UNIT-4

LATTICES AND BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

Lattices and boolean algebra: Partial ordering – Posets – Lattices as posets – Properties of
lattices -Lattices as algebraic systems – Sub lattices – Direct product and homomorphism –
Some special lattices – Boolean algebra.
Basic concepts:
Cartesian product: Let A and B be any two non-empty sets then the cartesian product of A and
B is defined as A × B = {(a, b) | a ∈ Aandb ∈ B}
Note: i) A × B ≠ B × A
ii)If A = B then A × A = {( a , b ) | a ∈ Aandb ∈ A} = A 2
iii) If (a,b) and (c,d) are two ordered pairs such that (a,b)=(c,d) then we have a=c and b=d.
iv) For the non-empty sets A1 , A2 , A3 ,. . . An then k-fold product is denoted and defined as
A1 × A2 × A3 × . . . × An = {(a1 , a2 , a2 ,. . .an ) | ai ∈ Ai , i = 1tok }
v) | A × B |=| B × A |=| A | .| B |
Relation and Binary relation:

Definition: Let A and B be two non-empty sets. Any subset of R of A × B is called a relation for
A to B.
Example: Consider A = {1, 2,3}andB = {a, b, c} Then
R = {(1, a),(2, c),(3, b)}is a relation from A to B,
Binary relation: Let A be any set Then R is a relation from A to A. If R ⊆ A × A , we can say
that R is a binary relation on A.
Example: Consider A = {1, 2,3} Then
R = {(1,1),(2,1),(3,2)} is a binary relation on A because R ⊆ A × A .
Note:i) ( x, y) ∈ R ⇔ xRy (read as x is related to y)

ii) ( x, y ) ∉ R ⇔ xRy ( read as x is not related to y)

iii) Some standard relations : <, ≤, ≻, ≥, ,”divides”, “ a is a multiple of b”, congruent modulo.

iv) If “ a is multiple of b” then we write a = kb, k ∈ Z

v) If “ a divides b” then we write a | b ⇒ b = ka, k ∈ Z

Zero –one matrices (Matrix of relation) and Diagraph (Directed graph)

Matrix of a Relation:
Let A = {a1 , a2 , a2 ,. . .am } and B = {b1 , b2 , b2 ,. . .bn } be any two non-empty sets.

Let R be any relation from A to B.

We define a matrix M ( R) or MR = mij  of order m × n as follows:
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  1 if (ai , b j ) ∈ R
mij = 
0 if (ai , b j ) ∉ R
Then the matrix M ( R ) or M R is called a matrix of a relation.

Example: Let A = {1, 2,3, 4} and B = {a, b, c} .

Let R = {(1, a),(1, b), (2, b), (3, b), (3, c)} .Then matrix of the relation R from A to B is
a b c
1 1 1 0
2 0 1 0 
M ( R ) or M R = 
3 0 1 1
 
4 0 0 0

Diagraph of a relation:

Let R be a relation on a set A .Then , R can be represented diagrammatically as describe below.

i) Draw a small circle for each element of A and label the circles with the corresponding
elements of A. These circles are called vertices.
ii) Draw a directed edge from a vertex a to b if a is related to y i.e.if aRb or ( a, b) ∈ R.
The resulting diagram is called the directed graph or Diagraph of the relation R.

Example: Let A = {a, b, c, d } and consider the relation

R = {(a, a), (a, b), (b, c), (b, d ), (c, b), (c, d ), (d , a), (d , d )} defined on A.

Digraph:
d c

a b
In a digraph

A vertex from which an edge leaves is called the origin or the source for that edge.

A vertex where an edge ends is called the terminus for that edge.

Isolated vertex: A vertex which is neither source nor terminus.

Loop: An edge for which the source and terminus are one and the same vertex.

In degree of a vertex: No. of edges terminating at a vertex.

Out degree of a vertex: No. of edges leaving a vertex.
Problems:

1. Let A={1,2,3,4} and R be a relation on A defined by xRy iff x | y write down

i) R is a relation of set of ordered pairs
ii) Draw di-graph of R
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 iii) Determine in-degree and out-degree of a diagraph.
Solution: Given A={1, 2, 3, 4}
i) The relation R defined on A is given by
R = {( x, y ) | y = kx, k ∈ Z }
= {(1,1), (1, 2),(1,3), (1, 4), (2, 2), (2, 4), (3,3), (4, 4)}
ii) The digraph for R is shown below:

4 3

1 2

iii)

Vertex 1 2 3 4
In-degree 1 2 2 3
Out-degree 4 2 1 1

Partial Orders

Definition: A relation R on A is said to be a partial ordering relation or a partial order on A if

(i) R is reflexive
(ii) R is antisymmetric and
(iii) R is transitive on A.

A set A with partial order R defined on it is called a partial ordered set or an ordered set or a
poset and is denoted by (A, R).

Example: Let A={1,2,3,4} and R is a relation on A and is defined by xRy iff x|y.

That is R={(1,1)(1,2),(1,3),(1,4),(2,2),(2,4),(3,3),(4,4)}

We observe that

i) ∀a ∈ A we have aRa.Hence R is reflexive on A.

ii) If (a, b) ∈ R & a ≠ b then we have (b, a) ∉ R Therefore R is antisymmetric on A.
iii) If (a, b) ∈ R & (b, c) ∈ R then we have ( a, c) ∈ R Therefore R is transitive on A.
Since R is reflexive, antisymmetric and transitive on A. Therefore R is a partial order
on A.

Hasse Diagram

Consider a poset (A, R) ⇒ R is a partial order on A.

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 i) Since R is reflexive: we have aRa , ∀a ∈ A
⇒ There is a loop at each vertex. So we need not draw the loops it is understood (by
conversion).
ii) Since R is transitive.
That is, aRb,bRc ⇒ aRc
i.e.if there is an edge from a to b and b to c then there will be an edge from a to c , so
we need not draw that edge it is understood( by conversion).
iii) If aRb then the edge from a to b is drawn upwards to eliminate arrows.
The digraph of partial order drawn using the above rules is called the Hasse diagram.

Problems

1. Let A= {1,2,3,4,6,12}.On A define the relation R by aRb if “a divides b” prove that R is

a partial order on A and draw the Hasse diagram of this relation.

Solution: Given A={1,2,3,4,6,12}

We have R = {(a, b) | a divides b}

= {( a, b) | b = ka, k ∈ Z }
= {(1,1), (1, 2), (1,3), (1, 4), (1, 6), (1,12), (2, 2), (2, 4), (2, 6), (2,12), (3,3), (3, 6),
(3,12), (4, 4), (4,12), (6, 6), (6,12), (12,12)}
We note that,
(i) ∀a ∈ A, (a, a ) ∈ A , ∴ R is reflexive.
(ii) ∀a, b ∈ A, (a, b) ∈ A ⇒ (b, a) ∉ A , ∴ R is antisymmetry.
(iii) ∀a, b, c ∈ A, (a, b), (b.c ) ∈ A ⇒ (a, c) ∈ A , ∴ R is transitive.

Since R is reflexive , antisymmetric and transitive on A.

∴ R is a partial order relation on A. ∴ (A, R) is a poset.
Hasse diagram for R is shown below:

12

4 6

2 3

2. Let A={1,2,3,4,6,8,12}. On A define the partial ordering relation R by aRb if and only if
a|b. Draw the Hasse diagram for R.

Solution: Solution: Given A={1,2,3,4,6,12}

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We have R = {(a, b) | a divides b}
= {( a, b) | b = ka, k ∈ Z }
= {(1,1), (1, 2),(1,3), (1, 4), (1, 6), (1,8), (1,12), (2, 2), (2, 4), (2, 6),(2,8),(2,12), (3,3), (3, 6),
(3,12),(4, 4),(4,8), (4,12), (6, 6),(6,12), (8,8), (12,12)}
We note that,
(i) ∀a ∈ A, (a, a ) ∈ A , ∴ R is reflexive.
(ii) ∀a, b ∈ A, (a, b) ∈ A ⇒ (b, a) ∉ A , ∴ R is antisymmetry.
(iii) ∀a, b, c ∈ A, (a, b), (b.c ) ∈ A ⇒ (a, c) ∈ A , ∴ R is transitive.
Since R is reflexive , antisymmetric and transitive on A.
∴ R is a partial order relation on A.
∴ (A,R) is a poset.
Hasse diagram for R is shown below:

8 12

4 6

2 3

3. Draw the Hasse diagram for the set of all positive divisors of 36 i.e
D36={1,2,3,4,6,9,12,18,36}
Solution: The set of all positive divisors of 36 is
D36={1,2,3,4,6,9,12,18,36}
The relation of divisibility is a partial order on this set.
We have R = {(a, b) | a divides b}

= {(a, b) | b = ka, k ∈ Z }
= {(1,1), (1, 2), (1,3), (1, 4), (1, 6), (1,9), (1,12), (1,18), (1,36), (2, 2), (2, 4),(2, 6), (2,12), (2,18),
(2, 36), (3,3), (3, 6), (3, 9), (3,12),(3,18), (3,36), (4, 4), (4,8),(4,12), (4,36),(6, 6), (6,12),
(6,18), (6, 36), (9,9), (9,18),(9,36), (12,12), (12,36), (18,18), (18, 36), (36, 26)}

The relation for this relation is shown below:

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 36

12 18

9
4 6

2 3
1

4. For A = {a, b, c, d , e} , the Hasse diagram for the poset ( A, R) is as shown below.
(a) Determine the relation matrix R (b) Construct the digraph for R .
e
Solution: We have
R = {( a, b )( a, c ), ( a, d ), (a , e), (b, b ), (b, d ), (b, e),
( c, c ), (c , d ), ( c, e),( d , d ), ( d , e), ( e, e)}
a b c d e
d
a 1 1 1 1 1
b 0 1 0 1 1
(a) M ( R) = M R = 
c 0 0 1 1 1
  b c
d 0 0 0 1 1
e 0 0 0 0 1
(b) The digraph for R is shown below:
a

c d

a b

5. Let A={a, b, c},B=p(A),where p(A) is the power set of A. Let R is a subset of relation on
A. Draw the Hasse diagram of the poset (B,R).

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 Solution: Given A={a, b, c}
B = P ( A) = {φ ,{a},{b},{c},{a , b},{a, c},{b, c},{a, b, c}}
B = P ( A) = {s1 , s2 , s3 , s4 , s5 , s6 , s7 , s8 }
S1 is related to s1 , s2 , s3 , s4 , s5 , s6 , s7 , s8 .
S2 is related to s2 , s5 , s6 , s8 .
S3 is related to s3 , s5 , s7 , s8 .
S4 is related to s4 , s6 , s7 , s8 .
S5 is related to s5 , s8 .
S6 is related to s6 , s8 .

S7 is related to s7 , s8 .
S8 is related to s8 .

The Hasse diagram for the relation is shown below:

S8

S5 S6 S7

S3
S2 S4

S1

6. The diagraph of G for a relation R on a set A={1,2,3,4} is as shown below:

4 3

1 2

i) Verify that (A, R) is a poset and draw it Hasse diagram.

ii) Topologically sort (A, R).

Solution: By examining the graph we get,

R = {(1,1), (1, 4), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3,1), (3, 2), (3, 4), (4, 4)}

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i) The above relation is reflexive, transitive and anti-symmetry.
∴ R is a partial order on A
∴ (A, R) is a poset.
The Hasse diagram is as shown below:
4

1 2

By observing the Hasse diagram of R , we find that the vertices that are to be identified as
v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 in the topological sorting process are,

v1 = 4, v2 = 1(or 2), v3 = 2(or 1), v4 = 3 .Thus, the total order T on A that contain R as subset is

3 < 2 < 1< 4 or 3 < 1< 2< 4.

7. In the following cases , consider the partial order of divisibility on the set A. Draw the
Hasse diagram of the poset and determine whether the poset in linearly ordered (totally
ordered ) or not.
i) A={1, 2,3,5,6,10,15,30}
ii) A={2, 4, 8, 16, 32}
Solution:The Hasse diagram for the two cases are as follows;

32
30

6 10 15
16

8
3 5
2
4

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 By observing the Hasse diagram carefully we find that the given relation is a totally
ordered in case (ii) but it is not totally ordered in case (i).
Extremal elements in Posets:
(i)Maximal element (ii) minimal element (iii) greatest element (iv) least element.
Solution: Consider a poset (A,R) .we define below special elements(called extemal
elements ) that may exists in A.
(i) Maximal element: An element a ∈ A called a maximal element of A if there
exists no element x ≠ a in A such that aRx. This means that a is a maximal
element of A iff in the Hasse diagram of R no edge starts at a.
(ii) Minimal element : An element a ∈ A called a minimal element of A if there
exists no element x ≠ a in A such that xRa.This means that a is a minimal
element of A iff in the Hasse diagram of R no edge terminates at a.
(iii) Greatest element: An element a ∈ A is called a greatest element of A if xRa for
all x ∈ A .
(iv) Least element : An element a ∈ A is called a least element of A if aRx for all
x ∈ A.

Problems:
1. Find the maximal , minimal, least and greatest elements of the posets.
5

3
5 4
4 7
3 6
2 3 2 8
4
5
6 Fig(ii)
1 Fig(i) 1 2 9
1 Fig(iii)

Solution:

Figure 1 Figure2 Figure 3

Maximal elements: 3,5 5 4,7
Minimal elements: 1,6 1,2 1,9,8
Greatest element: nil 5 nil
Least element: nil nil nil
8. Let A be a set and B ⊆ A .Define the following
(i) Upper bound of B (ii) lower bound of B
(iii) least upper bound of B (suprimum) (iv) greatest lower bound of B (infimum)
Solution: Let (A,R) be any poset and B ⊆ A .
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 (i) Upper bound: An element a ∈ A is said to be an upper bound of B if xRa for all
x ∈ B.
(ii) Least bound: An element a ∈ A is said to be an least bound of B if aRx for all
x ∈ B.
(iii) Least upper bound(LUB or Supremum): An element a ∈ A is called the least
upper bound of B if (i) a is an upper bound of B (ii) a is related to all the upper
bounds of B. (Supremum is written as sup)
(iv) Greatest lower bound (GLB or Infimum): An element a ∈ A is called the
greatest lower of B if (i) a is an lower bound of B (ii) all the lower bounds of B
are related to a. (Infimum is written as inf).
Consider the Hasse diagram of a poset ( A, R) given below.

Find maximal, minimal, greatest and least element.

(a) If B = {c, d , e} find (if they exist)

(i) all upper bounds of B (ii) all lower bounds of B.
(iii) the least upper bound of B (iv)the greatest lower bound of B.

g h
f g

f
d e e
d

a b

a b Fig (ii)
Fig (i)

Solution: (a) For the first figure

Maximal elements: g,h

Minimal elements: a, b
Greatest element: no element.
and least element: no element.
For the second figure:
Maximal elements: f,g
Minimal elements: a, b
Greatest element: no element.

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 and least element: no element.
b) For the figure 1
(i) All of c,d,e which are B are related to f,g,h. Therefore, Upper bounds of B are f,g,h.
(ii) The elements a,b and c are related to all to c,d,e which are in B. Therefore, a,b and c are
lower bounds of B.
(iii) The upper bound f of B is related to the other upper bounds g and h of B. Therefore, f is
the least upper bound of B.
(iv) The lower bounds a and b are related to the lower bound c of B. Therefore, c is the
greatest lower bound of B.
For the figure2:
(i) All of c,d,e which are B are related to e,f,g. Therefore, Upper bounds of B are e,f,g.
(ii) The element a related to c, d, e which are in B. Therefore, ais lower bound of B.
(iii) The upper bound e of B is related to the other upper bounds f and g of B. Therefore, e is
the least upper bound of B.
(iv) The element a is the greatest lower bound of B.

Lattice:

DEFINITION: Meet, Join

Let〈 A, ≤ 〉be a poset and let x and y be any pair of elements of A .

a) The meet of x and y , denoted by x ∧ y , is the maximum of all lower bounds for x and y
;i.e x ∧ y = max{w ∈ A : w ≤ x, w ≤ y} , the greatest lower bound for x and y .
b) The join of x and y , denoted by x ∨ y , is the minimum of all upper bounds for x and y
;i.e., x ∨ y = min{z ∈ A : x ≤ z, y ≤ z} , the least upper bound for x and y .

Note: Any statement about lattices involving the operations ∧ and ∨ and the relations ≤ and ≥
remains true if ∧ is replaced by ∨ , ∨ is replaced by ∧ , ≤ by ≥ and ≥ by ≤ .

The operations ∧ and ∨ are called duals of each other as are the relations ≤ and ≥ .
Similarly, the lattices L , ≤ and L , ≥ are called dual of each other.

DEFINITION (Lattice): A poset〈 A,≤ 〉is a lattice iff every pair of elements in A have both
a meet and a join.

In other words, A poset 〈A,≤ 〉is lattice, if for all x, y ∈ A , the elements LUB{x, y} and
GLB{x, y} exist in A.

Example1:

Consider a poset 〈N,≤ 〉wher N is the set of natural numbers. Then for any x, y ∈ N , we note
that LUB{x, y} = max{x, y} GLB{x, y} = min{x, y} and both of these belong to N . Therefore , the
poset N , ≤ is a latiice.

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 + +
Example 2: Consider a poset 〈Z ,| 〉wher Z is the set of positive integers and |is the
divisibility relation .Then for any a , b ∈ Z + , we note that LUB{x, y} = LCM {a, b}
GLB{a, b} = GCD{a, b} and both of these belong to Z+.Therefore , the poset Z + ,| is a latiice.

Example 3:

Given A={2,3,6,12} and the relation R defined on A by the Hasse diagram as show below find,
lub{2, 3}, glb{2,3},lub{2, 12} and glb{6, 12}. Is (A, R) is a Lattice? If not give reason.

12

2 3

Solution: By observing the given Hasse diagram carefully we find that

lub{2, 3} = 6

glb{2, 3} does not exist.

lub{2,12} = 12
glb{6,12} = 6

Since the meet for 2 and 3 does not exist. Therefore (A, R) is not lattice.

Example 4: If the poset is to be lattice, what are the properties it should satisfy? The Hasse
diagram for 2 posets are given below, determine with reasons whether or not they are
lattice.

g f
h
d e
e

b c
b c

a
a

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Solution: Let (A, R) be a poset then this poset (A.R) is said to be a lattice if every 2 element
subset of A has least upper bound (Lub or join) and the greatest lower bound (GLB or join).

The poset (A, R) associated with Hasse diagram (i) is not a lattice because,

join of f and g = f ∨ g = LUB{ f , g} does not exist.

The poset (A, R) associated with Hasse diagram (ii) is not lattice because ,

join of b and c = f ∨ g = LUB{b, c}

Example 5:

Show that the following posets are lattices, and interpret their meets and joins:
a) The poset of the divisors of 60, ordered by divisibility.
b) The poset of the subsets of A= {0, 1, 2}, ordered by the subset relation.

Solution: we have,

D60 = {1, 2, 3, 5, 6,10,12,15, 20, 30, 60} and ρ ( A) = {φ ,{0},{1},{2},{1, 2},{0, 2},{1, 2},{0,1, 2}}

These are graphed by the following Hasse diagrams.

a) The poset consisting of all the divisors of 60 is a lattice; every pair of elements has both a
meet and a join.
The meet (greatest lower bound) of two divisors is their greatest common divisor:
for example, 6 ∧ 20 = gcd(6, 20) = 2.
The join (least upper bound) of two divisors is their least common multiple:
for example, 6 ∨ 20 = lcm(6, 20) = 60.
b) The poset consisting of all the subsets of {0, 1, 2} is also a lattice.
The meet (greatest lower bound) of two subsets is the intersection of the two subsets:
for example, {0, 1} ∧ {1, 2} = {0, 1} ∩ {1, 2} = {1}.
The join (least upper bound) is the union of the two subsets:
for example, {0, 1} ∨ {1, 2} = {0, 1} ∪ {1, 2} = {0, 1, 2}.
Both of these examples generalize. Given any positive integer n, the set of all its divisors
forms a lattice in which the meet of two divisors is their greatest common divisor and their

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 join is the least common multiple of the divisors .
The power set P(S) of any set S also forms a lattice . Given two subsets R and T of S,
R ∧ T = R ∩ T and R ∨ T = R ∪ T .
5
Example:4

Consider the poset whose Hasse diagram is shown below. 3 4

2
By examining the Hasse diagram, we note that GLB{3,4} does not exit.

Therefore, the poset is not a lattice.

Example 5:
1
Show that the posets represented by the following Hasse diagrams are latice.

4 5

2 3 2 3 4

1 1

Example 6: Determine whether the posets shown in the following Hasse diagrams are lattice or
not.

7
e f
5 6
d 4

2 3

a (a) b (b)
1
Solution: The poset shown in fig.(a) is not lattice since the elements e and f have no upper
bound, hence sup(e,f) does not exist. The poset shown in fig. (b) is a lattice.
Remember:
1. Let ( L, ≤ ) be a lattice. For any a, b, c ∈ L , prove the following properties called isotonicity hold;

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  a ∗b ≤ a ∗c
(i)b ≤ c ⇒ 
a ⊕ b ≤ a ⊕ c
a ≤ b ⊕ c
(ii )a ≤ b ∧ a ≤ c ⇒ 
 a ≤ b∗c
a ≥ b ⊕ c
(iii )a ≥ b ∧ a ≥ c ⇒ 
 a ≥ b∗c
Example: Let ( L, ≤ ) be a lattice. For any a, b, c ∈ L , prove the following inequalities(i.e.,distributive
inequalities)
i) a ⊕ ( b ∗ c ) ≤ ( a ⊕ b ) ∗ ( a ⊕ c ) ii )a ∗ ( b ⊕ c ) ≥ ( a ∗ b ) ⊕ ( a ∗ c )
Solution: Let ( L, ≤ ) be a lattice with binary operations of meet ∗ and ⊕ .
From a ≤ ( a ⊕ b ) and a ≤ ( a ⊕ c ) we have , a ≤ ( a ⊕ b ) ∗ ( a ⊕ c ) − − − − − − − (1)
b∗c ≤ b ≤ a ⊕b
b∗c ≤ c ≤ a ⊕c
Hence, b ∗ c ≤ ( a ⊕ b ) ∗ a ⊕ c − − − − − − − − − −(2)

a ⊕ (b ∗ c ) ≤ ( a ⊕ b ) ∗ ( a ⊕ c )
From (1) and (2) weget
Similarly the second distributive inequality can be proved by the principal of duality.

SUBLATTICES:
Consider a non-empty subset L1of a Lattice L. Then L1 is called a sublattice L if L1is itself is a
lattice w.r.t the operations of L i.e., if a ∧ b ∈ L1 and a ∨ b ∈ L1 whenever a, b ∈ L1 .
Example:1
Consider the lattice of all +ve integers I+ under the operation of divisibility . The lattice Dnof all
divisors of n>1 is a sub lattice of I+ .

Example2
Let L , ≤ be a lattice in which L = {a1 , a2 ,....a8 } and S1 , S 2 and S3 be the subsets of L given by
S1 = {a1 , a2 , a4 , a6 }, S2 = {a3 , a5 , a7 , a8 }and S3 = {a1 , a2 , a4 , a8 } . The Hasse diagram of L , ≤ is
shown below. a1
We can observe that , S1 , ≤ and S2 , ≤ are sublattices
of L , ≤ , but S3 , ≤ is not a sub lattice, because a2 a3 a4

a2 , a4 ∈ S3 a2 ∧ a4 = a6 ∉ S3

a6
a5 a7

Example 3
a8
Determine all the sublattices of D30 that contain at least four elements ,
D30={1,2,3,5,6,10,15,30}.
Dr. J Santhosh Kumar, REVA University Page 15
Ans: The sublattices of D30 that contain at least four elements are as follows:

(i){1, 2, 6,30} (ii ){1, 2,3,30} (iii){1,5,15,30} (iv){1,3, 6,30}

(v){1,5,10,30} (vi){1,3,15,30} (vii ){2, 6,10,30}

Example 3

Consider the Lattice L as shown in Fig. Determine whether or not each of the following is a
sublattice of L.
{1, 2, 3}

{1, 2} {1, 3} {2, 3}

{1} { 2} { 3}

A = {φ ,{1, 2},{2,3},{1, 2,3}}, B = {φ ,{1},{1, 2},{1, 2,3}}, C = {φ ,{3},{1, 3},{1, 2, 3}}

D = {{1},{3},{1,3},{1, 2,3}} and E = {φ ,{3},{1, 2},{1, 2, 3}}

Sol: A is not a sublattice since {1, 2} ∧ {2,3} = {2} which does not exist in A.

B is a sublattice since LUB and GLB of every pair of elements exist.

C is a sublattice since LUB and GLB of every pair of elements exist.

D is not a sublattice since {1} ∧ {3} = {} which does not exist in D..

E is a sublattice since LUB and GLB of every pair of elements exist.

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