Inflation caused by total demand rising faster than the total
output of goods and services, causing market prices to rise.
Cost-push Inflation caused by an increase in the cost of production, for
example, from higher wages or higher prices of raw material. Firms will try to
pass these costs onto consumers through higher prices.
Imported Inflation results from rising prices of goods and services
imported overseas. This can be due to an increase in the costs of overseas
producers and/or a fall in the exchange rate of the
Hyperinflation currency of the importing country.
extremely high
rates of inflation
resulting in
money failing to
be a good store of
value or
P a g e | 37
Indicator
Labour force
Participation Rate
The labour force as a
proportion of the total
population of working
age
Employment by
Industry
Number of people
employed in different
industrial sectors
Employment Status
Number of full-timers,
part-timers or with
temporary employment
contracts
Unemployment
Number of people
registered as being
without work
Unemployment Rate
Unemployment as a
proportion of the labour
force
Recent Trends
Risen over time as the world population has
grown.
Risen in many countries especially among
females as it is now socially acceptable.
Poverty has forced many women to work.
The rising cost of living in many developed
countries has persuaded many mothers to
return to work after raising their children.
Employment in services has been growing
while employment in agriculture and other
primary sector industries has fallen.
P a g e | 38
Person
al
Costs
Costs
to the
Econo
my
x 100
P a g e | 39
The HDI is used by the United Nations to make broader comparisons of human
and economic development in different countries. It combines three different
measures for each country into a single index with a value between 0 and 1.
These are having a decent standard of living (measured by average incomes),
being educated, (measured by adult literacy and school enrolment) and living
a long and healthy life (measured by life expectancy).
Population
living on less
than $1 per
day
Life
expectancy
at birth
Adult literacy
rate
Population
without
access to
clean water
Prevalence of
underweight
children
School and
college
enrolment
rates
Population
with HIV/AIDS
Share of
women in paid
employment
P a g e | 40
The Republic
of Congo
Norway
Literacy ( age 15 and over can read and
write):100%
to
total
Discuss
differences
in living standards
population:
80.2 years
within
countries
and
between
Population below poverty line:
countries, both developed and
NA%
developing.
Policy
Food aid
NA%
Why is it needed?
Poor farming methods produce
insufficient food supplies to feed
their populations.
Financial
aid
Removing
barriers to
overseas
trade
Economic
Advice
Governments in many
developing countries lack
economic knowledge.
P a g e | 41
Describe the factors that affect population growth (birth rate, death rate,
fertility rate, net migration) and discuss reasons for the different rates of
growth in different countries.
Analyse the problems and consequences of these population changes for
countries at different stages of development.
The natural rate of increase in population is the difference between birth
and death rates. High birth rates and low death rates are causing a population
explosion. This puts increasing pressure on scarce resources and can lead to
tensions between people, resulting in civil unrest and wars.
BIRTH RATES AND DEATH RATES VARY BETWEEN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES
Less Developed
Countries
High
Developed Countries
Niedrig
Low or negative
Niedrig
Many people have children when they are married. In developed countries,
people are marrying later in life and so birth rates have fallen.
Better quality food, housing and sanitation can improve life expectancy
but eating fatty foods, smoking and lack of exercise has increased rates of
diabetes, cancer and heart disease in many developed countries.
Natural disasters, famines, wars and escalating violence have also had a
big impact on death rates especially in many less developed countries.
P a g e | 42
Total population
Working Population
Dependency Ratios
Less developed countries
Developed countries
Dependency ratios are high and
rising
P a g e | 43
Structural
Feature
Age
Distribution
Percentage of
population in
different age
groups
Less Developed
Economies
Due to high birth and
death rates, children
under 15 yrs account for
40-50% of many of their
populations, while people
over 60 years account for
less than 5%
Geographic
Distribution
Where people
live and the
population
density
(number of
people per
km2)
Occupational
Distribution
Types of
industries
people work in
and what they
do
Developed Economies
The average age of many
populations is increasing due
to low birth and death rates.
Up to 25% of their
populations are over 60 yrs.
This is increasing the demand
for healthcare, leisure
facilities and pensions.
Around 60% of the global
population live in cities
Congestion and pollution are
big problems in many major
cities.
P a g e | 44
Situation #1
Minnie can charge
$200 for 40 hours
Minnie must pay
George $20 for 40
hours
Total Net Income for
Minnie
Minnie hires
George to
type
$8000
$800
$7200
Situation #2
Minnie can charge
$200 for only 30
hours
Minnie must spend
10 hours typing her
docs
Total Net Income for
Minnie
Minnie types
her own
documents
$6000
$0
$6000
BENEFITS OF TRADE
For Consumers
Cheaper products
Better products
International Trade
Increased Competition
from International
Companies
Lower Prices Better
Qualities
To Producers
Larger markets
Economies of scale
Economies of Scale
The more you produce,
the lower your average
per unit cost (fixed costs
are spread over more
units).
To Governments
Exports
increase jobs,
GDP, incomes
But imports
take them away
International trade
increases the number of
products you make
(larger market) which
means lower per unit
costs.
P a g e | 45
Visible trade is the selling and buying of natural of natural resources, parts
and components of goods in production, and finished products. Balance of
Visible Trade = Value of Visible Exports Value of Visible Imports
Invisible trade is the selling and buying of services. Balance of Invisible
Trade = Value of Invisible Exports
Value of Invisible Imports
Imports money flows out of the country
negative impact
Exports money flows into the country
positive impact
If X (exports) > M (imports), AD (aggregate
demand) increases
If X < M, AD decreases
FAVOURABLE BALANCE OF
TRADE
Indicates a greater demand for
products produced domestically,
than foreignly.
UNFAVOURABLE BALANCE OF
TRADE
Indicates a greater demand for
products produced foreignly, than
those produced domestically.
Money coming into the country is Money coming into the country is less
greater than money going out.
than money going out to foreign
Trade Surplus: X > M
countries. Trade Deficit: M > X
BALANCE OF PAYMENTS
The Balance of Payments is an annual summary of all of a nations international
financial transaction. The structure of the current account:
Visible trade account the difference between the export revenue and
import spending on physical goods, e.g. cars, washing machines
Invisible trade account measures the difference between export
revenue from and import spending on services, e.g. banking, insurance
and tourism
Income e.g. interest, profit and dividends flowing in and out of the
country
Current transfers e.g. grants for overseas aid.
P a g e | 46
EXCHANGE RATE
Exchange rate is the price of a countrys currency in terms of another countrys
currency.
Most countries have a floating exchange rate, which means no set value for their
currency compared with any other currency with a freely floating exchange rate,
the government does not get involved in the foreign exchange market.
What Determines a Countrys Exchange Rate?
Deficit
Money flowing out exceeds money
flowing in.
More supply of the countrys
currency.
Result: International price of currency
falls.
Surplus
Money flowing in exceeds money
flowing out.
More demand for the countrys
currency.
International price of currency rises.
P a g e | 47
make speculative gains. For example, if speculators think the value of the pound
is going to fall, because, for example, UK interest rates may go down, they may
sell pounds and buy other currencies. This increase in the supply of pounds
reduces their value. The speculators can then buy back pounds at a cheaper
price. The difference between the prices they sold pounds for and the price they
buy them back for is their profit. If speculators believe the value of the pound will
rise, as a result of a balance of payments surplus for example, they will buy
pounds now and try to make a profit out of a rising pound.
Describe methods of protection.
Discuss the merits of free trade and protection.
Economic conflict can arise from globalization because some developed
countries fear they will lose jobs as it becomes cheaper to import goods and
services from overseas than to produce them domestically, or if production is
moved overseas to countries where costs, such as wages and prices, and taxes
on profits, may be lower. As a result, some countries have introduced barriers to
free trade in an attempt to protect employment and production in their
economies from overseas competition. This is called protectionism.
TRADE BARRIERS
Tariffs
Subsidies
Quotas
Embargo
A tax on the price of imports to raise its price and make them
more expensive than home-produced goods to stop people
buying them.
A grant given to an industry by a government so that the
industry will lower its prices. This encourages consumers to
stop buying foreign imports by making home-produced goods
cheaper.
A limit on the number of imports allowed into a country per
year. This reduces the quantity of imports without changing
their prices.
A complete ban on imports of certain goods. An embargo may
be used to stop imports of dangerous drugs.
ARGUMENTS FOR PROTECTIONISM
Protection of
a young
industry
To prevent
unemploymen
t
To prevent
dumping
P a g e | 48
trade
To prevent
overspecialisation
Other countries
will retaliate
with trade
barriers
It protects
inefficient
domestic firms
The loss of
domestic jobs
from overseas
competitions
will only be
temporary
Trade barriers
have increased
the gap
between rich
and poor
countries