Social Media and Politeness PDF
Social Media and Politeness PDF
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B.A. Anglistik/ Amerikanistik 10. Semester
1. Preface ...................................................................................................................... 4
2. Web 2.0, Social Media and Social Networks ............................................................ 6
2.1 Web 2.0 ...............................................................................................................7
2.2 Social Media ........................................................................................................7
2.2.1 Blogs............................................................................................................ 8
2.2.2 Microblogs .................................................................................................. 8
2.2.3 Wikis ........................................................................................................... 9
2.2.4 Instant Messaging....................................................................................... 9
2.2.4.1 Facebook ............................................................................................... 10
2.2.4.2 Google Plus ........................................................................................... 11
2.3 Participants within the networks ......................................................................12
2.3.1 Purpose of conversations ......................................................................... 12
2.3.2 Classification of conversation according to Searls illocutionary speech
acts ............................................................................................................ 12
3. Politeness................................................................................................................ 14
3.1 Geoffrey Leech and politeness .........................................................................15
3.2 Goffman, Brown and Levinson and politeness .................................................16
3.3 Combination of the two approaches ................................................................17
4. Politeness patterns within conversations in Social Media networks ..................... 17
4.1 Type of conversation ........................................................................................18
4.2 Positive Politeness pattern of conversation starter .........................................18
4.3 Positive politeness pattern of other participants .............................................19
4.3.1 Indicators of friendliness .......................................................................... 19
4.3.2 Indicators of approval............................................................................... 20
5. Research work ........................................................................................................ 21
5.1 Text samples .....................................................................................................21
5.2 Frequency measurement ..................................................................................21
5.3 Results of text sample examination..................................................................22
6. Conclusion .............................................................................................................. 25
2
List of illustrations
Graph 1- text sample categories ............................................................................. 22
Graph 2- relation of posts vs. participants .............................................................. 23
Graph 3- relation of friendliness vs. approval ......................................................... 24
List of abbreviations
CP Cooperative Principle
PP Politeness Principle
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1. Preface
“Never in the course of human events have we lived in a time where tools to
communicate … have been handed to us in such volumes, and for free.” (Klososky
dedication) By this Klososky made a statement about the current situation of our
instruments of communication. But not only have the numbers of instruments impact
on our communicative behavior. Also the style, the background and the way of use of
such instruments changes and influences our communication.
With the rise of the term Web 2.0 Tim O`Reilly and John Batelle coined the new way
how the Internet is used and how it appears to its users. At the beginning the Internet
was a collaborative tool for scientists to work together. It should be a simpler medium
to exchange ideas and knowledge. So it appears to the broader audience as the so
called Web 1.0. With this first step of the Internet humanity was confronted with such
exciting new communication features as the e-mail, the chat or even the forum. This
new ways of communication breached borders. They were able to ignore time and
location of the communicators and connect people of different cultures from different
countries. It stimulated the matter of communication in a way humanity never had
seen before. Communication was seen as borderless.
Even with such a mighty tool as the Internet we cannot neglect the fact that
conversation is a special phenomenon. (cf. Burkart 46ff.) According to the principle of
symbolic interaction the chance for successful act of communication is very small.
Communication is a process with so many presuppositions it seems not possible to
happen. To name a few of the conditions:
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But humans developed some strategies to deal with these problems. They developed
behaviors and strategies that would make the act of communication more likely to
happen.
One of these principles is the principle of politeness. “Leech (1980: 19) defines it as
“strategic conflict avoidance” and the establishment and maintenance of comity, …”.
(Watts, Ide, Ehrlich xv) Politeness is used to reduce friction between the
communication participants.
With the appearance of the new form of the Internet, the Web 2.0, the variety of
communication tools has grown even larger than during the stage of Web 1.0. So the
users of the communication tools have to adopt their conversation patterns and
principles to the new ways of communication. Within their conversations they also use
the familiar concepts. So if someone communicates through a Social Media network or
a Microblog he also uses typical strategies to avoid friction and conflict and to make
the conversation more successful.
This paper gives a look at the conversation within the virtual media in regard to the use
of the principle of politeness. The principles of politeness referred in this paper are the
concept of face by Goffman, Brown and Levinson and the Politeness Principle (PP) of
Leech. The focus of this work is mainly on the positive face concept and how this
concept is used within the conversation in social networks. In this association the
following hypothesis will be examined by this paper:
The participants in conversations in Social Media networks are mainly using positive
politeness strategies. These strategies are positive strategies according to the
Politeness Principle of Leech and the positive face threatening act of Brown, Levinson
and Goffman.
The first part of this works gives a short overview of the terms Web 2.0 and Social
Media. It will introduce the reader to both terms and gives a sufficient definition of
these. Within the Social Media as a part of the Web 2.0 there are different tools for
communication. The first part gives a brief overview of the different tools and
illustrates the background of each tool. It also takes a look on the theme and style of
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conversation realized by a specific tool. This part shows what kind of conversation is
looked at by taking Social Network conversations as samples.
The second part of this paper makes an approach to the principle of Politeness in
regard to the concept of face by Goffman, Brown and Levinson and the Politeness
Principle by Leech. First of all the term politeness is described with common literature
definitions. This is followed by the description of the Politeness Principle by Leech.
Then the concept of face by Goffman will be introduced to the reader. The focus of this
work is the use of the concept of the positive face and linked acts within the
conversation. In connection with the different approaches of politeness this paper
defines a pattern of positive face threatening act and shows the appearance of such
acts within the conversation of a certain social network. The special pattern will be
used at text samples of one Social Media network and will show the usage of positive
face threatening acts by measuring the frequency of this special pattern.
The last part of this work summarizes the results of the research and gives a conclusion
in connection with the hypothesis.
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2.1 Web 2.0
The term Web 2.0 was coined by Tim O`Reilly and John Batelle. By creating this term
both wanted to find a definition for the ongoing revolution and change of the Internet.
“Web 2.0 is the business revolution in the computer industry caused by the move to
the Internet as platform, and an attempt to understand the rules for success on that
new platform. Chief among those rules is this: Build applications that harness network
effects to get better the more people use them.” (O´Reilly,
http://radar.oreilly.com/2006/12/web-20-compact-definition-tryi.html)
Their definition shows that the Internet has changed in some way of its use. To be
precise the concept of the Web 1.0 was to receive information and building up first
attempts of new communication tools like the e-mail. The Web 2.0 was built on the
foundation of the Web 1.0 but emphasizes collaboration, communication and
knowledge collection. (cf. McAfee) The key term in this case is network. Tim O’Reilly
accentuates the network effect as an effect that is produced by a certain media to
attract more and more users by their numbers of users. If a realization within the
Internet has many users these applications attract even more users. (cf. McAfee)
So the term of the Web 2.0 can be seen as the revolutionary shift of Web 1.0 to a new
and more effective usage of the Internet as a whole. The meaning of the Web 2.0 can
be defined by more effective usage of conversation and collaboration and by using the
network effect.
With the change of the Internet towards Web 2.0 there also appear new terms
reffering to tools and realizations of communication media.
The term Social Media collects all realizations of communication, collaboration and
networking within the Web 2.0. “This includes the use of Internet and mobile media
(videos, documents, photos, slide presentations, etc.) for sharing ideas, concepts,
messages, or entertainment. For each type of medium, there are services that
facilitate one-to-one or one-to-many communication; …” (Klososky 7)
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So every realization within the Web 2.0 is called Social Media. The following list shows
some examples of different kinds of Social Media. Each of its own has some special
features and some typical usage.
Blogs
Mikroblogs
Wikis
Instant Messaging
Social Networks
In regard to the aim to show the usage of positive face threatening acts within social
networks the above mentioned forms of the Social Media are described in a very brief
way.
2.2.1 Blogs
2.2.2 Microblogs
“Microblogging, a form of connection we have not encountered in the past, consists of
short bursts of user-generated content that allow people to stay current with known
contacts and to follow the thoughts of strangers who have interesting or relevant
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things to say.” (Klososky 10) The specialty of the Microblog is the limited usage of
words. Most Microblogs force their users to compose messages of only 140 letters.
Within such a communication tool there is merely little till no space for strategic use of
the principles of politeness.
2.2.3 Wikis
“The word “wiki” is taken from the Hawaiian language, where it means “fast.” Hosted
on an intranet or on the Internet, wikis are Web sites that can not only be read by their
users but also modified, expanded, and commented on – all in a manner of seconds.”
(Buhse, Stammer 209) This special case of Social Media deals with cooperative work
and knowledge exchange. The most popular but also controverse case of such a Social
Media is Wikipedia. People can work together and put together a kind of encyclopedia
for everyone to look up certain facts. Everyone who participates in creating an article
on Wikipedia could do this even with the lack of evidence or source. But it also has to
be mentioned that due to current occasions of popular plagiarisms the quality of
articles on the Wikipedia platform has risen. The crowd who is involved in the
development of such wikis tries to be serious and controls its results through
crowdsourcing. (cf. Howe) For analyzing politeness strategies like positive face
threatening Wikis are not likely to have typical conversations. The ongoing
communication is more about connotation, suggestion, and helping within the content
of a certain article.
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“Human beings like connection. We especially like connecting with people who share
our interests. Give us a new form of cheap, instant, and robust communication and we
will use it to connect with people all over the world. We have done so for many years.”
(Klososky 3) Social Networks are platforms were people connect and communicate
with each other in a social background. Social means that they not only share interests.
They also are visiting such networks on a regular base to keep the network and the
communication effects alive.
For the Social Networks discussed in this works it is vital to introduce another term.
This term is Social Software. What the general public names Social Networks is in fact
the Social Software. “Social software is a general term referring to applications that
support communication, interaction, and collaboration. Social software is the power
behind social networks such as the online communities Facebook, MySpace or XING.”
(Buhse, Stamer 208) Another important term is mentioned within this definition –
online communities.
2.2.4.1 Facebook
The most common Social Network nowadays is Facebook. “Founded in February 2004,
Facebook is a social utility that helps people communicate more efficiently with their
friends, family and coworkers. The company develops technologies that facilitate the
sharing of information through the social graph, the digital mapping of people's real-
world social connections. Anyone can sign up for Facebook and interact with the
people they know in a trusted environment.” (facebook facts,
https://www.facebook.com/press/info.php?factsheet) The growth of this network has
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just slowed down recently. But it is still the biggest network on the whole planet. For
the matter of this work Facebook is one of two different networks looked at in terms
of conversation and strategic use of positive face threatening acts. Due to the vast
majority of users it is a good source for conversations to look at.
The following and sampling of conversations on Facebook is a little bit difficult due to
the fact that not everyone has an open profile and conversation history. The privacy
settings of Facebook allow the users to hide or to show as much as the users want to.
Conversations are only accessible if they are public or if the sampler is part of the
network of the certain user.
Google Plus organizes the network in so called circles. Circles are customable and could
be named and classified by every aspect the user wants. With no certain restrictions in
following and observing conversations within the network samples of conversations
are easily accessible.
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2.3 Participants within the networks
The aim of this work is to look at conversations and to show how specific politeness
strategies are used. To narrow down the huge varieties of conversations within social
networks it is significant to specialize on a certain conversation situation. It is
important to show what kinds of participants are engaged in social networks.
The smallest unit in Social Media network is the human as a user. She or he decides to
participate at a network because communities make communication more successful
due to the fact that communities consist of people who share the same interests,
hobbies and behaviors.
The other unit of social networks is the company, or better said the social network
appearance of the company. Companies are using the social networks as another part
of their marketing effort. They have identified certain users to have special interests.
Here companies can easily reach certain users by focusing on their interests and
behaviors.
It is very important to scale down the possible text samples because the variety of
conversations is enormous. Each type of conversation got its own features regarding
the use of politeness strategies. “…, the social position of the speakers may indicate
different politeness values for individual cases.”(Mey 80)
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It is essential to find out if communication within the Social Media networks and
consequently computer mediated communications (CMC) are spoken or written
conversations. The German author Angelika Storrer says: “Die kommunikative
Mündlichkeit orientiert sich an dem Setting des alltäglichen Gesprächs von Angesicht
zu Angesicht zwischen miteinander vertrauten Gesprächspartnern, die sich in der
Sprecher- und Hörerrolle abwechseln. Typisch für dieses Setting sind kurze
Planungszeiten bei der Produktion und kurze Verarbeitungszeiten für die Rezeption.
Die Äußerungen werden meist spontan gebildet; die Themenentwicklung ist offen
wobei für die Teilnehmer in der Hörerrolle stets die Option der Rückfrage oder des
Einspruchs besteht und die Teilnehmer in der Sprecherrolle mit sprachlichen und
mimisch-gestischen Mitteln Feedback erhalten.“ (Storrer 153f)
The act of communication within the Social Media networks lack of the features of
face-to-face. It does compensate this by ignoring location and time of the
communicants. So it could be seen as a face-to-face situation without the physical
presence of the participants at the same location.
Another critical point to look at is the absence of social cues within the communication
in Social Media networks. Storrer mentioned that social cues are vital for the
communicative orality. In connection with CMC (computer mediated communication)
there is a special theory called “Reduced Social Cues Approach”. (Beck 171) This
critique is repulsed due to the fact that within online communication the absence of
social cues are compensated through symbolic written Social Cues like the so called
emoticons. (cf. Beck 171) Greiffenstern gives in her book a similar answer.
“Technically, computer-mediated communication is typing and, thus, written language.
[…] In written communication, these visual clues have to be replaced by something
else. One well-know example are emoticons in CMC;…” (Greiffenstern 42f.)
Both critical points of Storrers definition of the communicative orality have been
denied. CMC and therefore communication within Social Media networks according to
the definition are spoken communication. But it has to be mentioned what
Greiffenstern wrote: “…, there is no clear-cut distinction between writing and speech.
Moreover they influence each other in several ways.” (Greiffenstern 45)
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By stating that CMC is communicative orality it is possible to use Searle’s categories of
speech acts. Searle classified speech acts in the following five categories (Bublitz
119f.):
Representatives
Directives
Commissives
Expressives
Declarations
The first four categories are typical for conversations within the Social Media
networks. Representatives are characteristic for certain presentations of news,
articles, statements and information sharing. Directives are often found in speech acts
according social acts within the networks. Good examples maybe invitations to parties
or to certain networks, requesting certain favors, or even applying for a job. Every
category has its own appearance within the communication in Social Media networks.
The category of the declarations does not appear in the conversation of Social Media
networks. Due to the fact that such speech acts need the presents of institutional
entities they do not appear within the Social Media communication.
With the classification of Searle it is possible to narrow down the text samples to
conversations with the representatives feature.
The above mentioned facts show the conversation types that will be looked at in this
paper. Another point of the focus in this work is to show the politeness strategies
within the conversations. Therefore it is needed to detect such strategies. It is
necessary to define and describe the term politeness and the connected politeness
theory. The following part will engage on this matter.
3. Politeness
“First one has to know what being ‘polite’ means. According to Leech, “[s]ome
illocutions (e.g. orders) are inherently impolite, and others (e.g. offers) are inherently
polite” (1983:83). This view assumes politeness to be an abstract quality, residing in
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individual expressions, lexical items or morphemes, without regard for the particular
circumstances that govern their use.” (Mey 80) This formulation is not sufficient for
the definition of politeness. “Although some expressions in English may encode the
speaker’s polite attitude, politeness is not an inherent feature of linguistic expressions.
Polite expressions are only interpretable as such in relation to a speech situation.”
(Andersen 17)
There are several approaches to the theory of politeness. Two main theories are used
and discussed within the pragmatics. On the one side there is the Politeness Principle
according to Geoffrey Leech and on the other side there is the theory of face according
to Brown and Levinson influenced by the notion of face from Goffman. (cf. Swann et al
189)
Leech says that politeness is mainly involved in the first two categories. (cf. Leech 104)
He states that the character of the politeness in the first category is of a negative one.
“… its purpose is to reduce the discord implicit in the competition between what is
wants to achieve, and what is ‘good manner’.” (Leech 105) The second category is
dedicated to the more positive politeness. “Positive politeness means observing the PP
in that, for example, if you have an opportunity to congratulate h on his 100th
birthday, you should do so.” (Leech 105) These examples show that there are two
types of politeness, the negative and the positive politeness. Both are representatives
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of certain expressions within the strategy of politeness. “The principle of politeness
tells us to minimize (or ‘mitigate’) the effects of impolite statements or expressions
(‘negative politeness’) and to maximize the politeness of polite illocutions (‘positive
politeness’)”. (Mey 80) Leech’s approach to the theory of politeness is related to the
cooperative principle of Grice. “Leech’s Politeness Principle is supposed to collaborate
with, and even ‘rescue’, the Cooperative Principle and its associated maxims.” (Mey
82) The Politeness Principle is used to make the communicative act more likely to
happen. It is used to avoid friction and misunderstanding.
Every participant of a conversation is in the need to balance the use of the face and
face threatening acts. There are situations where one has to choose to use positive
politeness strategies and there are situations where one wants to use negative
politeness strategies. Each strategy needs special pondering for the use of a certain
face threatening act. There are many factors that influence the choice of the strategy.
Swann gives within her work a reasonable classification of such factors. These factors
are varying from social situation to relationship and culture. (cf. Swann 189)
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The kinds of politeness strategies that are felt to be appropriate will also vary in
different cultures. (Swann 189)
“On Face-work, focused on the concept of face, which is the positive image of self that
individuals have when interacting with others. Goffman believed that face “as a
sociological construct of interaction, is neither inherent in nor permanent aspect of the
person””. (Trevinio 37) The face according to Goffman is more like a mask that is used
in certain situations of conversation. Goffman at all was influenced by the symbolic
interaction of Mead and Blumer. He puts every communicative act within a
dramaturgical perspective. According to Goffman communicants decide which role
they play on the situation they are confronted with. The main idea of the whole theory
of Goffman is that every individual has typical masks and therefore a face for any
situation. The notion of face derives from this theory of Goffman.
In general it has to be mentioned that the notion of face originally comes from Asian
cultures and especially from China. Here is the face and the balance of face
threatening acts part of the whole society.
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certain conversation type and a certain pattern for politeness strategy. The type of
conversation that will be looked at within this work will also define the text samples.
Representatives are statements about the world and its condition. The speaker wants
to inform her or his audience about a certain situation or status. She or he believes
that the statement is true or false. “These speech acts are assertions about a state of
affairs in the world […] and thus carry the value ‘true’ or ‘false’. This is their ‘point’; as
to ‘fit’, they should, of course, match the world in order to be true. Assertions often,
maybe even always, represent a subjective state of mind: the speaker who asserts a
proposition as true does so in force of his or her belief. The belief may have different
degrees of ‘force’: it makes a difference whether I postulate something or merely
hypothesize; however, the point of the speech act remains the same.” (Mey 120)
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“COLLABORATIVE: The illocutionary goal is indifferent to the social goal; eg asserting,
reporting, announcing, instructing”. (Leech 104) Informing others about a certain state
of affair within the world is a representative speech act. So the PP category of convivial
is the best match for the politeness strategy in this case. The first pattern concerning
the beginner of the conversation is therefore the collaborative category according to
Leech.
In the text sample a positive politeness pattern will appear if the conversation starter
tries to inform other about certain condition of the world. She or he believes that what
was stated is true or false. If this condition is fulfilled the conversation starter performs
a collaborative politeness strategy.
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the hearer’s opinion, has not violated the rights or obligations which are in effect at
the moment.” (Fracer 343f.)
Every utterance that supports the view of the conversation starter, which does not
confront him or her with bad critiques and which is able to support the positive face of
the conversation beginner is an utterance of friendliness. This can be cases like:
As a result of both indicators it can be stated that a positive face threatening act
towards the conversation starter can be identified by supporting and approving
utterances of other conversationalists.
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5. Research work
For the reliability of this paper it is necessary to show how the text samples were
chosen and which method is used to describe and show the frequency of the
politeness patterns.
The text samples were chosen randomly. The author of this paper had access to the
named network. Within his contacts he chose those of English speaking origin. The
contact was looked at towards the conversations listed in the profile of the certain
contact. It has to be admitted that a real random choice could not be made due to the
fact that a certain average sample could not be surveyed. The author’s choice was
made by the known fact that the samples need to be representative. The choice was
made without the focus on theme, person or social background. Combined, this paper
examines 30 text samples of the mentioned Social Media network.
The whole measurement is connected to the sum of all examined text samples. In
general a single conversation will be looked at according to the numbers of
participants, incidences of positive face threatening act, and the rate of this positive
politeness strategy in connection to the whole examined conversation. The numbers of
conversation participants will be put in proportion to the number of articles within the
conversation.
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5.3 Results of text sample examination
The sum of all examined text samples is 30. Each text sample starts with the intended
speech act of the conversation starter. The examination shows that of 30 inspected
text samples 24 can be put in the category of representative speech act. The other six
text samples are fitting the category of others.
representatives
others
24
The 24 text samples that are matching the category of representatives are therefore of
the Collaborative Principle according to Leech. The conversation starter informs others
about certain states in the world. “…reporting, announcing, instructing…” (Leech, 104)
are features of the Collaborative Politeness strategy.
The following graph will show the relation between participants of the conversations
and the number of posts within the conversations.
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60
50
40
30 Conversation posts
Conversation participants
20
10
Text samples
0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29
The x-axis represents the certain number of the examined text sample. The blue bar
stands for the number of participating conversationalists of the certain text sample. In
contrast we see the red bar as the whole number of posts found in a text sample. It is
obvious that there are special cases in this output. There are three cases, text sample
1, 20 and 27, where the number of conversationalists is smaller than the compared
number of posts. These text samples show a very long conversation about the
presented topic. It has to be stated that the topic influences the number of posts and
also the number of participants. In connection with this paper it is necessary to have
the numbers of conversationalists and conversations because with these numbers it is
possible to show the percentage of the politeness patterns. In average every text
sample has 9.5 participants per conversation and 15.3 posts per conversation. The
arithmetic average is too abstract so it is better to give the median for both variables.
In conclusion within 30 text samples there are eight participants with 12.5 posts.
The following graph illustrates the proportion between the positive face patterns
“approval” and “friendliness”.
23
25
20
15
friendliness
10 approvals
Text samples
0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29
There are only few cases where no pattern can be found. These cases are the text
samples three and the text sample 19. The first one matches another category than
representatives to be exact directives. The conversation starter asked the participants
to answer a question/ request. The text sample 19 has a conversation where the
participants are of different opinions and showing these opinions directly. There is no
sign of politeness strategy within this sample. The arithmetic average for the approval
pattern is 5.133 per text sample and for the friendliness pattern it is 2.866 per text
sample. Again the arithmetic average is very abstract. In conclusion it can be stated
that within 30 text samples there are an average of 4.5 approvals and one pattern of
friendliness.
It can be asserted that within 12.5 posts there appear 5.5 patterns that support the
positive face of the conversation starter and that can be described as positive
politeness strategies. As a result it can be stated that 44 percent of positive face
threatening acts appear within conversations in Social Media networks. This
percentage emerges within the category of representative speech acts of conversation
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starters. The representative speech act is according to Leech a positive politeness
strategy by his category Collaborative. (cf. Leech, 104)
6. Conclusion
The above presented results of the examination of text samples show that there is a
tendency towards the assumed hypothesis:
The participants in conversations in Social Media networks are mainly using positive
politeness strategies. These strategies are positive strategies according to the
Politeness Principle of Leech and the positive face threatening act of Brown, Levinson
and Goffman.
To give a more precise view to this hypothesis it is necessary to take a closer look at
the themes of the conversations. The results show that the themes of conversations,
even if they are of representative character, have a huge influence on the use of
politeness strategies. This influence of the themes was not part of the hypothesis and
need further examination.
As the result of this paper it can be stated that participants of conversations use
positive politeness strategies by a chance of 44 percent. According to the variety of
possible speech acts this is a very high chance. It can be stated that the hypothesis of
this paper is true.
In general it can be asserted that users of Social Media networks do use positive
politeness patterns and strategies to support their own positive face and to support
the positive face of others. There is an overall tendency of the use of positive
politeness strategies within Social Media networks.
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MCAFEE, ANDREW. Enterprise 2.0: New Collaborative Tools for Your Organization's
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