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Tibetan Buddhist Essentials VOL 2
Tibetan Buddhist Essentials VOL 2
These texts and other material are available for free download at: TenzinTharpa.com
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[i]
Tibetan Buddhist Essentials: Volume Two / Venerable Tenzin Tharpa
Venerable Tharpa took full monastic ordination with His Holiness the Dalai Lama in Dharamsala
India. Subsequent to ordination, Venerable Tharpa accepted an invitation to be the first West-
erner to study at the renowned Gyudmed Tantric Monastic University in South India.
Well known for his pragmatic, no-nonsense approach to the teachings, his ability to clarify
complex philosophical points for all audiences, and his familiarity with all forms of Buddhist
thought and non-Buddhist traditions as well, Venerable Tharpa is quickly becoming a valued
teacher for our modern multicultural age. Currently, Venerable Tharpa resides at Sera Je Mon-
astery in Bylakuppe, South India.
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Dear reader,
Thank you for your interest in this text. I hope it brings to you the clarity and insight that you
seek. In my writing, I endeavor to make the Buddha's teachings available to a wide audience,
while also striving to convey to the reader the positive, life-affirming joy that permeates the
Buddha's teachings, yet is often lost or overlooked in dry translations. For when understood
properly, every aspect of the Buddha's teachings pertains to freedom and liberation: freedom
from our daily self-imposed suffering, and liberation from mundane and unsatisfactory exist-
ence. In the spirit of the Buddha's vast generosity, all of my work, be it teaching or writing, is
always free. If you enjoy this text and would like to see work of this nature continued, please
consider lending your support.
Tenzin Tharpa
Venerable Tenzin Tharpa
Sera Jey Monastery - 2018
Bylakuppe, India
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Tibetan Buddhist Essentials: Volume Two / Venerable Tenzin Tharpa
These texts and other material are available for free download at: TenzinTharpa.com
[iii]
Tibetan Buddhist Essentials: Volume Two / Venerable Tenzin Tharpa
Praise to Manjushri
I bow down to you, O Manjushri. With the brilliance of your wisdom,
O compassionate one, illuminate the darkness enclosing my mind.
Enlighten my intelligence and wisdom so that I may gain insight into
the Buddha's words and the texts that explain them.
Manjushri is the manifestation of the Buddha's wisdom and the deity that represents trans-
cendent insight and discriminating awareness. It is tradition to start Tibetan Buddhist texts with
prayers and praise to this eminent bodhisattva whose flaming sword symbolizes blazing en-
lightened wisdom that cuts through ignorance, afflictions, and delusions. Most Tibetans start
their day by reciting his mantra. It can be heard at the crack of dawn in every monastery and
Tibetan community being recited by monks, nuns, and devoted lay people.
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Tibetan Buddhist Essentials: Volume Two / Venerable Tenzin Tharpa
Dedication
_____________________________________________________________________
Additionally, I would like to dedicate this text to the monks of Sera Jey Ngari House Group.
Sera Jey Ngari Khangtsen, Bylakuppe, South India.
_____________________________________________________________________
Lastly, I dedicate this text to those who inspired this work and continue to inspire me:
Venerable Lobsang Dorje, Venerable Tendhar, my big sister Nalini Ramesh, Mary Ann Chang,
Linda Noble, the Mowat family, the Aieta family, Alex Hayes, Jewan Kaur, Sammy Squire,
Elroy Fernandes, Suzanne Kanatsiz, Kris and Pete Barnes, Thomas Winzeler, Andrew
Bresnen, Linus Hammarstrand, Rob Miller, and Dave Nagy.
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Tibetan Buddhist Essentials: Volume Two / Venerable Tenzin Tharpa
Table of Contents
Preface vii
Introduction x
Karma 13
Merit 20
Dependent origination 22
Emptiness 27
The two truths 32
No-self 39
What constitutes a person 39
The five aggregates 40
Mind and consciousness 41
The Buddha’s unique presentation of person 46
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APPENDIX 121
Buddhist symbols, ritual Implements, and paraphernalia 122
Foundational deities 130
Glossary of Buddhist terms 132
Recommended reading 172
Bibliography 176
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Preface
In the winter of 2013, during a teaching at Sera Monastery in South India, His Holiness the 14th
Dalai Lama expressed the wish for monastics to engage in and share a broader view of Bud-
dhism: a view that celebrates the wealth of Buddhist thought as expressed through its many
traditions; a view that values, and is knowledgeable of, the greater spiritual community at
large. This text is the culmination of that wish.
His Holiness continuously emphasizes that Tibetan Buddhists need to study diligently, be well-
informed, and be grounded in facts, logic, and reason. They need to embrace a broader world
view, cultivate an understanding that includes many disciplines of investigation, and utilize all
the tools at one’s disposal, or in his own words:
The importance of a broad view cannot be overstated. Not only is a broad view a more logical
approach to study, by including many different sources of information leading to a more com-
prehensive base of knowledge; a broad view also allows one to contrast and compare, resulting
in a more holistic understanding and view which is essential in cultivating reliable conclusions.
Moreover, in my own experience, practitioners with a broad view tend to be more humble,
open minded, rational, and less dogmatic and sectarian.
The inspirations for this text were many. Initially, I was inspired by friends who enjoyed lis-
tening to me share my contemporary thoughts on Buddhism and requested that I write a pro-
gressive text that could be studied and shared. I agreed for I also believed a modern text shar-
ing the thoughts of today’s progressive masters was indeed needed. Here I define progressive
masters as those who work to demystify Buddhism, ushering it out of its traditional religious
presentation and into a more rational and practical approach. This style of presentation is one
through which many believe the Buddha always intended his teachings to be shared. Some of
these modern progressive masters include: His Holiness the 14th Dalai Lama, Lama Thubten
Yeshe, Dzongsar Khyentse Rinpoche, Geshe Tashi Tsering, Geshe Thubten Jinpa, Prof. Jay Gar-
field, Prof. Jeffery Hopkins, Prof. Richard Gombrich, Jetsunma Tenzin Palmo, Stephen and Mar-
tine Batchelor, Alan Wallace, S.N. Goenka, and Jack Kornfield, to name a few.
Additionally, I created this text to share with others, while clarifying for myself, the
knowledge and experience I have gained from my many years of study in Tibetan monasteries
throughout India, Nepal and Tibet, including teachings I received from some of today’s great
living masters, foremost that of my own teacher His Holiness the 14th Dalai Lama. Through my
experience, I have found that within Tibetan monasteries, the style and approach to Buddhist
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Tibetan Buddhist Essentials: Volume Two / Venerable Tenzin Tharpa
study and practice are often different from the styles predominantly presented in the West,
with monasteries offering a more rational and practical approach–a fact that a majority of
Westerners are simply not aware of. Westerners are also not aware of the many different styles
and variety of choices available to them when exploring Buddhism–choices that can greatly
shape one’s experience. Finally, in the tradition of many students and scholars before me, this
text serves as my culminating thesis marking the completion of my sutra education at the mo-
nastic universities of Sera Jey Monastery and Gyudmed Tantric Monastery in South India. This
text shares the authentic presentation of Buddhism as taught within Tibetan monasteries and
universities, assembled into an easily accessible and no-nonsense format. This text was written
as objectively as possible. However, in the end, it is impossible to keep out one’s bias altogeth-
er, for inevitably one chooses or cherry picks the information that they favor, believing it to be
the most accurate and relevant to share–the information they believe best captures the es-
sence of the Buddha’s teachings.
I wrote this text with three types of readers in mind: the first, everyday people like many of
my friends back home–hard working people that are simply too busy trying to sustain their lives
to have the time for in-depth study. My intention was to undergo formal study and then to
compile what I have learned so they too can taste the path of freedom for themselves. Second-
ly, this text was created for Buddhist teachers looking for a modern authentic presentation of
Tibetan Buddhism that can serve as a basic teaching outline to be further expounded upon.
Thirdly, this text is intended for those who wonder if their own critical and rational mindset
makes their beliefs incompatible with Buddhism. For I have come to find a growing group that I
believe is unrepresented within the Buddhist community. People who are drawn to the practi-
cal wisdom of the Buddha, but often feel disaffected by the more religious and/or cultural
presentations found in many of the Western Buddhist groups they have investigated. People
who seek the Buddha's sensible and practical methods for improving and finding fulfillment and
purpose in their lives, but may not know where to begin. For all those who can identify with
this…this text is for you.
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Tibetan Buddhist Essentials: Volume Two / Venerable Tenzin Tharpa
As the cover of this book states, this text presents an expansive and contemporary worldview
of Tibetan Buddhism for readers of diverse backgrounds, ideologies, and beliefs. It serves as a
voice for today’s progressive Buddhist masters, offering a clear, concise, and transparent
presentation of Buddhism, and Tibetan Buddhism in particular. This text highlights the work of
modern Tibetan and Western Buddhist scholars alike and their skillful efforts in transmitting the
authentic Buddhist teachings to a new generation of students. The material in this text, once
understood, forms a basic foundational education in Tibetan Buddhism. Once one is comforta-
ble with the topics contained in this text, they may consider themselves as having a reasonable
working knowledge of the subject.
This text is divided into three volumes and is meant to be studied in sequential order.
Volume one, Introduction, Origin, and Adaptation, begins with a broad view of the origin and
various adaptations of Buddhism, while also introducing the reader to essential elements that
are shared by all Buddhist traditions, elements that must be understood in order to compre-
hend the later volumes. The second volume, The Buddha's Teachings, moves onto a more for-
mal presentation of the Buddha’s actual teachings. The third volume, Engaging Buddhism, out-
lines what is involved in engaging with the Buddhist path, including a detailed account of Bud-
dhist study and practice. Customarily texts that introduce Buddhism do so from a scriptural
and/or religious viewpoint, whereas this text, while still offering the traditional scriptural
presentation, also offers the historical as well as modern scholastic views. The intention behind
this was to present a comprehensive text that favors an objective and open presentation, while
at the same time pointing out beliefs that are obviously dogmatic, unlikely, and/or mere super-
stition. I will be sharing the presentation of Buddhism from my own chosen path of study—that
of the Gelug School of Tibetan Buddhism as currently taught by His Holiness the 14 th Dalai La-
ma. This is done not out of partiality, but practicality, allowing me to write from my personal
experience and field of expertise. Comparisons are made between traditions when necessary,
but this being an introductory text, information is kept as clear and straightforward as possible.
The Buddhist philosophical view presented in this text is the view of the Middle Way Conse-
quence School within the Mahayana tradition (Skt. prasangika madhyamika; Tib. uma talgyur).
The Middle Way Consequence view is shared by all schools of Tibetan Buddhism, a view origi-
nating from the legendary Indian University of Nalanda in Bihar, India (c. 500 BCE - 1197 CE).
This text then follows the further interpretations of the Middle Way Consequence School as-
serted by the renowned Tibetan master Lama Je Tsongkhapa, founder of the Gelug School of
Tibetan Buddhism. Traditionally, Buddhist study as taught within monasteries is a long and te-
dious undertaking, with monastics often spending half of their education on preliminary and
foundational studies before ever reaching the final philosophical view. Because of this, monks
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Tibetan Buddhist Essentials: Volume Two / Venerable Tenzin Tharpa
who leave the monastery prematurely, although having studied for years, may know very little
about the Buddha’s actual teachings. For this reason, this text, although being introductory,
shares the full and final view of Lama Tsongkhapa and the Gelug school.
Some believe it is misguided to try to assert a single definitive final view, for to this day the
Buddhist view continues to be debated and pondered, with many prominent masters holding
different views. However, for the sake of creating a clear and comprehensive basic presenta-
tion, I believe there is more than enough agreed upon material to posit a standard view. Addi-
tionally, because the final view is a mixture of sutra and tantra teachings, positing it for the nov-
ice was challenging. Therefore this text will primarily follow the Gelug sutra presentation, while
incorporating aspects of the tantric teachings when deemed necessary in order to present an
accurate and complete picture of Tibetan Buddhism and the Tibetan Buddhist view.
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Tibetan Buddhist Essentials: Volume Two / Venerable Tenzin Tharpa
ia, where he has taught for more than three decades. He has authored more than twenty-five
books on Tibetan Buddhism and from 1979 to 1989, he was the Dalai Lama's chief interpreter.
A pioneer in the study and translation of Tibetan Buddhism, he is considered by many to pos-
sess the clearest and most valid views on the subject.
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Tibetan Buddhist Essentials: Volume Two / Venerable Tenzin Tharpa
demically, we have scholars that can compare and contrast the various Buddhist scriptures, all
within their respective languages (Pali, Sanskrit, Tibetan, Chinese, and Japanese), a develop-
ment in Buddhist scholarship previously unheard of. But one of the greatest tools at our dispos-
al that past scholars lacked, is history. For although Buddhist history has existed, each tradition
only preserved its own isolated account. It is only recently that all of these various records of
Buddhist history have become readily accessible for comparison. Additionally, and possibly
more significantly, we now possess a broad overview of the history of successes and failures of
the various Buddhist traditions, their philosophies, doctrines, practices, innovations, work at
integration, propagation, sustainability, etc., allowing us to determine what have been proven
truly beneficial and also what have been obstacles to the actualization, propagation, and
preservation of the Buddha's teachings. This means that today we are capable of a level of in-
vestigation that is far greater than ever before. This should not be seen as a threat to traditional
Buddhism, but simply as the latest development in a long tradition of continuous innovation
that began over twenty-six-hundred years ago. By continuing to investigate and substantiate
both the validity of Buddhism’s claims as well as potential benefits of its practices, we aid Bud-
dhism in two ways: firstly, by clearly demonstrating both the universality and legitimacy of the
Buddhist teachings and showing Buddhism to be a safe and effective path. And secondly, by
providing reassurance to those currently traversing the Buddhist path that their efforts are in-
deed advantageous.
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countries—I’ve chosen to use the terms Westerners and Western culture. This was done simply
for the lack of a better term. This Western-Eastern terminological division is of course common
and longstanding in many disciplines, including philosophy, religion, medicine, sociology, aca-
demia, literature, etc. This dichotomy is cultural and technological, not geographical, and it is
purely conceptual, lacking any fixed borders. In this context, the term Western can be seen as
akin to the terms modern or contemporary. I understand this can be seen as being insensitive to
my Asian friends who may feel left out by the terms, including monks from my monastery,
many of whom are from the various neighboring Himalayan countries outside of Tibet, who I
classify here as Tibetans. I apologize to anyone I may offend through this manner of classifica-
tion. With that said, although I intended this text to speak to a world audience, I often uncon-
sciously find myself slipping into dialogue with the Western audience, an occurrence I did not
intend.
In conclusion
My hope is that this text may inspire and bring a freshness to the Buddha’s teachings for a new
generation of students. Those who are bright, confident, and discerning, who put reason before
blind faith, who use logic and critical investigation to explore the world of ideas around them,
those who are not afraid to ask the tough questions.
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Acknowledgments
I would like to thank the following people for their help in validating the information in this
text. It is due to their efforts that this text may be recommended confidently and freely as a re-
liable and accurate source of information for students wishing to develop a basic understanding
of authentic Tibetan Buddhism, as well as a credible outline for teachers to expound upon with-
in their own teachings and classrooms.
From Sera Jey Monastery, Bylakuppe, South India (Gelug School of Tibetan Buddhism)
Geshe Ngawang Sangye, Geshe Tenzin Namdak, Venerable Tenzin Gache, Venerable Tenzin
Legtsok, Venerable Tenzin Thinly, Venerable Jampa Topgyal, Venerable Lobsang Samphel, Ven-
erable Ngawang Khunphel, Venerable Tenzin Namjong, and Venerable Lobsang Lekshe.
Additionally
Ngarampa Sangye Tsultrim - Gyudmed Tantric Monastery, South India (Gelug School)
Khenpo Sonam Tsewang - Namdroling Monastery, South India (Nyingma School)
Khenpo Thupten Phuntsok - Tsechen Dongag Choeling Monastery, South India, (Sakya School)
Muni Shri Raivat Bhushan - Sri Suvidhinath Rajendrasuri Jain temple, Mysore, South India.
Any mistakes in this text are solely my own and not that of my wonderful teachers.
May all beings benefit from any merit gained from this work.
.
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The Three Higher Trainings (Skt. trisiksa; Tib. lhagpe labpa sum)
Ethics (Skt. adhisilasiksa; Tib. tsultim kyi labpa): Holding vows and/or monastic precepts,
altruistic responsibility, cultivating virtue, abstaining from the ten non-virtuous actions.
Concentration (Skt. samadhisiska; Tib. tingngedzin kyi labpa): The method aspect of the
path pertaining to the development and stabilization of one’s mind and mental faculties.
Wisdom (Skt. prajnasiksa; Tib. sherab kyi labpa): The wisdom aspect of the path pertain-
ing to the development of insight and the proper understanding of the Buddha’s teach-
ings.
Concentration Wisdom
Ethics
Note: The three higher trainings are often thought of as a practice primarily for monastics.
However, according to His Holiness, this is a mistake, asserting that these three foundational
trainings should be practiced by all, as their primary practice.
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The four noble truths (Skt. catvaryaryasatya; Tib. pakpe denpa shi) are believed to be the Bud-
dha’s first teachings following his enlightenment. It was at a deer park in what is today’s
Sarnath, India, near the city of Varanasi, that the Buddha, in front of his first five disciples,
shared his experience of attaining enlightenment and the knowledge that emerged from that
experience. The phrase noble truth can be understood as that which is perceived as true by a
noble or superior being. The four noble truths, besides being the Buddha’s first and most fa-
mous teaching, also serves as the framework for all Buddhist thought. It’s said that all of the
Buddha’s wisdom is contained within these four truths. It’s important to understand that these
four truths known by noble beings are not assertions based merely on a surface level examina-
tion of life, but instead on the subtlest and most profound level of analysis.
Note: His Holiness, when sharing this teaching, explains that these truths should not be seen
merely within the context of one’s individual life, but rather in the context of humanity as a
whole.
The 1st Noble Truth - The truth of suffering (Skt. duhkha-satya; Tib. dukngal kyi denpa):
The first noble truth asserts that unenlightened existence (samsara) of ordinary beings is per-
vaded by suffering (pain, misery, anxiety, disappointment, dissatisfaction, and insecurity). This
truth doesn’t refute the fact that we experience happiness within our lives, but asserts that the
happiness we find is unstable, unreliable, fleeting, and often out of our control. The first noble
truth merely underscores the problems and unsatisfactory nature of ordinary existence. I think
the rock group the Rolling Stones said it best when they sang, I can’t get no satisfaction, though
I try, and I try, and I try, and I try. Some claim that Buddhism is overly focused on suffering–this
is a mistake. The focus of the Buddha’s teachings is on liberation from suffering. However, to
accomplish this, we first need to clearly understand just what suffering is.
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Tibetan Buddhist Essentials: Volume Two / Venerable Tenzin Tharpa
1. Outright suffering (Tib. dukngal kyi dukngal): Common physical, mental, and emotional
pain we experience daily (e.g. burning one’s hand on the stove, sickness, the emotional
pain of heartbreak, or fear and anxiety). This also includes suffering pertaining to daily
problems, obstacles, as well as the suffering of not getting what we want or getting
what we don’t want.
2. The suffering of change (Tib. gyurwe dukngal): A constant form of suffering in our lives
is our opposition to the most fundamental principal of existence, that of change. How-
ever, change itself is not the problem, because the nature of change is neither one of
happiness or suffering. Our suffering arises from our desire and aversion to change. Our
desire for change can be seen in the desire of children to grow up, the desire for ex-
citement, for improvement, to live a life of purpose, etc., and our desire for things to
remain the same is seen in our aversion to aging, our fear of the future, etc.
At a deeper level, the suffering of change pertains to the cyclic nature of ordinary
happiness and suffering. Because ordinary beings are born within samsara, even our
happiness is imbued with the seeds of suffering. I think we all have experienced pleas-
ures that at some point lose their appeal and become undesirable, or possibly even ag-
onizing. Relationships are a clear example. At the beginning, relationships can be blissful
and seemingly perfect, but as we all know, over time these feelings inevitably change
and can potentially manifest as feelings of jealousy, codependency, fear of rejection,
loss of interest, and even revulsion. Even if all goes well, both partners will eventually
suffer while watching each other grow old, become sick, and die.
Holidays are another example of how ordinary happiness has within it the seed of
suffering. When preparing for that long-awaited holiday, we study brochures, book our
hotel, buy our plane tickets, and envision the perfect holiday, but within our plans grow
the seeds of suffering. Slowly, as the holiday begins, our exaggerated fantasies begin to
unravel. We find the hotel room is not as nice as we hoped, the food is merely ade-
quate, or maybe we find it is too touristy, etc. Then there is the inevitable disappoint-
ment and suffering at the end of the holiday knowing that the fun has ended and once
again we must return to work. This illustrates how something which appears pleasurable
can actually be a source of future suffering.
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Tibetan Buddhist Essentials: Volume Two / Venerable Tenzin Tharpa
One last analogy is to imagine living in a house with only two rooms, one hot and the
other cold. When becoming too hot while staying in the hot room we feel relief that is
experienced as happiness/pleasure when entering the cold room, but after some time
we become too cold and alternatively feel relief when returning to the hot room. This
analogy illustrates the deepest understanding of the suffering of change, a truth that is
often a bit disheartening for new students. The fact that what we often experience and
believe to be happiness is nothing more than the relief of suffering (e.g., holiday is the
relief from work; fun is the relief from boredom; prosperity is the relief from poverty;
family, friendship, and community are the relief of loneliness).
“There is pleasure when a sore is scratched, but to be without sores is more pleasur-
able still. Just so, there are pleasures in worldly desires, but to be without desires is
more pleasurable still.” ~ Nagarjuna
Buddhism asserts that due to being born into samsara, all aspects of unenlightened ex-
istence are imbued with suffering, even that which we label happiness. In fact, the
terms ordinary happiness and suffering of change are considered synonymous within
Buddhism.
“When Lord Buddha spoke about suffering, he wasn't referring simply to superficial
problems like illness and injury, but to the fact that the dissatisfied nature of the
mind itself is suffering. No matter how much of something you get, it never satisfies
your desire for better or more. This unceasing desire is suffering; its nature is emo-
tional frustration.” ~ Lama Yeshe
Happiness
To help clarify the suffering of change and to lighten up the dialogue a bit, I thought this
would be a good time to talk a little more about happiness. As previously mentioned,
the aim of the Buddhist path is liberation from suffering–meaning happiness. However,
according to the Buddha, ordinary beings are simply unacquainted with what true hap-
piness is. We mistakenly believe that happiness is found outside of ourselves, never re-
alizing that since the mind is the source of our reality, the mind is logically also the
source of our happiness and suffering. The Buddha taught that true happiness and its
blissful levels of peace, contentment, and joy are simply unimaginable to most ordinary
beings. Within Buddhist texts, true happiness is often described as a non-contingent
bliss that never diminishes but continually increases–a perpetually joyous state. With
that said, the Buddha posited true happiness as our true nature and taught that all be-
ings posses the potential for its attainment. Within Buddhism, happiness can be divided
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Tibetan Buddhist Essentials: Volume Two / Venerable Tenzin Tharpa
into two types, the true happiness of superior beings and the mundane happiness of or-
dinary beings.
True happiness: A happiness that arises from the wisdom that correctly under-
stands the true nature of oneself and reality; a lasting happiness that can be cul-
tivated and increased infinitely, which doesn’t diminish or lead to suffering; a
happiness that is rarely experienced by ordinary beings.
3. All pervasive suffering (Tib. kyabpa duche kyi dukngal): This type of suffering is the root
of the prior two sufferings as well as the most important and subtle of the three. It is
the primary suffering the Buddha referred to when saying, suffering must be under-
stood. This third suffering posits that within all unenlightened beings lie the seeds of
our suffering, meaning that merely possessing a mind and body is a cause for suffering.
This foundational suffering, though very subtle, pervades and influences every aspect
of our lives. The term pervasive refers to the fact that unenlightened existence, at its
very core, is permeated by this type of suffering, a suffering that shares many similari-
ties with the Western concept of existential anxiety–that existence itself is marked by
anxiety, fear, and worries pertaining to prosperity, survival, and angst that arises from
not knowing what will happen. Dzogchen Ponlop Rinpoche describes all pervasive suf-
fering as a subliminal panic that is all pervasive in every living heart. A favorite modern
composition that I think brilliantly exemplifies all pervading suffering is by Mark Epstein
from his book, The Trauma of Being Alive:
“If we are not suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder, we are suffering from pre-
traumatic stress disorder. There is no way to be alive without being conscious of the po-
tential for disaster. One way or another, death (and its cousins: old age, illness, acci-
dents, separation, and loss) hangs over all of us. Nobody is immune. Our world is unsta-
ble and unpredictable, and operates, to a great degree and despite incredible scientific
advancement, outside our ability to control it.” ~ Mark Epstein
The 2nd Noble Truth - The truth of the cause of suffering (Skt. samudaya satya; Tib. kunchung
we denpa): The second noble truth pertains to the cause of suffering (samsara), asserting that
ignorance is the root of all suffering. The term ignorance used in this context is a very specific
type, a foundational confusion and misapprehension of one’s true nature and the true nature
of reality. It's from this ignorance that the mental distortions of attachment, aversion, and de-
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Tibetan Buddhist Essentials: Volume Two / Venerable Tenzin Tharpa
sire for continued existence arise, which are the very causes for continued rebirth in samsara
and the suffering which that entails.
The 3rd Noble Truth - The truth of the cessation of suffering (Skt. nirodha-satya; Tib. gokpe
denpa): The third noble truth pertains to the cessation of suffering (nirvana) and an assurance
from the Buddha that the irreversible liberation from all suffering is indeed possible. This is
something the Buddha himself had experienced directly, an experience that liberated him for-
ever from samsara. The cessation of suffering is attained through the elimination of its root
cause which is ignorance, because when we eliminate the root cause of suffering, we eliminate
the suffering as well. The cessation of suffering is achieved through the practice of the Buddha’s
noble eightfold path.
The 4th Noble Truth - The truth of the path leading to the cessation of suffering (Skt. marga
satya; Tib. lam kyi denpa): The fourth noble truth pertains to the Buddhist path leading to the
cessation of suffering (nirvana). This path is referred to as the eightfold path, and is the direct
antidote that eliminates the causes of suffering at their root; a holistic methodology that inte-
grates and utilizes all aspects of one’s life.
The Noble Eightfold Path (Skt. aryastangamarga; Tib. pagpelam yanlak gyüpa):
1. Right view: Accurately understanding the four noble truths and the Buddhist view.
2. Right intention: Renunciation (the wish for freedom), benevolence, and compassion.
3. Right speech: Avoiding lying, slander, gossip, harsh words, idle chatter, and abuse.
4. Right action: Pure ethical behavior that conforms to the accurate view of the teach-
ings (e.g., avoiding killing, stealing, or committing the ten nonvirtuous acts, etc.)
5. Right livelihood: Avoiding work that directly or indirectly harms sentient beings. Live-
lihood here is not merely occupation but refers to the way in which one sustains their
life. Simply said, to avoid manipulating others to get what we want (through flattery,
hinting, coaxing, seeking reward, or means of force.)
6. Right effort: To meditate diligently on the accurate understanding of the teachings.
7. Right mindfulness: To focus properly and fully upon one’s object of meditation.
8. Right concentration: Gaining meditative stability free of laxity and excitement; a sta-
bility that acts as an antidote to obstructions, leading to the attainment of positive
qualities.
Understanding our suffering (pertaining to the first and second noble truths).
As mentioned earlier, the Buddha found that our suffering is psychological in nature and creat-
ed by our misunderstanding and misapprehension of the true nature of oneself and reality.
However, according to the Buddha, suffering isn’t an innate aspect of our existence but instead
is self-imposed; conversely, our true nature and the enlightened state are marked by the ab-
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sence of any and all suffering. Often, when teaching suffering, there is always one person in the
room who stands up and states, I’m doing pretty good; I’m relatively happy; I’m not suffering.
However, underlying this confident statement of presumed happiness and security lies a hidden
existential truth we all share: that life as we know it is unstable. Stock markets crash, loved
ones become sick, spouses leave, and jobs and money are lost. The truth is that life is unpre-
dictable, erratic, and change often comes without warning. One minute we are successful,
loved, and feel invincible–the next minute we are contemplating what went wrong and how it
could all slip away. We go from jumping into the air because we have fallen in love, to jumping
off a bridge because they have left us. Furthermore, even when things are going well, how hap-
py can any of us truly be when we continuously see the horrendous suffering of our fellow be-
ings every time we turn on the television or pick up a newspaper?
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Through suffering we develop compassion, empathy, and understanding for others. Through
suffering we develop courage, strength, and perseverance through which we strive to better
ourselves and our lives. Furthermore, it’s through our shared suffering that we connect and
bond with each other. For how can one practice patience and perseverance without adversity,
or know genuine compassion without firsthand knowledge of the suffering of others? By ac-
knowledging this, although we clearly don't wish to suffer, when suffering does arise, we can
appreciate the advantages it brings. For without suffering, spiritual and personal development
would simply not be possible.
“Think of yourself as someone who is sick, that the dharma as the remedy, your spiritual
teacher as a skillful doctor, and diligent practice as the way to recovery.” ~ The Buddha
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What truly sets Buddhism apart from all other traditions is the Buddha’s unique model of the
nature of reality (Tib. chö nyi). It is an often complex model that mirrors a complex universe, a
model established upon the following topics of karma, dependent origination, emptiness, and
the two truths. It can be said that, in one way or another, all of the Buddha’s teachings and pre-
scribed practices, as well as the Buddhist path itself, can be seen as pertaining to the cultiva-
tion, habituation, and correct understanding of the Buddha’s model of reality.
As shared earlier in this text, karma (Skt.; Tib. le) is the driving force behind samsara, cyclic ex-
istence, and rebirth. Karma is a term that encompasses the process of cause and effect when
pertaining to the lives of sentient beings, asserting that all actions whether physical, verbal, or
mental have consequences. Within most Indian traditions, karma is commonly translated as
action; however, the Buddha further defines karma as intentional action (deliberate action),
asserting intention to be the most significant aspect of karma. Karma, or intentional actions–
either positive, negative, or indifferent–performed by body, speech, or mind, subsequently
produce karmic imprints or potentialities upon the mind. These imprints then lead to future
karmic results that correspond with the nature of those actions, with positive or virtuous ac-
tions leading to positive results (happiness and favorable rebirth), and negative or non-virtuous
actions leading to negative results (suffering and unfavorable rebirth). Besides being the cause
of samsaric rebirth, karma is also the cause of the conditions of that rebirth (one’s parents,
health, abilities, prosperity, longevity, etc.), and of course karma plays a crucial role in our lib-
eration.
Karma, being intentional action, can only be produced by a mind. Other phenomena, includ-
ing planetary events, universal properties, weather, etc., although governed by the law of cause
and effect, can never produce or possess karma. Additionally, because of being a form of cause
and effect, karma lacks any moral judgment or discernment between good or bad, fair or un-
fair, reward or punishment, nor should it be seen as pertaining to blame, retribution, or venge-
ance. Within Buddhism, karma is considered the single most encompassing element of ordinary
existence. In fact, at its deepest level, it is posited as the very force behind the creation of our
physical universe and its inhabitants (created by the mind, karma, and subtle particles). Mistak-
enly assumed to be an effect or result of one’s actions, karma technically should be understood
as a cause–the cause of future results.
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Karma should not be seen as a static or fixed property but instead as existing interdependently
and interrelational in a state of constant change continuously being influenced by one’s interac-
tion with new experiences, new views, changing feelings, as well as other beings and their own
distinct karma. Thus karma is not a form of predetermination, destiny, or fate, nor is it related
to notions such as coincidence and luck, which are rejected by Buddhism. Instead, karma
should be understood as probable potentiality–the probable potential of future results.
“Our happiness and pain depend on others and their happiness and pain depend on us. It is
important to recognize this. We are a part of others and others are a part of ourselves.”
~ 17th Gyalwang Karmapa, Orgyen Trinley Dorje
One example that illustrates the probable potentiality of karma is a person who has a karmic
propensity for an early death. By engaging in risky behavior, they create causes and conditions
which increase the potentiality for their karmic propensity of an early death to ripen and its ef-
fects to be experienced. However, if they adopt safer behaviors, the ripening of that karmic
propensity can be postponed, avoided, or in some cases completely averted. This shows karma
not as a fixed determination or destiny but instead as an ever-changing potentiality.
Another example is a person who possesses a karmic potentiality for anger, but who also
had the good fortune to marry a wonderful and kind spouse who taught them how to work
with their anger. When the person’s karmic propensity for anger arises, the results will be far
different because of the influence of their spouse. This shows how one’s present state of mind
and interrelations with others has an enormous effect on how karmic results unfold, including
how karma is interdependent at every stage of its development. Having said that, conversely,
karma is also posited as infallible. This infallibility is seen in the irrefutable fact that all things,
without exception, arise from causes and conditions. This is true of all external phenomena, but
also all inner phenomena (thoughts, emotions, intentions, moods, ideas, etc.). It’s said that for
buddhas who have the ability to comprehend its complexity, karma is predictable. However, for
ordinary beings, the complex workings of karma are impossible to predict or to fully under-
stand. In fact, because of its complexity, the Buddha within his teachings on the four imponder-
ables (shared later in this text) urged his followers not to become overly preoccupied contem-
plating the endless possibilities of the results of karma, lest they become confused and/or dis-
tracted from their actual practice of attaining liberation.
Points of contention
There are various presentations of karma within the different Buddhist traditions. Within those
there are two important questions worth mentioning: Do buddhas possess karma? and Is kar-
ma generated if there is no intention or knowledge of the action? In the first case, the Gelug
school asserts that all beings including buddhas possess karma, although generally the term
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karma pertains to samsara and cyclic existence, and therefore is not commonly used when re-
ferring to a buddha’s very subtle karma–a karma asserted to be very different from our own.
Secondly, the Gelug asserts that even without intention or knowledge of our actions, very mi-
nor karma is still created (e.g., the countless insects killed without our knowledge when driving
a car).
Note: There are two views pertaining to which of these five aspects is technically karma. One
view claims that actual karma to be one’s motivation, intention, or urges. However, on the de-
bate grounds of Sera Jey Monastery, karma is asserted as the intentional action itself.
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desserts. However, karma is not a form of determinism, for we are not prisoners of our karmic
imprints. One doesn’t have to eat cake every time it is placed in front of oneself, for we have
free will and can choose not to act.
Cyclic nature
Karmic imprints Intentional action
of karma
Completion of action
Karmic imprints (Skt. vasana; Tib. bakchak): Karmic imprints are created when our feelings be-
come involved, as a kind of mental/emotional residue left behind from feelings related to our
intentions, thoughts, actions, reactions, and experiences. Karmic imprints influence and distort
our perceptions, choices, and actions, thereby coloring and shaping our current as well as fu-
ture thoughts and experiences. Often the influence of one’s karmic imprints is imperceptible,
manifesting simply as what information is noticed and taken in and what information is ignored
and discarded. Because these imprints often manifest in deep habitual patterns that we have
followed over countless lifetimes, they can be very challenging to work with (not just habitual
behaviors but also habitual mental states and wrong views). Some imprints can be so strong
they are impossible for us to resist, while others are more manageable. Buddhism teaches that
our karmic imprints don’t dissolve at death but instead follow and influence us through many
lifetimes. In fact, most of the karmic results we currently experience are said to have been cre-
ated in prior lives. This often makes the reasons behind our successes and misfortunes hard to
trace and fully understand, while at the same time potentially answering the question, why do
bad things happen to good people?
Karmic imprints are often illustrated as being like seeds, and with every intentional action
carried out, a karmic seed or imprint is created in the mind. Buddhism posits that these karmic
seeds remain dormant until the proper conditions arise, and only if and when those conditions
arise will the effect of that ripened karmic seed then be experienced. If conditions don’t arise or
the karma has been purified, then no karmic result will be experienced. Stronger imprints are
asserted as being more prone to ripen within one’s current lifetime and weaker imprints more
prone to ripen in future lifetimes. Karmic seeds or imprints also pertain to skills and talents
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(proficiency in study, practice, or unique abilities) traits that can follow one into future rebirths,
and although needing to be relearned, it's said that they are reacquired more easily. In fact, Ti-
betan school children recite prayers avowing that their hard work in studies–even up to the day
before their death–is never wasted, for the positive imprints created will make their studies in
the next life easier.
Karmic result (Skt. karmaphala; Tib. le ki debu): The effects or results of one’s intentional ac-
tions. Due to the countless possible causes and conditions that can arise, a karmic result can
manifest in countless different ways. Stronger intentions and actions potentially create stronger
karmic results, whereas aspects like great regret potentially lessen the result of negative karma.
Furthermore, intentional actions started but not completed would also have a lesser or weaker
result. Generally, the results of karma are posited as three main types:
1. Ripening result (Skt. vipakaphala; Tib. namin ki debu): A result influencing the form and
personal specifics of one’s next rebirth.
2. Result similar to the cause (Skt. nisyandaphala; Tib. gyu thun ki debu):
1) A result of a similar effect; reaping what one sows.
2) A result of the urge to continue to perform the action.
3. Environmental result (Skt. adhipatiphala; Tib. dakpö debu): A result influencing the envi-
ronment into which one will be reborn.
Example: the mind that creates the act of killing creates the potential to experience:
1. The ripened result: Of an unfavorable form in one's rebirth.
2. The result similar to the cause:
1) Of being killed oneself.
2) The propensity to kill again.
3. The environmental result: Of being born into a violent place.
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"All aspect of one's life are a precise representation of one's current karma." ~ Tenzin Tharpa
"Karma is a flowing stream in which we abide. A current of potentiality which carries us.
However, we are not aware of the fact that we are the creators of the stream, as well as the
navigators. We are not aware that through every thought, word, and deed we are influenc-
ing its direction." ~ Tenzin Tharpa
Free will
One’s will (Tib. düpa) is defined in Buddhism as the mental activity of engaging the mind, draw-
ing it to virtue (understanding and liberation), non-virtue (ignorance and suffering), or an ethi-
cally neutral state. Although Buddhism asserts the concept of free will, it also posits the will as
not entirely free, claiming that our choices are influenced strongly by our karmic imprints, while
at the same time asserting that we are far more than the mere sum of those imprints.
According to Buddhist scholar Alan Wallace,
“Although all feelings that arise together with one’s initial awareness of sensory stimuli are
the result of past karma, the feelings that arise following such stimuli are not predetermined
by past karma but are rather the result of fresh karma associated with the way one responds
to those stimuli. And so acts of volition are conditioned both by prior influences as well as by
other factors, such as the quality of one’s awareness. In this sense, Buddhism asserts a
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measure of free will in so far as one can reflect on one’s options and decide on the best
course of action in terms of its moral suitability.” ~ Alan Wallace
Wallace goes on, defining free will as the ability to recognize the various impulses that arise in-
voluntarily in the mind and to choose which among them to accept or reject.
Group karma
Since karma is created by intentional action, then, logically groups can produce karma as well,
with the results of that karma being experienced by all members of the group. Examples of this
are people that align themselves with group ideologies (religions, political parties, etc.).
Through accepting or condoning the actions of the group, one is exercising the intentional men-
tal action of choice and thereby creating and perpetuating the group's karma while also creat-
ing personal karma for oneself.
Purifying karma: To limit or avoid experiencing the results of one’s karmic imprints.
Although there are prescribed methods for purifying non-virtuous of negative karma, often the
most recommended way is to simply focus on the accumulation of new virtuous karma. One
must be ever vigilant and aware of one’s present actions and the karmic consequences that are
being generated at this very moment, and take full responsibility for each and every word, deci-
sion, and action from this moment on. With that said, a commonly prescribed method for puri-
fying past karma is the application of the four opponent powers. By strongly reflecting on the
intentional action committed and then applying these four opposing powers, one can limit the
effects of negative karma accumulated.
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Divisions of karma
Karma can be divided into:
Neither contaminated or uncontaminated karma: Created by beings in meditative eq-
uipoise on impermanence, selflessness, or emptiness.
Uncontaminated karma (Tib. zag me kyi le): Created by superior beings while practicing
generosity, good works, etc. However, a very subtle ignorance is still present.
Contaminated karma (Tib. zag ke kyi le): Created by ordinary beings.
(contaminated by ignorance and related afflictions)
Divisions of karma
Neither contaminated or uncontaminated
Any being in meditative equipoise on impermanence,
selflessness, or emptiness
Karma
Uncontaminated karma
Of superior beings while practicing Meritorious moving karma
generosity, good works etc. Leading to a more favorable rebirth
Virtuous karma
Contaminated Karma Meritorious unmoving karma
Of ordinary beings Leading to rebirth in the form and
Nonvirtuous karma formless realms
Merit (Skt. punya; Tib. sönam): Positive mental imprints created through virtuous thought,
speech, or actions that result in happiness in the future. Merit is generated through one's good
works (giving, abiding in virtue, mental development, protecting life, holding vows, and interac-
tion with holy beings, sacred places, or sacred objects). Often there is confusion pertaining to
differences between merit (Tib. sönam) and virtuous karma (Tib. gewa le). Generally the two
terms are synonymous and differ only in their terminological usage.
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The collection of merit (Tib. sönam tsok): Collecting merit is one of the two prerequisite accu-
mulations needed for the attainment of buddhahood (the collection of great wisdom and the
collection of great merit) and pertains to the practice aspect of the path.
Merit field (Skt. punyaksetra; Tib. tsok shying): Also known as field of accumulation or refuge
field, an assemblage of visualized or actual superior beings used as the focus of one’s practice
of generating merit. Because of the vast power of the buddhas and superior beings, it is be-
lieved that to direct one’s practices, offerings, deeds, and/or prayers to them, one can generate
greater merit. A merit field is often represented by a refuge or lineage tree, which is a visual
representation/painting of buddhas, bodhisattvas, and past masters of a distinct school or line-
age painted as a massive glorious tree with the Sangha of superior beings abiding upon its
branches.
The Dedication of merit (Skt. parinama; Tib. ngoba): The act of offering one’s virtue for the
benefit of all beings. Also known as the transfer of merit, this practice begins once merit has
been generated, at which point it is believed crucial to then dedicate the merit in order to stop
it from potentially being damaged by one's own afflictive emotions. In other words, by dedicat-
ing collected merit, one assures its safe collection, because it’s said that moments of anger have
the effect of postponing or destroying the benefits of one’s accumulated merit that has not
been dedicated. A simple way of dedicating merit is to reflect upon the virtuous act performed
while reciting the phrase: May all beings benefit from any merit I may have gained.
I often think the practice of generating and collecting merit is misunderstood, with many
seeing the practice as similar to making deposits of goodness into a bank account in order to
pay for one’s future enlightenment. However, according to the Indian Buddhist master
Shantideva, the generation and collection of merit is not so much about gaining goodness as it
is about displacing one’s attachments and afflictions–transforming one’s negative qualities into
their positive counterparts. One example is the meritorious practice of generosity in which the
practice can be seen not so much as earning goodness, but rather displacing one’s miserliness.
“To be generous doesn't merely mean to give without bias and partiality; it means to be pro-
foundly free from attachment to anything whatsoever.” ~ Padmasambhava
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function or conceptual understanding for a base to be considered valid. In the case of a camera,
a valid base for imputation would be a machine that takes photographs.
"The meaning of dependent origination must be taken further and understood not only as
causal dependence but also as ‘dependent designation’: The idea that the identity of a thing
can only be conceived in dependence on other factors and not in and of itself."
~ The 14th Dalai Lama
According to the Gelug school, reality itself becomes manifest through the act of imputation by
a mind in dependence upon causes, conditions, and parts. These causes, conditions, and parts,
in turn, exist in dependence upon imputation on their own parts, and those parts in depend-
ence upon imputation on those parts, etc. Even consciousness itself, though not having physical
parts, is asserted as having temporal parts (instances and various moments of consciousness).
This role of imputation implies that reality, existence, and phenomena necessarily require a
consciousness to certify their existence, meaning that the known cannot exist without the
knower, and vice versa. This relationship is referred to as object and object possessor (Tib. yul
and yul chen), asserting that nothing exists outside of this mutually dependent relationship of
the mind and what the mind perceives.
“Nothing exists independent from the mind. The mind is the principal ingredient in all phe-
nomenon and reality.” ~ Geshe Tashi Tsering
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“The identity and being that the world possesses are said to be only contingent. However,
that is not to say that no reality exists outside of our language and thought. Fire still burns,
water still quenches our thirst, and sentient beings are still born under the influence of their
karma.” ~ Thupten Jinpa
“Is touching a wall just touching a name?…The answer is ‘no’. Thinking that apart from the
name nothing else exists is an extreme of nihilism.” ~ Khensur Jampa Tegchok
The Buddha often described life as dream-like but he never asserted that life was a dream, or
that phenomenon did not actually exist. For the Buddhist path is the middle way between the
extreme views of nihilism–the view that nothing exists, and absolutism–the view that phenom-
ena are inherently existent. With that said, there are some Buddhists who assert reality as a
mere illusion created or projected by the mind, but for them to hold the view that things do not
exist at all, would be to fall into nihilism, at which point their view could no longer be consid-
ered Buddhist.
“The world debates with me, I don’t debate with the world. Whatever the world posits as ex-
istent, I accept as existent, and whatever the world posits as non-existent, I accept as non-
existent.” ~ the Buddha
“For the most part, people in this world are trapped in the duality of ‘it is’ and ‘it is not’, but
for one who sees with complete wisdom the arising of the world, there is no “It is not.”
~ the Buddha
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combined with unseen particles, create the physical environment that we experience. Accord-
ing to the great Indian Buddhist master Chandrakirti, in his Supplement to the Middle Way,
“It is taught that all forms of life are produced by karma but without the mind there would be
no karma, so it’s the mind itself that creates living beings, and the great variety of worlds
where they live.” ~ Chandrakirti
"The universe that we inhabit and our shared perception of it are the results of a common
karma. Likewise, the places that we will experience in future rebirths will be the outcome of
the karma that we share with the other beings living there. The actions of each of us, human
or nonhuman, have contributed to the world in which we live. We all have a common respon-
sibility for our world, and are connected with everything in it.” ~ The 14 th Dalai Lama
His Holiness asserts that it is difficult to determine where the natural expression of the poten-
tial of physical elements ends and the effect of karma begins because there is a very close link
between cognition and matter. Here, it’s important to understand that the mind does not so
much create matter as validate or certify its existence, imputing meaning, relativity, and/or
function, giving phenomena its conceptual and contextual existence.
“The mind creates the world in the sense that it invests the phenomenal world with value.”
~ Jeffery Hopkins
“Observed phenomena don’t exist as mere images, projections or visions in the mind but ra-
ther exist as separate entities from the mind. The mind and matter are two separate things.
Matter is separate from the mind that cognizes and dominates it. And although observed
phenomena are not simply created by a mind, their ultimate mode of existence is dependent
upon the mind, so the mind doesn’t create the matter but the matter is dependent on the
mind that imputes it as the imputer. Therefore, their mode of existence is separate from the
imputer but their existence is dependent upon the imputer. Their mode of existence is sepa-
rate but their existence is dependent. Nothing can exist independently from the mind which
perceives it.” ~ Dalai Lama
1) Earth (solidity)
2) Water (cohesion) Matter
3) Fire (heat)
4) Wind (mobility) The universe
5) Space
6) Consciousness
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“It is the mind itself in combination with subtle unseen particles that create living beings, and
the great variety of worlds where they live.” ~ Chandrakirti
“Reality is an experiential phenomenon, not one that has an objective existence independent
of our experience of it.” ~ Nagarjuna
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Emptiness (Skt. sunyata; Tib. tongpa nyi): Synonymous with voidness, suchlessness, essence-
lessness, and identitylessness. The term emptiness pertains to the doctrine that all phenomena,
both external and internal, are empty of inherent existence. Again, the term inherent existence
is defined as that which is self-existent and self-sufficient; possessing a substantial independent
essence. Therefore, when asserting that all phenomena lack inherent existence, we are assert-
ing that when, through analysis, we dissect phenomena eliminating all parts, we find there is
nothing remaining which is distinctly that thing. That no single aspect can be found that exists
independently from other things. That phenomena are empty of any objective essential es-
sence that distinguishes them as uniquely themselves. Essence here is defined as an inherent
element or intrinsic characteristic which makes something uniquely itself. According to the Bud-
dha, this imagined imputed essential essence that we presume inhabits all phenomena simply
doesn’t exist. This can be seen as similar to images in a mirror, in which the images clearly exist
(as actual reflections) but ultimately lack any true essence. Buddhism asserts that all phenome-
na exist in a similar manner. It’s important to remember that emptiness, used in its Buddhist
context, does not pertain to physical space or vacuity.
This notion that we actively impute an imagined essence upon phenomena and our environ-
ment coincides with our prior topic of nominal existence–that all phenomena exist through
name and label imputed by the mind. Take a book, for example. If we create a list of what ele-
ments constitute a book, we would have two covers, a few hundred sheets of paper, ink, and
binding or thread to hold it together. But when we analyze what book is, there is no element
book on our list; none of those parts are book. This absence of book is the book’s emptiness; its
lack of inherent existence. This doesn’t mean book is empty of being a book–for if book were
empty of itself, there would be no book. Instead, it means that book exists nominally, as an im-
puted label, term, or concept, imputed in dependence upon its parts, causes, and conditions.
Some may argue that book is simply its assembled collection of parts. However, those parts
and/or collection of parts are, in their own right, also empty and exist in dependence upon their
own parts, and those parts dependent on their own parts, and so forth. Additionally, book re-
quires more than its collections of parts to exist; it also necessarily requires a mind to: 1) vali-
date it, 2) determine and perceive those assorted parts to be a unique object, and 3) impute its
function–for only a mind can recognize that a book is an object meant to be read. Only a mind
has the ability to distinguish the object (the collection of assembled parts) on the table as a
book and not simply a paperweight, or any other object.
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Two covers
Many sheets of paper
Ink
Binding
However,
No item "book" on our list.
Again, to be very clear, when asserting that phenomena exist nominally, merely by label and
concept, this doesn’t imply that only labels exist. When I pick up a book, clearly I’m picking up
more than a linguistic term. I’m picking up that which the label book is imputed in dependence
upon. Let’s again use our previous analogy of the internet. As mentioned earlier, the internet is
made up of many individual computers from around the world, with no one computer that is
the internet. The internet clearly exists: you can get online, check your email, read the news,
but internet is not inherently existent; there is no aspect one can point to and say this is inter-
net. Internet is empty of any inherent essential essence and exists merely as an imputed con-
cept and label, imputed in dependence upon countless individual computers–computers which
in turn exist only through dependence upon their own labels and parts.
Within Tibetan monasteries, emptiness is explained by way of negation, in the same way we
previously explained nirvana by way of negation. Where nirvana is the absence of afflictions in
the mind, emptiness is the absence of inherent existence of phenomena. Again, it’s important
to understand that the concept of emptiness doesn’t pertain to whether or not phenomena ex-
ist, but instead to how phenomena exist–their true manner of existence. When understood cor-
rectly, one sees that the concept of emptiness actually affirms the existence of phenomena, for,
after all, to be empty is always to be empty of something. In other words, emptiness is a condi-
tion of something existing, not the negation of its existence.
“We do not say that, ‘because things are empty they do not exist’; we say that, ‘because
things exist they are empty.” ~ A Prasangika Madhyamaka saying
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ence. This dependent yet empty nature of phenomena is asserted by the Buddha as the true
manner in which phenomena exist and the ultimate nature of reality.
“For Gelug, emptiness and dependent arising are synonymous. The concept of emptiness is
incoherent unless it means dependent arising, and equally the concept of dependent arising
is incoherent unless it means emptiness of intrinsic reality.” ~ Sonam Thakchoe
"The direct realization of emptiness is a direct realization of dependent origination; The direct
realization of dependent origination is a direct realization of emptiness." ~ Tenzin Tharpa
"The direct non-conceptual realization of emptiness is known as the actual refuge because it
completely eliminates the root of cyclic existence and self-grasping ignorance."
~ Khensur Jampa Tegchok
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and brain. In other words, one sees the ultimate true manner in which the book exists, as a
composite and dependent phenomenon. With that said, because emptiness can be known (by
way of negation), it is considered an object of knowledge–a phenomenon that can be known.
“Emptiness itself acts like a cause for the flourishing of the world of multiplicity; all phenom-
ena are in some sense manifestations of emptiness, a kind of a play that arises from the
sphere of emptiness.” ~ The 14th Dalai Lama
Understanding emptiness is the first step in beginning to see through the delusion of the fixed
solidity we falsely presume characterizes our lives and environment, a delusion that imprisons
us to a rigid and problematic existence. For when we begin to understand emptiness, we slowly
start to uncover the true illusion-like ethereal nature of ourselves and our environment. We
begin to understand that we exist in a much more subtle and wondrous way. We discover that
even our daily problems, obstacles, and hardships are equally empty and not nearly as immedi-
ate and substantial as we would otherwise believe them to be.
“Those who mistakenly hold emptiness as a truly existent thing, are incurable, for them there
is no antidote, for they have taken the antidote and used it as a poison.” ~ Nagarjuna
This means that the antidote for our delusions and suffering is the understanding of emptiness.
But to mistakenly hold or reify emptiness to be a substantial thing, ground, entity, or anything
other than the mere negation that it is, is to assimilate the antidote into our delusion, thereby
turning emptiness into the very poison from which we hope to escape. For those who make this
mistake, there is no liberation. With that said, because emptiness is a foundational aspect of all
phenomena–that which makes existence and experiences possible–it is sometimes referred to
as the foundation of existence or foundation of reality. However, it is crucial to understand that
this is meant purely metaphorically.
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For those having trouble comprehending the notion of emptiness, it often helps to contemplate
emptiness through the related topic of dependent origination, in which one contemplates how
all phenomena exist interdependently, lacking any unique essential essence, which of course is
emptiness.
“When you have fully understood emptiness in terms of dependent origination, and you un-
derstand dependent origination in terms of emptiness, like being two sides of the same coin,
when you have completely negated inherent existence, with no residue left behind, then your
realization is complete.” ~ His Holiness the 14th Dalai Lama
Nihilism (Skt. uccheda drsti; Tib. che ta): The term nihilism, used within its Buddhist context,
pertains to a dangerous misunderstanding of the Buddha’s teachings on emptiness, in which
one mistakes emptiness as nothingness. People who have fallen into this wrong delusional
view that nothing exists, also see concepts like virtue, goodness, honesty, compassion, and
the Buddhist path itself as equally nonexistent and therefore inconsequential. Again, the
view of emptiness doesn’t dispute the existence of things; it simply clarifies the manner in
which they exist.
“Emptiness wrongly grasped is like picking up a poisonous snake by the wrong end.”
~ Nagarjuna
Note: When first beginning to realize the empty and essence-free nature of reality, it can ini-
tially feel a bit nihilistic, but soon one begins to notice that nothing has actually changed:
lunch still needs to be prepared, clothes still need to be washed, and friends and family still
have to be cared for. The only thing that has changed is that a great weight has been re-
moved. The weight of the immediacy and exaggerated importance of each moment. One’s
life has simply become lighter.
Absolutism (Skt. nitya drsti; Tib. takpe taba): Also referred to as substantialism or eternalism;
the view that beings and phenomena are inherently existent (the extreme opposite of nihilism);
that phenomena possess an essential essence, often believed to be eternal.
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The Buddha’s teachings of the two truths (Skt. dvasatya; Tib. denpa nyi) is an analysis of the
true nature of reality. An examination pertaining to the manner in which phenomena and reali-
ty exist, including the validity of one’s perception of phenomena and reality. The term truth
here refers not so much to correct fact as to accurate perception. The Buddha asserted that all
phenomena and one’s perception of phenomena can be understood within two distinct as-
pects, those of conventional truth and ultimate truth, sometimes referred to as relative truth
and absolute truth. The importance and pervasion of the two truths within all aspects of Bud-
dhist thought cannot be overstated. These two truths, besides being the very foundation of the
Buddha’s ontological model of the nature of reality, also serves as the foundation of the entire
Buddhist path, and that which differentiates all of the unique traditions of Buddhist thought.
“Those who do not comprehend the distinction between the two truths, do not know the pro-
found reality in the Buddha’s teachings.” ~ Nagarjuna
Conventional truth (Skt. samvritisatya; Tib. kundzob denpa): Superficial or relative truth; one’s
common everyday perception of phenomena and reality, including characteristics perceived by
the senses (color, shape, texture, thought, function, etc.); that which is true from a conventional
or common viewpoint in which phenomena appear to exist inherently. Conventional truth is of-
ten referred to as an obscured or concealed truth, implying a perception which is limited and/or
partially mistaken. It is mistaken in the fact that the way phenomena are perceived and the way
they ultimately exist are not the same. With that said, we can further define conventional truth
as that which is true for an obscured mind.
Ultimate truth (Skt. paramarthasatya; Tib. dondam denpa): Absolute or final truth; the subtlest
truth; the ultimate and accurate perception of the true nature of phenomena and reality uncov-
ered through analysis or perceived directly by superior beings; that which is true from an ulti-
mate viewpoint in which the emptiness of phenomena is unmistakenly perceived. Because of its
unobscured and unconcealed nature, ultimate truth is posited as a non-deceptive truth, mean-
ing that the way phenomena appear to the mind and the way they truly exist are the same.
With that said, we can further define ultimate truth as that which is true for an unobscured
mind. In other words, when analyzing the ultimate nature of something, that which is found is
the phenomena’s lack of inherent existence. The fact that all phenomena are empty of inherent
existence is the ultimate truth and the ultimate reality.
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Note: Many mistakenly see the two truths as synonymous with samsara and nirvana, this is a
mistake. Although interrelated, samsara and nirvana pertain to the quality of one’s mental
state, while conventional and ultimate truth pertain to the nature and perception of phenome-
na and reality.
Note: Although the senses of ordinary beings (sight, hearing, smell, taste, touch, and mental
sense) are invaluable to our daily lives, they are considered unreliable tools for discerning ulti-
mately truth. This is due to the fact that there are many ways in which our senses can be de-
ceived (mistaking a rope for a snake, mistaking a stranger for a friend, etc.). But most significant
is the way our senses continuously misinterpret the nature of reality. With that said, Buddhism
asserts that reason gained through analysis as the most reliable tool and the only way for ordi-
nary beings to properly apprehend ultimate truth.
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An important distinction between, ultimate truth and that which is ultimately true
An often confusing but important point when understanding ultimate truth and emptiness is
the subtle distinction between the two related terms of ultimate truth and ultimately true.
Ultimate truth: Synonymous with emptiness; the true nature of reality; asserting that all
phenomena lack inherent existence.
Ultimately true: Synonymous with inherently existent; although there is an ultimate
truth (emptiness) there is nothing that is ultimately true (inherently existent). Not even
emptiness itself is ultimately true; popularly phrased as, the ultimate truth is that noth-
ing is ultimately true.
Note: When pertaining to ultimate truth, the term ultimate can be a confusing term in Eng-
lish. In its modern usage, it is often seen as synonymous with actually, essentially, and really.
However, in its Buddhist context, it is synonymous with true, absolute, supreme, definitive,
and final.
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This legendary quote beautifully incorporates the last few topics we have discussed, those of
dependent origination, emptiness, and the two truths. Here, form is the conventional and emp-
tiness the ultimate. The first line, form is emptiness, asserts that form is ultimately empty of in-
herent existence or any essential essence, while emptiness is form asserts that emptiness does
not have a separate identity apart from form. Again, emptiness can be seen as existing similar
to a reflection that’s dependent upon its object for its existence. All phenomena consist of, and
are inseparable from, these two aspects of the conventional entity and its ultimate emptiness.
“When appearance dispels the extreme of existence, and emptiness dispels the extreme of
nonexistence, and you understand how emptiness arises as cause and effect, you will never
be captivated by views grasping at extremes.” ~ Tsongkhapa
Ultimate language: Precise analytical language used to express views pertaining to the true
nature of phenomena and reality. (e.g., I picked up that which "book” is imputed in depend-
ence upon).
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a conventional nature and an ultimate nature. However, with that said, it's important to re-
member that both of these natures are asserted as lacking any inherent existence or inde-
pendent essence.
Conventional nature (Tib. nekab kyi neluk): The objective and common everyday aspects
of phenomena perceived by the senses, both internal/conceptual and external/empirical,
(color, shape, texture, thought, function, etc.). Conventional nature serves as a framework
within which language, concepts, logic, and conventions of the world operate. And like
conventional truth, conventional nature's mode of appearance is deceptive and incon-
sistent with its true mode of existence.
Ultimate nature (Tib. nelug thar thug): The objective yet empty aspect of phenomena;
their lack of inherent existence. Like ultimate truth, the mode of appearance of ultimate
nature is non-deceptive and consistent with its true mode of existence.
“Every empirical given object of knowledge consists of dual natures that form the ob-
jective basis for the two truths, with both emptiness and the phenomena qualifying as
objective.” ~ Sonam Thakchoe
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“ While nothing exists ultimately [inherently] all phenomena including emptiness exist con-
ventionally. If something exists, it exists conventionally. That is the only type of existence
there is.” ~ Khensur Jampa Tegchok
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No-Self
The Buddha’s teaching on no-self (Skt. anatman; Tib. dakme) is the single most unique aspect of
his teachings and that which clearly distinguishes it from all other forms of Indian thought. This
topic, although potentially one of the most challenging aspects of the Buddha’s teachings to
fully understand, is clearly the most important pertaining to the attainment of liberation. The
Buddha taught a radical view of what constitutes a person, positing the individual not as a static
autonomous entity, but as a dynamic process in a state of constant change. The Buddha’s
teaching on no-self, within the cultural context in which it was originally taught, had two clear
objectives: first, to clarify what a person is and how a person functions, and second, to refute
the mistaken views held by the two prominent religious groups of the time, the Brahmans and
Jains, both of whom shared a belief in an inherent and eternal self, soul, or spirit.
Self, soul, spirit, and liberation as asserted by the different Indian traditions
It’s interesting that all of the indigenous Indian religions hinge their views about liberation upon
the same aspect–that of understanding the self, spirit, or soul. In other words, liberation de-
pends upon realizing who we are and what our true nature of existence is. Brahmanism posited
that liberation is gained through the full realization of the true self/spirit/soul, through which
liberation is seen as the merging of one’s soul with Brahma or universal consciousness–a merg-
ing referred to as moksha. Jainism also asserts an inherently existent self/spirit/soul, believing
that liberation lies in the purification and removal of all karma from the soul, at which point the
soul is freed and can ascend to heaven realms and exist in a state of eternal bliss. Contrary to
these views, Buddhism posits that liberation is achieved through the realization of the lack of
any self/spirit/soul. This is based on the fact that, when properly analyzed, this self/spirit/soul
cannot be found, meaning that sentient beings, like all phenomena, are empty of any essential
essence. Therefore, Buddhism can be seen as a path of self-transcendence.
To begin to understand what the person is, Buddhism offers a reductionist analysis that decon-
structs the totality of the person in order to create a suitable model that can reasonably illus-
trate what constitutes a sentient being. However, we must always keep in mind that when cre-
ating a model, one is always reducing, undervaluing, and fundamentally misrepresenting the
true reality of the entity. It’s important to understand that no presentation of a person can ever
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truly exemplify the experience of human existence, and any assertion of what constitutes a per-
son can only be a crude representation and mere shadow of the entity itself. For human exist-
ence and the mind remain as the most complex phenomenon known, a complexity that lan-
guage can never fully articulate. With that said, Buddhism asserts that no one system or theory
can ever fully capture the nuances, intricacies, and wonder of the human experience.
The five aggregates (Skt. pancaskandha; Tib. pungpo nga) exemplify the psycho/physical as-
pects that all beings share. Here the term aggregate (Skt. skandha; Tib. pungpo) refers to a col-
lection or group. The five aggregates are also known as the five heaps, because when the Bud-
dha first taught them he heaped up various grains into five piles in order to illustrate each ag-
gregate’s composite nature. These aggregates should not be seen as individual static containers
in which their unique components reside, but instead as five dynamic and ever-changing pro-
cesses, continuously arising and ceasing in every moment. It is through the continuous interac-
tion and convergence of these collections of aggregates that our current experience of exist-
ence is made possible.
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A “catch all” for all remaining mental factors and those which are
Compounding factors
4) neither form nor consciousness, including personality traits, inten-
Samskara (Skt.; Tib. duche)
tions, habits, various emotions, and mental/karmic imprints.
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Consciousness
Consciousness within Buddhism is defined as that which is luminous and knowing. Luminous
here is defined as the ability of consciousness to reveal, divulge, or illuminate; while knowing is
defined as the ability of consciousness to perceive what appears to the senses and/or minds. In
other words, to be conscious is to be conscious of an object (internal or external). Conscious-
ness is often exemplified by the three aspects of character, entity, and function.
1. The general character of consciousness is mere luminosity and knowing.
2. Its entity is mere luminosity, unobstructed by anything.
3. Its function is to know, based on the appearance of its object.
“As the primary feature of light is to illuminate, so consciousness is said to illuminate its ob-
jects. Just as in light there is no categorical distinction between the illumination and that
which illuminates, so in consciousness there is no real difference between the process of
knowing or cognition and that which knows or cognizes. In consciousness, as in light, there is
a quality of illumination.” ~ The 14th Dalai Lama
General consciousness (Skt. jnana; Tib. shepa): Synonymous with awareness, knower,
and primordial consciousness. General consciousness is the broadest and most encom-
passing term pertaining to any and all mental elements or events. Buddhism asserts gen-
eral consciousness as a distinct stream of mental awareness that serves as the basis for
one’s capacity for subjective experience, as well as the basis for one’s unique will or
agent of choice; a raw knowing without conceptual overlay, unspecified to any space or
particular moment or temporal stage of existence. Buddhism asserts general conscious-
ness as reflexive and instinctual, lacking volition or intention, being neither linguistic nor
conceptual; a beginningless and endless entity of knowing whose very nature is that of
mere experience.
Specific consciousness (Skt. vijnana; Tib. namshe): Synonymous with main minds.
Specific consciousness is one's common everyday consciousness and the aspect of con-
sciousness pertaining to the fifth aggregate, consisting of both sense consciousnesses and
a mental consciousness–possessing the capacity to think, cognize, conceptualize, contrast
and compare; including introspection, memory, and recognition. The mental conscious-
ness is also that which interprets what appears to the sense consciousnesses.
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Mind(s) (Skt. citta; Tib. sem): Within Buddhism, minds are broadly defined as any mental or
cognitive event (perception, cognition, conceptualization, thinking, reasoning, thought, deci-
sions, reactions, etc.). Therefore, according to this broad definition, there can be hundreds of
types of minds. Commonly the term mind (singular) is used when referring to mental or cogni-
tive events within a single lifetime (similar to the Western usage of the term) whereas con-
sciousness commonly pertains to the force behind those processes, and that which underlies all
lifetimes.
“In general, the mind can be defined as a non-physical entity that has the nature of mere ex-
perience.” ~ The 14th Dalai Lama
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Mental factors (Skt. chaitasika dharma; Tib. semlay jungwa chö): Literally, phenomena aris-
en from the mind. Mental factors are aspects of the main minds which function in appre-
hending attributes or characteristics of phenomena while also possessing the ability to con-
dition, influence, and/or color the minds. This means, where the main minds are understood
as knowers of the general phenomenon itself, mental factors–which accompany all main
minds–differentiate features and aspects of phenomena, affecting the manner in which the
mind apprehends and relates to phenomena and one’s environment. For instance, the men-
tal factor desire is merely the aspect of desire of a main mind. If we take the visual main
mind as an example, one’s eye consciousness first takes in the visual experience as a whole,
but it’s the mental factors, like desire, that shapes our apprehension of that visual experi-
ence–deeming it desirable, undesirable, or neutral. This may include the exaggeration or dis-
tortion of one’s perceptions in which we perceive things as more desirable than they truly
are. Additionally, it’s the mental factors that make up one’s personality, including traits,
emotions, intentions, habits, responses, etc. This personality acts as a lens through which we
interpret the world. The transformation of these mental factors is the primary focus of the
Buddhist path, because it's through the lens of the mental factors that one’s intentions are
forged and one’s choices are decided. These intentions and choices lead to the formation of
new karma and karmic imprints, imprints that not only shape one’s mental factors further
but also condition and color one’s entire continuum.
“We don’t so much perceive things, as much as perceive what we think about things. It’s
the mind that rules, but it is the mental factors that are the most powerful influence in our
daily lives.” ~ Geshe Tashi Tsering
Generally there are fifty-one mental factors asserted, which are divided into six categories.
1. Omnipresent: 5 factors of contact, discrimination, feeling, intention, and attention.
2. Determining: 5 factors of aspiration, belief, mindfulness, stabilization, and wisdom.
3. Virtuous: 11 factors that do not occur when afflictions are present: faith, shame,
embarrassment, non-attachment, non-hatred, non-ignorance, effort, pliancy, equa-
nimity, conscientiousness, and non-harmfulness.
4. Root afflictions: 6 factors of desire, anger, pride, ignorance, doubt, and afflictive view.
5. Secondary afflictions: 20 factors of belligerence, resentment, concealment, spite,
jealousy, miserliness, deceit, dissimulation, haughtiness, harmfulness, non-shame,
non-embarrassment, lethargy, excitement, non-faith, laziness, non-conscientiousness,
forgetfulness, non-introspection, and distraction.
6. Changeable: 4 factors of sleep, contrition, investigation, and analysis.
Termed changeable because they can become either virtuous or non-virtuous.
Out of these six groups, the first, omnipresent or always present mental factors, are of
particular importance. Arising in sequential order, these five mental factors accompany all
main minds and work together in forming the basis of cognition.
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Note: When talking about the mind, Westerners will typically point to their head, while Tibet-
ans will point to their heart.
Introspection - the illusion of dual awareness: The watcher and that which is being watched.
The process of introspection can be seen in the way we can give advice to ourselves or in the
way we can observe the workings of our own minds. Buddhism asserts that this dual-like nature
of the mind–in which two minds appear to be at work–is mere illusion. The mind cannot be
both subject and object, because this would require two simultaneous mental events, and since
the mind cannot apprehend two simultaneous mental events at one time, it therefore lacks the
ability to observe itself. Instead, Buddhism posits the mechanism of introspection as the mind
inspecting a snapshot or impression of itself from a moment ago.
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In Buddhism, person (Skt. pudgala; Tib. gangsak) is synonymous with being, sentient being, “I”,
mere “I”, individual, entity, experiencer, and agent. These terms generally pertain to all beings,
from a Buddha to the smallest of insects. Conventionally, Buddhism shares the same common
view of the person that we all assume. It’s only through deeper ultimate analysis that the Bud-
dha’s radical view of what constitutes a person becomes apparent.
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phenomena, is empty of inherent existence or essential essence, and instead exists merely
through imputation in dependence upon causes, conditions, and parts. The Buddha asserted
the person not as a static autonomous entity, but as a dynamic process in a state of constant
change, existing in an illusion-like ethereal manner. According to the Buddha, the person, when
seen through analysis, is merely one’s subjective identity, or the subjective narrative me per-
taining to the innate, natural, and instinctual thought I am, which in the West would be re-
ferred to as one’s sense of self, or one’s self-awareness. The Buddha asserted the person as
merely the conceptualization of one’s personal subjectivity within any given experience, both
conceptually and perceptually. Person is a concept and label that conceptually unifies one’s
mental and physical aggregates, along with one’s current moment to moment experiences of
the past, present, and projected future, creating an impression of a single autonomous entity
and life which flows from past to future. It is in dependence upon this concept of person that
we then impute the conventional labels me and mine. These conventional labels are then used
when referring to one’s mental and physical aggregates, along with the experiences, feelings,
sensations, thoughts, and actions pertaining by those aggregates, (e.g., my mind, my body, my
experiences, my feelings).
“The fact that a substantially existent agent cannot be found does not mean that that person
or agent doesn’t exist at all; they exist imputedly and effectively.” ~ Tsongkhapa
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Incorrectly
What we assume the person to be We assume these attributes
One’s personality, likes, and dislikes; to be the person.
one’s thoughts, intentions, emotions,
perceptions, and actions. Correctly
These attributes are aspects of
the mental/physical aggregates.
“No man ever steps into the same river twice, for it’s not the same river, and he’s not the
same man.” ~ Heraclitus
Another analogy on this topic from ancient Greek philosophy is entitled Ship of Theseus.
If one has a boat made of planks and one of the planks on the boat breaks and you replace
it, then later another plank breaks and you replace that as well, and this goes on until all the
original planks have been replaced, can one say it is still the same boat?
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The paradox of this story has proponents on both sides of the question. However, the Buddhist
view is that boat, like all phenomena, exists nominally–imputed in dependence upon a continu-
ously changing collection of dependent phenomena, real only in name and concept.
Person (Skt. pudgala; Tib. gangsak), technically referred to as the mere I, can be further under-
stood within three aspects: the general person, the specific person, and the false self. The term
mere, in mere I, refers to merely imputed by name and concept, asserting that person exists
nominally as a mental label and conceptual designation.
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Note: The common distinction between the terms general person and specific person is
understood within the context in which they are used. Often person used singularly per-
tains to the specific person, but when used in the phrase, person through all lifetimes,
it pertains to the general person.
Self (Skt. atman; Tib. dag): Synonymous with false self or illusory self (Tib. gagcha dag).
According to Buddhism, the self is not an additional component, but instead an exag-
gerated imputation and mistaken view of the specific person, believing the specific per-
son to exist inherently, independent from the aggregates. We mistakenly believe the
person to exist in a more substantial and real way than it actually does, seeing it as an
essential essence/self/spirit/soul, instead of the mere subjective identity that it truly is.
The Buddha rejected any notion of an inherent self/spirit/soul, resulting in his famous
doctrine of no-self (Skt. anatman; Tib. dakme) which asserts that although the false self
intuitively feels substantially real, it is merely an illusion, and when examined properly,
no self/spirit/soul can be found. In fact, at its core, our foundational ignorance is de-
fined as, the mistaken grasping at an inherent self. Conversely, the antidote for this
grasping is the direct realization of emptiness of phenomena and person, which cuts
through the illusion of self and allows one to see themselves and the world as they truly
exist. This realization forever frees one from suffering.
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"When Buddhists reject the notion of self, it is the intrinsic reality of persons that is be-
ing denied." ~ Thupten Jinpa
“We conceive of a self-instituting “I” that is an exaggeration beyond what actually ex-
ists. We conceive an ”I” that does not appear to be designated upon the aggregates;
rather, it seems almost as if it is its own separate entity.” ~ The 14th Dalai Lama
“Both the conventional person and the illusionary self are imputed, but the illusionary
self is wrongly or mistakenly imputed. For the conventional person is not imputed
through ignorance, whereas the illusionary self is.” ~ Jeffery Hopkins
Note: In Buddhist texts, the terms person and self are often used interchangeably. How-
ever, in recent years, with the hope of clarifying some of the confusion pertaining to the-
se terms, prominent scholars have chosen to assert the term person (Tib. gangsak) or
mere I (Tib. ngatsam) as the definiendum of a sentient being’s subjective identity, and to
use the term self (Skt. atman; Tib. dag) as synonymous with false self (Tib. gagcha dag).
This clarification was proposed by Prof. Jay Garfield during the 2015 Mind and Life Con-
ference at Sera Jey Monastery, South India. In attendance were His Holiness the 14th Da-
lai Lama, Thupten Jinpa, Venerable Matthieu Ricard, Roshi Joan Halifax, and Prof. John
Dunne.
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Self An exaggerated view of the specific per- Does not exist; mistakenly
Skt. atman son as existing inherently and independ- imputed in dependence
Tib. dag ent from the aggregates. upon the specific person.
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loss, and a need to protect ourselves, our possessions, and our identity. Paradoxically, the self,
which was initially imputed to ease our fear of feeling unsubstantial, becomes the source of
even greater suffering. However, through understanding selflessness, we begin to realize that
the body and mind are not the person, and because person lacks any essential essence, person
cannot be harmed or diminished. This is the freedom that comes from the clear understanding
of the selflessness of person.
'A coiled rope’s speckled color and coiled form are similar to those of a snake, and when the
rope is perceived in a dim area, the thought arises, this is a snake. As for the rope, at that
time when it is seen to be a snake, the collection and parts of the rope are not even in the
slightest way a snake. Therefore, that snake is merely set up by conceptuality. In the same
way, when the thought “I” arises in dependence upon mind and body, nothing within mind
and body - neither the collection that is a continuum of earlier and later moments, nor the
collection of the parts at one time, nor the separate parts, nor the continuum of any of the
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separate parts–is in even the slightest way the “I”. Also, there is not even the slightest some-
thing that is a different entity from mind and body that is apprehendable as the “I”. Conse-
quently, the “I” is merely set up by conceptuality in dependence upon mind and body; it is
not established by way of its own entity.'
Suddenly, it was as if lightning moved through my chest. I was so awestruck that, over the next
few weeks, whenever I saw people, they seemed like a magician’s illusions in that they appeared
to inherently exist but I knew that they actually did not. This is when I began to understand that
it is truly possible to stop the process of creating destructive emotions by no longer assenting to
the way “I” and other phenomena appear to exist. Every morning I meditate on emptiness, and I
recall that experience in order to bring it into the day’s activities. Just thinking or saying “I”, as
in, I will do such-and-such, will often trigger that feeling. But still, I cannot claim full understand-
ing of emptiness.”
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would be difficult to communicate without the notion of possession. It’s only within deep anal-
ysis that the illusionary nature of possession becomes clear and relevant.
“The five aggregates belong to causes and conditions. If they belong to causes and condi-
tions, they do not belong to oneself or others. If they do not belong to oneself or other, they
have no owner. If they have no owner, there is no one who grasps them. If there is no grasp-
ing, there is no contention, and non-contention is the practice of religious devotees. Just as a
hand moving in empty space touches no object and meets no obstacles, so the bodhisattvas
who practice the equality of emptiness transcend the mundane world.”
~ Attributed to Manjushri - From the Maharatnakuta Sutra
Note: Some try to equate the beginningless and endless general consciousness with the notion
of a soul, claiming that the differences are mere semantics. This comparison is wrong. Within
Buddhism the person is not consciousness, but instead is a unifying concept which exists in de-
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pendence upon consciousness, an identity made manifest through the innate reflexive realiza-
tion of one's existence. Conversely, consciousness is a raw awareness, energy, or life-force, not
what one would commonly consider to be themselves.
Reification of one’s environment: Because of the complex and ethereal nature of our envi-
ronment, the mind continuously tries to create a simplified and more substantial model that
can be understood and navigated more easily. It’s here where the mechanism of labeling be-
gins. Again, labeling itself is not a problem, but when we begin to reify those labels by exag-
gerating their substantiality and validity, believing that they, and the objects they represent,
are the same entity, a false model of reality is created. Previously, we asserted that our envi-
ronment exists nominally through imputation. However, many would assume that at the
subtlest level there must be a substantially real foundation that serves as an actual base or
ground for phenomena. According to the Gelug school, there is no foundation, base, or
ground of existence from which things are asserted to arise from. Some wrongly assert emp-
tiness to be a ground of existence, which it is not. For when analyzed, the fact is that every
time one arrives at a presumed base, one finds it can still be broken down into further com-
posite collections and parts–including the general consciousness itself which can be broken
down into moments or instances of consciousness.
Reification of one’s existence: In the same manner, we are also driven to reify ourselves–the
person. As mentioned earlier, because of the ethereal and illusion-like nature of our exist-
ence we feel anxiety that arises from a fear of being nonexistent. To compensate for this, we
exaggerate the substantiality of our existence by falsely imputing a more real me (the self)
giving us the sense that yes, I do exist. However, this only leads to greater suffering.
Reification of one’s experience: It's not just ourselves and our environment we reify but also
our experiences. We want our experiences to be more meaningful, important, and interest-
ing than they are. We exaggerate the mysterious into mystical, coincidence into revelation,
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ordinary into sacred, and project divinity upon mundane events, teachers, ideologies, and
traditions. However, when this is understood and inverted, we begin to discover the
sacredness that underlines all things.
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This imputed identity serves to conceptually unify these elements into a single seamless experi-
ence of a unique life.
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Rebirth
Tibetan Buddhism asserts that all beings except buddhas (and in some cases arhats) continue to
take rebirth. However, where ordinary beings are trapped in a cycle of uncontrolled rebirth
perpetuated by ignorance, delusions, afflictions, and karma, superior beings gain the ability to
control the conditions of their rebirth, including their form, environment, parents, etc. But most
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importantly they possess the ability to choose an environment that is conducive to their prac-
tice and advantageous to their goals.
An interesting view on the Buddhist presentation of the death process that I have always
found fascinating was shared by Professor Robert Thurman, asserting, There are no dead people
in Buddhism. In fact, for a Buddhist, the term dead person is considered an oxymoron. This co-
incides with the Buddha’s assertion that death and birth are mere Illusion and that each of our
lives is merely an instance of our unborn and deathless consciousness. Meaning, death is mere-
ly a brief transition between lives, and loved ones who have passed on have since taken rebirth
and are currently living new lives. In addition, it's often believed that because of our karmic
connection to our loved ones, they are often reborn in proximity to our own rebirths.
“We have always, and will always, exist.” ~ Prof. Robert Thurman
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unique inquiry. Some Buddhist masters, including His Holiness, claim to remember past lives,
but for those of us who do not, the concept of rebirth remains merely a hypothesis. With that
said, many Buddhists and non-Buddhists alike hold the notion of rebirth simply as a logical as-
sumption based on the fact that virtually everything we know in the universe possesses a cycli-
cal nature. Galaxies, stars, and planets all move and exist cyclically in an endless cycle of for-
mation, abiding, and destruction. Even our own world functions as a collection of cyclical sys-
tems (the water/rain cycle, cycle of seasons, and the food chain). Humanity, as a species, can be
seen as existing cyclically through its reliance upon the continuous birth of new members for its
survival. Within science the standard model asserts that within our universe, nothing, neither
energy or mass, is ever gained or lost (referred to as the law of conservation of energy which
states that the total energy of an isolated system remains constant). Thus, energy can neither
be created nor destroyed; rather, it transforms from one form to another. Some may argue,
yes, the universe recycles everything, but things do not re-manifest as the same things. The de-
bris of a destroyed planet may re-manifest, but it does not re-manifest as the same planet.
That's true, and similarly, Buddhism asserts that it is not the same being and often not even the
same type of being that is reborn. Like matter and energy, it is only the most core aspect (ener-
gy) of a being that is reborn. As for myself, I hold the notion of rebirth as a realistic hypothesis,
because in a cyclic universe in which everything is continuously recycled, it’s hard to believe
that the consciousness or energy of beings is the only thing that is not reprocessed–that the
consciousness of beings is the one and only thing in the known universe that ceases.
“It is not more surprising to be born twice than once; everything in nature is resurrection.”
~ Voltaire
Buddhism possesses a unique view and understanding of death and the dying process. One
could say that for Buddhists, all of one’s diligent study, good-works, and practice are aimed to-
wards–and subsequently culminate in–the moment of one’s death. For Buddhists, one’s death
is the big event they have been preparing for their whole lives, which leads to the expression,
Buddhists die as professionals–pointing out Buddhism's unique focus and extensive preparation
pertaining to death. Another expression, Buddhism is the path to living and dying well, notes
that through mastering death, one consequently masters life. The moment of death presents a
unique opportunity for spiritual awakening that is rarely available at other times in our lives. It
offers a unique clarity for those who have prepared themselves to recognize it. The Buddha
himself claimed that death was his greatest teacher, because glimpsing one’s mortality can pro-
voke great insight into one’s present life situation. For the person who is aware, the closer they
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get to their death, the more clarity they gain concerning their life. One story from scriptures
that shows the Buddha’s great insight into death tells of a hysterical mother who came to the
Buddha to beg him to bring life back to her dead child she still carried in her arms. The Buddha
could see that the woman’s mind was so distraught that any advice he would give would be in-
effective, so instead he told the mother that he could indeed help. However, to do so he would
require a handful of mustard seeds (common in India) from a house untouched by death. The
mother thanked the Buddha and went out and began her search. However, although every
house she encountered was plentiful in mustard seeds, when she enquired if anyone from the
home had been lost to death, the response she received was the same: oh yes, we have lost
loved ones. Through her search, although gaining no mustard seeds, she instead gained the
knowledge that she was not alone in her grief, and that the suffering of death is universal, at
which point she understood this lesson that the Buddha had given her and was able to accept
her loss and put her child to rest.
The Stages of the Death Process: The eight dissolutions (Tib. thim rim gye).
Generally, Buddhism asserts that death has occurred when consciousness is separated from the
physical body. From a scriptural perspective, there are three main reasons why death may oc-
cur. 1) We have exhausted the karmic potential to live in this life. 2) We don’t have enough
merit to gain the conditions to keep living. 3) A negative karma ripens to interfere with this life.
Within the Tibetan tradition, the most comprehensive presentation of the death process is
found in the tantric teachings. The tantras assert that death occurs when one’s mental and
physical aggregates can no longer act as a basis for consciousness.
Within Buddhism the process of dying is said to begin with the dissolution of the mental and
physical aggregates. This dissolution process has eight general stages consisting of the dissolu-
tions of the first four aggregates (form, feeling, discrimination, and compounding factors), fol-
lowed by four subtle visionary stages (white vision, red vision, black vision, vacuity), culminating
in an experience of clear luminosity referred to as the clear light mind. With the onset of the
dying process, the winds or energies associated with the four elements begin to break down
and deteriorate. One by one each element dissolves into the next, coinciding with the dissolu-
tion of the gross conceptual mind. This is followed by the dissolution of the four subtle visionary
stages and the subtle mind. These eight dissolutions occur naturally and automatically during
the death process of ordinary beings. However, for the trained practitioner this uniquely pre-
cious time can be used to gain liberation. The presentation of the eight dissolutions pertains to
a natural death, not a sudden death where the process may occur too quickly to be perceived.
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dissolution is the deterioration of one’s eye consciousness, experienced first as the loss of clari-
ty and then as the loss of ability to open or close the eyes. Internally, there is the feeling of sink-
ing and being buried under earth. Externally, the body becomes thin, loose, and loses its vitality
and luster. At this point, the earth element begins to dissolve into the water element, creating a
vision of shimmering water, like a desert mirage.
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The intermediate state (Skt. antarabhava; Tib. bardo): Literally, transition; the state between
death and the next rebirth. Although found in all Mahayana traditions, the bardo teachings
were greatly expounded upon in Tibet. The bardo teachings assert that at the time of death, as
the gross mental and physical aggregates dissolve and the gross and subtle consciousness and
conceptuality cease, the remaining very subtle mind is then freed of its physical limitations and
is instantaneously reborn into the intermediate state. It is this initial entry into the intermediate
state that constitutes the first moment of one’s next lifetime and where one perceives the form
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and senses that they will later be physically born as–depending on one’s karmic propensities.
One exists in the bardo as a dream body or subtle body of energy and may reside there from
one to forty-nine days before conditions for a suitable rebirth are attained.
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The twelve links of dependent origination (Skt. nidanas; Tib. dendel yenlak chunyi) is the Bud-
dha’s model of the process and mechanism of cyclic samsaric existence, illustrating how the se-
quence of uncontrolled rebirth occurs. The twelve links are twelve interrelated aspects in which
each link arises in dependence on the last. The term link is analogous to an unbroken chain of
events; however, although illustrated as sequential, these links don’t necessarily follow a strict-
ly linear sequence and should be understood as operating not within a single lifetime but within
multiple lives, with aspects within one lifetime influencing aspects within other lives. These
twelve links can also illustrate different aspects within one’s current life (career, marriage, ad-
diction, etc.). Through understanding the twelve links, we see how one’s ignorance and karma
propel the individual through cyclic existence.
The Twelve Links of Dependent Origination as illustrated within three lifetimes of a single person.
1. Ignorance: A foundational ignorance of the true nature of oneself and reality.
2. Karmic formations: Strong actions performed under the influence of ignorance.
Life 1
(Specifically the formation of karma that leads to rebirth)
3. Consciousness: A specific instance of consciousness, which immediately follows a spe-
cific karmic action and becomes the repository of the seed of that action.
4. Name and form: Within the womb at the first instance of conception; the acquisition of
one’s mental and physical aggregates. Here, name refers to the mental aggregates and
form to the aggregates of body.
5. Sense bases: Within the womb; the beginning of the development of the sense organs.
6. Contact: Beginning in the womb; the beginning of the functioning of the sense organs
allowing contact to begin between the object, the sense organs, and the previous mo-
ment of consciousness.
7. Feeling: Beginning in the womb; the emergence of discernment that recognizes and
Life 2 experiences objects to be pleasurable, painful, or neutral.
8. Craving: Beginning immediately after feeling arises; craving for pleasurable experienc-
es, to be separated from unpleasant experiences, and desire for existence in the higher
realms. Craving is the force that activates karma and pertains specifically to craving that
influences one’s future rebirth.
9. Grasping: At the time of death; the intensification of the above craving which activates
link #2 and strongly influences our next rebirth.
10. Existence: At the time of death; the ripening of strong karma (link #2) during the last
moment of consciousness before death, which is the immediate cause of the next life.
Life 3 11. Rebirth: Consciousness entering the womb at the first instance of conception.
12. Ageing and death: Beginning in the womb; from the second moment of conception
both aging and the potentiality for death begins, which inevitably leads to death itself.
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As shared earlier, what truly sets Buddhism apart from all other traditions is the Buddha’s
unique model of the nature of reality (Tib. chö nyi), a model that encompasses the various top-
ics discussed thus far. Reality is considered to be subjective by all Buddhist traditions, for one’s
subjective identity (the person) and one’s reality (one’s subjective experience of existence) are
inseparably intertwined and mutually dependent. This dependency is based on the fact that
one’s reality is created and continuously perceived through the first person narrative “I”. Mean-
ing that each being creates and perceives a reality that is uniquely their own. This reality is cre-
ated, shaped, and continuously filtered through one’s mental factors (one’s likes and dislikes,
desires and aversions, and hopes and fears). To repeat a previous quote by Geshe Tashi Tsering,
We don’t so much perceive things, as much as perceive what we think about things. In other
words, our reality is a conceptual and conditioned approximation or reproduction of the world.
Even a Buddha’s reality is subjective, for all buddhas retain a unique identity. However, the sub-
jective reality of a buddha is purified and said to be unmediated by intention or conceptual
elaboration; it is an ineffable reality beyond the scope of conventional conceptualization. For
ordinary practitioners, the work at hand is to cultivate a lessening of the habitual subjective fil-
tering of one’s mental factors and move ever closer to a more objective, open, and impartial
view.
"Our existence and reality are created and fueled by our intentions, aspirations, and potenti-
ality." ~ Tenzin Tharpa
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is still subjective, and because they are in samsara, their perceptions of reality are necessarily
mistaken. However, even a reality which is mistaken is still very real to that mind perceiving it,
meaning that different beings can apprehend very different and very real realities. In this way,
valid reality can be understood as that which is unmistakenly perceived by a mind in accordance
with that mind’s condition and karmic propensities.
“Tibetan Buddhism asserts that reality is ethereal, and illusion like, similar to the perfor-
mance of an illusionist or magician, the simple minded believe the magician's illusions to be
real, the educated understand that it is an illusion, but can still enjoy the show.”
~ Jeffry Hopkins
“We need to be aware of the reality that life is impermanent and empty of many of the
things we assert it to be, while at the same time, we must be willing to dance with illusion, to
play along, but to lose track of the reality is to become blind.” ~ Dzongsar Khyentse Rinpoche
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Existential questions have been at the forefront of the human experience from its earliest ori-
gins. The questions who am I, why do I exist, or is there a purpose to life have confounded hu-
mankind throughout the ages; these questions (or answers) serve as the very foundation of the
various religious traditions. This thirst to understand who we are is embodied in the ancient
Greek aphorism know thyself which equates true understanding of oneself to ultimate truth
and wisdom, a notion shared by Buddhism. However, in Buddhism the importance of the ques-
tion who am I is often supplanted by the question what am I for when one begins to under-
stand how they truly exist, one realizes there is no one defining point in their linear existence
that one could point to and say categorically, that’s me. Who I am is whatever current causes,
conditions, experiences, events, and one's mental/physical processes come together and mani-
fest as at this current moment. What I am is defined as: a unifying concept existing in depend-
ence upon ever-changing mental/physical processes. And as far as the question why do I exist is
concerned, I found that this question is often misunderstood or misinterpreted by many Tibet-
an Buddhist masters, often being taken as, what is the purpose of life, about which various mas-
ters hold different views.
“I believe that the very purpose of life is to be happy. From the very core of our being, we de-
sire contentment. In my own limited experience I have found that the more we care for the
happiness of others, the greater is our own sense of well-being. Cultivating a close, warm-
hearted feeling for others automatically puts the mind at ease. It helps remove whatever
fears or insecurities we may have and gives us the strength to cope with any obstacles we
encounter. It is the principal source of success in life. Since we are not solely material crea-
tures, it is a mistake to place all our hopes for happiness on external development alone. The
key is to develop inner peace.” ~ The 14th Dalai Lama
It’s important to understand that His Holiness is speaking not of a superficial mundane happi-
ness, but of true happiness at an existential level, meaning that when people say they want to
be rich, powerful, famous, loved, etc., they are saying that they believe these qualities will
make them happy. Thus all of our sought-after worldly goals are merely attempts by us to at-
tain true or authentic happiness. According to the Buddha, the purpose of life is to awaken.
“Liberation and the attainment of buddhahood is the one and only consummation of one’s
life.” ~ the Buddha
But to get back to the question of why do I exist, the reason this question is misunderstood or
misinterpreted by many Tibetan Buddhist masters is due to the fact that the existence of the
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universe, phenomena, and beings is simply presumed by Buddhism. Enquiries like the Western
philosophical axiom, why do things exist instead of not exist, aren’t commonly entertained. The
Buddhist presumption and acceptance of existent phenomena is usually where enquiry begins,
while questions pertaining to non-existence are often seen as frivolous. With that said, accord-
ing to Buddhism, the answer to the question, why do I exist, is that there is no distinct reason
for the existence of the universe, phenomena, or sentient beings. We exist because we exist, as
a unique manifestation of the cosmos. For myself, this answer is clear and logical and only be-
comes complicated when seen through our own exaggerated sense of personal significance.
When one see oneself as precious and important, then one assumes there must be an im-
portant reason and purpose for their existence. However, when one subdues this self-
importance and shifts the focus of analysis away from oneself, to something else, say, a bird or
a flower, then this question gains great clarity. One can then ask, why does a bird exist and
what is the purpose of a bird’s life; suddenly the answers become obvious. Clearly a bird has no
special reason to exist, it is merely a wondrous manifestation of the universe. What is extraor-
dinary is that birds, beings, and phenomena can and do exist in the first place. Isn’t that special
enough? I believe to expect more is to gravely under-appreciate the wonder of existence itself.
“It has taken four billion years of evolution to generate this kind of organism with this kind of
brain, and yet we wake up in the morning and feel bored.” ~ Stephen Batchelor
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These days the terms enlightenment, liberation, and nirvana are used so commonly that it is
often difficult to understand what exactly is meant by each of these terms. For they are not just
Buddhist terms but terms shared by many other religious traditions as well, including many
modern spiritual ideologies which have incorporated them into their own belief systems,
thereby adding their own unique nuances to their meanings. Additionally, we are challenged by
the complexity of having to sort through the many layers of religious and cultural embellish-
ment imputed upon these terms. Even within Tibetan Buddhism itself, the meanings of these
terms (in Tibetan as well as in English) are not always agreed upon or clear. With that said,
there are core aspects pertaining to these terms that all of the various traditions share. Most
importantly, all of these terms pertain to a higher state of existence, as well as describing a
practitioner’s level of spiritual accomplishment. Here within this text, I hope to clarify, as well
as help standardize, some of these often confusing terms.
Enlightenment (Skt. bodhi; Tib. jangchub): The attainment of nirvana (Skt.; Tib. nyangde);
synonymous with liberation (Skt. moksha; Tib. tharpa). To attain enlightenment and nirvana is
to be irreversibly liberated from the three poisons (ignorance, attachment, and aversion), the
mental/emotional suffering of samsara, and uncontrolled rebirth. Enlightenment is achieved
through the direct realization of the true nature of oneself and reality. A being who has at-
tained nirvana is referred to as an enlightened being (Skt. arhat; Tib. dachomba). Within the
different traditions, enlightenment is understood in two distinct ways. In the Hinayana and
Theravada traditions, enlightenment and the attainment of nirvana is the highest goal of the
practitioner and final achievement of the path. However, in the Mahayana tradition enlighten-
ment is understood twofold: enlightenment which is the attainment of nirvana, and full en-
lightenment which is the attainment of buddhahood (to become a buddha).
I myself interpret the term enlightenment as synonymous with supreme understanding, be-
cause understanding is undeniably the supreme antidote for dispelling ignorance, delusions,
and afflictions. The more one increases their understanding of themselves and their environ-
ment, the more these afflictions fall away and the closer one comes to liberation. In Tibetan the
term for wisdom is sherab, she (Tib.) meaning understanding or knowing, and rab (Tib.) an in-
tensifying particle meaning supreme, highest, or very; together these can be taken as, supreme
understanding–the supreme understanding of the true nature of oneself and reality.
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of transforming society by liberating people from the dogmatic tyranny of the church and state.
In the early 19th century, the term enlightenment was chosen by Western translators for the
Buddhist term bodhi (Skt.; Tib. jangchub) meaning to awaken. The choice by translators to use
the term enlightenment remains an excellent one, for the Buddha played a dominant role in a
previous age of enlightenment in 6th century BCE India. This Indian age of enlightenment shared
the same basic characteristics and intentions of the later European movement, including re-
nouncing religious dogma and the social authority of the day, which included the rejection of
India’s caste system. The Buddha placed authority where it rightly belongs, upon the individual.
Through this, the Buddha helped to usher in a great age of reason, education, philosophy, indi-
vidualism, and awakening.
Nirvana (Skt.; Tib. nyangde): As shared previously in this text series, nirvana is translated as to
blow out or extinguish; to extinguish the three poisons (ignorance, attachment, and aversion).
The concept of nirvana, although coined by the Buddha, can be found in most Indian religions.
Jains posit nirvana as the freeing of the soul into a stateless eternal bliss. For Hindus, nirvana is
the union with Brahman or universal consciousness. However, in Buddhism, the Buddha used a
unique interpretation of the term, which can sometimes be difficult to thoroughly understand.
Within Buddhism, nirvana is enlightened existence (opposed to samsara which is unenlight-
ened existence); a state or quality of the mind devoid of the three poisons and all men-
tal/emotional suffering. Nirvana is attained by practitioners who have irreversibly transcended
all coarse and subtle habitual wrong views, thereby clearly and unmistakenly apprehending the
true nature of oneself and reality. Nirvana is not a place, realm, dimension, or external phe-
nomenon, but instead exists only within the minds of beings. Nirvana is commonly defined on
the debate grounds of Tibetan monasteries as freedom from afflictions, or more technically,
analytical cessation that has abandoned afflictions. Usually explained by way of negation, nir-
vana is not something, but the absence of something. In this same way, the term freedom is
understood by negation. Freedom is not a thing in itself, it’s an absence; it’s freedom from
something–freedom from tyranny, oppression, or bondage. Nirvana in this same way is the ab-
sence of ignorance, attachment, aversion, and suffering within the mind. In other words, nirva-
na is the absence of samsara. When asked to define nirvana, the Buddha would simply say,
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nirvana is the end of suffering, or in Tibetan, nyangan le depa–to pass beyond sorrow. When
asked to describe nirvana, the Buddha would claim that it was beyond language and concept,
only to be experienced directly for oneself. However, later in his life, the Buddha found the
words and expounded upon his earlier work.
“Nirvana is permanent, stable, imperishable, immovable, ageless, deathless, unborn, and un-
becoming, it is power, bliss, and happiness, the secure refuge, the shelter, and the place of
unassailable safety; it is the real truth and the supreme reality; it is the good, the supreme
goal and the one and only consummation of our life, the eternal, hidden and incomprehensi-
ble peace.” ~ The Buddha
“The peaceful, beyond reasoning, everlasting, the not-born, the unproduced, the sorrowless
state that is void of stain, the cessation of states linked to suffering, the stilling of the condi-
tioned– [which is] bliss.” ~ The Buddha
“I reached in experience, the nirvana which is unborn, unrivalled, secure from attachment,
undecaying, and unstained. The condition is indeed reached by me. Deep, difficult to see, dif-
ficult to understand, tranquil, excellent. Beyond the reach of mere logic, subtle, and to be re-
alized only by the wise.” ~ The Buddha
1. Natural nirvana (Tib. rangzhin nyangde): The ultimate nature and/or quality of the
mind that is empty of inherent existence possessing a primal potential for purity. This
is not actual nirvana but the basis for attaining nirvana. Liberation is attained through
recognizing and cultivating this foundational quality and potential of the mind.
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Parinirvana (Skt.; Tib. yongsu nyangan ledepa): Nirvana after the death of the gross aggre-
gates. Within the Hinayana and Theravada traditions, parinirvana is the final nirvana of the
arhat, attained after the death of the gross aggregates. This final nirvana is seen as the
complete liberation from the cycle of rebirth, meaning the arhat will not be reborn again.
Conversely, the bodhisattva of the Mahayana tradition chooses to forgo this nirvana and
continue to be reborn in samsara in order to further purify themselves, with the aim of at-
taining the supreme goal of buddhahood. Therefore the concept of parinirvana, although
used ceremoniously by Mahayanists when referring to an anniversary of the death of a
great master (e.g., the parinirvana of Lama Tsongkhapa), is not a state that is coveted by
the Mahayana practitioner.
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many use this fact to claim that because the ultimate is inexpressible, it is, therefore, a waste of
time to talk about; this attitude greatly impedes philosophical and analytical investigation and
discovery. According to Lama Tsongkhapa, the ultimate can and must be first conceptually un-
derstood in order to cultivate its later direct realization.
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been transcended and/or arrested, similar to a deep dreamless sleep. It is a revelatory experi-
ence in which one attains ultimate knowledge. This mental state is referred to as nirvana with-
out residue because while deep in meditation, no lingering apprehension of phenomena as ex-
isting inherently remains–a mental state referred to as nirvana without residue.
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“If good men and women wish to know the state of buddhahood, they should know that it is not
a state of the eye, the nose, the tongue, the body, or the mind; nor is it a state of forms, sounds,
scents, tastes, textures, or mental objects. The nonstate is the state of buddhahood. This being
the case, what is the state of supreme enlightenment as attained by the Buddha? The Buddha
said: 'It is the state of emptiness, because all views are equal. It is the state of signlessness (ab-
sence of imputed attributes), because all signs are equal. It is the state of wishlessness, because
the three realms are equal. It is the state of nonaction, because all actions are equal. It is the
state of the unconditioned, because all conditioned things are equal.” ~ Attributed to Manjushri
- from the Maharatnakuta Sutra. [Spoken to the Buddha by Manjushri]
Many different notions of what full enlightenment and a fully enlightened being (a buddha)
would be like have been asserted throughout Buddhism’s long history. However, with so many
layers of religious and cultural embellishment having been added over the centuries, it some-
times feels difficult to have a clear idea of what this state would actually be like. The many de-
scriptions of full enlightenment and the extraordinary abilities that are said to accompany it
simply defy imagination. To begin, let’s give the textbook Mahayana definition of the fully en-
lightened state of buddhahood.
Full enlightenment (Skt. anuttara samyak sambodhi; Tib. yang dakpar dzogpay jangchub): The
attainment of buddhahood (Skt. buddhatva; Tib. sangye kyi go phang). Synonymous with su-
preme enlightenment and non-abiding nirvana, full enlightenment is the attainment of the om-
niscient mind of a buddha, described as a state of absolute blissful perfection. Full enlighten-
ment is the finite and peak state of existence attained through the cessation of the three poi-
sons, all suffering (both physical and mental), and any remaining subtle habitual residue of mis-
perceiving oneself, phenomena, and reality as inherently existent. Through the attainment of
these cessations one becomes a buddha.
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Buddhas (Skt.; Tib. sangye): Awakened ones; those who have perfected all possible virtuous
qualities and are irreversibly freed from the endless cycle of samsaric rebirth and suffering. A
buddha is a being who has reached the very peak of spiritual evolution and comprehends clear-
ly the ultimate nature of reality. Buddhists assert not one, but many buddhas, with the histori-
cal Buddha of our age Shakyamuni Buddha (6th century BCE) being the fourth and present bud-
dha of our aeon (Skt. kalpa). Mahayanists claim thousands of Buddhas have existed and will ex-
ist in the future, positing the next buddha as Buddha Maitreya who will arrive after the teach-
ings of Shakyamuni Buddha are no longer practiced.
“After becoming a buddha one continuously abides in meditative equipoise directly realizing
ultimate truth. Whether the buddha appears to be in meditation or engaged in activity, the
mind of a buddha does not deviate from direct knowledge of the two truths.”
~ Sonam Thakchoe
While buddhas can perceive and interact within ordinary conventional existence, they perceive
the conventional within its ultimate true nature (the absences of any inherent existence, the
absence of dualistic appearance, and the absence of impurity–perceiving all phenomena within
their natural pristine purity). And like enlightened beings, buddhas perceive the conventional
world comparatively the same as ordinary beings (books are books, mountains are mountains,
people are people), although possessing a pure perception of phenomena, including having en-
hanced senses, a more peripheral awareness, the ability to perceive subtle momentary changes
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within phenomena, and the ability to see karmic paths (both past and future). It’s said that
buddhas possess an intention that is much different than our own–in which their actions are
purely reflexive and spontaneous, arising as an effortless expression of their enlightened state.
Furthermore, while emanating in samsara, buddhas are not affected by any of samsara's de-
filements, remaining completely pure without any danger of regaining ignorance.
“When attaining full enlightenment our conventional world does not dissolve. When we have
attained full enlightenment our perception is not only the perception of emptiness but the
perception of the conventional world as well. Understanding emptiness should not destroy or
distance ourselves from the conventional empirical world; it should in fact give us more re-
spect for it.” ~ Khensur Jampa Tegchok
Miracles of a buddha
The belief in miraculous powers of buddhas is asserted within all Buddhist traditions. Buddhist
scriptures are full of accounts of Buddha Shakumuni having performed a vast array of miracles
including walking on water, flying, traveling through space, traveling to heavens to teach gods,
making himself as big as a giant and then as small as an ant, becoming invisible, passing through
solid objects, walking through mountains, diving in and out of the earth, projecting images of
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himself in the sky, multiplying into a million replicas, and even touching the sun and moon with
his hand.
Pure lands (Skt. buddhaksetra; Tib. tak shing): Also known as buddha fields or pure realms.
In Mahayana Buddhism, pure lands are celestial dwellings or pure abodes of buddhas, realms
beyond samsara that transcend time and space. A pure land is created each time a bodhisattva
attains buddhahood and is established through their great merit and virtuous activities. Pure
lands are spontaneous manifestations of a buddha’s purified mind, realms totally free from suf-
fering. Often confused with the everlasting reward of eternal heaven found in other religions,
pure lands instead are realms where superior beings can visit to receive teachings directly from
the buddha of that pure land, realms where all conditions are conducive to the practice of
Dharma and the attainment of enlightenment. Descriptions of pure lands within supplication
prayers are spectacular. A realm whose ground is covered in gold, where magnificent pavilions
adorned with precious substances stand raised above pools filled with water of merit and virtue,
their bottoms covered with precious gems. On the surface of the pools are wonderfully fragrant
lotuses the size of carriage wheels in every color one can imagine. Heavenly music continuously
plays while flowers rain from the sky. In this place there are wondrous birds that sing the Dhar-
ma and when the soft wind blows, rows of jeweled trees produce wonderful sounds evoking
mindfulness in all that hear it. There are said to be an infinite number of pure lands, populated
by an infinite number of buddhas. Superior beings and even ordinary beings with the adequate
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merit can be reborn into these pure lands. Some well known pure lands are: Tushita (Skt.; Tib.
Gaden) of Maitreya Buddha; The copper-colored mountain (Skt. Camaradvipa; Tib. Zangdok-
palri) of Padmasambhava; and Sukhavati (Skt.; Tib. Dewachen) of Amitabha Buddha. However,
the most important is Akanishta (Skt.; Tib. Omin) of Vairochana, the pure land where superior
bodhisattvas attain buddhahood.
Akanishta (Skt.; Tib. Omin): Meaning nothing below; highest; or above all else.
The pure land where superior bodhisattvas attain buddhahood. After achieving budhahood,
buddhas abide within the pure land Akanishta (in a Sambhogakaya form) while emanating
within their own pure land, and countless world systems, manifesting enlightened activities.
Buddha bodies
Buddha bodies / buddha kaya (Skt.; Tib. sanggyekyi ku): The attainment of buddhahood and
the attainment of the buddha bodies are synonymous. The attainment of buddhahood occurs
after the death of the physical body and subsequent rebirth into the pure land Akanishta. When
attaining buddhahood, an enlightened bodhisattva’s subtle dream-like mental and physical ag-
gregates are completely purified and thereby transformed into the truth body (Skt. dharma-
kaya; Tib. chöku)–a mental body of a buddha; and the form body (Skt. rupakaya; Tib. zugku)–a
manifestation body of a buddha. At this point, the buddha is completely free from the process
of rebirth. The buddha bodies are attained through the accomplishment or perfection of the six
perfections. The term body (Skt. kaya; Tib. ku) in this usage, is understood not merely as a phys-
ical body, but instead includes all aspects and qualities of a buddha (all forms, emanations, at-
tributes, and mental aspects). At this level the buddha's physical body is nearly indistinguisha-
ble from the mind, with the body being merely a subtle wind (Tib. lung) upon which the mind
rides, existing as two aspects of the same entity and analogized as a horse and rider.
Each Buddhist tradition posits their own unique assertions of how exactly buddhas exist af-
ter attaining buddhahood. One novel approach to understanding the ontological nature of bud-
dhahood is to combine the two assertions: (1) That consciousness is beginningless and endless
and can never cease, and (2) that buddhas escape the cycle of rebirth and the taking on of an
ordinary physical body. Therefore the consciousness of buddhas can never be extinguished yet
it exists without the need of ordinary physical form.
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The two buddha bodies: the truth body and form body
The truth body (Skt. dharmakaya; Tib. chöku): Also known as the mental body; the en-
lightened aspect of the mental aggregates related to a buddha’s experience of bud-
dhahood. This mental body is the base or ground of buddhahood itself, the omniscient
mind of a buddha and the emptiness of that mind. The truth body pertains to a bud-
dha’s ultimate unconditioned aspect attained through the collection of wisdom and the
cultivation of the wisdom side of the path through the practice of the 4 th, 5th, 6th perfec-
tions.
The form body (Skt. rupakaya; Tib. zugku): Also known as the manifestation body; the
enlightened aspect of the form aggregates related to a buddha’s manifestation body,
the aspect of a buddha that benefits beings by manifesting in whichever way is most
useful. The form body pertains to a buddha’s conventional conditioned aspect attained
through the collection of merit and the cultivation of the method side of the path,
through the practice of the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th perfections.
“The moment when the causes and conditions of your own enlightenment are present, you
will become a buddha. In other words, the moment when your two accumulations of merit
and wisdom are complete, buddhahood will naturally arise as the result, and nothing, abso-
lutely nothing can stop this process.” ~ Chamtrul Rinpoche
Note: The four body model calls into question the prior three body model’s dualistic assertion
that the ultimate is only attained through the abandonment of the conventional, an assertion
rejected by the Gelug School. The four body model asserts that the conventional and ultimate
are inseparably entwined and that a buddha is not bound by either state, referred to as non-
abiding nirvana.
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Truth body defined: The omniscient mind of a buddha and the emptiness
Truth body
of that mind; the enlightened aspect of the mental aggregates related to
(Skt.) Dharmakaya
a buddha’s experience of buddhahood, attained through the collection of
(Tib.) Chöku
wisdom through the practice of the 4th, 5th, 6th perfections.
(Mental body)
The emptiness of a buddha’s mind which is natu-
Nature body
rally free of grasping at inherent existence; the
(Skt.) Svabhavikaya
cessations of all natural and adventitious defile-
Truth body divisions (Tib.) Ngowo nyiku
ments within a buddha’s continuum.
Form body defined: The aspect of a buddha that benefits beings; mani-
Form body
festing in whichever way is most useful; the enlightened aspect of the
(Skt.) Rupakaya
form aggregates attained through the collection of merit and through the
(Tib.) Zugku
practice of the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th perfections.
(Manifestation body)
Enjoyment body The manifestation of a buddha in a subtle body of
(Skt.) Sambhogakaya light that appears to superior bodhisattvas; this
Form body divisions (Tib.) Longku body abides in the pure land Akanishta.
Emanation body
The manifestation of a buddha in a physical body
(Skt.) Nirmanakaya
which can be perceived by ordinary beings.
(Tib.) Tulku
Recognizing the seeds of the four buddha bodies present within ourselves
It’s important for one’s practice to recognize the potentiality or seeds of the four buddha bod-
ies that are currently present within us in order to cultivate and nurture them into their later
full fruition.
The seed of our nature truth body: The emptiness of inherent existence of one’s mind.
The seed of our wisdom truth body: One’s own current insight and wisdom.
The seed of our enjoyment body: Oneself at one’s best; one’s potential for perfection.
The seed of our emanation body: One’s projected persona enabling interaction with society.
Thirty-two major and eighty minor physical signs, marks, or attributes of a buddha
Besides the amazing assortment of powers that buddhas receive upon attaining the truth body,
buddhas’ form bodies also receive attainments displaying thirty-two major marks and eighty
minor physical signs.
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Before sharing the outline of the Mahayana path (Skt. Mahayana marga; Tib. thek chen lam)
let’s first look at some of its foundational elements, specifically: the three principal aspects of
the path, the vehicles of the path, the divisions of the path, and obstructions abandoned along
the path.
Bodhisattva vehicle (Skt. bodhisattvayana; Tib. jangsem thegpa): The universal path to
buddhahood; a path that relies on a buddha in order to attain buddhahood; attained
through the accumulation of the two complimentary paths of wisdom and method. One
who has attained this path has become a buddha. (Mahayana tradition)
Vajrayana vehicle (Skt. tantrayana; Tib. gyü thegpa): The accelerated path to bud-
dhahood; a method for accomplishing the bodhisattva vehicle faster; sharing the same
Mahayana path and goals but differing in method and how it attains those goals. One
who has accomplished this path has become a buddha. (Vajrayana tradition)
Note: Hearers and solitary realizers of the Hinayana and Theravada traditions predominately
accumulate the path of wisdom which eliminates afflictive obscurations. However, the Maha-
yana asserts that in order to become a buddha one must also fully accumulate the path of
method which eliminates cognitive obscurations.
Conventional
The Ground The two truths
Foundation of the path Ultimate
Truth body
The Fruition The two Buddha bodies
Result of the path Form body
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Buddhahood
The attainment of the two buddha bodies
The generation and collection of wisdom The generation and collection of method
With the goal of transcending one’s cog- With the goal of transcending one’s afflic-
nitive obstructions to omniscience, lead- tive obstructions to liberation, leading to
ing to the attainment of the truth body; the attainment of the form body; the
the wisdom side of the path pertains to method side of the path pertains to con-
ultimate truth; cultivated through study, ventional truth and is cultivated through
contemplation, and meditation of the study, contemplation, meditation, mind
Buddha’s teachings leading to the purifi- training, and the accumulation of merit
cation of one’s view. Qualities gained in- leading to the purification of one’s view.
clude: becoming more logical, rational, Qualities gained include: becoming more
understanding, clear. altruistic, intuitive, and content.
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The abandonment of obstructions to liberation (Tib. nyodip) leading to the end of suf-
fering; also know as afflictive obscurations–hindrances to the attainment of liberation;
pertaining mainly to the three poisons (ignorance, attachment, and aversion). These are
eradicated upon attaining the eighth ground and through the cultivation of the wisdom
aspect of the path.
Below is the outline of the Mahayana sutra path to enlightenment (as opposed to the tantric
Buddhist outline) as presented by the Gelug school of Tibetan Buddhism. Aspects of the path
can differ according to the various traditions and various capacities of practitioners, including:
the order of stages and attainments, when vows are taken, when particular topics are studied,
or when to begin to incorporate tantric practices. A comprehensive understanding of the stages
of this outline is considered essential in attaining buddhahood.
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Note: In the above chart the word meditation in this context pertains to the study, contempla-
tion, meditation, and/or familiarization of each topic.
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The first path – The path of accumulation (Skt. sambharamarga; Tib. tsoklam).
The first level of a bodhisattva on the path. Referred to as the path of accumulation because at
this stage the practitioner amasses great knowledge and great merit. Upon achieving uncon-
trived bodhichitta along with an unwavering determination to be free from samsara, one be-
comes a actual bodhisattva and enters the path of accumulation. Usually by this point, the prac-
titioner has already achieved single-pointed concentration.
Divisions
Large: The samadhi of a river of Dharmas – a special samadhi (meditative concentration)
that allows one to visit buddha fields to receive teachings, while remembering them all.
Medium: Can no longer fall to a lower path.
Small: Having a foundation of bodhichitta.
Entry into this level: The achievement of uncontrived bodhichitta along with an unwavering
determination to be free from samsara.
Abilities gained at this level: The elimination of the gross defilements that cause samsaric
suffering. Upon attaining the medium level the bodhisattva’s bodhichitta becomes stable
and will never degenerate.
Practices at this level: Receiving teachings, meditating, cultivating calm abiding, practicing
the six perfections, abandoning the three poisons, and collecting merit.
The second path – The path of preparation (Skt. prayogamarga; Tib. jorlam).
The second level of a bodhisattva on the path. Referred to as the path of preparation because
at this stage one prepares his mind for the experience of the direct realization of emptiness
through the union of calm abiding and special insight focused on emptiness.
Division (these divisions are shared in ascending order)
Highest dharma: No longer the gross arising of the conception of true/inherently exist-
ence of the realization of emptiness.
Forbearance: No longer the gross arising of the conception of true/inherently existence of
wrong mental states.
Peak: No longer the gross arising of the conception of true/inherently existence of pure
phenomenon (i.e., path, Dharma, Buddha) as truly existent.
Heat: No longer the gross arising of the conception of inherent existence of contaminated
phenomenon as truly/inherently existent. One's first experience of the fire that will be-
come the path of seeing. Each of these levels moves farther away from grasping at inher-
ent existence.
Entry into this level: The union of calm abiding and special insight focused on emptiness.
Abilities gained at this level: The lessening of dualistic appearances. At the highest level, the
roots of virtue of a bodhisattva cannot be destroyed by wrong views.
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Practices at this level: Overcoming the misconceptions of true existence, deepening one’s
conceptual realization of emptiness, meditating, cultivating the six perfections, abandoning
the three poisons, and collecting merit.
The third path – The path of seeing (Skt. darsanamarga; Tib. tonglam)
The third level of a bodhisattva on the path. Through the bodhisattva’s first direct and non-
conceptual realization of emptiness they enter both the path of seeing and the first of the ten
bodhisattva grounds, thereby becoming a superior bodhisattva (Skt. Arya bodhisattvas; Tib.
jangsem pakpa).
The first bodhisattva ground: Very joyful; attained through the perfection of giving which
marks one’s further development towards buddhahood.
Entry into this level: The direct/non-conceptual realization of emptiness.
Abilities gained: At the path of seeing, the bodhisattva no longer experiences ordinary birth,
sickness, and death. Other attainments include the disappearance of dual appearance while
in meditative equipoise. According to scripture, the bodhisattva, upon entering the first
ground, gains twelve powers, each involving one-hundred things:
1. To behold 100 buddhas.
2. To receiving teachings from 100 buddhas.
3. To live for 100 eons.
4. To see past happenings and future happenings of phenomena for 100 eons.
5. To enter and arise from 100 absorbed concentrations.
6. To shake up 100 world-systems.
7. To illuminate all 100 world-systems with their radiance.
8. To make 100 beings ripe for realizations by helping them make their minds agile.
9. To travel to 100 pure land buddha fields.
10. To open 100 gateways of Dharma preventive measures through giving teachings.
11. To emanate in 100 bodies.
12. To have each body surrounded by 100 bodhisattvas.
Note: These same powers are then multiplied as higher grounds are attained:
1st ground – 100 things, 2nd ground – 1,000, 3rd ground – 100,000, etc.
Practices at this level: The abandonment of intellectually acquired afflictive obstructions
through one’s meditative equipoise, practicing the six perfections, abandoning the three
poisons, and collecting merit.
The fourth path – The path of meditation (Skt. bhavanamarga; Tib. gomlam).
The fourth level of a bodhisattva on the path. As the superior bodhisattva begins to eliminate
the innate afflictive obstructions, he enters the path of meditation while simultaneously attain-
ing the second bodhisattva ground. The attainment of all ten grounds is achieved through the
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cultivation of the ten perfections (these ten perfections are condensed into the six perfection
shared earlier, with the seventh through tenth perfections of method, prayer, spiritual power,
and exalted wisdom, merged into the sixth–perfection of wisdom). Through the further practice
of these perfections one then attains the third, fourth, fifth, sixth and seventh grounds.
The second ground: Stainless; attained through the perfection of ethics.
The third ground: Luminous; attained through the perfection of patience.
The fourth ground: Radiant; attained through the perfection of joyous effort.
The fifth ground: Difficult to overcome; attained through the perfection of concentration.
The sixth ground: Manifesting; attained through the perfection of wisdom.
The seventh ground: Gone afar; attained through the perfection of method.
The eighth ground: Immovable; attained through the perfection of prayer.
Upon reaching the eighth bodhisattva ground, one attains nirvana (the irreversible cessation of
the three poisons) and has become an enlightened being. Further deepening meditation leads
to the attainment of the ninth and finally tenth bodhisattva grounds.
The ninth ground: Good intelligence; attained through the perfection of spiritual powers.
The tenth ground: Cloud of doctrine; attained through the perfection of exalted wisdom.
Entry into this level:
Grounds 2-7: Beginning to eliminate the innate afflictive obstructions.
Grounds 8-10: Attaining nirvana.
Abilities gained at this level:
Grounds 2-7: The multiplying powers shared earlier: 100 things, 1,000 things, etc.
Grounds 8-10: Having attained nirvana the superior bodhisattva gains ten powers in addi-
tion to the multiplied powers above. These are the powers over:
1. Their own life spans – they can live as long as they wish.
2. Their minds – they can enter/arise from limitless types of absorbed concentration.
3. Necessities of life – they can find everything they need.
4. Activities – they know and can teach any art or science.
5. Birth – they can be born whenever and wherever they wish.
6. Prayers – to manifest themselves in any form needed.
7. Aspiration – they can manifest anything they see fit.
8. Extra physical emanation – they can go to any pure land that they wish.
9. Deep awareness – they are unimpeded in their learning.
10. The Dharma – they understand all the words and meanings of the teachings.
Note: These powers, although beyond ordinary comprehension, still do not approach the
qualities and abilities of a buddha’s omniscient awareness. Therefore when bodhisattvas
are described as understanding all the dharma and so on, this means just within their own
level and abilities.
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Practices at this level: Abandoning innate afflictive obstructions and cognitive obstruc-
tions, meditating, cultivating the six perfections, and collecting merit.
The fifth path – The path of no more learning (Skt. asaiksamarga; Tib. melobpelam).
The fifth and final level for a bodhisattva on the path, which is buddhahood; the attainment of
the omniscient mind of a buddha. The Mahayana tradition defines a buddha as an omniscient
and omnipresent being, possessing both miraculous mental and miraculous physical qualities.
Entry into this level: The final abandonment of any remaining residue of ignorance, delu-
sions, and afflictions, including the full perfection of all virtuous qualities and an uninter-
rupted direct cognition of emptiness.
Abilities gained at this level: Besides all of the powers attributed to a supreme bodhisattva,
a buddha spontaneously manifests a pure land while existing in the state of non-abiding nir-
vana. The buddha attains the four buddha bodies, perceives both the ultimate and conven-
tional simultaneously, can manifest countless emanations, in all conceivable forms, in count-
less worlds according to the needs of countless sentient beings, all without ever straying
from the wisdom realizing the final nature of phenomena.
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Buddhist Cosmology/Mythology
In this chapter, I follow in the tradition of the Buddha, who showed little interest in addressing
questions pertaining to metaphysics or cosmology, and instead, urged students to focus on the
present task of liberating themselves from samsara. Additionally, because of growing debate
pertaining to whether the Buddha actually taught the current presentation of cosmology
shared by modern Buddhist traditions, I have decided, in the same spirit of the Buddha, not to
emphasize this topic and instead have saved it for the end of this section where students can
investigate it if they so wish. The Buddha’s own aversion to metaphysical enquiry can be seen in
his famous parable of a person who had been shot with an arrow but refused medical treat-
ment until first finding out who shot him and what kind of arrow it was–a person who would
potentially die while his questions still remained unanswered–implying that students shouldn’t
waste their time and energy on speculation, but instead, focus on the immediate work of at-
taining liberation.
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Although the Buddha remained silent on these questions, later Buddhist scholars did address
these topics and in so doing began the evolution of the many different schools of Buddhist
thought. These topics continue to be vigorously debated to this day.
“My own view is that Buddhism must abandon many aspects of the Abhidharma cosmology.”
~ The 14th Dalai Lama
Some of the obvious inaccuracies within the Abhidharma include measurements of the size and
distance of the sun and moon–asserting the sun to be only slightly bigger than the moon and
roughly the same distance from the earth. On another account, the Kalachakra tantra asserts
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that at the center of the universe lies the celestial mountain Mount Meru surrounded by oceans
and four continents that are the base of support for all of the different realms and their inhab-
itance. Our own world is asserted to be located on one of the southern continents, a place
known as Jambu or Jambudvipa. His Holiness asserts these views are clearly outdated. With
that said, this doesn’t undermine the value and validity of other assertions within the
Abhidharma, where its teachings on epistemology, ontology, phenomenology, and mind sci-
ence are profoundly insightful. It’s important to remember that the Abhidharma was not taught
by the Buddha himself, although, in an attempt to legitimize these teachings, it was asserted to
have been taught by the Buddha to superior beings and his deceased mother in the heaven
realms before being passed down to our realm.
Again, Buddhism inherits a similar cosmology to that of other Indian religions. It posits a uni-
verse possessing an infinite amount of inhabited world systems, existing in a constant cycle of
expansion and contraction (formation, abiding, destruction, and vacuity). A universe that ex-
tends both horizontally–as in the groupings of stars and planets, as well as vertically–in ascend-
ing levels or realms of existence. The Buddha’s model of reality doesn’t posit a cosmos locked in
battle between good and evil, but instead a natural universe indifferent to the ethical strife of
beings. A cosmos that is inhabited by a multitude of streams of sentient consciousnesses (sen-
tient beings) that continually manifest in various reoccurring forms. It’s through the potential
(karma) created through these beings’ awareness that our reality and the cosmos is made man-
ifest. A universe that tantric Buddhism asserts is comprised merely of mind and energy.
The three realms of samsaric existence (Skt. tridhatu; Tib. kham sum)
Buddhism asserts samsara as consisting of three distinct realms of existence: the formless
realm, form realm, and desire realm. Although existence in some of these realms can be ex-
tremely long, none are eternal. All beings in these three realms, propelled by their karma
and/or the purification of that karma, will eventually be reborn or transmigrate into higher or
lower realms. Whether or not the three realms exist as actual realms of existence may be dis-
puted; however, it is widely accepted that the three realms exist as levels of mental and/or
meditative absorptions or concentrations (Skt. dhyana; Tib. samten; Pali. jhana).
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five senses for perceiving them) are arrested or suspended, and beings abide in single
pointed meditation, without distraction. Practitioners who have attained a profound
level of meditation may be reborn into this realm of subtle meditative absorption. The
formless realm is divided into four levels called the four absorptions. Absorptions here
can be understood as deep meditative states of mind.
The Four Absorptions
Peak of cyclic existence level (highest of the four absorptions)
Nothingness level
Limitless consciousness level
Limitless space level
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Note: Again, it's asserted that although existence in some of these realms can be extremely
long, no realm is eternal. All beings in these three realms, propelled by their karma and/or
the purification of that karma, will eventually be reborn or transmigrate into higher or lower
realms; or through diligent effort gain irreversible liberation from the three realms by attain-
ing enlightenment.
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* These high realms are considered to be heaven realms, therefore these high level meditators
once born into these realms are considered form realm gods and formless realm gods. It is said
that they possess the same abilities and can interact with all the devas in the realms in which
they inhabit.
Note: These nine realms can be further divided into thirty-one planes of existence, with the de-
sire realm being divided into eleven distinct planes of existence, the form realm divided into
sixteen planes, and the formless divided into four.
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“Buddhists don’t assert space and time as a background grid that provides the space/time
coordinates of objects located within it.” ~ Dr. Alexander Berzin
Belief in an apocalypse: Unlike most other religions, Buddhist does not assert an apocalyptic
story. Instead it posits the natural recurring process of formation, abiding, destruction, and va-
cuity of universal systems. However, Tibetan tantric scriptures do have an epic story and/or
prophecy of a future war pertaining to the mythical Tibetan kingdom of Shambala (Skt.; Tib.
deyung), depicted as a hidden and magical Himalayan kingdom inhabited by enlightened be-
ings. According to His Holiness, Shambala is not a physical place that can be found, but instead,
is a pure land existing within the human realm where those with the proper merit can visit or
be reborn. The prophecy of the war of Shambala tells of a distant future when our world is di-
vided into two opposing forces: the forces of light (the Buddhist Shambalains) and the forces of
darkness (barbarians). The forces of darkness, which have conquered most of the world, are
focused on conquering the Shambala kingdom. The story tells of the forces of darkness waging
a brutal battle against the forces of light. However, due to the Shambalain's advanced technol-
ogy, the forces of darkness are repelled and conquered, ushering in a golden age of peace in
the world.
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Buddhist cosmology asserts a myriad of different beings, from humans and animals to a miracu-
lous list of supernatural, mystical, and mythical beings.
Animals (Skt. tiryaks; Tib. dhüdo): Inhabitants of the animal realm–including insect life. Due to
deep ignorance and lack of self-awareness and introspection, liberation is not possible for the
beings in this realm.
Arhats / arhati (female) (Skt.; Tib. dachomba): One who is worthy of veneration. The highest
level of enlightened beings (however, not yet a buddha). A term used predominately within the
Theravada tradition.
Bodhisattvas (Skt.; Tib. jang chub sempa): Humans who possess the mind of awakening
(bodhichitta); an advanced practitioner (monastic or lay) who possesses the altruistic aspiration
and determination to attain buddhahood in order to free all beings from samsara. It’s asserted
that the bodhisattva, although in a position to attain parinirvana, out of great compassion to
sentient beings, forgoes it and instead chooses to be reborn and abide in samsara to continue
to perfect themselves in order to become a buddha. A foundational element of the Mahayana
tradition.
Buddhas (Skt.;Tib. sanggye): Awakened ones; a human who has perfected all possible virtuous
qualities while abandoning all remaining residue of ignorance, afflictions, and delusions, there-
by achieving buddhahood–the complete and irreversible liberation from samsara.
The three of types of buddhas
Samyaksambuddhas (Skt.; Tib. thekchen gi jangchub): One who becomes fully en-
lightened through their own efforts and insight and then teaches the dharma to
others. Also known as wheel turner–buddhas who introduce a momentous and new
dharma as in the case of the historical Buddha of our age Buddha Shakyamuni.
Pratyekabuddhas (Skt.; Tib. rangyal gi jangchub): One who becomes fully enlight-
ened through their own efforts and insight; however are unwilling or incapable of
teaching others.
Sravakabuddhas (Skt.; Tib. nyenthoe ki jangchub): One who depends on the guid-
ance and teachings of a buddha to attain buddhahood.
Dakinis and dakas (Skt.): Sky-goers; fully enlightened beings who are the embodiment of en-
lightened activity; beings who may take on different forms in order to aid and guide practition-
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ers on their path. Dakinis and dakas can also be highly realized human yogis or yoginis often
acting as oracles or spiritual muses during tantric ritual. These terms can additionally pertain to
a tantric sexual consort.
Dakinis (Skt.; Tib. khandroma): Female sky-goer
Dakas (Skt.; Tib. khandro): Male sky-goer (less prevalent in Tibetan Buddhism)
Devas (Skt.; Tib. lha): Shining one; inhabitants of the deva or god realm; the term deva is
found within all Indian religions and is commonly understood as mundane gods possessing
beauty and long life, who live in a state of blissful sensory pleasure. Although powerful, de-
vas are still unenlightened beings and exist within samsaric cyclic existence and therefore
are inferior to buddhas.
Deities (Skt. ishtadevata; Tib. yidam): Synonymous with supramundane deities, meditation
deities, and tantric deities. Within Buddhism, and especially tantric Buddhism, there are
countless deities, each embodying and exemplifying a unique set of qualities. However, what
exactly deities are, and how they exist, is not often clear, because many traditions and
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teachers have their own unique interpretations. Some see deities as omnipotent gods and
the focus of worship, while others believe deities to be merely symbolic representations or
archetypes of distinct aspects of the mind used as visualization aids. The Gelug school as-
serts that deities are emanations of various aspects of the enlightened mind, meaning that
buddhas and superior bodhisattvas can emanate as particular deities in order to benefit in
particular ways. Buddhas may choose to emanate as a specific deity because of its unique
benefit or because they possess a strong predisposition for that specific deity. With that
said, the idea of deities as existing as singular entities is mistaken. For example, the deity
Avalokiteshvara–the deity of loving kindness and compassion, is not merely a single deity,
but instead is the enlightened aspect of compassion and can be manifested by many
buddhas simultaneously, meaning there can be countless Avalokiteshvaras in existence at
any given time.
Wrathful deities (Tib. dragpo lha): The wrathful aspect/emanations of deities. In difficult sit-
uations, when power, strength, and controlled anger may be needed to benefit others,
peaceful deities can manifest their wrathful aspect in order to skillfully create a virtuous re-
sult.
Demigods (Skt. asuras; Tib. lha min): Inhabitants of the demigod realm; the realm of the
fighting gods; one of the six desire realms. Often referred to as jealous devas, demigods are
warlike mundane gods depicted as enemies of the devas who are consumed with jealousy
and envy. Although powerful, demigods are still unenlightened beings and exist within
samsaric cyclic existence and therefore are inferior to buddhas.
Dharma Protectors (Skt. dharmapala; Tib. chö kyong): Mundane deities that protect the
Buddha’s teachings. Often believed to be harmful spirits that Buddhism had conquered,
tamed, and transformed into a strong positive force, who are then delegated to protecting
the dharma and Buddhist practitioners under their care. The almost demonic imagery of
both wrathful deities and dharma protectors can be found throughout Tibetan iconology.
Although rituals pertaining to Dharma protectors can be found in earlier Indian Buddhism,
within Tibetan Buddhism the practice became central and vastly expanded. It’s said that
many of the Tibetan dharma protectors began as demons from the early Bön religion–the
original shamanistic religion of Tibet. Demons, although pacified by the Dharma, still possess
their wrathful/evil appearance.
Form beings (Skt. rupadhatu pudgala; Tib. zug kam kyi gang zag): Inhabitants of the form
realm; one of the three realms of existence. Beings who possess forms of a very subtle nature,
whose minds have temporarily transcended the sense desires of the desire realm.
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Formless beings (Skt. arupadhatu pudgala; Tib. zugme kyi gang zag): Inhabitants of the form-
less realm, the peak of the three realms of existence. The name formless here pertains to the
fact that the beings in this realm are no longer preoccupied with matter or material concerns
and does not imply that these beings themselves are formless, but instead possess very subtle
bodies.
Hell beings (Skt. Narakas; Tib. nyalba): Inhabitants of the hell realms, the lowest of the six de-
sire realms. Because of past negative karma, these beings are delegated to an existence of hor-
rible pain and continuous torture within any of the eight hot or eight cold hells.
Human beings (Skt. manusyas; Tib. mi): Inhabitants of the human realm; one of the six desire
realms. Considered the most fortunate state of existence because humans have the optimum
balance of pleasure and suffering which offers the greatest potential for enlightenment.
Hungry ghosts (Skt. pretas; Tib. yidag): Inhabitants of the hungry ghost realm, one of the six de-
sire realms. Hungry ghosts are beings who are tormented by continuous and unsatisfied crav-
ings. Depicted as having huge bellies representing their insatiable desire, and tiny mouths and
throats representing their inability to satisfy their desires.
Mara (Skt.; Tib. dü): Metaphor and personification of one’s self-grasping ignorance, afflictions,
samsaric delusions, and/or obstacles to Dharma practice. Mara is the embodiment of the false
self, wrong views, and desire for samsaric sense pleasures. In the story of the Buddha’s enlight-
enment, Mara (the Buddha's own ignorance, delusions, and afflictions) is the tempter that the
Buddha must overcome prior to his awakening.
Nagas (Skt.; Tib. lu): Magical serpent-like creatures found in both Hindu and Buddhist mytholo-
gy. Nagas, usually water dwelling, are said to be temperamental beings described as half fish
and half snake, also interpreted as dragons. Although classified as animals, they are intelligent
and possess god-like powers which can both help and hinder human beings.
Spirits (Tib. namshe): Both helpful and harmful; although often powerful, spirits are still un-
enlightened beings within samsaric existence and rebirth. Harmful spirits may create obsta-
cles for humans, while helpful spirits may be called upon for divination or protection.
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Ghosts (Tib. dre): Disembodied beings trapped in the in-between state between rebirths, sim-
ilar to the Western idea of ghosts.
Demons (Tib. dön): Extremely wicked and always hostile to humans. Similar to the Western
depiction within horror movies. Considered to be mere superstition by most Buddhist tradi-
tions yet widely accepted by common people.
Yama or yamaraja (Skt.; Tib. shinje chögyal): The lord of death; a metaphor and personification
of the impending inevitability of death. An ancient Indian archetype shared by most Indian tra-
ditions.
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CHAPTER NINE:
Benefits and Misconceptions of the Buddhist View
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Through embracing a multi life view - one’s anxieties pertaining to one’s current life and
in particular, fears pertaining to aging, sickness, and death are greatly diminished. For
when one embraces the idea that they have lived countless lives before, then one also
realizes that they have experienced aging, sickness, and death countless times before
and consequently these processes become benign, unthreatening, and are seen as natu-
ral aspects of one’s existence.
Through embracing the positive potentiality of karma - one begins to recognize the vast
potential and opportunity that karma presents. One can construct or reinvent one’s life
in any way one sees fit.
Through embracing selflessness and emptiness - one begins to realize that we exist in a
wondrous and extraordinary way–not as static autonomous entities but as beginningless
and endless dynamic processes in a state of constant and infinite change. Through un-
derstanding selflessness, we begin to realize that the body and mind are not the person,
and because person lacks any essential essence, person cannot be hurt, insulted, or di-
minished. This is the liberation and freedom that comes from the clear understanding of
the emptiness of person and phenomena.
Through embracing obstacles as fuel for one’s path - one begins to see one’s suffering
and hindrances as a means for liberation; for it’s through life’s trials and tribulations that
we grow and mature. Therefore the Buddhist view helps us to see obstacles as opportu-
nities for practice and a method for improving ourselves. Meaning, although suffering
and hindrances remain challenging to work with, they are accepted and engaged within a
positive framework. Furthermore, the arising and passing of obstacles are seen as a pro-
cess of purification, in which our past karma is being burned off.
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The misconception that all Buddhist beliefs were established by the Buddha
Many of the beliefs that Buddhism asserts, including samsara, karma, and rebirth, were
in place long before the Buddha’s arrival, although he often asserted a unique interpre-
tation of the terms. However, there are elements of the Buddha’s teaching that are
clearly unique and could not have been derived from earlier Indian traditions of that
time. They include:
The doctrine of no-self
The doctrine of the two truths
The doctrine of dependent origination
The doctrine of emptiness
The Buddha’s four noble truths
The practice of mindful awareness
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The misconception that Buddhism asserts monism–that all things are one
Buddhism posits a form of pluralism, not monism. It asserts that all phenomena exist
interrelationaly, dependent on many causes and conditions. However, at the same time,
each phenomenon maintains a unique independent nature. For although phenomena
are interdependent, they are not necessarily interdependent with all other phenomena.
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through various scriptural citations in which the Buddha defends his meat consumption
when confronted with various Brahmans). The reason for this is that many monks, like
the Buddha himself, practice choicelessness, eating whatever is placed into their alms
bowl. By being choiceless, monastics are less of a burden on the lay community, while at
the same time negating any negative karma pertaining to the slaughter of animals. How-
ever, today, most of us are fully engaged in making choices every time we pick up a
menu or purchase meat from the market. Therefore, as Buddhist logic clearly dictates,
one is participating in the slaughter and commerce of sentient beings, and will therefore
share the negative karma generated from such an act. Today, most modern Buddhist
traditions are now emphasizing vegetarianism. His Holiness has mandated that all Tibet-
an monasteries adhere to a strictly vegetarian menu–although many monastics, when
outside of the monastery, still eat meat, per their Tibetan culture.
Conclusion
To some, the Buddha’s teachings can seem ambiguous, overly complex, and difficult to fully un-
derstand. This can be attributed to the fact that the Buddha’s complex model of the nature of
reality parallels a highly complex universe. Also, the Buddha’s model of reality is often counter-
intuitive and contrary to the way we intuitively believe ourselves to exist, bringing into question
the very validity of our presumed reality. It is similar to Copernicus’s shocking proclamation that
the earth was not the center of the universe, which may have been the first time people began
to see how their intuitive beliefs about themselves and their world could be mistaken, and that
counterintuitive truth, however uncomfortable to accept, could in the end, be correct. The
Buddha challenges us to be courageous enough to embrace the complexity and ambiguity of
our existence, to step outside of the comfort and security of our presumed reality, and to be
open to the possibility that our current views could be mistaken. The Buddha’s unique model of
the nature of reality is that which truly separates Buddhist thought from all other ideologies. It
can be said that all of the Buddha’s teachings, prescribed practices, and the path itself can be
seen in one way or another as pertaining merely to the cultivation and habituation of the Bud-
dha’s model of reality. Buddhism asserts, that through the direct realization of our true selfless
nature and the true empty nature of reality, permanent freedom from mundane samsaric ex-
istence is attainable.
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Appendix
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Deer wheel (Tib. retak chö khor): Symbolizing Buddhism and the Bud-
dha's teachings, and/or more specifically, the first turning of the wheel
of buddhadharma at the Deer Park in Sarnath, India.
Buddhist flag (Tib. nangpe darcha): Designed in the late 19th century to
unite the various Buddhist traditions under one flag.
Wisdom eyes (Tib. sherub ki chen): Often found painted on stupas, the-
se wisdom eyes represent the all-seeing omnipresent compassion of the
buddhas. The dot between the eyes represents the third eye–a symbol
of spiritual awakening.
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Small stupas (Skt.; Tib. chöten): Small stupas that can be placed on
one’s altar as a representation of the Buddha’s mind.
Footprints of the Buddha (Skt. sri pada; Tib. shinye): A symbolic repre-
sentation of the Buddha meant to remind us that he was present on
earth and left a spiritual path to be followed.
Tibetan Symbols
Tibetan flag (Tib. püki gyaldar): The national flag of Tibet. In the centre
of the flag stands a white snow-mountain representing the nation of
Tibet. The six red bands spread across the dark blue sky represent the
original ancestors of the Tibetan people. The pair of snow lions repre-
sents fearlessness and virtue, and the jewels they hold represent Tibet-
an's reverence for the three jewels.
Snow lion (Tib. kang seng): Celestial/mythical animal and emblem of the
snowy mountain ranges of Tibet. Symbolizing power, strength, fearless-
ness, playfulness, joy, and bliss. The Snow Lion's roar is said to embody
the sound of emptiness, courage, and truth.
Prayer flags (Tib. lung ta): Inscribed with auspicious symbols, invoca-
tions, prayers, and/or mantras and hung between trees, around tem-
ples, homes, or mountain ridges where their blessing can be carried by
the wind to bring good fortune to the surrounding area. Traditionally in
five colors (yellow, green, red, white, blue) representing the elements of
earth, water, fire, wind, and space.
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Prayer beads (Skt. mala; Tib. teng wa): Used to count the amount of
mantras, prostrations, or ritual offerings made during practice. Malas
traditionally have 108 beads and can be made of various materials and
in various colors that may be associated with particular deities or sym-
bolic meanings.
Prayer wheels (Tib. mani khorlo): Spinning round hollow drums filled
with scrolls of mantras. It’s believed that when one spins the wheel the
merit gained is the same as if one recited all the mantras contained
within it.
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Cloth victory banner (Skt. dhvaja; Tib. gyaltsen): Cylinder cloth banners
that hang in prayer halls. Symbolizing complete victory of the Buddhist
doctrine over the three poisons, delusions, afflictions, and negativities
of the world.
Metal victory banner (Skt. dhvaja; Tib. gyaltsen): Ornate copper drums
traditionally placed on the four corners of monastery and temple roofs.
Symbolizing complete victory of the Buddhist doctrine over the three
poisons, delusions, afflictions, and negativities of the world.
Vajra cross (Skt. visvavajra; Tib. dorje gyatram): Also referred to as the
double dorje; symbolizing the foundation of the physical world. Whether
vertical or in X-form, it is an emblem of stability, protection, immovea-
ble determination, and all-accomplishing wisdom. Often used as a seal
or stamp, found impressed on plates at the base of statues that protect
and keep prayers/relics inside.
Large ritual drum (Tib. nga): Used in tantric practice to set the meter or
rhythm for group chanting.
Ritual drum (Tib. damaru): A small hand drum used in tantric practice.
Small cymbals (Tib. tingsha): Tingshas produce a clear, high pitched, and
long ringing tone or "ting" sound, from which its name is derived. In the
Tibetan tradition it is mainly used when making tantric smoke offerings.
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Ritual dagger (Tib. phurba): A three sided ritual dagger used only sym-
bolically within tantric practice. The three sides represent the cutting of
the three poisons (ignorance, attachment, and aversion) also used to
arrest demons.
Ritual hooked knife (Skt. kattari; Tib.tikug): A ritual curved knife sym-
bolizing the destruction of the demonic forces (destructive emotions).
Used only symbolically in tantric practice, the hooked knife represents
the cutting of ego, pride, boredom, lack of faith, and fear.
Conch shell (Skt. shankha; Tib. dung): A ritual horn whose sound when
blown symbolizes the spread of Dharma and awakening from ignorance.
Skull cap vase (Skt. Kapala; Tib. töpa): Found on the lama's table during
tantric empowerments. Kapalas are filled with blessed water and sacred
pills that are used to anoint or bless. Kapalas symbolize the ability to
sustain the bliss of nonconceptual wisdom.
Sand mandalas (Skt.; Tib. kilkhor): Created using colored sand and used
as a focal point for visualizing deities and their respected qualities. As a
meditation on impermanence (a central teaching of Buddhism), after
completion, it is dismantled/destroyed and dispersed into a river or
lake.
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Ritual offering cakes (Skt. bali; Tib. torma): Made from roasted barley or
wheat flour, tormas are special food offerings used in tantric rituals.
Usually ornate and molded in an inverted conical shape, but can be
made in many different shapes and sizes.
Ritual water vase (Tib. bumpa): Found on the lama's table during tantric
empowerments. This vase is filled with blessed water and soaking
peacock feathers which are pulled out to sprinkle blessings. These water
vases symbolize the expanse of the universe.
Butter lamps (Tib. chöme): Small candles made from butter, usually
placed on altars as a light offering to the three jewels.
Protection cords (Tib. sung dü): Small knotted strings that are blessed
by lamas and given to practitioners for protection and blessing. Usually
received during tantric empowerments and worn around the neck or
wrist.
Tsa tsas (Tib.): Small clay icons of deities made with a metal tsa tsa
mold. Often, students are given a commitment to make 100,000 tsa tsas
of a particular deity as a method of collecting merit.
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Mani pills (Tib. mani rilbu): Special blessed herb pills made and prayed
over by lamas. Mani pills are eaten for blessings and healing.
Relics (Skt. sarira; Tib. ringsel): After the cremation of great masters,
relics can be found in the remaining ashes, often in the form of pearl-
like formations, jeweled beads, or bone pieces in auspicious
shapes. Said to bestow blessing on those who look upon them.
Amulets (Tib. sung khor): Charms and/or filled vials, often worn by the
lay for protection against obstacles, negativities, and harmful spirits.
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Lotus (Skt. padma; Tib. pema): Symbolizing purity of the body, speech,
mind, and the blossoming of wholesome deeds in blissful liberation. The
fully-opened lotus represents the fully-awakened mind.
Endless knot (Skt. srivatsa; Tib. pelbeu): Symbolizing the unity of wis-
dom, great compassion, and the illusory character of time.
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Foundational Deities
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Abhidharma (Skt.; Tib. chöngönpa): Literally, the study of dharma. The repository of higher
knowledge and training in wisdom, considered the first attempt to arrange the Buddha’s teach-
ings into a comprehensive philosophical system. Part of the Buddhist canon.
See Buddhist canon.
Absolutism (Skt. nitya drsti; Tib. takpe taba): Also referred to as substantialism or eternalism;
the view that beings and phenomena are inherently existent and that phenomena possess an
essential essence–often asserted as eternal.
Afflictions (Skt. klesha; Tib. nyön mong): Negative mental states that cloud and disturb the
mind. The five main afflictions are referred to as the five poisons: ignorance, desire, aversion,
pride, and jealousy.
Akanishta (Skt.; Tib. omin): Meaning, nothing below; highest; or above all else.
The pure land where superior bodhisattvas attain buddhahood. After achieving buddhahood,
buddhas abide within the pure land Akanishta (in Sambhogakaya aspect) while emanating with-
in their own pure realm and countless world systems, manifesting enlightened activities.
Altars (Skt. butsudan; Tib. chösham): The preparing of a daily altar is an offering practice used
to focus one’s intentions, practice, and to petition blessing from the three jewels. The most
common alter consists of seven bowls of clean water and a statue or picture of the Buddha
and/or one’s teacher. See appendix.
Amitabha (Skt.; Tib. Öpame): Principal Buddha on the Pure Land School. One of the five Dhyani
Buddhas, red in color and representing the wisdom of discrimination, discernment, pure per-
ception, and deep awareness.
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Animal realm: Home of animals (Skt. tiryaks; Tib. dhüdo); a realm of killing and being killed; due
to deep ignorance and the lack of self-awareness or introspection, liberation cannot be
achieved in this realm.
Arhat - male / arhati - female (Skt.; Tib. dachomba): One who is worthy of veneration. The high-
est level of enlightened beings (however not yet a buddha). A term used predominantly within
the Theravada tradition.
Atisha (Skt.; Tib. Atisha): Legendary Indian Buddhist master (982-1055 CE); founder of the
Kadam school of Tibetan Buddhism.
Attachment (Skt. raga; Tib. düchak): Synonymous with desire, greed, and passion; defined as
wishing not to be separated from the object of one's desire; the compulsive grasping, clinging,
or thirst to obtain, possess, or protect, that which is desired.
Avalokiteshvara (Skt.; Tib. Chenrezig): Patron deity of Tibet; the manifestation of the buddhas’
loving compassion. See appendix.
Aversion (Skt. dvesha; Tib. shedang): Synonymous with anger, aggression, and hatred; defined
as a feeling of intense dislike; the rejection or need to harm that which is detested.
Blessings (Skt. adhisthana; Tib. chinlap): Buddhism asserts that through prayer, contact with
sacred objects, being touched by or being in the presence of great beings, or practicing on aus-
picious dates, blessing can be received and/or merit accumulated. Properly, blessing should be
seen as that which improves the quality of one’s mind, meaning that the actual motivation in
receiving blessings should pertain to the hope of receiving inspiration, guidance, and clarity.
Bodhi tree (Skt.; Tib. changchup jün shing): Tree of enlightenment. The tree that sheltered the
Buddha while he attained enlightenment. The Buddha claimed that because this tree had shel-
tered him, it was worthy of veneration and could serve as a symbol of his teachings.
See appendix.
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Bodhichitta (Skt.; Tib. jangchup kyi sem): The mind of enlightenment; the altruistic aspiration
and determination to become a buddha in order to free all beings from the suffering.
Bodhisattva (Skt.; Tib. jang chub sempa): One who possesses bodhichitta–the mind of awaken-
ing; an advanced practitioner (monastic or lay) who possesses the altruistic aspiration and de-
termination to attain buddhahood in order to free all beings from suffering. It’s asserted that
the bodhisattva, although in a position to attain nirvana–out of great compassion to sentient
beings–forgoes nirvana and instead chooses to be reborn and abide in samsara to continue to
perfect themselves in order to become a buddha.
Bodhisattva vows (Skt. bodhisattva samvara; Tib. changchub sempe dompa): An expression of
the Mahayana vehicle and initiation into the Mahayana path. Upon receiving bodhisattva vows,
one enters the path of the bodhisattva with the aspiration to one day become a bodhisattva
(and eventually a buddha) in order to benefit all beings. The bodhisattva vows are a promise to
uphold sixty-four precepts focused on ethics, compassion, selflessness, and excellent human
behavior.
Bön (Tib.): The black sect; The pre-Buddhist indigenous religion of Tibet. The history of Bön is
unclear. Some place its origin at 400 BC, while Bön scriptures claims itself to be 18,000 years
old. Originally a shamanistic/animistic tradition, over time the Bönpo merged with the Bud-
dhism imported from India to create a unique syntheses of teachings.
Brahmanism (Skt.): A pre-Buddhist Indian Vedic religious tradition and the roots of Hinduism.
The Brahmans upheld the householder’s way of life, focused on health, wealth, longevity, and
offspring–gained through the practice of ritual offerings and singing hymns to appease the
gods. Other distinctions of the Brahman tradition included India’s caste system and one’s obli-
gation to the performance of one’s duty to society and family.
Buddha (Skt.; Tib. Sangye): Awakened one. One who has purified all defilements and attained
all possible virtuous qualities, thereby achieving buddhahood. Buddhists believe in many
Buddhas, the historical Buddha of our age being Shakyamuni Buddha (Skt.; Tib. Sangye Shakya
Tubpa) (563-483 BC). See appendix. The three types of Buddhas are:
Samyaksambuddhas (Skt.; Tib. thekchen gi jangchub): One who after becoming fully en-
lightened through their own efforts and insight, then teaches the dharma to others;
known as wheel turners–buddhas who introduce a momentous and new dharma as in
the case of the historical Buddha of our age Buddha Shakyamuni.
Pratyekabuddhas (Skt.; Tib. rangyal gi jangchub): One who becomes fully enlight-
ened through their own efforts and insight; however, is unwilling or incapable of teach-
ing others.
Sravakabuddhas (Skt.; Tib. nyenthoe ki jangchub; savakabuddha): One who depends on
the guidance and teachings of a buddha to attain buddhahood.
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Buddha bodies (Skt. buddha kaya; Tib. sanggyekyi ku): The mental/physical aggregates of a
buddha. Synonymous with buddhahood; attained by a superior bodhisattva after the death of
the physical body and subsequent rebirth into the pure land Akanishta.
Buddhahood (Skt. samyaksam buddhatva; Tib. sangye kyi go phang): Synonymous with full en-
lightenment (Skt. anuttara samyak sambodhi; Tib. yang dakpar dzogpay jangchub), supreme
enlightenment, and non-abiding nirvana. Buddhahood is the attainment of the omniscient mind
of a buddha. Full enlightenment is the finite and peak state of existence attained through the
cessation of the three poisons, all suffering (both physical and mental), and any remaining sub-
tle habitual residue of misperceiving oneself, phenomena, and reality as inherently existent.
Buddha nature (Skt. tathagathagarbha; Tib. dezhin shegpe nyingpo): The innate potential of
all beings to become buddhas; the emptiness of inherent existence of the mind.
Buddhist canon / the three baskets (Skt. tripitika; Tib. denö sum)
1. Vinaya (Skt.; Tib. dülwa): Training in monastic discipline, vows, and rules of conduct.
2. Sutra (Skt.; Tib. do): Discourses of the Buddha (actual words of the Buddha).
3. Abhidharma (Skt.; Tib. chöngönpa): Literally, the study of dharma. The repository of
higher knowledge and training in wisdom.
Buddhist councils: After the Buddha’s death, councils of Buddhist leaders were held to discuss
monastic rules and the preservation and dissemination of the Buddha’s teachings. The number
of councils asserted to have been held varies among different traditions. However, all posit the
occurrence of the first three councils within India as being historically accurate.
Butter lamps (Tib. chöme): Small candles made from butter, usually placed on altars as an offer-
ing of light to the three jewels. See appendix.
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Cause and effect (Skt. hetuphala; Tib. gyude): The universal property of causality; also known
as the law of cause and effect, which asserts that all things, without exception, arise as results
of previous causes.
Chan Buddhism (CH.; Skt. dhyana): Literally, meditation or meditative state. Founded in the 6th
century CE. Chan is an experiential tradition, emphasizing the cultivation of direct insight into
one’s true nature. Similar to the Zen Buddhist tradition, with some asserting that the only dif-
ference being the pronunciation of the names.
Chandrakirti (Skt.; Tib. Dawatakpa): 7th century Indian Buddhist master and disseminator of
the Consequence School of Mahayana Buddhism. An important source of the Gelug School's
philosophy.
Chöd (Tib): Cutting through; a tantric practice aimed at cutting through ego and fear.
An often macabre practice of visualizations and offerings performed in frightening places (cre-
mation grounds, haunted places, dark caves, or forests).
Circumambulation (Tib. kora): The practice of walking around sacred structures (temples, mon-
asteries, shrines, or stupas). This popular practice is believed to bring blessings and accumulate
merit. Usually performed while reciting mantras or prayers, and always in a clockwise direction.
Clear light meditation (Tib. thukdam): A tantric meditative technique for achieving enlighten-
ment during the death process.
Collection of merit (Tib. sönam tsok): The collection of virtue gained through virtuous thought,
speech, or action which result in happiness in the future. Merit can be generated through both
wisdom and method including through giving, abiding in virtue, mental development, protect-
ing life, rejoicing in other’s virtue, holding vows, attending Dharma teachings, and studying
Dharma. Additionally, interaction with holy beings, sacred places, or sacred objects are asserted
as ways to generate merit.
Commitments (Skt. samaya; Tib. damtsig): Sacred word of honor; a vow or promise of daily
practice usually received within tantric empowerments.
Compassion (Skt. karuna; Tib. nyingje): To identify with the suffering of others; to wish that
they may be free of suffering and the causes of suffering.
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Compounding factors (Skt. samskaras; Tib. düche): Compounding factors; also referred to as
mental formations; the fourth of the five aggregates; a catch all for uncategorized mental fac-
tors and those which are neither form nor consciousness. Including: personality traits, inten-
tions, habits, various emotions, mental/karmic imprints.
Concentration (Skt. samadhisiska; Tib. tingngedzin kyi labpa): The ability to focus the mind up-
on any chosen object.
Contemplation (Tib. sam): A practice of reflection that utilizes logic and reason to gain insight,
wisdom, and develop positive qualities, while also being a potent antidote in eradicating wrong
views and undesirable traits.
Conventional truth (Skt. samvritisatya; Tib. kundzob denpa): See two truths.
Dakinis (Skt.; Tib. khandroma): Female sky-goer, fully enlightened beings who are the embodi-
ment of enlightened activity; beings who may take on different forms in order to aid and guide
practitioners on their path. Dakinis can also be highly realized human yogis often acting as ora-
cles or spiritual muses during tantric ritual. These terms can also pertain to a tantric sexual con-
sort. Dakas (Skt.; Tib. khandro): Male sky-goer (less prevalent in Tibetan Buddhism).
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Damaru (Skt): Small hand drum used in tantric practice. See appendix.
Dedication of merit (Skt. parinama; Tib. ngoba): The act of offering one’s virtue for the benefit
of all beings. The practice of dedicating one’s merit is also known as the transfer of merit. This
practice begins once merit has been generated, at which point it is believed crucial to then ded-
icate the merit in order to stop it from potentially being damaged by one's own afflictive emo-
tions.
Deer wheel (Tib. retak chö khor): Symbolizing Buddhism and the Buddha's teachings; and/or
more specifically, the first turning of the wheel of buddhadharma at the Deer Park in
Sarnath, India. See appendix.
Definitive meaning (Skt. nitartha; Tib. ngedon): Ultimate; as opposed to interpretive; pos-
sessing a clear and incontrovertible meaning. A definitive sutra is one that presents ultimate
truth (emptiness) as its principal subject matter. See interpretive meaning.
Deities (Skt. ishtadevata; Tib. yidam): Found in the Indian Mahayana and tantric traditions;
synonymous with supramundane deities, meditation deities, and tantric deities. Within Bud-
dhism, and especially tantric Buddhism, there are countless deities that are the embodiment
and emanations (archetypes) of various aspects of the enlightened mind.
Demigod realm: Home of the jealous devas (Skt. asuras; Tib. lha min); Warlike covetous god-
beings depicted as enemies of the devas.
Demigods (Skt. asuras; Tib. lha min): Inhabitants of the demigod realm; the realm of the
fighting gods; one of the six desire realms. Often referred to as jealous devas, demigods are
warlike mundane gods depicted as enemies of the devas who are consumed with jealousy and
envy. Although powerful, demigods are still unenlightened beings and exist within samsaric cy-
clic existence and therefore are inferior to buddhas.
Demons (Skt. maras, yakka, yaksa; Tib. dön): Extremely wicked and always hostile to humans.
Similar to the Western depiction within horror movies. Considered to be mere superstition by
most Buddhist traditions yet widely accepted by common people.
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Desire realms (Skt. kama dhatu; Tib. dökham): Home of beings who are primarily motivated by
their desire for sense pleasures. The desire realm is divided into six realms: the god, demigod,
human, animal, hungry ghost, and hell realms.
Devas (Skt.; Tib. lha): Shining one; inhabitants of the deva or god realms; the term deva is found
within all Indian religions and is commonly understood as mundane gods possessing beauty and
long life, who live in a state of blissful sensory pleasure. Devas, although powerful, are still un-
enlightened beings and exist within samsaric cyclic existence and therefore are inferior to
buddhas.
Dharma (Skt.; Tib. chö): Teaching, path, and way of life. The term Dharma is shared by all Indian
traditions but is defined slightly differently by each, having no single word translation in English.
The earliest use of the term, found in Brahmanism, defines Dharma as: duty, moral code, right-
eousness, and conduct pertaining to the proper way of living. Within Buddhism, Dharma is
commonly understood as the teachings of the Buddha (buddhadharma), but can additionally
mean: phenomena, reality, ultimate truth, virtuous action, or universal law or order.
Dharma centers (Tib. chötsok): Local Buddhist centers/communities which offer teachings, clas-
ses, religious gatherings, and meditation or support groups. Often more traditional and/or reli-
gious in style compared to universities. Dharma centers are open to anyone and are easy to get
involved in.
Dharma protectors (Skt. dharmapala; Tib. chö kyong): Mundane deities that protect the Bud-
dha’s teachings. Often believed to be harmful spirits that Buddhism had conquered, tamed, and
transformed into strong positive forces, who are then delegated to protecting the dharma and
Buddhist practitioners under their care. The almost demonic imagery of both wrathful deities
and dharma protectors can be found throughout Tibetan iconology.
Dharma protectors days (Skt. dharmapala days; Tib. chö kyong days): A special day for petition-
ing the dharma protectors for protection and to clear obstacles. Dharma protectors days follow
the Tibetan lunar calendar and are performed on the 29th of every Tibetan calendar month.
Dharma wheel (Skt. dharmacakra; Tib. chökhor): A symbol of the Buddha's teachings shared by
all Buddhist traditions, representing the turning of the wheel of buddhadharma. Meaning, the
introduction of a momentous new teaching by a buddha. See appendix.
Divination (Tib. mö): A mystical method for precognitive insight. Realized lamas are said to pos-
sess an assortment of mystical powers, including the power of insight into future events. Divi-
nations are used to help with difficult choices and/or to reveal the nature of one’s current life’s
situation, where upon an assortment of prayers, rituals, and/or offerings are prescribed by the
lama in order to dispel obstacles that are impeding one’s life.
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Dream yoga (Tib. milam naljor): Lucid dreaming; the ability to become fully conscious while still
in the dream state. The practice of dream yoga allows practitioners to practice visualization and
mental creation. Many high practitioners actually do their daily commitments, prayers, and
practices during their evening sleep.
Dzogchen (Tib.; Skt. maha ati): The great perfection; the primary practice of the Nyingma
school. According to the Nyingma, Dzogchen is the heart-essence of all spiritual paths and the
summit of an individual’s spiritual evolution. Dzogchen works directly with one’s perception
with the goal of attaining "the view"–an unobstructed pure perception of reality, which culmi-
nates in buddhahood.
Eight auspicious symbols (Skt. sarikha; Tib. dungkar yekhyil): Sacred symbols in Tibetan Bud-
dhism: conch shell, endless knot, golden fishes, lotus, parasol, treasure vase, Dharma wheel,
and victory banner. See appendix.
Eight dissolutions (Tib. thim rim gye): Eight general stages of the death process that coincide
with the dissolution of the four elements (earth, water, fire, wind) as well as four subtle vision-
ary stages (white vision, red vision, black vision, vacuity).
Eight Mahayana precepts (Skt. Mahayana poshada; Tib. thek chen so jong): See fasting vows
Eight worldly concerns (Tib. jigten chögye): Also known as the eight worldly dharmas. The eight
worldly concerns represent our misguided samsaric attachments, goals, and motivations which
are to be abandoned on the Buddhist path.
1-2 - Attachment to gain - aversion to loss
3-4 - Attachment to praise - aversion to blame
5-6 - Attachment to fame - aversion to insignificance
7-8 - Attachment to pleasure - aversion to pain
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Emanation: Mahayanists assert that all buddhas reside within the pure land Akanishta (Skt.;
Tib. omin) while simultaneously emanating into countless world systems, in all conceivable
forms, in accordance to the needs of sentient beings, all without ever straying from that pure
land and the wisdom realizing ultimate reality.
Empowerment (Skt. abhisheka; Tib. wang): Initiation ceremonies granting permission and be-
stowing blessing, thereby empowering the practitioner to engage in tantric practice. Initiation
by a qualified teacher is required before beginning any tantric practice. It’s said that without
attaining the proper empowerment, tantric practice is ineffective.
Emptiness (Skt. sunyata; Tib. tongpa nyi): Synonymous with voidness, suchlessness,
essencelessness, and identitylessness. The doctrine that asserts that all phenomena
lack inherent, self-existent, or self-sufficient existence.
Enlightenment (Skt. bodhi; Tib. jangchub): To attain nirvana. An enlightened being is a being
who has irreversibly transcended all ignorance, attachment, and aversion and is liberated from
uncontrolled rebirth and the mental/emotional suffering in which that entails.
Full enlightenment: See buddhhahood.
Equanimity (Skt. upeksa; Tib. tangnyom): A neutral state of mind that is neither favoring nor
opposing; an unbiased attitude towards all beings that is the foundation for bodhichitta and
universal compassion.
Ethics (Skt. sila; Tib. tsultrim): Discipline; Buddhist ethics are unique in the sense that they are
not moral laws of a creator god or prophet, but instead are a logical set of ideals for living har-
moniously in a way that is conducive to positive personal growth and the positive growth of so-
ciety.
Fasting vows (Skt. upavasa samvara; Tib. nyenne): An aspect of the individual liberation vows
and therefore an expression of the Hinayana vehicle. These are temporary vows taken by lay
people for a single day, often during special teachings (refuge vows are prerequisite). Fasting
vows include not killing, not stealing, not lying, not taking intoxicants, celibacy, not eating after
midday, no idle chatter, singing, dancing, music, perfumes, makeup, or ornaments, not sitting
on luxurious beds or high seats. These vows are also referred to as the eight Mahayana pre-
cepts (Skt. Mahayana poshada; Tib. thek chen so jong) with the only difference being the Ma-
hayana altruistic intention of taking and holding the vows for the benefit of all beings
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Five aggregates (Skt. skandha; Tib. pungpo nga): Five psycho/physical aspects that comprise all
beings. Here the term aggregate refers to, collection or group. The five aggregates are:
1. Form (Skt. rupa; Tib. suk):
2. Feeling (Skt. vedana; Tib. tsorwa):
3. Discrimination (Skt. Samijna; Tib. dushe):
4. Compounding factors (Skt. Samskara; Tib. duche):
5. Consciousness (Skt. Vijnana; Tib. namshe):
Form beings (Skt. rupadhatu pudgala; Tib. zug kam kyi gang zag): Inhabitants of the form
realm; one of the three realms of existence. Beings who possess forms of a very subtle nature,
whose minds have temporarily transcended the sense desires of the desire realm.
Form realm (Skt. rupadhatu; Tib. zukkham): Home of form beings, beings with bodies of a very
subtle nature. This is a realm of subtle meditative concentration that practitioners whose minds
have temporarily transcended the external sense desires of the lower realms but still partake in
the pleasures of internal contemplation may be reborn into. The form realm is divided into four
levels called the four concentrations.
Formless beings (Skt. arupadhatu pudgala; Tib. zugme kyi gang zag): Inhabitants of the form-
less realm, the peak of the three realms of existence. The name formless here pertains to the
fact that the beings in this realm are no longer preoccupied with matter or material concerns
and does not imply that these beings themselves are formless, who instead possess very subtle
bodies.
Formless realm (Skt. arupyadhatu: Tib. zukmekham): Home of the formless beings; the name
formless here pertains to the fact that beings in this realm are no longer preoccupied with mat-
ter or material concerns and does not imply that these beings themselves are formless–instead,
beings in this realm possess very subtle bodies. This realm is a realm where all forms (sights,
sounds, odors, tastes, and tangible objects, including the five senses for perceiving them) are
arrested or suspended, a realm where beings abide in single pointed meditation, without dis-
traction; a realm of subtle meditative absorption that practitioners who have attained a pro-
found level of meditation may be reborn into. The formless realm is divided into four levels
called the four absorptions. Absorptions here can be understood as deep meditative states of
mind.
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The Four Hallmarks of Buddhism (Skt. caturmurda; Tib. domshi): Also known as the four seals
of Dharma; four foundational tenets held by all Mahayana traditions.
1. All compounded phenomena are impermanent (in a state of constant change).
2. All contaminated phenomena are unsatisfactory (the source or nature of suffering).
3. All phenomena are empty and selfless (lacking independent self existence).
4. Nirvana is true peace (the irreversible cessation of the three poisons).
Four opponent powers (Tib. nyenpo tob shi): A commonly prescribed method for purifying past
karma. These are often referred to as The Four Rs: regret, refuge, remedy, and resolve.
5. The power of regret: Realizing and regretting the mistake one has committed.
6. The power of refuge: To rely on the three jewels to help reestablish one’s virtue.
7. The power of remedy: Applying the proper antidotes (conceptual antidotes, practices of
atonement, apologizing, etc.).
8. The power of resolve: The determination to not repeat the action.
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Four reliances (Skt. catuhpratisarana; Tib. tönpa shi): Four keys applied for properly under-
standing a text’s true meaning.
1. Rely on the Dharma, not on the teacher
2. Rely on the meaning, not the letter
3. Rely on the definitive meaning, not on the interpretive meaning
4. Rely on wisdom, not on your ordinary mind.
Four thoughts that turn the mind (towards renunciation) (Tib. lodoknamshi):
1. The preciousness of human birth
2. Impermanence and the certainty of death
3. The relentless nature of causality (karma)
4. The disadvantages of samsara
Full moon days (Tib. tsepa chunga): A powerful day for practice and a good day for taking the
Mahayana precepts and Medicine Buddha practice. Full moon days occur on the 15th of every
Tibetan lunar calendar month.
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Gelug School (Tib.): The way of virtue (the yellow hats). The latest and most progressive of the
schools. Founded by Lama Tsongkhapa, the Gelug school is considered a study lineage, empha-
sizing logic, debate, and academic excellence. Practitioners of this school are referred to as Ge-
lugpa and include monastics and lay. Coming from the second propagation of Indian Buddhism
into Tibet, the Gelug school asserts study and academic excellence as a necessary prerequisite
for the practice of tantra.
Geshe - male / geshema - female (Tib): Virtuous friend; highest academic degree of the Gelug
School. There are four levels of geshes: lharam (highest), tsokram, rigram, and lingse.
Ghosts (Tib. dre): Disembodied beings trapped in the in-between state between rebirths, simi-
lar to the Western idea of ghosts.
God realm: Highest of the six desire realms and home of the devas (Skt.) lha (Tib.); godlike be-
ings possessing beauty and long life, who live in a state of blissful sensory pleasure.
Grounds and paths (Tib. salam): Ten grounds and five paths pertaining to a bodhisattva's de-
velopment, attainments, and abandonments on the path to buddhahood.
Grounds, path, and fruition (Tib. shi lam debu sum): The Mahayana path can be understood
within three divisions:
1. The ground (Skt. asraya; Tib. shi): The foundation for all practice–the two truths.
2. The path (Skt. marga; Tib. lam): Practice of accumulation–the two collections.
3. The fruition (Skt. phala; Tib. depu): Attaining buddhahood–the two buddha bodies.
Guru devotion: A tantric practice of supplicating the guru in order to develop inspiration, faith,
and devotion.
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Guru puja (Skt.; Tib. lama chöpa): A tantric ceremony of prayer, chanting, and making offerings
to the three jewels and one’s guru. Like all pujas, this is a request for blessings, purification, and
the clearing of obstacles. The guru puja ceremony is performed on the 10th and 25th of every
Tibetan lunar calendar month.
Guru yoga (Skt.; Tib. lame naljor): A devotional tantric practice in which one visualizes
one's root lama as a buddha. Besides being used to attain blessings and assistance along the
path, guru yoga is aimed at merging one’s mind with the wisdom mind of one’s root lama.
Hinayana (Skt.; Tib. thegmen): Small raft–the individual liberation vehicle. The Hinayana vehicle
focuses on individual liberation and monasticism, with the aim of attaining nirvana. The original
and earliest teachings of the Buddha. The Hinayana should not be confused with the later Ther-
avada tradition.
Hell realm: Home of hell beings (Skt. narakas; Tib. nyalba) a realm that beings who, because of
their past negative karma, are horribly and continuously tortured. Within the Buddhist hell
realm, there are eight hot and eight cold hells. Often imagined as existing deep below the sur-
face of the earth.
Hell beings (Skt. narakas; Tib. nyalba): Inhabitants of the hell realms, the lowest of the six de-
sire realms. Because of past negative karma, these beings are delegated to an existence of hor-
rible pain and continuous torture within any of the eight hot or eight cold hells.
Householder vows (Skt. upasaka samvara; Tib. genyen kyi dompa): Householder vows are a set
of five precepts for lay practitioners wishing to deepen their commitment to their practice.
These vows can be taken for a designated amount of time or for one’s entire life.
Human beings (Skt. manusyas; Tib. mi): Inhabitants of the human realm; one of the six desire
realms. Considered the most advantageous state of existence because of having a favorable
balance of pleasure and suffering which offers the greatest potential for enlightenment.
Human realm: Home of human beings (Skt. manusyas; Tib. mi (Tib.); Considered the most for-
tunate state of existence because humans have the best balance of pleasure and suffering
which offers the greatest potential for enlightenment
Hungry ghost realm: Home of hungry ghosts (Skt. pretas; Tib. yidag); beings who are tormented
by continual and unsatisfied cravings. Depicting with huge bellies representing their insatiable
desire, and tiny mouths and throats representing their inability to satisfy their desire.
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Hungry ghosts (Skt. pretas; Tib. yidag): Inhabitants of the hungry ghost realm, one of the six
desire realms. Hungry ghosts are beings who are tormented by continuous and unsatisfied crav-
ings. Depicted as having huge bellies, representing their insatiable desire, and tiny mouths and
throats, representing their inability to satisfy their desires.
Ignorance (Skt. avidya; Tib. marigpa): A foundational existential confusion. Within Buddhism,
ignorance is defined as an active cognitive state of both mis-knowing and not knowing; the ha-
bitual misapprehension of the true nature of oneself and reality.
Impermanence (Skt. anitya; Tib. mitakpa): An essential doctrine of Buddhism. Asserting that all
of conditioned existence, without exception, is transient and in a constant state of flux. No con-
ditioned phenomena is fixed or permanent, and all things are in a state of constant change.
Conversely, permanent phenomena can only be known by a mental consciousness (e.g., non-
created/natural space, emptiness, generic images, generic facts about things, and generic labels
(blue/red, hot/cold, sweet/sour, new/old, etc.) also integer numbers, and alphabetic letters).
Imputation (Skt. parikalpita; Tib. kuntak): Labeling; the act of imputation, sometimes referred
to as superimposition, requiring a mind and a valid basis of imputation.
Individual liberation vows (Skt. pratimoksha samvara; Tib. sothar kyi dompa): Literally, towards
liberation. An expression of the Hinayana vehicle, this group of vows encompass both monastic
vows and lay vows. The individual liberation vows are contained within the Buddha’s teachings
referred to as Vinaya (Skt.; Tib. dülwa) which mainly deal with ethics and monastic discipline
and is the Buddha’s prescribed training system for attaining liberation.
Inherent existence (Tib. rangshin ki drubpa): That which is self-sufficient and/or self-existent
and does not change moment to moment; (1) That which does not rely on causes–coming into
being by its own power, (2) That which does not rely on parts–coming into being without de-
pendence on parts, and (3) That which does not rely on labeling–coming into being without de-
pendence upon imputation by a mind.
Intermediate state (Skt. antarabhava; Tib. bardo): Literally transition; the state between death
and the next rebirth.
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Interpretive meaning (Skt. neyartha; Tib. dangdon): Provisional; as opposed to definitive; re-
quiring further explanation or commentary; an interpretable sutra is one that presents conven-
tional truth as its principal subject matter. Additionally, parts of a definitive sutra that are clear-
ly meant to be taken interpretively, through story, metaphor, or example. See definitive mean-
ing.
Jainism (Skt.): An Indian religious traditions. Contemporaries of Buddhism, the Jains founded
their tradition on the principal of ahimsa (Skt.) or non-violence in all forms (physical, verbal,
and mental). The Jains assert speaking the truth, celibacy or monogamy, detachment from all
material things, and an intense style of asceticism and practices of self-mortification, such as
prolonged fasting, breath holding, and exposure to pain.
Jonang School (Tib.): Founded in Central Tibet by Kunpang Thukje Tsöndru (1294 CE).
The Jonang were renowned for their teachings on tantra, especially their presentation of the
Kalachakra Tantra, and their unique teachings on emptiness. Heavily persecuted due to political
rivalry, the Jonang School was believed to be extinct since the 17th century. However, currently
the Jonang are known to have survived and continue to this day as a distinct and important tra-
dition.
Kadam School (Tib.): Authoritative word. Founded by the Nalanda Buddhist master Atisha
(1042 CE), the Kadam School was famous for re-introducing the study and practice of the Ma-
hayana sutras to Tibet (a time when the Tibetan schools were singularly focused on tantra)
while also demonstrating the compatibility of the two. The Kadam school had a strong empha-
sis on ethics and the teachings of mind training. Later, the Kadam tradition became the founda-
tion for the Gelug school, and although the Kadam School no longer exists, their teachings, es-
pecially those of mind training, are currently practiced within all schools of Tibetan Buddhism.
Kagyu (Tib.): The Lineage of the oral instructions. Founded by Marpa the translator, the Kagyu
school is generally considered a yogi lineage and is the second oldest of the Tibetan Buddhist
schools. The Kagyu school (or more correctly Kagyu school(s), for there are many sub-schools
within the Kagyu tradition) comes from the second propagation of Indian Buddhism into Tibet.
The Kagyu schools are considered practice lineages emphasizing tantric practice, ritual, and
meditation. Practitioners of these schools are referred to as Kagyupas and include yogis, mo-
nastics, and lay.
Kalpa (Skt.; Tib. kalpa): Aeon; the period of time between the creation and recreation of a uni-
versal system.
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Karma (Skt.; Tib. le): The driving force behind samsaric cyclic existence; the process of cause
and effect when pertaining to the lives of sentient beings, asserting that all intentional actions
(deliberate actions), whether physical, verbal, or mental, have consequences. Karma (inten-
tional actions) either positive, negative, or indifferent–performed by body, speech, or mind–
subsequently produce karmic imprints or potentialities upon the mind. These imprints then
lead to future karmic results that correspond with the nature of those actions–with virtuous
karmic imprints leading to positive results (happiness and favorable rebirth) and non-virtuous
karmic imprints leading to negative results (suffering and unfavorable rebirth).
Karmapa (Tib.): A title pertaining to the system of recognizing reincarnate lamas (Tulkus).
The first Tulku lineage to be established; belonging to the Kagyu School of Tibetan Buddhism.
Beginning with Dusum Khyenpa who posthumously became the first Karmapa, initiating the
precession of rebirths leading up to the present day 17 th Gyalwang Karmapa, Orgyen Trinley
Dorje–the current spiritual leader of the Kagyu school.
Karmic imprints (Skt. vasana; Tib. bakchak): Karmic imprints are created when our feelings be-
come involved, as a kind of mental/emotional residue left behind from feelings related to our
intentions, thoughts, actions, reactions, and experiences. Karmic imprints influence and distort
our perceptions, choices, and actions, thereby coloring and shaping our current as well as fu-
ture thoughts, actions, and experiences.
Khangling (Tib.): Thighbone trumpet. A wrathful and subjugating trumpet used in tantric prac-
tice. Often made from copper or silver but originally made from human thighbones.
See appendix.
Lamrim (Tib.): The stages of the path. A graduated presentation of the complete path to en-
lightenment as taught by the Buddha. First presented in this form by the Indian master
Atisha (11th century). Further lamrims were composed by various scholars, most renown being
Great Treatise on the Stages of the Path (Tib. Lamrim Chenmo) by Lama Tsongkhapa.
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Lineage (Tib. gyüpa): A pure and unbroken teacher-student transmission of teachings. Pure lin-
eage authenticates the tradition, school, teacher, and teachings taught. High Lamas may be
asked to become lineage holders of a certain set of teachings. Being a lineage holder is to be
held responsible for personally safeguarding, preserving, and propagating those specific teach-
ings placed in one's care for future generations.
Lotus flower (Skt. padma; Tib. pema): Representing enlightenment; as a beautiful flower that
grows out of mud, the lotus symbolizes purity arising out of impurity and the transmutation of
destructive emotions into wisdom. See appendix.
Love / loving-kindness (Skt. maitri; Tib. jampa): Wishing someone to be happy; pure goodwill–
the desire of bringing welfare and good to fellow beings.
Mahamudra (Skt.; Tib. chakgya chenpo): The great seal; the primary tantric practice of the Ka-
gyu school. The union of great bliss and emptiness culminating in buddhahood.
Mahayana (Skt.; Tib. tegpa chenpo): Large raft; the universal vehicle. Founded upon the
Hinayana tradition, the Mahayana focuses on reaching enlightenment as a society. Based on
the altruistic intention of bodhichitta and the aim of attaining buddhahood. Mahayana is con-
sidered a North and East Asian tradition, traditionally found in Bhutan, China, India, Japan, Ko-
rea, Nepal, Tibet, and Vietnam. Asserted to have been taught secretly by the Buddha within his
own lifetime, believed to surface publically sometime after 200 BCE.
Mahayana philosophy (Skt.; Tib. tegpa chenpo): The philosophy of the Mahayana tradition,
consisting of two main branches, the Madhyamaka and the Yogachara. Main differences be-
tween the two pertain to their often opposing views on the topics of consciousness, epistemol-
ogy, and the nature of reality.
Main minds (Skt.) chitta; Tib. tso sem): Synonymous with specific consciousness or divided con-
sciousness. The six main minds consist of five sense main minds and one mental main mind. The
five sense main minds are direct sense perceivers possessing the ability to link one’s external
sphere of sensory activity with one’s internal sphere of perception, while the one mental main
mind is a direct mental perceiver possessing the ability to cognize, conceptualize, think, reason,
etc. The six main minds are visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, tactile, and mental main
minds.
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Maitreya (Skt.; Tib. sanggye champa): The next (5th) wheel turning buddha of this aeon.
Mala (Skt.; Tib. theng wa): See prayer beads. See appendix.
Mandalas (Skt.; Tib. kilkhor): Sacred models or diagrams, often circular, which are symbolic rep-
resentations of a meditational deity’s palace or universe, his entourage, and his enlightened
activities. Mandalas are used as an aid to visualization within tantric practice. See appendix.
Mandala offering: The tantric offering practice in which one visualizes offering all of their
wealth to the three jewels and all sentient beings.
Mani pills (Tib. mani rilbu): Special blessed herbal pills made and prayed over by Lamas. Mani
pills are eaten for blessings and healing. See appendix.
Manjushri (Skt.; Tib. Jamyang): Deity of insight and knowledge; the manifestation of the
buddhas’ transcendent wisdom. See appendix.
Mantras (Skt.; Tib. ngak): Literally, instrument of thought; a tool for working with the mind.
Mantras are sacred syllables or incantations that are considered enlightened speech and as-
serted to have psychological, spiritual, or even magical powers. The recitation of mantras is
used to purify, accumulate merit, protect, heal, or to cultivate virtuous qualities such as com-
passion, wisdom, and/or long life. Mantras, either as single syllables or syllabic phrases, can be
recited alone or chanted or sung in groups.
Mara (Skt.; Tib. Dü): The demon of reification; a metaphor and personification of one’s self-
grasping ignorance, afflictions, samsaric delusions, and/or obstacles to Dharma practice. Mara
is the embodiment of the false self, wrong views, and desire for samsaric sense pleasures. In
the story of the Buddha’s enlightenment, Mara (the Buddha's own ignorance, delusions, and
afflictions) is the tempter that the Buddha must overcome prior to his awakening.
Within Jainism, the term mara is synonymous with money.
Meditation (Skt. dhyana; Tib. gom): A method of mental cultivation with the purpose of devel-
oping and transforming the mind; a technique/practice that develops insight, wisdom, concen-
tration, clarity, and mental stability; a foundational practice for cultivating an understanding
and realization of the Buddha’s teachings.
Calm abiding meditation (Skt. shamatha; Tib. shine): Also referred to as mindfulness
meditation. Calm abiding is a passive meditation used to calm and stabilize the mind.
Insight meditation (Skt. vipassana; Tib. lhakthong): An active contemplative and/or ana-
lytical meditation used to cultivate deep insight and wisdom.
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Meditative absorption (Skt. samadhi; Tib. tingedzin): A meditative state of single-pointed con-
centration characterized by the feeling of great serenity and bliss. Attained though the practice
of meditative concentration (Skt. dhyana; Tib. samten; Pali. jhana), utilizing both calm abiding
and insight meditations.
Meditative concentration (Skt. dhyana; Tib. samten): Cultivated meditational states of mind
leading to perfect equanimity and awareness; found in all forms of Buddhism as well in Hindu-
ism and Jainism. Buddhism asserts eight levels of meditative concentration, four meditation
levels of form, and four greater levels called formless meditations. Meditative concentration
corresponds with the fifth of the six paramitas (concentration) as well as the seventh of the
eightfold path (right consciousness) and utilizes both calm abiding and insight meditations.
Mental factors (Skt. chaitasika dharma; Tib. semlay jungwa chö): Literally, phenomena arisen
from the mind. Generally there are fifty-one mental factors which are aspects of the main
minds which function in apprehending attributes or characteristics of phenomena while also
possessing the ability to condition, influence, and/or color the minds.
Merit (Skt. punya; Tib. sönam): Positive mental imprints created through virtuous thought,
speech, or actions that result in happiness in the future.
Merit field (Skt. punyaksetra; Tib. tsok shying): Also known as field of accumulation or refuge
field, an assemblage of visualized or actual superior beings used as the focus of one’s practice
of generating merit. Because of the vast power of the buddhas and superior beings, it is be-
lieved that to direct one’s practices, offerings, deeds, and/or prayers to them, one can generate
greater merit. A merit field is often represented by a refuge or lineage tree, which is a visual
representation/painting of buddhas, bodhisattvas, and past masters of a distinct school or line-
age painted as a massive glorious tree with the Sangha of superior beings abiding upon its
branches.
Middle way path (Skt. madhyamapratipada; Tib. uma ki lam): The path of moderation and bal-
ance, neither favoring or opposing; a middle way between the extremes of self-indulgence and
self-mortification as well as a middle way between the extreme views of nihilism (that nothing
exists) and absolutism (eternal and/or self-existent).
Middle way philosophy (Skt. madhyamaka; Tib. uma): Literally, middle-most; beyond all ex-
tremes. The predominant philosophy of today's Mahayana traditions and Tibetan Buddhist
schools. Founded by the legendary Indian Buddhist master Nagarjuna (2nd century CE),
Madhyamaka asserts that all phenomena lack any inherent or essential essence.
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Middle way consequence school (Skt. prasangika madhyamika; Tib. uma talgyur):
The current philosophy of all Tibetan Buddhist schools. Founded by the legendary Indian Bud-
dhist master Buddhapalita (6th century CE) and later elaborated on by the Indian master
Chandrakirti (7th century CE). The Middle Way Consequence School is a later development of
the Mahayana middle way philosophy (Skt. madhyamaka; Tib. umapa), and is considered the
pinnacle of Buddhist philosophy. Defined by its use of logical consequence reasoning–reductio
ad absurdum–to reduce an opponent's argument to absurdity (as opposed to syllogistic reason-
ing) while not necessarily asserting a position of one's own.
Mind(s) (Skt. citta; Tib. sem): Within Buddhism, minds are broadly defined as, any mental or
cognitive event (perception, cognition, conceptualization, reasoning, thought, decisions, reac-
tions, etc.) Therefore, according to this broad definition, there can be hundreds of types of
minds. Commonly the term mind (singular) is used when referring to mental or cognitive events
within a single lifetime (similar to the Western usage of the term), whereas consciousness
commonly pertains to the force behind those processes, and that which underlies all lifetimes.
Mindfulness (Skt. smrti; Tib. tenpa): Translated as recollection, awareness, or attention. Simply
put, mindfulness is the absence of mind wandering, and can be understood twofold. First, to
recall, remember, or keep in mind the Buddha’s teachings and instructions, as well as remem-
bering to stay engaged in mindfulness. Secondly, as a practice of present or open awareness.
Mind training (Tib. lojong): Also known as mind developing, or attitude transformation.
A practice of contemplation with the aim of cultivating bodhichitta (the mind of enlighten-
ment). Mind training is practiced by all schools of Tibetan Buddhism.
Monasticism: A monk or nun in the Buddhist monastic order; a renunciant who willingly takes
vows of virtuous conduct and poverty; one who has abandoned lay existence and mundane
worldly concerns in order to dedicate their lives fully to the Buddha’s teachings and the attain-
ment of enlightenment.
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Monastic vows (Skt. pratimoksha; Tib. sothar kyi dompa): An aspect of the individual liberation
vows and therefore an expression of the Hinayana vehicle. Monastic vows are taken for one’s
entire life and consist of the promise to uphold the precepts of proper conduct of an ordained
monk or nun, mainly comprised of: ethical conduct, monastic discipline, and training in monas-
tic community living. See individual liberation vows.
Mudras (Skt.; Tib. chakgya): Symbolic and/or sacred hand gesture used in tantric rituals. Mu-
dras are common to all Buddhist traditions and can be seen in images of the Buddha. Hand mu-
dras are combined with mantras and virtuous intention to create a union of body, speech, and
mind utilized for practice.
Nagarjuna (Skt.; Tib. lutub): Legendary 2nd century Indian Buddhist master and founder of the
Madhyamaka philosophy. Considered the father on the Mahayana tradition and seen as the
most important Buddhist master after the Buddha himself.
Nagas (Skt.; Tib. lu): Magical serpent-like creatures found in both Hindu and Buddhist mytholo-
gy. Nagas, usually water dwelling, are said to be temperamental beings described as half fish
and half snake, also interpreted as dragons. Although classified as animals, they are intelligent
and possess god-like powers and can both help and hinder human beings.
New moon days (Tib. tse sumchu): A powerful day for practice and a good day for taking the
Mahayana precepts or Medicine Buddha practice. New moon days occur on the 30th of every
Tibetan lunar calendar month.
Nihilism (Skt. uccheda drsti; Tib. che ta): The term nihilism, used within its Buddhist context, is a
dangerous misunderstanding of the Buddha’s teachings on emptiness, in which one mistakes
emptiness as nothingness. People that have fallen into this wrong view believing that nothing
exists, while also seeing concepts like virtue, goodness, honesty, compassion, and the Buddhist
path itself as equally nonexistent and therefore inconsequential.
Nirvana (Skt.; Tib. nyangde): To blow out or extinguish; to extinguish the three poisons. Nirvana
is enlightened existence (opposed to samsara which is unenlightened existence). A state or
quality of the mind devoid of the three poisons, attained by practitioners who have transcend-
ed all coarse and subtle habitual wrong views, thereby clearly and unmistakenly apprehending
the true nature of oneself and reality.
The four types of nirvana
Although nirvana is a singular term, nirvana can be experienced differently by different
minds of beings. The different types of nirvana listed below are distinguished in terms of the
quality of the different minds experiencing it. The four types of nirvana are:
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5. Natural nirvana (Tib. rangzhin nyangde): The ultimate nature and/or quality of the
mind that is empty of inherent existence possessing a primal potential for purity. This
is not an actual nirvana but the basis for attaining nirvana. Liberation is attained
through recognizing and cultivating this foundational quality and potential of the mind.
6. Nirvana without residue (Skt. nirupadhisheshanirvana; Tib. lhakchäpe nyangen dä):
The experience of nirvana by superior beings while in meditative equipoise–meditating
on ultimate reality. The term residue pertains to a remaining subtle habit of still per-
ceiving phenomena as inherently existent. It’s only while in meditative equipoise on ul-
timate reality that superior beings are free of this habitual residue.
7. Nirvana with residue (Skt. sopadhisheshanirvana; Tib. lhakmäpai nyangen):
The experience of nirvana by superior beings while not in meditation, or meditating on
something other than ultimate reality. An experience of nirvana in which the practi-
tioner still possesses a subtle habit of perceiving phenomena as inherently existent.
8. Non-abiding nirvana (Skt. apratisthitanirvana; Tib. minepay nyangende):
The experience of nirvana by buddhas; synonymous with full enlightenment, supreme
nirvana, or buddhahood. Non-abiding nirvana is the irreversible cessation of the three
poisons, all rebirth, all suffering (both physical and mental), and any habitual residue
of perceiving the appearance of phenomena as inherently existent. It is referred to as
non-abiding nirvana, for although buddhas have attained buddhahood they do not
merely abide within it. That is, buddhas are not bound by either samara or nirvana, for
while focused on the meditative equipoise of that nirvana, they simultaneously ema-
nate into countless realms in order to act for the benefit of countless beings. Non-
abiding nirvana is the final and supreme goal of Mahayana practitioners.
Noble eightfold path (Skt. aryastangamarga; Tib. pagpelam yanlak gyüpa): The Buddha's pre-
scribed path to enlightenment, consisting of right view, right intention, right speech, right ac-
tion, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration.
Nominal existence (Tib. mingtsam): Existing by way of name and label; also known as imputed
origination.
Non-dual (Skt. advaya; Tib. nyime): Not two; undivided consciousness in which the dichotomy
of subject and object is trascended; and/or the union of conventional and ulitmate reality is
realized.
No-self (Skt. anatman; Tib. dakme): The Buddha's doctrine that asserts that sentient beings, like
all phenomena, are empty of any inherent essential essence.
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Nyingma (Tib.): The ancients; the first and oldest of the schools of Tibetan Buddhism. Founded
by the Indian tantric master Padmasambhava also known as Guru Rinpoche. Originating from
the first propagation of Indian Buddhism into Tibet, the Nyingma is considered a practice line-
age emphasizing tantric practice, ritual, and meditation. Practitioners of this school are referred
to as Nyingmapas and include yogis, monastics, and lay.
Offering scarves (Tib. khatak): Commonly made of white imitation silk. Presenting khatas is an
easy way to practice generosity, accumulate merit, and receiving blessings. Khatas are present-
ed to lamas and teachers, placed on statues, shrines, altars, or attached to sacred structures.
See appendix.
Omniscience (Skt. sarvajnata; Tib. namkhyen): All knowing; having infinite knowledge.
Oracles (Tib. chö kyong): A spiritual medium that provides wise counsel and/or precognition of
future events. In the Tibetan culture, oracles are used by all institutions–with even the state
having an official oracle. An oracle is a high Buddhist master who can go into a deep trance-like
state and receive and/or channel information of coming events from spirits.
Padmasambhava (Skt.): Also known as Guru Rinpoche; the eighth-century Indian tantric master
predominant in establishing Buddhism in Tibet. Highly revered by followers of the Nyingma
school, which he founded.
Pali: The scriptural language of the Theravada Tradition; one of two of the Buddhist scriptural
languages, the other being Sanskrit.
Parinirvana (Skt.; Tib. yongsu nyangan ledepa): Within the Hinayana and Theravada traditions,
parinirvana is the final nirvana of the arhat, attained after the death of the gross aggregates.
Patience (Skt. ksanti; Tib. zöpa): Good-natured tolerance to the un-desirable. One of the six
perfections.
Pecha (Tib.): Tibetan scripts; rectangular lose-leaf books, usually with cardboard or wooden co-
vers. Pechas are usually wrapped in ornate cloth for their protection. See appendix.
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Person (Skt. pudgala; Tib. gangsak): Synonymous with being, sentient being, “I”, mere “I”, indi-
vidual, entity, experiencer, and agent. The person exists as a subjective unifying identity, im-
puted in dependence upon a unique stream of uninterrupted consciousness, mental and physi-
cal aggregates, and stream of experiences.
Phenomena (Skt. dharma; Tib. chö): That which can be known; both external phenomena–
known by the senses, and internal phenomena–known by the mind (thoughts, ideas, emotions,
feelings, etc.).
Phurba (Tib.): A three-sided ritual dagger used only symbolically within tantric practice. The
three sides represent the cutting of the three poisons (ignorance, attachment, and aversion);
also used to arrest demons. See appendix.
Pilgrimage (Tib. nyekor): A journey for the purpose of spiritual insight and revelation, usually to
spiritually significant destinations.
Pointing-out instructions (Tib. ngo trö kyi dampa): The direct introduction to the nature of the
mind. In many of the Tibetan Buddhist schools, pointing-out instructions, also known as mind
transmissions, are received during the time of an empowerment. In pointing-out instructions,
the teacher, during an empowerment, or when they deem the student ready, draws out an ex-
perience or taste of the true nature of mind from the students mind.
Powa (Tib.): A method of ejecting one’s consciousness at the time of death. Powa allows the
practitioner to choose the proper moment to induce their subtle consciousness to leave their
body; used to attain a perfect death by allowing the practitioner to escape bad mental states,
unconducive environments, or a prolonged or agonizing death process.
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Prasangika Madhyamika (Skt.; Tib. uma talgyur): See Middle Way Consequence School.
Pratimoksha vows (Skt.; Tib. sothar kyi dompa): See individual liberation vows.
Prayer beads (Skt. mala; Tib. theng wa): Used to count the amount of mantras, prostrations, or
ritual offerings made during practice. Malas traditionally have 108 beads and can be made of
any material (wood, stone, crystal, jewel, seed, metal, bone, or plastic) and come in many dif-
ferent colors that may be associated with particular deities or symbolic meanings.
See appendix.
Prayer flags (Tib. lung tha): Inscribed with auspicious symbols, invocations, prayers,
and/or mantras. Hung between trees, around temples, homes, or mountain ridges to bless the
surrounding area and to bring good fortune. As the wind blows, their prayers and blessings are
carried by the wind. Traditionally in five color sets (yellow, green, red, white, and blue), repre-
senting the elements of earth, water, fire, wind, and space. See appendix.
Prayer wheels (Tib. manikorla): Spinning round hollow drums filled with scrolls of mantras. It’s
believed that when one spins the wheel, the merit gained is the same as if one recited all the
mantras contained within it. Prayer wheels can be small enough to fit in your hand or some so
large it may take several people to turn. See appendix.
Precepts (Tib. chepa): Guidelines of personal conduct intended to stabilize one’s thoughts and
behavior in order to facilitate swift spiritual progress. See vows.
Preliminary practices (Tib. ngondro): Most schools of Tibetan Buddhism require that students,
after being initiated into the tantric path, begin preliminary or preparatory tantric practices.
These practices are designed to purify negative karma, accumulate merit, and reduce pride,
while preparing the student psychologically, physically, and emotionally for tantric practice.
These preliminary practices consist of 100,000 accumulation of: prostrations, ritual mandala
offerings, purification mantras, and guru mantras.
Prostrations (Skt. namaskara; Tib. chaktsal): Prostrations are long, full-body bows that serve as
a form of offering and an antidote to pride. Prostrations are performed to show reverence and
humility to the three jewels and teachers while also being a great source of merit and purifica-
tion.
Prostration board: A long, smooth, and flat board placed on the ground that aids in doing pros-
trations.
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Protection cords (Tib. sung dü): Small knotted strings that are blessed by masters and given to
practitioners for protection and blessing. Usually received during tantric empowerments and
worn around the neck and wrist. See appendix.
Pujas (Skt.; Tib. tsok): To honor or revere; a practice found in all Indian traditions. Commonly,
the term puja pertains to a religious gathering. More precisely defined as a religious expression
of devotion, worship, and supplication for the purpose of gaining inspiration, blessings, and
merit. Puja performances or ceremonies include prayer, mantra recitation, chanting of scrip-
ture, supplication, and making offerings (candles, flowers, food, incense, etc.) Pujas may be
large formal ceremonies within monasteries, temples, or dharma centers, or informal ceremo-
nies performed in homes by small groups, or even by individual practitioners as part of their
daily practice.
Pure lands (Skt. buddhaksetra; Tib. tak shing): Also known as buddha fields or pure realms.
In Mahayana Buddhism, pure lands are celestial dwellings or pure abodes of buddhas. A realm
beyond samsara that transcends time and space. Pure lands are created each time a bodhisatt-
va attains buddhahood and is established through their great merit and virtuous activities. Su-
perior beings can visit to receive teachings directly from the buddha of that pure land, a realm
where all conditions are conducive to the practice of Dharma and the attainment of enlighten-
ment.
Pure Land Buddhism: The path of serene trust. One of the most popular Mahayana traditions
in East Asia. Traditionally found in China, India, Japan, Korea, Taiwan, and Vietnam. Focused on
the Buddha Amitabha (Skt.; Tib. öpame), Pure Land Buddhism can be found within all Mahaya-
na schools. Although originating in India, Pure Land Buddhism didn’t become a substantial
movement until the 5th century CE.
Purification (Tib. jongwa): Buddhism asserts purification not as the purification of a self, soul,
or spirit–which Buddhism rejects; but instead as the purification of one’s view. The eradication
of ignorance, delusions, and afflictions from the mind.
Rainbow body (Tib. jalü): In the case of high masters, after death has occurred, their corpse
does not decompose, but instead over a period of days starts to shrink until it finally disappears
with only finger and toe nails and hair left behind. The appearance of mystical lights and/or
rainbows is said to accompany this event. This phenomenon is referred to as the attainment of
rainbow body.
Realization: To gain a direct experience of emptiness and/or the true nature of reality.
Rebirth (Skt. bhava; Tib. yangsi): Synonymous with reincarnation; the belief that sentient be-
ings' subtle minds at the time of death transmigrate and take rebirth. The goal of Buddhism is
to escape the cycle of rebirth and the suffering which it entails.
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Refuge (Skt. sarana; Tib. kyabdo): Formal initiation into the Buddhist path. Practitioners take
refuge and the accompanying refuge vows in a refuge ceremony, thereby formally becoming a
Buddhist practitioner. The term refuge can be understood as going for protection or safety, as if
taking refuge in a shelter during a storm, or taking refuge in the advice of a doctor when sick.
Refuge vows (Skt. zaranagati; Tib. kyabdo): Formal initiation into the Buddhist path. Practition-
ers take refuge and refuge vows in a refuge ceremony thereby formally becoming a Buddhist
practitioner. Traditionally, refuge vows consist of: three prescriptions, three prohibitions, and
five precepts.
Relics (Skt. sarira; Tib. ringsel): After the cremation of great masters, relics are said to be found
in the remaining ashes. These relics are often in the form of pearl-like formations, jeweled
beads, or bone fragments found in auspicious shapes. Relics are said to bestow blessings on
those who look upon them. See appendix.
Renunciate vows (Tib. rabjung ) Leaving the householders life; a monastics first vows taken up-
on entering a monastery. While the rabjung (person), usually a child, may appear to be a mo-
nastic, they are not officially a monk or nun until taking novice vows. Becoming rabjung and
abiding within its precepts, allows the practitioner to live within the monastic community. Re-
nunciation vows consist of three commitments and five vows.
Retreat centers (Tib. richö): Also known as hermitages; usually located in remote locations
away from the hustle and bustle of monastic life. The objective of retreat is to give the practi-
tioner the time and space to cultivate a deeper understanding of their studies, through which
profound insight and a direct realization of the teachings can be attained.
Right view (Tib. yangdakpe tawa): The correct perception and understanding of the true nature
of oneself and reality. For someone following the Buddhist path, this means having an accurate
understanding of the Buddha’s teachings and ontological model of reality. Right view is posited
as the cause and condition for the attainment of nirvana and buddhahood, whereas wrong
view(s) are posited as the causes and conditions for continued existence in samsara.
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Rinpoche (Tib.): Precious one; a title used for high lamas or tulkus (Tib.)–reincarnate lamas.
Root lama (Tib. tsawe lama; Skt. guru): Main teacher; most often tantric. In Tibetan Buddhism,
a student may have many teachers within their life, but only one root lama.
Sakya School (Tib.): The pale earth–referring to the unique grey landscape of the hills of South-
ern Tibet. The Sakya is the third oldest of the Tibetan Buddhist schools. Founded by Khön
Könchok Gyalpo, the Sakya school is considered a study lineage emphasizing logic, debate, and
academic excellence. Practitioners of this school are referred to as Sakyapas and include mo-
nastics, yogis, and lay. This lineage comes from the second propagation of Indian Buddhism into
Tibet.
Samsara (Skt.; Tib. khorwa): Wandering through or circling; commonly translated as cyclic ex-
istence. Samsara is unenlightened existence and the mode of existence common to ordinary
beings. A state or quality of the mind pervaded by ignorance, delusions, afflictions, and suffer-
ing; a state habituated by wrong views and misguided intentions.
Sangha (Skt.; Tib. gedün): Harmonious community. A Buddhist spiritual community or congrega-
tion. There is some debate about what the term Sangha actually pertains to. Some say Sangha
refers to one’s congregation of fellow Buddhist practitioners. Others posit Sangha as a group of
four or more fully ordained monastics. However, according to scripture, Sangha is traditionally
defined as the array of buddhas and superior beings who have directly realized the Buddha's
teachings. With that said, all of the above interpretations are acceptable and commonly used.
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Sanskrit: An ancient language of India, no longer spoken. The primary literal and philosophical
language of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. The language of the Buddhist Mahayana canoni-
cal texts and tradition.
Secular Buddhism: A modern approach to the study and practice of Buddhism that deempha-
sizes its more religious, mystical, and cultural aspects. This approach attempts to clarify the
Buddha’s teachings by lifting them out of their presumed religious and cultural context, while
further examining later works in order to determine legitimate teachings from religious or cul-
tural adaptation.
Self (Skt. atman; Tib. dag): Synonymous with false self or illusory self (Tib. gagcha dag). Accord-
ing to the Buddha, the self does not exist, but instead is merely an exaggerated mistaken view
of the specific person, believing the person (one's identity) to exist inherently and independent
from the aggregates.
Shambala (Skt.; Tib. deyung): A mythical Himalayan kingdom inhabited by enlightened beings.
Shantideva (Skt.; Tib. Shilha): Eighth century Indian Buddhist master who propounded the mid-
dle way consequence school. Author of A Guide to the Bodhisattva Way of life, a profound and
heart touching text on altruism and the virtues of the bodhisattva path. The writings of
Shantideva strongly shaped Tibetan Buddhism’s unique focus on compassion and loving-
kindness.
Shugden / Dorje Shugden (Tib.): Also known as Dolgyall (Tib.). A worldly spirit previously prac-
ticed by many followers of the Gelug school. His Holiness the Dalai Lama has declared Shugden
a harmful spirit and has banned its worship and practice. Currently, a great controversy is ongo-
ing, created by Kelsang Gyatso founder of the New Kadampa Tradition (NKT) a Buddhist school
considered by many to be a dangerous cult.
Siddha (Skt.; Tib. drubtob): A spiritual master who possesses siddhi. See siddhi.
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Siddhi (Skt.; Tib. ngödup): Supernatural and/or psychic powers of various kinds attained
through meditation and/or tantric practices.
Singing bowls (Tib. ke nyenpo jinpe lungsye): Used to create a contemplative and calming
sound. The sound of a singing bowl can be used to mark the beginning or end of a meditation
period, or during meditation to focus the mind. See appendix.
Six elements (Skt. mahabhuta; Tib. kham tuk): Also known as the six foundational or irreducible
elements. The names of these elements are merely metaphors pertaining to six foundational
qualities that are the building blocks of empirical existence: earth, water, fire, wind, space, and
consciousness.
Six session guru yoga (Tib. thün tuk): A prayer and/or practice recalling one’s tantric vows,
pledges, and tantric intentions. A daily commitment/requirement if one has taken a tantric em-
powerment. Recited three times in the morning and three times in the evening.
Sixteen aspects of the four noble truths: A contemplation practice; four characteristics that
counteract four distorted concepts pertaining to each truth.
Skillful means (Skt. upaya kausalya; Tib. tab la kepa): Skillful method in conveying teachings.
Pertaining to a teacher’s ability to adapt the teachings to the needs and aptitude of the student
or particular group in order to successfully communicate the Dharma.
Snow lion (Tib. kang seng): Celestial animal and emblem of the snowy mountain ranges of Ti-
bet. The snow lion symbolizes power, strength, and fearlessness, while also seen as the personi-
fication of primordial playfulness, joy, and bliss. The snow lion's roar is said to embody the
sound of emptiness, courage, and truth. See appendix.
Sojong (Tib.; Skt. posadha): A confession and purification ceremony for ordained monastics,
used to repair damaged vows. Performed bi-monthly on every full moon and new moon.
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Spirits (Tib. namshe): Spirits can be both helpful and harmful, and although often powerful,
they are still unenlightened beings trapped within samsaric existence and rebirth. Harmful spir-
its may create obstacles for humans, while helpful spirits may be called upon or channeled for
divination, protection, or even temporal wealth or power. However, spirits cannot aid in the
attainment of liberation.
Spiritual: An often vague term referring to existential beliefs and feelings related to one’s vir-
tue, higher purpose, and altruistic responsibility towards other beings–usually attributed to a
soul or spirit. This term is also used to discern a distinction between the positive qualities of re-
ligious beliefs from their supposed negative institutional or dogmatic attributes.
Sramana (Skt.): A pre-Buddhist Indian religious tradition of ascetic wandering mendicants, con-
sisting of many small groups that shared similar views who existed independently from society.
Practices included detachment from material concerns, inward salvation, meditation, and at-
taining liberation through self-effort. The origin of Jainism and Buddhism.
Stupas (Skt.; Tib. chöten): Buddhist ritual monuments. Stupas are sacred structures often con-
taining relics of great masters. Believed to have the power to generate world peace, prevent
natural catastrophes, and as a source of great blessings. All Buddhist traditions practice circum-
ambulation (Tib. Kora) of large stupas in order to gain blessings. See appendix.
Suffering: (Skt. duhkha; Tib. dukngal): Physical, mental/emotional, and existential pain, anxiety,
and/or misery.
Superior bodhisattva (Skt. arya bodhisattvas; Tib. jangsem pakpa): One who has attained a di-
rect and non-conceptual realization of emptiness and thereby has entered both the path of see-
ing and the first of the ten bodhisattva grounds.
Sutra (Skt.; Tib. do): Meaning, string or thread; that which weaves or holds together. The dis-
courses of the Buddha (the actual words of the Buddha) and discourses by his major disciples.
The sutra collection is one of the three divisions of the Buddhist canon. Additionally, within Ti-
betan Buddhism, the term sutra can pertain to the Mahayana teachings. See Buddhist canon.
Tantra (Skt.; Tib. gyu): A system of rapid spiritual cultivation. A secret and esoteric teaching and
practice that harnesses psycho-physical energies through ritual, visualization, and meditation.
The word tantra comes from Sanskrit, meaning continuity, continuum, or interwoven. Tantra is
an ancient teaching and practice found in most Indian religions.
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Tantric Buddhism: A general term pertaining to tantra within any Buddhist tradition. The two
main traditions of Tantric Buddhism are the Indian Vajrayana Tradition (no longer practiced)
and the Tibetan Tradition. Other lesser know Buddhist schools that practice tantra (mainly
subschools of the Chan and Zen traditions) continue to exist; however, their emphasis on tan-
tric teachings and practices are limited and far less prominent.
Tantric vows (Skt. tantra samvara; Tib. sangngak kyi dompa): An expression of the Vajrayana
vehicle and initiation into the tantric path. Tantric vows and precepts are secret and focus on
ethical, mental, and physical behavior.
Tara (Skt.; Tib. Dolma): The female deity that most people turn to when in need of quick assis-
tance; the manifestation of the buddhas’ enlightened activity and the remover of obstacles.
See appendix.
Tathagata (Skt.; Tib. deshin shekpa): Thus gone; an epithet of the Buddha.
Ten non-virtuous actions (Skt. dasakusala; Tib. migewa chu): Destroying life, stealing, sexual
misconduct, false speech, harsh or rude speech, slanderous speech, idle chatter, covetous-
ness/envy, ill will, and wrong views.
Tenets (Skt. siddhanta; Tib. drubta): A fundamental topic of study in Tibetan monasteries; four
unique cross samples of the major historical Buddhist philosophical views:
1. Middle Way (Skt. madhyamika; Tib. umapa): A Mahayana philosophy.
2. Mind Only (Skt. chittamatra; Tib. sem tsampa): A Mahayana philosophy.
3. Sutra School (Skt. sautrantika; Tib. dodewa): A Hinayana philosophy.
4. Great Exposition School (Skt. vaibhashika; Tib. chetakmawa): A Hinayana philosophy.
Note: Each of these philosophical schools can be further divided into various subschools.
Terma and tertons (Tib.): Terma–hidden treasure; teachings hidden by great masters or mythi-
cal beings and revealed at an appropriate time to tertons–treasure revealers. Termas can be
physical objects hidden in the ground, in rock, trees, water, or the sky. They can also take the
form of mental objects like texts and teachings hidden in the mind of disciples.
Thangka (Tib.): Scroll paintings depicting deities, mandalas, or aspects of practice, used as a fo-
cal point of meditation and tantric practice in which one visualizes deities and their respected
qualities while making offerings and requests for blessings. Hung on the walls of temples, shrine
rooms, practitioner’s rooms, and homes. See appendix.
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Theravada (Skt.; Tib. neten depa): Doctrine of the elders; a later development of the Hinayana
tradition; generally regarded as a South Asian tradition found in Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Sri
Lanka, Thailand, and Vietnam. Theravadists see themselves as traditionalists, presenting and
preserving a more conventional and historically accurate account of the Buddha and his teach-
ings. The Theravada Tradition is deeply rooted in monasticism, believing it to be the most con-
ducive lifestyle for achieving nirvana. Theravada accepts the Pali canon as the only source of
authentic Buddhist texts.
Thirty-seven aids to awakening: Pertaining to the third aspect of the three higher trainings–the
training in wisdom. Also referred to as the thirty-seven factors leading to a purified state. These
thirty-seven aids along with the development of the six perfections, and the cultivation of
bodhichitta, are used to traverse and accomplish the five bodhisattva paths leading to Bud-
dhahood.
Three excellences (Tib. dampa sum): Also known as the three noble principles. These three as-
pects serve as a basic outline for proper practice. (1) Setting one's intention, (2) abiding in the
proper attitude (3) dedication of one's merit.
Three great objectives (Tib. thö sam gom sum): study, contemplation, and meditation.
Three jewels (Skt. triratna; Tib. konchog sum): Jewel refers to that which is precious and rare.
1. The Buddha (Skt.; Tib. sanggye): The awakened one.
2. The Dharma (Skt.; Tib. chö): The Buddha’s teachings.
3. The Sangha (Skt.; Tib. gedün): Those who have realized the Buddha’s teachings.
Three poisons (Skt. trivisa; Tib. duksum): Ignorance, attachment, and aversion. Note: With the
addition of pride and envy these make up the five poisons.
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Three principal aspects of the Mahayana path: It’s said that all of the Mahayana teachings are
contained within these three aspects.
1. Renunciation (Skt. nihsarana; Tib. ngejung).
2. Bodhichitta (Skt.; Tib. Jangchup kyi sem).
3. The correct view (Tib. yangdakpe tawa).
Three realms of samsaric existence (Skt. tridhatu; Tib. kham sum): Buddhism asserts samsara
as consisting of three distinct realms of existence:
4. Formless realm (Skt. arupyadhatu; Tib. zukmekham) See formless realm
5. Form realm (Skt. rupadhatu; Tib. zukham) See form realm
6. Desire realm (Skt. kama-dhatu; Tib. dökham): See desire realm.
Three turnings of the wheel of Dharma (Skt. tridharmacakra; Tib. chökhor rimpa sum):
Three momentous teachings of the Buddha which serve as the foundation of the various Bud-
dhist traditions. The expression, turning the wheel of dharma, can be defined as the introduc-
tion of a momentous and new teaching by a buddha.
Three vehicles of Buddhism (Skt. triyana; Tib. tegpasum): three unique Buddhist traditions that
can lead practitioners to enlightenment.
1. Hinayana (Skt.; Tib. tegmen): See Hinayana.
2. Mahayana (Skt.; Tib. tegpa chenpo): See Mahayana.
3. Vajrayana (Skt.; Tib. dorje tegpa): See Vajrayana.
Tibetan Buddhism (Skt.; Tib. pür ki nangchö): A later form of Vajrayana Buddhism and therefore
a branch of the Mahayana. Tibetan Buddhism accepts the Hinayana, Mahayana, and Vajrayana
as authentic teachings of the Buddha.
Tibetan Buddhist canon: A unique presentation of the Buddha’s teachings translated primarily
from Sanskrit (but also Chinese) into Tibetan and compiled into the two texts of the kangyur
and the tengyur (Tib.).
The Kangyur (Tib.): Meaning translated word; the spoken words of the Buddha.
The kangyur consists of 108 volumes of the Buddha’s Hinayana, Mahayana, and
Vajrayana discourses, including teachings and explanation from close disciples and other
enlightened beings.
The Tengyur (Tib.): Meaning translated treaties; consisting of 224 volumes of commen-
taries and treaties by the great Indian Buddhist masters explaining and elaborating on
the words of the Buddha, including commentaries and treaties on the Hinayana, Maha-
yana, and Vajrayana teachings.
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Torma (Tib.): Ritual offering cakes made from roasted barley or wheat flour; tormas are special
food offerings used in tantric rituals. Usually ornate and molded in an inverted conical shape,
but can be created in many different shapes and sizes. See appendix.
Tsa tsas (Tib.): Small clay icons of deities made with a metal tsa tsa mold. Often students are
given a commitment to make 100,000 tsa tsas of a particular deity as a method of collecting
merit. See appendix.
Tsok offering (Tib.; Skt. ganacakra): Tsok is a commitment for tantric practitioners and used to
restore vows and pledges. A tsok offering is a ceremony in which food and drink are offered to
the three jewels and then distributed among the participants to enjoy at the end of the cere-
mony. The tsok ceremony is performed on the 10th and the 25th of every lunar calendar month,
usually combined with Guru puja.
Tulku (Tib.; Skt. nirmanakaya): Emanation body; a reincarnate lama. A distinct feature found
only in Tibetan Buddhism; a system of recognizing reincarnate lamas, referred to as tulkus. Of-
ten called by the title Rinpoche (Tib.) meaning precious one, tulkus are common to all schools of
Tibetan Buddhism and are highly venerated within Tibetan society. The practice of recognizing
reincarnated masters is unique to the Tibetan Buddhism Tradition. Famous tulkus include His
Holiness the 14th Dalai Lama and the 17th Gyalwang Karmapa.
Tumo (Tib.; Skt. chandali): Inner-heat; a practice of purification through burning off negative
karma. An interesting side effect of this practice is the significant rise of one’s metabolism and
body temperature which can be used to protect oneself from winter elements when in retreat.
Twelve links of dependent origination (Skt. nidanas; Tib. dendel yenlak chunyi): The Buddha’s
model of the mechanism of cyclic samsaric existence, illustrating how the sequence of uncon-
trolled rebirth occurs. The twelve links are ignorance, karmic formation, consciousness, name
and form, sense bases, contact, feeling, craving, grasping, existence, rebirth, and aging and
death. See dependent origination.
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Two natures: Found only in the Gelug School, the premise of the two natures assert that all
phenomena (internal or external / conventional or ultimate) possess and exhibit two distinct
objective aspects or natures through which they are known, a conventional nature and an ulti-
mate nature (opposed to the two truth which are subjective perceptions). However, with that
said, it's important to remember that both of these natures are asserted as lacking any inherent
existence or independent essence.
Conventional nature (Tib. nekab kyi neluk): The objective common everyday aspects of
phenomena.
Ultimate nature (Tib. nelug thar thug): The objective yet empty aspect of phenomena.
Two truths (Skt. dvasatya; Tib. denpa nyi): Two distinct manners in which phenomena and real-
ity can be perceived, conventionally and ultimately.
Conventional truth (Skt. samvritisatya; Tib. kundzob denpa): Superficial or relative
truth; one’s subjective everyday perception of phenomena and reality.
Ultimate truth (Skt. paramarthasatya; Tib. dondam denpa): Absolute or final truth; the
subtlest subjective perception pertaining to the emptiness of phenomena.
Ultimate truth (Skt. paramarthasatya; Tib. dondam denpa): See two truths.
Union of wisdom and method (Tib. tabshe sungdel): Synonymous with buddhahood; the culti-
vation and merging of the paths of wisdom and method. Wisdom–pertaining to one’s intellec-
tual and rational side, ultimate truth, and the collection of wisdom pertaining to a clear under-
standing of the Buddha’s teachings and the true nature of oneself and reality; and method–
pertaining to one’s emotional and intuitive side, conventional truth, and the collection of merit
generated through acts of altruism, practice, good-works, and devotion.
Vajra and bell (Tib. dor-dil): Tantric practice implements. See appendix.
Vajra (Skt.; Tib. dorje): Meaning thunderbolt or diamond. A ritual scepter symbolizing
the masculine principle, compassion, skillful means, and indestructibility.
Bell (Skt.ghanta; Tib. dilbu): The necessary counterpart to the vajra. Symbolizing the
feminine principle and the wisdom of emptiness.
Vajra cross (Skt. visvavajra; Tib. dorje gyatram): Also referred to as the double dorje; symboliz-
ing the foundation of the physical world. Whether vertical or in X-form, it is an emblem of sta-
bility, protection, immoveable determination, and all-accomplishing wisdom. This is a mark of-
ten used as a seal or stamp impressed on the plate at the base of a statue that protects and
keeps prayers/relics inside. See appendix.
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Vajrapani (Skt.; Tib. Chakna dorje): Protector of tantra and holder of secrets; deity and manifes-
tation of the buddhas’ power and strength. See appendix.
Vajrasattva (Skt.; Tib. Dorje sempa): Deity of purification and manifestation of the buddhas’ pu-
rity. See appendix.
Vajrayana (Skt.; Tib. dorje tegpa): Indestructible raft–the Indian Buddhist tantric vehicle.
An esoteric and secret vehicle that utilizes visualization, meditation, and ritual, while working
with subtle mind and body energies, with the aim of attaining buddhahood in as short as one
lifetime. Scripturally believed to be taught by the Buddha to the gods and bodhisattvas in the
heaven realms within his own lifetime, it's believed these hidden teachings first began to sur-
face publically sometime after 600 CE.
Vinaya (Skt.; Tib. dülwa): The Buddha’s training system for attaining liberation, comprised of
precepts of ethical conduct, monastic discipline, and training in monastic living. To become a
monastic is to undertake the Buddha’s Vinaya training. Part of the Buddhist canon. See Buddhist
canon.
Virtue (Skt. sila; Tib. gewa): That which is proven through logic and reason to be beneficial to
oneself and others and leads to happiness, favorable rebirth, and liberation.
Non-virtue (Tib. migewa): That which is proven through logic and reason as harmful and/or not
beneficial and leads to suffering, unfavorable rebirth, and bondage.
Vows (Skt. samvara; Tib. dompa): A solemn pledge or promise to oneself, one’s teacher, and
the three jewels to uphold various prescribed precepts. See precepts, individual liberation
vows, bodhisattva vows, tantric vows.
Wisdom (Skt. prajna; Tib. sherab): Supreme understanding; a profound insight that clearly dis-
cerns that which is true, right, just, and fair.
Wrathful deities (Tib. dragpo lha): The wrathful aspect/emanations of deities. In difficult situa-
tions, when power, strength, and controlled anger may be needed to benefit others, peaceful
deities can manifest their wrathful aspect in order to skillfully create a virtuous result.
Yama (Skt.; Tib. Shinje chögyal): The lord of death; a metaphor and personification of the im-
pending inevitability of death. An ancient Indian archetype shared by most Indian traditions.
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Yoga (Skt.; Tib. gyü): Union; a general term for mental, spiritual and physical techniques or
practices in Indian religions. In Tibetan Buddhism, the word yoga and tantra are synonymous
and usually refer to tantric ritual practices.
Yogachara (Skt.; Tib. naljorchöpa): Yoga practice; also known as the Mind Only School (Skt. Citta
matra; Tib. sem tsampa); a branch of the Mahayana, the Yogachara philosophy thrived in India,
East Asia, and early Tibet. Founded by the Indian Buddhist masters and half brothers Asanga
and Vasubandhu (4th century CE), the Yogachara is seen as pertaining primarily to the third
turning of the wheel of Dharma and is thought of as more experiential–an explanation of expe-
rience rather than a system of ontology. Often seen as a form of subjective idealism, asserting
reality and one's environment as a creation or projection of the mind, or more properly, that
phenomena exist only in the nature of the mind. Today, the Yogachara is no longer practiced as
a single philosophy. However, it continues to strongly influence many modern schools, includ-
ing East Asian Mahayana Traditions and Tantric Buddhism.
Zen Buddhist Tradition (JP.; CH. Chan): Literally, meditation or meditative state. A branch of the
Mahayana vehicle found in Japan, Vietnam, and Korea. Founded in Japan (600 CE ), Zen is a lat-
er development of Chinese Chan Buddhism. Some assert that the only difference between Zen
and Chan Buddhism is merely the pronunciation of the names. However, although having much
in common, Zen differs in subtle ways, most notably differences in emphasized scriptures, mo-
nastic style, and practice techniques. Practice within Zen is mainly focused on zazen, literally
seated meditation.
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Recommended Reading
Novice reading
Thubten Chödron
Buddhism for Beginners. 2001 Snow Lion Publications.
Don't Believe Everything You Think. 2013. Snow Lion Publications.
Pema Chödron
Comfortable with Uncertainty. 2003. Shambala Publications.
When Things Fall Apart. 1996. Shambala Publications.
Shantideva
A Guide to the Bodhisattva Way of Life. 1997. Snow Lion Publications.
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Tibetan Buddhist Essentials: Volume Two / Venerable Tenzin Tharpa
Intermediate reading
Richard Gombrich
A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo. 1988. Routledge-Kegan Paul.
The Buddha's Book of Genesis. 1994. Oxford.
History of Early Buddhism. 1994. Oxford.
How Buddhism Began. 1996. London, Athlone press.
How the Mahayana Began. 1996. London, Athlone press.
What the Buddha Thought. 2009. London: Equinox.
Elizabeth Napper
Dependent-Arising and Emptiness. 1989. Wisdom Publications.
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Advanced reading
James Blumenthal
The Ornament of the Middle Way. 2004. Snow Lion Publications.
Chandrakirti
Introduction to the Middle Way. 2004. Shambala Publications.
Clear Words. 1998. Paljor Press.
Dagpo Rinpoche
The Pearl Garland. 2012. Editions Guepele, India
Georges Dreyfus
The Sound of Two Hands Clapping. 2003. University of California.
Jay. L. Garfield
The Fundamental Wisdom of The Middle Way. 1995. Oxford University Press.
Buddhist Philosophy: Essential Readings. 2009. Oxford University Press.
Sonam Gyatso
Essence of Superfine Gold. 2012. Library of Tibetan Works & Archives.
Jeffrey Hopkins
Emptiness Yoga. 1987. Snow Lion Publications.
Cutting Through Appearances. 1990. Snow Lion Publications.
Meditation on Emptiness. 1996. Wisdom Publications.
Maps of the Profound. 2003. Snow Lion Publications.
Tsongkhapa's Final Exposition of Wisdom. 2008. Snow Lion Publications.
Thupten Jinpa
Self, Reality, and Reason in Tibetan Philosophy. 2002. RoutledgeCurzon.
Mind Training: the Great Collection. 2006. Wisdom Publications.
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Tibetan Buddhist Essentials: Volume Two / Venerable Tenzin Tharpa
Lati Rinpoche
Death, Intermediate State and Rebirth. 1980. Rider & Co.
Meditative States in Tibetan Buddhism. 1983. Wisdom Publications.
Mind in Tibetan Buddhism. 1986. Snow Lion Publications.
Nagarjuna
Precious Garland. 1998. Snow Lion Publications.
Letter to a Friend. 2005. Snow Lion Publications.
Pabongka Rinpoche
Liberation in the Palm of Your Hand. 1997. Wisdom Publications.
Sonam Thakchoe
The Two Truths Debate. 2007. Wisdom Publications.
Lama Tsongkhapa
Illumination of the Middle Way Thought. 1984a. Gelugpa Students' Welfare Committee.
Speech of Gold in the Essence of True Eloquence. 1984b. Princeton University press.
Verses on the Three Principal Paths. 1985. Gelugpa Students' Welfare Committee.
Great Stages of the Path. 1993. Gelugpa Students' Welfare Committee.
Special Insight. 1995. FPMT text.
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A Study Guide for the 21st Century
Venerable Tenzin Tharpa