FH 2016 10 Ir PDF

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UNIVERSITI PUTRA MALAYSIA
EFFECTS OF OUTDOOR EDUCATION ON GROUP COHESION

AMONG SECOND YEAR UNDERGRADUATE TEACHER TRAINEES
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FROM
SELECTED TEACHER EDUCATION INSTITUTES IN MALAYSIA
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MAZUKI BIN MOHD YASIM

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FH 2016 10
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AMONG SECOND YEAR UNDERGRADUATE TEACHER TRAINEES FROM
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SELECTED TEACHER EDUCATION INSTITUTES IN MALAYSIA
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H By
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Thesis Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies, Universiti Putra Ma-

laysia, in Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of
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Philosophy
July 2016
COPYRIGHT
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icons, photographs and all other artwork, is copyright material of Universiti Putra
Malaysia unless otherwise stated. Use may be made of any material contained
within the thesis for non-commercial purposes from the copyright holder. Com-
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mercial use of material may only be made with the express, prior, written permis-
sion of Universiti Putra Malaysia.
Copyright © Universiti Putra Malaysia
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Abstract of thesis presented to the Senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia in
fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

AMONG SECOND YEAR UNDERGRADUATE TEACHER TRAINEES
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FROM SELECTED TEACHER EDUCATION INSTITUTES IN
MALAYSIA
By
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July 2016
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Chair: Azlizam bin Aziz, PhD
Faculty: Forestry H
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The study seeks to investigate the effect of outdoor education camp toward
group cohesion on the second year undergraduate teacher trainees from
selected Teacher Education Institutes of Malaysia. It also examines the so-
cio-demographic influences and sequence of activity that encourage group
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cohesion improvement. The study also attempts to shed light upon the de-
layed effect after two months completion of the camp. A pre-test and post-
test approach with non-equivalent control group was utilised among 350 se-
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cond year undergraduate students from four selected Teacher Education

Institutes of Malaysia. Meanwhile, there is no control group used for the de-
layed post-test. A modified version of Group Environment Questionnaire
(GEQ) and open ended questionnaire were used to gather data from pre,
post and delayed post-test. Results from MANCOVA procedures suggested
that the camp had positively improved the experimental group‟s group cohe-
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sion. Previous experience, place of residence, gender and camp location

were found to have significant influence on the improvement of group cohe-
sion. However, the study also revealed that this gain diminished over the
two month period as measured by the delayed post-test. Responses from
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teacher trainees found that sequence of activity from low to high risk activity
is the appropriate and influenced students‟ group cohesion improvement.
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Abstrak tesis yang dikemukakan kepada Senat Universiti Putra Malaysia
sebagai memenuhi keperluan untuk ijazah Doktor Falsafah
KESAN PENDIDIKAN LUAR TERHADAP KESEPADUAN KUMPULAN

DALAM KALANGAN GURU PELATIH TAHUN DUA DARI INSTITUT
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PENDIDIKAN GURU MALAYSIA TERPILIH
Oleh
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Julai 2016
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Pengerusi: Azlizam bin Aziz, PhD
Fakulti: Perhutanan
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Kajian ini bertujuan untuk mengkaji kesan perkhemahan pendidikan luar
terhadap kesepaduan kumpulan guru pelatih tahun dua dari Institut Pendidi-
kan Guru terpilih di Malaysia. Kajian ini juga turut mengkaji pengaruh sosio-
demografi dan urutan aktiviti semasa program perkhemahan yang mengga-
lakkan peningkatan perpaduan kumpulan. Selain itu, kajian ini juga ber-
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tujuan untuk memberi penerangan tentang kesan ujian pasca yang

dilewatkan selama dua bulan selepas kem perkhemahan berakhir. Kajian ini
menggunakan kaedah ujian pra dan pasca dengan menggunaan kumpulan
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kawalan. Data kajian dipungut daripada 350 pelajar tahun dua dari empat
Institut Pendidikan Guru Malaysia yang terpilih. Soal Selidik Persekitaran
Kumpulan (GEQ) dan soalan terbuka telah digunakan untuk mengumpul
data dari ujian pra dan pasca. Manakala tiada kumpulan kawalan digunakan
bagi ujian pasca yang dilewatkan. Analisis MANCOVA menunjukkan baha-
wa perkhemahan pendidikan luar ini telah berjaya meningkatkan secara
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positif perpaduan kumpulan guru pelatih. Penglibatan aktif dalam aktiviti lu-
ar, lokasi tempat tinggal, jantina dan lokasi perkhemahan didapati mempu-
nyai pengaruh yang besar ke atas peningkatan kesepaduan kumpulan. Wa-
lau bagaimanapun, kajian itu juga mendedahkan bahawa melalui ujian pas-
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ca yang dilewatkan mendapati kesan perkhemahan pendidikan luar menjadi

semakin berkurangan selapas tempoh dua bulan. Selain daripada itu, kajian
itu turut mendapati bahawa urutan aktiviti dari yang berisiko rendah kepada
aktiviti berisiko tinggi adalah amat bersesuaian dan mempengaruhi pening-
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katan perpaduan kumpulan guru pelatih.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my greatest gratitude to the wonderful

group of people who have helped make this „impian‟ a reality.
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Thank you to:
 The Ministry of Higher Education and the Sultan Idris Edu-

cation University for sponsoring my study.
 My great supervisor Associate Professor Dr. Azlizam
bin Aziz, Associate Professor Dr. Abdullah Mohd, As-
sociate Professor Dr. Md Amin Md Taff, Dr. Saidon
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Amri and Dr. Siti Suriawati Isa and all Faculty of For-
estry staff for their extensive time, suggestions, en-
thusiasm and encouragement. You guys are my role
models.
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 Teacher Education Institute of Malaysia, Campus Per-
lis, Temenggung Ibrahim, Tun Razak and Raja
Melewar for their lovely camp experiences.


friends… H
Mr. John, Dr. Hafizal, Mus, Lan, Abu, Fiza…For being
Mek Dah, Kak Leha, Abang Li and Mek Na.. Thanks for all
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the good prayers until I reach the final destination..
 My father, late mother and late mother in law who always in-
spired me along this journey.. This journey has taught me
much about love and lost..
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 Mama, Ayong, Adam, Adik Ammar and Adik Maryam who

have sacrificed a lot... This „journey‟ have taught us a lot
about life, love and family…
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May Allah Bless You All Guys..Amin..

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I certify that a Thesis Examination Committee has met on (date of viva
voce) to conduct the final examination of (student‟s name)on his (her) the-
sis entitled (“Title of Thesis”)in accordance with the Universities and Uni-
versity Colleges Act 1971 and the Constitution of the Universiti Putra Ma-
laysia [P.U.(A) 106] 15 March 1998. The Committee recommends that the
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student be awarded the (insert the name of relevant degree).
Members of the Thesis Examination Committee were as follows:
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Shukri Mohamad
Faculty of Forestry
Universiti Putra Malaysia
(Chairman)
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Assoc.Prof. Dr. Manohar Mariapan
Faculty of Forestry
(Internal Examiner)
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LAr. Dr. Suhardi Maulan
Faculty of Design and Architecture
(Internal Examiner) H
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Dr. Vinesh Chandra
School of Curriculum
Faculty of Education
Queensland University of Technology
Australia
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(External Examiner)
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________________________
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(ZULKARNAIN ZAINAL, PhD)

Professor and Deputy Dean
School of Graduate Studies
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Date:
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This thesis was submitted to the Senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia and
has been accepted as fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Doc-
tor of Philosophy. The members of the Supervisory Committee were as
follows:
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Azlizam bin Aziz, PhD
Associate Professor
Faculty of Forestry
(Chairman)
Abdullah Mohd, PhD
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Associate Professor
Faculty of Forestry
(Member)
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Saidon Amri, PhD
Senior Lecturer
Faculty of Educational Studies
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Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris
(Member)
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Siti Suriawati Isa, PhD
Senior Lecturer
Faculty of Forestry
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(Member)
Md Amin Md Taff, PhD

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Associate Professor
Faculty of Sports Science and Coaching
(Member)
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________________________
BUJANG BIN KIM HUAT, PhD
Professor and Dean
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School of Graduate Studies

Date:
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Declaration by graduate student
I hereby confirm that:
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this thesis is my original work;
 quotations, illustrations and citations have been duly referenced;
 this thesis has not been submitted previously or concurrently for any
other degree at any other institutions;
 intellectual property from the thesis and copyright of thesis are fully-
owned by Universiti Putra Malaysia, as according to the Universiti Pu-
tra Malaysia (Research) Rules 2012;
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 written permission must be obtained from supervisor and the office of
Deputy Vice-Chancellor (Research and Innovation) before thesis is
published (in the form of written, printed or in electronic form) includ-
ing books, journals, modules, proceedings, popular writings, seminar
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papers, manuscripts, posters, reports, lecture notes, learning modules
or any other materials as stated in theUniversiti Putra Malaysia (Re-
search) Rules 2012;

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there is no plagiarism or data falsification/fabrication in the thesis, and
scholarly integrity is upheld as according to the Universiti Putra Ma-
laysia (Graduate Studies) Rules 2003 (Revision 2012-2013) and the
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Universiti Putra Malaysia (Research) Rules 2012. The thesis has un-
dergone plagiarism detection software.
Signature: ________________________ Date: __________________

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Name and Matric No.: _________________________________________

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Declaration by Members of Supervisory Committee
This is to confirm that:

 the research conducted and the writing of this thesis was under our
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supervision;
 supervision responsibilities as stated in the Universiti Putra Malaysia
(Graduate Studies) Rules 2003 (Revision 2012-2013)are adhered to.
Signature:
Name of Chairman
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of Supervisory
Committee: Azlizam bin Aziz, PhD
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Signature:
Name of Member of
Supervisory Com-
mittee:
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Abdullah Mohd, PhD
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Signature:
Name of Member of
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Supervisory Com-
mittee: Saidon Amri, PhD
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Signature:
Name of Member of
Supervisory Com-
mittee: Siti Suriawati Isa, PhD
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Signature:
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Name of Member of
Supervisory Com-
mittee: Md Amin Md Taff, PhD
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
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Page
ABSTRACT i
ABSTRAK ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii
APPROVAL iv
DECLARATION vi
LIST OF TABLES xi
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LIST OF FIGURES xii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xiii
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CHAPTER
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background 1
1.2
1.3
1.4
Problem statement
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Justification and Significance of the Study
Research question
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5
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1.5 Research objectives 5
1.6 Limitation 6
1.7 Delimitation 6
1.8 Definition and Measurement of Key Terms 7
1.9 Chapter summary 9
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2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction 10
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2.2 Semantic and Definition 10

2.2.1 Recreation and Leisure 11
2.2.2 Outdoor Recreation 11
2.2.3 Outdoor Education 12
2.2.4 Relationship of Outdoor Recreation to 14
Outdoor Education
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2.3 Basic Tenet of Outdoor Education 15

2.3.1 Philosophy 16
2.4 Development of Outdoor Education in Malaysia 17
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2.4.1 The Influence of Outward Bound Lumut, 18

Malaysia
2.4.2 The Influence of Government and Pri- 18
vate Sector‟s Outdoor Education Pro-
grammes
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2.4.3 Outdoor Education in Malaysian Educa- 19

tional System
2.4.4 Outdoor Education in the Teacher Edu- 20
cation Institute of Malaysia
2.5 The Focus of Outdoor Education 21
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2.6 Outdoor Education Learning Process 23
2.6.1 Theory and Model of Learning 23
2.7 Group Cohesion 27
2.8 Sequencing of Activity in Outdoor Education 28
2.8.1 Sequencing Model 28
2.8.2 Sequencing and Group 29
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Cohesion
2.9 Theoretical Foundation 29
2.9.1 Carrons‟ Group Cohesion 30
Model
2.10 Research Conceptual Framework 32
2.10.1 Independent Variable 34
2.10.2 Dependent Variable 36
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2.11 Summary of Previous Study 37
2.12 Chapter Summary 37
3 DESIGN, INSTRUMENTATION AND PROCEDURE

3.1 Introduction 39
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3.2 Design of Study 39
3.3 Population and Sampling 42
3.4
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3.3.1 The Experimental Group
3.3.2 The Control Group
Place of Research
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3.5 Instrumentations 44
3.5.1 Student‟s Demographic Inventory 44
3.5.2 Group Environment Questionnaire 44
(GEQ)
3.6 Instrument Reliability 47
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3.7 Pilot Study 50

3.8 Factor Analysis 51
3.9 Discriminant Validity 55
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3.10 Data Collection Procedure 55

3.10.1 Initial Contact 56
3.10.2 Researcher‟s Participation 56
3.10.3 Administering Pre-Test 56
3.10.4 The Treatment Camp 57
3.10.4.1 Camp-Based Activities 58
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3.10.4.2 Adventure-Based Activity 58

3.10.5 Administering Post-Test 60
3.10.6 Administering Delayed Post-Test 60
3.11 Data Analysis 61
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3.12 Data Cleaning and Verification 62

3.12.1 Kolmogorov-Smirnov Tests 62
3.12.2 Internal Consistency of the GEQ 63
3.12.2.1 ATG-T Subscale Reliability 64
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Analysis
3.12.2.2 ATG-S Subscale Reliability 64
Analysis
3.12.2.3 GI-T Subscale Reliability 64
Analysis
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3.12.2.4 GI-S Subscale Reliability 65
Analysis
4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Introduction 66
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4.2 Socio Demographic Variables and Profile of 66
the Respondents
4.2.1 Experimental Group 68
4.2.2 Control Group 70
4.2.3 Summary of Demographic and Social 72
Analysis
4.3 Research Questions 73
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4.3.1 Research Question 1 73
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5 CONCLUSION, IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDA-
TIONS
5.1
5.2
5.3
Introduction
Conclusion H
Research implications
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123
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5.3.1 Implication to the Body of 123
Knowledge
5.3.2 Implication to the Implementation of 125
Effective Practice
5.4 Recommendation For Future Research 128
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130
REFERENCES 164
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APPENDICES 177
BIODATA OF STUDENT 178
LIST OF PUBLICATIONS
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LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
3.1 List of Panel of Experts 48

3.2 Original and Revised Item Statements 49
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3.3 GEQ Internal Consistency 51
3.4 Result of KMO and Bartlett's Test 52
3.5 Result of Total Variance Explained 53
3.6 Result of Rotated Component Matrixª 54
3.7 Result of Component Transformation Matrix 55
3.8 Details of Treatment Camp 57
3.9 List of Camp Based Activity 59
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3.10 List of Adventure-based Activity 60
3.11 Data Analysis Techniques 62
3.12 Internal Consistency of the GEQ 64
4.1 Socio-demographic and Profile of the Respondents 67
4.2 Student‟s Academic Background 68
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4.3 Result of Paired Sample T-Test for the pre and 74
Post-test GEQ Scores
4.4
4.5
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Result of MANOVA Examining the level of Group
Cohesion Before the Camp
Results of Univariate ANOVA Examining the Level
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of Group Cohesion before the Camp
4.6 Results of the MANCOVA Test Examining the level 82
of Group Cohesion after the Camp
4.7 Results of Univariate ANOVA Examining the level 83
of Group Cohesion after the camp
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4.8 Overall Result of Paired Simple T-Test for the Post 89

and Delayed Post-test GEQ Scores
4.9 Results of the Paired Sample T-Test Examining 90
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Effect after Two Months Completion of the Perlis‟s

Campus Camp
Effect after Two Months Completion of the Raja
Melewar‟s Campus Camp
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Effect after Two Months Completion of the Tun Ra-

zak Campus Camp
Effect after Two Months Completion of the Te-
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menggung Ibrahim Campus Camp

4.13 MANOVA and MANCOVA Analyses for Influence 102
of Socio-demographic Variables on Teacher Train-
ee‟s Group Cohesion in Outdoor Education Camp
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Before and After the Camp

4.14 Rank Order of Activities that Positively Influence 114
Students‟ Group Cohesion
4.15 Comparison of Sequence of Activity for the Current 118
Finding with Previous Study
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
2.1 Outdoor Education Tree 16
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2.2 Outdoor Education Focus Model 22
2.3 Kolb‟s Experiential Learning Model 24
2.4 Outward Bound Educational Process Model 26
2.5 Group Cohesion Model 31
2.6 Carron‟s Conceptual Model of Group Cohesion 32
3.1 Design of Study 41
3.2 A Conceptual Model for Team Cohesion in Sport 47
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
ATG-S Attraction to Group Social

ATG-T Attraction to Group Task
BIG Bina Insan Guru
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CAT Corporate Adventure Training
CGCM Carron‟s Group Cohesion Model
ELM Experiential Learning Model
GEQ Group Environment Questionnaire
GI-S Group Integartion Social
GI-T Group Integaration Task
MOE Ministry of Education
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MPIK Maktab Perguruan Ilmu Khas
OB Outward Bound
OBEPM Outward Bound Educational Process Model
PLKN Program Latihan Khidmat Negara
TED Teacher Education Division
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UiTM Universiti Teknologi MARA
UKM Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
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UPSI H
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
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1.1 Background
Outdoor education is a form of learning process conducted in both outdoor and

indoor settings which involves challenging or adventure activities as a medium
to foster individual, personal and social growth (Fiskum & Jacobsen, 2012;
Foley, 2009). It has been proven useful in promoting academic achievement,
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work commitment, critical thinking, and in preventing delinquency (Ewert,
2005). According to Foley (2009), outdoor education is interchangeable with
other terms and often referred to as adventure education, adventure
programming, outdoor learning, outdoor school, adventure therapy, adventure
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recreation, adventure tourism, expeditionary learning, challenge education,
experiential education, environmental education, and wilderness education.
Typically, the stated objectives of outdoor education are improving group
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cohesion, leadership skills, improving problem-solving skills, self-
conceptualization, increasing trust, and improving communication (Bobilya,
Holman, Lindley, & McAvoy, 2010; Shivers-Blackwell, 2004). In other words,
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the emphasis on interpersonal and intrapersonal relationships is frequently
considered to be the primary focus of outdoor education (Priest & Gass, 2005;
Zink & Boyes, 2006).
One of the most popular programmes in outdoor education is outdoor

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education camping (Baghani, 1981; Mohd Taib & Norlena, 2014). Outdoor
education camping at higher institution currently encompasses a wide range of
opportunities for students development (Uhls et al., 2014). The main goal of
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these generally focuses on students‟ group cohesion, leadership, self-esteem,

character development and their personal and social development (Martin,
2010). Therefore, these programmes are typically expected to translate into
lower student attrition rates, increase level of cohesion, increase academic
performances, greater levels of emotional and social developments, and more
positive attitude toward the institution that they are newly entering (Michael,
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Daniel, & Deborah, 2003; Shayne, 2000).
In Malaysia, outdoor education has been developed as a consequence of

Razak Report 1956 which stressed on national unity through the education
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system (Ministry of Education, 1956). As the first education report, Razak‟s

Report highlighted the importance of educational development in Malaysia.
This was then followed by the National Education Policy (Education Act 1961)
which strengthens the importance roles of education as a tool for national unity
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and nation building has become a tool of social system (Ishak, 2005). Thus the
Ministry of Education had launched the National Education Philosophy that
focuses on the development of physical, emotional, spiritual and socially well-
balanced individuals through indoor and outdoor teaching strategies (Ministry
of Education, 2013a).
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To achieve these objectives, the creation of quality and excellent teachers is
the goal and the mission of the Teacher Education Division (TED), at the
Malaysian Ministry of Education. Teacher quality is fundamental aspect of the
success of the newly launched National Education Policy (Abu Bakar, 2002
cited in Azita, 2007). In line with the goal, the TED has set the philosophy of
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teacher education which outlines:
Teacher, who is noble in character, progressive and scientific in

outlook, committed to uphold the aspirations of the nation, and
cherishes the national cultural heritage, ensures the development of
the individual and the preservation of a united, democratic, progressive
and disciplined society (Ministry of Education, 2013b, p. 15).
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Hence, the TED has prepared the curriculum and syllabus based on the
philosophy outlined which includes the three components that have an equal
weightage of academic, co-curricular and practicum to be applied in Teacher
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Education Institutes of Malaysia (Azita, 2007). One of the academic
components contained in the curriculum is outdoor education subject which
focus to develop well balanced teacher trainees (Ministry of Education, 2001).
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The syllabus requires teacher trainees to attend outdoor education camping
programmes for six days.
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In these six days outdoor education camping programmes, the teacher trainees
are exposed to outdoor pursuit activities in which the main objectives are to
gain their personal and social development, outdoor pursuit skill and
management skill. Traditional base camp approach is applied with teacher
trainees need to sleep in tents with their group members and prepare their own
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meals. Meanwhile, during day time they are required to experience outdoor
pursuit activities and management skills. On the other hand, at night they are
encouraged to have a series of group discussion, games and presentations to
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maximise the outcomes.
The outcome of the outdoor education camp is also found to be linked with
enhancement in personal and social development, adventure experience and
environmental education (Lynch, 2011). From the perspective of benefits on
personal and social development it is suggested that outdoor education camp
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may generate positive results in group cohesion (Boyle, 2002; Chang & Bordia,
2006; Eys, Ritchie, Little, Slade, & Oddson, 2008; Gass, 1987; Gass, Garvey,
& Sugerman, 2003; Jaffry, 2012; Malcarne, 2012; Mazuki, 2010; O'Bannon,
2000; Paisley et al., 2014).
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However, in contrast, there are some researchers who argued and found
contradictory results that outdoor education camp can significantly influenced
group cohesion (e.g. Bailey, 2000; Bjorklund & Bering, 2008; Lane, 2008;
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Murphy, 2001). In general, they claimed that after one week of outdoor
education camp, no significant change was found.
Therefore, amidst all the inconclusive findings, there is a need for a systematic
research to gather empirical evidence in order to support the claims that
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outdoor education camp in the Teacher Education Institutes of Malaysia have a
major enduring effects on group cohesion (Sheard & Golby, 2006b).
This study plans to examine the impacts of outdoor education on group

cohesion among participants from selected Teacher Education Institutes of
Malaysia. It also increased our understanding on the relevance of providing
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outdoor educational experiences for those students. This inquiry will help the
particular tertiary educational institutions that are involved in the study and the
Ministry of Education, in order to make a new policy regarding outdoor
education camp in the future.
1.2 Problem Statement
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Several outdoor educators and researchers have proposed that participation in
outdoor education camps is effective in fostering participants‟ group cohesion
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(Boyle, 2002; Bunting, 2006; Chang & Bordia, 2006; Garst, Baughman, Franz,
& Seidel, 2013; Hatch & McCarthy, 2005; McKenzie, 2000b; Stroud, 2006).
This assumption was made as outdoor education emphasized on the
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importance of interpersonal relationship and group cohesion (Sibthorp,
Furman, Paisley, & Gookin, 2009).
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Based on these assumptions, the Malaysian Ministry of Education had
highlights the importance of outdoor education camps to foster group cohesion
among Malaysian students. This was done through the establishment of
National Services Programme (PLKN), Co-curricular Centre, the enactment of
outdoor education topic in physical education subject in school, and the
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inclusion of outdoor education subject in Teachers Training curriculum.
However, the effectiveness of outdoor education camps as a catalyst for the

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formation of group cohesion is debatable, due to inconsistent findings. For

instance, several studies in outdoor education camps found insignificant results
of group cohesion enrichment, and inconsistent finding on task and social
aspects that influences group cohesion (Borland, Burton, & Kane, 2014). While
others reported participants did not show any changes after experiencing
learning in environmental setting due to lack of classroom reinforcements
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(Knapp, 2000), less effects on behavioural outcomes (Tannenbaum, Beard, &

Salas, 1992), lack of appropriate sequence of activities and insufficient transfer
of learning (Bisson, 1997; Furman & Sibthorp, 2012)
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These inconsistent findings posed a challenge to the implementation of outdoor

education in Malaysian educational system, especially the socio-economic
aspects of the subject. As camping involves abundant time of planning,
resources and finances, the current scenario of inconclusive effects of camping
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is tapping outdoor education subject at stake.
To date, the National Services programs which focus on outdoor education

approach as a medium of national cohesion building were put on halt for a
year. Plus, budget cut in Malaysia education sector might affect the
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implementation of outdoor education camps in schools and Teachers Training
Institute as it involves extensive amount of money. In addition, the delayed
effects of outdoor education camping especially in Teachers Training Institute
towards group cohesion were rarely examined in Malaysia (Md Amin, Azlizam,
Jaffry, 2011).
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To address these knowledge gaps, this study is researching the short-term and
long-term effects of outdoor education camps in Teachers Training Institute
towards group cohesion. The Teacher Education Institutes of Malaysia was
chosen as a research subject because teaching is now widely acknowledged to
be the most important factor influencing implementation of outdoor education in
school. The current study is also examining claims made by several researcher
from higher institution in Malaysia about the effectiveness of their outdoor
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education camps in nurturing positive group cohesion (Amy, 2007; Jaffry, 2012;
Mazuki, 2010; Muhammad Norazizuddin, 2013).
Specifically, the current study posed several critical questions to the
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implementation of outdoor education camps in Teacher Education Institute of
Malaysia: (1) Does outdoor education camp effectively improve the Teacher
Education Institute of Malaysia students‟ group cohesion? (2) Can the group
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cohesion gained from the outdoor education camp transferred into participants‟
daily life and effective in long-term? (3) Are there any social demographic
influences on the development of group cohesion among students? (4) What is
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the sequence of activities in outdoor education camp that might be influential in
enhancing group cohesion?
Finding from this research will underline the future body of knowledge,
curriculum and practices of outdoor education camp on group cohesion in
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Teacher Education Institute of Malaysia.

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1.3 Justification and Significance of the Study
One of the trends in the field of outdoor education is a need for evaluation of
programmes' effectiveness (Attarian, 2001; Bobilya et al., 2010; Johnson,
2012). A number of groups are increasingly interested in having programmes
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outcomes measured through evidence-based evaluation (Sibthorp, 2009).

Since outdoor education is claimed as a powerful medium for learning process,
many studies have been conducted in examining the effects of outdoor
education, especially on participants' personal and social development
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(American Institute for Research, 2005; Boyle, 2002; Shivers-Blackwell, 2003;

Williams, Graham, & Baker, 2003).
However, the effectiveness of outdoor education in improving group cohesion

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does not remain longer and criticized by many researchers (Boulware, Forgey,
& Martin, 2003). There are various studies radically questioned such influences
by requesting for empirical evidences rather than only assuming such positive
outcomes. Bogner (2002), for instance judged any demonstrable positive
effects of outdoor education camp as ill-founded. Yet, the evidences supporting
4
the positive impacts of the outdoor experience are often incomplete, anecdotal,
and based on studies involving small and restricted populations. This lack of
sufficient and rigorously derived data has been particularly evident in the case
of the impacts of outdoor education camp on group cohesion (Cumming &
Corney, 1987).
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In addition, this is the first study that explores the delayed effect of outdoor
education on group cohesion in a broader context in the Malaysian outdoor
education settings and thus could form the basis for a future longitudinal study.
Therefore, this research will be a unique contribution to the growing body of
literature on outdoor education camp and learning communities in higher
education in Malaysia in proving the effects of outdoor education on group
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cohesion. The outcome of this study also can be used as an indicator for
outdoor educators in Malaysia and as useful information for the Malaysian
Ministry of Education to enhance the syllabus of the Teacher Education
Institutes of Malaysia if needed. Furthermore, to better understand the effects
of group cohesion in outdoor education at the Teacher Education Institutes of
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Malaysia, empirical research is needed.
1.4 Research Question H

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The following research questions are the central interest of this study:
1. Do outdoor education camps in selected Teacher Education Institutes

of Malaysia affect teacher trainees‟ short term group cohesion?
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2. Do outdoor education camps in selected Teacher Education Institutes

of Malaysia affect teacher trainees‟ group cohesion affect after two
months after program completion?
3. How do the changes in teacher trainees‟ group cohesion influenced by
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their socio-demographic variables?

4. What sequence of activities in the outdoor education camps do the
participants perceived as influencing their group cohesion?
1.5 Research Objectives

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The general objective of this study is to examine the effect of outdoor education
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camp on group cohesion among outdoor education students from selected

Teacher Education Institutes of Malaysia. More specifically, the objectives of
this study are:
©
(a) to determine the short-term effects of outdoor education towards group

cohesion in selected Teacher Education Institutes of Malaysia,
(b) to determine the delayed effect of outdoor education camp on group
cohesion,
(c) to determine the influences of socio-demographic variables on teacher
trainees‟ group cohesion, and
5
(d) to identify sequence of activities in the outdoor education camp
programmes that might influence teacher trainees‟ group cohesion.
1.6 Limitation
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Several limitations were identified in this study on group cohesion as a result of
participation in the outdoor education camp.
(a) This study is limited to the four campuses of the selected Teacher
Education Institutes of Malaysia as was declared by The Ministry of
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Education as the niche area for Physical Education campuses.
(b) This study is limited to the camp location as decided by each campus
according to the criteria given by the Ministry of Education.
(c) This study is limited to purposive sampling techniques where the four
campuses of the selected Teacher Education Institutes of Malaysia
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were chosen to form the sample that is representative of the
population. The technique was chosen as more convenient (to include
people of interest) and economical but it did not contribute to
generalisation (Babbie, 2012). H
(d) The study of delayed effect is limited to two months due to time
constraint. A two-month length of time was chosen as the follow up
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administration period for two reasons. First, a two-month length was
the first interval at which long term gains were found in Priest (1996)
and Priest‟s (1998b) studies and was between the time intervals in
which long-term gains dissipated in Priest and Lesperance‟s 1994
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study. Second, a two month delay was the latest possible point at
which participants in this study could be assessed after completion of
the camp due to a long semester break.
(e) The presence of the researcher in each outdoor education camp may
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have influenced directly how each camp was facilitated. Therefore, to

minimise the issue, the researcher make sure the camp programme is
accord with the tentative.
(f) The presence of the researcher in each outdoor education camp may
have influenced participants to provide socially desirable responses to
the questionnaire. To minimise the issue, the researcher did not
O
mention post-test and delayed post-test in order to minimize the halo

effect. Halo effect is the tendency of a research population to let
current rating influence future rating (Baumgartner & Hensley, 2006).
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1.7 Delimitation
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The following delimitations are placed on this study:
(a) The study is delimited on the subject of outdoor education from

selected Teacher Education Institutes of Malaysia as announced by
the Ministry of Education.
6
(b) Group cohesion is accessed by the Group Environmental
Questionnaire (GEQ) (Carron, Widmeyer, & Brawley, 1985).
(c) The study is delimited to the six days and five nights‟ outdoor
education camping programmes.
(d) This study is delimited to the response of outdoor education students
from selected Teacher Education Institutes of Malaysia on student
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group cohesion only.
(e) This study is delimited to the responses of outdoor education teacher
trainees from selected Teacher Education Institutes of Malaysia for two
months delayed effect without any control group.
1.8 Definition and Measurement of Key Terms
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Given below are operational definitions as they are used in this study.
T
Outdoor education
Outdoor education refers to the use of the outdoors for educational
H
purposes. Outdoor education often involves small groups that are actively
engaged in adventurous activities for personal growth under the guidance of an
instructor or leader (Neill, 2008). Operationally, in this study it refers to the
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outdoor education camping programmes for students from the Teacher
Education Institutes of Malaysia which composed of several campuses namely
Perlis Campus, Tun Abdul Razak Campus and Raja Melewar Campus.
Outdoor Education Camp

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Operationally, it refers to the continuous six days and five nights outdoor
education camp for the Teacher Education Institutes of Malaysia students that
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take outdoor education subject.
Group cohesion
A dynamic process that is reflected in the tendency of a group to stick together

and remain united in the pursuit of its goals and objectives (Carron, Burke, et
O
al., 2002). Operationally, it refers to the tendency of a group of students from

selected Teacher Education Institutes of Malaysia to stick together in their final
outdoor education camp. Group cohesion is measured by using Group
Environmental Questionnaire (GEQ) which consists of four dimension
C
constructs namely group integration-task (GI-T), group integration-social (GI-

S), individual attraction to the group-task (ATG-T), and individual attraction to
the group-social (ATG-S) (Brawley, Carron, & Widmeyer, 1987).
©
Natural Environment
Natural environment is commonly referred to simply as the environment,

encompasses all living and non-living things occurring naturally on earth or
7
some region thereof (Place, 2004). Operationally, it refers to the surrounding
environments which the outdoor education camp was held.
Physical Education and Health
Physical education also known in many Commonwealth countries as physical
PM
training is an educational course related to the physique of the human body. It
encourages psychomotor learning in a play or movement exploration setting to
promote health (Amusa, Toriola, & Goon, 2013). Operationally, it refers to the
academic programme enrolled by the experimental group from selected
Teacher Education Institutes of Malaysia. The focus of the programme is more
on scientific study in sports, leisure, games and recreation.
U
Social Studies
Social studies are the integrated study of the social sciences and humanities to
promote civic competence. Within the school program, social studies provides
T
coordinated, systematic study drawing upon such disciplines as linguistic,
archaeology, economics, geography, history, law, philosophy, political science,
psychology, religion, and sociology, as well as appropriate content from the
H
humanities, mathematics, and natural sciences. Operationally, in this study, it
refers to the control group students in the selected Teacher Education
Institutes of Malaysia.
IG
Teacher trainees
Operationally, it refer to the Teacher Education Institutes of Malaysia

undergraduate students that enrolled in physical education and social studies
R
(February 2013) at selected campuses.
Delayed effect
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It refers to the effects obtained in the delayed post-test which are indicators for
the long-term effect. It also refers to the effects that are the results of
intervention two months after completion of the outdoor education camp.
Sequence
O
It refers to a series of adventure and/or educational activities arranged through

a linear period of time (Schoel, Prouty, & Radcliffe, 1988).
C
Outdoor Pursuit Activities
It refers to the self-propelled activities performed in an outdoor setting (Priest,

1990). These activities typically include kayaking, camping, survival,
©
orienteering and abseiling.
8
Socio-demographic Variable
It refers to a group defined by its sociological and demographic characteristics

(Veghari et al., 2010). Operationally, in this study it refers to the three
categories of factor namely, personal factors, environmental factors, and team
factors.
PM
Personal Factor
It refers to the individual characteristics of group members such as individual

ability, personality, and interpersonal compatibility (Carron et al., 1985).
Operationally, in this study it refers to previous experience, place of residence
and gender.
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Environmental Factor
It refers to the social and physical characteristics of the environment and
T
included aspects such as outdoor environment (wilderness, camp, etc.) and all
of its various forces, programmes components, territoriality, spatial behaviour,
environmental stress, time demand, and fear or anxiety (McAvoy, Mitten,
H
Stringer, Steckart, & Sproles, 1996). Operationally, it refers to the camp
location.
IG
Team Factor
It refers to the group composition (Herre, 2010) for instance, group size, and
group organization (McGrath, 1964). Operationally, in this study it refers to the
campus location.
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1.8 Chapter Summary

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This chapter lays the foundation for the thesis. It first introduces the research
background and points to the current issues of outdoor education camp
towards group cohesion before presenting the problem statements, research
objectives and research questions. Next, the research significance is identified
O
before the delimitation and definition of key terms are drawn. In short, on this
basis, the study proceeds with a foundation and detailed description of the
research.
C
©
9
supporting the beneficial effects of outdoor education programme on students‟
group cohesion.
PM
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UNIVERSITI PUTRA MALAYSIA

EFFECTS OF OUTDOOR EDUCATION ON GROUP COHESION

MAZUKI BIN MOHD YASIM

Thesis Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies, Universiti Putra Ma-

Copyright © Universiti Putra Malaysia

EFFECTS OF OUTDOOR EDUCATION ON GROUP COHESION

cond year undergraduate students from four selected Teacher Education

sion. Previous experience, place of residence, gender and camp location

KESAN PENDIDIKAN LUAR TERHADAP KESEPADUAN KUMPULAN

MAZUKI BIN MOHD YASIM

tujuan untuk memberi penerangan tentang kesan ujian pasca yang

ca yang dilewatkan mendapati kesan perkhemahan pendidikan luar menjadi

katan perpaduan kumpulan guru pelatih.

I would like to express my greatest gratitude to the wonderful

 The Ministry of Higher Education and the Sultan Idris Edu-

 Mama, Ayong, Adam, Adik Ammar and Adik Maryam who

May Allah Bless You All Guys..Amin..

(ZULKARNAIN ZAINAL, PhD)

Abdullah Mohd, PhD

Md Amin Md Taff, PhD

School of Graduate Studies

I hereby confirm that:

Signature: ________________________ Date: __________________

Name and Matric No.: _________________________________________

This is to confirm that:

2.2 Semantic and Definition 10

2.3 Basic Tenet of Outdoor Education 15

2.4.1 The Influence of Outward Bound Lumut, 18

2.4.3 Outdoor Education in Malaysian Educa- 19

3 DESIGN, INSTRUMENTATION AND PROCEDURE

3.7 Pilot Study 50

3.10 Data Collection Procedure 55

3.10.4.2 Adventure-Based Activity 58

3.12 Data Cleaning and Verification 62

4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

5.5 Chapter Summary 129

3.1 List of Panel of Experts 48

4.8 Overall Result of Paired Simple T-Test for the Post 89

Effect after Two Months Completion of the Perlis‟s

Effect after Two Months Completion of the Tun Ra-

menggung Ibrahim Campus Camp

Before and After the Camp

2.1 Outdoor Education Tree 16

ATG-S Attraction to Group Social

Outdoor education is a form of learning process conducted in both outdoor and

One of the most popular programmes in outdoor education is outdoor

these generally focuses on students‟ group cohesion, leadership, self-esteem,

Daniel, & Deborah, 2003; Shayne, 2000).

In Malaysia, outdoor education has been developed as a consequence of

system (Ministry of Education, 1956). As the first education report, Razak‟s

Teacher, who is noble in character, progressive and scientific in

maximise the outcomes.

This study plans to examine the impacts of outdoor education on group

1.2 Problem Statement

inclusion of outdoor education subject in Teachers Training curriculum.

However, the effectiveness of outdoor education camps as a catalyst for the

formation of group cohesion is debatable, due to inconsistent findings. For

(Knapp, 2000), less effects on behavioural outcomes (Tannenbaum, Beard, &

These inconsistent findings posed a challenge to the implementation of outdoor

is tapping outdoor education subject at stake.

To date, the National Services programs which focus on outdoor education

Specifically, the current study posed several critical questions to the

Signature: ______ Date: