MODULE 1: GAMMA SCANNING TECHNIQUE

1. 1. BACKGROUND OF GAMMA SCANNING METHOD FOR TROUBLESHOOTING AND

OPTIMIZING PROCESSING COLUMNS, VESSELS AND PIPES
Gamma Scanning is the best technique to carry out an internal inspection of any process
equipment, without interrupting production. A collimated beam of penetrating gamma rays is allowed
to pass through the shell of a vessel gets modified by the vessel internals and then comes out of the
other side.
By measuring the intensity of the transmitted radiation, valuable information can be obtained
about the densities of the materials present inside the vessel. The higher the density of the material, the
less radiation gets through; so significantly more gamma rays are transmitted through a vapor
compared to a liquid phase.
Density scanning of distillation columns is the most commonly used application of this
technique. Without affecting processing unit, this reliable and accurate technique can be used to
determine:

The liquid level on trays

The presence or absence of internals, such as trays, demister pads, packing and distributors
The extent and position of jet and liquid stack flooding
The position, and the density characteristics of foaming

Gamma ray source and radiation detectors are moved simultaneously down opposite sides of the
column. The intensity is recorded at appropriate intervals and a profile of the instantaneous operating
state is obtained by plotting the detector response against the column elevation. The tray structure and
the liquid on the trays give high absorption, while the presence of foam and entrainment slightly
moderates the expected vapor profile. Studies of the degree of foaming can be carried out by
generating density profiles at different concentrations of antifoam additive.
The scanning of pipelines for blockages or build-up is another excellent use of Gamma
Scanning because it is faster and uses lower radiation levels than conventional X-ray techniques.
1.2. GAMMA-RAY SCAN METHODOLOGY
1.2.1.

General principles

Gamma scan method uses the transmission or absorption principle (Fig.1.1). Transmission of a
mono-energetic beam of collimated -ray photons through a simple absorption medium can be
described by Lambert-Beers equation

FIG. 1. 1. Principle of gamma absorbtion method

The quantity of gamma radiation absorbed into the material between the radioactive source and
detector is described by transmission law:
= 0

Where: is the linear absorption coefficient with dimension cm-1, x the sample thickness in cm.
Or
= 0

where:

Ix is the intensity of radiation going through the material

Io is the intensity of incident radiation
is the absorption coefficient of the inspected material
is the density of material.
x is the thickness of material (radiation path length in cm2/g)

A quantity more commonly found tabulated is the mass absorption coefficient / with
dimension cm2/g. In a composite sample (with w, o and g materials) the attenuation is additive
according to

= 0

,


, 0 ,0

This is the basic equation used for experimental design, measuring, data processing and
interpretation of gamma-ray absorption scanning technique in column, vessels and pipe inspection.
The gamma scan technique is used to determine what is happening inside a vessel. A small
gamma ray source and a detector are positioned on opposite sides of a vessel. As the source and
detector move along the exterior of the vessels a density profile is generated of the interior contents.
Gamma rays emitted from the source travel through the vessel, are moderated by the contents, and are
then counted by the detector. If the source and detector spacing is held constant the count rate at the
detector is directly related to the density of the material the gamma rays pass through. Vapors allow
more gamma rays through than either liquid or vessel internals creating the density plot.
TABLE 1.1. MAJOR GAMMA SEALED SOURCES USED IN INDUSTRIAL SCANNING

Radioisotope

T1/2

Energy (MeV)

Cs-137

30,2 y

Co-60

5,27 y

0,662 (89,9%)
1,173 (100%)
1,332 (100%)

Gamma constant
rem m2 / h Ci
0,399
1,31

Baseline gamma scans are performed to obtain the current normal operating profile of a
vessel. This profile is then used as a reference point for future scans. If problems are suspected,
bottlenecks occur or an expansion is planned; a new gamma scan is compared to the baseline to
determine differences in the operation conditions.
The experimental design of gamma scanning presented in the figure 1.2 and figure 1.3 shows
the laboratory experimental design to test and validate the method for various columns. Radioactive
source is normally collimated, while the detector could be collimated or not.

FIG. 1.2. Source-detector configuration in performing gamma scanning of a column

FIG.1.3. Laboratory set-ups for testing of gamma scanning designs

The radioactive source is moving inserted into a panoramic collimator (360 degree) (Fig.1.4).
The panoramic (or all sides open) collimator is important for ensuring the same detection geometry in
various conditions of source torching or slight movement under wind conditions.
Typical gamma-ray scans can be carried out within 60 minutes after arrival at a plant. Scanning
rate of approximately 12 m/h can be maintained on tray columns. It is therefore possible within a few
hours, to discuss the results with process engineers so that they can take immediate action, such as
shut down or keep on running the plant.

FIG. 1.4. Source panoramic collimator

Gamma scanning is the only diagnostic tool available that can be applied with confidence on
any distillation process to obtain the true hydraulic behavior of that system (Fig.1.5)

FIG. 1.5. Scaning responses of typical malfunctions

The principle of gamma scanning profile is illustrated by Fig. 1.6:

FIG. 1.6. Principle of gamma scanning profile

When scanning a distillation column or a similar vessel, a small suitably sealed gamma
radiation source and a detector (NaI/Tl) are moved simultaneously in small increments on opposite
sides, along the exterior length of the unit.
A relative density profile of the contents of the column is thus obtained; areas containing
relatively high density material (such as liquid and/or metal) provide a relatively low intensity of
transmitted radiation, while areas of relatively low density (vapor spaces between trays) result in a
high intensity level. Deductions can be made regarding possible mechanical damage of trays inside the
unit, as well as with regard to certain operational conditions in the unit, such as flooding, blockages,
weeping and other process anomalies.
Comparing mechanical drawings with relative density profile (gamma absorption profile) of a
unit, deductions can be made with regard to:

Presence or absence of trays and other internals inside a column,

Presence and formation of coke,
Location and extent of flooding,
Blockages caused by
downcomer obstruction
tray fouling, dirt or
high liquid loading on trays.
Location and severity of entertainment,
Presence of liquid weeping,
Top and bottom positions of packed beds,
Maldistribution of packing material in packed beds,
Liquid levels on trays.

Repeating scans under different operating conditions such as, temperature, pressure, feed flow
rate and reflux ratios can obtain additional information on degree of entertainment (carry over of
liquid), tray and jet flooding and foaming or weeping.
The following principles are important:

When radiation from a radioactive source passes through a medium containing a tray with aerated
liquid, much of the radiation is absorbed and the amount of radiation reaching the detector is
relatively small.
If a radiation beam passes through unaerated liquid, most of the radiation is absorbed by the
medium, and the intensity is low.
When radiation beam passes through vapour, there is little mass present to absorb the radiation
and therefore high radiation intensities are transmitted to the detector.

Figure 1.7 shows on-stream gamma scanning in petrochemical plant in progress. There are two
ways of execution of a gamma scanning of a column:

Classical top-dawn performance staying on the top of the column platform and releasing
simultaneously step by step (every 5 cm) the source and detector, and recording the data in each
position (Fig. 1.7)
Automatic gamma scanning performance using winches and engines to move continuously the
source and detector. In this case, the operators and equipment stay on the ground (Fig. 1.8).

Both techniques are used; they have their advantages and disadvantages. Classical scan from top
down is simple, has a short preparatory work but is difficult in operation and needs 2.3 operators.
Automatic gamma scan is easy and faster in operation, gives continuous records but has a rather long
preparatory work.

FIG. 1.7. Performing gamma scanning of distillation column in petroleum refinery

FIG. 1.8. Automatic gamma scanning operation in a refinery

A gamma scan of a vessel can detect and locate liquid and vapour regions within a column. It
can discriminate between aeration of liquid and detect foam or spray heights in vapour regions.
By measuring and analyzing density changes, many parameters indicating column performance
can be obtained. Each tray and the vapor space above it tells the story of its operating status. A
properly operating tray has a reasonable level of aerated liquid showing a rapidly decreasing density
gradient until it reaches a clear vapor space just under the next tray (Fig. 1.9 and Fig. 1.10). To
distinguish the above symptoms, experience is required.

FIG. 1.9. Scanning profile of a normal distillation column

FIG. 1.10. Normal column scan without distillation column problems

Figures 1.11 and 1.12 present typical gamma profiles of columns partly with collapsed tray.

FIG. 1.11. Gamma profile of column part with collapsed tray

Figure 1.12 shows a typical gamma profile of part of column with flooding.

FIG. 1.12. Gamma profile of part of column with flooding

FIG. 1.13. Gamma profile of column part with entrainment (dragging)

FIG. 1.14. Gamma scanning of a column sector with foaming

10

FIG. 1.15. Gamma profile of a column part with weeping (shower

Figure 1.16 shows the major causes of column malfunctions.

FIG. 1.16. Causes of column malfunctions

Gamma Scan limitations are:

Large diameter vessels
Very large wall thicknesses
High packing density

11

1.2.2.

Selection of source and planning

1.2.2.1. Radioisotope activity calculation

A typical radioactive sealed source used for gamma-ray scan of a distillation column is only
approximately 1 % of the strength needed to investigate X-ray welds. Co-60 and Cs-137 are main
sources used for gamma scanning. The activity depends of the column diameter, going from 5-10 mCi
for 1-2 m up to 100 mCi for 9-10 m. An estimation of the suitable source strength required can be
calculated as follows:
2 2
=

Where
D =dose rate required
d =diameter of column
Wt =total wall thickness of column (mm) + wall thickness of scan container.
hl =half layer thickness value of material (25 mm for steel for 60Co)
T gamma-ray constant for a specific source (1.31 R/h on a distance of 1 meter for a 1 Ci
radioactive source).

60

Co

When using the above equation it is suggested that 200 mm be added to the diameter of the
column to make provision for the source and detector container on the outside. The above equation is
an approximation, and build-up factors of the material are not taken into account. Shielding calculation
software can be used to greater effect.
It is further recommended to work with a maximum count rate of approximately 7 000 to 9 000
cps through the vapour space (gas line) of the column. The count rate decreases to approximately 1000
cps at the position of the trays and liquids (liquid line). This count rate range ensures good statistics.
Figure 1.17 presents the relation: Column diameter versus activity for two gamma sources Co60 and Cs-137.

FIG. 1.17. Column diameter versus activity for two gamma sources Co-60 and Cs-137

12

The relationship between Co-60 and Cs-137 activities is approximately 1:4 that is for example if
for a 2 m diameter column a sealed source of Co-60 of 10 mCi is required, for Cs-137 the source
should have the strength of 40 mCi to provide a clear scan picture.
Example of activity calculation
A Stripper distillation column needs to be scanned. The internal column diameter is 2.9 m. and
wall thickness 15 mm. The sensitivity of a NaI/Tl detector can be measured placing a 60Co or a 137Cs
radioactive source at the distance from the detector, where the dose rate is 1mR/h. The sensitivity of a
normal scan detector (2" x 2" NaI/Tl) was found to be 7500 cps/mR/h. This means that 1 mR/h is
necessary for good statistics. It fact, dose rates of approximately 0.5-1 mR/h at the position of the
panoramic collimated detector provide clear gamma profiles.
Lets calculate the activity of a Co-60 source that is needed to obtain a clear gamma profile of
this column. The gamma-constant for Co-60 is 1.31 R/h. Calculations are based on a typical
panoramic scan pot.
2 2
1 2.9 + 2 2 2 30 25
=
=
= 16.4 60

1.332
For 2-3 m. diameter columns Co-60 source activity of 15-20 mCi is quite enough to provide a
good picture of the internal structure.
1.2.2.2. Planning of a gamma-ray scan investigation

The following data are needed to be known before a scan can be carried out:
inside diameter and wall thickness of the column (mm)
bulk density and type of packing material, for packed beds
downcomer orientation and type of trays present (single, double pass trays)
operating problems experienced, e.g. low or high-pressure problems across the column, or
temperature differences along the length of the column
detailed mechanical drawings of the unit showing internal structure, such as elevations, tray or
packing assemblies, nozzle and pipework locations as well as other special features.

Such information is critical for interpreting data from column scan profiles obtained and for
identifying and visualizing possible mechanical problems. It is also suggested that the following be
obtained:
gamma scan profiles of an empty column (with all the internals but not in operation)
a scan profile before a maintenance shutdown
a scan profile after a maintenance shutdown when the column is under normal operating condition.
There is a clear difference between an empty (dry -black) and operated (wet -red) scans (Fig.
1.18).

FIG. 1.18. Example of empty (dry) and normal (wet) scan profiles

13

It is very important for comparison that the scan is carried out along the same scan lines (lines
between radioactive source and detector). Measurements must be taken out at small intervals (50 mm).
Some of main factors that can influence gamma scanning are presented in Fig. 19. :

FIG. 1.19. Some of main factors that can influence gamma scanning
1.2.2.3. Equipment/Tools. Preparation of the check-list

The service provider should make his own check list. Items may include
Detector
Computer (laptop or palmtop)
Source holder/source container with collimator
Measuring tapes (2)
Cable connectors (> 4)
Coaxial cables
Computer cables
Guide steel wires or cables (2)
Portable scaler-ratemeter

Gamma source:
Co-60 or Cs-137 or Ir-192

Radiological safety equipment:

Survey meters
Personnel monitors

Others:
Detail as required

The service provider should carry out all necessary prejob checks prior to mobilization. These
should include checks to confirm compliance with statutory legislation.
The attached photograph shows typical gamma-ray scanning equipment. The service provider
may prefer different equipment of similar type. Figure 1.20 below shows the typical equipment for
gamma scanning. The equipment is portable.

14

FIG. 1.20. Typical gamma ray scanning equipment

1.2.3.

An expert system for the design of radioisotope sealed source applications based on beta,
gamma or x-rays transmission (janu)
1.2.3.1. Background

A knowledge based software for radioisotope sealed source applications design, mainly density,
thickness, mass per unit area, level and two-phase flows gauges, is presented. Its aim is to optimize the
different components of a transmission gauge (radioactive source, detector, electronic device,
collimators and shielding), taking into account parameters and constraints linked to the configuration
(nature and composition of materials, presence of shields and walls, etc.), as well as users
requirements (accuracy, counting time, beam collimation, duration of tests, etc.). The database
includes characteristics of radionuclides and industrial sources, photon cross sections, build-up factors,
specific dose constants, physical properties of elements, usual scintillation detectors, and shielding,
materials.
It allows the determination of the most suited emitter, as well as a precise characterization of a
given emitter, including required source activity, expected counting rates, dose rates, etc. It has been
extended to X rays generators, voltage and current intensity replacing in this case the energy and
activity of the source.
Information supplied by JANU has been validated by applications developed during the past 30
years. Its choices have always revealed most judicious and, in general, numerical results in good
agreement with experiments. Thus, it has become an essential and reliable tool for radioisotope
practitioners.
1.2.3.2. Software of assistance to design and interpretation of measurements based on the
radiation detection beta, gamma or X
Figure 1.21 represents the principle of the JANU software or expert system:

15

FIG. 1.21. Measurements by transmission: optimised parameters (JANU software)

JANU expert software provides data for selection of radioisotope sources, detectors and
collimators for optimal assembling of source-detector configuration in transmission method for
measuring of:
level,
density,
thickness,
The main objective of this software is to provide radiation detection parameters for reducing as
much as possible the error (standard deviation ) in measurements.
The major parameters are:
Photonic cross sections for atomic numbers going from Z = 1 to 94
Energies: from E = 1 keV till 10 MeV,
Symbol, density, number and atomic mass of the elements,
Characteristics of main radioisotopes , and X (energy, intensity, period, radiotoxicity),
Mains characteristics of the sources available (dimensions, incorporated activity, selfabsorption, manufacturer),
Mains characteristics of detectors with scintillation (composition, density, resolution,
maximum rate counting),

The JANU software is formulated in DOS operation system.

1.2.3.3. Gamma Scanning Columns with Trays
Gamma scanning provides a fast, efficient mean of determining:

16

the location of damaged and/or missing trays

the severity and extent of flooding, entrainment, foaming, or weeping
the location of process bottlenecks
the depth and relative densities of the aerated liquid on the trays, and the liquid level in the base of
the column
and preventing unnecessary shutdowns

Column scans, a well established troubleshooting tool, are quick, safe, and easy to set up. They require
no support from process personnel other than drawings of the column, a work permit, and access to the
top of the column. The effectiveness of gamma scanning is always increased when the opportunity
arises to compare two or more scans, whether they are at different operating conditions, or a current
scan vs. a baseline scan taken after a turnaround. These situations offer great process optimization
opportunities.
A gamma scan is performed by placing a small radioactive source and a sensitive radiation detector on
opposite sides of an operating distillation column. As seen in Fig. 1.22, the source and detector are
aligned so that the path between them is across the tray active area, but avoids intersecting the tray
downcomers. Maintaining a constant geometry, any variation in the signal is due to density differences
within the column, as the scan proceeds down the tower.

FIG. 1.22. Scan orientation in columns

In Fig. 1.23, overlying a baseline scan (red), is a scan profile (blue) of a column that had experienced
damage to tray 6, the debris from which has caused flooding from tray 9 upwards. The second scan
(green), on the lower half of the chart, shows the profile typically seen when a column experiences
entrainment problems.

17

FIG. 1.23 Typical Gamma scan results of a column with trays

1.2.3.4. Gamma Scanning Columns with Packed Beds
A single TowerScan on a packed bed column will determine:
whether all the packed beds are present in the column
if the beds have experienced any damage or settling of the packing
the liquid level on chimney and collector trays
if any of the beds have experienced flooding or fouling
whether the demister pads and distributors are at their proper elevations
By performing and analyzing a full 2 x 2 grid scan, it can be evaluated:
the extent and location of liquid maldistributions within the packed beds
if tower internals such as demister pads, distributors, trays, and the top of beds are level
In addition to using gamma scans as a troubleshooting tool, some companies make excellent use of the
information to schedule shutdowns. In processes where they know the packing gradually becomes
fouled, periodic scans monitor the progress of the fouling. They can then accurately schedule their
turnarounds, as opposed to having to incur sudden, unexpected, and costly shutdowns.
Examples of before and after scans performed on a tower are shown in Fig. 1.24.

18

FIG. 1.24. Typical Gamma scan results of a column with packed beds
The initial scan (red) showed that the demister pad, distributor, packed bed, and chimney tray were at
the proper elevations. The bed however had experienced severe fouling, especially in the bottom two
thirds of the packing. The column was shut down and the packing replaced.
The scan taken after the turnaround (blue) exhibited a far more uniform bed density. Some higher
densities were seen at the top and bottom of the bed due to the hold down plate and bed support, and
part way down the bed due to external mechanical interference.
1.2.4.

Types of columns and problems to be diagnosed

1.2.4.1. Distillation columns in oil refineries

An oil refinery is an industrial process plant where crude oil is processed and refined into more
useful petroleum products, such as gasoline, diesel fuel, asphalt base, heating oil, kerosene, and
liquefied petroleum gas. Crude oil is separated into fractions by fractional distillation (Fig. 1.25).
Fractional distillation is useful for separating a mixture of substances with narrow differences in
boiling points, and is the most important step in the refining process.
The various components of crude oil have different sizes, weights and boiling temperatures; so,
the first step is to separate these components. Because they have different boiling temperatures, they
can be separated easily by a process called fractional distillation. The steps of fractional distillation are
as follows:

19

You heat the mixture of two or more substances (liquids) with different boiling points to a high
temperature. Heating is usually done with high pressure steam to temperatures of about 600
degrees Celsius.
The mixture boils, forming vapor (gases); most substances go into the vapor phase.
The vapor enters the bottom of a long column (fractional distillation column) that is filled with
trays or plates.
The trays have many holes or bubble caps (like a loosened cap on a soda bottle) in them to allow
the vapor to pass through.
The trays increase the contact time between the vapor and the liquids in the column.
The trays help to collect liquids that form at various heights in the column.
There is a temperature difference across the column (hot at the bottom, cool at the top).
The vapor rises in the column.
As the vapor rises through the trays in the column, it cools.

FIG. 1.25. Fractional distillation column for crude oil separation into fractions
1.2.4.2. Disturbances of processing columns
The type and magnitude of disturbances affecting a distillation column have a direct effect on
the resulting product variability. An analysis of the major types of disturbances encountered in
distillation columns follows.
Feed composition upsets
Changes in the feed composition represent the most significant upsets with which a distillation
control system must deal on a continuous basis.
A feed composition change shifts the composition profile through the column resulting in a
large upset in the product compositions. Most industrial columns do not have a feed composition
analyzer; therefore, feed composition upsets usually appear as unmeasured disturbances. When a feed
composition analyzer is available, a feed forward controller can be applied using the on-line
measurements of the feed composition. Because feed composition changes represent a major

20

disturbance for distillation control, the sensitivity of potential control configurations to feed
composition upsets is a major issue for configuration selection.
Feed flow rate upsets
The flow rates in a steady-state model of a column with constant tray efficiencies scale directly
with column feed rate. Therefore, ratio control (using L/F, D/F, V/F or B/F as composition controller
output) is an effective means of handling feed flow rate upsets. Dynamic compensation is normally
required to account for the dynamic mismatch between the response of the product compositions to
feed flow rate changes and the response to changes in the MVs. When certain ratios (e.g., L/D, V/B)
are used as MVs, these ratios, combined with the level control, automatically compensate for feed
flow rate changes.
Feed enthalpy upsets
For columns that use a low reflux ratio, feed enthalpy changes can significantly alter the
vapor/liquid rates inside the column, causing a major shift in the internal composition profile and,
therefore, a significant upset in the product compositions.
This upset can be difficult to identify because (1) most industrial columns do not have feed
temperature measurements and (2) even if a feed temperature measurement is available, it does not
detect feed enthalpy changes for a two-phase feed. This disturbance may be difficult to distinguish
from feed composition upsets without a more detailed analysis. It may be necessary to install a feed
preheater or cooler to maintain a constant feed enthalpy to a column.
Subcooled reflux changes
When a thundershower passes over a plant, the reflux temperatures for the columns can drop
sharply. Columns that use finned-fan coolers as overhead condensers are particularly susceptible to
rapid changes in ambient conditions. If internal reflux control is not applied, severe upsets in the
operation of the columns result because of major shifts in the composition profiles of the columns.
When internal reflux control is correctly applied, the impact of a thunderstorm on column operations
can be effectively eliminated.
Loss of reboiler steam pressure
When a steep drop in steam header pressure occurs, certain columns (those operating with
control valves on the reboiler steam that are nearly fully open) experience a sharp drop in reboiler
duty. This results in a sharp increase in the impurity levels in the products. When the steam header
pressure returns to its normal level, the composition control system for the column attempts to return
to the normal product purities. Because of the severity of this upset, if the composition controllers are
not properly tuned, the upset can be amplified by the composition controllers, requiring the operators
to take these controllers off-line to stabilize the column, greatly extending the duration of the period of
production of off-specification products.
This disturbance is, in general, the most severe disturbance that a control system on a distillation
column must handle and may require invoking overrides that gradually bring the operation of the
column to its normal operating window instead of expecting the composition controllers to handle this
severe upset by themselves.
Column pressure upsets
Column pressure has a direct effect on the relative volatility of the key components in the
column. Thus, changes in the column pressure can significantly affect product compositions. A
properly implemented pressure control scheme maintains column pressure close to its set point, with
only short-term and low-amplitude departures. A large class of columns (e.g., refinery columns) is
operated at maximum condenser duty to maximize column separation, which minimizes steam usage.
For these cases, the column pressure increases during the day, when the cooling water or
ambient air temperature is the greatest, and decreases at night, but the resulting pressure changes are
usually slow enough that the composition controller can efficiently reject this disturbance.

21

Regulatory Controls
Improperly functioning flow, level or pressure controllers can undermine the effectiveness of
the product composition controllers.
Flow controllers
Flow controllers are used to control the flow rates of the products, the reflux and the heating
medium used in the reboiler and their set points are determined by the various level and composition
controllers. To assess the performance of a flow control loop, you can applying block sine waves and
comparing these results for the dead band and time constant with the expected performance levels.
Level controllers
Level controllers are used to maintain the level in the accumulator, the reboiler and the
intermediate accumulator of a stacked column (i.e., a distillation column composed of two separate
columns when there are too many trays for one column).
Loose level control on the accumulator and reboiler has been shown to worsen the composition
control problem for material balance control configurations (when either D or B is used as a MV for
composition control). When D or B is adjusted, the internal vapor/liquid traffic changes only after the
corresponding level controller acts as a result of the change in D or B.
On the other hand, if a level controller is tuned too aggressively, it can result in oscillations
passed back to the column and contribute to erratic operation. When the reboiler duty is set by the
level controller on the reboiler, a level controller that causes oscillation in the reboiler can also cause
cycling in the column pressure.
Column pressure controllers
The column overhead pressure acts as an integrator and is determined by the net accumulation
of material in the vapor phase. Column pressure is controlled by directly changing the amount of
material in the vapor phase of the overhead or by changing the rate of condensation of the overhead,
which converts low-density vapor to high-density liquid. A variety of approaches can be used to
control column pressure.
1.2.5.

Experimental design of gamma scanning

1.2.5.1. Scanning procedure
The following procedures are recommended for gamma scanning set-up:

Obtain detailed mechanical drawings of the unit

Request assistance from the process or chemical engineer for process details.
Obtain operational data before, during and after scanning
Decide upon scan line orientation and number of scans.
Check for source and detector alignment every 50 cm. of scanning

To conduct a tray-column scan, it is advisable to execute a scan across the trays and to avoid
scanning through the downcomers of the trays. Typical and recommended scan line orientations for
trayed columns are shown in the following figure 1.26.

22

FIG. 1.26. Typical scan line orientations

Tray flow arrangement for single pass trays and two pass or double pass trays are given in the
following pictures (Fig. 1.27).

23

FIG. 1.27. Tray flow arrangement for single pass trays and two pass or double pass trays
1.2.5.2. Grid Scanning
Grid scanning is recommended for packed bed columns (Fig. 1.28).

FIG. 1.28. Outlay of a typical pack bed column (vacuum column)

24

A typical orientation of grid scan lines is shown in the next figure 1.29. At least four scans are
recommended to examine a packed bed column.
Grid scans may be conducted to investigate process-related conditions such as:

flooding or blockages
entrainment or carry over of liquid or
maldistribution of liquid flow through packed beds.

Grid scans can also be used to investigate mechanical construction problems such as:

collapsed packed beds or

maldistribution of packing material.

An important factor to take into account is that as far as is possible the operating conditions
(such as feed rate, temperature and other process parameters) must remain constant especially during
the time of the scan investigation. It is very important to record any process changes during the time of
the scan. This will facilitate the interpretation of the scan profile if anomalies are indicated. Grid
scanning is recommended on packed columns with diameters up to approximately 3m. Larger
diameter columns must be approached in a different way, since too large an area (especially in the
centre) is not covered.

Radioactive source

D
D

Radiation Detector

FIG. 1.29. Orientations of grid scan lines

Grid scanning is also useful for investigating the correct installation of distributors as well as the
correct distribution of incoming liquid feed. An irregular distributor can undermine the performance of
the entire packed bed and column. Liquid distributors must spread liquid uniformly on top of a bed,
resist plugging and fouling, and also provide free space for gas flow.
A not correctly water level installed distributor that is a tilted distributor, could cause liquid to
flow preferentially on one side of the column (Fig. 1.30).

25

FIG. 1.30. Typical packed column grid scan lines

26