ET Lab Manual
ET Lab Manual
AIM: To verify the Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law and Kirchhoff’s Current Law for a given circuit.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:-
Sl.
Name of the Component Specifications Quantity
No.
2 Bread Board - 1
3 D.R.P.S. (0-30) V 1
4 Ammeters (0-200)mA 3
5 Voltmeters (0-30)V 3
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
PROCEDURE FOR KCL:-
1. Connect the circuit as per the figure shown above.
2. Adjust the input voltage as 10 volts, and switch on the supply.
3. Measure the current flowing through R1, R2, R3 resistors using Ammeters i.e., IT, I1 & I2.
4. Tabulate the readings in the tabular column.
5. Verify that the IT = I1 + I2.
6. Repeat the procedure for different voltage values, and then switch off the supply.
7. Compare the values Practical to Theoretical.
PROCEDURE FOR KVL:-
1. Connect the circuit as per the figure shown above.
2. Adjust the input voltage as 10 volts, and switch on the supply.
3. Note the reading of ammeter & voltmeters, i.e., I, V1, V2 &V3 from the voltmeters.
4. Tabulate the readings in the tabular column.
5. Verify that the V1 = V2 + V3.
6. Repeat the procedure for different voltage values, and then switch off the supply.
7. Compare the values Practical to Theoretical.
THEORETICAL CALCULATIONS:-
For KCL:
Req = (R2 ║ R3) + R1
Ieq = V1 / Req
I1 = Ieq * R3/ (R2+R3)
I2 = Ieq * R2/ (R2+R3)
For KVL:
For measuring Voltage V2 across R1
Req = (R1+R2)
Ieq = V / Req
V2 = V * R1 / (R1 + R2) or V1=I*R1
V3 = V * R2 / (R1 + R2) or V2=I*R2
TABULAR COLUMNS:
For KCL:
S.No V1(volts) IT(mA) IT(mA) I1(mA) I1(mA) I2(mA) I2(mA)
theoretical practical theoretical practical theoretical practical
For KVL:
S.No I(mA) V1(volts) V1(volts) V2(volts) V2(volts) V3(volts) V3(volts)
theoretical Practical theoretical practical theoretical practical
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS:
1. Reading must be taken without parallax error.
2. Measuring instruments must be connected properly & should be free from errors.
3. All connections should be free from loose contacts.
4. The direction of currents should be identified correctly.
RESULT:
Apparatus required:
1 Resistors R1 = , R2 = , R3= 3
3 Multimeter DMM 1
5 Ammeter (0-20) mA 1
6 Voltmeter (0-20)V 1
7 Bread board 1
Circuit diagrams:
Thevenin’s Theorem:
THEORITICAL CALUCLATIONS:
Rth=((R1*R2)/(R1+R2))+R3=……….kΩ
Finding Vth=Vapp*(R2)/(R1+R2)=……….V
Procedure:
1. Apply a DC voltage of 10 V from voltage source to be input terminals of the network and
measure the output voltage Voc without load.
2. Connect the load at the output of the network and measure the current through the load.
3. Disconnect the voltage source and load, short the input terminals of the network and
measure the Thevenin’s equivalent impedance at output terminals.
4. Adjust the input voltage of the voltage source that is equal to Thevenin’s and a voltage
and apply to the input terminals of the equivalent circuit.
5. Measure the load current IL and compare it to the theoretical value V1 and tabulate.
Observations:
S. Vth IL
VIN
No. Vth (theo) Vth (prac) IL (theo) IL (prac)
3
Norton’s Theorem :
Procedure:
1. Apply the DC voltage of 10V from the voltage source to the input terminal of the
network and measure the load current at the output of the network.
2. Apply the DC voltage of 10V and measure short circuit current Isc by short circuiting the
load terminals.
3. Find Zth by disconnecting the voltage source and the load, short the input terminals of the
network and measure the Thevenin’s equivalent impedance at the output terminal.
4. Draw the Norton’s equivalent circuits by connecting Zth in parallel with Isc
5. Convert the Norton’s equivalent to the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit and measure the
load current with connecting load at output terminals and compare with I.
Theoretical calculations:
Finding RN
RN= =((R1*R2)/(R1+R2))+R3=……….kΩ
Tabular Column:
IN IL
S. No. VIN
IN (theo) IN (prac) IL (theo) IL (prac)
Result:
VIVA QUESTIONS:
Apparatus required :
1 Resistors R1 = , R2 = , R3= 3
3 Multimeter DMM 1
5 Ammeter (0-20) mA 1
6 Voltmeter (0-20)V 1
7 Bread board 1
Circuit Diagram:
Procedure :
Theoritical calculations:
For the given circuits the resistors values are as follows R1,R2, R3&RL=1K Ω
Rth=((R1*R2)/(R1+R2))+R3=……….kΩ
Finding Vth=Vapp*(R2)/(R1+R2)=……….V
Result :
Apparatus required :
1 Resistors R1 = , R2 = , R3= 3
2 Multimeter DMM 1
4 Ammeter (0-20) mA 1
5 Voltmeter (0-20)V 1
6 Bread board 1
Circuit Diagram :-
Procedure :
Superposition Theorem :
1. Connect V1, V2 as shown in figure 1(a).
2. For different V1 and V2 values note the ammeter reading as “IT”
3. Replace ‘V1’ with a short circuit as shown in figure 1(b) and read the ammeter reading
as “I2” for corresponding values of V2.
4. Replace “V2” with a short circuit as shown in figure 1(c) and connect “V 1” in the circuit
and read ammeter reading as ‘I1’ for corresponding values of V1.
5. IT = I1 + Ic
1 1
2 2
THEORITICAL CALUCLATIONS FOR SUPERPOSITION THEOREM:
Case-1
Form fig-1: Apply mesh analysis
Total current(Through R2) I= ………mA
Case-2
Form fig=2: V1= 0, V2=20V
Calculate Req=(R1*R2)/(R1+R2)+R3=………KΩ
Case-3
Form fig-3 V1= 20V, V2=0V
Calculate Req=(R3*R2)/(R3+R2)+R1=………KΩ
Circuit Diagram :
Reciprocity Theorem
Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure 1(a).
2. Apply some voltage V.
3. Note down the ammeter ( 0 – 50 mA) reading as “I1”
4. Inter change ammeter and voltage source as shown in figure 1(b). and take the ammeter
reading as “I2”
5. Repeat the above procedure for different values or V and tabulate the values.
6. I1 should be equal to I2.
THEORETICAL CALCULATION:
For the given circuits the resistors values are as follows
R1=1K Ω,2.2K Ω,1K Ω,RL=1K Ω
Case-1
From fig-1: S. No. V I1
Calculate Req=(R3*R2)/(R3+R2)+R1=………KΩ
Total current I=V/Req=………..mA 1
Current (Through R3) I2=I*(R2/(R3+R2) )= …….mA
2
Case-2
From fig-2 :
Calculate Req=(R1*R2)/(R1+R2)+R3=………KΩ S. No. V I2
Total current I=V/Req=………..mA
Current (Through R1) I1=I*(R2/(R1+R2) )= …….mA 1
Result:
VIVA VOCE QUESTIONS: 2
1. What is linear element?
2. What is a bilateral element?
3. What is KCL?
4. What is KVL?
5. What is the difference between a circuit and a network?
6. State Superposition Theorem.
7. State Reciprocity Theorem.
8. What do you mean by equivalent resistance of a network?
9. What is the action performed by a short circuited voltage source in SPT verification?
10. If the network contains an independent current source how would you deactivate it while
verifying the SPT?
5. Z and Y Parameters of a Two Port Network
Aim: To measure “ Z” and “Y” parameters of a given two port passive network
Apparatus required:-
S. No. Name of the Component Specifications Quantity
1 Resistors R1 = , R2 = , R3= 3
3 Multimeter DMM 1
5 Ammeter (0-20) mA 1
6 Voltmeter (0-20)V 1
7 Bread board 1
Procedure :
1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure (1)
2. Keep port 2 open : I2 = 0
3. Set different voltages on V1.
4. Measure V2 and I1 and tabulate V1 , V2 and I1
5. Connect the variable voltage to port 2 and keep the port 1 open circuit i.e. I1 = 0 As
shown in figure (2) . Measure V2, V1, I2 . Set different voltages at V2 and measure I2 and
V1 for each setting and tabulate.
Circuit Diagrams:
Observations:
When I2 = 0 When I1 = 0
30 30
25 25
When I2 = 0. When I1 = 0
Z11 = V1 / I1 Z22 = V2 / I2
Z21 = V2 / I1 Z12 = V1 / I2
For Y- Parameters:
Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure (3) connect the variable voltage at port 1. Short
circuit the port 2. By varying the V1 , note down the I1 , I2 and tabulate
2. Connect the variable voltage at port 2 short circuit the port 1 as shown in figure (4)
3. By varying the V2 , note down the I1 , I2 and tabulate.
For Y – Parameters :
When V2 = 0 When V1 = 0
Y11 = I1 / V1 Y22 = I2 / V2
Y21 = I2 / V1 Y12 = I1 / V2
CONCLUSION:
Result:
VIVA QUESTIONS:
Apparatus required:-
S. No. Name of the Component Specifications Quantity
1 Resistors R1 = , R2 = , R3= 3
3 Multimeter DMM 1
5 Ammeter (0-20) mA 1
6 Voltmeter (0-20)V 1
7 Bread board 1
Circuit Diagram:
Procedure:
When V2 = 0 When I1 = 0
1 1
2 2
h11=V1/I1 h12=V1/V2
h21=I2/I1 h22=I2/V2
Transmission Parameters:
Transmission Parameters:
V1 = AV2 – BI2
I1 = CV2 – DI2
When I2 = 0 When V2 = 0
S.No V1 I1 V2 A C S.No V1 I1 I2 B D
1 1
2 2
A=V1/V2 C=I1/V2
B=V1/I2 D=I1/I2
CONCLUSION:
A A B B C C D D
theoretical Practical theoretical Practical theoretical Practical theoretical Practical
Result:
APPARATUS:
S.No Apparatus Required Rating Type Qty
01 Voltmeter (0-300)V M.C 1
02 Ammeter (0-1)A M.C 1
03 Rheostat 360 ohm/1.2A - 3
04 Rheostat 360 ohm/1.2A -
05 Tachometer - Digital 1
Circuit Diagram:
THEORY:
I) Magnetization Characteristics
The magnetization characteristics shows the relation between the no load generated emf
in armature, E0 and the field (or) exciting current, If at a given fixed speed as shown in
model graph.
These characteristics are also known as the No load saturation characteristics or Open
circuit characteristics. The shape of these characteristics is practically same for all
generators whether separately excited or self excited
Due to the residual magnetism in the poles, some emf is generated even when If = 0
represented by OD**. Hence, the curve starts a little way up.
The slight curvature, DE** at the lower end is due to magnetic inertia. It is seen that the
first part of the curve, EC** is practically straight. This is due to the fact that at low flux
densities, reluctance of iron path being negligible (due to high permeability), total
reluctance is given by the air gap reluctance, which is constant. Hence, the flux and
consequentially the generated emf are directly proportional to the exciting current.
How ever at high flux densities, where m is small, iron path reluctance becomes
appreciable and straight relation, CF** between Eo and If no longer holds good, i.e.,
saturation of poles start.
(** refers to the model graph)
II) Critical resistance
It is that maximum value of the field resistance, above which the machine fails to excite
i.e. there will be no build up of the voltage.
This resistance corresponds to the straight-line position of the magnetization
characteristic because the magnetic circuit does not offer any appreciable reluctance to
the magnetic flux.
III) Critical speed
It is that speed for which the given shunt field resistance will represent critical field
resistance
(OR)It is that minimum value of the speed of the machine below which the machine fails
to excite.
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.
2. Initially the starter must be in OFF & SPST Switch in open positions.
3. Switch on the D.C. Motor to 220V D.C. Supply by closing the DPST Switch.
4. Start the D.C. motor using the three point starter and thereby adjust the speed of it to the rated
speed of the D.C. Generator using field method of speed control.
5. Note down the voltage of the voltmeter which represents the residual voltage of the generator
when SPST switch is in open condition.
6. Excite the field winding D.C. Generator in steps by decreasing its external resistance gradually
and note down various corresponding readings of ammeter and voltmeter till 1.1 to 1.25 times
the rated voltage of the generator is reached, maintaining constant speed .
7. Gradually reduce the field current of generator and make it to zero finally by opening SPST
switch. and disconnect the D.C. Motor from the 220V D.C. Supply
OBSERVATION TABLE:
At constant speed of 1500r.p.m.
S.No Field Current (𝐈𝒇 ) A Armature Voltage (𝐄𝒐 ) V
MODEL GRAPHS:
CALCULATIONS:
TO FIND CRITICAL FIELD RESISTANCE:
1. Plot the magnetization curve.
2. Draw the tangent such that it touches most of the linear part of the curve. This line is the
Critical field resistance line.
3. The slope of the above line gives the Critical field resistance.
TO FIND CRITICAL SPEED:
1. Draw the constant field resistance line Rf .
2. From point draw a line on to the Critical field resistance line.
Now the Critical speed, Nc = (AB /AC) ×N, where N is the rated speed of
D.C. generator i.e., 1500 r.p.m.
PRECAUTIONS:-
1. The field rheostat of the motor must be kept in minimum & for the generator in
maximum positions before switching on the D.C. supply.
2. Ensure that the starter arm is at extreme left position.
3. Avoid loose connections
4. Note down the readings form the meters without any parallax error
RESULT:
Critical field resistance = ________ ohms.
Critical speed = ________ r.p.m.
VIVA VOCE QUESTIONS:
APPARATUS:
S.No Apparatus Required Rating Type Qty
01 Voltmeter (0-300) M.C 1
02 Ammeter (0-10) M.C 1
03 Ammeter (0-5) M.C 2
04 Rheostat 360 Ohm / 1.2 A M.C 1
05 Tachometer Digital 1
06 Fuse 20 2
THEORY:
SWINBURNE’S TEST:-
It is a simple method in which losses are measured separately and from their knowledge,
efficiency at any load can be pre-determined in advance. The onlyrunning test needed is
a no load test.
Swinburne s test is applicable to those machines in which flux is practically constant i.e.
Shunt wound and Compound wound machines.
The machine is running as a motor on no-load at its rated voltage and its speed be
adjusted to its rated value using Shunt regulator.
The no-load armature current Iao is measured using an ammeter, where as shunt field
current Ish is given by another ammeter. The no-load input current is given by
Io = Iao + Ish
Let the supply voltage be V volts
No-load input = V Io watts
Power input to armature = V Iao watts
Power input to shunt = V Ish watts
No-load input supplies Copper losses (Armature & Field), Iron losses (Hysteresis &
Eddy current) & Mechanical losses ( Friction losses & Windage).
Constant losses = No load input power - Armature copper losses
Wc = V Io – Iao² Ra watts.
Predetermination of efficiency of a motor at any load
Input = V IL watts. Rated value IL = 12A
Armature Cu losses = Ia 2 Ra
Constant losses = Wc
Total losses = Wc + ( IL - Ish)² Ra
Efficiency = (Input - Total losses) / (Input)
ɳ (Efficiency)x = (x Input - Wc + ( x IL - Ish)² Ra) / x input
X may be ¼, ½, ¾, full load(1)
Predetermination of efficiency of a generator at any load
Output = V IL watts.
Armature Cu losses = Ia 2 Ra
Constant losses = Wc
Total losses = Wc + ( IL + Ish)² Ra
Efficiency = (Output) / (Output + Total losses)
ɳ (Efficiency)x = (x Output) / (x output+ Wc + ( x IL + Ish)² Ra)
X may be ¼, ½, ¾, full load (1)
Maximum Efficiency condition : Variable losses (Ia² Ra) = Constant losses ( Wc)
Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as per the Circuit diagram.
2. Initially the starter must be in off position.
3. Switch on the D.C. Motor to 220V D.C. Supply by closing the DPST Switch.
4. Start the D.C. motor using the three point starter and thereby adjust the speed to its rated speed
using field rheostat.230
5. Note down the readings of Voltmeter & Ammeters in Table
6. Switch off the D.C. Motor from 220V D.C. Supply by opening the DPST Switch.
OBSERVATION TABLES:
SWINBURNE’S TEST
At Constant speed of 1500r.p.m.
For Generator
S.No Output Output Field Armature Total Input ɳ
Voltage Current Current Copper Losses Power
(V) (I) (Ish) Losses
MODEL GRAPHS:
SWINBURNE’S TEST
PRECAUTIONS:-
1. The field rheostat of the motor must be kept in minimum before switching on the 220V D.C
supply.
2. Ensure that the starter arm is at extreme left position.
3. Avoid loose connections
4. Note down the readings from the meters without any parallax error
RESULTS:
Maximum Efficiency for motor = __ %.
Maximum Efficiency for generator = __________ %.
APPARATUS:
S.No Apparatus Required Rating Type Qty
01 Voltmeter (0-300)V M.C 1
02 Ammeter (0-20)A M.C 2
03 Ammeter (0-10)A M.C 1
04 Rheostat 360 ohm/1.2A - 1
05 Tachometer - Digital 1
06 Fuse 20A - 2
THEORY:
It is a simple method of testing low rating DC machines and consists of applying a brake
to a water-cooled drum mounted on the motor shaft.
The four important characteristics curves of a D.C. Shunt Motor, namely, Torque, Speed,
Armature Current & efficiency, each plotted against the useful Power, as shown in the
model graph are known as Performance characteristics
A belt is wound round the brake drum and its two ends are attached to two spring
balances S1 & S2. The tension of the belt can be adjusted with the help of swivels.
The force acting tangentially on the drum is equal to the difference between the readings
of the two spring balances the readings of Spring balances 1& 2 in Kg.f.
Shaft torque, T developed by the motor is 9.81 (S1 S2) R Nm where, R is the radius of
the pulley in meters & N is the speed in rpm
Useful Output Power = (2𝜋𝑁𝑇)/60 Watts
Input Power = V IL Watts, where IL = (Ia + Ish)
% Efficiency , = (Output power / Input power) x 100.
𝑁0 −𝑁𝑠
Speed Regulation = [ (No Load speed ) - ( Full load speed )] / Full Load. Speed = 𝑁𝑠
The size of the motor that can be tested by this method is limited from the consideration
of the heat that can be dissipated at the brake drum
Where the output power exceeds about 2 H.P., or where the test is of long duration, it s
necessary to use a water cooled brake drum.
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as per the Circuit diagram.
2. Initially the starter must be in off position.
3. Switch on the D.C. Motor to 220V D.C. Supply by closing the DPST Switch.
4. Start the D.C. motor using the three point starter and thereby adjust the speed to its rated speed
using field rheostat.
5. Note down the readings of Voltmeter & Ammeters in Table under No Load condition.
6. Apply the Load on the drum gradually in steps by tightening the belt around it. At each step,
note down the readings of the Ammeters, Voltmeter, two Spring balances and the Tachometer.
7. Pour water in the pulley and cool it often when the motor is loaded.
8. When the full load is reached, slowly reduce the load and switch off the Motor from 220V
D.C. Supply by opening the DPST Switch
FORMULAE:
V= applied voltage,
Ia =armature current,
Ra =armature resistance.
Total power input to the motor Pin =Field circuit power + Armature power= VfIf + Va Ia
If ‘R’ is the radius of the pulley, then torque at the pulley is given by
2 N
ω = is the angular velocity of the pulley, in rad/sec.
60
2 N
Motor output power Pout =Tshaft * ω = 1.5* (T1~T2)*
60
Pout
% Efficiency = X 100
Pin
OBSERVATION TABLE:
S.No Input Armature Field Spring Balances Speed
Voltage (V) Current Current 𝐒𝟏 𝐒𝟐 (N)
(𝐈𝒂 ) (𝐈𝒔𝒉 )
CALCULATION TABLE:
Radius of the Brake Drum, R = ______ mts.
S.No Input Input Torque, Output Input
Voltage Current N-m Power Power %𝜼
(V) (𝐈𝑳 ) (T)
PRECAUTIONS:
1. The field rheostat of the motor must be kept in minimum before switching ON the motor.
2. Ensure that the starter arm is at extreme left position.
3. Avoid loose connections
4. Note down the readings from the meters without any parallax error
5. Tachometer should be kept horizontal to the shaft while measuring the speed.
6. Before switch OFF the motor make sure that there is nos load connected to motor.
MODEL GRAPHS:
RESULTS:
At full load:
i) Torque = __________ Nm.
ii) Speed = __________ rpm
iii) Armature Current = __________ A
iv) Efficiency = __________ %.
v) Speed Regulation = _________
VIVA VOCE QUESTIONS:
2. Ammeter MI 0-2A 1
3. Ammeter MI 0-10A 1
4. Voltmeter MI 0-150V 1
5. Voltmeter MI 0-30V 1
Circuit Diagram:
Procedure:
(1) Connect the circuit for no-load test as per the circuit diagram. Shown in fig(1).
(2) Keep the variac in minimum output position and switch on the supply.
(3) Apply the rated voltage to the transformer by properly adjusting the variac.
(4) Note down the readings of various meters and switch off the supply.
1.Connect the circuit for SC test as per the circuit diagram, shown in fig (2) with appropriate
ranges of meters.
2.Keep the variac in minimum output position and switch on the supply.
3.Apply proper voltage (low voltage) to the transformer by adjusting the variac such that rated
current flows through the transformer.
4. Note down the readings of various meters and switch off the supply.
S. C. Test:
Where
VI cos
M. F. = Multiplication factor =
FSD
FSD = Full scale divisions
Model Calculations:
Find the equivalent circuit parameters R0, X0, R01, R02, X01 and X02 from the O. C. and S. C. test
results and draw the equivalent circuit referred to L. V. side as well as H. V. side.
V1
¼F.L. ¼F.L.
½F.L. ½F.L.
¾F.L. ¾F.L.
F.L. F.L.
Regulation: From open circuit and Short circuit test
‘+’ for lagging power factors ‘-‘ for leading power factors
Lagging Pf Leading Pf
1. 0.2 1. 0.2
2. 0.4 2. 0.4
3. 0.6 3. 0.5
4. 0.8 4. 0.6
5. Unity 5. Unity
Precautions:
Result:
11. Series and Parallel Resonance
Aim: - To obtain frequency characteristics of series and parallel resonant circuits,
Resonance frequency, Band width and Q – factor for RLC network.
Apparatus required:
4 Function Generator 1
5 Ammeters 0-20 mA ac 2
6 CRO 1 MHz 1
Circuit Diagrams :
Procedure:-
Series Resonance:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure 1(a).
2. Connect the signal generator (function generator) and keep the voltage constant i.e.,5V,
vary source frequency and note down the voltmeter reading (VR ).
Expected graphs
Observations :
Series Resonance : Parallel Resonance :
2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3
4 4 4 4
5 5 5 5
6 6 6 6
7 7 7 7
8 8 8 8
9 9 9 9
10 10 10 10
Calculations:
B.W = f2 – f1 = ………kHz.
Q = f0 / f2 – f1 =
Practical:
Series resonance
Parallel resonance
Theoretical:
Series resonance
Parallel resonance
AIM: To find the efficiency and regulation of single phase transformer by using load test.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Circuit Diagram:
PROCEDURE:
FORMULAE:
TABULAR COLUMN:
MODEL GRAPHS:
PRECAUTIONS:
RESULT:
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. List the application of Transformer and types.
2. What is the function of Buchol’s Relay in transformer?
3. What do you understand by regulation of a transformer?
4. What are the other methods of testing transformers?
5. What is the disadvantage of testing a transformer using load test?
6. Is a high or low value of regulation preferred for a transformer? Give reasons.
7. What are the reasons for the drop in terminal voltage as the secondary current is increased?