Gender Studies 
 

Social Construction of Gender 

1. Historicizing Constructionism 
a. What does it mean to historicize constructivism? 

Historicizing means when one presents something as a product of 

historical development. Constructionism means that we view the world 
through certain self made constructs1(or ideas about reality). 

Historicizing Constructionism hence means that over the course of history 

certain ideas have been constructed about gender. These ideas have been 
enforced and reinforced throughout time. So in today’s world they are not 
presented as constructs but as essential truths which have been 
established through historical development of man.  

b. What is social constructionism? 

It means that our realities are based on our experiences and interactions 
with other people. We experience the world through our own opinions. 
These opinions are constructed through a number of things such as 
culture, mores, tradition, beliefs and values.2 So one person might 
consider a dishwasher a necessity and the other might consider it a 
luxury. This will be discussed in subsection 3 when we consider whether 
sex is socially constructed or not. 

1
These are our ideas or modes of what is real 
2
These are collectively called a social agreement 

 
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2. Problematizing the category of “Sex”: Queer 

Theory 
Queer theory developed in mid 1980s. The term was coined by ​Teresa de Lauretis​. 

1. Historical and a mostly political Context: 

In the late 1970s and 1980s problems regarding the recognition of homosexuality led to 
widespread activism. The Gay Liberation Front was born in 1970 in Britain and it, along 
with other campaigns such as Campaign for Homosexual Equality, began to work for 
law reform. 

Public policies in the mid 1980’s were selectively blind to the plight of gay men who had 
contracted AIDS. It is estimated that 20,000 men died by 1987. This led to setting up of 
in-formal and non governmental health centres by civilians. Like the women of the 
second wave, these gay individuals were incensed by the casual attitude shown by the 
government.  

In such an atmosphere the idea of fluidity of gender was created. It led to the idea that 
gay individuals were no different than others and that their sexuality did not mean 
something was wrong with them. It was rather the heterosexual men and women who 
were acting according to social constructs. 

2. What is queer theory? 

It is a set of ideas based around the fact that identities are not fixed and do not 
determine who we are. It suggests that it is meaningless to talk in general about 
'women' or any other group, as identities consist of many different elements. It is wrong 
to think that people can be seen collectively on the basis of one shared characteristic 
such as men, gay, lesbian. Queer theory proposes that we should deliberately challenge 
all notions of fixed identity, in unconventional ways. It denies that heterosexuality is 
normal or ‘natural’. Embodied in popular culture by Madonna. 

 
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Criticisms: 

i. For most people, their sexual identity isn't fluid, it's constant. 
ii. Queer theory focuses on cultural texts3 (rather than real life) where 
it is easier to find sexual or gender ambiguities. 
iii. Discrimination at home and at work, for everyday gay people, are 
forgotten about in this approach as it reduces everyone to the same 
fluid identity. 
iv. By celebrating difference, queer politics makes the 'gay' or 'lesbian' 
identity all too important. Other identities such as heterosexuality or 
asexuality are ignored. 
v. Queer theory celebrates pleasure and therefore puts too much 
emphasis on sex.  

3. Judith Butler’s Gender performativity theory.  

Judith Butler’s book Gender Trouble (1990) made a profound contribution to the field. 
She argued that gender is socially constructed. So male and female behaviors are 
constructed and reinforced by media and culture4. Gender performativity theory also 
suggests that sexuality is not assigned to one orientation or preference. Sexual identity 
is fluid, a person can be heterosexual at one time and bisexual at another. 

● Key Aspects of Butler’s theory: 

○ Our identity is not fixed (male, female, heterosexual) 

3
These are objects that reveal cultural meanings. Examples can be movies, songs, performers (such as 
Madonna and David Bowie) and their personalities. 
4
We can see examples where gender is seen to be socially constructed. Drag queens or the trend of 
househusbands (men who stay at home to take care of their children) shows that gender is socially 
constructed. Another example is that of Captain JAck Sparrow who uses make up and ses feminine 
gestures. These cause Gender Trouble by showing people not acting in accordance with their assigned 
gender roles. 

 
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○ Our identity is made up of a pile of (social and cultural) 
things which we have previously expressed, or which have 
been said about us. IT is made of certain expectations from 
us. 
○ There is not really an ‘inner self’.  
○ Gender, like other aspects of identity, is a performance. If 
you perform the requirements of one gender than you are 
assigned that gender 
○ People can therefore change if they perform the 
characteristics of another gender. (If a heterosexual female 
starts performing activities and adopts characteristics of a 
heterosexual male then her identity changes.) 
○ The binary5 divide between masculinity and femininity is a 
social construct built on the binary divide between men and 
women – which is also a social construction.  
○ We should challenge the traditional views of masculinity, 
femininity and sexuality by causing gender trouble 

4. Critics: 
i. Judith Butler's followers ignore real-life oppression and 
instead support their optimistic worldview by gazing at 
gender-blending movies and photography.  

3. Is “Sex” socially determined, too? 

4.  

S/No  Sex   Gender 

1.  Sex is defined as the biological  gender is the fashion in which society 

5
It is the classification of gender in to two opposite and distinct forms of masculine and feminine. 

 
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differences between men and women  highlights the sexual differences 
among both species 

2.  Anatomical characteristics are  masculine and feminine qualities, 

considered. They have the following  behaviour patterns, related roles 
six components; chromosome  and responsibility, etc are 
make-up, external genitalia, internal  considered. 
genitalia, gonads hormonal states and 
secondary sex characteristics. The 
addition of all of these qualities forms 
the basis of which sex category most 
people fall under; female or male 

3.  Refers to male or female  Refers to Masculinity and 

femininity  

4.  It is a universal term  It is variable it changes under the 

influence of time, geographical 
and socio-cultural settings 

Is Sex also socially determined? 

It can be said that to an extent sex is also socially constructed. It is true that the 
distinctions between the sexes depend on 6 anatomical features, however let’s look at 
all these in detail. 
 
1. Chromosome make-up: XY (M) OR XX (F) (XXY Chromosomal variations = Klinefelter 
Syndrome, XO Chromosomal variations = Turner Syndrome)  
2. External genitals: Penis(M) OR Vagina (F) (Some people are born with ambiguous 
genitalia and they are classified as intersex) 
3. Internal genitalia: testes(M) OR Ovaries (F) (Internal genitalia of certain individuals may 
not match their internal genitalia) 
4. Gonads 
5. Hormonal states [estrogen (F) and Testosterone (M)]  
6. Secondary sex characteristics 
 
Who determines when the size of the genitalia is sufficient for male? Not every genitalia is of 
the same size. When is a male genitalia small enough to be categorised as a female genitalia?6   

5. Masculinities and Femininity 

 

6
Phall-o-meters are used to classify children with ambiguous genitalia. Doctors make decisions regarding 
such children and whether they should be classified as male or female. So sex is also socially determined 
in such instances. 

 
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Instrumental/Masculine traits  Expressive/ Feminine traits 

Competent  Empathetic 

Rational   Sensitive 

Assertive  Passive 

Independent  Dependent 

Aggressive  Submissive 

Strong-Headed  Caring 

Dominant  Emotional 

Active   Passive 

Tough  Gentle 

Kind  Cruel  

Verbal   Analytical 

Tactful  Blunt 

Ideas about masculinity and femininity are socially constructed. They vary across 
different cultures and societies as well as history.7 Femininity and masculinity are based 
upon, amongst other things, the social roles that women and men are expected to 
perform in their lives. 

6. Nature versus Culture: A Debate in Gender 

Development 
Nature vs Culture debate is a debate on what influences our gender. Do we identify as 
females because it has been re-inforced by our culture or because it is part of our 
biology? 

Research at the Johns Hopkins Children Center has shown that gender identity is 
almost entirely based on nature and is almost exclusively predetermined before the 

7
Did you know President Franklin Delano Roosevelt wore frocks till he was six? It was a generally 
accepted practice in those day s to dress boys in female clothes. 

 
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birth of the baby. Two studies conducted by William Reiner, a child and adolescent 
psychiatrist and urologist, have confirmed that the amount of exposure to male 
hormones and androgens in utero almost exclusively decides whether the child 
identifies as masculine or feminine. 

Reiner followed 14 children whose testicles and male hormone levels were completely 
normal at birth, but who were born without a penis — 12 of the children were surgically 
reconstructed to appear female. Today, all 12 of the children raised as females are 
strongly male a-typical in their behaviors, attitudes, friends and play. This re-iterates that 
perhaps gender may not totally be culturally constructed and certain aspects are a 
result of nature.  

However we can also argue that traits of masculinity or femininity may rest on cultural 
factors. 

Other natural differences between binary genders are; 

● Females attain puberty earlier than males 

● There is difference in bone development and structure between both 
● There is research to suggest that males are better math and females are better 
at multitasking and speaking.