Tessellation

Mária Ždímalová

In this contribution we discuss tessellation. We analyze basic tessellation, types

of tessellation, geometric approach and applications of tessellation in geometry as
well as in architecture and art. We study as well as groups of tessellation used in
Spanish Alhambra [1–3]. Finally we open possibilities how to use tessellation for
aggregations, aggregations functions and aggregate tessellation. We discuss how we
can use weighted Voronoi diagram for tessellation and we consider as well weighted
Voronoi tessellation [4, 5].

1 Introduction

A tessellation [6, 7] (or tiling) is a pattern of geometrical objects that covers the
plane. The geometrical objects must leave no holes in the pattern and they must not
overlap. It should be able to extend the pattern to infinity. It makes a tessellation by
starting with one or several figures and then rotate it, translate or reflect them; or
do a combination of transformations, in order to get a repeating pattern. If there is
interest only want to use one regular polygon to make a tessellation, there are only
three possible polygons to use: triangle, square and hexagon.
The tessellation of the plane by these objects has a lot of nice properties that have
been widely studied, see e.g. [8]. Starting with a tiling of regular polygons, we can
distort it. It is possible to distort it in many different ways. In the example above:
• The triangle tiling is distorted to a tiling of two different tiles.
• The square tiling is distorted to a tiling of one tile. All tiles are translations of the
tile in the centre.

M. Ždímalová (B)
Department of Mathematics and Descriptive Geometry, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Slovak
University of Technology in Bratislava, Bratislava, Slovakia
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 225

P. Magnaghi-Delfino et al. (eds.), Faces of Geometry. From Agnesi to Mirzakhani,
Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 88,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-29796-1_19
226 M. Ždímalová

• The hexagon tiling is also distorted to a tiling of one tile. Every tile is rotated
relative to its neighbors.
A tessellation of a flat surface is the tiling of a plane using one or more geometric
shapes, called tiles, with no overlaps and no gaps. In mathematics, tessellation can be
generalized to higher dimensions and a variety of geometries. A periodic tiling has a
repeating pattern. Some special kinds include regular tilings with regular polygonal
tiles all of the same shape, and semi-regular tilings with regular tiles of more than one
shape and with every corner identically arranged. The patterns formed by periodic
tilings can be categorized into 17 wallpaper groups. A tiling that lacks a repeating
pattern is called “non-periodic”. An aperiodic tiling uses a small set of tile shapes
that cannot form a repeating pattern. In the geometry of higher dimensions, a space-
filling or honeycomb is also called a tessellation of space. A real physical tessellation
is a tiling made of materials such as cemented ceramic squares or hexagons. Such
tilings may be decorative patterns, or may have functions such as providing durable
and water-resistant pavement, floor or wall coverings. Historically, tessellations were
used in Ancient Rome and in Islamic art such as in the decorative geometric tiling of
the Alhambra palace. In the twentieth century, the work of M. C. Escher often made
use of tessellation, both ordinary Euclidean geometry and in hyperbolic geometry, for
artistic effect. Tessellation are sometimes employed for decorative effect in quilting.
Tessellations form a class of patterns in nature, for example in the arrays of hexagonal
cells found in honeycombs [7, 9]. A temple mosaic from the ancient Sumerian city of
Uruk IV (3400–3100 BC), showed a tessellation pattern in coloured tiles. Tessellation
were used by the Sumerians (about 4000 BC) in building wall decorations formed
by patterns of clay tiles. Decorative mosaic tilings [9] made of small squared blocks
called tesserae were widely employed in classical antiquity, sometimes displaying
geometric patterns. In 1619 Johannes Kepler made an early documented study of
tessellations. He wrote about regular and semi-regular tessellation in his Harmonices
Mundi; he was possibly the first to explore and to explain the hexagonal structures
of honeycomb and snowflakes.

Roman geometric mosaic

Two hundred years later in 1891 [7, 9], the Russian crystallographer Yevgraf Fyo-
dorov proved that every periodic tiling of the plane features one of seventeen different
groups of isometries. Fyodorov’s work marked the unofficial beginning of the math-
ematical study of Tessellations. Other contributors include Aleksei Shubnikov and
Nikolai Belov (1964), and Heinrich Heesch and Otto Kienzle (1963).

2 Etymology

In Latin, tessella is a small cubical piece of clay, stone or glass used to make mosaics.
The word “tessella” means “small square” (from tessera, square, which in turn is from
the Greek word τšσσερα for four). It corresponds to the everyday term tiling, which
Tessellation 227

refers to applications of tessellations, often made of glazed clay. For example, there
are eight types of semi-regular tessellation, made with more than one kind of regular
polygon but still having the same arrangement of polygons at every corner. Irregular
tessellation can also be made from other shapes such as pentagons, polynoms and in
fact almost any kind of geometric shape. The artist M. C. Escher is famous for making
tessellation with irregular interlocking tiles, shaped like animals and other natural
objects. If suitable contrasting colours are chosen for the tiles of differing shape,
striking patterns are formed, and these can be used to decorate physical surfaces
such as church floors [7, 9]. A tessellation or tiling is a cover of the Euclidean plane
by a countable number of closed sets, called tiles, such that the tiles intersect only
on their boundaries. These tiles may be polygons or any other shapes. Tessellation
are formed from a finite number of prototiles in which all tiles in the tessellation are
congruent to the given prototiles. If a geometric shape can be used as a prototile to
create a tessellation, the shape is said to tessellate or to tile the plane. The Conway
criterion is a sufficient but not necessary set of rules for deciding if a given shape
tiles the plane periodically without reflections. No general rule has been found for
determining if a given shape can tile the plane or not, which means there are many
unsolved problems concerning tessellation.
Mathematically, [7, 9] tessellation can be extended to spaces other than the
Euclidean plane. The Swiss geometer Ludwig Schläfli pioneered this by defining
polyschemes, which mathematicians nowadays call polytopes. These are the ana-
logues to polygons and polyhedra in spaces with more dimensions. He further defined
the Schläfli symbol notation to make it easy to describe polytopes. For example, the
Schläfli symbol for an equilateral triangle is {3}, while that for a square is {4}.
The Schläfli notation makes it possible to describe tilings compactly. For example, a
tiling of regular hexagons has three six-sided polygons at each vertex, so its Schläfli
symbol is {3, 6}. Other methods also exist for describing polygonal tilings. When
the tessellation is made of regular polygons, the most common notation is the vertex
configuration, which is simply a list of the number of sides of the polygons around
a vertex.

3 What Are the Types of Tessellations?

Regular Tessellation: Regular tessellation are tile patterns made up of only single
shape placed in some kind of pattern. There are three types of regular tessellation:
triangles, squares and hexagons. Regular tessellations have interior angles that are
divisors of 360°. For example, a triangle’s three angle total 180°; which is divisor
of 360. A hexagon contains six angles whose measurement total 720°. This is also a
divisor of 180, because 180 fits even 720.
Semi-Regular tessellations: When two or three types of polygons share a com-
mon vertex, a semi-regular tessellation is forms [7]. There are nine different types
of semi-regular tessellations including combining a hexagon and a square that both
228 M. Ždímalová

contain a 1-inch side. Another example of a semi-regular tessellation is formed by

combining two hexagons with two equilateral triangles.
Demi-Regular Tessellation: There are 20 different types of demi-regular tessel-
lation. These are Tessellations that combine two or three polygon arrangements [7].
A demi-regular tessellation can be formed by placing a row of squares, then a row of
equilateral triangles that are alternated up and down forming a line of squares when
combined. Demi-regular tessellation always contains two vertices.
Non-Regular Tessellation: A non-regular tessellation is a group of shapes that
have the sum of all interior angles equaling 360°, see [7]. There are again, no over
loops or gaps, and non-regular tessellations are formed many times using polygons
that are not regular.
Other Types: There are two other types of tessellation which are three-
dimensional Tessellation and non-periodic Tessellation. A three-dimensional tessel-
lation uses three-dimensional forms of shapes, such as octahedrons. A non-periodic
tessellation is a tilling that does not have a repetitious pattern. That tilling evolves as
it is created, yet still contains no overlapping or gaps.

4 Deeper About Tessellation and Tiling

Mathematicians use some technical terms when discussing tilings. An edge is the
intersection between two bordering tiles; it is often a straight line. A vertex is the
point of intersection of three or more bordering tiles. Using these terms, an isogonal
or vertex-transitive tiling is a tiling where every vertex point is identical; that is, the
arrangement of polygons about each vertex is the same. The fundamental region is
a shape such as a rectangle that is repeated to form the tessellation. For example, a
regular tessellation of the plane with squares has a meeting of four squares at every
vertex. The sides of the polygons are not necessarily identical to the edges of the
tiles. An edge-to-edge tiling is any polygonal tessellation where adjacent tiles only
share one full side, i.e. no tile shares a partial side or more than one side with any
other tile. In an edge-to-edge tiling, the sides of the polygons and the edges of the
tiles are the same. The familiar “brick wall” tiling is not edge-to-edge because the
long side of each rectangular brick is shared with two bordering bricks.
A normal tiling is a tessellation for which every tile is topologically equivalent
to a disk, the intersection of any two tiles is a single connected set or the empty set,
and all tiles are uniformly bounded. This means that a single circumscribing radius
and a single inscribing radius can be used for all the tiles in the whole tiling; the
condition disallows tiles that are pathologically long or thin [7, 9].
A monohedral tiling is a tessellation in which all tiles are congruent; it has
only one prototile. A particularly interesting type of monohedral tessellation is the
spiral monohedral tiling. The first spiral monohedral tiling was discovered by Heinz
Voderberg in 1936; the Voderberg tiling has a unit tile that is a nonconvex enneagon.
The Hirschhorn tiling, published by Michael D. Hirschhorn and D. C. Hunt in
1985, is a pentagon tilingusing irregular pentagons: regular pentagons cannot tile the
Tessellation 229

Euclidean plane as the internal angle of a regular pentagon, 3π/ 5 , is not a divisor
of 2π . An isohedral tiling is a special variation of a monohedral tiling in which all
tiles belong to the same transitivity class, that is, all tiles are transforms of the same
prototile under the symmetry group of the tiling.
A regular tessellation is a highly symmetric, edge-to-edge tiling made up of regular
polygons, all of the same shape. There are only three regular tessellations: those made
up of equilateral triangles, squares, or regular hexagons. All three of these tilings are
isogonal and monohedral.
A semi-regular (or Archimedean) tessellation uses more than one type of regular
polygon in an isogonal arrangement. There are eight semi-regular tilings (or nine if
the mirror-image pair of tilings counts as two). These can be described by their vertex
configuration; for example, a semi-regular tiling using squares and regular octagons
has the vertex configuration 4.82 (each vertex has one square and two octagons). Many
non-edge-to-edge tilings of the Euclidean plane are possible, including the family of
Pythagorean tilings, tessellations that use two (parameterised) sizes of square, each
square touching four squares of the other size. An edge tessellation is one in which
each tile can be reflected over an edge to take up the position of a neighbouring
tile, such as in an array of equilateral or isosceles triangles. Penrose tilings, which
use two different quadrilateral prototiles, are the best known example of tiles that
forcibly create non-periodic patterns. They belong to a general class of aperiodic
tilings, which use tiles that cannot tessellate periodically. The recursive process of
substitution tiling is a method of generating aperiodic tilings. One class that can be
generated in this way is the rep-tiles; these tilings have surprising self-replicating
properties. Pinwheel tilingsare non-periodic, using a rep-tile construction; the tiles
appear in infinitely many orientations. It might be thought that a non-periodic pattern
would be entirely without symmetry, but this is not so. Aperiodic tilings, while lacking
in translational symmetry, do have symmetries of other types, by infinite repetition of
any bounded patch of the tiling and in certain finite groups of rotations or reflections
of those patches. A substitution rule, such as can be used to generate some Penrose
patterns using assemblies of tiles called rhombs, illustrates scaling symmetry. A
Fibonacci word can be used to build an aperiodic tiling, and to study quasicrystals,
which are structures with aperiodic order.

5 Wallpaper Groups and Symmetries

The wallpaper groups are the 17 possible plane symmetry groups. They are com-
monly represented using Hermann-Mauguin-like symbols or in orbifold notation
(Zwillinger 1995, p. 260) [7, 9, 10].
Translational symmetry is just one type of symmetry [7, 10]. There is also rota-
tional and reflection symmetry. An image has a rotational symmetry if you can
rotate the image around some point and get the same image. An image has a reflec-
tion symmetry if you can reflect the image in some line and get the same image.
230 M. Ždímalová

6 Tessellation in Different Areas

Tessellation and colour: If the colours of this tiling are to form a pattern by repeat-
ing this rectangle as the fundamental domain, see [7, 9], at least seven colours are
required; more generally, at least four colours are needed. Sometimes the colour of a
tile is understood as part of the tiling; at other times arbitrary colours may be applied
later. When discussing a tiling that is displayed in colours, to avoid ambiguity one
needs to specify whether the colours are part of the tiling or just part of its illustration.
This affects whether tiles with the same shape but different colours are considered
identical, which in turn affects questions of symmetry. The four colour theorem states
that for every tessellation of a normal Euclidean plane, with a set of four available
colour [7, 9].
Tessellation in higher dimensions: Tessellating in the three-dimensional space:
the rhombic dodecahedron is one of the solids that can be stacked to fill space
exactly, for more details see [7, 9]. Tessellation can be extended to three dimensions.
Certain polyhedra can be stacked in a regular crystal pattern to fill (or tile) three-
dimensional space, including the cube (the only Platonic polyhedron to do so), the
rhombic dodecahedron, the truncated octahedron, and triangular, quadrilateral, and
hexagonal prisms, among others. Any polyhedron that fits this criterion is known
as a plesiohedron, and may possess between 4 and 38 faces. Similarly, in three
dimensions there is just one quasiregular honeycomb, which has eight tetrahedra
and six octahedra at each polyhedron vertex. However, there are many possible
semi-regular honeycombs in three dimensions. Schmitt-Conway biprism is a convex
polyhedron with the property of tiling space only aperiodically [7, 9]. Using the
geometrical representation of the objects and their localisation into a square (or
other) grid helps to describe their position in the plane, figure out their symmetry
and last but not least solve some practical problems—see e.g. [11].
In art and manufacturing: Tessellation are also a main genre in origami (paper
folding). Tessellation is used in manufacturing industry to reduce the wastage of
material (yield losses) such as sheet metal when cutting out shapes for objects like
car doors or drinks cans.
In nature: In botany, the term “tessellate” describes a checkered pattern, for
example on a flower petal, tree bark, or fruit. Flowers including the fritillary and
some species of Colchicum are characteristically tessellate. Many patterns in nature
are formed by cracks in sheets of materials. These patterns can be described by
Gilbert Tessellation, known as random crack networks. Other natural patterns occur
in foams; these are packed according to Plateau’s laws. In 1887, Lord Kelvin proposed
a packing using only one solid, the bitruncated cubic honeycomb with very slightly
curved faces. In 1993, Denis Weaire and Robert Phelan proposed the Weaire–Phelan
structure, like in [7, 9].
In puzzle and recreational mathematics: Tessellation have given rise to many
types of tiling puzzle, from traditional jigsaw puzzles (with irregular pieces of wood
or cardboard) and the tangram to more modern puzzles which often have a math-
ematical basis. For example, polyiamonds and polyominoes are figures of regular
Tessellation 231

triangles and squares, often used in tiling puzzles. Authors such as Henry Dudeney
and Martin Gardner have made many uses of tessellation in recreational mathematics,
see e.g. [3, 9].

7 Tessellation in Computer Games

Tessellation is used even now in computer games. It is popular and spread around
the world of computer gamer. With the recent buzz around DirectX 11, see [12],
the gamer probably heard a lot about one of its biggest new features: tessellation.
As a concept, tessellation is fairly straight forward—we can take a polygon and
divide it into smaller pieces. How does it benefit games? We will take a look at
why tessellation is bringing profound changes to 3D graphics on the PC, and how
the NVIDIA® GeForce® GTX 400 series GPUs provide breakthrough tessellation
performance. In its most basic form, tessellation is a method of breaking down
polygons into finer pieces. For example, if you take a square and cut it across its
diagonal, you’ve “tessellated” this square into two triangles. By itself, tessellation
does little to improve realism. For example, in a game, it does not really matter
if a square is rendered as two triangles or two thousand triangles-tessellation only
improves realism if the new triangles are put to use in depicting new information
[12]. The simplest and most popular way of putting the new triangles to use is a
technique called displacement mapping. A displacement map is a texture that stores
height information. When applied to a surface, it allows vertices on the surface to
be shifted up or down based on the height information. For example, the graphics
artist can take a slab of marble and shift the vertices to form a carving. Another
popular technique is to apply displacement maps over terrain to carve out craters,
canyons, and peaks. Like tessellation, displacement mapping [12], has been around
for a long time, but until recently, it has never really caught on. The reason is that
for displacement mapping to be effective, the surface must be made up of a large
number of vertices. In essence—displacement mapping needs tessellation, and vice
versa.

8 Islamic Patterns, Alhambra and Escher

Islamic decoration, which tends to avoid using figurative images, makes frequent
use of geometric patterns which have developed over the centuries. For more see
[1–3, 6 and 10]. The geometric designs in Islamic art are often built on combinations
of repeated squares and circles, which may be overlapped and interlaced, as can
arabesques (with which they are often combined), to form intricate and complex
patterns, including a wide variety of tessellations. These may constitute the entire
decoration [2], may form a framework for floral or calligraphic embellishments, or
may retreat into the background around other motifs. The complexity and variety of
232 M. Ždímalová

patterns used evolved from simple stars and lozenges in the ninth century, through
a variety of 6—to 13—point patterns by the 13th century, and finally to include also
14—and 16—point stars in the sixteenth century [4–6]. Geometric patterns appears
in different forms in Islamic art and architecture including kilim carpets, Persian
girih and Moroccan zelligetile work, muqarnas decorative vaulting, jali pierced stone
screens, ceramics, leather, stained glass, woodwork, and metal work.
West, both among craftsmen and artists including M. C. Escher in and among
mathematicians and physicists including Peter J. Lu and Paul Steinhardt who con-
troversially claimed in 2007 that tilings at the Darb-e Imam shrine in Isfahan could
generate quasi-periodic patterns like Penrose tilings.
The tillings in the Alhanbra [4, 5] in Sain were laid out by Moor and by Vhristian
artisans inspired by the Moor’s style in 14th century. They are made of coloured
tiles forming patterns, many truly symmetrical and beautiful. Some were not tes-
sellations because they didn’t cover a surface with repetitive design without gaps
or overlaps. However, many of the Alhambra’s patterns were true tessellation. They
inspired the young M. C. Echer, who copied these geometric tessellations into his
notebook and later tweaked some into tessellations that resembled animals or peo-
ple. As example we can mention “China Boy” 1936 and “Strong Men” 1936. Echer
defined “tessellation” as “the regular division of a plane”. The shape in a tessellation
can be geometric like squares an triangles, or shaped like animals and people. The
Alhambra artists made many beautiful tessellation art much more popular. Esher
noted that the Alhambra tilings never included animal or plants. One of Escher’s
biggest contributions to tessellation art was to make designs with people and ani-
mals instead of stiff geometric shapes like squares and triangles. Escher used to ask
the audience if they knew of any tessellations done by others artist in the pasts. He
was sent details of a tapestry design by Koloman Moser entitled “Forellenreigen”
(“trout farm”), depicting a fish tessellation completed around 1899–1902. We note
that Esher was born in 1898. We can not see nothing like this here before Escher.
There were Egyptian, Hindu, Chinese and English Tessellations, all “abstract” style
rather than looking like animals and plants and people [4–6].

9 Aggregate Tessellations

Now we want to show direction to aggregate Tessellation and as well as we will

consider weighted Voronoi diagram in the connection of tessellations and aggregation
[1, 2]. A tessellation of Rd is a countable collection of closed bounded sets called
cells such that
(a) Union of all cells is the whole space;
(b) Intersection of any two different cells has d-Lebesgue measure zero;
(c) Each bounded set intersect a finite number of cells.
Tessellation 233

Tessellations are used top model different cellular systems. We assume that each
cell Ci is associate with a unique nucleus x(Ci ) according to a certain rule satisfying
an obvious compatibility condition: ΦxCi = Φx(Ci ). For any shift transformation
Φ in Rd . For example, the Voronoi tessellation [1, 2] has cells defined as
   
C(xi ) = x ∈ R d x−xi Φ ≤ x−xi j , j = i- ,

where  is the Euclidean norm. Thus, the cell with nucleus xi consists of the points
that are closed to xi than to any other nucleus. A random tessellation with nuclei can
be viewed as marked point process M = {xi , C(xi )}. In this paper we deal with sta-
tionary Tessellations, i.e. M is stationary with respect to shifts . Recently, random
Voronoi Tessellations were used as models of services zones of telecommunications
stations. This has many advantages: the main advantage of this model is that reduce
the number of structuring parameters of the model to just a few parameters of under-
lying stochastic process and often for an analytical treatment of complex networks
characteristic. We can tell that model using Voronoi diagrams, weighted Voronoi dia-
grams as well as Voronoi Tessellations [1, 2] over—simplify the complex geometry
of service zone. For instance, in the case of wireless communications the base station
that will handle a call from a mobile terminal is determined by the signal strength
rather than Euclidian distance to the stations. Affected by the wave phenomena, the
zones boundaries have extremely irregular, distorted shapes. The motivation of more
complex tessellation models that are still described in terms of a small number of
parameters and patterns. Then they can be simple for analytical solutions [1, 2]. For
this the authors [1, 2] introduces an operation of aggregation
   on independent
  station-
ary Tessellations equipped with nuclei. Let 0 = C0 x0i and = C1 x1i be two
such Tessellations. Define the aggregate cells of Θ01 = Θ 0 Θ 1 as
   

C10 x0i = Uj:xj1∈C0(xi0) C1 x1j .

    
In words C10 x0i is the union of the cells of Θ 1 whose nuclei lie in C0 x0i . Due
to the independence and stationary assumptions, with probability 1 every x1j lies in
unique cell of Θ 0 . Therefore, Θ01 is again a tessellation, even if some of the cells can
be empty. Let {Θ n }n ∈ N be a sequence of independent stationary Tessellations with
the nuclei sets Πn = {Xni }, n ∈ N . The aggregation of the first in terms of the
sequence yields the aggregate tessellation of order n: Θ n = Θ 0 Θ 2 · · · Θ n with the
nuclei set Π0 = {X  i0}.The cells of this tessellation will be called aggregate n-cells
0
n
an denote by C0 xi . In this condition we follow with Voronoi tessellations and
aggregations and weighted Voronoi diagrams.
234 M. Ždímalová

10 Tessellation with Polygons

Any triangle or quadrilateral (even non-convex) can be used as a prototile to form

a monohedral tessellation, often in more than one way. If only one shape of tile is
allowed, tilings exists with convex N-gons for N equal to 3, 4, 5 and 6. For N = 5,
see Pentagonal tiling, for N = 6, see Hexagonal tiling, for N = 7, see Heptagonal
tiling and for N = 8, see octagonal tiling [3, 7, 9].

11 Voronoi Tilings

Voronoi or Dirichlet tilings are Tessellations where each tile is defined as the set
of points closest to one of the points in a discrete set of defining points. (Think
of geographical regions where each region is defined as all the points closest to a
given city or post office.) The Voronoi cell [3, 9] for each defining point is a convex
polygon. The Delaunay triangulation is a tessellation that is the dual graph of a
Voronoi tessellation. Voronoi tilings with randomly placed points can be used to
construct random tilings of the plane.

Acknowledgements The author acknowledges the Scientific Slovak Agency APVV-14-0013 and
VEGA 1/0006/19.

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