UIUC RASC-AL Technical Report

SHIELD
Space Habitat for Interplanetary Exploration and Life

Discovery
Theme 3: Short Surface Stay Mars Mission
Illinois Space Society

University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Team Members
Michael Ardovitch Marta Cortinovis Omar Elhayes Chloe Elser
Sophomore Sophomore Freshman Freshman
Aerospace Engineering Aerospace Engineering Engineering Physics Aerospace Engineering
Daniel Engel Aaron Feng Jacob Hawkins Noah Henricks

Senior Freshman Junior Junior
Aerospace Engineering Aerospace Engineering Aerospace Engineering Aerospace Engineering
Justin Herman Brody Lauer Kirk Shen Leck Eric Monson

Sophomore Freshman Freshman Freshman
Aerospace Engineering Aerospace Engineering Aerospace Engineering Aerospace Engineering
Spencer Murdoch Komol Patel Peter Sakkos Varnit Sinha

Junior Freshman Sophomore Freshman
Aerospace Engineering Aerospace Engineering Aerospace Engineering Engineering Physics
Bella Watters Kyle Young Jeffery Zhou

Freshman Freshman Sophomore
Aerospace Engineering Aerospace Engineering Aerospace Engineering
Faculty Advisors: Michael F. Lembeck, Ph.D. & Zachary R. Putnam, Ph.D.

Table of Contents
Introduction ...............................................................................................................................1
Mission Architecture ..................................................................................................................1
Mission Timeline................................................................................................................................ 1
Development and Testing .................................................................................................................. 2
Launch Schedule................................................................................................................................ 2
Orbital Analysis ..........................................................................................................................2
Rendezvous Maneuvers ..................................................................................................................... 3
Vehicle Subsystems ....................................................................................................................4
Nuclear Thermal Propulsion ............................................................................................................. 4
Reaction Control System ................................................................................................................... 5
Power ................................................................................................................................................. 5
Thermal Control Systems.................................................................................................................. 5
Communications ................................................................................................................................ 6
Command and Data Handling .......................................................................................................... 6
Environmental Control and Life Support Systems (ECLSS)......................................................6
Atmosphere Revitalization ................................................................................................................ 7
Water Recovery and Management.................................................................................................... 7
Waste Management ........................................................................................................................... 7
Consumables ...................................................................................................................................... 7
Internal Layout.................................................................................................................................. 8
System Reliability .............................................................................................................................. 8
Radiation Protection .......................................................................................................................... 8
Structures ...................................................................................................................................9
Vehicle Geometry .............................................................................................................................. 9
On-Orbit Assembly............................................................................................................................ 9
Launch Vehicle Selections ............................................................................................................... 10
Hydrogen Fuel Tanks ...................................................................................................................... 10
RCS Fuel Tanks ............................................................................................................................... 10
Surface Mission .......................................................................................................................10
Entry, Descent and Landing (EDL) and Ascent Systems ............................................................... 10
Rover Structure ............................................................................................................................... 11
Environmental Control and Life Support System (ECLSS) .......................................................... 12
Science Mission ................................................................................................................................ 13
Trip Route........................................................................................................................................ 13
Cost Analysis ............................................................................................................................14
Risk Assessment Matrix ...........................................................................................................15
Appendix A: Tables and Calculations ......................................................................................16
Appendix B: ECLSS Calculations, Tables, and Figures ..........................................................27
Appendix C: Theme Requirement Matrix ................................................................................30
Appendix D: References ...........................................................................................................31
Einführung
The Illinois Space Society proposes the Space Habitat for Interplanetary Exploration and Life Discovery
(SHIELD), a crewed Mars mission with a 30-day surface stay. SHIELD carries four astronauts to Martian orbit,
and two astronauts to descend to the surface for 30 days, achieving the first human landing on another planet. While
on the surface, the crew lives in a pressurized rover equipped with a drill to gather core samples in the search for
life on Mars. While a mission of this scope requires several different and intricate elements working together to
achieve mission success, SHIELD minimizes complexity by sharing systems between the various elements while
holding the crew’s safety as the driving factor for maximizing the chance of a successful mission.
Mission Architecture
The SHIELD architecture consists of five main components; three of which are solely to transfer vehicles
to Mars. These transfer vehicles employ the same nuclear propulsion system with two reactors, carrying liquid
hydrogen (LH2) tanks. They are named Transfer-1, Transfer-2, and Transfer-3 based on which vehicle arrives at
Mars first. Transfer-3 is the last to arrive and it is used to fly the SHIELD Crew Module from Earth to Mars. The
SHIELD Crew Module is the habitable component used to carry crew through interplanetary space. The vehicle
responsible for landing two astronauts to the surface of Mars and taking them back into Mars’ orbit is called Lander-
2 and is brought to Mars on the Transfer-1 vehicle where it awaits rendezvous with the crew. The rover, named
Rover-1, is equipped to sustain two astronauts while on the Martian surface and aid in the search for life. The rover
is carried to the Martian surface by the Lander-1, and the entire assembly flies on Transfer-2. An Orion Multi-
Purpose Crew Vehicle is docked to the Crew Module, and is used to launch the crew, transfer crew members
between the vehicles at Mars, and reenter into Earth’s atmosphere.
Mission Timeline
The SHIELD mission runs between the years 2020 and 2034. A full timeline for the mission can be seen
below in Figure 1. The design phase begins in 2020 after proposal acceptance. There are two construction phases,
one on the ground and one in space. The ground construction phase begins in 2022, and the space phases begins
after the first vehicles are launched. Primarily, the space construction phases are for assembling the vehicles in low
Earth orbit (LEO) to prepare for transport to Mars. This first occurs in 2031 with the launch of Lander-2 and
Transfer-1, continues in 2032 with the launches of Rover-1 and Transfer-2, and concludes in 2033 with the SHIELD
Crew Module launch. All five vehicles begin construction simultaneously and are completed by the end of 2031.
This process is described in more detail in the Development and Testing subsection and Figure 1.
Figure 1: SHIELD Mission Timeline
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Astronaut training begins in 2023, with a new vehicle mockup being installed in NASA’s Johnson Space
Center Neutral Buoyancy Lab (NBL) each consecutive year until 2026. This allows the crew of SHIELD to cycle
between vehicles and have adequate experience with the mission hardware prior to their 2033 launch window.
Development and Testing
The initial architecture design for SHIELD begins in 2020 and concludes in 2022. However, many
components of the design need to be matured before the architecture can be fully constructed, including the
CERMET fuel, zero boil-off technology, Trash to Gas reactor, and the Cascade Distillation system. While these
components are currently under development, they each have an expected completion date prior to the finalization
of their respective systems. This data is summarized below in Table 1.
Table 1: SHIELD Technology Development Summary
Technology Anticipated Maturation Year

CERMET Fuel 2025
Trash to Gas Reactor 2026
Cascade Distillation System 2026
Hypersonic Inflatable Aerodynamic Decelerator 2028
The SHIELD communication system is developed at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, the Environmental
Control and Life Support Systems (ECLSS) are developed primarily at Johnson Space Center, the nuclear
propulsion system is be researched and developed at Marshall Spaceflight Center, and the power systems are
developed at Glenn Research Center. Construction begins in 2022 at NASA’s Michoud Assembly Facility. Mock-
ups for each vehicle are built and sent to Johnson Space Center, and in 2028, the final construction of Rover-1 and
Transfer-2 is completed, followed by Lander-2 and Transfer-1 in 2029 and Transfer-3 in 2031.
In 2027, the integrated propulsion system is tested in Earth orbit. This is to ensure safety for people and
resources on the ground in the unlikely event of a failure during testing. Due to the volatile nature of the reactor’s
contents, it is considered unsafe for the reactor to reenter Earth’s atmosphere until the reactants have decayed [1].
To maximize the utility of this demonstration mission, this vehicle is equipped with an optical communications
system and an X-band radio so it may serve as communications relay for the main mission. Other vehicles are tested
at NASA’s Plum Brook Station in the Space Environments Complex (SEC) which allows for high-complexity
vacuum testing as well as rigorous vibration testing. Specific dates for completion can be found in Figure 1.
Launch Schedule
In 2027, the first SHIELD launch commences with the test of the Integrated Propulsion System. Each
consecutive year after that, more launches occur as detailed in Table 5 in Appendix A. SHIELD currently utilizes
three rockets to launch components: SpaceX’s Falcon Heavy, Blue Origin’s New Glenn, and NASA’s Space Launch
System (SLS). If SpaceX’s Starship cargo variant is also operational, any mission element could be switched to a
Starship launch, potentially decreasing costs and increasing launch schedule flexibility.
Orbital Analysis
SHIELD’s architecture requires that all transfer vehicles travel to Mars, while only Transfer-1 returns to
Earth with the crew. Each vehicle begins at a 500 km altitude in LEO as a staging ground for on-orbit assembly.
All interplanetary trajectories are shown in Figure 2, Figure 3, and Figure 4.
Transfer-1 departs from Earth in February 2031 on a Hohmann transfer window to minimize the energy
required. Upon arrival at Mars, Transfer-1 propulsive captures into an areosynchronous orbit with a periapsis of
300 km and inclination of 30°, which was chosen to allow for regular transfer windows between the surface and
orbit.
The second element to transfer to Mars is Transfer-2. To space out the launch schedule, Transfer-2 departs
in November 2032, which coincides with the ascending node between Earth and Mars. Therefore, Transfer-2 does
not require an additional correction maneuver on the way to Mars. Upon arrival, Transfer-2 executes a burn to slow
down to a manageable re-entry speed, and Lander-1 undocks from Transfer-2, descending directly to the surface.
Transfer-2 performs a burn after separation from Lander-1 to avoid impacting the Martian surface. The arrival date
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at Mars is two months before the crew arrives, allowing Rover-1 to start completing scientific objectives without
the crew.
The last vehicle to transfer to Mars is Transfer-3. To minimize the mission duration for the crew, an
opposition class orbit that allows for a total crewed mission length of 420 days was chosen. This allows for a 30-
day surface stay as defined by mission requirements. Transfer-3 departs Earth in April 2033, utilizing favorable
alignment between Earth and Mars. Arrival at Mars occurs in September 2033, followed by the rendezvous of the
Transfer-3 and Transfer-1. During this rendezvous, the SHIELD Crew Module transfers to Transfer-1, while
Lander-2 uses Transfer-3 to ferry it closer to the surface. The maneuvers are described in more detail in Figure 5.
Forty days in orbit are allocated to allow for the 30-day surface mission, transfer times, and equipment inspections.
Then, Transfer-1 departs from Mars and returns to Earth in June 2034. Upon arrival near the Earth, Transfer-1
performs a burn to slow down to just above Earth escape velocity. Orion then separates from Transfer-1 and
performs an additional burn at perigee using its service module engine to insert itself into an elliptical orbit around
the Earth prior to entry. A fully fueled Orion vehicle is required to perform these Earth return maneuvers. Transfer-
1 flies past Earth into a heliocentric orbit in order to prevent contamination on Earth from the nuclear propulsion
system. The timeline and ΔV required for each transfer vehicle are included in Table 7, Table 8, and Table 9.
Figure 2: Transfer-1 Orbital Maneuvers (Drop Tanks Not Accounted For)
Figure 3: Transfer-2 Orbital Maneuvers
Figure 4: Transfer-3 Orbital Maneuvers
Rendezvous Maneuvers
Maneuvers requiring a Reaction Control System (RCS) for the three transfer vehicles are listed in Table
13, Table 14, and Table 15 of Appendix A. The tables also include maneuvers related to the transfer vehicles that
are performed by the landers and SHIELD Crew Module. First, all transfer vehicles test their RCS at LEO, along
with assisting orbital assembly. Details on RCS structure is given in the Reaction Control System section. In-transit,
the RCS system is needed for coast attitude control and setting the correct orientation for midcourse corrections.
Approaching Mars, all vehicles need to rotate to set the correct orientation for a retrograde propulsive maneuver.
Following this maneuver, Transfer-2 must re-rotate to perform another propulsive burn and escape Mars’ influence
as Rover-1 descends on Mars. The RCS for Transfer-1 is utilized to maintain orbit at Mars while waiting for
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Transfer-3 to reach the red planet. Once Transfer-3 captures into Mars’ orbit, RCS is used for several rendezvous
and docking maneuvers involving both transfer vehicles, SHIELD Crew Module, Orion, and Lander-2. Lander-2
and the Crew Module with Orion undock from their transfer vehicles to rendezvous and have the surface crew move
onto Lander-2 through Orion. The sequence of maneuvers is shown in Figure 5. Lander-2 (carrying the surface
crew) docks with Transfer-3, and is transferred to a low Mars orbit, allowing the crew to descend to Mars. The
remaining crew docks to Transfer-1. Once Lander-2 ascends back to Transfer-3, this transfer vehicle performs
another orbital transfer to return to the areosynchronous orbit and rendezvous with Orion to bring the surface crew
back to the SHIELD Crew Module. As Transfer-1 returns to Earth, RCS is used for coast attitude control, setting
the proper orientation for a retro-propulsive burn, and assisting Orion as it undocks from the transfer vehicle.
Figure 5: The Rendezvous Maneuvers Required in Martian Orbit.
Vehicle Subsystems
Nuclear Thermal Propulsion
A Nuclear Thermal Propulsion (NTP) system is used for all transfer vehicles, where the propellant is heated
as it runs through the fuel elements of a nuclear reactor and is accelerated through a nozzle. The architecture’s NTP
system is comprised of a cluster of two Bimodal Nuclear Thermal Rockets (BNTR), each with a compact fission
reactor containing ceramic-metallic (CERMET) fuel elements consisting of uranium dioxide (UO2) embedded in a
tungsten metal matrix (W) [2]. This design contains modes for both propulsion and power generation, the latter
being described in the Power section. Each rocket has a 111 kN-class engine operating in an expander cycle, with
an Isp of 910 s. The full performance and system characteristics for BNTR are found in Table 14 in Appendix A,
while schematics for both power and propulsion modes are shown in Figure 14.
LH2 is the chosen propellant for this NTP system due to its low molecular mass. Rather than utilizing fuel
elements with highly enriched Uranium-235 (HEU), the reactor implements low-enriched uranium fuel (LEU), as
increased regulations make LEU preferable by eliminating significant cost, schedule, and security impacts from a
HEU system development [3]. A beryllium oxide axial reflector surrounds the core of the reactor along 10 control
drums to control reactivity. The fuel elements in the compact fission reactor are made of UO2-W with gadolinium
oxide (Gd2O3), an oxygen stabilizer. The fuel element coolant channels and exterior surfaces are clad with a tungsten
rhenium (W-Re) alloy to reduce erosion due to LH2. CERMET fuel elements demonstrate better corrosion resistance
and higher thermal performance than standard coated graphite fuel elements [4]. The current technology readiness
level (TRL) for NTP is 3; however, LEU CERMET fuel elements are being actively studied and tested by NASA
[5]. Effects to the mission and necessary mitigations due to low TRL are addressed in Table 4.
NTP offers both high thrust and high specific impulse, unlike existing chemical and electric propulsion
systems [3]. By increasing payload capacity and decreasing mission duration, NTP reduces exposure to both cosmic
radiation and micro-gravity for the crew, while the fuel reduction saves operation time, costs, and reduces risk [3].
In a comparison of simulations utilizing the General Mission Analysis Tool (GMAT) for Transfer-3 with NTP and
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a chemical system at an Isp of 452.3 s (the Isp of the RS-25), NTP saved 4250 tons of propellant compared to the
chemical system. The complete results are shown in Table 15 in Appendix A. When the NASA X3 electric
propulsion system was analyzed in the same GMAT simulation, the minimum transfer time was 1.5 years, but the
power requirement of 400 kW for two engines either requires a nuclear reactor or prohibitively large solar panels,
leading to the selection of NTP over electric propulsion. Additionally, NTP enables unique crew mission abort
options including the ability to return to Earth within two months of Earth departure or to return immediately upon
Mars arrival. Finally, this system allows for wider injection windows, allowing for more scheduling flexibility than
other propulsive systems [3].
Reaction Control System
The Reaction Control System (RCS) for all vehicles consists of clusters of 4-Advanced Materials Bi-
propellant Rocket (AMBR) engines each. These engines are high performance and high thrust engines compared to
the High-Performance Apogee Thruster, even though it implements the same physical envelope as the latter [6].
For the transfer vehicles, four clusters are placed around the circumference at the front end of each transfer vehicle,
and the remaining four clusters at the back end. Both sets of clusters are equidistant from the center of mass of each
transfer vehicle. The RCS for the decent vehicles is described in the Entry, Descent and Landing (EDL) and Ascent
Systems section. Details regarding AMBR dimensions and performance are outlined in Table 16 in Appendix A.
The propellant required by this system is a hypergolic combination of Nitrogen Tetroxide (NTO) and Monomethyl
hydrazine (MMH), with an Oxidizer per Fuel ratio of 1.2 [6]. The amount of each propellant needed for the mission
is outlined in Table 17 in Appendix A.
The system enables maneuvers such as rendezvous and docking at both Mars and Earth, course corrections,
attitude control during coasting, and orbit maintenance at Mars. RCS maintains control over 2 of the axes of the
transfer vehicles, while the two BNTRs control the remaining axis. A full detailed description of these maneuvers
can be found in the Orbital Analysis section.
Power
When not powering propulsive burns, the BNTR reactors are kept idle rather than being cooled completely,
generating roughly 125 kW of thermal power each. To generate power in a closed secondary gas loop, a helium
xenon (He-Xe) mixture is carried through the co-axial Energy Transport Duct (ETD) in the reactor core, heated,
and re-routed to the energy conversion system [2]. There, a Brayton Rotating Unit uses a turbine-alternator-
compressor assembly to generate electricity at 20% efficiency. About 50 kWe of power is generated with both
engines. The entire addition to the NTP system has a total specific mass of 27 kg/kWe, weighting 1350 kg [7].
While the BNTRs are being used to generate thrust, power is generated by solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC),
which were chosen over proton-exchange membrane fuel cells due to their high operating temperatures, allowing
them to use more diverse fuel sources such as methane (CH4). SOFCs capability to use hydrocarbons as fuel allows
the cells to generate power from ECLSS waste without a reformer. The NASA Glenn Research Center is developing
SOFCs with five times higher specific power density than currently available designs, exceeding 1.0 kW/kg and
reducing volume and mass by 70% [8]. Modified SOFCs are also not susceptible to coking or sulfur poisoning,
making them much more reliable and efficient [9]. The cell stacks use ceramic interconnects rather than metal to
lower their mass, eliminate oxidation and corrosion, and strengthen sealing [10]. The fuel cell operating parameters,
including operating times and fuel requirements are outlined in Table 21, Appendix A.
Thermal Control Systems
Waste heat from the power generating process of BNTRs and low-level decay heat from the engines after
high-thrust operations is rejected through a conical pumped looped radiator. The surface area of this radiator is 71
m2 and is included in the total mass of the thermal power converting system (1350 kg) [7]. In order to maintain a
comfortable temperature of approximately 23°C in the crew cabin, resistors generating between 600 W and 1.1 kW
of heat are placed in the crew cabin and an electroless nickel (ε=0.07, α=0.39) coating is applied to the crew cabin.
This heat loss assumes the SHIELD exterior structure acts as an imperfect blackbody and accounts for ECLSS,
electronics waste heat, and heat from the Sun as external heat inputs. Polymer cross-linked aerogel is used as crew
cabin insulation due to its low density and high functionality at ambient pressure.
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Communications
The communications systems aboard the transfer vehicles use a suite derived from the Deep Space Optical
Communications (DSOC) system to be flown aboard NASA’s PSYCHE mission in 2022 [11]. The DSOC system
utilizes photon-efficient communications to deliver high downlink and uplink rates with HD video capability. The
communications relay placed into high Earth orbit at the end of the Integrated Propulsion System validation mission
receives the optical signal from the transfer vehicles and transmits the information to the Deep Space Network via
an X-band radio. The vehicles are also equipped with an X-band omnidirectional antenna for redundancy and
convenience during rendezvous. The communication suite aboard Rover-1 is also based on the DSOC system,
allowing it to communicate directly with Earth or with Transfer-1, which it is in view of Mars for 40% of the surface
mission. Rover-1 is equipped with an X-band high-gain antenna for downlink and an X-band low-gain antenna for
uplink, which are redundant and allow for easy communication with the SHIELD Crew Module omnidirectional
antenna.
The DSOC system can transmit 50 Mbps back to the communications relay, which enables HD video
transmission as well as transmission of standard scientific, instrumentation, and mission status data. The X-band
system on the transfer vehicles is sized to transmit everything except HD video.
Command and Data Handling
Command and Data Handling systems for SHIELD consist of a combination of heritage flight controllers
and systems developed for the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter and the Mars 2020 Rover. The system includes a
Rad5000 microprocessor [12], a computer chip hardened to reliably endure natural radiation and other conditions
of a deep-space environment. This system is the successor to the Rad750, which has flown successfully on various
deep-space missions, including aboard the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.
Environmental Control and Life Support Systems (ECLSS)
The purpose of the ECLSS subsystem is to provide the crew with a safe and habitable environment to live
in throughout the mission. The primary elements of the ECLSS are Atmosphere Revitalization, Water Recovery
and Management (WRM), Waste Management, Consumables, Layout, and Radiation Protection. The majority of
the ECLSS hardware is common between the Rover-1 ECLSS and SHIELD Crew Module ECLSS, with the
exception that Rover-1 uses more storage technologies rather than regenerative technologies where possible to
improve reliability. Because the regenerative system is more technically complex, it is described in full in this
section, while the unique details of the Rover-1 ECLSS are described in the Surface Mission ECLSS section. Orion
is not used in the ECLSS while docked to SHIELD, but in the event of a full ECLSS failure it can be brought online
to perform emergency ECLSS functions. Figure 6 shows connectivity between hardware in the SHIELD Crew
Module ECLSS, with green nodes having no input and red nodes having no output. The arrows on the connectivity
diagram represent the direction in which resources flow between the technologies.
Figure 6: The SHIELD Crew Module ECLSS Connectivity Diagram
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Atmosphere Revitalization
The Atmosphere Revitalization System maintains the atmospheric conditions inside the habitable volume.
The Static Feed Water Electrolysis (SFWE) unit generates oxygen, drawing water from the potable water tanks.
The Solid Amine Water Desorption (SAWD) subsystem consists of two amine beds alternating between absorption
and desorption. Once carbon dioxide is desorbed from the SAWD, it is fed into the Sabatier Reactor. From there, it
reacts with hydrogen produced by the SFWE to produce CH4 and water. This resultant methane is used to run the
fuel cells, and the water is fed back into the WRM subsystem. The Common Cabin Air Assembly (CCAA) performs
Temperature and Humidity Control (THC) functions by condensing water vapor, which is also sent to the WRM
subsystem. The Spacecraft Atmosphere Monitor measures atmospheric conditions to ensure that they remain
nominal, and the Trace Contaminant Control System (TCCS) prevents the buildup of unwanted particles or gasses.
Water Recovery and Management
The Water Recovery and Management System supplies and recycles water for the crew. The Cascade
Distillation System (CDS) processes wastewater to convert 92.5% of feed water into distillate, while the other 7.5%
forms a highly concentrated brine. Since the distillate does not reach potability standards, it is fed through a Reverse
Osmosis membrane, which converts 97.5% of the distillate feed into potable water, with the remaining 2.5%
forming brine. To further improve the water recovery rate, all brine is fed into Brine Evaporation Bags (BEB),
which are made of a gas permeable membrane that allows recovery of water vapor from the brine. Using this system,
98% water recovery from the brine can be achieved, with this recovered water being fed back into the Cascade
Distillation System. This allows the WRM System to achieve a total recovery rate of 99.5% over the long-term.
A Microbial Check Valve using silver-lactate biocide is used after water processing to keep the storage
system free from biological contamination. The system holds nine days’ worth of spare potable water assuming no
water recovery as well as all water needed to make up for the 0.5% recovery inefficiency. The total water storage
requirement is 203 kg, which can be stored in three potable water tanks holding 70 kg each. In the event that the
WRM technologies do not mature to the 99.5% recovery rate in time, a 98% recovery rate, aligned with the NASA
water recovery rate targets for Mars generation ECLSS, is acceptable. To compensate for the lower recovery rate,
the capacity for a fourth tank is included, though this tank is not needed if the system matures as predicted.
Waste Management
The Waste Management System collects and processes the biological and packing waste produced by the
crew throughout the mission. For collection of waste, a pair of Universal Waste Management System (UWMS)
units are used for redundancy and to allow multiple crew members to use the facilities at once. For waste processing,
a Trash-to-Gas reactor is used, which oxidizes waste through pyrolysis and produces a gas stream. From there,
carbon dioxide and water can be filtered out and recycled while the remaining products are vented.
Consumables
The consumable elements of the ELCSS include food, gas, clothes, hygiene supplies, and waste collection
supplies. A bulk food storage system allows the crew to prepare meals from ingredients, which reduces mass from
a thermostabilized approach. This method also promotes the psychological well-being of the crew by allowing the
crew to work together for meal preparation. However, because the bulk storage method of food preparation is
untested, a thermostabilized food system is developed in parallel as a contingency. High-pressure nitrogen and
oxygen are stored in room temperature Composite Overwrapped Pressure Vessels (COPVs) in the habitable volume
to re-pressurize the cabin atmosphere should a leak or depressurization event occur. Clothes, hygiene supplies, and
waste collection supplies are based on heritage systems. Eight fire extinguishers are distributed throughout the
vehicle to provide rapid fire suppression capability if needed. Two Miniature Exercise Devise-2 (MED-2) units and
two Cycle Ergometer with Vibration Isolation and Stabilization (CEVIS) units are used for resistive and aerobic
exercise respectively to combat the effects of microgravity. Table 2 lists the masses related to the consumables.
Table 2: Consumables and Associated Hardware Mass
Component Food Clothing Food Waste Nitrogen Oxygen Fire Hygiene Total
Prep Collection Suppression Supplies
Mass (kg) 2506 515 404 185 168 122 58 47 4005
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Internal Layout
The SHIELD Crew Module is composed of the Logistics and Habitation modules (4.25m diameter), which
are joined by a Common Berthing Mechanism (CBM). Each module is broken up into rack sections based on the
International Standard Payload Racks used on the ISS to facilitate reconfigurability and rapid development. The
Habitation module contains crew quarters, ECLSS subsystems, exercise areas, open space, and fluid storage. The
Logistics module contains spares for the various subsystems and most of the consumables. The total net habitable
volume is 85.5 m3, which is equivalent to 21.4 m3 per crew member, compared to the NASA-STD-3000 optimal
value of about 21.5 m3 per crew member for missions of this duration. The rack topology is shown in Figure 7 and
the habitable volume layout is shown in Figure 8.
Figure 7: SHIELD Crew Module Rack Topology
Figure 8: SHIELD Crew Module Interior Layout
System Reliability
To size the amount of spare hardware needed to support the ECLSS, a Poisson process is assumed based
on Mean Time Between Failures (MTBF) to simulate failure rate and replacement with spare parts. This is used to
construct a Gamma distribution which calculates the probability that a quantity of spares lasts the entire mission.
When these probabilities are multiplied, the reliability achieved by the ECLSS as estimated with this method is
0.9971 for the Crew Module, which is a 1 in 350 probability that the spares are not sufficient to replace all hardware
failures encountered over the mission duration. In the event of a pressure failure of either module, the other could
support full ECLSS functionality for multiple days while the CBM is closed. This is accomplished by using the full
ECLSS on the Habitation Module if possible and using the Orion ECLSS to keep the Logistics Module habitable
with the Habitation Module incapacitated.
Radiation Protection
The primary radiation protection system for the SHIELD Crew Module is a polyethylene stuffed whipple
shield. At a spacecraft skin density of 4.5 grams per square centimeter, HZETRN2015 simulations with a simplified
3D geometry show that the radiation received by the crew from Galactic Cosmic Rays (GCRs) over the mission
duration is about 57 cSv per crew member at solar minimum and under 32 cSv per crew member at solar maximum.
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For Solar Particle Events (SPEs), the LH2 tanks and nuclear engines are pointed at the Sun, which reduces radiation
levels to under 0.01 cSv per SPE based on HZETRN2015 simulations. Each nuclear reactor also includes a three-
layered shield of Beryllium, Tungsten, and Lithium Hydride to substantially reduce radiation exposure from the
nuclear engines. After passing through this shield and the fuel tanks, the combined effective radiation dose from
the engines and Solar Particle Events drops to below 1 cSv over the entire mission duration. This cumulative
radiation dose of under 58 cSv is within the one-year dose limit for a 3% risk of exposure induced death for males
over the age of 30 (62 cSv) and females over the age of 40 (62 cSv).
Structures
All systems needed to be designed, packaged, and incorporated with their respective transfer and launch
vehicles. In total, there are three separate nuclear-powered transfer vehicles that transfer the landers and SHIELD
Crew Module with the Orion capsule to Mars. Transfer vehicle layouts with payloads are shown in Figure 9.
Figure 9: Transfer vehicles with Payloads
Vehicle Geometry
Lander-2 is designed to transport two crew members from Mars orbit to the surface and back. Therefore,
Lander-2 consists of a crew capsule, fuel tanks, Ascent Propulsion System, Hypersonic Inflatable Aerodynamic
Decelerator (HIAD), Descent Propulsion System, and Landing Mechanism. Figure 9 shows that Lander-2 consists
of two separate stages with their own propulsion systems and fuel tanks, where the Descent Propulsion System is
embedded in the HIAD. With this two-stage structure, the vehicle can discard the lower stage on Mars’s surface,
reducing the mass of the ascent stage and required fuel. Tanks for both propulsive systems are cylindrical with a
diameter of 4 m, and the lengths of oxidizer and fuel tanks for both portions of the vehicle are 0.9 m and 2.08 m
respectively. The exterior material of the vehicle is Aluminum-Lithium (Al-Li) 2198 due to its low density and high
stiffness. This lander is transferred fully assembled to Mars’ orbit on Transfer-1 as detailed in previous sections.
Lander-1 utilizes a similar design to transport the rover to the Martian surface, and only differs from Lander-
2 in terms of their transfer vehicles, number of stages, and payloads. Lander-1 has a single descent stage instead of
the two-stage layout on Lander-2, and Al-Li 2198 is used for the exterior of the vehicle, like for Lander-2. Transfer-
2 has significantly lower quantity of propellant tanks compared to Transfer-3.
On Transfer-3, the SHIELD Crew Module is located on the opposite end of the vehicle from the BNTRs to
minimize radiation exposure to the crew from the reactor, with substantial radiation shielding and fuel mass between
the two ends. The Habitation and Logistics modules have a small radius compared to the rest of the vehicle to ensure
that the radiation shields can adequately protect the crew while minimizing the shield mass required. The fuel tanks
are placed in the middle of the vehicle to mitigate the radiation from the NTP. The configuration of these tanks is
further explained in the Hydrogen Fuel Tanks section. Two tanks are mounted on the main structural axis of
Transfer-3 and Transfer-2, while Transfer-1 has three tanks on its main axis. Additional tanks are radially attached
to these tanks and can be disposed of when emptied. Docking ports between the various mission elements are all
common to allow components of the vehicles to transfer between vehicles as needed. For example, the SHIELD
Crew Module gets to Mars via Transfer-3 but returns to Earth via Transfer-1. This minimizes the overall propellant
needed for the mission.
On-Orbit Assembly
Each transfer vehicle features a Canadarm-like robotic arm to assist the docking of various components.
Anchor points are located throughout the vehicle, which ensures the arm can assist with configuration. This method
of attachment is also the proposed method of attachment for Canadarm3 on Lunar Gateway [13]. It is constructed
out of titanium and is designed to withstand up to three times the weight of the fully fueled fuel tanks. The LH2
tanks are connected using a fuel port similar to the propellant feed system used to transfer fuel from the External
9
Tank to the Space Shuttle Orbiter [14]. This allows fuel from the radial mounted tanks to flow into the inner tanks
and eventually into the engine.
Launch Vehicle Selections
The launch vehicles considered for this analysis are Falcon Heavy, Starship, New Glenn, and SLS Block
1B. For the LH2 fuel tanks, LH2’s low density caused these vehicles to be volume-limited rather than mass-limited.
While Starship provides the best volume to cost ratio, New Glenn was selected as the baseline for the fuel tanks.
This minimizes the risk that a launch vehicle is unavailable for the tanks, as the tanks can still be launched on
Starship if it is available. Lander-1, carrying Rover-1, meets the mass constraints of a Falcon Heavy for LEO, and
also meets the volume constraints if the extended fairing SpaceX needs to qualify for the National Security Space
Launch Phase 2 Launch Service Procurement is used [15]. The Habitation module also fits within the extended
payload fairing and Falcon Heavy payload mass limit, while Lander-2 only requires a standard Falcon Heavy
fairing. Due to the Falcon Heavy’s low cost compared to the other vehicles, it was selected for launching these
payloads. Since the architecture requires an Orion capsule to be attached to the SHIELD Crew Module during the
mission, SLS Block 1B Crew was selected for launching the crew to LEO. The Logistics Module is co-manifested
on this launch.
Hydrogen Fuel Tanks
LH2 for all transfer vehicles to Mars is stored in fuel tanks with dimensions designed to use the maximum
volume provided by a New Glenn payload fairing. Each fuel tank is made primarily of Al-Li 2198 alloy with both
passive and active cooling applied to achieve zero boiloff (ZBO) [16]. The following design is a derivation of the
configuration proposed in [17]. However, rather than implementing several layers of conventional MLI, more
recently developed types of MLI are utilized to lower heat leak and mass of the insulation for the same amount of
thickness. Closest to the tank are 19 layers of Load Bearing MLI (LBMLI), which support the weight of a broad-
area cooled (BAC) shield, followed by 40 layers of Integrated MLI (IMLI) of two different spacings [18]. A two-
stage system of one 20K-20W and one 90K-150W cryocooler provides the required lift and storage temperature to
achieve ZBO by cooling gaseous helium and distributing it through steel tubes covering an Aluminum BAC shield
[17]. Tank characteristics are given in Table 25, Table 28, and Table 29 in Appendix A.
RCS Fuel Tanks
The two propellants required by the chosen RCS are stored separately in spherical tanks, of identical size,
utilizing a similar passive cooling system as the LH2 tanks. Due to the storage pressure of 2.75 MPa, and the smaller
radius required, the Al-Li used for the tank is thicker compared to that of the LH2 tanks. The quantity of tanks
varies for each vehicle. Tank details and characteristics are given in Table 26 and Table 27 in Appendix A.
Surface Mission
Entry, Descent and Landing (EDL) and Ascent Systems
Lander-2 and Lander-1 utilize similar EDL sequences, with the exception that Lander-1 enters the Martian
atmosphere on a hyperbolic orbit, while Lander-2 enters from Martian orbit. A HIAD is used on both vehicles for
thermal protection during entry. Using a HIAD on both vehicles provides commonality in design. The HIAD was
traded against other thermal protection systems, including the Adaptable Deployable Entry Placement Technology
Placement (ADEPT) vehicle, and rigid mid L/D vehicles. It was determined that using the HIAD would minimize
vehicle mass due to not requiring a backshell (required for capsules and mid L/D vehicles) [19]. Furthermore, the
inflatable nature of the HIAD facilitates the integration of the decent vehicles into the launch vehicle fairing. This
also allows Lander-2’s crew section to be wider than it would be if a rigid heat shield were utilized. Lander-2 and
Lander-1 both have RCS systems used primarily for undocking and placing the respective vehicles in the proper
orientation, prior to entry interface. RCS is also used on Lander-2 for rendezvous and docking with Transfer-3 after
ascent. Flaps are used to control angle of attack and sideslip during entry, itself. Flaps were chosen instead of using
RCS and Apollo bank-angle steering maneuvers, as this heritage entry method is unlikely to be precise enough for
crewed landings [20]. Direct force control, which flaps are an example of, is likely necessary for the high precision
landings associated with the SHIELD mission.
Mars entry of the crew in Lander-2 occurs on September 19th, 2033. The entry sequence is preceded by the
transfer of two crew members from the Crew Module to Lander-2, using Orion as a ferry vehicle. After the crew
has been transferred onto Lander-2, the vehicle re-docks to Transfer-3 and is transported from the areosynchronous
10
orbit to a 300 km circular orbit. Once entry checks have been completed, the HIAD is inflated. Once inflated, covers
located on the HIAD at each of the three descent engine locations swivel open, exposing the engines. Lander-2
undocks from Transfer-3, and its descent engines perform a short de-orbit burn. The engine covers then swivel
closed again to protect them during entry. Once entry interface has begun, the vehicle begins controlling its
downrange and cross-range positions, in order to accurately land in the vicinity of the rover. When hypersonic flight
terminates, the engine covers once again swivel open. At supersonic speeds, the landing engines ignite to slow down
the vehicle to a stop on the surface. Once at low subsonic speeds, landing leg covers also swivel open, allowing the
landing legs to deploy. As the descent engines continue to burn while Lander-2 descends, the HIAD remains inflated
and attached in order to prevent a possible collision as a result of a jettison. Once safely on the surface, the descent
engines shut down and HIAD is deflated. Lander-1 utilizes an identical entry sequence, with the exception of
elements related to the crew. After the surface mission has been completed, the ascent engines are ignited, separating
the ascent portion of Lander-2 from the lower portion. The upper portion of Lander-2 launches into Martian orbit,
where it can then rendezvous and dock with Transfer-3. After docking has been completed, the Transfer-3 transports
Lander-2 back onto the areosynchronous orbit, where it can reconvene with the rest of the crew.
The ascent and descent engines utilize a liquid oxygen (LOX)/Kerosene (RP-1) system. This system was
traded against both LH2 and CH4 systems and was chosen due to its higher density and resistance to boiloff. LH2
systems require larger propellant tanks (due to lower density) and additional mass to manage boiloff. In-situ
resource utilization was considered for producing CH4 fuel from the Martian atmosphere. Doing so would reduce
Lander-2’s pre-entry mass. In-situ resource utilization, however, was deemed too risky for this initial short stay
mission. Furthermore, the production of CH4 was determined to not be compatible for the short stay, search for life
element of the mission. All descent systems utilize three 100 kN-class engines for supersonic retropropulsion (SRP)
and landing. These engines are built into the central region of the HIAD and each have an Isp of 319 s and deep
throttle capability. At maximum thrust these engines can provide Lander-1 and Lander-2 with thrust-to-weight ratios
of 4.33 and 1.92 respectively, and at 23% and 52% of maximum thrust they can hover. Because the ascent engines
do not need to have deep throttle capability, they can be simpler and lighter, hence the ascent module uses nine 24
kN class engines, with a specific impulse of 343s and a maximum thrust-to-weight ratio of 5.58. The chosen
architecture of a single vehicle ascending to the surface, fully fueled, and then ascending at the end of the surface
mission was traded against an architecture that utilized a separate entry vehicle to preposition fuel for ascent. The
prepositioning architecture was found to increase the system mass by ten tons, hence the Apollo style, surface
staging architecture was chosen.
Rover Structure
Rover-1 operates as an automobile and habitat for the crew during the 30-day mission. The rover has a base
chassis made of 3 cm thick Al 6061 and dimensions of 3 x 3 x 6 m, providing a total interior volume of 44.75 m3.
The total mass of the rover is 14.44 tons, and the maximum power draw is 4.92 kW. To reduce stress on the corners
of the rover, each edge is chamfered and rounded. Rover-1’s exterior can be seen in Figure 10. The interior is split
into the living quarters and a suit chamber with internal volumes 33.51 m3 and 11.24 m3 respectively. The living
quarters includes the cockpit and the ECLSS supplies, providing 16.76 m3 of habitable volume per crew member.
The suit chamber acts as an airlock connecting the living quarters to the outside of the rover. The interior layout is
shown in Figure 11.
Figure 10: Exterior View of Rover-1
11
The suit chamber is a room at the back of Rover-1 where the crew can don and doff their Exploration
Extravehicular Mobility Unit (xEMU) suit [21]. The xEMU suits are used for the EVA’s performed on the surface
of Mars. The crew survival suits used during flight are adapted to allow a half hour EVA between Lander-2 and
Rover-1 at the beginning and end of the surface mission. Using the survival suits for brief EVA’s allows the crew
to exit Lander-2 without using an airlock. The cockpit is a complex trapezoidal structure with multiple windows to
optimize the field of view in front of the rover. Rover-1 offers both pilot and autopilot modes, which are managed
by the crew or integrated sensors respectively. Rover-1 drives on six Spring Tires developed by NASA engineers
to avoid the damage experienced by previous rover wheels [22]. The Spring Tire is made of a shape memory alloy
Nickel-Titanium, which is flexible and resistant to damage caused by the Martian surface. Each wheel has a
diameter of 1.1 m, a thickness of 0.4 m, and is powered by a DC electric motor. Rover-1 uses a double wishbone
suspension, each wheel with its own suspension not connected by a common axle [23]. This allows the crew to
experience a smoother ride.
Rover-1 uses SOFC’s to generate power, utilizing liquid CH4 and LOX as propellants. Both the liquid CH4
and LOX are stored in tanks on the sides of the rover. To reduce boiloff, the tanks incorporate a passive cooling
system identical to the one in the LH2 fuel tanks. Dimensional and heat leak parameters are detailed in Table 29 in
Appendix A. From Transfer-2’s Earth departure to the end of the surface mission, less than 1 kg of CH4 is lost, and
about 270 kg of LOX is lost. Given the magnitude of these losses, cryocoolers are not necessary.
Environmental Control and Life Support System (ECLSS)
As described in the Environmental Control and Life Support Systems (ECLSS) section, the ECLSS for
Rover-1 shares substantial commonality with the SHIELD Crew Module to reduce complexity and allow for
hardware to be transferred between vehicles if necessary. The THC, waste collection, and carbon dioxide removal
systems for Rover-1 and Lander-2 are identical to the corresponding systems on the SHIELD Crew Module, but
with less spares for each component. However, high pressure oxygen tanks are used instead of an electrolysis
reactor, and potable water is stored in tanks rather than being regenerated. This is done to both reduce mass and
increase reliability for the relatively short surface stay. Food prepared for the crew is thermostabilized and
dehydrated to reduce complexity from the bulk storage system. Besides food, the consumables carried on Rover-1
are the same as for the SHIELD Crew Module ECLSS, but they are adjusted appropriately for the crew size and
surface mission duration. In order to decrease mass, a waste processing unit besides the UWMS is not included on
Rover-1 or Lander-2, and waste is instead chemically treated with a germicide, mechanically compacted, and stored
to prevent contamination. A single MED-2 and a single CEVIS unit modified for use under gravity are included to
mitigate any potential effects of Martian gravity on the human body, as the effects of Mars gravity on the body in
comparison to microgravity and Earth gravity are not well established. The xEMU suits needed for EVA have a
self-contained ECLSS and are not part of the Rover-1 ECLSS itself. Using the same reliability estimation method
as for the SHIELD ECLSS, the Rover-1 ECLSS achieves a reliability of 0.9980, so the probability of failure is 1 in
500 per mission. The interior layout of Rover-1 is shown in Figure 11.
Figure 11: Rover-1 Interior Layout
12
Science Mission
In order to search for life on Mars, Rover-1 is equipped with a rotary percussive drill capable of reaching a
depth of 1m while drilling and collecting samples. The current iteration of the drill is built by HoneyBee robotics
and is being tested as part of NASA’s Atacama Rover Astrobiology Drilling Studies [24]. Samples are collected
and transferred to storage or for analysis by a robotic arm. The samples are tested for life signatures by equipment
such as the Signs of Life Detector (SOLID). SOLID uses multiple biochemical methods of searching for life
signatures and can detect 512 unique compounds [25]. In addition, a Potassium-Argon Laser Experiment (KArLE)
is used to date rock samples for comparison with other Martian drilling sites. Samples not tested on the surface are
stored in a tube and packed in a storage box to be transported to Earth. Witness tubes are also used, these being
empty tubes never to be filled with samples, but rather “witness” the Martian atmosphere during drilling to confirm
no contaminants make it inside the holding tubes. An array of cameras are mounted on the exterior of Rover-1. One
is a “SuperCam” based on the Perseverance SuperCam which consists of lasers, cameras, and sensors allowing it
to determine rock composition at a distance and assist decisions about exact drilling locations [26]. Navigations
cameras, which are drawn from previous Mars rovers including Perseverance, allow for the autonomous driving of
the rover. These cameras were chosen for their proven success on prior missions. The navigation cameras are used
to determine the rover’s travel path, calculating the path meters ahead of where the rover currently is. Another set
of cameras, called hazard cameras are placed on the front of the rover to detect any immediate threats on the current
path of travel.
Trip Route
Two astronauts explore the surface for 30 days after landing. The first day of the mission is spent inside
Lander-2 as the astronauts acclimate to the Martian gravity. Rover-1 is not initially at the landing site to avoid
damage from the dust created by the landing and travels to the surface crew during this day. Over the rest of the
trip, 19 days of driving are allocated, while 8 days are allocated for drilling. On the driving days, the rover drives
either autonomously or manually for 16 hours per day, or 320 driving hours total, requiring an average speed of
9.68 km/h. This driving time and speed allows for the astronauts to reach each site and return to the launch vehicle
within the 30 days with a safety factor. An itinerary of target locations is detailed in Table 3. The trip route follows
a triangular shape spanning both Amazonis Planitia and Arcadia Planitia as can be seen in Figure 12.
Table 3: Rover Trip Itinerary.
Site Site Name Site Location Description Distance from

Number last location (km)
1 Amazonis Planitia 35°N and 165°W “Young” lava formations [27] N/A
2 Erebus and Montes 40°N and 170°W Small mountain range 340
3 Milankovič Crater 55°N and 145°W Martian gully with ice relatively 1323
close to the surface [28]
4 Landing site 35°N and 165°W Travel through Arcadia Planitia, 1437
(Amazonis Planitia) another “young” lava flow
Total Trip Length (km) 3100
13
Figure 12: Detailed Map of Trip Route
On days of drilling, a total of three samples are taken at each site a minimum of 15 m apart. The samples
are taken at a distance to minimize chances of sample contamination and multiple false positives per location. When
the time comes to drill, the SuperCam analyzes the surrounding area and a choice of site is made based on the data
gathered. Rover-1 travels to the selected location and prepares to drill. Since the drill is stored on the side of the
rover, no movement from a horizontal stored position to a vertical drilling position is needed. The astronaut
commences the drilling sequence through the command panel inside the rover. Once drilling has begun, the drill is
continuously collecting feedback about how much pressure the bit runs into, the movements of the motors, etc. and
is sending it to the computer for interpretation. This allows for the drill to self-correct any issue it faces, such as
tougher material requiring more pressure or the drill bit becoming stuck and the drill dislodging it. The astronaut
also sees all this data and can confirm that the drilling process is going smoothly. Once a core sample has been
collected, the rover drives forward to the next location, ensuring that the drilling is done at an untouched location
at least 15m away. The same process as before commences and is done a total of three times to collect the needed
samples from that site.
The rotary drill is outfitted with a meter-long drill bit. This drill bit is replaced after each drilling site, to
prevent cross-contamination of the sites along with ensuring the cleanliness and validity of each core sample. It is
changed out autonomously so that the astronauts do not come in contact with the drill or drill bit and contaminate
the drill. To complete this, a magazine stores extra drill bits on Rover-1’s side next to the drill. The magazine is
spring-loaded to minimize the reliance on electrical parts and ensure a bit is dispensed. There is a cover on the
magazine to prevent dust encountered while driving from entering and contaminating the drill bits. When the drill
bit needs to be replaced, the magazine cover opens, the spring dispenses the new bit, and the drill latches onto the
top of the bit. Before the new drill bit can be loaded, the old one must be removed. In order to eliminate the risk
that the drill bit damages something in the removal process, the bit is drilled completely into the soil and released
by the drill. The drill bit would be fully in the Martian soil and no risk of puncturing the underside of the rover is
present.
Cost Analysis
A cost model was developed for SHIELD using NASA’s Project Cost Estimating Capability (PCEC) and
a cost estimating relationship (CER) for the mission’s nuclear reactors given by a PCEC update presentation [29].
The complete model is shown in Figure 13. The research and development phase occurs between the years 2020-
2028 and totals to a cost of US $28.48 Billion FY2020, including the costs for all vehicles and nuclear reactors.
Between 2022-2031 the production and testing costs of the mission total to US $12.28 billion FY2020. After that,
the cost for the remainder of the mission lies in the launches and mission operations. The first launch takes place in
2028, and more launches continue until 2033, giving a total launch cost of US $5.06 billion FY2020. The total cost
for mission operations is US $5.28 Billion. This includes the costs of tooling, astronaut training, support equipment,
vehicle checkout, and maintaining the mission after launch. Total mission cost is US $50.74 billion FY2020.
14
Cost, Millions, US$ (FY2020) $5,000.00
$4,000.00
$3,000.00
$2,000.00
$1,000.00
$-
2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030 2031 2032 2033 2034
Year
Design and Development Construction, Integration, and Testing Launches Operations
Figure 13: Cost Over Time Analysis for SHIELD

To alleviate some of the cost burden while maintaining mission integrity, international and commercial
partnerships are proposed. If a 70/30 NASA/Commercial and International business model were implemented, it
could save NASA US $15.35 billion FY2020.
Risk Assessment Matrix
Table 4: Pre-Mitigation (Left) and Post-Mitigation (Right) Risk Matrix
Consequence Consequence
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Likelihood
Likelihood
5 A 5 A
4 B E 4
3 D 3 B,E
2 C 2 D
1 1 C
ID Risk
Effect(s) Mitigation(s)
Schedule delays; shortened Set a cutoff date for deciding if work needs to shift to developing a
LEU Cermet reactor does
A testing periods; shortened LEU composite reactor, which is farther along in development but
not mature on schedule
reactor lifespan; additional cost more prone to corrosion.
Utilize international and commercial partnerships to reduce the cost to
Schedule delays; shortened
High government funding NASA; spread construction costs over nine years, and research and
B testing periods; cuts to the
for more than a decade development costs over six years to reduce the cost per year as far as
number of instruments used
possible while still meeting the mission timeline.
Every mission element is designed to fit in a New Glenn payload
Additional cost; schedule
C Launch vehicle availability fairing, so only one of New Glenn or Starship needs to be available to
delays
enable the mission.
The departure dates were selected to spread the amount of fuel tanks
Mission failure due to needed over a period of a few years. The development of ZBO
The mission requires a high component degradation; mass technology and nuclear reactors allow for tanks to be launched years
D
number of launches per year increase to account for before they are needed. Mission element compatibility with New Glenn
degradation; schedule delays and Starship also enables the ability to split the launches between both
vehicles, reducing the burden on a single launch provider.
While ZBO itself has a low TRL, the individual components used to
achieve ZBO (such as IMLI and the BAC shield) were selected for
Increased number of fuel tanks;
ZBO system does not their high TRLs or simplicity. This decreases the amount of testing
E compressed launch schedule;
mature on schedule needed to produce an integrated ZBO system. Due to the modular
increased system mass
nature of the fuel tanks, the architecture can support more tanks as
needed.
15
Appendix A: Tables and Calculations
Table 5: SHIELD Launch Schedule
Year Payload(s) Launch Vehicle(s)

2027 1. Integrated Propulsion System test 1. Falcon Heavy
1. Transfer-1 Propulsion System 1. One Falcon Heavy
2028
2. Six LH2 tanks for Transfer-1 2. Six New Glenn rockets
2029 1. Six LH2 tanks for Transfer-1 1. Six New Glenn rockets
1. Transfer-2 Propulsion System 2. Six New Glenn
2030 1. One Falcon Heavy
2. Six LH2 tanks for Transfer-1 rockets
1. Lander-2 2. Two New Glenn
2. Two LH2 tanks for Transfer-2 rockets
2. Five LH2 tanks for
1. Transfer-3 Propulsion Transfer-3 1. One Falcon Heavy
System 3. Rover-1 and 2. Five New Glenn rockets
Lander-1
1. SHIELD Logistics Module, 2. SHIELD Habitation
2033 1. One SLS 2. One Falcon Heavy
Crew, Orion Module
Table 6: Mass Budget for Transfer-1
Vehicle Vehicle Subsection Subsystem Mass (t)

Lander-2 N/A 53.13
BNTR (x2) 5.67

External Radiation
5.60
Shield (x2)
Propellant (LH2) 619.83
LH2 Tanks (x18) 93.26
Transfer-1
Propulsion Section Cryocooler System (x18) 2.54
Propellant (RCS) 16.23
RCS System 0.18
RCS Tanks (x28) 1.77
Subtotal 745.07
Fuel Mass 636.06

Dry Mass (no tanks) 64.58
Totals
Fuel Tank Mass 98.00
Total 798.20
16
Table 7: Mass Budget for Lander-2
Vehicle Subsystem Mass (t)

Crew Section Structure 1.07
Crew Section ECLSS 3.00
Crew Section Miscellaneous Equipment 1.00
Power System 1.50
Avionics System 0.33
Thermal System 0.41
Landing Legs 0.50
Crew 0.30
Rock Samples 0.20
Lander-2
Structural Mass 3.96
Ascent Engines 0.32
Food 0.18
HIAD 3.70
Descent Engines 0.90
Descent Propellant 11.48
Ascent Propellant 24.17
RCS Thrusters 0.089
RCS Propellant 0.019
Total 53.13

Lander-1
N/A 25.34
(Rover included)
BNTR (x2) 5.67

External Radiation Shield
5.6
(x2)
Transfer 2
LH2 Tanks (x2) 10.36
Propulsion Section Cryocooler System (x2) 0.28
RCS System 0.176
RCS Tanks (x2) 0.13
Subtotal 91.65
Fuel Mass 69.43

Totals
Fuel Tank Mass 11
Total 116.99
17
Table 9: Mass Budget for Lander-1

Rover-1 N/A 14.35
HIAD 3.70
Landing Legs 0.50
Structural Mass 0.58
Descent Engines 0.90
Lander-1
EDL/Propulsion Descent Propellant 5.22
RCS Thrusters 0.09
RCS Propellant 0.01
Subtotal 11.00
Fuel Mass 5.23

Totals Dry Mass (no tanks) 20.11
Total 25.34
18
Table 10: Mass Budget for Rover-1

Al Chassis 6.72
Front Window 0.51
Wheels (x6) 0.03
Structures
Seat (x2) 0.02
Subtotal 7.28
Mars 2020 Supercam 0.01

Computer 0.02
Communications
Subtotal 0.03
Solid Oxide Fuel Cell ~0

Liquid Methane 0.79
Rover-1
Power Liquid Oxygen 1.84
Subtotal 2.63
xEMU x2 0.32
Water Management 0.03
Waste Control 0.15
Atmosphere Recovery 0.45
ECLSS Fluid Control System 2.07
Cargo and Misc. 0.74
Structure 0.64
Subtotal 4.40
Fuel Mass 5.23

Totals Dry Mass (no tanks) 20.11
Total 25.34
19

WRM with Spares 0.82
AR with Spares 1.51
WCS Hardware + Spares 1.03
ACS Hardware + Spares 2.12
Water Losses ~0
Manifest Hardware 1.37
ECLSS Consumable Expended 0.81
Consumable Remaining 0.09
Food Expended 2.71
Food Remaining 0.30
Hab Structure 17.88
Subtotal (w/ 20% margin) 23.15
BNTR (x2) 5.67

Transfer-3 External Radiation Shield
5.60
(x2)
LH2 Tanks (x5) 25.90
Propulsion Section
Cryocooler System (x5) 0.56
RCS System 0.176
RCS Tanks (x17) 0.25
Subtotal 177.31
Solid Oxide Fuel Cell 0.02

Liquid Methane 0.02
Liquid Oxygen 0.12
Power
Brayton Cycle Radiator 1.5
Subtotal 1.65
EDL Orion w/ Service Module 25.861
Fuel Mass 165.00

Totals Fuel Tank Mass 26
ECLSS Disposable Mass 3.51
Total 233.45
Note: Subsystem masses based on a reference descent vehicle [19].
20
Table 12: Burn Timeline for Transfer-1
Burn Date ΔV
Earth Escape February 22nd 2031 4.01 km/s
Midcourse Correction June 5th 2031 0.79 km/s
Mars Orbit Insertion November 24th 2031 1.78 km/s
Mars to Earth Transfer October 24th 2033 7.31 km/s
Earth Slow Down June 6th 2034 2.30 km/s
Earth Orbit Insertion* June 6th 2034 2.30 km/s
Total - 18.69 km/s
Note: *Indicates burn performed by Orion.
Burn Date ΔV
Earth Escape November 12th 2032 5.78 km/s
Mars Slow Down July 18th 2033 1.04 km/s
Total - 6.82 km/s
Burn Date ΔV
Earth Escape April 15th 2033 3.66 km/s
Midcourse Correction June 17th 2033 1.09 km/s
Mars Orbit Insertion September 14th 2033 2.33 km/s
Low Mars Orbit Transfer September 19th 2033 1.187 km/s
Areosynchronous Orbit Transfer October 18th 2033 1.187 km/s
Total - 7.08 km/s
Table 15: BNTR Performance and System Details [2]

BNTR Details
Engine Type 2 BNTR LEU-CERMET cluster
UO2-W CERMET elements
60% UO2, 34% W, 6% Gd2O3
Fuel Element Hexagonal cross section ~4.3 cm
48 coolant channels
Length ~86.4 cm
Core Power ~530 MWt
Propellant LH2
Thrust Level 111 kN-class
Thrust to Weight ratio ~4.0
Exhaust Temperature ~2700 K
Chamber Pressure ~6895 kPa
1.93 m long
Nozzle 1.75, exit diameter
Area Ratio ~300:1
Isp ~910 s
Core power level: ~530 MWt
Power
Fuel Matrix power density: ~3.52 MWt/liter
Table 16: NTP and Chemical Propulsion Crewed Mission Trade Study
Burn NTP – LH2 (kg) Chemical – LH2 and LOX
Transfer-3 470,000 4,400,000
Transfer-1 80,000 255,000
21
Transfer-2 37,000 108,000
Total 587,000 4,736,000
* assume no movement of fuel tanks from the Ascent/descent vehicle to the CTV in Mars Orbit and no drop tanks
for either propulsion systems
Table 17: Reaction Control System Details
RCS Details
Engine Type AMBR Thruster
Isp 335 s
Thrust 889.644 N
Mass 5.5 kg
Inlet Pressure 400 psia
Chamber Pressure 275 psia
Expansion Ratio 400:1
Propellant NTO / MMH
Oxidizer/Fuel Ratio 1.2
Number of Engines (per cluster) 4
Number of Clusters 8
Table 18: RCS Propellant Mass Breakdown
Transfer-2 Transfer-1 Transfer-3

NTO (Oxidizer) 327.40 kg 8853.93 kg 763.94 kg
MMH (Fuel) 272.84 kg 7378.28 kg 636.62 kg
Table 19: Transfer-3 Involved RCS Maneuvers
# Maneuver Location Orientation

1 LEO Rendezvous and Docking/ Test RCS Low Earth Orbit Rotations about all axes
2 Setting course trajectory Low Earth Orbit Rotations about all axes
3 Coast Attitude control Transfer Orbit Rotations about all axes
Control orientation to set for Mid-Course
4 Transfer Orbit Rotate about axis
correction propulsion position
Control orientation to set into retrograde Approaching
5 Rotate about pitch axis
propulsion position Mars
6 Mars Orbit maintenance High Mars Orbit Retrograde
Retrograde (Transfer-3); Prograde
Crew module and Orion undocking High Mars Orbit
(Module)
Retrograde (Transfer-3); Prograde
7 Lander-2 docking in orbit to Transfer-3 High Mars Orbit
(Lander-2)
Lander-2 undocking to Mars from Transfer- Retrograde (Transfer-3); Prograde
8 High Mars Orbit
3 (Lander-2)

1 LEO Rendezvous and Docking/ Test RCS Low Earth Orbit Rotations about all axes
22
Control orientation to set for Mid-Course
4 Transfer Orbit Rotate about axis
correction propulsion positioning
propulsion positioning Mars
6 Mars Orbit maintenance High Mars Orbit Prograde
Retrograde (Lander-2); Prograde
7 Lander-2 undocking High Mars Orbit
(Transfer-1)
Retrograde (Module); Prograde
8 Crew module docking High Mars Orbit
(Transfer-1)
Retrograde (Lander-2); Prograde
9 Orion docking/undocking High Mars Orbit
(Transfer-1)
10 Setting course trajectory High Mars Orbit Rotations about all axes
Control orientation to set into retrograde
12 Transfer Orbit Rotate about pitch axis
propulsion positioning

1 LEO Rendezvous and Docking/ Test RCS Low-Earth Orbit Rotations about all axes
propulsion positioning Mars
Table 22: Fuel Cell Operational Parameters

Vehicle Operating Time Required O2 (kg) Required CH4 (kg)
Transfer-2 43 minutes 0.954 0.478
1.5 months crewed
Rover-1 1843.52 789.87
2.5 months uncrewed
23
Figure 14: BNTR Schematic
Table 23: Radiation Shield Details

Category Shield Subsection Details
Inner Shield Diameter 1.584 m
Outer Shield Diameter 1.660 m
Shield Angle 7.722°
Beryllium 0.18 m
Element Lengths Tungsten 0.05 m
Lithium Hydride 0.05 m
Beryllium 0.675 t
Element Masses Tungsten 2.042 t
Lithium Hydride 0.083 t
Total Mass 2.802 t
Table 24: Launch Vehicle Pairing
Falcon SLS Block
New Glenn Starship
Heavy 1B
Fuel Tanks - 25 - If Available
Lander-2 1 - - If Available
Lander-1 + Rover-1 1† - - If Available
Habitation Module 1† - - If Available
Orion + Crew + Logistics module - - 1 -
Nuclear Propulsion Engines 3 - - -
Payload Volume (m3 )/Cost (millions $) 2.6355 3.02 1.131 34.35
24
Total 6 25 1 If Available
† Requires an extended fairing.
Table 25: LH2 Fuel Tank Metal Structure

Material Tank Internal Pressure (Pa) Radius (m) Yield Strength (mPa) Thickness* (cm)
Al-Li 2198
275790 (40 psi) 3.175 407 0.2689
(AirWare)
*1.25 safety factor for thickness
Table 26: LH2 Fuel Tank Materials/Passive Cooling Systems
Areal Density Volumetric Mass Thermal Conductivity
Component Thickness (cm)
(g/m2) Density (g/cm3) (kg) (W/m⋅K)
Al-Li 2198
0.2689 - 2.7 2632.5 95.3
(AirWare)
3.455
LBMLI 1140 - 411.31 0.000088203
(19 layers)
0.635
- 0.5 mm Al (side)
BAC - 15 mm Al
1230 - 443.78 -
Shield (top/bottom)
- 0.635 cm steel tubes
outer diameter
2.54 (20 layers) 800
IMLI - 829.84 7x10-5
5.08 (20 layers) 1500
Total* 11.9789 - - 5180.92 -
*1.2 margin for total mass
Table 27: RCS Fuel Tank Metal Structure

Material Tank Internal Pressure (Pa) Radius (m) Yield Strength (mPa) Thickness* (cm)
Al-Li 2198
2758000 (400 psi) 0.5 407 0.4235
(AirWare)
*1.25 safety factor for thickness
Table 28: RCS Fuel Tank Materials/Passive Cooling Systems

Areal Density Volumetric Mass Thermal Conductivity
Component Thickness (cm)
(g/m2) Density (g/cm3) (kg) (W/m⋅K)
Al-Li 2198
0.4235 - 2.7 36.23 95.3
(AirWare)
3.455
LBMLI 1140 - 5.418 0.000088203
(19 layers)
2.54 (20 layers) 800
IMLI - 10.93 7x10-5
5.08 (20 layers) 1500
Total* 11.4985 - - 63.095 -
*1.2 margin for total mass
Table 29: LH2 Tanks Active Cooling Systems
Mass Storage Temperature Specific Specific Input
Lift (W)
(kg) (estimate) (K) Power (W/W) Mass (kg/W) Power (W)
20K-20W
99 20 48 3.6 960 16.5
Cryocooler
25
90K-150W
42 55 9 0.36 1350 94
Cryocooler
Total 141 - - - 2310 110.5
Table 30: Fuel Tank Characteristics for Various Vehicles

Thickness Surface Area Heat Leak* Volume Capacity Boil-off Overall Fuel
Fuel
(cm) (m2) (W) (m3) (t) (kg/day) Loss** (kg)
LH2 11.9789 360.8 110.02 440.8 34.435 0 0
Transfer-1
Liquid 11.9789 2.664 0.614 0.0545 0.023 0.00471 5.72
CH4
Transfer-1
11.9789 2.619 0.650 0.0403 0.046 0.264 320.39
LOX
Transfer-2
Liquid 11.9789 2.495 0.575 0.00113 0.000478 0.0044 1.159
CH4
Transfer-2
11.9789 2.494 0.619 0.000836 0.000954 0.251 66.03
LOX
Transfer-3
Liquid 11.9789 2.674 0.617 0.0576 0.0243 0.00473 1.139
CH4
Transfer-3
11.9789 2.809 0.697 0.100 0.114 0.283 68.17
LOX
Rover-1
Liquid 11.9789 8.428 1.943 1.869 0.7899 0.0149 5.41
CH4
Rover-1
11.9789 7.623 1.891 1.616 1.844 0.7675 278.59
LOX
Transfer-1
RCS 11.4985 4.7527 0.03382 0.5236 0.52577 0.001426 1.733
(MMH)
Transfer-1
RCS 11.4985 4.7527 0.39234 0.5236 0.7504 0.3437 417.60
(NTO)
Transfer-2
RCS 11.4985 4.7527 0.03382 0.5236 0.52577 0.001426 0.375
(MMH)
Transfer-2
RCS 11.4985 4.7527 0.39234 0.5236 0.7504 0.3437 90.39
(NTO)
Transfer-3
RCS 11.4985 4.7527 0.03382 0.5236 0.52577 0.001426 0.344
(MMH)
Transfer-3
RCS 11.4985 4.7527 0.39234 0.5236 0.7504 0.3437 82.83
(NTO)
*1.2 margin for heat leak
**calculated using mission duration for each vehicle
Note: Rover, RCS figures calculated using [30]
26
Appendix B: ECLSS Calculations, Tables, and Figures
Table 31: Water Recovery and Management Distillation Selection
Treatment Cycle
Technology TRL ESM Rank
Level Closure
Ionomer Membrane Distillate 5 395.4 kg 0.98 -
Cascade Distillation System (CDS) Distillate 6 180.9 kg 0.93 -
Supercritical Water Oxidation (Liquid only) Potable 3 435.0 kg 1.00 1
Vapor Phase Catalytic Ammonia Removal Potable 4 476.4 kg 0.98 2
CDS and Ionomer Membrane Distillate 5 576.3 kg 0.98 3
Air Evaporation System Distillate 5 825.9 kg 0.98 4
Flash Evaporation Distillate 4 1412.1 kg 0.97 5
Vacuum Pyrolysis Distillate 4 1521.4 kg 0.95 6
Vapor Compression Distillation Distillate 9 1552.5 kg 0.70 7
Thermoelectric Integrated Membrane System Distillate 6 1580.7 kg 0.91 8
Supercritical Water Oxidation (Solids) Potable 3 1724.0 kg 1.00 9
*Minimum TRL of 4 required for selection. Values as of the preliminary trade study and may not reflect the final
design.
Table 32: Water Recovery and Management Filtration Selection

Technology Treatment Cycle
TRL ESM Rank
Level Closure
Reverse Osmosis Potable 6 473.1 kg 0.85 1
Multi-filtration Potable 9 668.1 kg 0.999 2
Electrodialysis Potable 4 1305.5 kg 0.95 3
* Values as of the preliminary trade study and may not reflect the final design. Filtration is not needed for distillation
methods which produce potable water.
Table 33: Waste Processing Selection

Technology Net
TRL ESM Rank
Performance
Liquid Germicide 9 63.86 kg - -
Trash to Gas Reactor (Pyrolysis) 4 523.7 kg 170.7 kg 1
Heat Melt Compactor (HMC) 5 398.0 kg 167.8 kg 2
Mechanical Compactor 9 264.0 kg 38.4 kg 3
Storage 9 92.3 kg - 4
Waste Supercritical Water Oxidation 3 802.6 kg - 5
Vacuum Desiccation 2 914.1 kg - 6
Incineration 2 928.6 kg - 7
Plasma Arc Oxidation 3 5146.0 kg - 8
Electrochemical Oxidation 2 43578.9 kg - 9
*Values as of the preliminary trade study and may not reflect the final design. Net Performance is calculated by
subtracting the ESM of the technology from the ESM gained by processing the waste.
27
Table 34: Atmosphere Revitalization Selection
Technology – Carbon Dioxide Removal TRL ESM Rank
Solid Amine Water Desorption 8 108.4 kg 1
Four Bed Molecular Sieve 9 286.0 kg 2
Liquid Absorption 3 373.0 kg 3
Hydrogen Concentrator 3 468.9 kg 4
Carbonation Cell 3 609.3 kg 5
Electrodialysis 4 832.1 kg 6
Mechanical Freezeout 3 978.5 kg 7
Membrane Diffusion 3 1044.7 kg 8
Lithium Hydroxide 9 3234.4 kg 9
Technology – Carbon Dioxide Reduction TRL ESM Rank
Sabatier Reactor 9 59.7 kg 1
Bosch Reactor 6 234.4 kg 2
Technology – Oxygen Generation TRL ESM Rank
Static Feed Water Electrolysis 8 132.6 kg 1
Solid Polymer Water Electrolysis 9 177.6 kg 2
High Pressure Storage 9 2218.9 kg 3
Oxygen Candles 9 4960.6 kg 4
*Values as of the preliminary trade study and may not reflect the final design.
Table 35: ECLSS System Reliability
Subsystem Reliability Spare Mass Spare Volume

Water Recovery and Management .9998 460.7 kg 1.33 m3
Waste Management .9990 612.0 kg 1.84 m3
Atmosphere Recovery .9991 996.3 kg 1.45 m3
Fluid Control System .9992 576.0 kg 0.68 m3
Total .9971 2645.5 kg 5.28 m3

*Reliability values based on a product of individual component level reliabilities calculated separately.
𝑛𝑛𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑛𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
**Total reliability given by 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = ∏𝑖𝑖=1 ∏𝑗𝑗=1 1 − 𝛤𝛤(𝛼𝛼 = 𝑛𝑛𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 + 1, 𝜃𝜃 = , 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 𝑡𝑡𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 )
𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
28
Table 36: Daily Schedule of Operations
Time Crew Transfer Vehicle Rover – Driving Day Rover – EVA Day
Schedule A Schedule B Schedule A Schedule B Schedule A Schedule B
0:00 Sleep Sleep Sleep Sleep Sleep Sleep
6:30 Meal Hygiene Meal Hygiene Meal Hygiene
7:00 Hygiene Meal Hygiene Meal Hygiene Meal
7:30 Recreation Recreation Recreation Recreation Recreation Recreation
9:00 Maintenance Exercise Maintenance Maintenance Maintenance Maintenance
10:30 Exercise Meal Prep Science Science Science Science
12:00 Meal Meal Meal Meal Meal Meal
13:30 Recreation Recreation Recreation Recreation EVA Prep EVA Prep
13:45 Recreation Recreation Recreation Recreation EVA EVA
14:00 Recreation Exercise Recreation Exercise EVA EVA
15:30 Exercise Recreation Exercise Recreation EVA EVA
17:00 Recreation Recreation Recreation Recreation Post EVA Post EVA
18:00 Meal Meal Meal Meal Meal Meal
19:00 Work Work Driving Recreation Recreation Recreation
20:00 Recreation Recreation Recreation Driving Recreation Recreation
21:00 Sleep Sleep Recreation Recreation Recreation Recreation
21:30 Sleep Sleep Sleep Sleep Sleep Sleep
*Half of astronauts are on Schedule A and the other half are on Schedule B for the duration of the mission.
29
Appendix C: Theme Requirement Matrix
Table 37: Theme Requirement Matrix
Requirement Location
Achieve the first human landing on another planet. Introduction
Entry, Descent and

Landing (EDL) and
Ascent Systems
Search for life on Mars. Science Mission

A crew of four for the mission, with two going to the surface of Mars while two Introduction
remain in orbit to support the surface mission.
The surface mission will last approximately 30 days. Trip Route
The crew will have access to a pressurized rover to enable mobile exploration Rover Structure
around the landing site.
This rover will be capable of drilling core samples to support the search for life. Rover Structure
The mission will leave from Earth no later than December 31st, 2035. Mission Timeline
Orbital Analysis
Up to 3 landers, each with a capacity to deliver 22 t to the surface of Mars, can be Mission Architecture
used for deploying all surface elements, including (but not limited to) the ascent
vehicle, ascent propellant, pressurized rover, and crew. Entry, Descent and
Landing (EDL) and
Ascent Systems
Proposed designs should be consistent with human spacecraft requirements Environmental Control
addressed in NASA Technical Standards 3000 and 3001 and NASA’s Human and Life Support Systems
Integration Design Handbook (HIDH), and the physiological countermeasures (ECLSS)
identified in NASA standards should be addressed.
Surface Mission
30
Appendix D: References
[1] D. Burden, "The Accepability of Reactors in Space," Los Alamos Scientific Lab, Los Alamos, 1981.
[2] D. R. M. a. T. W. P. Stanley K. Borowski, "Conventional and Bimodal Nuclear Thermal Rocket (NTR)
Artificial Gravity Mars Transfer Vehicle Concepts," NASA Glenn Research Center, 2016.
[3] L. J. Sonny Mitchell, "Nuclear Thermal Propulsion Update," Space Technology Mission Directorate,
Marshall Space Flight Center, 2019.
[4] M. E. Stewart, "A Historical Review of Cermet Fuel Development and the Engine Perfomrance Implications,"
NASA Glenn Research Center, 2015.
[5] NASA, "Space Technology Game Changing Development Nuclear Thermal Propulsion (NTP)," National
Aeronautics and Space Administration, 2018.
[6] L. C. Liou, New Frontiers AO: Advanced Materials Bi-propellant Rocket (AMBR) Engine Information
Summary, NASA Glenn Research Center, 2008.
[7] D. R. M. T. W. P. Stanley K. Borowski, "Nuclear Thermal Propulsion (NTP): A Proven Growth Technology
for Human NEO / Mars Exploration Missions," NASA Glenn Research Center, 2012.
[8] T. L. Cable, J. A. Setlock, S. C. Farmer and A. J. Eckel, "Regenerative Performance of the NASA Symmetrical
Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Design," Applied Ceramic Technology, pp. 1-12, 2011.
[9] K. S. Blinn and M. Liu, "BaZr0.9Yb0.1O3−δ-modified bi-electrode supported solid oxide fuel cells with
enhanced coking and sulfur tolerance," Journal of Power Sources, pp. 24-28, 2013.
[10] T. L. Cable and S. W. Sofie, "A symmetrical, planar SOFC design for NASA's high specific power density
requirements," Journal of Power Sources, pp. 221-227, 2007.
[11] A. Biswas, H. Hemmati and I. B. Djordjevic, "Deep-Space Optical Communications: Future Perspectives and
Applications," Proceedings of the IEEE, pp. 2020-2039, 2011.
[12] R. Berger and et al, "Quad-core radiation-hardened system-on-chip power architecture processor," 2015 IEEE
Aerospace Conference, pp. 1-12, 2015.
[13] Canadian Space Agency, "Canadarm, Canadarm2, and Canadarm3 – A comparative table," 20 May 2019.
[Online]. Available: https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/iss/canadarm2/canadarm-canadarm2-canadarm3-
comparative-table.asp. [Accessed 25 May 2020].
[14] J. Wilson, "Space Shuttle: The External Tank," NASA, 5 March 2006. [Online].
[15] S. Clark, "SpaceX drawing up plans for mobile gantry at launch pad 39A," 3 January 2020. [Online].
Available: https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/01/03/spacex-drawing-up-plans-for-mobile-gantry-at-launch-
pad-39a/. [Accessed 23 May 2020].
[16] "Airware 2198-T8 Fuselage Sheet," Constellium, 2017.
[17] D. Plachta, J. Hartwig, J. Stephens and E. Carlberg, "Zero-Boil-Off System Trades Applied to Nuclear
Thermal Propulsion," International Cryocooler Conference, Inc, Boulder, 2018.
[18] S. Dye, W. Johnson, D. Plachta, G. Mills, L. Buchanan and A. Kopelove, "Design, fabrication and test of
Load Bearing multilayer insulation to support a broad area cooled shield," Elsevier, 2014.
[19] A. D. Ciancolo, R. A. Dillman, A. J. Brune, R. A. Lugo, T. P. Polsgrove, T. K. Percy, S. G. Sutherlin and A.
M. Cassell, "Human Mars Entry, Descent and Landing Architecture Study: Deployable Decelerators," in AIAA
SPACE and Astronautics Forum and Exposition, Orlando, 2018.
[20] A. D. Cianciolo, R. A. Lugo, A. M. Korzun, A. C. Slagle, E. M. Queen, R. A. Dillman and R. W. Powell,
"Low Lift-to-Drag Morphing Shape Design," in AIAA SciTech Forum, Orlando, 2020.
[21] A. Ross, R. Rhodes and S. McFarland, "NASA Advanced Space Suit Pressure Garment System Status and
Development Priorities 2019," in 49th International Conference on Environmental Systems, Boston, 2019.
31
[22] N. S. Kilkenny, "Reinventing the Wheel," NASA, 26 October 2017. [Online]. Available:
https://www.nasa.gov/specials/wheels/. [Accessed January 2020].
[23] M. I. M. Esfahani, M. Mosayebi, M. Pourshams and A. Keshavarzi, "Optimization of Double Wishbone
Suspension System with Variable Camber Angle by Hydraulic Mechanism," International Journal of
Mechanical and Mechatronics Engineering, vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 60-67, 2010.
[24] B. Glass, A. Davila, V. Parro, R. Quinn, P. Willis, W. Brinckherhoff, K. Zacny, J. Diruggiero and M.
Williams, "Atacama Rover Astrobiology Drilling Studies Project: Second Year," Earth and Space 2018,
2018.
[25] V. Parro, G. D. Diego-Castilla, J. A. Rodríguez-Manfredi, L. A. Rivas, Y. Blanco-López, E. Sebastián, J.
Romeral and C. Compostizo, "SOLID3: A Multiplex Antibody Microarray-Based Optical Sensor Instrument
forIn SituLife Detection in Planetary Exploration," Astrobiology, vol. 11, no. 1, pp. 15-28, 2011.
[26] R. Wiens, S. Maurice, K. McCabe and P. Cais, "The SuperCam Remote Sensing Instrument Suite for Mars
2020," 47th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference, 2016.
[27] E. R. Fuller and J. W. Head III, "Amazonis Planitia: The role of geologically recent volcanism and
sedimentation in the formation of the smoothest plains on Mars," Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets,
vol. 107, no. E10, pp. 11-1-11-25, 2002.
[28] C. M. Dundas, A. M. Bramson, L. Ojha, J. J. Wray, M. T. Mellon, S. Byrne, A. S. McEwen, N. E. Putzig, D.
Viola, S. Sutton, E. Clark and J. Holt, "Exposed subsurface ice sheets in the Martian mid-latitudes," Science,
vol. 359, no. 6372, pp. 199-201, 2018.
[29] R. Webb, "Propulsion Cost Model (PCM)," in International Cost Estimating and Analysis Association,
Huntsville, 2019.
[30] A. Majumdar, T. Steadman and J. Maroney, "Numerical Modeling of Propellant Boiloff in Cryogenic Storage
Tank," NASA, 2007.
[31] B. A. Cohen, D. Devismes, J. S. Miller and T. D. Swindle, "The Potassium-Argon Laser Experiment (KArLE):
In situ geochronology for planetary robotic missions," 2016 IEEE Aerospace Conference, 2016.
[32] R. W. H. G. N. L. W. J. Humble, Space Propulsion Analysis and Design, McGraw Hill, 1995.
[33] Quest Thermal Group LLC; Ball Aerospace & Technologies Corp., "Integrated Multilayer Insulation Family:
Advanced Thermal Insulation," Quest Thermal Group LLC; Ball Aerospace & Technologies Corp..
32

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SHIELD

Space Habitat for Interplanetary Exploration and Life

Illinois Space Society

Daniel Engel Aaron Feng Jacob Hawkins Noah Henricks

Justin Herman Brody Lauer Kirk Shen Leck Eric Monson

Spencer Murdoch Komol Patel Peter Sakkos Varnit Sinha

Bella Watters Kyle Young Jeffery Zhou

Faculty Advisors: Michael F. Lembeck, Ph.D. & Zachary R. Putnam, Ph.D.

Figure 1: SHIELD Mission Timeline

Table 1: SHIELD Technology Development Summary

Technology Anticipated Maturation Year

Figure 2: Transfer-1 Orbital Maneuvers (Drop Tanks Not Accounted For)

Figure 3: Transfer-2 Orbital Maneuvers

Figure 4: Transfer-3 Orbital Maneuvers

Figure 5: The Rendezvous Maneuvers Required in Martian Orbit.

Figure 6: The SHIELD Crew Module ECLSS Connectivity Diagram

Table 2: Consumables and Associated Hardware Mass

Figure 7: SHIELD Crew Module Rack Topology

Figure 8: SHIELD Crew Module Interior Layout

Figure 9: Transfer vehicles with Payloads

Figure 10: Exterior View of Rover-1

Figure 11: Rover-1 Interior Layout

Site Site Name Site Location Description Distance from

Figure 13: Cost Over Time Analysis for SHIELD

Year Payload(s) Launch Vehicle(s)

Table 6: Mass Budget for Transfer-1

Vehicle Vehicle Subsection Subsystem Mass (t)

BNTR (x2) 5.67

Fuel Mass 636.06

Vehicle Subsystem Mass (t)

Table 8: Mass Budget for Transfer-2

Vehicle Vehicle Subsection Subsystem Mass (t)

BNTR (x2) 5.67

Fuel Mass 69.43

Vehicle Vehicle Subsection Subsystem Mass (t)

Fuel Mass 5.23

Vehicle Vehicle Subsection Subsystem Mass (t)

Mars 2020 Supercam 0.01

Solid Oxide Fuel Cell ~0

Fuel Mass 5.23

Vehicle Vehicle Subsection Subsystem Mass (t)

Subtotal (w/ 20% margin) 23.15

BNTR (x2) 5.67

Solid Oxide Fuel Cell 0.02

EDL Orion w/ Service Module 25.861

Fuel Mass 165.00

Table 15: BNTR Performance and System Details [2]

Table 18: RCS Propellant Mass Breakdown

Transfer-2 Transfer-1 Transfer-3

Table 19: Transfer-3 Involved RCS Maneuvers

# Maneuver Location Orientation

Table 20: Transfer-1 Involved RCS Maneuvers

# Maneuver Location Orientation

Table 21: Transfer-2 Involved RCS Maneuvers

# Maneuver Location Orientation

Table 22: Fuel Cell Operational Parameters

Table 23: Radiation Shield Details

Table 25: LH2 Fuel Tank Metal Structure

Table 27: RCS Fuel Tank Metal Structure

Table 28: RCS Fuel Tank Materials/Passive Cooling Systems

Table 30: Fuel Tank Characteristics for Various Vehicles

Table 32: Water Recovery and Management Filtration Selection

Table 33: Waste Processing Selection