Reinhard Reformation, Counter-Reformation, and The Early Modern State A Reassessment
Reinhard Reformation, Counter-Reformation, and The Early Modern State A Reassessment
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The
Historical
Catholic
Review
VoLLXXV
JULY, 1989
No.
REFORMATION, COUNTER-REFORMATION,
Wolfgang
historians
today will agree that there is no history without
is
This
particularly true if the term "theory" is not limited to the
theory.
of refined social science
but rather
elaborate products
techniques,
Most
at
the
same
time
some
alternative
and
to a certain
concepts
an
and
alternative
periodization.
German,
Traditionally,
as well,
extent
European
early
modern
is divided
upon:
the
reaction,
movement,
reactionary
the
"Reformation,"
"Counter-Reformation,"
as
thesis,
as antithesis;
armed conflicts,
tradiction leads to extremely destructive
is saved by the strong hand of the absolutist early modern
*Mr. Reinhard
is professor
of modern
and extra-European
history
evokes
their
con
until Europe
state, which
in the University
Augsburg.
383
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of
384
REFORMATION, COUNTER-REFORMATION
because
in the religious
of its neutrality
a
thesis,
world
which
synthesis
the modern
history
national
but
convincing,
wonderfully
ourselves
we
its grip,
from
"Counter-Reformation,"
we
But
and
would
also
more
was
that of slightly
see
would
the
that
early
it was
matters;
overtly
a foundation
intolerance
state
intolerant
and
Reformation,"
of the
analysis
and at the same
more
view
realistic
The
labels
mation"
are
of
of history,
periods
exclusive.
In particular
as much
as by
much
reached
by
than
stronger
the
placed
definitive
at
formation
and
had
Maurenbrecher,
^ome
the
mutually
the
also
this
than
when
"Reformation"
traditional
historiog
In addition,
the
in
occurred
dates from
are
not
truer
fashionable
a Protestant
his discovery
those
the
years;
1580.
connected
today's
expansion
since Calvinism
Protestant
is even
as
is at
period"
in ascendancy
then
rejoiced
in 1880 published
oder
sense
when
once
Counter-Refor
Reformation,"
moment,
of concord)
older
probably
in neither
"Counter-Reformation"
is much
a new,
contradictions
activity. And
Catholic
very
aspect,
temporal
background
Catholics
they
are
"second
points,
"Counter
"Counter-Reformation
Lutheranism
of
dialectic
Lutheranism,
the
(formula
If "Reformation"
their
the
of
this
these
and
"reactionary
as
"Counter-Reformation"
Konkordienformel
in
so-called
increasing
its culmination
raphy
sive
the
characterized
of Calvinism,
proves
because
considered
history.
and
either
viable,
in religious
neutral
outline
European
Reformation"
"progressive
no
longer
successive
least
early
Finally we
to prove
try
but
reaction,
"Reformation"
the
give
modern
and
correctly
of
reactionary.
"Reformation"
processes.
far from
that
research
simply
action
I shall
character
time
of
quite
were
between
parallel
was
its strength.
of
an
by
beginning
that
is
of history
to free
able
recent
not
of
point
view
we
from
still
just
dislocated
absolutist
This
relation
the
not
learn
the syn
culmination
If only
incorrect.
that
recognize
that
state.1
might
easily
was
if a reaction,
"Counter-Reformation"
much
to
power
quite
is considered
conflict
the way
opens
mutually
of
their
exclu
material
by their origin
ecumenism.
historian, Wilhelm
of a Spanish Catholic
im Zeitalter
der Reformation
Karl Brandi, Deutsche
Geschichte
und
der
(Munich,
1930), p. 216; Leo Kofler, Zur Geschichte
1969; first edition
der Neuzeit
Versuch einer verstehenden Deutung
(Neuwied-Berlin,
Gesellschaft.
examples:
Gegenreformation
b?rgerlichen
1971; first edition
1948), pp. 7 ff., 284, 417 (Marxist analysis); Review of David Parker, The
(London,
1983) by Ulrich Muhlack, Zeitschrift f?r Historische
of French Absolutism
in Wolfgang
als
13 (1986),
239 ff.; some more
Reinhard,
Forschung,
"Gegenreformation
zu einer Theorie des konfessionellen
Zeitalters," Archiv f?r
Modernisierung?
Prolegomena
Making
Reformationsgeschichte,
68
(1977),
226-229.
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385
BYWOLFGANG REINHARD
reform
before
In
"Reformation."2
even
the meantime
Protestant
histo
movements
reform
gin.
and
the
Thus
to
Pierre
Calvinist
"Counter-Reformation"
of movements
for
common
their
the
just
church
medieval
came
Chaunu
reform.5
second
Thus
consider
and
third
the
and
background
to
ori
"Reformation"
in a whole
series
as
movement
evangelical
century,
importance
of
cities,
economic
crisis
and what
they
and
stood
plague;
for,
the
next,
i.e., money
increasing
and
economy
in intellectual
the before-mentioned
social de
life, intertwined with
this
and
between
the
thirteenth
and the
again
again
velopments.
sixteenth century led to attempts to reform the Church and the world.
All
Thus
"Reformation"
and
"Counter-Reformation,"
once
considered
irreconcilable opposites,
today are seen as closely connected
by their
common origin. But this is not to level them down to one and the same
initiated by Luther
thing, because still the early "evangelical movement"
remains something particular, since it proved an innovative force of
modernizing
tendency. However, as soon as the princes took over in the
1520's after the Peasants War, the movement
became
"Reformation,"
that
der katholischen
2Wilhelm Maurenbrecher,
Geschichte
Vol. I (1880).
Reformation,
3Kurt Dietrich
Schmidt, Die katholische
("Die Kirche
Reform und die Gegenreformation
in ihrer Geschichte,"
Vol. 3 L 1 [G?ttingen,
1975]).
oder Gegenreformation?
Ein Versuch zur Kl?rung
4Hubert Jedin, Katholische
Reformation
der Begriffe nebst
5Pierre Chaunu,
de la chr?tient?.
einer Jubil?umsbetrachtung
?ber das Trienter Konzil
(Lucerne,
Les temps r?formes. Histoire
religieuse et syst?me de civilisation.
L'?clatement
1250-1550
(Paris, 1975).
1948).
La crise
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REFORMATION, COUNTER-REFORMATION
386
is, a process
of
change
religious
conservative
by
organized
authorities
in 1530 very
the Confessio Augustana
in their legal terms.6 Therefore
the evangel
the
kind
steers
of
radicalism
clear
of
the
of
"Left,"
decisively
ical movement
had brought about, and very deliberately
approaches the
Church
Old
party
is also
And
again.7
whoever,
vatism, hopes
to disappointment.
doomed
introduced
inmore
the authority
by
that
of
was
Calvinism
its structure
of princes,
to
similar
very
conser
radical Calvinism,
cases
in most
Since
a form
assumed
consequently
at Lutheran
despondent
of progress
On
Lutheranism.8
character,
theological
politics
been
claimed.
of
doctrine
Calvin's
John
leave no doubt
correspondence
that.
about
was
first
conservative
by
legitimized
their
when
Lutherans,
of West
necessities
at
Calvinism
European
the
moment
very
when
Ger
man Lutherans dropped the notion altogether. Unlike the Calvinists, the
of the Peace of Reli
German Lutherans enjoyed the political protection
gion
and
of Augsburg
resistance
who
Monarchomacbs,
Bartholomew's
their
ation,
olics
their
Calvinists
who
now
in
wrote
the
provided
were
became
the
French
However,
community.
and
protector
to
need
resist
the
them
converted
with
of
aftermath
the
as
Monarchomachs,
the
it was
growing
of
the
king
minimum
Instead,
for
massacre
a new
guaranteed
to absolutism.
But
the Calvinist
threatened
monarchy
as soon
a
any more.
emperor
point with
when
Night,
of
existence
no
had
reached
theory
St.
very
became
of
toler
the
Cath
of
power
rather conservative
klerikalismus
Reformation.
7Cf. Wolfgang
Bekenntnis
im politischen
"Das Augsburger
Reinhard,
in drei Jahrhunderten
Bekenntnis
Jesse (ed.), Das Augsburger
pp. 32-50.
case is that of the Palatinate, cf. Paul M?nch, Zucht
8The outstanding
Horst
mierte
Kirchenverfassungen
im 16. und
17. Jahrhundert
(Stuttgart,
Zusammenhang,"
(Weissenhorn,
und Ordnung.
1978).
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in
1980),
Refor
387
REINHARD
BYWOLFGANG
have
had
written.
been
Thus
too.9
fathers
revolution
of
forefathers
of
between
reactionary
order,
Catholic
regeneration,
modern
tendencies
mation,"
Compared
Society
of
reasons
conservative
Paul
TV, had
of
Jesus
an
of
alliance
constellation
political
its opponents.13
Old
examples
of
and mendicant
not
by mere
sound
for
impression;
as the
itwas
the
orders,
such
Church,
And
of
"Counter-Refor
reactionary
revolutionary
the
institutions
good
particularly
monastic
almost
forces
as
of modern
positions
supposedly
traditional
leaves
as
did.
provides
with
altar
absolutism,
a sinister
of
The
us with
the
as proof
on the respective
still considered
inside
become
serve
oppression.12
as much
of
be
could
denigrated
or elevated
historiography,10
of liberal
whereas
observance,11
may
theoreticians
sixteenth-century
The Jesuit
forces
depend
historiography
as
order
and
throne
advocates
authors
historians
same
between
became
Jesuit
by
the
alliance
conservative
by
democracy
members
an
writers
Catholic
sixteenth-century
of
other
as
soon
as
But
established,
later
Pope
chance
that
terms,
were
considered
reforming
because
scandalous,
existing
orders.
The
precedent.
The
centuries
elite-conscious
for Roman
intolerable
completely
"Spiritual
training
hierarchs.14
foundation
had
nobody
way
of
could be
gone
recruiting
beyond
mem
Exercises,"
which
played
also
a central
9Cf. Hans
der politi
Fenske, Dieter Mertens, Wolfgang
Reinhard, Klaus Rosen, Geschichte
von Homer
bis zur Gegenwart
1981), pp. 225-247; W. Reinhard,
(Koenigstein,
(as in note 1), pp. 245 ff.
"Gegenreformation"
schen
Ideen
der Jesuiten.
Eine Kultur-
und Geistesge
at Odds,"
13Peter A. Quinn, "Ignatius of Loyola and Gian Pietro Carafa: Catholic Reformers
Historical
Review, 61 (July, 1981), 386-400.
des weiblichen
Ordenswesens
l4Joseph Grisar, "'Jesuitinnen.' Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte
Catholic
von
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388
REFORMATION, COUNTER-REFORMATION
in that training,
role
are
contents
as far as their
today may
concerned.
Nevertheless,
they
are
still
of
mo
fascinating
master
the most
successful
of
agent
"Counter-Reformation."15
open
admission
a moderate
of
covert Catholic
casuistic
less
the
elastic
from
rate
solutions
economic
point
of
was
interest
of that problem,
of view.
In fact,
more
the
favorable
Thus
the financial
to modern
economic
practice
than
remained
honest
than
it proved
but
tortuous
also
accep
theologians was
Calvinist
rigorism.18
superior
to that of
15Cf.Mabel
und Erziehungslehre
in der Fr?hzeit des
Lundberg, Jesuitische
Anthropologie
An Essay
(ca. 1540-ca
1650) (Uppsala, 1966); John W Donohue, Jesuit Education.
on the Foundation
of Its Idea (New York, 1963); Gian Paolo Brizzi, "'Studia humanitatis' und
in den ersten italienischen Kollegien
des Unterrichts
der Gesellschaft
Organisation
Jesu," in
Reinhard
im Bildungswesen
des 15. und 16. Jahrhunderts
(ed.), Humanismus
Wolfgang
Ordens
(Weinheim,
1984), pp.
155-170, Heinrich
Boehmer,
Die Jesuiten
(1904),
ed. K. D. Schmidt
1957), p. 57.
Mindelheimer
l6See, e.g., Friedrich Zoepfl, "Geschichte des ehemaligen
Jesuitenkollegs,"
Archiv f?r die Geschichte
des Hochstifts
6 (1929),
1-96.
Augsburg,
in 1904/5, when capitalism was fashionable
17First published
in Europe. When during the
Great Depression
this was no longer the case, the origins of capitalism were sometimes not
(Stuttgart,
for Calvinism,
but Jesuits were made
for it; cf. James Brodrick, The
responsible
to Dr. H M. Robinson
Morals
(Oxford, 1934).
of the Jesuits. An Answer
The School of Salamanca:
in Spanish Monetary
18Marjorie Grice-Hutchinson,
Readings
claimed
Economic
(Oxford,
1952); John T. Noonan, The Scholastic Analysis
Theory, 1544-1605
of Usury (Cam
am
249-293; Wilhelm Weber, Wirtschaftsethik
1957), pp. 202-229,
bridge, Massachusetts,
Vorabend
des Liberalismus.
und Abschlu?
der scholastischen
H?hepunkt
Wirtschafts
durch Ludwig Molina
SJ. (1535-1600)
(M?nster,
1959), pp. 175-186; Marc
betrachtung
et usure
Venard,
"Catholicisme
(1966),
59*74; Jelle C
(The Hague-Paris,
unter
Wirtschaftsethik
Gerhard
au XVIe
de l'?glise de France, 52
si?cle," Revue d'Histoire
Factors in Early Dutch Capitalism,
1550-1650
in der katholischen
Tendenzen
"Rigoristische
Riemersma, Religious
Bauer,
1967); Clemens
Teilenbach
dem
(Freiburg,
Einflu?
der Gegenreformation,"
1968), pp. 552-579.
Adel
und Kirche.
Festschrift
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389
BYWOLFGANG REINHARD
most
monarchies
European
of
"Spirit
lapse of Catholic
Weber's
inverting
a time.
for quite
that
Counter-Reformation"
southern
It was
thesis.19
the
produced
as Herbert
Europe,
rather
the
it was
Indeed,
eventual
not
unfavorable
the
economic
by
development
of
the economy
itself compared with that of northern Europe: the south
was unable to keep up with changing patterns of demand and suffered
from higher costs of production.20 This kind of explanation
represents
a methodological
research indeed once again
reaction, but historical
prefers to explain economic development
by economic causes first, and
not by immediate resort to the forces of intellectual history.
The same is true of social history. Once
poor
relief
was
an
achievement
of
the
it seemed obvious
"Reformation."21
Did
that modern
not
suppres
remarkably
similar, whatever
?ber
ein Thema
in Gegenwart
their religious
affiliation.23
der Geschichte.
die protestantische
Ethik
Historische
Essays (Cologne
et Contemporaine,
in Oberdeutschland
f?r
Fr?nkische
21 (1974),
337-375;
Ingomar Bog, "?ber Arme und Armen
und in der Eidgenossenschaft
im 15. und 16. Jahrhundert,"
34/35 (1975), 983-1001.
Landesforschung,
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REFORMATION, COUNTER-REFORMATION
390
Thus, empirical
labels
research
and
"Reformation"
or materially;
and
reaction"
"reactionary
that
conclusion
simply
do
that the
not
corres
seemed
so
self-evident.
each
competition
selves
as "churches,"
i.e.,
stable
organizations
with
well
defined
member
ship. These new "churches" had to be more rigid than the old pre-Refor
was self-evident
mation Church, where membership
and required no
careful preservation. Particular confessions of faith served to distinguish
these separate religious communities
from each other. And since the
covers both the confessions of faith and the
German word Konfessionen
I have decided to call the formation of the new
respective communities,
churches Konfessionalisierung
In my opinion
it
(confessionalization).
some
measures
on
with
the
first
Lutheran
visitations
and
tentative
began
the Old Church side in the 1520's and ended after the late seventeenth
France re-established
century, when
religious unity by force (1685),
when
( 1688
England secured the Protestant character of its monarchy
of Salzburg expelled the Protes
1707), and when the Prince-Archbishop
tants from his country (1731). Obviously
"Church" and "State" collabo
to cut autonomous parts out of the body of one single
rated everywhere
a particular group
Christian community
(Kristenbeit)
by establishing
of religious doctrine
and practice among their members.
conformity
instruments
to
the
and
the institutions and personnel
However,
used,
handle them, deserve a closer look, just to demonstrate once again how
to each other in all communities,
in spite of
closely they corresponded
theological
differences.24
Grundlagen
mation
und katholischen
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391
BYWOLFGANG REINHARD
in the establish
As already mentioned,
the basic procedure consisted
ment of the respective pure doctrine
in a
and its handy formulation
confession of faith, which could be used to measure everybody's ortho
doxy. The Lutherans took the first step in this direction with their "Augs
the late 1550's
burg Confession" of 1530. But the decisive years were
and early 1560's, when various Calvinist confessions were followed by
the Catholic Professio Fidei Tridentina (the confession of the Council
of Trent). Then, in 1580, the majority of German Lutherans agreed to
the Formula
Concordiae
(formula of concord).
served
necessity
two masters,
said Mass
in the morning
and
preached
to the Protestants
in the afternoon, as sometimes had happened
in Ger
a
a
few years before still considered
way to
many.25 And the lay chalice,
the
reunify
churches
of
suspicion
by
to the
concessions
and was
crypto-Protestantism,
now
Protestants,
as
abolished
came
under
as possi
soon
ble.26
were
to become
no
longer
ritualized
serious
attempts
exchanges
of
at
but
reunification,
arguments
tended
to demonstrate
the
aus
italieni
(1555-1648)
(Freiburg, 1949), pp. 205-210; Paul Chaix, Alain Dufour, Gustave Moeckli, Les livres imprim?s
et Renaissance," Vol. 86 [Geneva, 1966]);
? Gen?ve de 1550 ? 1600 ("Travaux d'humanisme
zur Zeit der Glaubensk?mpfe.
Hans Joachim Bremme, Buchdrucker
und Buchh?ndler
Stu
dien zur Genfer Druckgeschichte
("Travaux d'humanisme
1969]).
28Cf.Wilbirgis
hunderts.
der Reformationszeit
(4 vols.; M?nster,
et Renaissance,"
Kontroverstheologen
1978); Erwin Iserloh
Vol.
104 [Geneva,
1984-1987).
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392
REFORMATION, COUNTER-REFORMATION
senses
sions,
and
of an advantage
incorporated
popular
and
pilgrimages,
were
music
church
and
included),
Cath
everywhere.
saints
of
as
such
spectacles
veneration
the
in use
proces
religious
their
to the
relics.
of propaganda, keeping
Censorship was the negative complement
and
the
The
Roman
away competitors.
Spanish Indexes of prohibited
in
books have become
famous, but censorship was common practice
Calvinist
and
Lutheran
as well,
churches
to protect
its duty
it
ered
because
its members
church
every
against
consid
contamina
dangerous
tion.30
itwas particularly
Therefore,
important to secure the orthodoxy of
as people responsible for teaching
in
such
persons
strategic positions,
or preaching or able to intervene at decisive hours of human life. Theolo
gians,
ministers,
priests,
made
swear
to
the
teachers,
doctors,
in general were
respective
in internalizing
generation
sometimes
on their orthodoxy
of
confession
and
midwives,
examined
faith.31
Then
they
and
could
and rules
of behavior.
Each church
its
educational
cation
so
system
New
children.
tried to win
school
and exercises
ordinances
to
new
the
safeguard
"right"
mushroomed,
together with
If necessary,
behavior.32
and streamlining
orthodox
stressing
the control
its
edu
religious
of religious
educational
of
alignment
and moral
institutions
had
to
be created
might
in G. M?ller
29Cf. Janusz Tazbir, "Die Religionsgespr?che
der Reformationszeit,"
der Reformationszeit
(G?tersloh,
1980), pp. 127-143.
(ed.), Die
Religionsgespr?che
30Franz Heinrich
cf.
Reusch, Der Index der verbotenen B?cher (2 vols.; Bonn, 1883-1885);
inWenzel
Lohse, "Glaube und Bekenntnis bei Luther und in der Konkordienformel,"
Lohff and Lewis W Spitz (eds.), Widerspruch,
und Einigung
Dialog
(Stuttgart, 1977), p. 29;
M?nch, op. cit., p. 135.
31Cf. Klaus
"Iuramentum Religionis.
und Funktion des
Schreiner,
Entstehung, Geschichte
der Staats- und Kirchendiener
im Territorialstaat
der fr?hen Neuzeit," Der
Konfessionseides
Bernhard
211-246.
24 (1985),
than Gerald
32With more success
Staat,
the Young
in the German
(Baltimore,
1978),
Reformation
and Failures in the German Reformation:
"Successes
Kittelson,
Archiv f?r Reformationsgeschichte,
73 (1982),
Indoctrination
of
of Learning.
to admit; cf. James
is willing
Strasbourg,"
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still
to graduate
advisable
new
Minorities
own
oder
in Protestant
inns.35
often
even
instrument
than
the
than
local
that
own
police
able
organization
force
However,
or,
Therefore
the
Moreover,
the
churches
they
were
authority,
in the case
probably
that
cannot
baptisms,
stressed,
The Spanish
and
be
useful
produced
ritual
control
of
its
possessed
a formid
such
even
Reform
alone,
repression
more
participation
communions,
(London,
katholische
by
is even
that
at distinguishing
Inquisition
effective
Inquisition.
group
sometimes
functional
is more
Church,
Roman
marriages,
1981).
(Salzburg-Munich,
Salzburg
35Felix Stieve, Das kirchliche Polizeiregiment
(Munich,
the
life of the
a superior
Social control
authority
the Catholic
of
established
on
particularly
33Henry Kamen,
tion of 1967.
community
oder
Spanish
and moral
even
overstressed,
important.
by care
and
burials.
those
rites
in Baiern
ar
officials
recognize
as the
served
consistory
way
or, more
not
did
when
in Catholic
secular
in a distinctive
record-keeping
which
own
coherence
group
participation
oder
created
your
as
as
regular
ful
of
an outside
and
the religious
which
presbytery
members
of
detail
congregations,
of
discipline
on Fridays
superiors
clerical
al
possible
in an active
members
ecclesiastical
of
strict
to drink
able
early
allowed
to eat meat
be
to group
commissions
it had been
equivalent;37
Puritans
when
the
chance
or were
the
to prevent
religion
from
no
was
majority
escape
should
in minute
In Calvinist
senior
to
possible.
emigrated
as late as
Protestants
have
applied
visitation,
mixed
not,
institution,
by
nor
either
of different
should
was
of
rived to investigate
parish.36
itwas
desired
as
homogeneous
orthodox
temporary
discipline
as
Salzburg
neighbors
restaurants,
Finally,
the
if one
academy,
amalgamated
remaining
Catholics
group.
be
the
The
century.34
contamination,
by
to
no contact with
their
own
prince's
become
not
could
as happened
eighteenth
the
should
groups
which
expelled,
most
at
by him.
be employed
The
prohibited
393
REINHARD
BYWOIJGANG
unter Maximilian
transla
im Erzstift
I. 1595-1651
1876).
Beitr?ge
36important: E.W Zeeden and Peter Thadd?us Lang (eds.), Kirche und Visitation.
in Europa
zur Erforschung
Visitationswesens
des fr?hneuzeitlichen
(Stuttgart, 1984).
?tude compar?e
37Cf. Jean Est?be and Bernard Vogler, "La gen?se d'une soci?t? protestante:
et palatins vers 1600," Annales,
31 (1976),
de quelques
languedociens
registres consistoriaux
Die T?tigkeit
als Sozialdisziplinierung?
"Reformierte Kirchenzucht
inWilfried
Enbrecht and Heinz Schilling
in den Jahren 1557-1562,"
and Vienna,
und Nordwestdeutschland
1983), pp. 261-327.
(Cologne
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394
REFORMATION, COUNTER-REFORMATION
petitors,
adoration
became
even
of
the
if their theology
sacrament
of
the
characteristic
exclusively
and
features
such practices.
veneration
of
saints
of Catholicism,
Thus,
and
relics
whereas
prac
implied Protestant in
tising the lay chalice from now on automatically
a
if
Protestant
clinations.38 And
community
indulged in iconoclasm,
of
the
Catholic
the remaining elements
eliminated
mass, and dropped
was
to
in
exorcism
realize that they were moving
baptism, everybody
on from Lutheranism to Calvinism.39
Even performances with almost no religious significance were consid
to
ered confessional
and therefore became
property,
unacceptable
others in spite of obvious advantages. When Pope Gregory XIII achieved
the overdue reform of the calendar in 1582, most Protestants refused to
that new reckoning. The Lutheran estates of the Empire did not
adopt it until 1699; and in a mixed city like Augsburg the new calendar
led to a major conflict just short of civil war.40
accept
No wonder
confessional
regulation.
Of
course,
even
churches
language
to secure
tried
an
adequate
name for themselves. The Old Church somehow managed to reserve for
the new churches
herself the venerable designation
"Catholic," whereas
were called after their leading reformers. The Lutherans reluctantly ac
cepted this labelling; Calvinists, however, dislike it right down to the
present day. (Though, for the purposes of this essay I had no other
choice, for "Calvinist" is the most unequivocal
term.) But the churches
went further than that; even the first names given in baptism became
"confessionalized."
New
Testament
there
True,
origin,
but
remained
in Calvinist
a common
Geneva
certain
mass
of
names
names
of
of
saints
and others typical of Old Church piety were banned and replaced by
that inflation of Old Testament names which soon became a characteris
tic feature of Calvinism. On the other hand, Catholics from 1566 on
38In 1610 a papal dispensation was granted to a candidate "non obstante quod eius mater
sub utraque specie communicet"
(Archivio Segreto Vaticano, Sec. Brev. 460, fol. 43).
in Kursachsen
39Cf. Thomas Klein, Der Kampf um die zweite Reformation
1586-1591
in
and Graz, 1962); Heinz Schilling (ed.), Die reformierte Konfessionalisierung
(Cologne
der "Zweiten Reformation"
Problem
Deutschland?Das
("Schriften des Vereins f?r Refor
Vol. 195 [G?tersloh,
1986]).
mationsgeschichte,"
der Gregorianischen
40Ferdinand Kaltenbrunner,
Kalenderreform
Beitr?ge zur Geschichte
In
des ?sterreichischen
(Vienna, 1880); id., "Der Augsburger Kalenderstreit," Mitteilungen
F. Stieve, Der Kalenderstreit
des 16.
1 (1880),
stituts f?r Geschichtsforschung,
497-540;
der Wissenschaften,"
in Deutschland
Abhandlungen,
Jahrhunderts
("Bayerische Akademie
Vol.
15, 3 [Munich,
1880]).
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395
BYWOLFGANG REINHARD
were
about
as
"confessionalization"
But
name.41
in that field; we
to be done
how
a saint's
to choose
obliged
legally
research
is still much
there
patterns
changed
such
life
everyday
language.
Certainly,
a short
But
time.
is not
the
reason
only
the
for
change
inertia
notorious
the
all established
of
of
slowness
structure
social
The
"confessionalization."
qualified
churches
on
churches
the
had
other,
and
advantages
complementary
disadvan
of
because
the papacy
of
the
inadequate
completely
were
clergy
more
much
an
of
reform
elaborate
this
ponderosity,
tion, once
started
the
by
"conquered"
institutional
new
network
elaborate
the Old
structure.
still
oder
nuncios
papal
but
to
was
also
not
to
only
local churches.
councils
to
and
Bishops
three
and
years.
They
to publish
synods
guide
reforming
orders were
tion, religious
at her
to five
diocesan
coordinate
New
disposition.
the
its
were
the
activities
and
advan
traditional
of
capable
reorganiza
were
created
popes
ones.
"Catholic
an
Thus,
to
employed
initiate
policy,
every
had
of
spite
ancient
revitalize
"Counter-Reformation"
churches
status
social
Church
In
was
apparatus
institutions
of
their
the Council
to create
with
its positions,
those members
movement,42
institutional
of
irreligious,
preoccupied
in most
personnel
not necessarily
included. Though
enforce
in
Reform"
to hold
required
provincial
new
reform
and
legislation,
in their
In addi
dioceses.
took
over
new
tasks,
tool
of
religious
in regions
of
der
propaganda,
doubtful
strategically
planned
cam
missionary
observance.
Richard, Untersuchungen
Westschweiz
und Frankreichs
zur Genesis
mit
der reformierten
besonderer
Kirchenter
Ber?cksichtigung
der
(Bern, 1959).
Namengebung
und Barock," in Remigius
zwischen Renaissance
42Cf.Wolfgang Reinhard, "Reformpapsttum
Ecclesiae. Festgabe f?r Erwin Iserloh (Paderborn,
B?umer (ed.), Reformatio
1980), pp. 779
796.
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396
REFORMATION, COUNTER-REFORMATION
The new churches, on the other hand, had to start without any institu
tional infrastructure, except in those countries like England where
they
took over the old church institutions. Often secular authorities of cities
and states stepped in instead, a kind of substitution favored by Luther's
notorious
indifference
toward
institutions.
the
However,
new
churches
made
innovators.
And
the
necessary
training
was
soon
provided
centuries
the
of
foundation
twelve
twelve
Catholic,
and
Lutheran,
into
was
church
higher education;
they were
too.
Thus,
repression,
they
it to
adapted
vinist
new
their
churches,
take
account.45
neither
However,
add
with
needs,
a new
where
content
with
institutions
creating
exception
the
institution,
of
of
of control
visitation
autonomous
or
presbytery
and
and
Cal
consistory,
was
tries?and
officers
in
Because
to rely
had
the
Catholic
service
the
of the shortage
to a lesser
too?was
ones,
of
respective
of institutions
extent
or greater
Geneva
and
provided
the Coming
(Geneva,
1959).
an Universit?ten
44Cf. Karl Hengst, Jesuiten
Peter Schmidt, Das Collegium
Germanicum
and
spies
by
police
state.46
on
all churches
and personnel,
the
support
of
secular
powers,
in France
1555-1563
und Jesuitenuniversit?ten
in Rom und die Germaniker.
(Munich,
1981);
Zur Funktion
eines
r?mischen Ausl?nderseminars
(1552-1914)
1984).
(T?bingen,
45Atlas zur Kirchengeschichte
(Freiburg, 1970), p. 80; Ulrich Im Hof, "Sozialdisziplinierung
in der reformierten
Schweiz vom 16. bis zum 18. Jahrhundert," Annali dell'Istituto
storico
127 ff.
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397
BYWOLFGANG REINHARD
a fact
of
case
to
churches
major
groups?i.e.,
Milan
to
the
to
we
we
First,
than
in mind,
they had
after
society
to keep
of
of
the
local
the
three
Calvinists,
re
church-state
in
succeeded
"confes
in reaching
However,
several unintended
was
results.
more
certainly
and more
improved
to
kind
from
the
"Confessionalization."
they produced
was
to
Geneva
the crucial
"Confessionalization"
education
before:
of
each
"Confessionalization"
Lutherans,
results
differ
greatly
fact,
run
the churches
long
extent.
to a remarkable
the
their members
sionalizing"
In
a different
the
in
doubt,
the goal
of
the
have
examine
if solutions
conditions.
Catholics47?practised
when
Without
to
Saxony
lationship. Therefore,
mind,
local
as a model
served
which
even
consequences,
far-reaching
case
according
"modern"
and
widespread,
the
first
and made
On
other
the
latent
and
dence
where
Last
by
traditional
the witch-craze
very
these
was
rarely
witch-craze
is nothing
practised
coinci
precisely
but
intensity,
with
directly
of
expense
space
particular
of
late
an uncon
but
the
and
allies
the
be mere
in time
with
witches
identified
else
It cannot
its climax
of
at
aggressions
superstition.
reached
"Confessionalization"
notorious
centuries
societies.48
and their
secular
they
a
stress
and
potential
created
the
of
expurgation
the
"confes
enemy.49
but
not
to do
made
"Confessionalization"
least,
that
seventeenth
early
provided
that
nevertheless
sional"
people
have
administra
industrial
pressure
must
I think
collective
victims
constant
the
aggressiveness.
sixteenth
scious
the
of bureaucratic
objects
of modern
preconditions
hand,
on
exercised
to being
accustomed
essential
tion?both
of the modern
so; more
often
an
than
not
it was
quite
contribu
important
opposite.
How
ever, they all needed the help of secular authorities, a help which was
granted willingly, but not free of charge. The churches had to pay for it
in some
cases
in the
literal
are well
Reinhard,
sense
of
the word.
Early
modern
state-build
(Milan,
1966),
p. 134.
and the People of Catholic
Europe," Past and
48John Bossy, "The Counter-Reformation
51-70.
Present, No. 47 (1970),
49This suggestion
appeared obvious after studying a large number of regional studies on
cannot be quoted here.
in the sixteenth
and seventeenth
centuries, which
witch-hunting
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REFORMATION, COUNTER-REFORMATION
398
on
ers,
the
other
knew
hand,
would
fessionalization"
of
political
the
joining
extension
identity,
"Con
of
process
three decisive
them with
provide
enforcement
advantages:
that
well
very
competitive
a monopoly
of
itwas obvious
of their subjects. Therefore,
of power, and disciplining
that a policy of religious toleration would not pay at that stage of state
Indeed,
centuries
of modern
was
But what
concrete
and
up
such
as
into more
bers may
site:
of
development
to
regard
and
"religion,"
"Confession,"
and
church,
religion,
the
early
modern
but
only
based
culture,
by
as
to pursue
not
could
authorities
"poli
economic
such conditions,
take
without
place
on
consent
"fundamental
upon
the oppo
Quite
of both. Under
today,
mem
where
"politics"
possible
main
still not
case
is the
etc.,
included
state
shared
as
is compatible.
"religion"
not
it was
purposes
the
Unitarian;
political
still
entities
life,"
"family
but membership
remained
included
first
different
Society was
subsystems
"economy,"
and
into
down
new
these
states,
autonomous
less
"religion,"
be different,
society
tics"
territorial
oder
"politics,"
the
during
religion
broke
"Christianity"
between
relationship
medieval
national
churches,
states
powerless
history!
the
identity? When
were
states
tolerant
building.
and
(Heinz
subjects"
came to constitute
the national
Schilling).50 That is why Catholicism
some
even
time
after
of France,
political identity of Portugal, Spain, and
case
The
Swedish
for England.
overcame
confessional
ambiguity
as Protestantism
exactly
the
symptomatic:
is even
did
Swedes
only
more
when
to
their national identity was threatened by the impending succession
the throne of the Catholic king of Poland. At that point Sweden finally
in 1593, closed down the convent of
accepted the Augsburg Confession
the
Vadstena,
Catholic
national
in
sanctuary,
and
1595,
outlawed
Catho
lics.51
In the
ences
case
is even
tional" culture
there
were
tion
between
not
of German
more
territorial
essential,
the
states,
because
these
to legitimize
their political
even
different
dynasties
but
rival
territories,
just
appeal
clear
the
a "na
lacked
independence.
of
differ
religious
principalities
to draw
branches
to
lines
same
Sometimes
of
noble
demarca
house.
Eine Fallstudie
?ber das Verh?ltnis
und Staatsbildung.
50H. Schilling, Konfessionskonflikt
am Beispiel der Grafschaft
in der Fr?hneuzeit
von religi?sem
und sozialem Wandel
Lippe
19?1), p. 34.
(G?tersloh,
51Paul
seitdem
16. Jahrhundert
("Die
Kirchengeschichte
Georg Lindhardt, Skandinavische
Vol. 3 M 3. [G?ttingen,
Kirche in ihrer Geschichte,"
1982]), pp. 281 ff.;Georg Schwaiger, Die
in den nordischen
Reformation
and the Counter-Reformation
L?ndern
(Munich, 1962), pp. 142 if.; Oskar Garstein,
in Scandinavia,
Vol. 2 (Oslo, 1980).
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Rome
BYWOLFGANG REINHARD
be mere
It cannot
preferred
"confessions":
carefully
lish an exclusively
Swiss
republics
early
as
territorial
had
their
separated
if they were
and
other,52
their
drawn
"Confessionalization"
as
Calvinism.
Even
respective
territorial
at
tried
they
Catholi
of
princes
the
churches
to estab
least
definite
advanced
just
lines
Lutheranism?Leipzig
Catholic,
bishopric
153153?obviously
the individual
Lutheranism; Munich
on
later
Lutheranism,
cism?Heidelberg
same
religion
each
Wittenberg
Kassel Calvinism?Darmstadt
Catholicism;
from
coincidence
different
399
"confessional"
effective
state-build
favored
"Confessionalization"
as
borderlines
favored
state-building
ing.
Closed
to
obedience
ligious
to enforce
served
also
group
political
outside
authorities
to prevent
and intermarriage
limited mobility,
borders,
contamination
gious
was
state
the
reli
Re
identity.
considered
also
identity
by
"civic
of
strategies
today's
not only by
of
Rousseau
election
isolation
of
"Confessionalization"
abusing
and
of Machiavelli
religion"
cynical
is enforced
thorough
This
the
political
but
population,
of Cologne.55
was
still
the
subjects.
purposes.
far
away
because
managers,
of the
in
The
from
those
still
days those who used religion for political purposes nevertheless
of Bavaria had a
in it. From 1615 to 1628 Duke Maximilian
believed
the Jesuit Matthew Rader
In his preface
"Bavaria Sancta" published.
what
explained
towns,
counties,
the
book
villages,
wanted
fields,
to demonstrate:
forests,
mountains
"Cities,
and
castles,
valleys
market
all breathe
Kirchenpolitik
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400
and
REFORMATION, COUNTER-REFORMATION
demonstrate
Bavaria's
Catholic
religion
...,
because
the whole
re
gion is nothing but religion and one common church of its people."56
Tota regio nil nisi religio ismuch more than just playing with the words
of the famous formula Cuius regio eius religio. This was the program of
in its implementation
Maximilian's
reign, and he proved so successful
that still today Bavarian
and Catholic
This kind of close affinity between religion and politics made itmuch
easier to overcome
the traditional Christian dualism of the spiritual and
the secular spheres, just re-established
by Luther in the most radical
in favor
way,
authority
Ages.
of
a Unitarian
regime,
this
time,
however,
'Tour
Grace
shall
be
our
pope
and
emperor,"
with
as once
some
the
secular
in the Middle
peasants
wrote
Um Glauben
1980]),
57Cf. Stieve,
F?rstenthumben
Der
und andere Ordnungen
Gerichts- Malefitz
op. cit.; Landrecht/Policey:
Obern und Nidern
I6l6), pp. 583-585; Hans R?ssler,
(Munich,
Bayern
im Bistum
"Warum Bayern katholisch blieb. Eine Strukturanalyse der evangelischen
Bewegung
33 (1981), 91-108.
Kirchengeschichte,
Freising 1520-1570,," Beitr?ge zur altbayerischen
"Die Territorien
Staatlichkeit und politi
zwischen Reichstradition,
58Walter Heinemeyer,
in Angermeier,
S?kulare Aspekte, p. 77.
der Bayerischen
Vol. 2 (Munich,
Geschichte,
1969), pp. 51, 583; Irmgard
Vol. 3 (Cologne
and Graz,
Geschichte
H?ss, "Humanismus und Reformation,"
Th?ringens,
und Zentralbeh?rden
der
und Territorialstaat
1967); Volker Press, Calvinismus
Regierung
1559-1619
Kurpfalz
(Stuttgart, 1970); imitations of the Bavarian model: Helmut Steigelmann
schen
Interessen,"
59Cf.Handbuch
Leviathan,
chapter
42.
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401
BYWOLFGANG REINHARD
power
accompanied
"Church"
as
the
the
that
here
Nevertheless,
at
sometimes
the
of
of
expense
even
too
of
"State"
the
same
very
the
Papal
from
the
between
conflicts
is true
this
is recruited
hierarchy
one.
ecclesiastical
"Church,"
series
continuous
is amazing
the political
States, where
by
It
"State."
and
dominates
of
principle
itwas
exercised
by
almost no German
church
by
ever gained
prince
a new
establishing
in other
princes
temporal
Catholic
territorial
cases.63
control
bishopric,
not
Nevertheless,
of his territorial
even
in Bavaria.
obvious
a comparison
by
western
with
and
southern
Europe.
The kings of France and Spain as well as most of the Italian princes and
republics held complete control of their respective churches and in some
cases
were
even
as
wishes,
in the
It would
sovereign
be
grossly
to
able
case
of
a mistake
have
the
them
Spanish
to consider
dysfunctional
from
reorganized
to
according
their
Netherlands.64
church
the
government
ecclesiastical
by
point
the
secular
of view,
as
to bishop
it turned out in France because of dubious royal appointments
rics and abbeys. The "Catholic Kings" in Spain enforced church reform
as did the dukes of Bavaria.65 One should not forget that "Reformation"
by Protestant princes basically was the same thing, in particular when
it claimed not to found a new church, but just to purify the old one. On
im deutschen
Luthertum
"Episcopus Evangelicus. Versuche mit dem Bischofsamt
und Confutatio
in Erwin Iserloh (ed.), Confessio Augustana
16. Jahrhunderts,"
(M?nster,
1980), pp. 499-516.
nella
la monarchia
Un corpo e due anime:
62Paolo Prodi, // sovrano pontefice.
papale
011. H?ss,
des
(Bologna,
der Bayerischen
Geschichte,
Vol. 2 (Munich,
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402
REFORMATION, COUNTER-REFORMATION
the other hand, purely religious actions might also serve political pur
poses. The electors of Saxony used "Reformation" and church visitation
to enlarge their political power at the expense of neighboring
bishops
and local nobility.66 And in Bavaria the restructuring of popular piety
the political autonomy of that country's
proved helpful in undermining
The expansion of the cult of the Virgin as
powerful old monasteries.
favored by the duke and realized by Jesuits and mendicants went forward
at the expense of the traditional patron saints of those monasteries. Thus
the "Patrona Bavariae" replaced the patron saint of the local lord exactly
as the latter himself was replaced by the duke.67
To be saved from
their
princes.
They
churches
competition,
not
lost
only
autonomy,
estates
and
to
revenues,
peculiarity.
tion."68
And
the
Protestant
secularizations
have
their
coun
less-known
terpart in extensive
expropriations
by Catholic princes. The French
crown, for example, financed the religious wars to a large extent by
selling church property69 And the clergy was exempt from taxation, in
canon law only, since in reality they were taxed by the pope in the Papal
States and by the duke of Bavaria as well as by the kings of Spain and
France.
the
abbot
his estates
the monastic
and to establish
used
observance
his princely
the paternal
authority
to overcome
the
inW?rttemberg,"
Zeitschrift
of
absolutism.70
ascribed
resistance
f?r W?rttembergische
Vol.
1 (Munich,
der Br?der
vom
Landesgeschichte,
earlier
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BYWOLFGANG REINHARD
the "Reformation"
Both
on
administration
bureaucratic
The
lines.
403
of Trent modernized
Protestant
church
or
Superintendents
modern
Intendant,
of
officials
bureaucratic
the
Commissioner
had been.
type, and no longer holders of a benefice as their predecessors
to G. R. Elton, the beginnings of the English "Reformation"
According
are nothing else than one aspect of a major administrative reform of the
the premodern
kingdom.72 And the Catholic Church overcame
society
of privilege-holders
control of the faithful in the hands
by concentrating
of the parish priest and the bishop, and by closing gaps in this control
of
by the new matrimonial
legislation combined with the establishment
an
church records.73 Administration
and
overflow
of
detailed
by writing
regulations heralded the age of bureaucracy. By joint efforts of Church
to a stricter discipline of life. And
and State subjects became accustomed
where
the State still lacked a well organized bureaucracy able to reach
the Church stepped inwith its
every single subject in the countryside,
ministers.
parish
law
ismore
to them
not
favorable
only
too,
consciences,
to princes
than
and means
the bodies
and
it binds
not
only
the Christian
of
the
one,
it submits
because
but
subjects,
the hands,
but also
their
the
souls
and
and
feelings
thoughts.74
Of course,
with him:
Religion
contain
government
connects
of State
secret
The Enforcement
1972).
73Council
(ed.),
Canons
still agree
and Reason
the
both
begin
with
of
71Cf.
H?ss, op. cit., p. 86.
72Cf. G. R. Elton, The Tudor Revolution
Police.
Reinkingk would
in Government
of the Reformation
(Latin).
translation), pp. 454-460
74Translated from Giovanni Botero, Della
H. J. Schroeder, O.P.
de reformatione matrimonii,
of Trent (St. Louis, 1941), pp. 183-190 (English
ragione
di Stato,
(Turin,
1948),
p. 137.
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404
REFORMATION, COUNTER-REFORMATION
more
superiors
fidence.75
It paid
an
for
than
modern
early
else,
anything
authority
and
is the
true
to
regularize
basis
the
con
of mutual
very
of
intimacy
the religious and moral lives of its subjects, and to supervise them by
officials and spies; it paid not only through political stability, but also by
the
of
new
of
gain
state
power
traditional
move
successful
when
states,
success
for
measures
of
no
but
to
dares
than
better
introduced
with
the
doubt,
was
not
the
very
after
all,
by
participate
also
as described
are legitimized
subjects
opinion,
public
way,
certain
in
German
the
condemned
by
that
the
early
process
of
modern
of
the
strategy
the
estates.
of
precondition
above.
consciences
risk
territorial
of
help
essential
Resistance
by their consequence
only
and
subjects
to
easier
it was
"Confessionalization"
which
salvation
subtle
of
obviously
and
England,
was
"Reformation"
However,
it was
expansion
political
resistance
in accord with
in Sweden,
in a more
purely
a stubborn
authorities,
proved
Who
territory.
to reckon
with
intermediate
Whereas
political
had
against
subjects
and
by
themselves.
monarchies
could
"Confessionalization"?
do
In
On
the
cause
you may,
will;
can
we
shall find that religion,
and not fear, has ever been
inspection
of the long-lived
of an absolute
Do what
government.
prosperity
there is no true power
in the free union of their
among men
except
and patriotism
are
and religion
towards
urge all the people
long
two motives
the only
the same end.76
in the world
that
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