1.

list out trouble shooting techniques for transformer

Transformer:-
A static piece of apparatus with two or more windings which,
by electromagnetic induction, transforms a system of
alternating voltage and current into another system of voltage
and current usually of different values and at the same
frequency for the purpose of transmitting electrical power.
Major failure:-
1.Insulation Failure
2. Damage to HT Coil
3. Damageto LT Coil
4.Damage to Core & Laminations
5. Failure of Tap Switch & Tap arangement
Minor failure:-
1. Oil Sample not Satisfactory
2.Lead connections cut off
3. Worn-out Bushing rods
4. Broken Bushings
5. Gasket Leakage
6. Welding Leakage
7. Leakage through Valves
8. Broken guage glass
2. Working principle and construction diagram of transformer
A static piece of apparatus with two or more windings
which, by electromagnetic induction, transforms a system of
alternating voltage and current into another system of voltage
and current usually of different values and at the same
frequency for the purpose of transmitting electrical power.
Working principle:-
If a time-varying voltage is applied to the primary winding of
turns, a current will flow in it producing a magnetomotive
force (MMF). Just as an electromotive force (EMF) drives
current around an electric circuit, so MMF tries to drive
magnetic flux through a magnetic circuit. The primary MMF
produces a varying magnetic flux in the core, and, with an
open circuit secondary winding, induces a back electromotive
force (EMF). In accordance with Faraday's law of induction,
the voltage induced across the primary winding is
proportional to the rate of change of flux:  

Vp/Vs = Np/Ns
Ip/Is = Ns/Np
where
• Vp and Vs are the voltages across the primary
winding and secondary winding,
 • Np and Ns are the numbers of turns in the primary
winding and secondary winding,
dΦP / dt and dΦS / dt are the derivatives of the flux with
respect to time of the primary and secondary windings
construction:-

Basic components of transformer:-

 Current conductors (Primary & Secondary Windings)
 Magnetic Flux conductor(Laminated Steel Core)
 Insulation
 Cooling
 Protection
 Supporting Accessories
 In all types of transformers, the core is constructed of
sheet steel lamination to provide continuous magnetic
 path with a minimum of air gap. The steel used should
have high permeability and a low hysteresis loss at the
usual operating flux densities. The eddy currents loss is
minimized by laminating the core with the laminations
being insulating from each other by a high coat of core
plate varnish or by an oxide layer on the surface. The
thickness of laminations vary from 0.30 mm to 0.5mm
 The transformers are of two general types distinguished
from each other by the manner in which the primary and
secondary coils are placed around the laminated steel
core. They are 1.Core type 2. Shell type
 Core type:- In core-type transformer, the windings are given to
a considerable part of the core. The coils used for this
transformer are form-wound and are of cylindrical type. Such a
type of transformer can be applicable for small sized and large
sized transformers. In the small sized type, the core will be
rectangular in shape and the coils used are cylindrical.
 Shell type:- In shell-type transformers, the core surrounds a
considerable portion of the windings. The coils are form-wound
but are multi layer disc type usually wound in the form of
pancakes. Paper is used to insulate the different layers of the
multi-layer discs. The whole winding consists of discs stacked
with insulation spaces between the coils. These insulation spaces
form the horizontal cooling and insulating ducts. Such a
transformer may have the shape of a simple rectangle or may
also have a distributed form

3.different losses in transformer and loss reduction methods

 1. Load loss (or copper loss)
2. No load loss (or iron loss)
3. Iron Losses are majorly divided into
a. Hysteresis Loss
b. Eddy Current Loss
 The total transformer loss, PTOTAL, at any load level can
then be calculated from:
  PTOTAL = PNO-LOAD+ (% Load)2 x PLOAD
 Copper loss:- These represent the main component of
the load dependent or the variable losses, designated as
I2R or copper losses. They vary as square of the r.m.s
current in the windings and directly with D.C. resistance
of winding. The resistance in turn varies with the
resistivity, the conductor dimensions; and the
temperature.

Iron losses:- 2 types

Hysteresis losses originate from the molecular magnetic
domains in the core laminations, resisting being magnetized
and demagnetized by the alternating magnetic field.
 Because various types of core materials have different
magnetizing abilities, the selection of core material is an
important factor in reducing core losses. Hysteresis is a
part of core loss.
 Eddy current loss:- The alternating flux induces an EMF
in the bulk of the core proportional to flux density and
frequency. The resulting circulating current depends
inversely upon the resistivity of the material and directly
upon the thickness of the core. The losses per unit mass
of core material, thus vary with square of the flux
density, frequency and thickness of the core laminations.
4. What is function of transformer oil
5) Accessories of transformer
Different transformer accessories are fitted in order to provide long life
to the transformer. One should gain knowledge about transformer
accessories for better understanding transformer operation and
maintenance.
Tap Changer(s)-(On load/Off load)
 Tank
 Radiators
 cooling fans, oil pumps, oil to water heat exchangers (Cooling ONAN /
ONAF/ OFAF/
OFWF external coolers)
 Bushings
 Buchholz Relay/Oil Surge Relay
 Temperature Indicators
 Oil Level Indicators
 Pressure Relief Device
 Marshalling Box/Control cubicle
 Oil Preservation Systems: Conservators (gas sealed,
Bellows/membrane sealed)
Breathers
 Thermo siphon Filters

Breather of Transformer
When the temperature changes occur in transformer insulating
oil, the oil expands or contracts and there an exchange of air also
occurs when transformer is fully loaded. When transformer gets
cooled, the oil level goes down and air gets absorbed within. This
process is called breathing and the apparatus that pass through
the air is called breather. Actually, silica gel breathers controls the
level of moisture, entering electrical equipment during the change
in volume of the cooling medium and/or airspace caused by
temperature increasing.
Conservator Tank of a Transformer
This is a cylindrical tank mounted on supporting structure on the
roof of the transformer’s main tank. When transformer is loaded,
the temperature of oil increases and consequently the volume of
oil in the transformer gets increased. Again; when ambient
temperature is increased, the volume of oil is also increased. The
conservator tank of a transformer provides adequate space for
expansion of oil. Conservator tank of transformer also acts as a
reservoir of oil.
Explosion Vent of Transformer
The purpose of the explosion vent in a transformer is to prevent
damage of the transformer tank be releasing any excessive
pressure generated inside the transformer.

Construction of Explosion Vent of Transformer

This is nothing but a bent pipe with thin aluminium diaphragms
at both ends. A wire mesh is provided at lower end of the
explosion vent to prevent the pieces of rutted diaphragm from
entering the tank. A wire mesh is also provided at upper end of
vent pipe to protect mechanical damages of upper diaphragm.

Near the lower end, a small oil level indicator is provided to

lower diaphragm ruptures; transformer oil rises in the vent pipe
and is visible through the indicator indicating the failure of the
lower diaphragm. If even after brushing the lower diaphragm,
there is enough pressure and is not reduced, the upper
diaphragm then bursts out to give way to release the inside
pressure of transformer tank by thronging out oil and gases. In
this way, explosion vent of transformer prevents mechanical
damage to the transformer tank.
Sometimes, upper portion of conservator tank is connected with
explosion vent with an equalizer pipe with or without a valve.
Radiator of Transformer
Oil immersed transformer is always provided with radiator. In
case of electrical power transformer, the radiators are detachable
and transported separately to the site. The upper and lower
portions of the radiator unit is connected with the transformer
tank via valves. These values are provided to prevent draining of
oil during detaching a radiator unit from the transformer for
cleaning and maintenance purposes.

6) Energy efficient opportunities in a transformer

Application Stage:
  Selection of ratings & number of transformers
 Energy saved by under utilization of transformers
 Improvements of power factor
 Segregation of non-linear loads
 Effect of operating temperature
Design Stage:
 Using better core material(CRGO& Amorphous metal)
 Using of more Material
 New Material
 Improved distribution of materials
 Improvements in cooling medium and methods(Choice of
liquid filled)
7) performance parameters of a Transformer

Efficiency
 V no-load =RMS voltage across the load terminals
without load

V load = RMS voltage across the load terminals

with a specified load

Condition for Maximum Efficiency

8)necessary reqirements fulfilled by cables

 The conductor used in cables should be tinned stranded
copper or aluminium of high conductivity. Stranding is
done so that conductor may become flexible and carry
more current.
 The conductor size should be such that the cable carries
the desired load current without overheating and causes
voltage drop within permissible limits.
 The cable must have proper thickness of insulation in
order to give high degree of safety and reliability at the
voltage for which it is designed.
 The cable must be provided with suitable mechanical
protection so that it may withstand the rough use in
laying it.
 The materials used in the manufacture of cables should
be such that there is complete chemical and physical
stability throughout.

9)Classificataion cables:-
There are several ways of classifying cables. These
includes classification of cables on the basis of :

1. No. of Conductors in Cable

a. Single core cables
b. 3 core cables, 3 ½ core cables
2. Voltage Rating of Cable
a. Low-tension (L.T.) cables — upto 1000 V
b. High-tension (H.T. ) cables — upto 11,000 V
c. Super-tension (S.T.) cables — from 22 kV to 33 kV
d. Extra high-tension (E.H.T.) cables — from 33 kV to
66 kV
e. Extra super voltage cables — beyond 132 kV
3. Insulation Used in Cable ; a. PIC b. PVC c. PE d. PTFE e.
XLPE
4. Power To Be handled in Cable
a. Power cables
b. Control cables

10)components of cables:-
Cores or Conductors: A cable may have one or more than
one core (conductor) depending upon the type of service
for which it is intended. For instance, the 3-conductor
cable shown in the figure is used for 3-phase service. The
conductors are made of tinned copper or aluminium and
are usually stranded in order to provide flexibility to the
cable.

Insulation: Each core or conductor is provided with a

suitable thickness of insulation, the thickness of layer
depending upon the voltage to be withstood by the
cable. The commonly used materials for insulation are
impregnated paper, varnished cambric or rubber mineral
compound.

Metallic sheath: In order to protect the cable from

moisture, gases or other damaging liquids (acids or
alkalies) in the soil and atmosphere, a metallic sheath of
lead or aluminium is provided over the insulation as
shown in Figure.

Bedding: Over the metallic sheath is applied a layer of

bedding which consists of a fibrous material like jute or
hessian tape. The purpose of bedding is to protect the
 metallic sheath against corrosion and from mechanical
injury due to armouring.

Armouring: Over the bedding, armouring is provided

which consists of one or two layers of galvanised steel
wire or steel tape. Its purpose is to protect the cable from
mechanical injury while laying it and during the course of
handling. Armouring may not be done in the case of
some cables.
Serving: In order to protect armouring from atmospheric
conditions, a layer of fibrous material (like jute) similar to
bedding is provided over the armouring. This is known as
serving.

11) different properties of insulated materials used in

cable

 High insulation resistance to avoid leakage current.

 High dielectric strength to avoid electrical breakdown of
the cable.
 High mechanical strength to withstand the mechanical
handling of cables.
 Non-hygroscopic i.e., it should not absorb moisture from
air or soil. The moisture tends to decrease the insulation
resistance and hastens the breakdown of the cable. In
case the insulating material is hygroscopic, it must be
enclosed in a waterproof covering like lead sheath.
 Non-inflammable.
 Low cost so as to make the underground system a viable
proposition.
 Unaffected by acids and alkalies to avoid any chemical
action.

12)insulation resistance derivation

Munukutla.N.C_EEA_EEE

13)describe lighting energy audit methods

 Conduct a room-by-room lighting inventory
 Light fixtures
 Lamp types, size and numbers
 Levels of illumination
 Uses of task lighting
 Hours of operation
 Ballasts
 Use of occupancy
 sensors
14) Energy Conservation Opportunities in Industrial
facility

 Lighting controls.
 Replace T12 tubes by T8 tubes.
 Replace mercury lights with metal halide or high pressure
sodium
lights.
 Replace metal halide (HID) with high intensity fluorescent
lights.
 Replace magnetic ballasts with electronic ballasts.
 Optimization of plant lighting (Lux optimization) in
production
and nonproduction departments.
 Optimum use of natural sunlight.

15) fluorescent lamp

The principle of operation is as follows:
(a)When the mains voltage is applied, a glow discharge is
created across the bimetal contacts inside the glow
starter (enclosed in a small plastic canister). The contacts
warm up and close, completing the starting circuit and
allowing a current to flow from the `L' terminal, through
the current limiting inductor through the two tube
cathode filaments and back to the `N' mains terminal.
(b) Within a second or two, the cathode filaments are
warm enough to emit electrons; a glow is seen from each
end of the tube. At this stage, the starter-switch bi-metal
contacts open (because the glow discharge, which caused
them to heat and close, ceases when they touch, and
they cool and open), and interrupt the preheat current
flow. If an inductor (choke) ballast (coils of copper wire
around a laminated iron core) is used the magnetic
energy stored in the core collapses to produce a high-
voltage pulse (600±1000 V) across the fluorescent tube
 sufficient to strike the arc and set up the electric
discharge through the tube.
(c) Once the tube arc has been struck, the current
through the tube gradually builds up. This means that the
current through the inductor also increases. As this
happens, the voltage across the inductor increases and
the tube voltage falls. The inductor is so designed that
when the tube and inductor current rise to a value
determined by the inductor design setting, the circuit
stabilises.

 Working:- When we switch ON the supply, full voltage comes across the
lamp and as well as across the starter through the ballast. But at that instant, no
discharge happens, i.e., no lumen output from the lamp.
 At that full voltage first the glow discharge is established in the starter. This is
because the electrodes gap in the neon bulb of starter is much lesser than that of
the fluorescent lamp.
 Then gas inside the starter gets ionized due to this full voltage and heats the
bimetallic strip. That causes to bend the bimetallic strip to connect to the fixed
contact. Now, current starts flowing through the starter. Although the ionization
potential of the neon is more than that of the argon but still due to small electrode
gap, a high voltage gradient appears in the neon bulb and hence glow discharge
gets started first in the starter.
 As soon as the current starts flowing through the touched contacts of the
neon bulb of the starter, the voltage across the neon bulb gets reduced since the
current, causes a voltage drop across the inductor(ballast). At reduced or no voltage
across the neon bulb of the starter, there will be no more gas discharge taking place
and hence the bimetallic strip gets cool and breaks away from the fixed contact. At
the time of breaking of the contacts in the neon bulb of the starter, the current gets
interrupted, and hence at that moment, a large voltage surge comes across the
inductor(ballast).
 This high valued surge voltage comes across the fluorescent lamp (tube light)
electrodes and strikes penning mixture (mixture argon gas and mercury vapor).
 Gas discharge process gets started and continues and hence current again
gets a path to flow through the fluorescent lamp tube (tube light) itself. During
discharging of penning gas mixture the resistance offered by the gas is lower than
the resistance of starter.
 The discharge of mercury atoms produces ultraviolet radiation which in turn
excites the phosphor powder coating to radiate visible light.
 Starter gets inactive during glowing of fluorescent lamp (tube light) because
no current passes through the starter in that condition.

16)different principles of effective lighting design

Following are the principles of effective lighting design:
 Meet target light levels.
 Produce light efficiently
 Deliver light efficiently.
 Control Lighting operation
automatically.
Factors to be considered for lighting
application:
 Amount of light required – in Lux
(Lu/m2)
 Lumen output of lamps and fixtures -
Lu
 Energy efficiency – Efficacy in
Lumens/watt
 Color Rendering Index - CRI
 Color Temperature – in Kelvins
 Types of light sources
 Lighting quality
Efficacy is the performance measure for electric lamps.
Efficacy is measured in units of lumens per watt (Lu/W).
Efficacies vary with type and size of lamps.
 To calculate the efficacy for a lamp that requires a ballast,
you must add the ballast power to the lamp power to get
the correct total wattage input.
 The higher the lumen per watt rating of a lamp the better
i.e., greater light output for a fixed wattage input.
Another property of lamps that is related to how
we see different colors under its light.

The CRI is a number between 0 and 100.

The reference standard is a very special

incandescent lamp at a lighting laboratory.

CRI and the color temperature of a particular lamp

determine how we see colors under that lamp.

17) What is the main purpose of using pumps and static and
friction head
1. Transfer of liquid from one place to another.
2. Circulate liquid around the system.
 Static head:
It is the difference in height between the source and
destination of the pumped liquid.
The static head is independent of flow.
Static head consists of
1. Static suction head (hs)
2. Static discharge head (hd)

Friction head (hf):

This is the loss needed to overcome that is caused by the
resistance to flow in the pipe and fittings. It is dependent
on size, condition and type of pipe, number and type of
pipe fittings, flow rate, and nature of the liquid. The
friction head is proportional to the square of the flow
rate.
18)energy efficient opportuinities for pumping systems

The main areas for energy conservation include:

19) various types of sources for generation of electric
power.compare conventional and renewable energy resources
Solar energy
Tidal energy
Wind energy

20) compare between preliminary and detailed audit

Preliminary audit is carried out in the limited time say within 10 days
and it highlights the energy cost and wastages in the major
equipment’s and processes. It also gives the major energy supplies and
demanding accounting. The questionnaire containing the industrial
details of energy consumption process carried out, energy need to unit
product; load data etc. must be completed before the pre-audit visit.
The preliminary audit spots energy waste spots and recommend short,
intermediate and long term solutions. It should adopt step by step and
cautious approach for improvements and new techniques of energy
management and control system.
A comprehensive audit provides a detailed energy project implementation plan
for a facility, since it evaluates all major energy using systems. This type of audit
offers the most accurate estimate of energy savings and cost. It considers the
interactive effects of all projects, accounts for the energy use of all major
equipment, and includes detailed energy cost saving calculations and project cost.
In a comprehensive audit, one of the key elements is the energy balance. This is
based on an inventory of energy using systems, assumptions of current operating
conditions and calculations of energy use. This estimated use is then compared to
utility bill charges. Detailed energy auditing is carried out in three phases: Phase I,
II and III. Phase I - Pre Audit Phase Phase II - Audit Phase Phase III - Post Audit
Phase

Detailed energy audit, also known as comprehensive

energy audit includes engineering recommendations and
well defined projects with priorities. It account for the
total energy utilised in plants. It involves detailed
engineering for options to reduce energy consumption and
also reduce cost. The duration of such studies is generally
from 1 to 10 weeks.

21) compare energy efficient motors and ordianary motors

The energy efficient motors are more efficient and also exhibit
relatively flatter efficiency curves versus load. It can be seen that the
difference between the efficiency at rated load and the operating
(partial load) efficiency is less significant. The energy efficient motors
run at lower temperatures than standard motors. The energy efficient
motor gives better performance during variable voltage supply. lowest
current consumption during starting and full load operation of energy
efficient motor. In the age when conservation of natural resources and
energy saving is considered so important, the leading manufacturers of
induction motors have contributed by progressively making available
environmental friendly products. Thus by improving the efficiency of
the induction motor we can also contribute in making the environment
clean for all living-beings and today when global warming i.e. pollution
is increasing day by day
Energy-efficient motors offer additional benefits. Because they are
constructed with improved manufacturing techniques and superior
materials, they usually have higher service factors, longer
insulation and bearing lives, lower waste-heat output, and less
vibration — all of which increase reliability. Most motor
manufacturers also offer longer warranties for their most efficient
models.

22)importance of electrical load management

• Load management, also known as demand side management
(DSM), is the process of balancing the supply of electricity on the
network with the electrical load by adjusting or controlling the
load rather than the power station output.
• This can be achieved by direct intervention of the utility in real
time, by the use of frequency sensitive relays triggering the
circuit breakers (ripple control), by time clocks, or by using
special tariffs to influence consumer behavior.
• Load management allows utilities to reduce demand for
electricity during peak usage times (peak shaving), which can, in
turn, reduce costs by eliminating the need for peaking power
plants.
• In addition, some peaking power plants can take more than an
hour to bring on-line which makes load management even more
critical should a plant go off-line unexpectedly.
• Load management can also help reduce harmful emissions, since
peaking plants or backup generators are often dirtier and less
efficient than base load power plants.
• New load-management technologies are constantly under
development — both by private industry and public entities
Significance
• Electric load management, which is often called simply load
management, refers to the systems in place that match
electricity supplies with demand.
• A steady supply of power is generally quite straightforward to
produce with a typical coal, gas or nuclear plant - simply fire up
the generator and make sure you have a steady supply of fuel.
• However, the demand is not steady: there is more demand
during dinnertime, for example, and on hot afternoons when the
air conditioners are on.
• A power company must be able to supply power at all times,
however, so they are motivated to shift large electrical loads
from high-demand peak times to low-demand off-peak times.
• The means by which they do this are collectively called load
management.
• Load management generally falls into one of three categories:
load clipping, load shifting, and valley filling
• Most of the strategies described here are load clipping or load
shifting strategies. Practically speaking, this usually means
raising energy prices during peak usage times and on high-
volume users. Raising rates during peak hours is possible
because peak usage is quite predictable, with modern
predictions typically within 1%.
23) speed current , speed torque characteristics

speed, n

V/K1

armature current, Ia

Torque Speed Characteristics

We
V  Ia Ra
had: n
K1

V  K 1n
Ia 
Ra

K2
T [V - K 1n]
Ra

The torque-speed curve shows that shunt motors can be used to drive
fairly constant speed from no load to full torque