Matlap Tutorial
Matlap Tutorial
MATLAB is used in every facet of computational mathematics. Following are some commonly
used mathematical calculations where it is used most commonly:
Dealing with Matrices and Arrays
2-D and 3-D Plotting and graphics
Linear Algebra
Algebraic Equations
Non-linear Functions
Statistics
Data Analysis
Calculus and Differential Equations
Numerical Calculations
Integration
Transforms
Curve Fitting
Various other special functions
Features of MATLAB
Following are the basic features of MATLAB:
It is a high-level language for numerical computation, visualization and application
development.
It also provides an interactive environment for iterative exploration, design and problem
solving.
It provides vast library of mathematical functions for linear algebra, statistics, Fourier
analysis, filtering, optimization, numerical integration and solving ordinary differential
equations.
It provides built-in graphics for visualizing data and tools for creating custom plots.
MATLAB's programming interface gives development tools for improving code quality
and maintainability and maximizing performance.
It provides tools for building applications with custom graphical interfaces.
It provides functions for integrating MATLAB based algorithms with external
applications and languages such as C, Java, .NET and Microsoft Excel.
Uses of MATLAB
MATLAB is widely used as a computational tool in science and engineering encompassing the
fields of physics, chemistry, math and all engineering streams. It is used in a range of
applications including:
Signal Processing and Communications
Image and Video Processing
Control Systems
Test and Measurement
Computational Finance
Computational Biology
You really do not need to set up your own environment to start learning
MATLAB/Octave programming language. Reason is very simple, we already have set up
the Octave environment online, so that you can execute all the available examples online
at the same time when you are doing your theory work. This gives you confidence in
what you are reading and to check the result with different options. Feel free to modify
any example and execute it online.
Try following example using Try it option available at the top right corner of the below
sample code box:
x = [1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10];
y1 = [.16 .08 .04 .02 .013 .007 .004 .002 .001 .0008 ];
y2 = [.16 .07 .03 .01 .008 .003 .0008 .0003 .00007 .00002 ];
semilogy(x,y1,'-bo;y1;',x,y2,'-kx;y2;');
title('Plot title');
xlabel('X Axis');
ylabel('Y Axis');
print -deps graph.eps
in
this tutorial, you will find Try it option, so just make use of it and enjoy your
Command Window - This is the main area where you enter commands at the command line, indicated by
the command prompt (>>).
Workspace - The workspace shows all the variables you create and/or import from files.
Command History - This panels shows or rerun commands that you entered at the command line.
MATLAB Basics
MATLAB - Home
MATLAB - Overview
MATLAB - Environment
MATLAB - Syntax
MATLAB - Variables
MATLAB - Commands
MATLAB - M-Files
MATLAB - Data Types
MATLAB - Operators
MATLAB - Decisions
MATLAB - Loops
MATLAB - Vectors
MATLAB - Matrices
MATLAB - Arrays
MATLAB - Colon Notation
MATLAB - Numbers
MATLAB - Strings
MATLAB - Functions
MATLAB - Data Import
MATLAB - Data Output
MATLAB Advanced
MATLAB - Plotting
MATLAB - Graphics
MATLAB - Algebra
MATLAB - Calculus
MATLAB - Differential
MATLAB - Integration
MATLAB - Polynomials
MATLAB - Transforms
MATLAB - GNU Octave
MATLAB - Simulink
MATLAB Useful Reso
Hands on Practice
Type a valid expression, for example,
5 + 5
When you click the Execute button, or type Ctrl+E, MATLAB executes it immediately and the result returned is:
ans = 9
Another example,
sin(pi /2)
When you click the Execute button, or type Ctrl+E, MATLAB executes it immediately and the result returned is:
ans = 1
Another example,
7/0
% Divide by zero
When you click the Execute button, or type Ctrl+E, MATLAB executes it immediately and the result returned is:
ans = Inf
warning: division by zero
Another example,
732 * 20.3
When you click the Execute button, or type Ctrl+E, MATLAB executes it immediately and the result returned is:
ans =
1.4860e+04
MATLAB provides some special expressions for some mathematical symbols, like pi for , Inf for , i (and j) for -1
etc. Nan stands for 'not a number'.
Semicolon (;) indicates end of statement. However, if you want to suppress and hide the MATLAB output for an
expression, add a semicolon after the expression.
For example,
x = 3;
y = x + 5
When you click the Execute button, or type Ctrl+E, MATLAB executes it immediately and the result returned is:
y =
Adding Comments
The percent symbol (%) is used for indicating a comment line. For example,
x = 9
You can also write a block of comments using the block comment operators % { and % }.
The MATLAB editor includes tools and context menu items to help you add, remove, or change the format of
comments.
.*
.^
Left-division operator.
Right-division operator.
.\
./
Colon; generates regularly spaced elements and represents an entire row or column.
()
[]
Decimal point.
._
Assignment operator.
eps
i,j
Inf
Infinity.
NaN
The number
pi
Naming Variables
Variable names consist of a letter followed by any number of letters, digits or underscore.
MATLAB is case-sensitive.
Variable names can be of any length, however, MATLAB uses only first N characters, where N is given by the
function namelengthmax.
You can reload the file anytime later using the load command.
load myfile
ATLAB - Variables
,
x = 3
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
x =
3
It creates a 1-by-1 matrix named x and stores the value 3 in its element. Let us check another example,
x = sqrt(16)
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
x =
4
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
ans =
8.8318
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
ans =
1.1182e+03
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
y =
441.8400
Multiple Assignments
You can have multiple assignments on the same line. For example,
a = 2; b = 7; c = a * b
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
c =
14
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
Your variables are:
a
ans b
c
x
whos
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
Name
Size
a
ans
b
c
x
y
1x1
1x1
1x1
1x1
1x1
1x1
Bytes
8
8
8
8
8
8
Class
Attributes
double
double
double
double
double
double
The clear command deletes all (or the specified) variable(s) from the memory.
clear x
clear
Long Assignments
Long assignments can be extended to another line by using an ellipses (...). For example,
initial_velocity = 0;
acceleration = 9.8;
time = 20;
final_velocity = initial_velocity ...
+ acceleration * time
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
final_velocity =
196
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
x =
17.231981640639408
Another example,
format short
x = 7 + 10/3 + 5 ^ 1.2
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
x =
17.2320
The format bank command rounds numbers to two decimal places. For example,
format bank
daily_wage = 177.45;
weekly_wage = daily_wage * 6
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
weekly_wage =
1064.70
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
ans =
2.2922e+01
The format long e command allows displaying in exponential form with four decimal places plus the exponent. For
example,
format long e
x = pi
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
x =
3.141592653589793e+00
The format rat command gives the closest rational expression resulting from a calculation. For example,
format rat
4.678 * 4.9
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
ans =
2063/90
Creating Vectors
A vector is a one-dimensional array of numbers. MATLAB allows creating two types of vectors:
Row vectors
Column vectors
Row vectors are created by enclosing the set of elements in square brackets, using space or comma to delimit the
elements.
For example,
r = [7 8 9 10 11]
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
r =
Columns 1 through 4
7
8
Column 5
11
10
Another example,
r = [7 8 9 10 11];
t = [2, 3, 4, 5, 6];
res = r + t
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
res =
Columns 1 through 4
9
11
Column 5
17
13
15
Column vectors are created by enclosing the set of elements in square brackets, using semicolon(;) to delimit the
elements.
c = [7;
8;
9;
10; 11]
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
c =
7
8
9
10
11
Creating Matrices
A matrix is a two-dimensional array of numbers.
In MATLAB, a matrix is created by entering each row as a sequence of space or comma separated elements, and
end of a row is demarcated by a semicolon. For example, let us create a 3-by-3 matrix as:
m = [1 2 3; 4 5 6; 7 8 9]
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
m =
1
4
7
2
5
8
3
6
9
MATLAB - Commands
MATLAB is an interactive program for numerical computation and data visualization. You can enter a command by
typing it at the MATLAB prompt '>>' on the Command Window.
In this section, we will provide lists of commonly used general MATLAB commands.
clear
Exist
Global
Help
Lookfor
Quit
Stops MATLAB.
Who
Whos
date
delete
Deletes a file.
diary
dir
load
path
pwd
save
type
what
wklread
fscanf
format
fprintf
input
;
Suppresses screen printing.
The fscanf and fprintf commands behave like C scanf and printf functions. They support the following format codes:
Format Code
Purpose
%s
Format as a string.
%d
Format as an integer.
%f
%e
%g
\n
\t
The format function has the following forms used for numeric display:
Format Function
Display up to
format short
format long
16 decimal digits.
format short e
format long e
format bank
format +
format rat
Rational approximation.
format compact
format loose
Concatenates arrays.
find
length
linspace
logspace
max
min
prod
reshape
Changes size.
size
sort
sum
eye
ones
zeros
cross
dot
det
inv
pinv
rank
rref
cell
celldisp
cellplot
num2cell
deal
iscell
Plotting Commands
MATLAB provides numerous commands for plotting graphs. The following table shows some of the commonly used
commands for plotting:
Command
Purpose
axis
fplot
grid
Displays gridlines.
plot
Generates xy plot.
title
xlabel
ylabel
axes
close
close all
figure
gtext
hold
legend
refresh
set
subplot
text
bar
loglog
polar
semilogx
semilogy
stairs
stem
MATLAB M-Files
So far, we have used MATLAB environment as a calculator. However, MATLAB is also a powerful programming
language, as well as an interactive computational environment.
In previous chapters, you have learned how to enter commands from the MATLAB command prompt. MATLAB also
allows you to write series of commands into a file and execute the file as complete unit, like writing a function and
calling it.
The M Files
MATLAB allows writing two kinds of program files:
Scripts - script files are program files with .m extension. In these files, you write series of commands,
which you want to execute together. Scripts do not accept inputs and do not return any outputs. They
operate on data in the workspace.
Functions - functions files are also program files with .m extension. Functions can accept inputs and return
outputs. Internal variables are local to the function.
You can use the MATLAB Editor or any other text editor to create your .m files. In this section, we will discuss the
script files. A script file contains multiple sequential lines of MATLAB commands and function calls. You can run a
script by typing its name at the command line.
edit
Or
edit <filename>
The above command will create the file in default MATLAB directory. If you want to store all program files in a specific
folder, then you will have to provide the entire path.
Let us create a folder named progs. Type the following commands at the command prompt(>>):
mkdir progs
chdir progs
edit prog1.m
If you are creating the file for first time, MATLAB prompts you to confirm it. Click Yes.
Alternatively, if you are using the IDE, choose NEW -> Script. This also opens the editor and creates a file named
Untitled. You can name and save the file after typing the code.
Type the following code in the editor:
NoOfStudents = 6000;
TeachingStaff = 150;
NonTeachingStaff = 20;
Total = NoOfStudents + TeachingStaff ...
+ NonTeachingStaff;
disp(Total);
After creating and saving the file, you can run it in two ways:
Clicking the Run button on the editor window or
Just typing the filename (without extension) in the command prompt: >> prog1
The command window prompt displays the result:
6170
Example
Create a script file, and type the following code:
a
c
d
e
f
=
=
=
=
=
5; b = 7;
a + b
c + sin(b)
5 * d
exp(-d)
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result:
c =
12
d =
12.6570
e =
63.2849
f =
3.1852e-06
The above statement creates a 1-by-1 matrix named 'Total' and stores the value 42 in it.
uint8
int16
uint16
int32
uint32
int64
uint64
Single
Double
Logical
Char
cell array
array of indexed cells, each capable of storing an array of a different dimension and
data type
Structure
C-like structures, each structure having named fields capable of storing an array of a
different dimension and data type
function handle
pointer to a function
user classes
java classes
Example
Create a script file with the following code:
str = 'Hello World!'
n = 2345
d = double(n)
un = uint32(789.50)
rn = 5678.92347
c = int32(rn)
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result:
str =
Hello World!
n =
2345
d =
2345
un =
790
rn =
5.6789e+03
c =
5679
int2str
mat2str
num2str
str2double
str2num
native2unicode
unicode2native
base2dec
bin2dec
dec2base
dec2bin
dec2hex
hex2dec
hex2num
num2hex
cell2mat
cell2struct
cellstr
mat2cell
num2cell
struct2cell
Detect state
Isa
Iscell
Iscellstr
Ischar
Isfield
Isfloat
Ishghandle
Isinteger
Isjava
Islogical
Isnumeric
Isobject
Isreal
Isscalar
Isstr
Isstruct
Isvector
Class
validateattributes
Whos
Example
Create a script file with the following code:
x = 3
isinteger(x)
isfloat(x)
isvector(x)
isscalar(x)
isnumeric(x)
x = 23.54
isinteger(x)
isfloat(x)
isvector(x)
isscalar(x)
isnumeric(x)
x = [1 2 3]
isinteger(x)
isfloat(x)
isvector(x)
isscalar(x)
x = 'Hello'
isinteger(x)
isfloat(x)
isvector(x)
isscalar(x)
isnumeric(x)
MATLAB - Operators
An operator is a symbol that tells the compiler to perform specific mathematical or logical manipulations. MATLAB is
designed to operate primarily on whole matrices and arrays. Therefore, operators in MATLAB work both on scalar
and non-scalar data. MATLAB allows the following types of elementary operations:
Arithmetic Operators
Relational Operators
Logical Operators
Bitwise Operations
Set Operations
Arithmetic Operators
MATLAB allows two different types of arithmetic operations:
Addition or unary plus. A+B adds A and B. A and B must have the same size, unless one is a
scalar. A scalar can be added to a matrix of any size.
Subtraction or unary minus. A-B subtracts B from A. A and B must have the same size, unless one
is a scalar. A scalar can be subtracted from a matrix of any size.
Matrix multiplication. C = A*B is the linear algebraic product of the matrices A and B. More
precisely,
*
For nonscalar A and B, the number of columns of A must equal the number of rows of B. A scalar
can multiply a matrix of any size.
.*
Array multiplication. A.*B is the element-by-element product of the arrays A and B. A and B must
have the same size, unless one of them is a scalar.
Slash or matrix right division. B/A is roughly the same as B*inv(A). More precisely, B/A = (A'\B')'.
./
Array right division. A./B is the matrix with elements A(i,j)/B(i,j). A and B must have the same size,
unless one of them is a scalar.
Backslash or matrix left division. If A is a square matrix, A\B is roughly the same as inv(A)*B, except
it is computed in a different way. If A is an n-by-n matrix and B is a column vector with n
components, or a matrix with several such columns, then X = A\B is the solution to the equation AX
= B. A warning message is displayed if A is badly scaled or nearly singular.
.\
Array left division. A.\B is the matrix with elements B(i,j)/A(i,j). A and B must have the same size,
unless one of them is a scalar.
Matrix power. X^p is X to the power p, if p is a scalar. If p is an integer, the power is computed by
repeated squaring. If the integer is negative, X is inverted first. For other values of p, the calculation
involves eigenvalues and eigenvectors, such that if [V,D] = eig(X), then X^p = V*D.^p/V.
.^
Array power. A.^B is the matrix with elements A(i,j) to the B(i,j) power. A and B must have the same
size, unless one of them is a scalar.
'
Matrix transpose. A' is the linear algebraic transpose of A. For complex matrices, this is the
complex conjugate transpose.
.'
Array transpose. A.' is the array transpose of A. For complex matrices, this does not involve
conjugation.
Relational Operators
Relational operators can also work on both scalar and non-scalar data. Relational operators for arrays perform
element-by-element comparisons between two arrays and return a logical array of the same size, with elements set
to logical 1 (true) where the relation is true and elements set to logical 0 (false) where it is not.
The following table shows the relational operators available in MATLAB:
Show Examples
Operator
Description
<
Less than
<=
>
Greater than
>=
==
Equal to
~=
Not equal to
Logical Operators
MATLAB offers two types of logical operators and functions:
Element-wise - these operators operate on corresponding elements of logical arrays.
Short-circuit - these operators operate on scalar, logical expressions.
Element-wise logical operators operate element-by-element on logical arrays. The symbols &, |, and ~ are the logical
array operators AND, OR, and NOT.
Short-circuit logical operators allow short-circuiting on logical operations. The symbols && and || are the logical shortcircuit operators AND and OR.
Show Examples
Bitwise Operations
Bitwise operator works on bits and performs bit-by-bit operation. The truth tables for &, |, and ^ are as follows:
P
q
p&q
p|q
p^q
0
1
0
0
1
1
Assume if A = 60; and B = 13; Now in binary format they will be as follows:
A = 0011 1100
B = 0000 1101
----------------A&B = 0000 1100
A|B = 0011 1101
A^B = 0011 0001
~A = 1100 0011
MATLAB provides various functions for bit-wise operations like 'bitwise and', 'bitwise or' and 'bitwise not' operations,
shift operation, etc.
The following table shows the commonly used bitwise operations:
Show Examples
Function
Purpose
bitand(a, b)
bitcmp(a)
Bit-wise complement of a
bitget(a,pos)
bitor(a, b)
bitset(a, pos)
bitshift(a, k)
Returns a shifted to the left by k bits, equivalent to multiplying by 2k. Negative values of
k correspond to shifting bits right or dividing by 2|k| and rounding to the nearest integer
towards negative infinite. Any overflow bits are truncated.
bitxor(a, b)
Swapbytes
Set Operations
MATLAB provides various functions for set operations, like union, intersection and testing for set membership, etc.
The following table shows some commonly used set operations:
Show Examples
Function
Description
intersect(A,B)
Set intersection of two arrays; returns the values common to both A and B. The values
returned are in sorted order.
intersect(A,B,'rows')
Treats each row of A and each row of B as single entities and returns the rows common
to both A and B. The rows of the returned matrix are in sorted order.
ismember(A,B)
Returns an array the same size as A, containing 1 (true) where the elements of A are
found in B. Elsewhere, it returns 0 (false).
ismember(A,B,'rows')
Treats each row of A and each row of B as single entities and returns a vector
containing 1 (true) where the rows of matrix A are also rows of B. Elsewhere, it returns
0 (false).
issorted(A)
Returns logical 1 (true) if the elements of A are in sorted order and logical 0 (false)
otherwise. Input A can be a vector or an N-by-1 or 1-by-N cell array of strings. A is
considered to be sorted if A and the output of sort(A) are equal.
issorted(A, 'rows')
Returns logical 1 (true) if the rows of two-dimensional matrix A are in sorted order, and
logical 0 (false) otherwise. Matrix A is considered to be sorted if A and the output of
sortrows(A) are equal.
setdiff(A,B)
Set difference of two arrays; returns the values in A that are not in B. The values in the
returned array are in sorted order.
setdiff(A,B,'rows')
Treats each row of A and each row of B as single entities and returns the rows from A
that are not in B. The rows of the returned matrix are in sorted order.
The 'rows' option does not support cell arrays.
Setxor
Union
Unique
MATLAB provides following types of decision making statements. Click the following links to check their detail:
Statement
Description
if ... end statement
if...else...end statement
nested if statements
switch statement
You can use one swicth statement inside another switch statement(s).
MATLAB provides following types of loops to handle looping requirements. Click the following links to check their
detail:
Loop Type
Description
while loop
for loop
Executes a sequence of statements multiple times and abbreviates the code that
manages the loop variable.
nested loops
You can use one or more loops inside any another loop.
continue statement
Causes the loop to skip the remainder of its body and immediately retest its
condition prior to reiterating.
MATLAB - Vectors
A vector is a one-dimensional array of numbers. MATLAB allows creating two types of vectors:
Row vectors
Column vectors
Row Vectors:
Row vectors are created by enclosing the set of elements in square brackets, using space or comma to delimit the
elements.
r = [7 8 9 10 11]
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
r =
Columns 1 through 4
7
8
Column 5
11
10
Column Vectors:
Column vectors are created by enclosing the set of elements in square brackets, using semicolon to delimit the
elements.
c = [7;
8;
9;
10; 11]
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
c =
7
8
9
10
11
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
ans =
3
When you reference a vector with a colon, such as v(:), all the components of the vector are listed.
v = [ 1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6];
v(:)
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
ans =
1
2
3
4
5
6
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
sub_rv =
3
Vector Operations
In this section, let us discuss the following vector operations:
Addition and Subtraction of Vectors
Scalar Multiplication of Vectors
Transpose of a Vector
Appending Vectors
Magnitude of a Vector
Vector Dot Product
Vectors with Uniformly Spaced Elements MATLAB
A matrix is a two-dimensional array of numbers.
- Matrix
In MATLAB, you create a matrix by entering elements in each row as comma or space delimited numbers and using
semicolons to mark the end of each row.
For example, let us create a 4-by-5 matrix a:
a = [ 1 2 3 4 5; 2 3 4 5 6; 3 4 5 6 7; 4 5 6 7 8]
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
a =
1
2
3
4
2
3
4
5
3
4
5
6
4
5
6
7
5
6
7
8
For example, to refer to the element in the 2 nd row and 5th column, of the matrix a, as created in the last section, we
type:
a = [ 1 2 3 4 5; 2 3 4 5 6; 3 4 5 6 7; 4 5 6 7 8];
a(2,5)
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
ans =
6
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
v =
4
5
6
7
You can also select the elements in the mth through nth columns, for this we write:
a(:,m:n)
Let us create a smaller matrix taking the elements from the second and third columns:
a = [ 1 2 3 4 5; 2 3 4 5 6; 3 4 5 6 7; 4 5 6 7 8];
a(:, 2:3)
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
ans =
2
3
4
5
3
4
5
6
In the same way, you can create a sub-matrix taking a sub-part of a matrix.
a = [ 1 2 3 4 5; 2 3 4 5 6; 3 4 5 6 7; 4 5 6 7 8];
a(:, 2:3)
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
ans =
2
3
4
5
3
4
5
6
In the same way, you can create a sub-matrix taking a sub-part of a matrix.
For example, let us create a sub-matrix sa taking the inner subpart of a:
3
4
4
5
5
6
To do this, write:
a = [ 1 2 3 4 5; 2 3 4 5 6; 3 4 5 6 7; 4 5 6 7 8];
sa = a(2:3,2:4)
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
sa =
3
4
4
5
5
6
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
a =
1
2
3
3
4
4
5
5
6
6
7
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
a =
1
2
3
4
2
3
4
5
3
4
5
6
4
5
6
7
Example
In this example, let us create a 3-by-3 matrix m, then we will copy the second and third rows of this matrix twice to
create a 4-by-3 matrix.
Create a script file with the following code:
a = [ 1 2 3 ; 4 5 6; 7 8 9];
new_mat = a([2,3,2,3],:)
5
8
5
8
6
9
6
9
Matrix Operations
In this section, let us discuss the following basic and commonly used matrix operations:
Addition and Subtraction of Matrices
Division of Matrices
Scalar Operations of Matrices
Transpose of a Matrix
Concatenating Matrices
Matrix Multiplication
Determinant of a Matrix
Inverse of a Matrix
MATLAB - Arrays
In MATLAB, all variables of all data types are multidimensional arrays. A vector is a one-dimensional array and a
matrix is a two-dimensional array.
We have already discussed vectors and matrices. In this chapter, we will discuss multidimensional arrays. However,
before that, let us discuss some special types of arrays.
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
ans =
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
ans =
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
ans =
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
The rand() function creates an array of uniformly distributed random numbers on (0,1):
For example:
rand(3, 5)
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
ans =
0.8147
0.9058
0.1270
0.9134
0.6324
0.0975
0.2785
0.5469
0.9575
0.9649
0.1576
0.9706
0.9572
0.4854
0.8003
A Magic Square
A magic square is a square that produces the same sum, when its elements are added row-wise, column-wise or
diagonally.
The magic() function creates a magic square array. It takes a singular argument that gives the size of the square.
The argument must be a scalar greater than or equal to 3.
magic(4)
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
ans =
16
5
9
4
2
11
7
14
3
10
6
15
13
8
12
1
Multidimensional Arrays
An array having more than two dimensions is called a multidimensional array in MATLAB. Multidimensional arrays in
MATLAB are an extension of the normal two-dimensional matrix.
Generally to generate a multidimensional array, we first create a two-dimensional array and extend it.
For example, let's create a two-dimensional array a.
a = [7 9 5; 6 1 9; 4 3 2]
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
a =
7
6
4
9
1
3
5
9
2
The array a is a 3-by-3 array; we can add a third dimension to a, by providing the values like:
a(:, :, 2)= [ 1 2 3; 4 5 6; 7 8 9]
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
a(:,:,1) =
7
9
6
1
4
3
5
9
2
a(:,:,2) =
1
2
4
5
7
8
3
6
9
We can also create multidimensional arrays using the ones(), zeros() or the rand() functions.
For example,
b = rand(4,3,2)
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
b(:,:,1) =
0.0344
0.4387
0.3816
0.7655
0.7952
0.1869
0.4898
0.4456
0.6463
0.7094
0.7547
0.2760
b(:,:,2) =
0.6797
0.6551
0.1626
0.1190
0.4984
0.9597
0.3404
0.5853
0.2238
0.7513
0.2551
0.5060
We can also use the cat() function to build multidimensional arrays. It concatenates a list of arrays along a specified
dimension:
Syntax for the cat() function is:
B = cat(dim, A1, A2...)
Where,
Example
Create a script file and type the following code into it:
a = [9 8 7; 6 5 4; 3 2 1];
b = [1 2 3; 4 5 6; 7 8 9];
c = cat(3, a, b, [ 2 3 1; 4 7 8; 3 9 0])
7
4
1
3
6
9
1
8
0
Array Functions
MATLAB provides the following functions to sort, rotate, permute, reshape, or shift array contents.
Function
Purpose
length
ndims
numel
size
Array dimensions
iscolumn
isempty
ismatrix
isrow
isscalar
isvector
blkdiag
circshift
ctranspose
diag
flipdim
fliplr
flipud
ipermute
permute
repmat
reshape
Reshape array
rot90
shiftdim
Shift dimensions
issorted
sort
sortrows
squeeze
transpose
Transpose
vectorize
Vectorize expression
Examples
The following examples illustrate some of the functions mentioned above.
Length, Dimension and Number of elements:
Create a script file and type the following code into it:
x = [7.1, 3.4, 7.2, 28/4, 3.6, 17, 9.4, 8.9];
length(x) % length of x vector
y = rand(3, 4, 5, 2);
ndims(y)
% no of dimensions in array y
s = ['Zara', 'Nuha', 'Shamim', 'Riz', 'Shadab'];
numel(s)
% no of elements in s
2
5
8
3
6
9
7
1
4
8
2
5
9
3
6
8
2
5
9
3
6
7
1
4
b =
c =
Sorting Arrays
Create a script file and type the following code into it:
v = [ 23 45 12 9 5 0 19 17] % horizonal vector
sort(v)
%sorting v
m = [2 6 4; 5 3 9; 2 0 1] % two dimensional array
sort(m, 1)
% sorting m along the row
sort(m, 2)
% sorting m along the column
45
12
19
17
12
17
19
23
45
6
3
0
4
9
1
0
3
6
1
4
9
4
5
1
6
9
2
Cell Array
Cell arrays are arrays of indexed cells where each cell can store an array of a different dimension and data type.
The cell function is used for creating a cell array. Syntax for the cell function is:
C = cell(dim)
C = cell(dim1,...,dimN)
D = cell(obj)
Where,
Example
Create a script file and type the following code into it:
c = cell(2, 5);
c = {'Red', 'Blue', 'Green', 'Yellow', 'White'; 1 2 3 4 5}
'Blue'
[
2]
'Green'
[
3]
'Yellow'
[
4]
'White'
[
5]
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
ans =
'Red'
[ 1]
'Blue'
[
2]
You can also access the contents of cells by indexing with curly braces.
For example:
c = {'Red', 'Blue', 'Green', 'Yellow', 'White'; 1 2 3 4 5};
c{1, 2:4}
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
ans =
Blue
ans =
Green
ans =
Yellow
MATLAB executes the statement and returns a row vector containing the integers from 1 to 10:
ans =
1
10
If you want to specify an increment value other than one, for example:
100: -5: 50
95
90
85
80
75
70
65
60
55
50
0.7854
1.1781
1.5708
1.9635
2.3562
You can use the colon operator to create a vector of indices to select rows, columns or elements of arrays.
The following table describes its use for this purpose (let us have a matrix A):
Format
Purpose
A(:,j)
A(i,:)
A(:,:)
A(j:k)
is A(j), A(j+1),...,A(k).
A(:,j:k)
is A(:,j), A(:,j+1),...,A(:,k).
A(:,:,k)
A(i,j,k,:)
is a vector in four-dimensional array A. The vector includes A(i,j,k,1), A(i,j,k,2), A(i,j,k,3), and so on.
is all the elements of A, regarded as a single column. On the left side of an assignment statement,
A(:) fills A, preserving its shape from before. In this case, the right side must contain the same
number of elements as A.
A(:)
Example
Create a script file and type the following code in it:
A = [1 2 3 4; 4 5 6 7; 7 8 9 10]
A(:,2)
% second column of A
A(:,2:3)
% second and third column of A
A(2:3,2:3) % second and third rows and second and third columns
2
5
8
3
6
9
4
7
10
ans =
2
5
8
ans =
2
5
8
3
6
9
ans =
5
8
6
9
MATLAB - Numbers
MATLAB supports various numeric classes that include signed and unsigned integers and single-precision and
double-precision floating-point numbers. By default, MATLAB stores all numeric values as double-precision floating
point numbers.
You can choose to store any number or array of numbers as integers or as single-precision numbers.
All numeric types support basic array operations and mathematical operations.
single
int8
int16
int32
int64
uint8
uint16
uint32
uint64
Example
Create a script file and type the following code:
x
x
x
x
x
x
=
=
=
=
=
=
26.0250
47.1000
26.0250
47.1000
45
23
38
45
23
45
x =
38
23
45
Example
Let us extend the previous example a little more. Create a script file and type the following code:
x = int32([5.32 3.47 6.28]) .* 7.5
x = int64([5.32 3.47 6.28]) .* 7.5
x = num2cell(x)
23
45
x =
38
23
45
x =
[38]
[23]
[45]
Example
The following example illustrates how to obtain the smallest and largest values of integers. Create a script file and
write the following code in it:
% displaying the smallest and largest signed integer data
str = 'The range for int8 is:\n\t%d to %d ';
sprintf(str, intmin('int8'), intmax('int8'))
str = 'The range for int16 is:\n\t%d to %d ';
sprintf(str, intmin('int16'), intmax('int16'))
str = 'The range for int32 is:\n\t%d to %d ';
sprintf(str, intmin('int32'), intmax('int32'))
str = 'The range for int64 is:\n\t%d to %d ';
sprintf(str, intmin('int64'), intmax('int64'))
% displaying the smallest and largest unsigned integer data
str = 'The range for uint8 is:\n\t%d to %d ';
sprintf(str, intmin('uint8'), intmax('uint8'))
str = 'The range for uint16 is:\n\t%d to %d ';
sprintf(str, intmin('uint16'), intmax('uint16'))
str = 'The range for uint32 is:\n\t%d to %d ';
sprintf(str, intmin('uint32'), intmax('uint32'))
str = 'The range for uint64 is:\n\t%d to %d ';
sprintf(str, intmin('uint64'), intmax('uint64'))
Example
The following example illustrates how to obtain the smallest and largest floating point numbers. Create a script file
and write the following code in it:
% displaying the smallest and largest single-precision
% floating point number
str = 'The range for single is:\n\t%g to %g and\n\t %g to
%g';
%g';
MATLAB - Functions
A function is a group of statements that together perform a task. In MATLAB, functions are defined in separate files.
The name of the file and of the function should be the same.
Functions operate on variables within their own workspace, which is also called the local workspace, separate from
the workspace you access at the MATLAB command prompt which is called the base workspace.
Functions can accept more than one input arguments and may return more than one output arguments
Syntax of a function statement is:
function [out1,out2, ..., outN] = myfun(in1,in2,in3, ..., inN)
Example
The following function named mymax should be written in a file named mymax.m. It takes five numbers as argument
and returns the maximum of the numbers.
Create a function file, named mymax.m and type the following code in it:
function max = mymax(n1, n2, n3, n4, n5)
%This function calculates the maximum of the
% five numbers given as input
max = n1;
if(n2 > max)
max = n2;
end
if(n3 > max)
max = n3;
end
if(n4 > max)
max = n4;
end
if(n5 > max)
max = n5;
end
The first line of a function starts with the keyword function. It gives the name of the function and order of arguments.
In our example, the mymax function has five input arguments and one output argument.
The comment lines that come right after the function statement provide the help text. These lines are printed when
you type:
help mymax
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
This function calculates the maximum of the
five numbers given as input
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
ans =
89
Anonymous Functions
An anonymous function is like an inline function in traditional programming languages, defined within a single
MATLAB statement. It consists of a single MATLAB expression and any number of input and output arguments.
You can define an anonymous function right at the MATLAB command line or within a function or script.
This way you can create simple functions without having to create a file for them.
The syntax for creating an anonymous function from an expression is
f = @(arglist)expression
Example
In this example, we will write an anonymous function named power, which will take two numbers as input and return
first number raised to the power of the second number.
Create a script file and type the following code in it:
power =
result1
result2
result3
@(x, n) x.^n;
= power(7, 3)
= power(49, 0.5)
= power(10, -10)
Example
Let us write a function named quadratic that would calculate the roots of a quadratic equation. The function would
take three inputs, the quadratic co-efficient, the linear co-efficient and the constant term. It would return the roots.
The function file quadratic.m will contain the primary function quadratic and the sub-function disc, which calculates
the discriminant.
Create a function file quadratic.m and type the following code in it:
function [x1,x2] = quadratic(a,b,c)
%this function returns the roots of
% a quadratic equation.
% It takes 3 input arguments
% which are the co-efficients of x2, x and the
%constant term
% It returns the roots
d = disc(a,b,c);
x1 = (-b + d) / (2*a);
x2 = (-b - d) / (2*a);
end % end of quadratic
function dis = disc(a,b,c)
%function calculates the discriminant
dis = sqrt(b^2 - 4*a*c);
end % end of sub-function
You can call the above function from command prompt as:
quadratic(2,4,-4)
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
ans =
0.7321
Nested Functions
You can define functions within the body of another function. These are called nested functions. A nested function
contains any or all of the components of any other function.
Nested functions are defined within the scope of another function and they share access to the containing function's
workspace.
A nested function follows the following syntax:
function x = A(p1, p2)
...
B(p2)
function y = B(p3)
...
end
...
end
Example
Let us rewrite the function quadratic, from previous example, however, this time the disc function will be a nested
function.
Create a function file quadratic2.m and type the following code in it:
function [x1,x2] = quadratic2(a,b,c)
function disc % nested function
d = sqrt(b^2 - 4*a*c);
end % end of function disc
disc;
x1 = (-b + d) / (2*a);
x2 = (-b - d) / (2*a);
end % end of function quadratic2
You can call the above function from command prompt as:
quadratic2(2,4,-4)
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
ans =
0.7321
Private Functions
A private function is a primary function that is visible only to a limited group of other functions. If you do not want to
expose the implementation of a function(s), you can create them as private functions.
Private functions reside in subfolders with the special name private.
They are visible only to functions in the parent folder.
Example
Let us rewrite the quadratic function. This time, however, the disc function calculating the discriminant, will be a
private function.
Create a subfolder named private in working directory. Store the following function file disc.m in it:
function dis = disc(a,b,c)
%function calculates the discriminant
dis = sqrt(b^2 - 4*a*c);
end % end of sub-function
Create a function quadratic3.m in your working directory and type the following code in it:
function [x1,x2] = quadratic3(a,b,c)
%this function returns the roots of
% a quadratic equation.
% It takes 3 input arguments
% which are the co-efficients of x2, x and the
%constant term
% It returns the roots
d = disc(a,b,c);
x1 = (-b + d) / (2*a);
x2 = (-b - d) / (2*a);
end % end of quadratic3
You can call the above function from command prompt as:
quadratic3(2,4,-4)
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
ans =
0.7321
Global Variables
Global variables can be shared by more than one function. For this, you need to declare the variable as global in all
the functions.
If you want to access that variable from the base workspace, then declare the variable at the command line.
The global declaration must occur before the variable is actually used in a function. It is a good practice to use capital
letters for the names of global variables to distinguish them from other variables.
Example
Let us create a function file named average.m and type the following code in it:
function avg = average(nums)
global TOTAL
avg = sum(nums)/TOTAL;
end
When you run the file, it will display the following result:
av =
35.5000
A = importdata(filename)
Loads data into array A from the file denoted by filename.
A = importdata('-pastespecial')
Loads data from the system clipboard rather than from a file.
A = importdata(___, delimiterIn)
Interprets delimiterIn as the column separator in ASCII file, filename, or the clipboard data. You can use
delimiterIn with any of the input arguments in the above syntaxes.
Loads data from ASCII file, filename, or the clipboard, reading numeric data starting from line headerlinesIn+1.
[A, delimiterOut, headerlinesOut] = importdata(___)
dditionally returns the detected delimiter character for the input ASCII file in delimiterOut and the detected
number of header lines in headerlinesOut, using any of the input arguments in the previous syntaxes.
By default, Octave does not have support for importdata() function, so you will have to search and install this package
to make following examples work with your Octave installation.
5
Example 1
Let us load and display an image file. Create a script file and type the following code in it:
filename = 'smile.jpg';
A = importdata(filename);
image(A);
When you run the file, MATLAB displays the image file. However, you must store it in the current directory.
Example 2
In this example, we import a text file and specify Delimiter and Column Header. Let us create a space-delimited
ASCII file with column headers, named weeklydata.txt.
Our text file weeklydata.txt looks like this:
SunDay
95.01
73.11
60.68
48.60
89.13
MonDay
76.21
45.65
41.85
82.14
44.47
TuesDay
61.54
79.19
92.18
73.82
57.63
WednesDay
40.57
93.55
91.69
41.03
89.36
ThursDay
55.79
75.29
81.32
0.99
13.89
FriDay
70.28
69.87
90.38
67.22
19.88
SatureDay
81.53
74.68
74.51
93.18
46.60
WednesDay
40.5700
93.5500
91.6900
41.0300
89.3600
ThursDay
55.7900
75.2900
81.3200
0.9900
13.8900
FriDay
70.2800
69.8700
90.3800
67.2200
19.8800
SatureDay
81.5300
74.6800
74.5100
93.1800
46.6000
Example 3
In this example, let us import data from clipboard.
Copy the following lines to the clipboard:
Mathematics is simple
Create a script file and type the following code:
A = importdata('-pastespecial')
feof
ferror
fgetl
fgets
fopen
fprintf
fread
frewind
fscanf
fseek
ftell
fwrite
Example
We have a text data file 'myfile.txt' saved in our working directory. The file stores rainfall data for three months; June,
July and August for the year 2012.
The data in myfile.txt contains repeated sets of time, month and rainfall measurements at five places. The header
data stores the number of months M; so we have M sets of measurements.
The file looks like this:
Rainfall Data
Months: June, July, August
M=3
12:00:00
June-2012
17.21 28.52
19.15 0.35
17.92 28.49
9.59
9.33
10.46 13.17
20.97 19.50
18.23 10.34
09:10:02
July-2012
12.76 16.94
20.46 23.17
30.97 49.50
18.23 30.34
30.46 33.17
30.97 49.50
28.67 30.34
15:03:40
August-2012
17.09 16.55
17.54 11.45
NaN
21.19
26.79 24.98
17.54 11.45
NaN
21.19
26.79 24.98
39.78
17.57
17.40
NaN
NaN
17.65
17.95
16.55
NaN
17.06
0.31
14.89
14.45
16.46
23.67
12.01
11.09
0.23
19.33
14.00
19.34
14.38
NaN
47.65
27.95
NaN
47.65
27.95
11.86
24.89
24.45
16.46
34.89
24.45
36.46
16.89
19.33
34.00
19.34
29.33
34.00
29.34
19.59
13.48
25.85
12.23
13.48
25.85
12.23
17.25
22.55
25.05
16.99
22.55
25.05
16.99
19.22
24.01
27.21
18.67
24.01
27.21
18.67
We will import data from this file and display this data. Take the following steps:
1. Open the file with fopen function and get the file identifier.
2. Describe the data in the file with format specifiers, such as '%s' for a string, '%d' for an integer, or '%f' for a
floating-point number.
3. To skip literal characters in the file, include them in the format description. To skip a data field, use an
asterisk ('*') in the specifier.
For example, to read the headers and return the single value for M, we write:
M = fscanf(fid, '%*s %*s\n%*s %*s %*s %*s\nM=%d\n\n', 1);
4.
By default, fscanf reads data according to our format description until it cannot match the description to the
data, or it reaches the end of the file. Here we will use for loop for reading 3 sets of data and each time, it
will read 7 rows and 5 columns.
5. We will create a structure named mydata in the workspace to store data read from the file. This structure
has three fields - time, month, and raindata array.
Create a script file and type the following code in it:
filename = '/data/myfile.txt';
rows = 7;
cols = 5;
% open the file
fid = fopen(filename);
% read the file headers, find M (number of months)
M = fscanf(fid, '%*s %*s\n%*s %*s %*s %*s\nM=%d\n\n', 1);
% read each set of measurements
for n = 1:M
mydata(n).time = fscanf(fid, '%s', 1);
mydata(n).month = fscanf(fid, '%s', 1);
% fscanf fills the array in column order,
% so transpose the results
mydata(n).raindata = ...
fscanf(fid, '%f', [rows, cols]);
end
for n = 1:M
disp(mydata(n).time), disp(mydata(n).month)
disp(mydata(n).raindata)
end
% close the file
fclose(fid);
17.5700
NaN
12.0100
17.9200
28.4900
17.4000
17.0600
11.0900
9.5900
9.3300
NaN
0.3100
0.2300
10.4600
13.1700
NaN
14.8900
19.3300
20.9700
19.5000
17.6500
14.4500
14.0000
18.2300
10.3400
17.9500
16.4600
19.3400
09:10:02
July-2012
12.7600
16.9400
14.3800
11.8600
16.8900
20.4600
23.1700
NaN
24.8900
19.3300
30.9700
49.5000
47.6500
24.4500
34.0000
18.2300
30.3400
27.9500
16.4600
19.3400
30.4600
33.1700
NaN
34.8900
29.3300
30.9700
49.5000
47.6500
24.4500
34.0000
28.6700
30.3400
27.9500
36.4600
29.3400
15:03:40
August-2012
17.0900
16.5500
19.5900
17.2500
19.2200
17.5400
11.4500
13.4800
22.5500
24.0100
NaN
21.1900
25.8500
25.0500
27.2100
26.7900
24.9800
12.2300
16.9900
18.6700
17.5400
11.4500
13.4800
22.5500
24.0100
NaN
21.1900
25.8500
25.0500
27.2100
26.7900
24.9800
12.2300
16.9900
18.6700
where, my_data.out is the delimited ASCII data file created, num_array is a numeric array and ASCII is the
specifier.
Syntax for using the dlmwrite function is:
dlmwrite('my_data.out', num_array, 'dlm_char')
where, my_data.out is the delimited ASCII data file created, num_array is a numeric array and dlm_char is the
delimiter character.
Example
The following example demonstrates the concept. Create a script file and type the following code:
num_array = [ 1 2 3 4 ; 4 5 6 7; 7 8 9 0];
save array_data1.out num_array -ASCII;
type array_data1.out
dlmwrite('array_data2.out', num_array, ' ');
type array_data2.out
2.0000000e+00
5.0000000e+00
8.0000000e+00
3.0000000e+00
6.0000000e+00
9.0000000e+00
4.0000000e+00
7.0000000e+00
0.0000000e+00
1 2 3 4
4 5 6 7
7 8 9 0
Please note that the save -ascii command and the dlmwrite command does not work with cell arrays as input. To
create a delimited ASCII file from the contents of a cell array, you can
Either, convert the cell array to a matrix using the cell2mat function
Or export the cell array using low-level file I/O functions.
If you use the save function to write a character array to an ASCII file, it writes the ASCII equivalent of the characters
to the file.
For example, let us write the word 'hello' to a file:
h = 'hello';
save textdata.out h -ascii
type textdata.out
MATLAB executes the above statements and displays the following result:
1.0400000e+02
1.0100000e+02
1.0800000e+02
1.0800000e+02
1.1100000e+02
Which are the characters of the string 'hello' in 8-digit ASCII format.
Optionally, you can give the name of the log file, say:
diary logdata.out
Example
Create a script file and type the following code in it:
% create a matrix y, with two rows
x = 0:10:100;
y = [x; log(x)];
% open a file for writing
fid = fopen('logtable.txt', 'w');
% Table Header
fprintf(fid, 'Log
Function\n\n');
Function
0.000000
10.000000
20.000000
30.000000
40.000000
50.000000
60.000000
70.000000
80.000000
90.000000
100.000000
-Inf
2.302585
2.995732
3.401197
3.688879
3.912023
4.094345
4.248495
4.382027
4.499810
4.605170
MATLAB - Plotting
To plot the graph of a function, you need to take the following steps:
1. Define x, by specifying the range of values for the variable x, for which the function is to be plotted
2. Define the function, y = f(x)
3. Call the plot command, as plot(x, y)
Following example would demonstrate the concept. Let us plot the simple function y = x for the range of values for x
from 0 to 100, with an increment of 5.
Create a script file and type the following code:
x = [0:5:100];
y = x;
plot(x, y)
When you run the file, MATLAB displays the following plot:
Let us take one more example to plot the function y = x2. In this example, we will draw two graphs with the same
function, but in second time, we will reduce the value of increment. Please note that as we decrease the increment,
the graph becomes smoother.
Create a script file and type the following code:
x = [1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10];
x = [-100:20:100];
y = x.^2;
plot(x, y)
When you run the file, MATLAB displays the following plot:
Example
Create a script file and type the following code:
x = [0:0.01:10];
y = sin(x);
plot(x, y), xlabel('x'), ylabel('Sin(x)'), title('Sin(x) Graph'),
grid on, axis equal
Example
Create a script file and type the following code:
x = [0 : 0.01: 10];
y = sin(x);
g = cos(x);
plot(x, y, x, g, '.-'), legend('Sin(x)', 'Cos(x)')
Black
Blue
Red
Cyan
Green
Magenta
Yellow
Example
Let us draw the graph of two polynomials
1. f(x) = 3x4 + 2x3+ 7x2 + 2x + 9 and
2. g(x) = 5x3 + 9x + 2
Create a script file and type the following code:
x = [-10 : 0.01: 10];
y = 3*x.^4 + 2 * x.^3 + 7 * x.^2 + 2 * x + 9;
g = 5 * x.^3 + 9 * x + 2;
plot(x, y, 'r', x, g, 'g')
When you run the file, MATLAB generates the following graph:
Example
Create a script file and type the following code:
x = [0 : 0.01: 10];
y = exp(-x).* sin(2*x + 3);
plot(x, y), axis([0 10 -1 1])
When you run the file, MATLAB generates the following graph:
Generating Sub-Plots
When you create an array of plots in the same figure, each of these plots is called a subplot. The subplot command
is for creating subplots.
where, m and n are the number of rows and columns of the plot array and p specifies where to put a particular plot.
Each plot created with the subplot command can have its own characteristics. Following example demonstrates the
concept:
Example
Let us generate two plots:
y = e1.5xsin(10x)
y = e2xsin(10x)
Create a script file and type the following code:
x = [0:0.01:5];
y = exp(-1.5*x).*sin(10*x);
subplot(1,2,1)
plot(x,y), xlabel('x'),ylabel('exp(1.5x)*sin(10x)'),axis([0 5 -1 1])
y = exp(-2*x).*sin(10*x);
subplot(1,2,2)
plot(x,y),xlabel('x'),ylabel('exp(2x)*sin(10x)'),axis([0 5 -1 1])
When you run the file, MATLAB generates the following graph:
MATLAB - Graphics
This chapter will continue exploring the plotting and graphics capabilities of MATLAB. We will discuss:
Drawing bar charts
Drawing contours
Three dimensional plots
Example
Let us have an imaginary classroom with 10 students. We know the percent of marks obtained by these students are
75, 58, 90, 87, 50, 85, 92, 75, 60 and 95. We will draw the bar chart for this data.
Create a script file and type the following code:
x = [1:10];
y = [75, 58, 90, 87, 50, 85, 92, 75, 60, 95];
bar(x,y), xlabel('Student'),ylabel('Score'),
title('First Sem:')
print -deps graph.eps
When you run the file, MATLAB displays the following bar chart:
Drawing Contours
A contour line of a function of two variables is a curve along which the function has a constant value. Contour lines
are used for creating contour maps by joining points of equal elevation above a given level, such as mean sea level.
MATLAB provides a contour function for drawing contour maps.
Example
Let us generate a contour map that shows the contour lines for a given function g = f(x, y). This function has two
variables. So, we will have to generate two independent variables, i.e., two data sets x and y. This is done by calling
the meshgrid command.
The meshgrid command is used for generating a matrix of elements that give the range over x and y along with the
specification of increment in each case.
Let us plot our function g = f(x, y), where 5 x 5, 3 y 3. Let us take an increment of 0.1 for both the values.
The variables are set as:
[x,y] = meshgrid(5:0.1:5, 3:0.1:3);
When you run the file, MATLAB displays the following contour map:
When you run the file, MATLAB displays the following contour map:
Example
Let us create a 3D surface map for the function g = xe-(x2 + y2)
Create a script file and type the following code:
[x,y] = meshgrid(-2:.2:2);
g = x .* exp(-x.^2 - y.^2);
surf(x, y, g)
print -deps graph.eps
When you run the file, MATLAB displays the following 3-D map:
You can also use the mesh command to generate a three-dimensional surface. However, the surf command
displays both the connecting lines and the faces of the surface in color, whereas, the mesh command creates a
wireframe surface with colored lines connecting the defining points.
MATLAB - Algebra
So far, we have seen that all the examples work in MATLAB as well as its GNU, alternatively called Octave. But for
solving basic algebraic equations, both MATLAB and Octave are little different, so we will try to cover MATLAB and
Octave in separate sections.
We will also discuss factorizing and simplification of algebraic expressions.
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
ans =
5
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
y =
5
You may even not include the right hand side of the equation:
solve('x-5')
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
ans =
5
If the equation involves multiple symbols, then MATLAB by default assumes that you are solving for x, however, the
solve command has another form:
solve(equation, variable)
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
ans =
3*t^2 + u
Octave will execute the above statement and return the following result:
ans =
5
Octave will execute the above statement and return the following result:
y =
5
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
ans =
3
3
7
In case of higher order equations, roots are long containing many terms. You can get the numerical value of such
roots by converting them to double. The following example solves the fourth order equation x 4 7x3 + 3x2 5x + 9 = 0.
Create a script file and type the following code:
eq = 'x^4 - 7*x^3 + 3*x^2 - 5*x + 9 = 0';
s = solve(eq);
disp('The first root is: '), disp(s(1));
disp('The second root is: '), disp(s(2));
disp('The third root is: '), disp(s(3));
disp('The fourth root is: '), disp(s(4));
% converting the roots to double type
disp('Numeric value of first root'), disp(double(s(1)));
disp('Numeric value of second root'), disp(double(s(2)));
disp('Numeric value of third root'), disp(double(s(3)));
disp('Numeric value of fourth root'), disp(double(s(4)));
Please note that the last two roots are complex numbers.
3, -5, 9];
s = roots(v);
% converting the roots
disp('Numeric value of
disp('Numeric value of
disp('Numeric value of
disp('Numeric value of
to double type
first root'), disp(double(s(1)));
second root'), disp(double(s(2)));
third root'), disp(double(s(3)));
fourth root'), disp(double(s(4)));
In same way, you can solve larger linear systems. Consider the following set of equations:
x + 3y -2z = 5
3x + 5y + 6z = 7
2x + 4y + 3z = 8
We have a little different approach to solve a system of 'n' linear equations in 'n' unknowns. Let us take up a simple
example to demonstrate this use.
Let us solve the equations:
5x + 9y = 5
3x 6y = 4
Such a system of linear equations can be written as the single matrix equation Ax = b, where A is the coefficient
matrix, b is the column vector containing the right-hand side of the linear equations and x is the column vector
representing the solution as shown in the below program:
Create a script file and type the following code:
A = [5, 9; 3, -6];
b = [5;4];
A \ b
In same way, you can solve larger linear systems as given below:
x + 3y -2z = 5
3x + 5y + 6z = 7
2x + 4y + 3z = 8
% expanding equations
expand((x-5)*(x+9))
expand((x+2)*(x-3)*(x-5)*(x+7))
expand(Sin(2*x))
expand(Cos(x+y))
% collecting equations
collect(x^3 *(x-7), z)
collect(x^4*(x-3)*(x-5), z)
ans =
-45.0+x^2+(4.0)*x
ans =
210.0+x^4-(43.0)*x^2+x^3+(23.0)*x
ans =
sin((2.0)*x)
ans =
cos(y+x)
ans =
x^(3.0)*(-7.0+x)
ans =
(-3.0+x)*x^(4.0)*(-5.0+x)
Example
Create a script file and type the following code:
syms x
syms y
factor(x^3 - y^3)
factor([x^2-y^2,x^3+y^3])
simplify((x^4-16)/(x^2-4))
MATLAB - Calculus
MATLAB provides various ways for solving problems of differential and integral calculus, solving differential equations
of any degree and calculation of limits. Best of all, you can easily plot the graphs of complex functions and check
maxima, minima and other stationery points on a graph by solving the original function, as well as its derivative.
In this chapter and in coming couple of chapters, we will deal with the problems of calculus. In this chapter, we will
discuss pre-calculus concepts i.e., calculating limits of functions and verifying the properties of limits.
In the next chapter Differential, we will compute derivative of an expression and find the local maxima and minima on
a graph. We will also discuss solving differential equations.
Finally, in the Integration chapter, we will discuss integral calculus.
Calculating Limits
MATLAB provides the limit command for calculating limits. In its most basic form, the limit command takes
expression as an argument and finds the limit of the expression as the independent variable goes to zero.
For example, let us calculate the limit of a function f(x) = (x3 + 5)/(x4 + 7), as x tends to zero.
syms x
limit((x^3 + 5)/(x^4 + 7))
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
ans =
5/7
The limit command falls in the realm of symbolic computing; you need to use the syms command to tell MATLAB
which symbolic variables you are using. You can also compute limit of a function, as the variable tends to some
number other than zero. To calculate lim x->a(f(x)), we use the limit command with arguments. The first being the
expression and the second is the number, that x approaches, here it is a.
For example, let us calculate limit of a function f(x) = (x-3)/(x-1), as x tends to 1.
limit((x - 3)/(x-1),1)
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
ans =
NaN
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
ans =
14
symbols
x=sym("x");
subs((x^3+5)/(x^4+7),x,0)
Octave will execute the above statement and return the following result:
ans =
0.7142857142857142857
Example
Create a script file and type the following code into it:
syms x
f = (3*x + 5)/(x-3);
g = x^2 + 1;
l1 = limit(f, 4)
l2 = limit (g, 4)
lAdd = limit(f + g, 4)
lSub = limit(f - g, 4)
lMult = limit(f*g, 4)
lDiv = limit (f/g, 4)
Octave will execute the above statement and return the following result:
l1 =
17.0
l2 =
17.0
lAdd =
34.0
lSub =
0.0
lMult =
289.0
lDiv =
1.0
Example
Create a script file and type the following code into it:
f = (x - 3)/abs(x-3);
ezplot(f,[-1,5])
l = limit(f,x,3,'left')
r = limit(f,x,3,'right')
When you run the file, MATLAB draws the following plot,
MATLAB - Calculus
MATLAB provides various ways for solving problems of differential and integral calculus, solving differential equations
of any degree and calculation of limits. Best of all, you can easily plot the graphs of complex functions and check
maxima, minima and other stationery points on a graph by solving the original function, as well as its derivative.
In this chapter and in coming couple of chapters, we will deal with the problems of calculus. In this chapter, we will
discuss pre-calculus concepts i.e., calculating limits of functions and verifying the properties of limits.
In the next chapter Differential, we will compute derivative of an expression and find the local maxima and minima on
a graph. We will also discuss solving differential equations.
Finally, in the Integration chapter, we will discuss integral calculus.
Calculating Limits
MATLAB provides the limit command for calculating limits. In its most basic form, the limit command takes
expression as an argument and finds the limit of the expression as the independent variable goes to zero.
For example, let us calculate the limit of a function f(x) = (x3 + 5)/(x4 + 7), as x tends to zero.
syms x
limit((x^3 + 5)/(x^4 + 7))
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
ans =
5/7
The limit command falls in the realm of symbolic computing; you need to use the syms command to tell MATLAB
which symbolic variables you are using. You can also compute limit of a function, as the variable tends to some
number other than zero. To calculate lim x->a(f(x)), we use the limit command with arguments. The first being the
expression and the second is the number, that x approaches, here it is a.
For example, let us calculate limit of a function f(x) = (x-3)/(x-1), as x tends to 1.
limit((x - 3)/(x-1),1)
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
ans =
NaN
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
ans =
14
Octave will execute the above statement and return the following result:
ans =
0.7142857142857142857
Example
Create a script file and type the following code into it:
syms x
f = (3*x + 5)/(x-3);
g = x^2 + 1;
l1 = limit(f, 4)
l2 = limit (g, 4)
lAdd = limit(f + g, 4)
lSub = limit(f - g, 4)
lMult = limit(f*g, 4)
lDiv = limit (f/g, 4)
17
l2 =
17
lAdd =
34
lSub =
0
lMult =
289
lDiv =
1
Octave will execute the above statement and return the following result:
l1 =
17.0
l2 =
17.0
lAdd =
34.0
lSub =
0.0
lMult =
289.0
lDiv =
1.0
Example
Create a script file and type the following code into it:
f = (x - 3)/abs(x-3);
ezplot(f,[-1,5])
l = limit(f,x,3,'left')
r = limit(f,x,3,'right')
When you run the file, MATLAB draws the following plot,
MATLAB - Differential
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MATLAB provides the diff command for computing symbolic derivatives. In its simplest form, you pass the function
you want to differentiate to diff command as an argument.
For example, let us compute the derivative of the function f(t) = 3t 2 + 2t-2
Example
Create a script file and type the following code into it:
syms t
f = 3*t^2 + 2*t^(-2);
diff(f)
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result:
ans =
6*t - 4/t^3
RULE 1
For any functions f and g and any real numbers a and b the derivative of the function:
h(x) = af(x) + bg(x) with respect to x is given by:
h'(x) = af'(x) + bg'(x)
RULE 2
The sum and subtraction rules state that if f and g are two functions, f' and g' are their derivatives respectively, then,
(f + g)' = f' + g'
(f - g)' = f' - g'
RULE 3
The product rule states that if f and g are two functions, f' and g' are their derivatives respectively, then,
(f.g)' = f'.g + g'.f
RULE 4
The quotient rule states that if f and g are two functions, f' and g' are their derivatives respectively, then,
(f/g)' = (f'.g - g'.f)/g2
RULE 5
The polynomial or elementary power rule states that, if y = f(x) = xn, then f' = n. x(n-1)
A direct outcome of this rule is derivative of any constant is zero, i.e., if y = k, any constant, then
f' = 0
RULE 6
The chain rule states that, The derivative of the function of a function h(x) = f(g(x)) with respect to x is,
h'(x)= f'(g(x)).g'(x)
Example
Create a script file and type the following code into it:
syms x
syms t
f = (x + 2)*(x^2 + 3)
der1 = diff(f)
f = (t^2 + 3)*(sqrt(t) + t^3)
der2 = diff(f)
f = (x^2 - 2*x + 1)*(3*x^3 - 5*x^2 + 2)
der3 = diff(f)
f = (2*x^2 + 3*x)/(x^3 + 1)
der4 = diff(f)
f = (x^2 + 1)^17
der5 = diff(f)
f = (t^3 + 3* t^2 + 5*t -9)^(-6)
der6 = diff(f)
When you run the file, MATLAB displays the following result:
f =
(x^2 + 3)*(x + 2)
der1 =
2*x*(x + 2) + x^2 + 3
f =
(t^(1/2) + t^3)*(t^2 + 3)
der2 =
(t^2 + 3)*(3*t^2 + 1/(2*t^(1/2))) + 2*t*(t^(1/2) + t^3)
f =
(x^2 - 2*x + 1)*(3*x^3 - 5*x^2 + 2)
der3 =
(2*x - 2)*(3*x^3 - 5*x^2 + 2) - (- 9*x^2 + 10*x)*(x^2 - 2*x + 1)
f =
(2*x^2 + 3*x)/(x^3 + 1)
der4 =
(4*x + 3)/(x^3 + 1) - (3*x^2*(2*x^2 + 3*x))/(x^3 + 1)^2
f =
(x^2 + 1)^17
der5 =
34*x*(x^2 + 1)^16
f =
1/(t^3 + 3*t^2 + 5*t - 9)^6
der6 =
-(6*(3*t^2 + 6*t + 5))/(t^3 + 3*t^2 + 5*t - 9)^7
ca.x
ex
ln x
1/x
lncx
1/x.ln c
xx.(1 + ln x)
sin(x)
cos(x)
cos(x)
-sin(x)
tan(x)
cot(x)
sec(x)
sec(x).tan(x)
csc(x)
-csc(x).cot(x)
Example
Create a script file and type the following code into it:
syms x
y = exp(x)
diff(y)
y = x^9
diff(y)
y = sin(x)
diff(y)
y = tan(x)
diff(y)
y = cos(x)
diff(y)
y = log(x)
diff(y)
y = log10(x)
diff(y)
y = sin(x)^2
diff(y)
y = cos(3*x^2 + 2*x + 1)
diff(y)
y = exp(x)/sin(x)
diff(y)
When you run the file, MATLAB displays the following result:
y =
exp(x)
ans =
exp(x)
y =
x^9
ans =
9*x^8
y =
sin(x)
ans =
cos(x)
y =
tan(x)
ans =
tan(x)^2 + 1
y =
cos(x)
ans =
-sin(x)
y =
log(x)
ans =
1/x
y =
log(x)/log(10)
ans =
1/(x*log(10))
y =
sin(x)^2
ans =
2*cos(x)*sin(x)
y =
cos(3*x^2 + 2*x + 1)
ans =
-sin(3*x^2 + 2*x + 1)*(6*x + 2)
y =
exp(x)/sin(x)
ans =
exp(x)/sin(x) - (exp(x)*cos(x))/sin(x)^2
Example
In this example, let us solve a problem. Given that a function y = f(x) = 3 sin(x) + 7 cos(5x). We will have to find out
whether the equation f" + f = -5cos(2x) holds true.
Create a script file and type the following code into it:
syms x
y = 3*sin(x)+7*cos(5*x); % defining the function
lhs = diff(y,2)+y;
%evaluting the lhs of the equation
rhs = -5*cos(2*x);
%rhs of the equation
if(isequal(lhs,rhs))
disp('Yes, the equation holds true');
else
disp('No, the equation does not hold true');
end
disp('Value of LHS is: '), disp(lhs);
sym("x");
3*Sin(x)+7*Cos(5*x);
= differentiate(y, x, 2) + y;
= -5*Cos(2*x);
if(lhs == rhs)
disp('Yes, the equation holds true');
else
disp('No, the equation does not hold true');
end
Example
Let us find the stationary points of the function f(x) = 2x3 + 3x2 12x + 17
Take the following steps:
1. First let us enter the function and plot its graph:
2.
3.
syms x
y = 2*x^3 + 3*x^2 - 12*x + 17;
ezplot(y)
4.
Our aim is to find some local maxima and minima on the graph, so let us find the local maxima and minima
for the interval [-2, 2] on the graph.
5.
6.
syms x
y = 2*x^3 + 3*x^2 - 12*x + 17;
7.
8.
Let us solve the derivative function, g, to get the values where it becomes zero.
s = solve(g)
9.
This agrees with our plot. So let us evaluate the function f at the critical points x = 1, -2. We can substitute a
value in a symbolic function by using the subs command.
subs(y, 1), subs(y, -2)
Therefore, The minimum and maximum values on the function f(x) = 2x 3 + 3x2 12x + 17, in the interval [2,2] are 10 and 37.
For the purpose of using dsolve command, derivatives are indicated with a D. For example, an equation like f'(t) = 2*f + cost(t) is entered as:
'Df = -2*f + cos(t)'
Higher derivatives are indicated by following D by the order of the derivative.
For example the equation f"(x) + 2f'(x) = 5sin3x should be entered as:
'D2y + 2Dy = 5*sin(3*x)'
Let us take up a simple example of a first order differential equation: y' = 5y.
s = dsolve('Dy = 5*y')
Let us take up another example of a second order differential equation as: y" - y = 0, y(0) = -1, y'(0) = 2.
dsolve('D2y - y = 0','y(0) = -1','Dy(0) = 2')
MATLAB - Integration
Integration deals with two essentially different types of problems.
In the first type, derivative of a function is given and we want to find the function. Therefore, we basically
reverse the process of differentiation. This reverse process is known as anti-differentiation, or finding the
primitive function, or finding an indefinite integral.
The second type of problems involve adding up a very large number of very small quantities and then taking
a limit as the size of the quantities approaches zero, while the number of terms tend to infinity. This process
leads to the definition of the definite integral.
Definite integrals are used for finding area, volume, center of gravity, moment of inertia, work done by a force, and in
numerous other applications.
MATLAB executes the above statement and returns the following result:
ans =
x^2
Example 1
In this example, let us find the integral of some commonly used expressions. Create a script file and type the
following code in it:
syms x n
int(sym(x^n))
f = 'sin(n*t)'
int(sym(f))
syms a t
int(a*cos(pi*t))
int(a^x)
Example 2
Create a script file and type the following code in it:
syms x n
int(cos(x))
int(exp(x))
int(log(x))
int(x^-1)
int(x^5*cos(5*x))
pretty(int(x^5*cos(5*x)))
int(x^-5)
int(sec(x)^2)
pretty(int(1 - 10*x + 9 * x^2))
int((3 + 5*x -6*x^2 - 7*x^3)/2*x^2)
pretty(int((3 + 5*x -6*x^2 - 7*x^3)/2*x^2))
Note that the pretty command returns an expression in a more readable format.
When you run the file, it displays the following result:
ans =
sin(x)
ans =
exp(x)
ans =
x*(log(x) - 1)
ans =
log(x)
ans =
(24*cos(5*x))/3125 + (24*x*sin(5*x))/625 - (12*x^2*cos(5*x))/125 + (x^4*cos(5*x))/5 - (4*x^3*sin(5*x))/25 + (x^5*sin(5*x))/5
2
4
24 cos(5 x)
24 x sin(5 x)
12 x cos(5 x)
x cos(5 x)
----------- + ------------- - -------------- + ----------- 3125
625
125
5
3
4 x sin(5 x)
x sin(5 x)
------------- + ----------25
5
ans =
-1/(4*x^4)
ans =
tan(x)
2
x (3 x
- 5 x + 1)
ans =
- (7*x^6)/12 - (3*x^5)/5 + (5*x^4)/8 + x^3/2
6
7 x
5
3 x
4
5 x
3
x
we write,
int(x, a, b)
we write:
int(x, 4, 9)
MATLAB executes the above statement and returns the following result:
ans =
65/2
An alternative solution can be given using quad() function provided by Octave as follows:
pkg load symbolic
symbols
f = inline("x");
[a, ierror, nfneval] = quad(f, 4, 9);
display('Area: '), disp(double(a));
Example 1
Let us calculate the area enclosed between the x-axis, and the curve y = x32x+5 and the ordinates x = 1 and x = 2.
The required area is given by:
An alternative solution can be given using quad() function provided by Octave as follows:
Example 2
Find the area under the curve: f(x) = x2 cos(x) for 4 x 9.
Create a script file and write the following code:
f = x^2*cos(x);
ezplot(f, [-4,9])
a = int(f, -4, 9)
disp('Area: '), disp(double(a));
MATLAB - Polynomials
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MATLAB represents polynomials as row vectors containing coefficients ordered by descending powers. For example,
the equation P(x) = x4 + 7x3 - 5x + 9 could be represented as:
p = [1 7 0 -5 9];
Evaluating Polynomials
The polyval function is used for evaluating a polynomial at a specified value. For example, to evaluate our previous
polynomial p, at x = 4, type:
p = [1 7 0 -5 9];
polyval(p,4)
MATLAB executes the above statements and returns the following result:
ans =
693
MATLAB also provides the polyvalm function for evaluating a matrix polynomial. A matrix polynomial is a
polynomial with matrices as variables.
For example, let us create a square matrix X and evaluate the polynomial p, at X:
p = [1 7 0 -5 9];
X = [1 2 -3 4; 2 -5 6 3; 3 1 0 2; 5 -7 3 8];
polyvalm(p, X)
MATLAB executes the above statements and returns the following result:
ans =
2307
2314
2256
4570
-1769
-2376
-1892
-4532
-939
-249
-549
-1062
4499
4695
4310
9269
MATLAB executes the above statements and returns the following result:
r =
-6.8661
-1.4247
0.6454
0.6454
+
+
+
-
0.0000i
0.0000i
0.7095i
0.7095i
The function poly is an inverse of the roots function and returns to the polynomial coefficients. For example:
p2 = poly(r)
MATLAB executes the above statements and returns the following result:
p2 =
1.0000
7.0000
0.0000
-5.0000
9.0000
Example
Create a script file and type the following code:
x = [1 2 3 4 5 6]; y = [5.5 43.1 128 290.7 498.4 978.67]; %data
p = polyfit(x,y,4)
%get the polynomial
% Compute the values of the polyfit estimate over a finer range,
% and plot the estimate over the real data values for comparison:
x2 = 1:.1:6;
y2 = polyval(p,x2);
plot(x,y,'o',x2,y2)
grid on
When you run the file, MATLAB displays the following result:
p =
4.1056
-47.9607
222.2598 -362.7453
191.1250
MATLAB - Transforms
MATLAB provides command for working with transforms, such as the Laplace and Fourier transforms. Transforms
are used in science and engineering as a tool for simplifying analysis and look at data from another angle.
For example, the Fourier transform allows us to convert a signal represented as a function of time to a function of
frequency. Laplace transform allows us to convert a differential equation to an algebraic equation.
MATLAB provides the laplace, fourier and fft commands to work with Laplace, Fourier and Fast Fourier transforms.
Laplace transform is also denoted as transform of f(t) to F(s). You can see this transform or integration process
converts f(t), a function of the symbolic variable t, into another function F(s), with another variable s.
Laplace transform turns differential equations into algebraic ones. To compute a Laplace transform of a function f(t),
write:
laplace(f(t))
Example
In this example, we will compute the Laplace transform of some commonly used functions.
Create a script file and type the following code:
syms s t a b w
laplace(a)
laplace(t^2)
laplace(t^9)
laplace(exp(-b*t))
laplace(sin(w*t))
laplace(cos(w*t))
MATLAB allows us to compute the inverse Laplace transform using the command ilaplace.
For example,
ilaplace(1/s^3)
MATLAB will execute the above statement and display the result:
ans =
t^2/2
Example
Create a script file and type the following code:
syms s t a b w
ilaplace(1/s^7)
ilaplace(2/(w+s))
ilaplace(s/(s^2+4))
ilaplace(exp(-b*t))
ilaplace(w/(s^2 + w^2))
ilaplace(s/(s^2 + w^2))
Example
Create a script file and type the following code in it:
syms x
f = exp(-2*x^2);
ezplot(f,[-2,2])
FT = fourier(f)
%our function
% plot of our function
% Fourier transform
When you run the file, MATLAB plots the following graph:
MATLAB will execute the above statement and display the result:
f =
-2/(pi*(x^2 + 1))
MATLAB - Transforms
MATLAB provides command for working with transforms, such as the Laplace and Fourier transforms. Transforms
are used in science and engineering as a tool for simplifying analysis and look at data from another angle.
For example, the Fourier transform allows us to convert a signal represented as a function of time to a function of
frequency. Laplace transform allows us to convert a differential equation to an algebraic equation.
MATLAB provides the laplace, fourier and fft commands to work with Laplace, Fourier and Fast Fourier transforms.
Laplace transform is also denoted as transform of f(t) to F(s). You can see this transform or integration process
converts f(t), a function of the symbolic variable t, into another function F(s), with another variable s.
Laplace transform turns differential equations into algebraic ones. To compute a Laplace transform of a function f(t),
write:
laplace(f(t))
Example
In this example, we will compute the Laplace transform of some commonly used functions.
Create a script file and type the following code:
syms s t a b w
laplace(a)
laplace(t^2)
laplace(t^9)
laplace(exp(-b*t))
laplace(sin(w*t))
laplace(cos(w*t))
1/s^2
ans =
2/s^3
ans =
362880/s^10
ans =
1/(b + s)
ans =
w/(s^2 + w^2)
ans =
s/(s^2 + w^2)
MATLAB will execute the above statement and display the result:
ans =
t^2/2
Example
Create a script file and type the following code:
syms s t a b w
ilaplace(1/s^7)
ilaplace(2/(w+s))
ilaplace(s/(s^2+4))
ilaplace(exp(-b*t))
ilaplace(w/(s^2 + w^2))
ilaplace(s/(s^2 + w^2))
Example
Create a script file and type the following code in it:
syms x
f = exp(-2*x^2);
ezplot(f,[-2,2])
FT = fourier(f)
%our function
% plot of our function
% Fourier transform
When you run the file, MATLAB plots the following graph:
MATLAB will execute the above statement and display the result:
f =
-2/(pi*(x^2 + 1))
MATLAB - Simulink
Simulink is a simulation and model-based design environment for dynamic and embedded systems, integrated with
MATLAB. Simulink, also developed by MathWorks, is a data flow graphical programming language tool for modeling,
simulating and analyzing multi-domain dynamic systems. It is basically a graphical block diagramming tool with
customizable set of block libraries.
It allows you to incorporate MATLAB algorithms into models as well as export the simulation results into MATLAB for
further analysis.
Simulink supports:
system-level design
simulation
automatic code generation
testing and verification of embedded systems
There are several other add-on products provided by MathWorks and third-party hardware and software products that
are available for use with Simulink.
The following list gives brief description of some of them:
Stateflow allows developing state machines and flow charts.
Simulink Coder allows to automatically generate C source code for real-time implementation of systems.
xPC Target together with x86-based real-time systems provides an environment to simulate and test
Simulink and Stateflow models in real-time on the physical system.
Embedded Coder supports specific embedded targets.
HDL Coder allows to automatically generate synthesizable VHDL and Verilog
SimEvents provides a library of graphical building blocks for modeling queuing systems
Simulink is capable of systematic verification and validation of models through modeling style checking, requirements
traceability and model coverage analysis.
Simulink Design Verifier allows you identify design errors and generates test case scenarios for model checking.
Using Simulink
To open Simulink, type in the MATLAB work space:
simulink
Simulink opens with the Library Browser. The Library Browser is used for building simulation models.
On the left side window pane, you will find several libraries categorized on the basis of various systems, clicking on
each one will display the design blocks on the right window pane.
Building Models
To create a new model, click the New button on the Library Browser's toolbar. This opens a new untitled model
window
Examples
Drag and drop items from the Simulink library to make your project.
For the purpose of this example, 2 blocks will be used for the simulation - A Source (a signal) and a Sink (a scope).
A signal generator (the source) generates an analog signal, which will then be graphically visualized by the scope(the
sink).
Begin by dragging the required blocks from the library to the project window. Then, connect the blocks together which
can be done by dragging connectors from connection points on one block to those of another.
Let us drag a 'Sine Wave' block into the model.
Select 'Sinks' from the library and drag a 'Scope' block into the model.
Drag a signal line from the output of the Sine Wave block to the input of the Scope block.
Run the simulation by pressing the 'Run' button, keeping all parameters default (you can change them from the
Simulation menu)
You should get the below graph from the scope.
It allows matrix manipulations; plotting of functions and data; implementation of algorithms; creation of user
interfaces; interfacing with programs written in other languages, including C, C++, Java, and Fortran; analyze data;
develop algorithms; and create models and applications.
It has numerous built-in commands and math functions that help you in mathematical calculations, generating plots
and performing numerical methods.
Features of MATLAB
Following are the basic features of MATLAB:
It is a high-level language for numerical computation, visualization and application development.
It also provides an interactive environment for iterative exploration, design and problem solving.
It provides vast library of mathematical functions for linear algebra, statistics, Fourier analysis, filtering,
optimization, numerical integration and solving ordinary differential equations.
It provides built-in graphics for visualizing data and tools for creating custom plots.
MATLAB's programming interface gives development tools for improving code quality and maintainability
and maximizing performance.
It provides tools for building applications with custom graphical interfaces.
It provides functions for integrating MATLAB based algorithms with external applications and languages
such as C, Java, .NET and Microsoft Excel.
Uses of MATLAB
MATLAB is widely used as a computational tool in science and engineering encompassing the fields of physics,
chemistry, math and all engineering streams. It is used in a range of applications including:
Signal Processing and Communications
Image and Video Processing
Control Systems
Test and Measurement
Computational Finance
Computational Biology
MATLAB - Environment
Try it Option Online
You really do not need to set up your own environment to start learning MATLAB/Octave programming language.
Reason is very simple, we already have set up the Octave environment online, so that you can execute all the
available examples online at the same time when you are doing your theory work. This gives you confidence in what
you are reading and to check the result with different options. Feel free to modify any example and execute it online.
Try following example using Try it option available at the top right corner of the below sample code box:
x = [1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10];
y1 = [.16 .08 .04 .02 .013 .007 .004 .002 .001 .0008 ];
y2 = [.16 .07 .03 .01 .008 .003 .0008 .0003 .00007 .00002 ];
semilogy(x,y1,'-bo;y1;',x,y2,'-kx;y2;');
title('Plot title');
xlabel('X Axis');
ylabel('Y Axis');
For most of the examples given in this tutorial, you will find Try it option, so just make use of it and enjoy your
learning.
Command Window - This is the main area where you enter commands at the command line, indicated by
the command prompt (>>).
Workspace - The workspace shows all the variables you create and/or import from files.
Command History - This panels shows or rerun commands that you entered at the command line.
Hands on Practice
Type a valid expression, for example,
5 + 5
When you click the Execute button, or type Ctrl+E, MATLAB executes it immediately and the result returned is:
ans = 9
Another example,
sin(pi /2)
When you click the Execute button, or type Ctrl+E, MATLAB executes it immediately and the result returned is:
ans = 1
Another example,
7/0
% Divide by zero
When you click the Execute button, or type Ctrl+E, MATLAB executes it immediately and the result returned is:
ans = Inf
Another example,
732 * 20.3
When you click the Execute button, or type Ctrl+E, MATLAB executes it immediately and the result returned is:
ans =
1.4860e+04
MATLAB provides some special expressions for some mathematical symbols, like pi for , Inf for , i (and j) for -1
etc. Nan stands for 'not a number'.
When you click the Execute button, or type Ctrl+E, MATLAB executes it immediately and the result returned is:
y =
Adding Comments
The percent symbol (%) is used for indicating a comment line. For example,
x = 9
You can also write a block of comments using the block comment operators % { and % }.
The MATLAB editor includes tools and context menu items to help you add, remove, or change the format of
comments.
.*
.^
Left-division operator.
Right-division operator.
.\
./
Colon; generates regularly spaced elements and represents an entire row or column.
()
[]
Decimal point.
._
Assignment operator.
Name
Meaning
ans
eps
i,j
Inf
Infinity.
NaN
pi
The number
Naming Variables
Variable names consist of a letter followed by any number of letters, digits or underscore.
MATLAB is case-sensitive.
Variable names can be of any length, however, MATLAB uses only first N characters, where N is given by the
function namelengthmax.
You can reload the file anytime later using the load command.
load myfile
MATLAB - Variables
In MATLAB environment, every variable is an array or matrix.
You can assign variables in a simple way. For example,
x = 3
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
x =
3
It creates a 1-by-1 matrix named x and stores the value 3 in its element. Let us check another example,
x = sqrt(16)
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
x =
4
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
ans =
8.8318
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
ans =
1.1182e+03
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
y =
441.8400
Multiple Assignments
You can have multiple assignments on the same line. For example,
a = 2; b = 7; c = a * b
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
c =
14
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
Your variables are:
a
ans b
c
x
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
Name
Size
a
ans
b
c
x
y
1x1
1x1
1x1
1x1
1x1
1x1
Bytes
8
8
8
8
8
8
Class
Attributes
double
double
double
double
double
double
The clear command deletes all (or the specified) variable(s) from the memory.
clear x
clear
Long Assignments
Long assignments can be extended to another line by using an ellipses (...). For example,
initial_velocity = 0;
acceleration = 9.8;
time = 20;
final_velocity = initial_velocity ...
+ acceleration * time
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
final_velocity =
196
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
x =
17.231981640639408
Another example,
format short
x = 7 + 10/3 + 5 ^ 1.2
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
x =
17.2320
The format bank command rounds numbers to two decimal places. For example,
format bank
daily_wage = 177.45;
weekly_wage = daily_wage * 6
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
weekly_wage =
1064.70
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
ans =
2.2922e+01
The format long e command allows displaying in exponential form with four decimal places plus the exponent. For
example,
format long e
x = pi
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
x =
3.141592653589793e+00
The format rat command gives the closest rational expression resulting from a calculation. For example,
format rat
4.678 * 4.9
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
ans =
2063/90
Creating Vectors
A vector is a one-dimensional array of numbers. MATLAB allows creating two types of vectors:
Row vectors
Column vectors
Row vectors are created by enclosing the set of elements in square brackets, using space or comma to delimit the
elements.
For example,
r = [7 8 9 10 11]
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
r =
Columns 1 through 4
7
8
Column 5
11
10
Another example,
r = [7 8 9 10 11];
t = [2, 3, 4, 5, 6];
res = r + t
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
res =
Columns 1 through 4
9
11
Column 5
17
13
15
Column vectors are created by enclosing the set of elements in square brackets, using semicolon(;) to delimit the
elements.
c = [7;
8;
9;
10; 11]
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
c =
7
8
9
10
11
Creating Matrices
A matrix is a two-dimensional array of numbers.
In MATLAB, a matrix is created by entering each row as a sequence of space or comma separated elements, and
end of a row is demarcated by a semicolon. For example, let us create a 3-by-3 matrix as:
m = [1 2 3; 4 5 6; 7 8 9]
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
m =
1
4
7
2
5
8
3
6
9
MATLAB - Commands
MATLAB is an interactive program for numerical computation and data visualization. You can enter a command by
typing it at the MATLAB prompt '>>' on the Command Window.
In this section, we will provide lists of commonly used general MATLAB commands.
clear
exist
global
help
lookfor
quit
Stops MATLAB.
who
whos
date
delete
Deletes a file.
diary
dir
load
path
pwd
save
type
what
wklread
fscanf
format
fprintf
input
;
Suppresses screen printing.
The fscanf and fprintf commands behave like C scanf and printf functions. They support the following format codes:
Format Code
Purpose
%s
Format as a string.
%d
Format as an integer.
%f
%e
%g
\n
\t
Insert a tab in the output string.
The format function has the following forms used for numeric display:
Format Function
Display up to
format short
format long
16 decimal digits.
format short e
format long e
format bank
format +
format rat
Rational approximation.
format compact
format loose
Concatenates arrays.
find
length
linspace
logspace
max
min
prod
reshape
Changes size.
size
sort
sum
eye
ones
zeros
cross
dot
det
inv
pinv
rank
rref
cell
celldisp
cellplot
num2cell
deal
iscell
Plotting Commands
MATLAB provides numerous commands for plotting graphs. The following table shows some of the commonly used
commands for plotting:
Command
Purpose
axis
fplot
grid
Displays gridlines.
plot
Generates xy plot.
title
xlabel
ylabel
axes
close
close all
figure
gtext
hold
legend
refresh
set
subplot
text
bar
loglog
polar
semilogx
semilogy
stairs
stem
MATLAB - M-Files
So far, we have used MATLAB environment as a calculator. However, MATLAB is also a powerful programming
language, as well as an interactive computational environment.
In previous chapters, you have learned how to enter commands from the MATLAB command prompt. MATLAB also
allows you to write series of commands into a file and execute the file as complete unit, like writing a function and
calling it.
The M Files
MATLAB allows writing two kinds of program files:
Scripts - script files are program files with .m extension. In these files, you write series of commands,
which you want to execute together. Scripts do not accept inputs and do not return any outputs. They
operate on data in the workspace.
Functions - functions files are also program files with .m extension. Functions can accept inputs and return
outputs. Internal variables are local to the function.
You can use the MATLAB Editor or any other text editor to create your .m files. In this section, we will discuss the
script files. A script file contains multiple sequential lines of MATLAB commands and function calls. You can run a
script by typing its name at the command line.
The above command will create the file in default MATLAB directory. If you want to store all program files in a specific
folder, then you will have to provide the entire path.
Let us create a folder named progs. Type the following commands at the command prompt(>>):
mkdir progs
chdir progs
edit prog1.m
If you are creating the file for first time, MATLAB prompts you to confirm it. Click Yes.
Alternatively, if you are using the IDE, choose NEW -> Script. This also opens the editor and creates a file named
Untitled. You can name and save the file after typing the code.
Type the following code in the editor:
NoOfStudents = 6000;
TeachingStaff = 150;
NonTeachingStaff = 20;
Total = NoOfStudents + TeachingStaff ...
+ NonTeachingStaff;
disp(Total);
After creating and saving the file, you can run it in two ways:
Clicking the Run button on the editor window or
Just typing the filename (without extension) in the command prompt: >> prog1
The command window prompt displays the result:
6170
Example
Create a script file, and type the following code:
a
c
d
e
f
=
=
=
=
=
5; b = 7;
a + b
c + sin(b)
5 * d
exp(-d)
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result:
c =
12
d =
12.6570
e =
63.2849
f =
3.1852e-06
The above statement creates a 1-by-1 matrix named 'Total' and stores the value 42 in it.
uint8
int16
uint16
int32
uint32
int64
uint64
single
double
logical
char
cell array
array of indexed cells, each capable of storing an array of a different dimension and
data type
structure
C-like structures, each structure having named fields capable of storing an array of a
different dimension and data type
function handle
pointer to a function
user classes
java classes
Example
Create a script file with the following code:
str = 'Hello World!'
n = 2345
d = double(n)
un = uint32(789.50)
rn = 5678.92347
c = int32(rn)
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result:
str =
Hello World!
n =
2345
d =
2345
un =
790
rn =
5.6789e+03
c =
5679
MATLAB provides various functions for converting from one data type to another. The following table shows the data
type conversion functions:
Function
Purpose
char
int2str
mat2str
num2str
str2double
str2num
native2unicode
unicode2native
base2dec
bin2dec
dec2base
dec2bin
dec2hex
hex2dec
hex2num
num2hex
cell2mat
cell2struct
cellstr
mat2cell
num2cell
struct2cell
Detect state
isa
iscell
iscellstr
ischar
isfield
isfloat
ishghandle
isinteger
isjava
islogical
isnumeric
isobject
isreal
isscalar
isstr
isstruct
isvector
class
validateattributes
whos
Example
Create a script file with the following code:
x = 3
isinteger(x)
isfloat(x)
isvector(x)
isscalar(x)
isnumeric(x)
x = 23.54
isinteger(x)
isfloat(x)
isvector(x)
isscalar(x)
isnumeric(x)
x = [1 2 3]
isinteger(x)
isfloat(x)
isvector(x)
isscalar(x)
x = 'Hello'
isinteger(x)
isfloat(x)
isvector(x)
isscalar(x)
isnumeric(x)
MATLAB - Operators
An operator is a symbol that tells the compiler to perform specific mathematical or logical manipulations. MATLAB is
designed to operate primarily on whole matrices and arrays. Therefore, operators in MATLAB work both on scalar
and non-scalar data. MATLAB allows the following types of elementary operations:
Arithmetic Operators
Relational Operators
Logical Operators
Bitwise Operations
Set Operations
Arithmetic Operators
MATLAB allows two different types of arithmetic operations:
Matrix arithmetic operations
Array arithmetic operations
Matrix arithmetic operations are same as defined in linear algebra. Array operations are executed element by
element, both on one-dimensional and multidimensional array.
The matrix operators and array operators are differentiated by the period (.) symbol. However, as the addition and
subtraction operation is same for matrices and arrays, the operator is same for both cases. The following table gives
brief description of the operators:
Show Examples
Operator
Description
+
Addition or unary plus. A+B adds A and B. A and B must have the same size, unless one is a
scalar. A scalar can be added to a matrix of any size.
Subtraction or unary minus. A-B subtracts B from A. A and B must have the same size, unless one
is a scalar. A scalar can be subtracted from a matrix of any size.
Matrix multiplication. C = A*B is the linear algebraic product of the matrices A and B. More
precisely,
*
For nonscalar A and B, the number of columns of A must equal the number of rows of B. A scalar
can multiply a matrix of any size.
.*
Array multiplication. A.*B is the element-by-element product of the arrays A and B. A and B must
have the same size, unless one of them is a scalar.
Slash or matrix right division. B/A is roughly the same as B*inv(A). More precisely, B/A = (A'\B')'.
./
Array right division. A./B is the matrix with elements A(i,j)/B(i,j). A and B must have the same size,
unless one of them is a scalar.
Backslash or matrix left division. If A is a square matrix, A\B is roughly the same as inv(A)*B, except
it is computed in a different way. If A is an n-by-n matrix and B is a column vector with n
components, or a matrix with several such columns, then X = A\B is the solution to the equation AX
= B. A warning message is displayed if A is badly scaled or nearly singular.
.\
Array left division. A.\B is the matrix with elements B(i,j)/A(i,j). A and B must have the same size,
unless one of them is a scalar.
Matrix power. X^p is X to the power p, if p is a scalar. If p is an integer, the power is computed by
repeated squaring. If the integer is negative, X is inverted first. For other values of p, the calculation
involves eigenvalues and eigenvectors, such that if [V,D] = eig(X), then X^p = V*D.^p/V.
.^
Array power. A.^B is the matrix with elements A(i,j) to the B(i,j) power. A and B must have the same
size, unless one of them is a scalar.
'
Matrix transpose. A' is the linear algebraic transpose of A. For complex matrices, this is the
complex conjugate transpose.
.'
Array transpose. A.' is the array transpose of A. For complex matrices, this does not involve
conjugation.
Relational Operators
Relational operators can also work on both scalar and non-scalar data. Relational operators for arrays perform
element-by-element comparisons between two arrays and return a logical array of the same size, with elements set
to logical 1 (true) where the relation is true and elements set to logical 0 (false) where it is not.
The following table shows the relational operators available in MATLAB:
Show Examples
Operator
Description
<
Less than
<=
>
Greater than
>=
==
Equal to
~=
Not equal to
Logical Operators
MATLAB offers two types of logical operators and functions:
Element-wise - these operators operate on corresponding elements of logical arrays.
Short-circuit - these operators operate on scalar, logical expressions.
Element-wise logical operators operate element-by-element on logical arrays. The symbols &, |, and ~ are the logical
array operators AND, OR, and NOT.
Short-circuit logical operators allow short-circuiting on logical operations. The symbols && and || are the logical shortcircuit operators AND and OR.
Show Examples
Bitwise Operations
Bitwise operator works on bits and performs bit-by-bit operation. The truth tables for &, |, and ^ are as follows:
p
q
p&q
p|q
p^q
0
1
0
0
1
1
Assume if A = 60; and B = 13; Now in binary format they will be as follows:
A = 0011 1100
B = 0000 1101
----------------A&B = 0000 1100
A|B = 0011 1101
A^B = 0011 0001
~A = 1100 0011
MATLAB provides various functions for bit-wise operations like 'bitwise and', 'bitwise or' and 'bitwise not' operations,
shift operation, etc.
The following table shows the commonly used bitwise operations:
Show Examples
Function
Purpose
bitand(a, b)
bitcmp(a)
Bit-wise complement of a
bitget(a,pos)
bitor(a, b)
bitset(a, pos)
bitshift(a, k)
Returns a shifted to the left by k bits, equivalent to multiplying by 2k. Negative values of
k correspond to shifting bits right or dividing by 2|k| and rounding to the nearest integer
towards negative infinite. Any overflow bits are truncated.
bitxor(a, b)
swapbytes
Set Operations
MATLAB provides various functions for set operations, like union, intersection and testing for set membership, etc.
The following table shows some commonly used set operations:
Show Examples
Function
Description
intersect(A,B)
Set intersection of two arrays; returns the values common to both A and B. The values
returned are in sorted order.
intersect(A,B,'rows')
Treats each row of A and each row of B as single entities and returns the rows common
to both A and B. The rows of the returned matrix are in sorted order.
ismember(A,B)
Returns an array the same size as A, containing 1 (true) where the elements of A are
found in B. Elsewhere, it returns 0 (false).
ismember(A,B,'rows')
Treats each row of A and each row of B as single entities and returns a vector
containing 1 (true) where the rows of matrix A are also rows of B. Elsewhere, it returns
0 (false).
issorted(A)
Returns logical 1 (true) if the elements of A are in sorted order and logical 0 (false)
otherwise. Input A can be a vector or an N-by-1 or 1-by-N cell array of strings. A is
considered to be sorted if A and the output of sort(A) are equal.
issorted(A, 'rows')
Returns logical 1 (true) if the rows of two-dimensional matrix A are in sorted order, and
logical 0 (false) otherwise. Matrix A is considered to be sorted if A and the output of
sortrows(A) are equal.
setdiff(A,B)
Set difference of two arrays; returns the values in A that are not in B. The values in the
returned array are in sorted order.
setdiff(A,B,'rows')
Treats each row of A and each row of B as single entities and returns the rows from A
that are not in B. The rows of the returned matrix are in sorted order.
The 'rows' option does not support cell arrays.
setxor
union
unique
MATLAB provides following types of decision making statements. Click the following links to check their detail:
Statement
Description
if ... end statement
if...else...end statement
nested if statements
switch statement
You can use one swicth statement inside another switch statement(s).
MATLAB provides following types of loops to handle looping requirements. Click the following links to check their
detail:
Loop Type
Description
while loop
for loop
Executes a sequence of statements multiple times and abbreviates the code that
manages the loop variable.
nested loops
You can use one or more loops inside any another loop.
continue statement
Causes the loop to skip the remainder of its body and immediately retest its
condition prior to reiterating.
MATLAB - Vectors
A vector is a one-dimensional array of numbers. MATLAB allows creating two types of vectors:
Row vectors
Column vectors
Row Vectors:
Row vectors are created by enclosing the set of elements in square brackets, using space or comma to delimit the
elements.
r = [7 8 9 10 11]
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
r =
Columns 1 through 4
7
8
Column 5
11
Column Vectors:
10
Column vectors are created by enclosing the set of elements in square brackets, using semicolon to delimit the
elements.
c = [7;
8;
9;
10; 11]
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
c =
7
8
9
10
11
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
ans =
3
When you reference a vector with a colon, such as v(:), all the components of the vector are listed.
v = [ 1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6];
v(:)
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
ans =
1
2
3
4
5
6
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
sub_rv =
3
Vector Operations
In this section, let us discuss the following vector operations:
Addition and Subtraction of Vectors
Scalar Multiplication of Vectors
Transpose of a Vector
Appending Vectors
Magnitude of a Vector
Vector Dot Product
Vectors with Uniformly Spaced Elements
MATLAB - Matrix
A matrix is a two-dimensional array of numbers.
In MATLAB, you create a matrix by entering elements in each row as comma or space delimited numbers and using
semicolons to mark the end of each row.
For example, let us create a 4-by-5 matrix a:
a = [ 1 2 3 4 5; 2 3 4 5 6; 3 4 5 6 7; 4 5 6 7 8]
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
a =
1
2
3
4
2
3
4
5
3
4
5
6
4
5
6
7
5
6
7
8
For example, to refer to the element in the 2 nd row and 5th column, of the matrix a, as created in the last section, we
type:
a = [ 1 2 3 4 5; 2 3 4 5 6; 3 4 5 6 7; 4 5 6 7 8];
a(2,5)
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
ans =
6
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
v =
4
5
6
7
You can also select the elements in the m th through nth columns, for this we write:
a(:,m:n)
Let us create a smaller matrix taking the elements from the second and third columns:
a = [ 1 2 3 4 5; 2 3 4 5 6; 3 4 5 6 7; 4 5 6 7 8];
a(:, 2:3)
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
ans =
2
3
4
5
3
4
5
6
In the same way, you can create a sub-matrix taking a sub-part of a matrix.
a = [ 1 2 3 4 5; 2 3 4 5 6; 3 4 5 6 7; 4 5 6 7 8];
a(:, 2:3)
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
ans =
2
3
4
5
3
4
5
6
In the same way, you can create a sub-matrix taking a sub-part of a matrix.
For example, let us create a sub-matrix sa taking the inner subpart of a:
3
4
4
5
5
6
To do this, write:
a = [ 1 2 3 4 5; 2 3 4 5 6; 3 4 5 6 7; 4 5 6 7 8];
sa = a(2:3,2:4)
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
sa =
3
4
4
5
5
6
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
a =
1
2
3
2
3
4
3
4
5
4
5
6
5
6
7
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
a =
1
2
3
4
2
3
4
5
3
4
5
6
4
5
6
7
Example
In this example, let us create a 3-by-3 matrix m, then we will copy the second and third rows of this matrix twice to
create a 4-by-3 matrix.
Create a script file with the following code:
a = [ 1 2 3 ; 4 5 6; 7 8 9];
new_mat = a([2,3,2,3],:)
new_mat =
4
7
4
7
5
8
5
8
6
9
6
9
Matrix Operations
In this section, let us discuss the following basic and commonly used matrix operations:
Addition and Subtraction of Matrices
Division of Matrices
Scalar Operations of Matrices
Transpose of a Matrix
Concatenating Matrices
Matrix Multiplication
Determinant of a Matrix
Inverse of a Matrix
MATLAB - Arrays
In MATLAB, all variables of all data types are multidimensional arrays. A vector is a one-dimensional array and a
matrix is a two-dimensional array.
We have already discussed vectors and matrices. In this chapter, we will discuss multidimensional arrays. However,
before that, let us discuss some special types of arrays.
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
ans =
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
ans =
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
ans =
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
The rand() function creates an array of uniformly distributed random numbers on (0,1):
For example:
rand(3, 5)
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
ans =
0.8147
0.9058
0.1270
0.9134
0.6324
0.0975
0.2785
0.5469
0.9575
0.9649
0.1576
0.9706
0.9572
0.4854
0.8003
A Magic Square
A magic square is a square that produces the same sum, when its elements are added row-wise, column-wise or
diagonally.
The magic() function creates a magic square array. It takes a singular argument that gives the size of the square.
The argument must be a scalar greater than or equal to 3.
magic(4)
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
ans =
16
5
9
4
2
11
7
14
3
10
6
15
13
8
12
1
Multidimensional Arrays
An array having more than two dimensions is called a multidimensional array in MATLAB. Multidimensional arrays in
MATLAB are an extension of the normal two-dimensional matrix.
Generally to generate a multidimensional array, we first create a two-dimensional array and extend it.
For example, let's create a two-dimensional array a.
a = [7 9 5; 6 1 9; 4 3 2]
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
a =
7
6
4
9
1
3
5
9
2
The array a is a 3-by-3 array; we can add a third dimension to a, by providing the values like:
a(:, :, 2)= [ 1 2 3; 4 5 6; 7 8 9]
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
a(:,:,1) =
7
9
6
1
4
3
5
9
2
a(:,:,2) =
1
2
4
5
7
8
3
6
9
We can also create multidimensional arrays using the ones(), zeros() or the rand() functions.
For example,
b = rand(4,3,2)
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
b(:,:,1) =
0.0344
0.4387
0.3816
0.7655
0.7952
0.1869
0.4898
0.4456
0.6463
0.7094
0.7547
0.2760
b(:,:,2) =
0.6797
0.6551
0.1626
0.1190
0.4984
0.9597
0.3404
0.5853
0.2238
0.7513
0.2551
0.5060
We can also use the cat() function to build multidimensional arrays. It concatenates a list of arrays along a specified
dimension:
Syntax for the cat() function is:
B = cat(dim, A1, A2...)
Where,
Example
Create a script file and type the following code into it:
a = [9 8 7; 6 5 4; 3 2 1];
b = [1 2 3; 4 5 6; 7 8 9];
c = cat(3, a, b, [ 2 3 1; 4 7 8; 3 9 0])
7
4
1
3
6
9
1
8
0
Array Functions
MATLAB provides the following functions to sort, rotate, permute, reshape, or shift array contents.
Function
Purpose
length
ndims
numel
size
Array dimensions
iscolumn
isempty
ismatrix
isrow
isscalar
isvector
blkdiag
circshift
ctranspose
diag
flipdim
fliplr
flipud
ipermute
permute
repmat
reshape
Reshape array
rot90
shiftdim
Shift dimensions
issorted
sort
sortrows
squeeze
transpose
Transpose
vectorize
Vectorize expression
Examples
The following examples illustrate some of the functions mentioned above.
Length, Dimension and Number of elements:
Create a script file and type the following code into it:
x = [7.1, 3.4, 7.2, 28/4, 3.6, 17, 9.4, 8.9];
length(x) % length of x vector
y = rand(3, 4, 5, 2);
ndims(y)
% no of dimensions in array y
s = ['Zara', 'Nuha', 'Shamim', 'Riz', 'Shadab'];
numel(s)
% no of elements in s
2
5
8
3
6
9
7
1
4
8
2
5
9
3
6
8
2
5
9
3
6
7
1
4
b =
c =
Sorting Arrays
Create a script file and type the following code into it:
v = [ 23 45 12 9 5 0 19 17] % horizonal vector
sort(v)
%sorting v
m = [2 6 4; 5 3 9; 2 0 1] % two dimensional array
sort(m, 1)
% sorting m along the row
sort(m, 2)
% sorting m along the column
45
12
19
17
12
17
19
23
45
6
3
0
4
9
1
0
3
6
1
4
9
4
5
1
6
9
2
Cell Array
Cell arrays are arrays of indexed cells where each cell can store an array of a different dimension and data type.
The cell function is used for creating a cell array. Syntax for the cell function is:
C = cell(dim)
C = cell(dim1,...,dimN)
D = cell(obj)
Where,
Example
Create a script file and type the following code into it:
c = cell(2, 5);
c = {'Red', 'Blue', 'Green', 'Yellow', 'White'; 1 2 3 4 5}
'Blue'
[
2]
'Green'
[
3]
'Yellow'
[
4]
'White'
[
5]
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
ans =
'Red'
[ 1]
'Blue'
[
2]
You can also access the contents of cells by indexing with curly braces.
For example:
c = {'Red', 'Blue', 'Green', 'Yellow', 'White'; 1 2 3 4 5};
c{1, 2:4}
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
ans =
Blue
ans =
Green
ans =
Yellow
MATLAB executes the statement and returns a row vector containing the integers from 1 to 10:
ans =
1
10
If you want to specify an increment value other than one, for example:
100: -5: 50
95
90
85
80
75
70
65
60
55
50
0.7854
1.1781
1.5708
1.9635
2.3562
You can use the colon operator to create a vector of indices to select rows, columns or elements of arrays.
The following table describes its use for this purpose (let us have a matrix A):
Format
Purpose
A(:,j)
A(i,:)
A(:,:)
A(j:k)
is A(j), A(j+1),...,A(k).
A(:,j:k)
is A(:,j), A(:,j+1),...,A(:,k).
A(:,:,k)
A(i,j,k,:)
is a vector in four-dimensional array A. The vector includes A(i,j,k,1), A(i,j,k,2), A(i,j,k,3), and so on.
A(:)
is all the elements of A, regarded as a single column. On the left side of an assignment statement,
A(:) fills A, preserving its shape from before. In this case, the right side must contain the same
number of elements as A.
Example
Create a script file and type the following code in it:
A = [1 2 3 4; 4 5 6 7; 7 8 9 10]
A(:,2)
% second column of A
A(:,2:3)
% second and third column of A
A(2:3,2:3) % second and third rows and second and third columns
2
5
8
ans =
2
5
8
ans =
2
5
8
ans =
3
6
9
3
6
9
4
7
10
5
8
6
9
MATLAB - Numbers
MATLAB supports various numeric classes that include signed and unsigned integers and single-precision and
double-precision floating-point numbers. By default, MATLAB stores all numeric values as double-precision floating
point numbers.
You can choose to store any number or array of numbers as integers or as single-precision numbers.
All numeric types support basic array operations and mathematical operations.
single
int8
int16
int32
int64
uint8
uint16
uint32
uint64
Example
Create a script file and type the following code:
x
x
x
x
x
x
=
=
=
=
=
=
26.0250
47.1000
26.0250
47.1000
45
23
45
38
23
45
x =
38
23
45
Example
Let us extend the previous example a little more. Create a script file and type the following code:
x = int32([5.32 3.47 6.28]) .* 7.5
x = int64([5.32 3.47 6.28]) .* 7.5
x = num2cell(x)
23
45
x =
38
23
45
x =
[38]
[23]
[45]
Example
The following example illustrates how to obtain the smallest and largest values of integers. Create a script file and
write the following code in it:
% displaying the smallest and largest signed integer data
str = 'The range for int8 is:\n\t%d to %d ';
sprintf(str, intmin('int8'), intmax('int8'))
str = 'The range for int16 is:\n\t%d to %d ';
sprintf(str, intmin('int16'), intmax('int16'))
str = 'The range for int32 is:\n\t%d to %d ';
sprintf(str, intmin('int32'), intmax('int32'))
str = 'The range for int64 is:\n\t%d to %d ';
sprintf(str, intmin('int64'), intmax('int64'))
% displaying the smallest and largest unsigned integer data
str = 'The range for uint8 is:\n\t%d to %d ';
sprintf(str, intmin('uint8'), intmax('uint8'))
str = 'The range for uint16 is:\n\t%d to %d ';
sprintf(str, intmin('uint16'), intmax('uint16'))
str = 'The range for uint32 is:\n\t%d to %d ';
sprintf(str, intmin('uint32'), intmax('uint32'))
str = 'The range for uint64 is:\n\t%d to %d ';
sprintf(str, intmin('uint64'), intmax('uint64'))
Example
The following example illustrates how to obtain the smallest and largest floating point numbers. Create a script file
and write the following code in it:
% displaying the smallest and largest single-precision
% floating point number
str = 'The range for single is:\n\t%g to %g and\n\t %g to
sprintf(str, -realmax('single'), -realmin('single'), ...
realmin('single'), realmax('single'))
% displaying the smallest and largest double-precision
% floating point number
str = 'The range for double is:\n\t%g to %g and\n\t %g to
sprintf(str, -realmax('double'), -realmin('double'), ...
realmin('double'), realmax('double'))
%g';
%g';
MATLAB - Strings
Creating a character string is quite simple in MATLAB. In fact, we have used it many times. For example, you type
the following in the command prompt:
my_string = 'Tutorial''s Point'
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
my_string =
Tutorial's Point
MATLAB considers all variables as arrays, and strings are considered as character arrays. Let us use the whos
command to check the variable created above:
whos
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
Name
my_string
Size
1x16
Bytes
32
Class
char
Attributes
Interestingly, you can use numeric conversion functions like uint8 or uint16 to convert the characters in the string to
their numeric codes. The char function converts the integer vector back to characters:
Example
Create a script file and type the following code into it:
my_string = 'Tutorial''s Point';
str_ascii = uint8(my_string)
str_back_to_char= char(str_ascii)
str_16bit = uint16(my_string)
str_back_to_char = char(str_16bit)
97
108
114
105
110
116
39
115
32
97
108
80
111
39
105
115
Example
Create a script file and type the following code into it:
doc_profile = ['Zara Ali
'; ...
'Sr. Surgeon
'; ...
'R N Tagore Cardiology Research Center']
doc_profile = char('Zara Ali', 'Sr. Surgeon', ...
'RN Tagore Cardiology Research Center')
Example
Create a script file and type the following code into it:
name =
'Zara Ali
';
position = 'Sr. Surgeon
';
worksAt = 'R N Tagore Cardiology Research Center';
profile = [name ', ' position ', ' worksAt]
profile = strcat(name, ', ', position, ', ', worksAt)
Zara Ali
, Sr. Surgeon
profile =
Zara Ali,Sr. Surgeon,R N Tagore Cardiology Research Center
Example
Create a script file and type the following code into it:
name =
'Zara Ali
';
position = 'Sr. Surgeon
';
worksAt = 'R N Tagore Cardiology Research Center';
profile = char(name, position, worksAt);
profile = cellstr(profile);
disp(profile)
cellstr
char
iscellstr
ischar
sprintf
strcat
strjoin
isletter
isspace
isstrprop
sscanf
strfind
strrep
strsplit
strtok
validatestring
symvar
regexp
regexpi
regexprep
regexptranslate
strcmpi
strncmp
strncmpi
Functions for changing string to upper- or lowercase, creating or removing white space
deblank
strtrim
lower
upper
strjust
Examples
The following examples illustrate some of the above-mentioned string functions:
FORMATTING STRINGS
Create a script file and type the following code into it:
A = pi*1000*ones(1,5);
sprintf(' %f \n %.2f \n %+.2f \n %12.2f \n %012.2f \n', A)
JOINING STRINGS
Create a script file and type the following code into it:
%cell array of strings
str_array = {'red','blue','green', 'yellow', 'orange'};
% Join strings in cell array into single string
str1 = strjoin("-", str_array)
str2 = strjoin(",", str_array)
'Monica'
'Madhu'
'Sunaina'
'Madhu'
'Bhawna'
'Sofia'
COMPARING STRINGS
Create a script file and type the following code into it:
str1 = 'This is test'
str2 = 'This is text'
if (strcmp(str1, str2))
sprintf('%s and %s are equal', str1, str2)
else
sprintf('%s and %s are not equal', str1, str2)
end
str1 =
This is test
str2 =
This is text
ans =
This is test and This is text are not equal
MATLAB - Functions
A function is a group of statements that together perform a task. In MATLAB, functions are defined in separate files.
The name of the file and of the function should be the same.
Functions operate on variables within their own workspace, which is also called the local workspace, separate from
the workspace you access at the MATLAB command prompt which is called the base workspace.
Functions can accept more than one input arguments and may return more than one output arguments
Syntax of a function statement is:
function [out1,out2, ..., outN] = myfun(in1,in2,in3, ..., inN)
Example
The following function named mymax should be written in a file named mymax.m. It takes five numbers as argument
and returns the maximum of the numbers.
Create a function file, named mymax.m and type the following code in it:
function max = mymax(n1, n2, n3, n4, n5)
%This function calculates the maximum of the
% five numbers given as input
max = n1;
if(n2 > max)
max = n2;
end
if(n3 > max)
max = n3;
end
if(n4 > max)
max = n4;
end
if(n5 > max)
max = n5;
end
The first line of a function starts with the keyword function. It gives the name of the function and order of arguments.
In our example, the mymax function has five input arguments and one output argument.
The comment lines that come right after the function statement provide the help text. These lines are printed when
you type:
help mymax
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
This function calculates the maximum of the
five numbers given as input
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
ans =
89
Anonymous Functions
An anonymous function is like an inline function in traditional programming languages, defined within a single
MATLAB statement. It consists of a single MATLAB expression and any number of input and output arguments.
You can define an anonymous function right at the MATLAB command line or within a function or script.
This way you can create simple functions without having to create a file for them.
The syntax for creating an anonymous function from an expression is
f = @(arglist)expression
Example
In this example, we will write an anonymous function named power, which will take two numbers as input and return
first number raised to the power of the second number.
Create a script file and type the following code in it:
power =
result1
result2
result3
result4
@(x, n) x.^n;
= power(7, 3)
= power(49, 0.5)
= power(10, -10)
= power (4.5, 1.5)
Example
Let us write a function named quadratic that would calculate the roots of a quadratic equation. The function would
take three inputs, the quadratic co-efficient, the linear co-efficient and the constant term. It would return the roots.
The function file quadratic.m will contain the primary function quadratic and the sub-function disc, which calculates
the discriminant.
Create a function file quadratic.m and type the following code in it:
function [x1,x2] = quadratic(a,b,c)
%this function returns the roots of
% a quadratic equation.
% It takes 3 input arguments
% which are the co-efficients of x2, x and the
%constant term
% It returns the roots
d = disc(a,b,c);
x1 = (-b + d) / (2*a);
x2 = (-b - d) / (2*a);
end % end of quadratic
function dis = disc(a,b,c)
%function calculates the discriminant
dis = sqrt(b^2 - 4*a*c);
end % end of sub-function
You can call the above function from command prompt as:
quadratic(2,4,-4)
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
ans =
0.7321
Nested Functions
You can define functions within the body of another function. These are called nested functions. A nested function
contains any or all of the components of any other function.
Nested functions are defined within the scope of another function and they share access to the containing function's
workspace.
A nested function follows the following syntax:
function x = A(p1, p2)
...
B(p2)
function y = B(p3)
...
end
...
end
Example
Let us rewrite the function quadratic, from previous example, however, this time the disc function will be a nested
function.
Create a function file quadratic2.m and type the following code in it:
function [x1,x2] = quadratic2(a,b,c)
function disc % nested function
d = sqrt(b^2 - 4*a*c);
end % end of function disc
disc;
x1 = (-b + d) / (2*a);
x2 = (-b - d) / (2*a);
end % end of function quadratic2
You can call the above function from command prompt as:
quadratic2(2,4,-4)
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
ans =
0.7321
Private Functions
A private function is a primary function that is visible only to a limited group of other functions. If you do not want to
expose the implementation of a function(s), you can create them as private functions.
Private functions reside in subfolders with the special name private.
They are visible only to functions in the parent folder.
Example
Let us rewrite the quadratic function. This time, however, the disc function calculating the discriminant, will be a
private function.
Create a subfolder named private in working directory. Store the following function file disc.m in it:
function dis = disc(a,b,c)
%function calculates the discriminant
dis = sqrt(b^2 - 4*a*c);
end % end of sub-function
Create a function quadratic3.m in your working directory and type the following code in it:
function [x1,x2] = quadratic3(a,b,c)
%this function returns the roots of
% a quadratic equation.
% It takes 3 input arguments
% which are the co-efficients of x2, x and the
%constant term
% It returns the roots
d = disc(a,b,c);
x1 = (-b + d) / (2*a);
x2 = (-b - d) / (2*a);
end % end of quadratic3
You can call the above function from command prompt as:
quadratic3(2,4,-4)
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
ans =
0.7321
Global Variables
Global variables can be shared by more than one function. For this, you need to declare the variable as global in all
the functions.
If you want to access that variable from the base workspace, then declare the variable at the command line.
The global declaration must occur before the variable is actually used in a function. It is a good practice to use capital
letters for the names of global variables to distinguish them from other variables.
Example
Let us create a function file named average.m and type the following code in it:
function avg = average(nums)
global TOTAL
avg = sum(nums)/TOTAL;
end
When you run the file, it will display the following result:
av =
35.5000
A
=
Loads data into array A from the file denoted by filename.
importdata(filename)
A
=
Loads data from the system clipboard rather than from a file.
A
=
importdata(___,
delimiterIn)
Interprets delimiterIn as the column separator in ASCII file, filename, or the clipboard data. You can use
delimiterIn with any of the input arguments in the above syntaxes.
A
=
importdata(___,
delimiterIn,
headerlinesIn)
Loads data from ASCII file, filename, or the clipboard, reading numeric data starting from line headerlinesIn+1.
importdata('-pastespecial')
[A,
delimiterOut,
headerlinesOut]
=
importdata(___)
dditionally returns the detected delimiter character for the input ASCII file in delimiterOut and the detected
number of header lines in headerlinesOut, using any of the input arguments in the previous syntaxes.
By default, Octave does not have support for importdata() function, so you will have to search and install this package
to make following examples work with your Octave installation.
5
Example 1
Let us load and display an image file. Create a script file and type the following code in it:
filename = 'smile.jpg';
A = importdata(filename);
image(A);
When you run the file, MATLAB displays the image file. However, you must store it in the current directory.
Example 2
In this example, we import a text file and specify Delimiter and Column Header. Let us create a space-delimited
ASCII file with column headers, named weeklydata.txt.
Our text file weeklydata.txt looks like this:
SunDay
95.01
73.11
60.68
48.60
89.13
MonDay
76.21
45.65
41.85
82.14
44.47
TuesDay
61.54
79.19
92.18
73.82
57.63
WednesDay
40.57
93.55
91.69
41.03
89.36
ThursDay
55.79
75.29
81.32
0.99
13.89
FriDay
70.28
69.87
90.38
67.22
19.88
SatureDay
81.53
74.68
74.51
93.18
46.60
13.8900
FriDay
70.2800
69.8700
90.3800
67.2200
19.8800
SatureDay
81.5300
74.6800
74.5100
93.1800
46.6000
Example 3
In this example, let us import data from clipboard.
Copy the following lines to the clipboard:
Mathematics is simple
Create a script file and type the following code:
A = importdata('-pastespecial')
feof
ferror
fgetl
fgets
fopen
fprintf
fread
frewind
fscanf
fseek
ftell
fwrite
Example
We have a text data file 'myfile.txt' saved in our working directory. The file stores rainfall data for three months; June,
July and August for the year 2012.
The data in myfile.txt contains repeated sets of time, month and rainfall measurements at five places. The header
data stores the number of months M; so we have M sets of measurements.
The file looks like this:
Rainfall Data
Months: June, July, August
M=3
12:00:00
June-2012
17.21 28.52
19.15 0.35
17.92 28.49
9.59
9.33
10.46 13.17
20.97 19.50
18.23 10.34
09:10:02
July-2012
12.76 16.94
20.46 23.17
30.97 49.50
18.23 30.34
30.46 33.17
30.97 49.50
28.67 30.34
15:03:40
August-2012
17.09 16.55
17.54 11.45
NaN
21.19
26.79 24.98
17.54 11.45
NaN
21.19
26.79 24.98
39.78
17.57
17.40
NaN
NaN
17.65
17.95
16.55
NaN
17.06
0.31
14.89
14.45
16.46
23.67
12.01
11.09
0.23
19.33
14.00
19.34
14.38
NaN
47.65
27.95
NaN
47.65
27.95
11.86
24.89
24.45
16.46
34.89
24.45
36.46
16.89
19.33
34.00
19.34
29.33
34.00
29.34
19.59
13.48
25.85
12.23
13.48
25.85
12.23
17.25
22.55
25.05
16.99
22.55
25.05
16.99
19.22
24.01
27.21
18.67
24.01
27.21
18.67
We will import data from this file and display this data. Take the following steps:
1. Open the file with fopen function and get the file identifier.
2. Describe the data in the file with format specifiers, such as '%s' for a string, '%d' for an integer, or '%f' for a
floating-point number.
3. To skip literal characters in the file, include them in the format description. To skip a data field, use an
asterisk ('*') in the specifier.
For example, to read the headers and return the single value for M, we write:
M = fscanf(fid, '%*s %*s\n%*s %*s %*s %*s\nM=%d\n\n', 1);
4.
By default, fscanf reads data according to our format description until it cannot match the description to the
data, or it reaches the end of the file. Here we will use for loop for reading 3 sets of data and each time, it
will read 7 rows and 5 columns.
5. We will create a structure named mydata in the workspace to store data read from the file. This structure
has three fields - time, month, and raindata array.
Create a script file and type the following code in it:
filename = '/data/myfile.txt';
rows = 7;
cols = 5;
% open the file
fid = fopen(filename);
% read the file headers, find M (number of months)
M = fscanf(fid, '%*s %*s\n%*s %*s %*s %*s\nM=%d\n\n', 1);
% read each set of measurements
for n = 1:M
mydata(n).time = fscanf(fid, '%s', 1);
mydata(n).month = fscanf(fid, '%s', 1);
% fscanf fills the array in column order,
% so transpose the results
mydata(n).raindata = ...
fscanf(fid, '%f', [rows, cols]);
end
for n = 1:M
disp(mydata(n).time), disp(mydata(n).month)
disp(mydata(n).raindata)
end
% close the file
fclose(fid);
17.5700
NaN
12.0100
17.9200
28.4900
17.4000
17.0600
11.0900
9.5900
9.3300
NaN
0.3100
0.2300
10.4600
13.1700
NaN
14.8900
19.3300
20.9700
19.5000
17.6500
14.4500
14.0000
18.2300
10.3400
17.9500
16.4600
19.3400
09:10:02
July-2012
12.7600
16.9400
14.3800
11.8600
16.8900
20.4600
23.1700
NaN
24.8900
19.3300
30.9700
49.5000
47.6500
24.4500
34.0000
18.2300
30.3400
27.9500
16.4600
19.3400
30.4600
33.1700
NaN
34.8900
29.3300
30.9700
49.5000
47.6500
24.4500
34.0000
28.6700
30.3400
27.9500
36.4600
29.3400
15:03:40
August-2012
17.0900
16.5500
19.5900
17.2500
19.2200
17.5400
11.4500
13.4800
22.5500
24.0100
NaN
21.1900
25.8500
25.0500
27.2100
26.7900
24.9800
12.2300
16.9900
18.6700
17.5400
11.4500
13.4800
22.5500
24.0100
NaN
21.1900
25.8500
25.0500
27.2100
26.7900
24.9800
12.2300
16.9900
18.6700
where, my_data.out is the delimited ASCII data file created, num_array is a numeric array and ASCII is the
specifier.
Syntax for using the dlmwrite function is:
dlmwrite('my_data.out', num_array, 'dlm_char')
where, my_data.out is the delimited ASCII data file created, num_array is a numeric array and dlm_char is the
delimiter character.
Example
The following example demonstrates the concept. Create a script file and type the following code:
num_array = [ 1 2 3 4 ; 4 5 6 7; 7 8 9 0];
save array_data1.out num_array -ASCII;
type array_data1.out
dlmwrite('array_data2.out', num_array, ' ');
type array_data2.out
2.0000000e+00
5.0000000e+00
8.0000000e+00
3.0000000e+00
6.0000000e+00
9.0000000e+00
4.0000000e+00
7.0000000e+00
0.0000000e+00
1 2 3 4
4 5 6 7
7 8 9 0
Please note that the save -ascii command and the dlmwrite command does not work with cell arrays as input. To
create a delimited ASCII file from the contents of a cell array, you can
Either, convert the cell array to a matrix using the cell2mat function
Or export the cell array using low-level file I/O functions.
If you use the save function to write a character array to an ASCII file, it writes the ASCII equivalent of the characters
to the file.
For example, let us write the word 'hello' to a file:
h = 'hello';
save textdata.out h -ascii
type textdata.out
MATLAB executes the above statements and displays the following result:
1.0400000e+02
1.0100000e+02
1.0800000e+02
1.0800000e+02
1.1100000e+02
Which are the characters of the string 'hello' in 8-digit ASCII format.
Optionally, you can give the name of the log file, say:
diary logdata.out
Example
Create a script file and type the following code in it:
% create a matrix y, with two rows
x = 0:10:100;
y = [x; log(x)];
% open a file for writing
fid = fopen('logtable.txt', 'w');
% Table Header
fprintf(fid, 'Log
Function\n\n');
Function
0.000000
10.000000
20.000000
30.000000
40.000000
50.000000
60.000000
70.000000
80.000000
90.000000
100.000000
-Inf
2.302585
2.995732
3.401197
3.688879
3.912023
4.094345
4.248495
4.382027
4.499810
4.605170
MATLAB - Plotting
To plot the graph of a function, you need to take the following steps:
1. Define x, by specifying the range of values for the variable x, for which the function is to be plotted
2. Define the function, y = f(x)
3. Call the plot command, as plot(x, y)
Following example would demonstrate the concept. Let us plot the simple function y = x for the range of values for x
from 0 to 100, with an increment of 5.
Create a script file and type the following code:
x = [0:5:100];
y = x;
plot(x, y)
When you run the file, MATLAB displays the following plot:
Let us take one more example to plot the function y = x2. In this example, we will draw two graphs with the same
function, but in second time, we will reduce the value of increment. Please note that as we decrease the increment,
the graph becomes smoother.
Create a script file and type the following code:
x = [1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10];
x = [-100:20:100];
y = x.^2;
plot(x, y)
When you run the file, MATLAB displays the following plot:
Example
Create a script file and type the following code:
x = [0:0.01:10];
y = sin(x);
plot(x, y), xlabel('x'), ylabel('Sin(x)'), title('Sin(x) Graph'),
grid on, axis equal
Example
Create a script file and type the following code:
x = [0 : 0.01: 10];
y = sin(x);
g = cos(x);
plot(x, y, x, g, '.-'), legend('Sin(x)', 'Cos(x)')
Black
Blue
Red
Cyan
Green
Magenta
Yellow
Example
Let us draw the graph of two polynomials
1. f(x) = 3x4 + 2x3+ 7x2 + 2x + 9 and
2. g(x) = 5x3 + 9x + 2
Create a script file and type the following code:
x = [-10 : 0.01: 10];
y = 3*x.^4 + 2 * x.^3 + 7 * x.^2 + 2 * x + 9;
g = 5 * x.^3 + 9 * x + 2;
plot(x, y, 'r', x, g, 'g')
When you run the file, MATLAB generates the following graph:
Example
Create a script file and type the following code:
x = [0 : 0.01: 10];
y = exp(-x).* sin(2*x + 3);
plot(x, y), axis([0 10 -1 1])
When you run the file, MATLAB generates the following graph:
Generating Sub-Plots
When you create an array of plots in the same figure, each of these plots is called a subplot. The subplot command
is for creating subplots.
where, m and n are the number of rows and columns of the plot array and p specifies where to put a particular plot.
Each plot created with the subplot command can have its own characteristics. Following example demonstrates the
concept:
Example
Let us generate two plots:
y = e1.5xsin(10x)
y = e2xsin(10x)
Create a script file and type the following code:
x = [0:0.01:5];
y = exp(-1.5*x).*sin(10*x);
subplot(1,2,1)
plot(x,y), xlabel('x'),ylabel('exp(1.5x)*sin(10x)'),axis([0 5 -1 1])
y = exp(-2*x).*sin(10*x);
subplot(1,2,2)
plot(x,y),xlabel('x'),ylabel('exp(2x)*sin(10x)'),axis([0 5 -1 1])
When you run the file, MATLAB generates the following graph:
MATLAB - Graphics
This chapter will continue exploring the plotting and graphics capabilities of MATLAB. We will discuss:
Drawing bar charts
Drawing contours
Three dimensional plots
Example
Let us have an imaginary classroom with 10 students. We know the percent of marks obtained by these students are
75, 58, 90, 87, 50, 85, 92, 75, 60 and 95. We will draw the bar chart for this data.
Create a script file and type the following code:
x = [1:10];
y = [75, 58, 90, 87, 50, 85, 92, 75, 60, 95];
bar(x,y), xlabel('Student'),ylabel('Score'),
title('First Sem:')
print -deps graph.eps
When you run the file, MATLAB displays the following bar chart:
Drawing Contours
A contour line of a function of two variables is a curve along which the function has a constant value. Contour lines
are used for creating contour maps by joining points of equal elevation above a given level, such as mean sea level.
MATLAB provides a contour function for drawing contour maps.
Example
Let us generate a contour map that shows the contour lines for a given function g = f(x, y). This function has two
variables. So, we will have to generate two independent variables, i.e., two data sets x and y. This is done by calling
the meshgrid command.
The meshgrid command is used for generating a matrix of elements that give the range over x and y along with the
specification of increment in each case.
Let us plot our function g = f(x, y), where 5 x 5, 3 y 3. Let us take an increment of 0.1 for both the values.
The variables are set as:
[x,y] = meshgrid(5:0.1:5, 3:0.1:3);
When you run the file, MATLAB displays the following contour map:
When you run the file, MATLAB displays the following contour map:
Example
Let us create a 3D surface map for the function g = xe-(x2 + y2)
Create a script file and type the following code:
[x,y] = meshgrid(-2:.2:2);
g = x .* exp(-x.^2 - y.^2);
surf(x, y, g)
print -deps graph.eps
When you run the file, MATLAB displays the following 3-D map:
You can also use the mesh command to generate a three-dimensional surface. However, the surf command
displays both the connecting lines and the faces of the surface in color, whereas, the mesh command creates a
wireframe surface with colored lines connecting the defining points.
MATLAB - Algebra
So far, we have seen that all the examples work in MATLAB as well as its GNU, alternatively called Octave. But for
solving basic algebraic equations, both MATLAB and Octave are little different, so we will try to cover MATLAB and
Octave in separate sections.
We will also discuss factorizing and simplification of algebraic expressions.
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
ans =
5
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
y =
5
You may even not include the right hand side of the equation:
solve('x-5')
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
ans =
5
If the equation involves multiple symbols, then MATLAB by default assumes that you are solving for x, however, the
solve command has another form:
solve(equation, variable)
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
ans =
3*t^2 + u
roots([1, -5])
Octave will execute the above statement and return the following result:
ans =
5
Octave will execute the above statement and return the following result:
y =
5
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
ans =
3
3
7
In case of higher order equations, roots are long containing many terms. You can get the numerical value of such
roots by converting them to double. The following example solves the fourth order equation x 4 7x3 + 3x2 5x + 9 = 0.
Create a script file and type the following code:
eq = 'x^4 - 7*x^3 + 3*x^2 - 5*x + 9 = 0';
s = solve(eq);
disp('The first root is: '), disp(s(1));
disp('The second root is: '), disp(s(2));
disp('The third root is: '), disp(s(3));
disp('The fourth root is: '), disp(s(4));
% converting the roots to double type
disp('Numeric value of first root'), disp(double(s(1)));
disp('Numeric value of second root'), disp(double(s(2)));
disp('Numeric value of third root'), disp(double(s(3)));
disp('Numeric value of fourth root'), disp(double(s(4)));
Please note that the last two roots are complex numbers.
3, -5, 9];
s = roots(v);
% converting the roots
disp('Numeric value of
disp('Numeric value of
disp('Numeric value of
disp('Numeric value of
to double type
first root'), disp(double(s(1)));
second root'), disp(double(s(2)));
third root'), disp(double(s(3)));
fourth root'), disp(double(s(4)));
In same way, you can solve larger linear systems. Consider the following set of equations:
x + 3y -2z = 5
3x + 5y + 6z = 7
2x + 4y + 3z = 8
In same way, you can solve larger linear systems as given below:
x + 3y -2z = 5
3x + 5y + 6z = 7
2x + 4y + 3z = 8
expand((x-5)*(x+9))
expand((x+2)*(x-3)*(x-5)*(x+7))
expand(sin(2*x))
expand(cos(x+y))
% collecting equations
collect(x^3 *(x-7))
collect(x^4*(x-3)*(x-5))
% expanding equations
expand((x-5)*(x+9))
expand((x+2)*(x-3)*(x-5)*(x+7))
expand(Sin(2*x))
expand(Cos(x+y))
% collecting equations
collect(x^3 *(x-7), z)
collect(x^4*(x-3)*(x-5), z)
Example
Create a script file and type the following code:
syms x
syms y
factor(x^3 - y^3)
factor([x^2-y^2,x^3+y^3])
simplify((x^4-16)/(x^2-4))
MATLAB - Calculus
MATLAB provides various ways for solving problems of differential and integral calculus, solving differential equations
of any degree and calculation of limits. Best of all, you can easily plot the graphs of complex functions and check
maxima, minima and other stationery points on a graph by solving the original function, as well as its derivative.
In this chapter and in coming couple of chapters, we will deal with the problems of calculus. In this chapter, we will
discuss pre-calculus concepts i.e., calculating limits of functions and verifying the properties of limits.
In the next chapter Differential, we will compute derivative of an expression and find the local maxima and minima on
a graph. We will also discuss solving differential equations.
Finally, in the Integration chapter, we will discuss integral calculus.
Calculating Limits
MATLAB provides the limit command for calculating limits. In its most basic form, the limit command takes
expression as an argument and finds the limit of the expression as the independent variable goes to zero.
For example, let us calculate the limit of a function f(x) = (x3 + 5)/(x4 + 7), as x tends to zero.
syms x
limit((x^3 + 5)/(x^4 + 7))
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
ans =
5/7
The limit command falls in the realm of symbolic computing; you need to use the syms command to tell MATLAB
which symbolic variables you are using. You can also compute limit of a function, as the variable tends to some
number other than zero. To calculate lim x->a(f(x)), we use the limit command with arguments. The first being the
expression and the second is the number, that x approaches, here it is a.
For example, let us calculate limit of a function f(x) = (x-3)/(x-1), as x tends to 1.
limit((x - 3)/(x-1),1)
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
ans =
NaN
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result:
ans =
14
Octave will execute the above statement and return the following result:
ans =
0.7142857142857142857
Example
Create a script file and type the following code into it:
syms x
f = (3*x + 5)/(x-3);
g = x^2 + 1;
l1 = limit(f, 4)
l2 = limit (g, 4)
lAdd = limit(f + g, 4)
lSub = limit(f - g, 4)
lMult = limit(f*g, 4)
lDiv = limit (f/g, 4)
Octave will execute the above statement and return the following result:
l1 =
17.0
l2 =
17.0
lAdd =
34.0
lSub =
0.0
lMult =
289.0
lDiv =
1.0
Example
Create a script file and type the following code into it:
f = (x - 3)/abs(x-3);
ezplot(f,[-1,5])
l = limit(f,x,3,'left')
r = limit(f,x,3,'right')
When you run the file, MATLAB draws the following plot,
MATLAB - Differential
MATLAB provides the diff command for computing symbolic derivatives. In its simplest form, you pass the function
you want to differentiate to diff command as an argument.
For example, let us compute the derivative of the function f(t) = 3t 2 + 2t-2
Example
Create a script file and type the following code into it:
syms t
f = 3*t^2 + 2*t^(-2);
diff(f)
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result:
ans =
6*t - 4/t^3
RULE 1
For any functions f and g and any real numbers a and b the derivative of the function:
h(x) = af(x) + bg(x) with respect to x is given by:
h'(x) = af'(x) + bg'(x)
RULE 2
The sum and subtraction rules state that if f and g are two functions, f' and g' are their derivatives respectively, then,
(f + g)' = f' + g'
RULE 3
The product rule states that if f and g are two functions, f' and g' are their derivatives respectively, then,
(f.g)' = f'.g + g'.f
RULE 4
The quotient rule states that if f and g are two functions, f' and g' are their derivatives respectively, then,
(f/g)' = (f'.g - g'.f)/g2
RULE 5
The polynomial or elementary power rule states that, if y = f(x) = xn, then f' = n. x(n-1)
A direct outcome of this rule is derivative of any constant is zero, i.e., if y = k, any constant, then
f' = 0
RULE 6
The chain rule states that, The derivative of the function of a function h(x) = f(g(x)) with respect to x is,
h'(x)= f'(g(x)).g'(x)
Example
Create a script file and type the following code into it:
syms x
syms t
f = (x + 2)*(x^2 + 3)
der1 = diff(f)
f = (t^2 + 3)*(sqrt(t) + t^3)
der2 = diff(f)
f = (x^2 - 2*x + 1)*(3*x^3 - 5*x^2 + 2)
der3 = diff(f)
f = (2*x^2 + 3*x)/(x^3 + 1)
der4 = diff(f)
f = (x^2 + 1)^17
der5 = diff(f)
f = (t^3 + 3* t^2 + 5*t -9)^(-6)
der6 = diff(f)
When you run the file, MATLAB displays the following result:
f =
(x^2 + 3)*(x + 2)
der1 =
2*x*(x + 2) + x^2 + 3
f =
(t^(1/2) + t^3)*(t^2 + 3)
der2 =
(t^2 + 3)*(3*t^2 + 1/(2*t^(1/2))) + 2*t*(t^(1/2) + t^3)
f =
(x^2 - 2*x + 1)*(3*x^3 - 5*x^2 + 2)
der3 =
(2*x - 2)*(3*x^3 - 5*x^2 + 2) - (- 9*x^2 + 10*x)*(x^2 - 2*x + 1)
f =
(2*x^2 + 3*x)/(x^3 + 1)
der4 =
(4*x + 3)/(x^3 + 1) - (3*x^2*(2*x^2 + 3*x))/(x^3 + 1)^2
f =
(x^2 + 1)^17
der5 =
34*x*(x^2 + 1)^16
f =
1/(t^3 + 3*t^2 + 5*t - 9)^6
der6 =
-(6*(3*t^2 + 6*t + 5))/(t^3 + 3*t^2 + 5*t - 9)^7
ex
ex
ln x
1/x
lncx
1/x.ln c
xx
xx.(1 + ln x)
sin(x)
cos(x)
cos(x)
-sin(x)
tan(x)
cot(x)
sec(x)
sec(x).tan(x)
csc(x)
-csc(x).cot(x)
Example
Create a script file and type the following code into it:
syms x
y = exp(x)
diff(y)
y = x^9
diff(y)
y = sin(x)
diff(y)
y = tan(x)
diff(y)
y = cos(x)
diff(y)
y = log(x)
diff(y)
y = log10(x)
diff(y)
y = sin(x)^2
diff(y)
y = cos(3*x^2 + 2*x + 1)
diff(y)
y = exp(x)/sin(x)
diff(y)
When you run the file, MATLAB displays the following result:
y =
exp(x)
ans =
exp(x)
y =
x^9
ans =
9*x^8
y =
sin(x)
ans =
cos(x)
y =
tan(x)
ans =
tan(x)^2 + 1
y =
cos(x)
ans =
-sin(x)
y =
log(x)
ans =
1/x
y =
log(x)/log(10)
ans =
1/(x*log(10))
y =
sin(x)^2
ans =
2*cos(x)*sin(x)
y =
cos(3*x^2 + 2*x + 1)
ans =
-sin(3*x^2 + 2*x + 1)*(6*x + 2)
y =
exp(x)/sin(x)
ans =
exp(x)/sin(x) - (exp(x)*cos(x))/sin(x)^2
Example
In this example, let us solve a problem. Given that a function y = f(x) = 3 sin(x) + 7 cos(5x). We will have to find out
whether the equation f" + f = -5cos(2x) holds true.
Create a script file and type the following code into it:
syms x
y = 3*sin(x)+7*cos(5*x); % defining the function
lhs = diff(y,2)+y;
%evaluting the lhs of the equation
rhs = -5*cos(2*x);
%rhs of the equation
if(isequal(lhs,rhs))
disp('Yes, the equation holds true');
else
disp('No, the equation does not hold true');
end
disp('Value of LHS is: '), disp(lhs);
x =
y =
lhs
rhs
sym("x");
3*Sin(x)+7*Cos(5*x);
= differentiate(y, x, 2) + y;
= -5*Cos(2*x);
if(lhs == rhs)
disp('Yes, the equation holds true');
else
disp('No, the equation does not hold true');
end
disp('Value of LHS is: '), disp(lhs);
Example
Let us find the stationary points of the function f(x) = 2x3 + 3x2 12x + 17
Take the following steps:
1. First let us enter the function and plot its graph:
2.
3.
4.
syms x
y = 2*x^3 + 3*x^2 - 12*x + 17;
ezplot(y)
5.
Our aim is to find some local maxima and minima on the graph, so let us find the local maxima and minima
for the interval [-2, 2] on the graph.
6.
7.
8.
syms x
y = 2*x^3 + 3*x^2 - 12*x + 17;
ezplot(y, [-2, 2])
9.
10.
g = diff(y)
11. Let us solve the derivative function, g, to get the values where it becomes zero.
12.
s = solve(g)
13. This agrees with our plot. So let us evaluate the function f at the critical points x = 1, -2. We can substitute a
value in a symbolic function by using the subs command.
14.
Therefore, The minimum and maximum values on the function f(x) = 2x 3 + 3x2 12x + 17, in the interval [2,2] are 10 and 37.
For the purpose of using dsolve command, derivatives are indicated with a D. For example, an equation like f'(t) = 2*f + cost(t) is entered as:
'Df = -2*f + cos(t)'
Higher derivatives are indicated by following D by the order of the derivative.
For example the equation f"(x) + 2f'(x) = 5sin3x should be entered as:
'D2y + 2Dy = 5*sin(3*x)'
Let us take up a simple example of a first order differential equation: y' = 5y.
s = dsolve('Dy = 5*y')
Let us take up another example of a second order differential equation as: y" - y = 0, y(0) = -1, y'(0) = 2.
dsolve('D2y - y = 0','y(0) = -1','Dy(0) = 2')
MATLAB - Integration
Integration deals with two essentially different types of problems.
In the first type, derivative of a function is given and we want to find the function. Therefore, we basically
reverse the process of differentiation. This reverse process is known as anti-differentiation, or finding the
primitive function, or finding an indefinite integral.
The second type of problems involve adding up a very large number of very small quantities and then taking
a limit as the size of the quantities approaches zero, while the number of terms tend to infinity. This process
leads to the definition of the definite integral.
Definite integrals are used for finding area, volume, center of gravity, moment of inertia, work done by a force, and in
numerous other applications.
MATLAB executes the above statement and returns the following result:
ans =
x^2
Example 1
In this example, let us find the integral of some commonly used expressions. Create a script file and type the
following code in it:
syms x n
int(sym(x^n))
f = 'sin(n*t)'
int(sym(f))
syms a t
int(a*cos(pi*t))
int(a^x)
Example 2
Create a script file and type the following code in it:
syms x n
int(cos(x))
int(exp(x))
int(log(x))
int(x^-1)
int(x^5*cos(5*x))
pretty(int(x^5*cos(5*x)))
int(x^-5)
int(sec(x)^2)
pretty(int(1 - 10*x + 9 * x^2))
int((3 + 5*x -6*x^2 - 7*x^3)/2*x^2)
pretty(int((3 + 5*x -6*x^2 - 7*x^3)/2*x^2))
Note that the pretty command returns an expression in a more readable format.
When you run the file, it displays the following result:
ans =
sin(x)
ans =
exp(x)
ans =
x*(log(x) - 1)
ans =
log(x)
ans =
(24*cos(5*x))/3125 + (24*x*sin(5*x))/625 - (12*x^2*cos(5*x))/125 + (x^4*cos(5*x))/5 - (4*x^3*sin(5*x))/25 + (x^5*sin(5*x))/5
2
4
24 cos(5 x)
24 x sin(5 x)
12 x cos(5 x)
x cos(5 x)
----------- + ------------- - -------------- + ----------- 3125
625
125
5
3
4 x sin(5 x)
x sin(5 x)
------------- + ----------25
5
ans =
-1/(4*x^4)
ans =
tan(x)
2
x (3 x
- 5 x + 1)
ans =
- (7*x^6)/12 - (3*x^5)/5 + (5*x^4)/8 + x^3/2
6
7 x
5
3 x
4
5 x
3
x
we write,
int(x, a, b)
we write:
int(x, 4, 9)
MATLAB executes the above statement and returns the following result:
ans =
65/2
An alternative solution can be given using quad() function provided by Octave as follows:
pkg load symbolic
symbols
f = inline("x");
[a, ierror, nfneval] = quad(f, 4, 9);
display('Area: '), disp(double(a));
Example 1
Let us calculate the area enclosed between the x-axis, and the curve y = x32x+5 and the ordinates x = 1 and x = 2.
The required area is given by:
An alternative solution can be given using quad() function provided by Octave as follows:
Example 2
Find the area under the curve: f(x) = x2 cos(x) for 4 x 9.
Create a script file and write the following code:
f = x^2*cos(x);
ezplot(f, [-4,9])
a = int(f, -4, 9)
disp('Area: '), disp(double(a));
MATLAB - Polynomials
MATLAB represents polynomials as row vectors containing coefficients ordered by descending powers. For example,
the equation P(x) = x4 + 7x3 - 5x + 9 could be represented as:
p = [1 7 0 -5 9];
Evaluating Polynomials
The polyval function is used for evaluating a polynomial at a specified value. For example, to evaluate our previous
polynomial p, at x = 4, type:
p = [1 7 0 -5 9];
polyval(p,4)
MATLAB executes the above statements and returns the following result:
ans =
693
MATLAB also provides the polyvalm function for evaluating a matrix polynomial. A matrix polynomial is a
polynomial with matrices as variables.
For example, let us create a square matrix X and evaluate the polynomial p, at X:
p = [1 7 0 -5 9];
X = [1 2 -3 4; 2 -5 6 3; 3 1 0 2; 5 -7 3 8];
polyvalm(p, X)
MATLAB executes the above statements and returns the following result:
ans =
2307
2314
2256
4570
-1769
-2376
-1892
-4532
-939
-249
-549
-1062
4499
4695
4310
9269
MATLAB executes the above statements and returns the following result:
r =
-6.8661
-1.4247
0.6454
0.6454
+
+
+
-
0.0000i
0.0000i
0.7095i
0.7095i
The function poly is an inverse of the roots function and returns to the polynomial coefficients. For example:
p2 = poly(r)
MATLAB executes the above statements and returns the following result:
p2 =
1.0000
7.0000
0.0000
-5.0000
9.0000
Example
Create a script file and type the following code:
x = [1 2 3 4 5 6]; y = [5.5 43.1 128 290.7 498.4 978.67]; %data
p = polyfit(x,y,4)
%get the polynomial
% Compute the values of the polyfit estimate over a finer range,
% and plot the estimate over the real data values for comparison:
x2 = 1:.1:6;
y2 = polyval(p,x2);
plot(x,y,'o',x2,y2)
grid on
When you run the file, MATLAB displays the following result:
p =
4.1056
-47.9607
222.2598 -362.7453
191.1250
MATLAB - Transforms
MATLAB provides command for working with transforms, such as the Laplace and Fourier transforms. Transforms
are used in science and engineering as a tool for simplifying analysis and look at data from another angle.
For example, the Fourier transform allows us to convert a signal represented as a function of time to a function of
frequency. Laplace transform allows us to convert a differential equation to an algebraic equation.
MATLAB provides the laplace, fourier and fft commands to work with Laplace, Fourier and Fast Fourier transforms.
Laplace transform is also denoted as transform of f(t) to F(s). You can see this transform or integration process
converts f(t), a function of the symbolic variable t, into another function F(s), with another variable s.
Laplace transform turns differential equations into algebraic ones. To compute a Laplace transform of a function f(t),
write:
laplace(f(t))
Example
In this example, we will compute the Laplace transform of some commonly used functions.
Create a script file and type the following code:
syms s t a b w
laplace(a)
laplace(t^2)
laplace(t^9)
laplace(exp(-b*t))
laplace(sin(w*t))
laplace(cos(w*t))
MATLAB allows us to compute the inverse Laplace transform using the command ilaplace.
For example,
ilaplace(1/s^3)
MATLAB will execute the above statement and display the result:
ans =
t^2/2
Example
Create a script file and type the following code:
syms s t a b w
ilaplace(1/s^7)
ilaplace(2/(w+s))
ilaplace(s/(s^2+4))
ilaplace(exp(-b*t))
ilaplace(w/(s^2 + w^2))
ilaplace(s/(s^2 + w^2))
Example
Create a script file and type the following code in it:
syms x
f = exp(-2*x^2);
ezplot(f,[-2,2])
FT = fourier(f)
%our function
% plot of our function
% Fourier transform
When you run the file, MATLAB plots the following graph:
FT =
(2^(1/2)*pi^(1/2)*exp(-w^2/8))/2
MATLAB will execute the above statement and display the result:
f =
-2/(pi*(x^2 + 1))
MATLAB vs Octave
Most MATLAB programs run in Octave, but some of the Octave programs may not run in MATLAB because, Octave
allows some syntax that MATLAB does not.
For example, MATLAB supports single quotes only, but Octave supports both single and double quotes for defining
strings. If you are looking for a tutorial on Octave, then kindly go through this tutorial from beginning which covers
both MATLAB as well as Octave.
COMPATIBLE EXAMPLES
Almost all the examples covered in this tutorial are compatible with MATLAB as well as Octave. Let's try following
example in MATLAB and Octave which produces same result without any syntax changes:
This example creates a 3D surface map for the function g = xe-(x2 + y2). Create a script file and type the following code:
[x,y] = meshgrid(-2:.2:2);
g = x .* exp(-x.^2 - y.^2);
surf(x, y, g)
When you run the file, MATLAB displays the following 3-D map:
NON-COMPATIBLE EXAMPLES
Though all the core functionality of MATLAB is available in Octave, there are some functionality for example,
Differential & Integration Calculus, which does not match exactly in both the languages. This tutorial has tried to give
both type of examples where they differed in their syntax.
Consider following example where MATLAB and Octave make use of different functions to get the area of a curve:
f(x) = x2 cos(x) for 4 x 9. Following is MATLAB version of the code:
f = x^2*cos(x);
ezplot(f, [-4,9])
a = int(f, -4, 9)
disp('Area: '), disp(double(a));
0.3326
But to give area of the same curve in Octave, you will have to make use of symbolic package as follows:
pkg load symbolic
symbols
x = sym("x");
f = inline("x^2*cos(x)");
ezplot(f, [-4,9])
print -deps graph.eps
[a, ierror, nfneval] = quad(f, -4, 9);
display('Area: '), disp(double(a));
MATLAB - Simulink
Simulink is a simulation and model-based design environment for dynamic and embedded systems, integrated with
MATLAB. Simulink, also developed by MathWorks, is a data flow graphical programming language tool for modeling,
simulating and analyzing multi-domain dynamic systems. It is basically a graphical block diagramming tool with
customizable set of block libraries.
It allows you to incorporate MATLAB algorithms into models as well as export the simulation results into MATLAB for
further analysis.
Simulink supports:
system-level design
simulation
automatic code generation
testing and verification of embedded systems
There are several other add-on products provided by MathWorks and third-party hardware and software products that
are available for use with Simulink.
The following list gives brief description of some of them:
Stateflow allows developing state machines and flow charts.
Simulink Coder allows to automatically generate C source code for real-time implementation of systems.
xPC Target together with x86-based real-time systems provides an environment to simulate and test
Simulink and Stateflow models in real-time on the physical system.
Embedded Coder supports specific embedded targets.
HDL Coder allows to automatically generate synthesizable VHDL and Verilog
SimEvents provides a library of graphical building blocks for modeling queuing systems
Simulink is capable of systematic verification and validation of models through modeling style checking, requirements
traceability and model coverage analysis.
Simulink Design Verifier allows you identify design errors and generates test case scenarios for model checking.
Using Simulink
To open Simulink, type in the MATLAB work space:
simulink
Simulink opens with the Library Browser. The Library Browser is used for building simulation models.
On the left side window pane, you will find several libraries categorized on the basis of various systems, clicking on
each one will display the design blocks on the right window pane.
Building Models
To create a new model, click the New button on the Library Browser's toolbar. This opens a new untitled model
window
Examples
Drag and drop items from the Simulink library to make your project.
For the purpose of this example, 2 blocks will be used for the simulation - A Source (a signal) and a Sink (a scope).
A signal generator (the source) generates an analog signal, which will then be graphically visualized by the scope(the
sink).
Begin by dragging the required blocks from the library to the project window. Then, connect the blocks together which
can be done by dragging connectors from connection points on one block to those of another.
Let us drag a 'Sine Wave' block into the model.
Select 'Sinks' from the library and drag a 'Scope' block into the model.
Drag a signal line from the output of the Sine Wave block to the input of the Scope block.
Run the simulation by pressing the 'Run' button, keeping all parameters default (you can change them from the
Simulation menu)
You should get the below graph from the scope.
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