LEADERSHIP

INTRODUCTION

Leader is a part of management and one of the most significant elements of

direction. A leader may or may not be manager but a manager must a leader. A
manager as a leader must lead his subordinates and also inspire them to achieve
organizational goals. Thus leadership is the driving force which gets the things
done by others. Leadership represents an abstract quality in a man. It is a
psychological process of influencing followers or subordinates and providing
guidance to them. Thus the essence of leadership is follower ship. It is the
followers who make a person as leader. An executive has to earn followers. He
may not get subordinates because he is in authority but he may not get a follower
unless he makes the people to follow him only willing followers can and will make
him a leader. Successful organization has one major attribute that sets it apart from
unsuccessful organizations, that is the dynamic and effective leadership. It is one
of the most effective tools of managerial accomplishments. The will to do is
triggered by leadership and the lukewarm desires for achievement are transformed
into burning passion for unsuccessful accomplishments by the skillful use of
leadership. Good leadership helps, solves these tasks and provides a cushion for
absorbing the impact of difficulties to crop up in any managerial activity.

Complexity and size of organization lead to the development of bureaucratic

form of administration. Organization is considered as having a directing head, a
leadership involved in overall coordination. Leadership in an organization involves
exercise of authority. It involves making decisions for organization. Order in
society is fronded in power within organization the activities of the members and
functionaries must be directed in system of cooperation and coordination. The

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coordination functions are grounded in authority; the expectation that direction will
be followed. Involved in coordination and exercise of authority is organizational
decision making by the authority leader. [n the world of health care sector,
leadership equally holds the important place among the health administrators and
managers. Nursing is the largest section of the Health Care Force. Nurses in nearly
all countries give direct care and manage the work of others. Professional nurses in
leadership positions are responsible for many of the health services provided in the
communities, hospitals and long term care settings. Because of the amount of their
responsibility and in view of their high number, sound and effective leadership and
management by nurses is an essential prerequisite for the achievement of the
global strategy of health.

MEANING OF LEADERSHIP

Leadership is the art of getting others to want to do something that should be

done. The Leadership has the origin with the word lead means ‘to go’. In action
verb, it has been defined in several ways as ‘to guide’, ‘to be the first’, ‘to go
ahead’. The leaders typically are the ones who go first. According to 1998
HarperCollins Dictionary, it is the ability to lead and as modifier leadership
qualities. It is an act or instance of leading guidance direction. Leadership is a
process by which a person influences other to accomplish an objective and directs
the organization in a way that makes it more cohesive and coherent. ‘Leadership
over human beings is exercised when persons certain motives and purposes
mobilize, in competition or conflict with others, institutional, political,
psychological and other resources so as to arouse, engage and satisfy the motives
of followers. In order to realize goals mutually held by both leaders and followers.

DEFINITON

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LEADER

A person who demonstrates and exercise influence and power over others. Leaders
have a vision and influence others by their actions and comments.

LEADERSHIP

Leadership is ‘ The interaction between specific traits of one person and other traits
of many, in such a way that the course of action of the many is changed by one.

- Bogardus, 1934

The process by which an agent induces a subordinate to behave in a desired

manner.

- Bennis, 1959

Leadership is · the ability to impress the will of the leader on those led and induce
obedience, respect, loyalty and cooperation.

-Steward,1927

Leadership is the ability to influence other people

- Lansdale

Leadership is the ability of a manager to induce subordinate to work with zeal

confidence.

- Koontz and O Donnell

Leadership as the ability to secure desirable actions from a group of followers

voluntary, without the use of coercion.

- Afford and Beaty

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Leadership is the activity to persuade others to seek defined objectives
enthusiastically. It is the human factor which binds a group together and motivate
it towards goals

- Keith Davis

Leadership is the lifting of mans vision to higher sights, the rising of mans
performance to higher standard, the building of mans personality beyond its
normal limitation.

- Peter Drucker

DEFINITONS OF NURSING LEADERSHIP

1. Nursing leadership refers to the actions taken and the role assumed by a
nurse practitioner (NP) in the performance of or her duty-the delivering of
quality patient care.
2. Nursing leadership is a combination of personality traits, administrative
skills and talents which enable a nurse to excel in the profession. Nurse
leaders, according to Ruth Tappen, Sally Weiss and Diane Whitehead, can
inspire others to work together in the pursuit of a shared goal. Nurse leaders
can establish these goals while maintaining a balance between legal
concerns, ethical demands and patient care.
3. Leadership can be defined as a multifaceted process of identifying a goal or
target, motivating other people to act, and providing support and motivation
to achieve mutually negotiated goals (Porter-O’Grady, 2003).

CHANGING CONCEPT OF LEADERSHIP

Leadership has probably been written about, formally researched and informally
discussed more than any other single topic. Leadership still remains an

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unexplainable phenomenon. It is known to exist and to have tremendous influence
on human performance, but its inner workings and specific dimensions cannot be
precisely spelled out.

Leadership is the use of non-coercive influence to shape the group‘s or

organization goal‘s, motivate behaviour towards the achievement of those goal‘s
and help define group or organization. As a property, leadership is the set of
characteristics attributed to Individual‘s who are perceived to be leader‘s. Thus
leader‘s are people who can influence the behaviors of other‘s without having to
rely on force, leader‘s are people whom others accept as leader‘s. . Leadership is
an important aspect of managing. The ability to lead effectively is one of the
Key‘s to being effective manager. The essence of the leadership is followership.
In other word‘s it is the willingness of people to follow that makes a person a
leader. Moreover, people tend to follow those whom they see as providing a
means of achieving their own desires, wants and needs.

Leadership is the art of getting others to want to do something convinced should

be done. The origin of the word “Lead” is a word meaning “to go”. Leadership
requires interaction with others-being one with them and perhaps coming down to
their level. The leader is one who is one with others to the extent necessary to give
them a feeling of a quality and yet different from them in terms of his own work
and achievement for which they admire him.

The need for power encourages the concept of affiliation which presents a
prob1em. It can lead to slowing down the system because the time spent in getting
to know others and becoming affiliated can mean time from the main activities of
the organization. It is also presumed that the r-need for affiliation may lead to favor
and corruption. But in a world which is becoming increasingly impersonal, in

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which there is a growing dependence on scientific systems the individual can feel
lost. Therefore, the need for affiliation, friendship increases. The leader does thing
not only for himself, or to gain popularity, but because of his feelings toward
humanity. An executive who does his work better than anybody else can and has
been recognized in his organization as being able to undertake diverse activity and
do them well. However, since the company needs him in the position he holds
because no one else can do it therefore, at times a hard working, sincere,
enthusiastic executive remains in that position and is never promoted, even when
he approaches the top management for a more responsible position. Executive is
told he is indispensable and for the sake of the company, he must be retained in the
position in which he is. There is no doubt he would do equal justice to the senior
position which he has sought. Possibly, he would improve systems there also. No
one is indispensable. The chance for leadership should not be destroyed purely
because the executives have been honest and good in the work he is doing now.
Perhaps, if he had not been so devoted to this present job, the company would have
had to shift him from there and given him the other position. It is also evident that
one who likes to work and do it well is running the risk of not becoming obsolete.

1. Leadership is the quality of an individual’s behavior whereby he is able to

guide the people or their activities towards certain goals. Managers who
possess the quality of guiding and directing the subordinates to perform their
jobs efficiently can be called business leaders. A leader interprets the
objectives of the group and guides it towards the achievement of these
objectives. ‘’ A leader is one who guides and directs other people. Thus,
managers at all levels have to perform the function of leader because they
manage subordinates whose energies are to be canalized in a definite

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 direction. As leaders, managers have not only to show the way, but also lead
the group towards a predetermined goal.
2. Leadership involves the way a manager behaves in his man to man
relationship with his subordinates. Junes J. Cribban has defined leadership as
a “Process of influencing a group in a particular situation at a given point of
time and in a specific set of circumstances that stimulate people to strive
willingly to attain the common objectives and satisfaction with the types of
leadership provided. Two dimensions of leadership behavior, identified as
‘consideration and ‘initiating structure·. Leaders who were high on the ·
consideration· dimension reflected that they had developed a work
atmosphere of mutual trust, respect for subordinate· s ideas and
consideration of subordinate· s feelings. Such leaders encouraged good
superior-subordinate rapport and two way communication. A low ·
consideration· score indicates that leaders are more impersonal in their
dealings with subordinates. A high ‘initiating structure· score indicates that
leaders structure their roles and those of subordinates toward the attainment
of goals. They are actively involved in planning work activities
communicating pertinent information and scheduling work. Studies revealed
that high structure and low consideration were related to more absenteeism,
accidents, grievances and turnover.
3. Leadership in business is never a bossism because the leader is not synonym
of the boss. A boss depends upon his authority and as such always drives
and orders, but a leader relies upon his confidence and goodwill and always
believes in coaching and advising his subordinates. The foregoing analysis
reveals that successful leadership calls for ‘the ability to comprehend that
human-being have different motivating forces in different situations, the

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 ability to inspire, and ability to act in a manner that will develop a climate
for responding to and arousing motivations.’
4. The existence of able leaders is keenly felt in social life. Koontz and “O “
Donnel rightly observed that people tend to follow these whom they see as
means of satisfying their own personal goals. The more managers
understand what motivates their subordinates and how these motivations
operate, the more effective leaders they are likely to be.

The old concept about leadership is that a leader uses his power to secure the
support of is subordinates. But leadership over an extended period of time requires
not merely the power but also an understanding of the feelings and the problems of
subordinates. Power alone is inadequate means of motivating most of the
employees. the major functions of present concept of leadership is guiding and
motivating the behavior and understanding; of the subordinates. Leader needs to
establish relationship of warmth and understanding. If the informal and formal
leaders are the same, leader earns his place and helps the organization and also the
members of the learn leader should encourage voluntary cooperation and should
see how cooperation goes into the total leadership process.

NATURE OF LEADERSHIP

Leadership is the human factor which binds a group together and motivates it
towards some goals. It is a process of stimulating members of the group towards
the achievement of predetermined goals. Leadership is a part of management, but
not all of it. A manager is required to plan and organize and so on, but all we ask of
a leader is that he gets others to follow. The fact that he can get others to follow
him is no guarantee that he is going in the right direction. This means that a strong
leader can be a weak manager because he is weak in managerial functions. Though

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he cat1 get his group going, he just can’t get them going in direction which serves
organizational goals. The reverse is also possible. A manager can be a weak leader
because he may not possess the qualities of a good leader.

Leadership is something a person does, not something he has. Even though

leadership is something a person does, it should not be confused with mere
activity. Aggressiveness and constant interaction with others will not necessarily
develop leadership within a group. At times the leadership action has to stay in the
background keeping pressure of the group and to keep quite so that others may talk
to be calm in times of uproar to hesitate or to delay decisions. An individual is said
to be a leader when he is accepted as a leader by a group of persons and there is
communication between the leader and the group. Leadership is present when both
these factors are there in a particular situation. A self-made leader may take
dreams, but he cannot be called as leader if there is none to accept him as a leader.

CHARACTERISTICS OF LEADERSHIP
On the basis of analytical study of above definitions, it may be concluded that
leadership is an ability to direct, and motivate other persons of an organization so
that they may contribute their efforts towards the success of organization.

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1. Followers: The success of leadership depends upon the number of
followers. Larger be the number of followers, more successful will be the
leadership. Leadership cannot be thought of in the absence of followers.
2. A personal quality: Leadership is a personal quality of character and
behavior which enables him to influence his/her men to follow and the
followers follow his/her order and direction.
3. A common goal: Leadership clusters around the achievement of common
goals. There must be some common goals before the leader and his/her
followers. All the activities must be oriented to achieve these goals.
4. Active relations: Presence of active relations between a leader and his/her
followers are essential for effective leadership. The leader must himself
initiate as he wants to be done by his/her followers.
5. Vitality and endurance: A good leader is one, who works with. Courage
and patience even in adverse circumstances. He must be capable to face
difficult conditions. He must be having sufficient ability to forecast the
situation and to take the necessary steps to solve the problems.
6. Decision making power: Decision making power is an important quality of
a leader. A leader has to deal with a group of different nature and different
abilities in the process of leadership; he has to take many decisions. The
leader must have strong power to take the decision according to the need of
circumstances. The decision must be taken at the right time after having a
careful thought on the internal and external factors.
7. Initiative: It is necessary for a successful leader that he should be able in
motivating his/her followers to contribute their efforts to achieve the pre-
determined objectives of their enterprise. For this, it also becomes necessary
that the leader should himself do what he wants to get done by his/her
followers.
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 8. Analytical capacity: A successful leader must have analytical capacity
also. Analytical capacity means the abilities to work according to the need
of circumstance and to accept the quality.
9. Responsibility: Feeling of responsibility is a time necessity for a successful
leader. If the leader does not feel his/her responsibility, he cannot, be
successful in motivating his/her followers what he wants to get done by
them.
10.Enthusiasm courage, tact and devotion: A leader it have enthusiasm,
courage, tact and devotion. He must be having polite behavior towards
his/her followers. He must be intelligent. If a leader possesses all these
above noted qualities, he will be successful in influencing his/her followers.

FUNCTIONS OF LEADERSHIP

The success of an enterprise largely depends upon effective leadership. If the

leader of an enterprise is and aware towards his/her duties and he is not interested
in achieving the objects of enterprise; the enterprise can never be successful in
achieving its objects. Because it is the leader into directs and motivates the
employees of the enterprise. He must be effective and influential. An effective
leader must possess the qualities of intelligence, loyalty and enthusiasm, courage
and patience. The main functions of a leader may be as follows:

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1. Guides and Inspires Subordinates:
A leader has to not only supervise but also to play a guiding role for the
subordinates. Guidance here means instructing the subordinates the way they have
to perform their work effectively and efficiently. Leadership creates among
subordinates a sense of belongingness and commitment. Desire for achievement is
transformed into a passion. Important function to leader is motivate his/her
subordinates to contribute their efforts achieve the objects of enterprise. These

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motivations may be monetary as well as non-monetary. These motivations increase
to the morale of employees and open the way to achieve their full co-operation.

2. Secures Cooperation:
A leader sells rather than tells. He persuades, rather than dictates, and creates
enthusiasm among his subordinates and thus, secures their cooperation.

3. Creates Confidence:
Confidence is an important factor which can be achieved through expressing the
work efforts to the subordinates, explaining them clearly their role and giving them
guidelines to achieve the goals effectively. It is also important to hear the
employees with regards to their complaints and problems.

4. Builds Work Environment:

Management is getting things done from people. An efficient work environment
helps in sound and stable growth. Therefore, human relations should be kept into
mind by a leader. He should have personal contacts with employees and should
uld listen to their problems and solve them. He should treat employees on
humanitarian terms.

5. Maintains Discipline:
By turning subordinates into followers, the job of securing order and
compliance, becomes easy. He motivates the employees with economic and non-
economic rewards and thereby gets the work from the subordinates voluntarily. It
is this willingness on the part of subordinates which leads to maintenance of
discipline. Discipline is the force, which directs, regulates and controls the
activities of an enterprise. Therefore, the important function of a leader is to
maintain discipline in the enterprise. If all the employees of an enterprise are

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disciplined and their activities are discipline in the enterprise. If all the employees
of an enterprise are disciplined and their activities are disciplined. It becomes very
easy for the enterprise to achieve its objects. Therefore the leader has to make
his/her best to maintain discipline. For this he has to reward and regard the
employees who keep the discipline. Moreover, leader himself should present an
ideal to thee cause of discipline.

6. Facilitates Integration of Organisational and Personal Goals:

A leader is one who is visionary, deciding the destination to be reached.
Vision is the source of organisational objectives. Vision requires synchronisation
of goals through integration of personal and organisational goals. A leader creates
common goals and understanding among subordinates that their personal goals are
related with the attainment of organisational goals. It also leads to coordination.

7. Works as a Change Agent:

No change in thinking, processes, and practices becomes possible without
leadership. It is the leader who convinces actively about the change and making it
part and parcel of their working and reducing resistance to change.

8. Boosts Morale:
Morale denotes willing co-operation of the employees towards their work and
getting them into confidence and winning their trust. A leader can be a morale
booster by achieving full co-operation so that they perform with best of their
abilities as they work to achieve goals.

9. To administer: The main function of a leader is to administer the enterprise

successfully. For the he/she uses the orders and directions to the subordinates, to be

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considers the utility of orders, practicability and the efficiency of the persons to
whom the orders are being used.

10. To get the co-operation: A leader gets the co-operation of his/” her followers.
He should able in convincing his/her followers that success of enterprises is their
own success. If he succeeds in this task, he will be able in getting full co-operation
of his/her followers.

11. To coordinate: Establishment of co-ordination among different activities of

the enterprise and the activities of different employees is another important
function of a leader. A leader has to see whether all the activities of all the
employees are integrated and coordinated. For this he has to coordinate and
communicate the orders and directions of top management to the workers and the
feelings, problems and suggestions of workers to the top management.

12. To maintain loyalty towards the enterprise: It is a main function of a leader

that he should get the loyalty of his followers towards the enterprise. The workers
should feel that they are for the growth and success of enterprise and the enterprise
is for them.

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PRINCIPLES OF LEADERSHIP:

1. Know Yourself and Seek Self-Improvement:

In order to know yourself, have to understand your be, know, and do, attributes.
Seeking self-improvement means to continually strengthen your attributes. This
can be accomplished through self-study, formal classes, reflection, and interacting
with others.

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2. Be Technically Proficient:
As a leader, must know your job and have a solid familiarity with your
employees’ tasks.

3. Seek responsibility and take responsibility for your actions:

Search for ways to guide your organization to new heights. And when things go
wrong, they always do sooner or later — do not blame others. Analyze the
situation, take corrective action, and move on to the next challenge.

4. Make sound and timely decisions:

Use good problem solving, decision making, and planning tools.

5. Set the example:

Be a good role model for your employees. They must not only hear what they
are expected to do, but also see. We must become the change we want to see –
Mahatma Gandhi.

6. Know people and look out for their well-being:

Know human nature and the importance of sincerely caring for your workers.

7. Keep your workers informed:

Know how to communicate with not only them, but also seniors and other key
people.

8. Develop a sense of responsibility in workers:

Help to develop good character traits that will help them carry out their
professional responsibilities.

9. Ensure that tasks are understood, supervised, and accomplished:

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Communication is the key to this responsibility.

10. Train as a team:

Although many so called leaders call their organization, department, section, etc.
a team; they are not really teams…they are just a group of people doing their jobs.

11. Use the full capabilities of your organization:

By developing a team spirit, you will be able to employ your organization,
department, section, etc. to its fullest capabilities.

SIGNIFICANCE OF LEADERSHIP

The significance of leadership arises from: the openness of the organization as a

system and from the fact that it operates in a changing environment. Because
effective change over requires leadership to built in stabilizing devices of
organization for coping with altered requirements and from the nature of human
membership in organizational settings. The employees who form an organization
are the members of society. The extra organizational activities influence the
behavior of the individual. There are other factors, e.g. the turnover and
replacement that introduce unique experience and personality in the organization.
All these changes demand adaptation on the part of organization which can be
possible with the aid of people in leadership roles.

FEATURES OF LEADERSHIP

1. Is a continuous process of influencing behavior, not one shot activity. It does

not end anywhere. A leader provides guidance to her followers, whenever
necessary or asked for. There is a relationship between leader and his
followers, which arises from out of their functioning.

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 to achieve the intended goals. Thus it is a process of influencing the
behavior of others in a particular process way.

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2. Leaders try to influence the behavior of individuals or group of individuals

3. Followers work willingly and enthusiastically to achieve goals. It provides

an experience of help to follower to attain common goals. Leaders give
recognition and importance to individuals.
4. It is exercised in a particular situation at a given point of time and under
specific set of circumstances. Thus, there is no style leadership which can be
applied on all the situations. Leadership is a part of management, but not the
whole of it.

BACKGROUND AND CLASSICAL STUDIES ON LEADERSHIP

There are number of studies and a considerable body of knowledge on leadership.

A review of classical studies has set the stage for the established and emerging
theories of leadership.

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 1. The Iowa Leadership Studies
The series of studies have been conducted in the late 1930s by Ronald
Lippitt and Ralph K White under the direction of Kurt Lewis at the
University of Iowa. In a study on hobby clubs for ten year old boys, hobby
dubs were formed and each club was assigned to three different styles of
leadership: authoritarian, democratic and laissez faire to find out their effect
on variables such as satisfaction and frustration aggression. The analysis of
the study showed different styles of leadership that produced different
complex reactions from the same or similar groups. Though generalization
of the study was dangerous, but has important historical significance.

2. The Ohio State leadership Studies

In 1945, the Bureau of Business Research at Ohio State University initiated a

series of studies on leadership. An interdisciplinary team of researchers from
psychology, sociology, and economics developed and used the Leader Behavior
Description Questionnaire to analyze leadership in numerous groups and
situations. Consideration and initiative types of leadership behaviors were
emerged.

3. The Early Michigan Leadership Studies

At the same time that Ohio State studies were conducted, a group of
researchers from survey Research centre at the University of Michigan USA began
their studies of leadership. Twelve high low productivity pairs were selected for
examination. Nondirective interviews were conducted on 24 section supervisors
and 419 clerical workers. The results showed the high producing section
supervisors with employee centered.

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IMPORTANCE OF LEADERSHIP

a) LEADERS MOTIVATES PEOPLE ;A leader motivates employees for

higher output through motivational techniques. The leader himself acts as a
motivating factor.
b) LEADER COUNSELS EMPLOYEES; In an organization people needs
counseling to reduce the emotional disequilibrium and to remove barriers to
effective performance. A leader solves such types of problems and makes
employees happy. Thus, a leader acts as a counselor.
c) LEADER DEVELOPS TEAM SPIRIT; Leader creates confidence in his
subordinates and gains their faith and cooperation. Besides, the leader
provides environment conductive to work which results in team spirit.

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d) LEADERSAIMSATTIME MANAGEMENT ;Leader is in a position to
utilize time productivity in an organization. A leader gets things done by
people by the proper time management.
e) LEADER STRIVES FOR EFFECTIVENESS ;A leader brings
effectiveness to an organization by providing the workers with the necessary
resources in terms of money, methods, climate and work environment. Etc

TYPES OF LEADERSHIP

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 a) INTELLECTUAL LEADER ;He is one who possesses rich knowledge
and technical competence. All his subordinates listen and follow his
advice because of his specialized intellectual authority. E.g. .financial
advisor, legal advisor, etc
b) CREATIVE LEADER ;Creative leader uses the technique of ‘circular
response’ to encourage ideas to flow from group to him and vice versa.
He draws out the best in his followers and controls them with zeal to
attain the goals.
c) PERSUASIVE LEADER ;Gains faith and confidence from his
followers. He possesses a magnetic personality which attracts followers
which helps to get work done by them effectively.
d) INSTITUTIONAL LEADER When a person becomes a leader by
virtue of his position, he is called an institutional leader. E.g. the
principal of a college, managing director of a company.
e) DEMOCRATIC LEADER ;A democratic leader is one who does not
lead but is lead by his followers. In other words, he follows the opinion
of the majority of his followers and delegates most of his power to them.
f) AUTOCRATIC LEADER ;He is one who dominates and drives his
group through coercion and command. He institutes a sense of fear
among his followers. Such leaders love power and never delegate their
authority·

LEADERSHIP FOR HEALTHCARE PROFESSIONALS

One of the difficulties of looking at leadership for healthcare professionals is

that most theories were not developed within a healthcare context. Usually these
theories were developed in a business context and were then applied to healthcare.
Also, the published research on healthcare leadership has very little evidence of

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any impact on improved patient care or organizational outcomes. The studies are
focused on managerial and leadership behavior and not on quality of specific
behavior associated with either effective or ineffective management or leadership.
There are a number of leadership writers who have influenced the development of
healthcare leadership. Nursing as compared with other discipline in health care has
more established literature on leadership.

1. Covey (1987) has been one of the most influential writers on Leadership for
healthcare professionals. Covey outlines a process of increasing maturity
within leadership which moves from dependence towards a state of
interdependence. He outlines relationships .built upon mutual trust and
respect for others and describes an emotional bank account where deposits
must be made before withdrawals can be taken.
2. Beverly Alimo-Metcalf is a key writer on transformational leadership in the
healthcare and has developed tools for assessing transformational leadership.
Alimo- Metcalfe (1988) argued that earlier definitions of ‘leadership’, as
well as the instruments to measure leadership, have been derived from
predominantly or exclusively male managerial population. n her study, the
explicit intention was to include a substantial proportion of women from
whom constructs of leadership were elicited by conducting interviews, as
well as to include women in the sample on whom the draft questionnaire
would piloted. This process .led to a somewhat different transformational
leadership construct.
3. Commonly used leadership theories including transformational leadership
and more recently, emotionally intelligent leadership have guided nursing
leadership research and interventions, presumably due to their emphasis on

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 relationships as the foundation for effecting positive change or outcomes
(Hibberd and Smith, 2006).
4. The leadership theories and frameworks used in nursing literature are Bass
and Avolio’s Transformational and Transactional Leadership, Kouzes and
Posner’s Leadership Practices, Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational
Leadership Model, Path Goal Theory, Consideration and Initiation and
Kanters Organizational Empowerment Theory, Promoting Action on
Research Implementation in Health Services (PARIHS) was also used to
frame the research design. All remaining leadership theories were used in
single studies. Theories that were related to the outcome variables such as
nurses’ intent to stay, to guide their study.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT

LEADERSHIP MANAGEMENT
Leadership is a synthesis: Management is analysis: Analysis is
Synthesis is defined as the defined as the procedure by which
opposite procedure, to combine we break down an intellectual or
separate elements or components substantial whole into parts or
in order to form a coherent components. Management
whole. Leader synthesis the subdivided the solutions after
solutions. analyzing the problems.
Leadership has long term impact Management has short term goals:
Leaders· decisions impact the Manager’s role is more of managing
future of organization, they bring day to day activities, supervising the
vision, motivate the organization subordinates, getting the work done,
to achieve the goals. measure performance etc.

Leadership is a part of Management is a wider term

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management: leadership is management is the process of getting the
concerned with influencing work done or executing the plan.
subordinates with the intension of
climbing up in the next level;
Leadership operates in both Management operates in a formal
organized and informal groups. structure of organization formal
Use of informal authority is authority is used by the managers in
exercised in leadership management.
Leaders empower followers the managers control subordinators
Leadership is concerned with Manger has to plan, organize (lead).
influencing to contribute towards And control the various organizational
organizational goal activities
Leadership emphasizes on Management emphasis on individualism
collectively
Leadership operates in both management operates in a formal
formal and informal groups in structure of organization
organization.
Leaders are inspirational and Managers are productive and effective
charismatic. Energizes the people
to overcome the barriers to
change
Leaders are proactive Managers are reactive as far as futurity
is concerned
People are lead by use of informal subordinates are directed by making use
power of formal authority
The source of power is personal the source of power is the authority
abilities of a leader delegated by virtue of position
The transformational approach is The transactional approach is used in
used in leadership management
Align the organization to the organize the team, subordinates, execute

27
 vision the plans, supervise, evaluate
Use the bottom up approach: Use the top down approach: analyze the
synthesis all the issues and solve issues into. Specific problems and then
them holistically solve each of them.

LEADERSHIP STYLES

Leadership is practiced by leadership style, which is the total pattern of leaders’

action in relation to followers: It represents their philosophy, skills, and attitudes in
practice.

Meaning of Leadership Style

Leadership style is the manner and approach of providing direction, implementing

plans, and motivating people. They are behavioral models used by leaders when
working with others. Leadership style can be defined as how a person plays a role.
If we go further, how she reacts, how she decides, how she interacts and how she
treats other people. Leadership style is a form of cross situational behavioral
consistency. It refers to the manner in which a leader interacts with his or her·
subordinates. The way in which a leader uses power also establishes a type of
style. Each style has its benefits and limitations. Leader behavior is the mixture of
all styles over a period of time, but one style tends to be the dominant one.

Types of Leadership Styles

Are various types of leadership styles as;

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1.According to Dimensions of Leadership

The leadership styles depict the way in which a leader (a) attempts to influence the
behavior of subordinates (Goal Attainment Function); makes decisions of the
group (adaptation function) and his or her balance between the goal attainment
function and the maintenance function of the group.

29
A.Leader’s Approach to Influence: Transformational versus Transactional
Leadership

Transactional leadership; in transactional leadership, the leader views the leader-

follower relationship as a process of exchange. They tend to gain compliance by
offering rewards for performance and compliance or by offering threatening
punishment for non performance and non compliance.

1.Transformational leadership; In transformational leadership, in contrast, the

leaders are more visionary and inspirational in approach. They tend to
communicate a clear and acceptable vision and goals, with which employees can
identify and tend to engender intense emotion in their followers. Rather than
exchanging rewards for performance, transformational leaders attempt to build
ownership on the part of group members, by involving the group in the decision
process.

B.Leader’s Approach to Decision making and Problem solving:

1.Autocratic versus Participative Leadership styles

Autocratic or directive: In this type of leadership behavior the leader considers her
in position of authority and expects her subordinates to follow her. The
subordinates made aware of what to do but not why. The leader sets the goals
accepted along with her methods of achieving them.

2.Participative style of leadership: It is compromise between authoritarian and

democratic styles of leadership. In this type of leadership, the leader presents own
analysis of problems and proposals for action to members of work group inviting
their criticism and comments.

Following Style Emerges from Autocratic vs Participative Leadership

30
1. Autocratic or directive style of problem soloing: The leader defines problem,
diagnoses problem, generates, evaluates and choose among alternative solutions.

2. Autocratic with group information input: The leader defines the problem.
Although the leader diagnoses the cause of the problem, the leader may use the
group as an information source in obtaining data to determine cause. Using his or
her list of potential solutions, the leader may once again obtain data from the group
in evaluation of these alternatives and make a choice among them.

3. Autocratic with group’s review and feedback: The leader defines the
problem, diagnoses its causes, and selects a solution. The leader then presents his
or her plan to the group for understanding, review, and feedback.

4 Individual consultative style: The leader defines the problem and shares this
definition with individual members of the work group. The leader solicits ideas
regarding problem causes and potential solutions. The leader may also use these
individuals expertise in evaluation of alternative solutions. Once this information is
obtained, the leader makes the choice of which alternative solution to implement.

5 Group consultative style: It is the same as individual consultative style except

the leader shares his or her definition of the problem with the group as a whole.

6.Group decision style: Leader shares his or her definition of the problem with the
work group. The group then proceeds to diagnose the causes of the problem.
Following the diagnosis, the group generates, evaluates, and chooses among
solutions.

a. Participative style: The group as a whole proceeds through the entire decision
making process. The group defines the problem and performs all other functions as
a group. The role of the leader is that of process facilitator.

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Leaders Balance between the Influence and Maintenance Functions:

a. Socio-Emotional versus Task Style ;These two styles of leadership

represent extreme forms. Most leaders tend to exhibit behaviors from both
styles. Some leaders are actually high on both Task leadership and Socio-
emotional leadership (combination style). However, most leaders favor one
of these types.
b. Task type of leadership style: In this type of leadership, the leaders are
generally concerned with completion of tasks, accomplishment of goals, and
the general effectiveness of the work group. They also emphasize deadlines,
structure tasks, set and maintain definite standards for performance enforce
standardized procedures and generally insure that subordinates work up to
capacity. Leaders utilizing this particular leadership style are often referred
to as directive leaders. They tend to specify not only desired outcomes, but
desired means (behaviors) to achieve these outcomes or goals as well.
c. Socio-emotional leaders or relationship building type of leadership
style: In this type of leadership, leaders are generally more supportive and
accepting of subordinates. They tend to look out for show concern for the
welfare of their subordinates. Leader’s primary objective is the maintenance
of a high quality relationship with group members.
d. Combination of task and socio-emotional leadership style: This style is
difficult in that it involves the use a high level of interpersonal or emotional
intelligence skills. The combination leader works to accomplish group goals
by making you effective and recognizing your value.

According to the Way the Leaders Exercise their Authority

32
 Dependent on the way in which leaders exercise their authority, several studies
in economics, psychology and management identify two major leadership styles

Autocratic and a democratic style.

a. Autocratic

Autocratic leaders allow for only a minimal team participation in the decision
making process and sometimes even ignore the opinions of their subordinates.

b. Democratic or Creative

The democratic leaders delegate authority to their subordinates. The leader

informs subordinates about overall purpose and goal of organization and allows
them to participate in decision making and solving the problems. The leader values
the individual characteristics and abilities of each subordinate. The democratic
leader uses personal and positional power to draw out ideas from employees and
motivates them to set their own goals, develop their own plans and control their
own practice. Thus democratic leaders seek advice from their subordinates and rry
to reach consensus within their teams.

Leadership Styles Exhibited by Nurses

Literature revealed that the nurses exhibited the following styles

1. Relationally Focused Leadership Styles ;These include transformational

leadership, individualized consideration and resonance leadership.
a. Transformational leadership: The leader motivates others to do more than
they originally intended and often more than they thought possible.

33
 b. Individualized consideration: The leadership focuses on understanding the
needs of each follower and works continuously to get them to develop to
their of full potential.
c. Resonant leadership style: That inspires, coaches, develops and includes
others even in the face of adversity. This type of style is based on the
emotional intelligence of the leaders.
2. Task Focused (non-relationally focused) Leadership Styles

Initiating Structure refers to the degree to which leaders articulate clear role
expectations, create well defined communication channels and focus on tasks and
attaining goals. The task focused styles are primarily management by exception
laissez faire transactional leadership, dissonant leadership styles, and instrumental
leadership.

a. Active Management-by-Exception: It focuses on monitoring task

execution for any problems that might arise and correcting those problems to
maintain current performance levels.
b. Laissez faire styles; these are similar in that they are conceptualized as
passive avoidance of issues, decision making and accountability.
c. Passive-avoidant leadership: The leader tends to react only after problems
have become serious to take corrective action, and often avoids making any
decisions at all.
d. Transactional leadership: It emphasizes the transaction or exchange that
takes place among leaders, colleagues and followers to accomplish the work.
e. Dissonant leadership style: This is characterized by pacesetting and
commanding styles that undermine the emotional foundations required to
support and promote staff success.

34
 f. Instrumental leadership: It focuses on the strategic and task-oriented
developmental functions of leaders. Leadership style of Indian nurse
supervisors was identified desirable (Samuel SA, et al, 1998) and moderate
(Vati Jet al, 2004). They were more concerned for work than for their:
subordinates. Majority of them have high appreciation for their cooperation
and maintaining standards in nursing care. Thus both type: task focused as
well relationally focused leadership style was also exhibited by Indian nurse
supervisors/managers.

STYLES OF LEADERSHIP

1. AUTOCRATIC LEADERSHIP

The leader assumes complete control over the decisions and activities of the
group. Firm personality. Insistent, self-assured, highly directive, dominating. Has
high concern for the work than for the people who performs task. Shows no
regards to the interests of the employees. Set rigid standards and method of
performance and expects the subordinates to obey the rules and follow the same
makes all decision by him or her and minimal group participation or none from the
workers.

Autocratic style in this style, leader takes all decisions and assigns a
responsibility to himself, he is firm, insistent, self-assured and dominating ( e.g.
Aurangzeb, Tipu, Ashoka, Shahjahan). Such a leader stresses prompt, orderly and
predictable performance from employees or followers. The authoritarian leader
may also be “Benevolent autocratic”, i.e. paternalistic leader, says often by you do
what I say, I know that is best for you” (which means he is generally having a
condescending attitude towards employees, who therefore, tends to be cautious
when dealing with this leader). This style of leadership is always present in

35
nursing. Where nurse manager manages by giving orders and expecting staff
members to accept them. It is also called as directive leadership, where leader has
to take immediate action or to give direction without consulting subordinates.
However, autocratic style of leadership is task oriented. Leader uses positional and
personal power in an authoritarian manner, retaining responsibility for all goal
setting and decision making and motivation subordinated through praise, blame
and reward. Leaders of this type make decision without the participation of the
people concerned.

In autocratic style the leader is characterized by the following behavior:

1. Strong control is maintained over the groups

2. Others are motivated by coercion
3. Communication flows downwards
4. Decision making does not involve others
5. Emphasis on difference and status

There are three categories of autocratic leaders:

1. Strict autocrat: He follows autocratic styles in a start sense. His method of

influencing subordinates behavior is through negative motivation, i.e. by
criticizing subordinates imposing penalty, etc.
2. Benevolent autocrat: He also centralizes decision-making power in him,
but his/her motivation style is positive. He can be effective in gathering
efficiency in many situations. Some people like to work under among
authority structure and they derive satisfaction by this leadership.
3. Incompetent autocrat: Sometimes superior adopt autocratic leadership
style just to hide their in competency, because in other styles they may be
exposed before their subordinates. However this cannot be used a long time.

36
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

ADVANTAGES

1. Efficient in time of crisis, easy to make decision By one group and less time
consuming.
2. I It is useful when there is only leader who is experienced l I having new and
essential information, while subordinates are inexperienced and new.
3. It is useful when the workers are unsure of taking decision and expect the
leader to tell what to do.

DISADVANTAGES

1. Does not encourage the individuals growth and does not recognize the
potentials, imitativeness and creates less cooperation among members.
2. Leader lacks supportive power that results in decision I made with
consultation although he may be correct.
3. Less job satisfaction leads to less commitment to goals of the organization.
2. DEMOCRATIC LEADER

Participative consultative style of leadership Sense of equality among leader

and followers Open system of ,communication prevails. Interaction between the
leader and group is friendly and trusting leader works through people not by
domination but by suggestions and persuasions. Democratic leadership: This style
is also called participative, consultative or ideographic. In this style the entire
group is involved in and accepts responsibility for goal setting. Subordinates have
considerable freedom of action. The leader shows greater concern for his/her
people than for higher production. A part of the leaders took is to encourage and
reinforce constructive interrelationships among members and to reduce intergroup
conflict and tension. This type of leadership is a network which in””1’olves a tight
37
pattern of complete interrelationship among all members. While the leader is quiet
an important figure in a democratic situation, he is not the key figure that he is an
authorization situation. He serves more as a coordinator or agent for the group.
Hence the group is not depended upon him as an individual and can function
effectively in his absence.

Democratic style in the democratic style of leadership, the leader values the
individual characteristics and abilities of each subordinate. Here the leader is a
catalyst for group decision making and shared responsibility e.g. IB Shastry), This
style is a people centered approach and allows greater individual participation in
decision making process. The democratic leader uses personal and positional
power and co-operative decision methods to draw out ideas from employees and
motivate them to set their own work goals, develop their own plans, and control
their own practice. It is a creative leadership; here leader delegates authority to
subordinates. In democratic style leader exhibits following behavior:

1. Less control is maintained

2. Economic and ego awards are used to motivate
3. Others are directive through suggestions and guidance
4. Communication flows up to down
5. Decision making involves others
6. Emphasis in “We” rather than I and You
7. Criticism is constructive.

ADVANTAGES

1. Encourages all employee in decision making .It is a highly motivating

technique to employees as they feel elevated when their ideas and
suggestions are given weight in decision-making.

38
 2. The employee’s productivity is high because they are party to the decision-
making. Thus they implement. He decision wholeheartedly.
3. They share the responsibility with the superior, and try to safeguard him
also.
4. It provides organizational stability by raising morale and attitudes.

DISADVANTAGES

1. It takes more time for taking decision by the group than the leader alone.
2. Participative style can take enormous amount of time and if not exercised
properly, it may degenerate into a complete loss of leaden control.
3. Some leaders may use this style as a way of avoiding responsibility
5. LAISSARE·FAIRE LEADERSHIP

Free- Rein, Anarchic and Ultraliberal style of leadership, the leader gives up
all power to the group. Encourages independent activity by the group member
Group members are free to set their own goals determine their own activities and
allowed to do almost what they desire to do style effective in highly motivating
professional growth.

Participation style the participative style of leadership is a compromise

between autocratic and democratic styles. In this style, the manager presents
his/her analysis of problems and proposals for action to employees, inviting their
criticism and comments. Having weighed the subordinates “responses” the
manager makes final decisions about the group future activities. Here the leader
allows subordinates to participate in decision-making; consequently the
subordinates have the feeling of satisfaction and freedom.

Laissez faire style-a diacritic this style is also referred to as the “freedom style”
or permissive leadership. This type of leader denies responsibility and abdicates
39
authority to the group, i.e. the leader leaves all decision making and responsibility
to the group (King Frank). Here the leader chooses not to adopt a leadership role
and actually abdicates the leadership position. It may be due to lack of self
confidence and fear of failure. The leader may think that subordinates will perform
better if a great deal of freedom is given. This style will be effective where the
subordinates are highly motivated and experienced. In this “let alone” style of
leadership, the appointed manager abdicates leadership responsibilities, leaving
workers without direction, supervision or co-ordination and allows them to plan,
execute, and evaluate the work in any way they like. In this style leader is
characterized by the following behavior:

1. He/she is permissive with little or no control

2. Motivates by support when requested by the group or individual
3. Little or no direction is provided
4. Communication is between members of group and upward and downward
5. Decision-making is dispersed throughout the group
6. Emphasis on the group
7. Criticism not given.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

ADVANTAGES

1. Efficient in limited situations creativity may be encouraged for specific

purposes
2. To try new method of action

DISADVANTAGES

40
 1. Does May lead to instability, disorganization, inefficiency no unity of
action.
2. Lacks of feeling responsible to solve the problem that may j arise. Individual
will lose interest, initiative and desire for achievement.
BUREAUCRATIC LEADERSHIP

In this the leader functions only with rules and regulations. Leader cannot be
flexible and does not like to take any risk out of the rules. E.g. defense leader. It is
a personal quality of character and behavior in man which enables him to exert
internal personal influence. It is concerned with the lying down group objectives
and policies for the followers, motivating them coordinating their efforts to
accomplish the objectives. It pre – supposes the existence of a group followers. Its
style may differ from situation to situation. It is the ability to perused others and
motivate them to work for accomplishing certain objectives. It is process of
influencing exercised by leader on members of a group. It involves an unequal
distribution of authority among leaders and groups.

LEADERSHIP AS A CONTINUUM

There are in fact a variety of styles of leadership behavior between two

extremes of autocratic and free-rein Tannen Baum and Schmidt have depicted a
broad range of styles on a continuum moving from authorization leadership
behavior at one and to free-rein behavior at the other end.

1. Leader makes decisions and announces it. The leader is completely an

authoritarian and permits no freedom for his/her subordinates. He tells to
his/her subordinates. He tells to his/her subordinates what his/her decisions
are and demands unquestioning.

41
 2. The leader sells his/her decisions. Here the leader behaves like diplomats
like an autocrat; he takes the decision, but he relates decision to the needs of
his/her subordinates and persuade them into accept it.
3. The leader presents his/her ideas and invites suggestions so that his
subordinates understand better what he is trying to accomplish.
4. Leader presents tentative decisions subject to change. The initiative for
initiative for identifying and diagnosing the problem remains with the leader.
He also arrives at a decision. But before finalizing it. He presents his/her
tentative decisions for the reaction of his/her subordinates.
5. The leader presents the problem; get suggestions and then makes decisions.
The leader in consultation with his/her subordinates develops a list of
alternative solutions to the problem presented and selects the best solution.
6. The leader defines limits and lets the group to make a decision. In this level,
the leader defines the problem to be solved, and the limit within which the
decision must be made. He then passes to the group, the right to make
decisions either by consensus (common opinion) or majority vote.
7. Leader permits the group to make decisions within limits defined by the
leader. This represents an extreme degree of giving freedom

CONDITIONS OF EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP

Conditions of effective leadership are democratic in nature. McGreger, he

views leadership in forms of the relationship between supervisors and
subordinates. The subordinate is depending upon the leader for continuity of
employment, promotion, increased pay and a variety of social satisfaction. As a
consequence dependence, the need for security and need for independence. There
are three conditions that lead to a feeling of security.

42
 1. Atmosphere of approval: A good part of the atmosphere of approval is the
freedom to make a mistake.
2. Knowledge: It reduces dependence upon the unpredictable. The subordinates
should know the procedure rules, regulations that are connected with his/her
job. He needs to have the knowledge of his/her duties.
3. Need to know something about the overall policy of the organization.

BUILDING EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP

Leadership is the ability to influence a group towards achievement of goals. Much

importance is placed on the leaders, effectiveness in influencing people.
Leadership effectiveness is depicted in an organization as the extent to which the
organization performs its tasks successfully or attains its stated goals. Development
and building of effectiveness takes place in various ways which help one create
his/ her leadership abilities.

NEED FOR EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP IN NURSING

1. Widen nursing horizons

2. Enhance professional knowledge and skill
3. Strive towards professional autonomy
4. Learn new skills.

WAYS TO DEVELOP LEADERSHIP ABILITIES

1. Attending management seminars

2. – Working as an assistant to an effective and reputed leader and observing
his/her behavior
3. Developing a mentoring relationship with a senior leader
4. – Attending leadership training programs

43
 5. Obtaining direct counseling and guidance from a specialist in the Obtaining

SUGGESTIONS FOR DEVELOPING EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP IN

NURSING

1. Power at a higher level

2. Preparation for collective bargaining
3. Making the professional bodies strong and autonomous bodies
4. Preparation for top management level
5. Development of authority and confidence
6. Encouragement of team spirit
7. Provision of adequate resources
8. Matching nursing education with nursing service
9. Preparation of role models
10.Healthy work atmosphere and positive relationships between groups
11.Leadership of personnel related to the same field.

LEADERSHIP SKILLS

A. SKILLS OF PERSONAL BEHAVIOUR

a. Great Leaders are Visionaries with Clarity of Purpose
Every effective leader has a compelling vision that attracts others. This
vision is often innovative and it should aim to propel the organization
forward. A strong leader always pressing forward and encouraging
employees to do the same. An effective leader also has clarity of purpose in
progressing toward that vision. Distractions come and go, but the effective
leader stays focused on the goal. Additionally, a great leader has to be an
excellent communicator to share the vision.

44
b. Excellent Communication Skills
An effective leader must have strong communication skills. This includes
both verbal and nonverbal communication. Research shows
that communication is mostly nonverbal. Only 7% of messages are conveyed
in spoken words, 38% in vocal elements and 55% in nonverbal ways (such
as gestures, posture, facial expressions, etc.). A great leader must be
proficient in all forms of communication. Having excellent communication
skills also means listening well and read between the lines. An effective
leader understands team members and can read cues. Good leaders also
speak clearly and coherently.
c. Caring is a Must-Have Leadership Behavior
Employees want supervisors who have a heart and care. No one wants to
work under brash, harsh leaders who denigrate them and make them feel

45
 bad. Employees respond well to managers with a strong sense of
compassion. To get the most from employees, must have a personal
connection with them. They should feel like they matter to the company and
to as a person.
d. Developing and Pouring into Others is an Essential Leadership Skill
One important leadership skill is the ability to pour into others and
develop them into strong leaders. Great leaders see people’s strengths, often
hidden, and help them develop. They offer their employees challenges and
opportunities to grow and excel. Such leaders are involved mentors and
coaches who pour into their mentees. They enjoy seeing the people they
work with develop into strong leaders.
e. Great Leaders Share the Work
Having the ability to share the work and delegate is imperative for any
great leader. They can't do all the work. Know how to create the work in a
productive way. Be the opposite of a micro-manager. Allow team members
to take ownership for the process and responsibility for the outcomes. Great
leaders always share the work, which means investing in and empowering
future leaders.

B.SKILLS OF COMMUNICATION

a. Know yourself.

All good communication starts from a place of self-awareness. When our

communicating with other people, need to be aware of inner monologue so don’t
end up taking out a bad mood on someone else, assuming the other person can read
mind, being discriminatory, appearing unconfident and so on. It’s also important to
know what you’re hoping to achieve from a given interaction so you can tailor
your message accordingly.
46
 c. Know your audience.

The best communication arises out of understanding whomever speaking to.

Knowing audience’s motivations, preferred communication styles, learning styles,
etc., allows to adapt message and increase the odds of effective communication.
Making a personal connection facilitates empathy, puts people at ease and builds
trust.

d. Be direct, specific and clear.

Clear-cut communication increases the likelihood that people will comprehend

and take action on whatever asking from them. It’s better to over-explain
something than to leave room for misunderstanding.

Whenever delivering an assignment or asking for assistance from someone, focus

on providing simple, actionable and specific instructions. It’s helpful to prepare
thoughts in advance so include all the relevant details. Don’t end a conversation
until sure the other person understands objectives and how to achieve them.
Deliver these instructions in a friendly, open way so the other person knows they
can approach with follow-up questions.

e. Pay attention to nonverbal communication.

Plenty of research suggests nonverbal communication is just as important as

what a person says may be even more. Facial expressions, hand gestures, posture
and eye contact all play a major role in affirming or undermining the message.

Whenever talking with someone, practice being aware of own body language and
the body language of whomever speaking to. In particular, pay attention to whether
body language aligns with what saying this will help be a more trust worthy
communicator and can help seem more self-assured.

47
 f. Listen more than you speak.

One of the best ways to encourage open and honest communication within a
group is to model active listening. When someone is speaking to really listen to
what they’re saying. Ask follow-up questions to demonstrate that paying attention
and to make sure there are no miscommunications. Keep an open mind and focus
on thoughtfully responding to what they say instead of kneejerk reacting to it. This
practice builds rapport and understanding between the communicating parties.

g. Be positive and respectful.

This one should go without saying, but sadly that’s not always the case.
Prioritizing transparent, fair and respectful communication within a group is one of
the best strategies for cultivating loyalty and boosting the team’s
performance. Don’t hold status over other people or use coercion or fear as
motivators. Instead, focus on bringing an honest, positive and ego-less attitude to
every situation that arises. Serving as a cheerleader instead of an autocrat helps
maintain morale and can even facilitate creativity and effective problem solving.

f. SKILLS OF ORGANIZATION
1. Develop short and long term objectives
2. Break big problem into small ones
3. Share responsibilities and opportunities
4. Plan, act, follow-up and evaluate
g. SKILLS OF SELF EXAMINATION
1. Aware of personal motivation
2. Aware of group members
3. Helps group to aware of their attitudes and values
S- Self reliant

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 E- Enthusiastic
L-Loyal
F- Factual

APPLICATION OF LEADERSHIP IN NURSING

1. Patient care coordination: Even new graduate nurses have leadership
responsibilities when they begin in nursing. Nursing leadership begins with
nursing care of the individual patient. The students are guide to organize
nursing care. Establish good and priorities for each day. Establish time
Establish success and failure.
2. Employee responsibilities: Nurses have specific tasks or duties to perform.
These tasks are determined by the plan and objective of the health care
agency. It is important to read job description carefully and to continue to
evaluate how an institutional factor influences your own practice of nursing.
Factors that compromise quality care should be noted and addressed in
construction with experience nurses.

49
 3. Guidelines for delegating nursing care : New graduate nurses use leadership
techniques when they direct the work of nonprofessional staff and volunteers
and consider delegating tasks to nonprofessional staff.
4. Mentorship: It is a relationship in which an experienced individual advise
and assist a less experienced individual. This is an effective way of easing a
new nurse into leadership responsibilities.
5. Preceptor ship: An alternative model is preceptor ship. The preceptor is
selected to introduce an employee to new responsibilities through teaching
and guidance. The relationship is limited by the new employee s needs.
6. Continuing education: leadership, managerial and administrative skills are
needed.

TYPES OF LEADERSHIP

According to the personal research board of the Ohio university, there are five
types of leadership, these are:

a. The Bureaucrat Leadership

Who sticks to routine, appease his superiors, and avoid his subordinates.
b. The diplomat leadership
Who, is opportunistic and exploits people. He generally rouses distrust.
c. The autocrat leadership
Who is directive and expects objects obedience. His subordinates to be
antagonistic to him.
d. The expert The leader,
who is concerned only with his own field of specialization. He treats his
subordinates as fellow-workers.
e. The quarter back The leader,

50
 who identifies himself with his subordinates even at risk of displeasing his
superiors.

THEORIES OF LEADERSHIP

The oldest view of leadership considered it a birth right. Kings and queens
ascended to thrones because of custom. Kings begot kings and became king leader.
Individuals in formal leadership roles were accepted without questions. This is
similar to the ―great man theory‖ which states the great leaders are born with the
ability to lead, influence and direct others. Under this perspective leaders may not
be developed, but researcher given a number of theories to explain leadership and
its development.

Some of leadership theories are:-

1. Great man theory or Charismatic theory

2. Trait theory

3. Behavioral theory

4. Situational theory or Contingency theory

5. New theory of leadership

6. Path –goal theory of leadership

2. Trait Theory

Under the influence of the behaviorist psychological thought, researcher accepted

the fact that leadership traits are not completely inborn can also be acquired
through learning and experience. Ralph M. Stogdill (1974) suggested the trait

51
theory after evaluation of various traits suggested by the researchers. Trait is
defined as ―relatively enduring quality of an individual. Various trait theories
have suggested these traits in a successful leader‖.

 Physical and constitutional factors (Height, Weight, Physique, Energy, Health,

Appearance)

 Intelligence

 Self confidence

 Sociability

 Will

 Dominance

The current research on leadership traits suggests that some factors do help
differentiate leaders from non-leaders. Various traits that needed for leadership can
be classified into innate and acquirable traits. A Innate qualities these qualities
which are possessed by various individuals since their birth. These qualities are
natural often known as God-gifted. On the basis of such qualities, it is said that
Leaders are born and not made. These qualities cannot be acquired by the
individuals. The major innate qualities are:-

a) Physical features Physical features of a man are determined by heredity factors.

Heredity is the transmission of the qualities from ancestor to descendant through a
mechanism lying primarily in the chromosomes of the germ cells. To some extent,
height, weight, physique, health and appearance are important for leadership.

b) Intelligence For leadership level of intelligence is required. Intelligence is

generally expressed in terms of mental ability. Intelligence to a great extent, is a

52
natural quality in the individuals because it is directly related to brain. B. Acquired
qualities these are qualities of leadership are those which can be acquired and
increased through various processes. Many of these traits can be increased through
training program. Following are the major qualities essential for leadership.

a) Emotional stability a leader should have high level of emotional stability. He

should be free from bias, is consistent in action and refrains from anger. He is self
confident and believes that he can meet most situations successfully.

1. Great Man Theory or Charismatic Theory

The Plato explained in Republic some insight of leadership. Subsequent
studies based on the insights suggested that a leader is born and is not made.
A leader has some charisma which acts as influencer. Charisma is a Greek
word meaning ―Gift. Thus charisma is a god gifted attribute in a person
which make him a leader irrespective of the situations in which he works.
Charismatic leaders are those who inspired followers and have major impact
on their organization through their personal vision and energy.

Characteristics of charismatic leaders

 Charismatic leaders are having very high power of influencing others

 They have extremely high levels of self confidence, dominance and ability to
convince the followers

Basic assumptions

 Leaders in general and great leaders in particular have some exceptional inborn
leadership qualities.

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 These inborn qualities are sufficient for a leader to be successful.

 Since these qualities are inborn, these cannot be enhanced through education
and training. Further, since these qualities are of personal nature, these cannot be
shared by others.

 These leadership qualities make a leader effective and situational factors do not
have any influence.

Implication

Charismatic leadership have importance to explain transformational leaders who

inspires his followers through vision and energy, while other theories discuss more
about transaction leaders, who determine what subordinates need to do achieve
objective and help them.

Limitations

 It implies that nothing can be done to develop leaders in the organizations.

 A charismatic leader may fail in the changed situation thus the situational
variable play their own role in determining leadership effectiveness.

2. Trait Theory

Under the influence of the behaviorist psychological thought, researcher accepted

the fact that leadership traits are not completely inborn can also be acquired
through learning and experience. Ralph M. Stogdill (1974) suggested the trait

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theory after evaluation of various traits suggested by the researchers. Trait is
defined as relatively enduring quality of an individual. Various trait theories have
suggested these traits in a successful leader‖.

 Physical and constitutional factors (Height, Weight, Physique, Energy, Health,

Appearance)

 Intelligence

 Self confidence

 Sociability

 Will

 Dominance

The current research on leadership traits suggests that some factors do help
differentiate leaders from non-leaders. Various traits that needed for leadership can
be classified into innate and acquirable traits. A. Innate qualities These qualities
which are possessed by various individuals since their birth. These qualities are
natural often known as God-gifted. On the basis of such qualities, it is said that
―Leaders are born and not made‖. These qualities cannot be acquired by the
individuals. The major innate qualities are:-

a) Physical features
Physical features of a man are determined by heredity factors. Heredity is
the transmission of the qualities from ancestor to descendant through a
mechanism lying primarily in the chromosomes of the germ cells. To some
55
 extent, height, weight, physique, health and appearance are important for
leadership.
b) Intelligence
For leadership level of intelligence is required. Intelligence is generally
expressed in terms of mental ability. Intelligence to a great extent, is a
natural quality in the individuals because it is directly related to brain. B.
Acquired qualities These are qualities of leadership are those which can be
acquired and increased through various processes. Many of these traits can
be increased through training program.

FOLLOWING ARE THE MAJOR QUALITIES ESSENTIAL FOR

LEADERSHIP

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a) Emotional stability
A leader should have high level of emotional stability. He should be free
from bias, is consistent in action and refrains from anger. He is self
confident and believes that he can meet most situations successfully.
b) Human relations
A successful leader should have adequate knowledge of human relations
that, is how he should deal with human beings. Since an important part of a
leader‘s job is to develop people and get their voluntary cooperation
knowledge of people and their relationship to each other.
c) Empathy
Empathy relates to observing the things or situation from others point of
view. The ability to look at things objectively and understanding them from
57
others point of view is an important aspect of successful leadership. d)
Objectivity Objectivity implies that what a leader does should be based on
relevant facts and information. He must assess these without any bias or
prejudice.
d) Motivating skill
Not only a leader is self motivated but he has requisite quality to motivates
his followers. Though there are many external forces which motivate a
person for higher performance, there is inner drive in people also for
motivation to work.
e) Technical skills
The leading of people requires adherence to define principles which must be
understood and followed for greater success. The ability to plan, organize,
delegate, analyze, seek advise, make decision, control and win cooperation
requires the use of important abilities which constitute technical competence
of leadership.
f) Communicative skills
A successful leader knows how to communicate effectively. Communication
has great force in getting the acceptance from the receivers of
communication. A leader uses communication skillfully for persuasive,
informative and stimulating purposes. Normally, a successful leader is
extrovert as compared to introvert.
g) Social skills
A successful leader has social skills. He understands people and knows
their strengths and weakness. He has the ability to work with people and
conducts himself so that he gains their confidence and loyalty and people
cooperate willingly with him.

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Implications of the theory The two very implications are:-

 The theory emphasis that a leader requires some traits and qualities to be
effective.

 Many of these qualities may be developed in individuals through training and

development programmes.

Limitations

1. Generalization of traits- There are problems in identification of traits which may

relevant for a leader to be effective in all situations.

2. Applicability of traits- The limitations that hinder the full application of trait
theory in practice, is that leadership as a process of influence reflects in leaders
behavior and not his traits.

3. BEHAVIORAL THEORY

Behavioral theory of leadership given by Lewin K. Lippitt (1953) emphasis, that

strong leadership is the result of effective role behavior. Leader ship shown by a
person‘s acts more that by his traits. For a leader to operate effectively, groups
need someone to perform two major functions

I. Task related functions It is problem solving functions related to providing

solution to the problems faced by the group, in performing jobs and activities.

II. Group related functions It is also called as social functions, related to actions of
mediating disputes and ensuring that individuals feel valued by the group.

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 An individual who is able to perform both roles successfully would be an
effective leader. These two roles may require to different sets of behavior from the
leader, known as leadership styles. Leadership behavior may be viewed in two
ways: functional and dysfunctional.

Functional behavior influence followers positively and includes such as setting

clear goals, motivating, building team spirit etc. Dysfunctional behavior may be
inability to accept employee‘s ideas so it is unfavorable to the followers and
denotes ineffective leadership. Implications of the theory Behavioral theory of
leadership has some important implications for managers. They can shape their
behavior which appears to be functional and discard the behavioral which appears
to be dysfunctional.

Limitations

 A particular behavior may be functional at a point of time but it may be

dysfunctional at another point of time. Thus the time elements will be a decider of
the effectiveness of the behavior and not the behavior itself.

 Effectiveness of leadership behavior depends on various factors which are not

in the leader but external to him like nature of followers and the situations under
which the leader‘s behavior takes place. These factors have not been given
adequate consideration.

3. SITUATIONAL THEORY
Situational leadership theory also known as contingency theory given by
Paul Hersey and Ken Blanchard was first time applied in 1920 in the armed

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 forces of Germany with the objectives to get good generals under different
situations. The prime attention in situational theory of leadership is given to
the situations in which leadership is exercised. There for, effectiveness of
leadership will be affected by the factors associated with the leader and
factors associated with the situation. The various factors affecting leadership
effectiveness may be broadly be classified into two major categories:
Leader‘s behavior and situational factors. The combination of these factors
determines leadership effectiveness.

Factors affecting leadership effectiveness

A. Leader’s behavior Leader‘s behavior is affected by two variables. Leader‘s

characteristics and his hierarchical position in the organization

I. Leader’s characteristics An individual‘s behavior is influenced by intelligence

and ability, his characteristics like his personality, attitudes, interest, motivation
and physical characteristics such as age, sex and physical features. Thus the
behavior of the leader is also influenced by all these factors. All these factors are
internal to leader.

II. Leader’s hierarchical position Leader‘s hierarchical position in the

organization is important because persons at different levels face different kind of
problems. That affects the degree of participation between superior and his
subordinates in arriving at decisions to solve the problems. Managers at higher
levels are more concerned with long-run complex problems which require more
participation in decision making. Managers at lower levels are more concerned
with short run problems involving the daily operations which may not require high
level of participation. The degree of participation affects the leader‘s behavior.

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B. Situational factors Besides the leader‘s related factors, leadership effectiveness
is affected by situational factors are these factors affect the leader‘s behavior. To
the extent, a leader matches the requirement of these factors, his leadership will be
effective. The various situational factors may be group in four categories.

Subordinates characteristics

I. Subordinates characteristics The subordinate‘s characters are relevant to the

effectiveness of leadership such as personality, attitudes, interest, motivation and
physical characteristics such as age, sex and physical features.

II. Leader’s situation The leader‘s situation in respect to his subordinates is an

important factor affecting leadership effectiveness. There are two main variables
which determine the leader‘s situation. Leader‘s position power and leader
subordinate relations. Leader‘s position power helps in influencing other, while
low position power makes the leader‘s task more difficult. Another factor, which is
leader – subordinate relations is based on the classic exchange theory which
suggests that there is two way influences in a social relationship. Thus good
followers need to succeed in their own jobs with the help of the leader while
helping their leadership to succeed at theirs. Thus, if the leader has good
subordinates and good relations with them, he is likely to be more effective.

III. Group factors Various group factors like task design, group composition, group
norms, group cohesiveness and peer group relationship affect leadership
effectiveness and performance. If these factors are favorable, the leader will be
effective.

IV. Organizational factors Organizational factors like organizational climate and

organizational culture affect leadership effectiveness. If these are conductive, the
leader will be effectiveness.
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Implications of the theory

 It offers clues why a manager who is successful in one situation, fails when
there is change in the situation.

 A manager may do better by adopting management practices including

leadership which match with the situational variables.

Limitations

 The theory appears to be good on the surface but become quite complex in
practice because of numerous contingent factors

 This theory loses the insight of leadership and the leader is overwhelmed by the
contingent.

4. NEW THEORY OF LEADERSHIP

Bennis and Manus (1995) suggest new theory of leadership based on an extensive
study of 90 leaders who participated in interview for the purpose of discovering
what is common to leadership and leadership. The findings of this study concluded
that there are four types of human handling skills common to leaders. The authors
elaborate in great detail the specific of these skills and refer to them as strategies.

A. Strategy – I :- Attention through vision

B. Strategy – II :- Attention through vision

C. Strategy – III :- Attention through vision

D. Strategy – IV :- Attention through vision

Strategy – I It is the management of attention through vision, refers to the leader‘s

ability to create a focus or a clear picture of an outcome. The leaders who were

63
interviewed were all results oriented. The ideas they held were very clear in their
own minds, making it easy for people to see where they were going.

Strategy – II The meaning through communication means that this group of leaders
was able to turn its vision into images that others could understand. These leaders
had the ability to translate their ideas into symbols with real meaning. From this
ability, referred to as the management of meaning and the mastery of
communication, leaders are able to inspire by capturing the imagination of others.

Strategy – III Trust through positioning, refers to the leaders ability to inspire trust
in others by contributing to the organization‘s integrity. This means the leader
never loses sight of why the organizational exists. The leader knows what the
organization stands for and what it has to do. A second component of a leader‘s
contribution to the management of trust is the facilitation of constancy, or staying
the course. Like a pilot and an airplane, the leader takes the organization in the
right direction. In this way a leader, through positioning maintains the
organization‘s harmony and purpose but also recognizes the need for change and in
congruities and provides for innovations. It essence the leader provides stability for
the organization but also allows for the necessary changes that provide for
organizational growth.

Strategy – IV The development of self through positive self regard means that the
leader leads in a very personal way. The leader will display a positive self image
and especially self respect. This is achieved by the leader recognizing his or her
strengths and compensating for weakness while nurturing the talents and skills that
he or she posses.

Implications of the theory

 Leadership can be learned and cultivated.

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  Leaders are not necessary charismatic. In fact, leadership is more than a
characteristic and charisma just may be the result of effective leadership.

 Leadership is not limited to those who reside at the top of the organization.
Rather, leadership opportunities exist at all levels of the organization. It is not so
much the exercise of power but the empowerment of others.

PATH-GOAL THEORY

The path-goal theory of leadership associated most closely with Martin Evan‘s
and Robert House theory of direct extension of the expectancy theory of
motivation.

 This theory of leadership suggesting that the primary function‘s of a leader are
to make valued or desired reward‘s available in the workplace and to clarify for the
subordinate the kind‘s of behavior that will lead to those reward‘s that is leader
should clarify the path‘s to goal attainment.

1. Leader Behavior The most fully developed version of path goal theory
identifies four kinds of leader behavior.

1). Directive behaviour It is letting subordinates know what is expected of them,

giving guidance and direction and scheduling work.

2) Supportive leader behaviour It is being friendly and approachable, showing

concern for subordinates welfare and treating member‘s as equal‘s.

3) Participative leader behaviour It is consulting subordinates, soliciting

suggestion‘s and allowing participation in decision making.

4) Achievement – oriented leader behaviour It is setting challenging goal‘s,

expecting subordinates to perform at high level‘s encouraging subordinates, and

65
showing confidence in subordinates abilities. In contrast to Fiedler‘s theory, Path-
goal theory assumes that leader‘s can change their style a behaviour to meet the
demands of particular situation.

2. Situational Factor’s Like other situational theories of leadership, Path-goal

theory suggest that appropriate leader style depend‘s on situational factor‘s. Path-
goal theory focuses on the situational factors of the personal characteristics of
subordinates and environmental characteristics of the workplaces.

LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOUR

There are several theories on leadership behavior. This section focuses on

1. Leadership based on the use of authority.

2. Likert‘s four systems of management.

3. The managerial grid.

4. Leadership involving a variety of styles, ranging from a maximum to a

minimum use of power and influence.

1. Leadership based on use of authority

 Leaders were seen as applying three basic styles. The autocratic leader
commands and expects compliance, is dogmatic and positive, and leads by the
ability to with hold or give rewards and punishment.

 The democratic, or participative, leader consults with subordinates on proposed

actions and decisions and encourages participation from them. This type of leader
ranges from the person who does not take action without subordinates.
Concurrence to the one who makes decisions but consult with subordinates before
doing so.
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  The free-rain leader uses his or her power very little, if at all, giving
subordinates a high degree of independence in their operations. Such leaders
depend largely on subordinates to set their own goals and the means of achieving
them and they see their role as one of aiding the operations of followers by
furnishing them with information and acting primarily as a contact with the groups
external environmental.

2.Likert’s four systems of management Professor Rensis Likert and his

associates at the University of Michigan have studied the patterns and styles
of leaders and managers. Likert has developed certain ideas and approaches
important to understanding leadership behavior. All members of the group,
including the manager or leader, adopt a supportive attitude in which they
share in one another‘s common needs, values, aspirations, goal and
expectation.

System -1. As guidelines for research and for the clarification of his concepts,
Likert has suggested four system of management. System 1 management is
described as ―exploitive authoritative, its managers are highly autocratic, have
little trust in subordinates, motivate people through fear and punishment and
only occasional rewards, engage in downward communication, and limit
decision making to the top.

System -2. The management is called ―benevolent-authoritative‖, its managers

have a patronizing confidence and trust in subordinates, motivate with rewards
and some fear and punishment

with rewards and some fear and punishment permit some upward communication,
solicit some ideas and opinions from subordinates, and allow some delegation of
decision making but with close policy control.

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System-3 Management is referred to as ―Consultativel, managers in this system
have substantial but not complete confidence and trust in subordinates, usually try
to make use of subordinates, ideas and opinions, use rewards for motivation with
occasional punishment and some participation, engage in communication flow
both down and up, make broad policy and general decision and at the top while
allowing specific decisions to be made at lower level, and act consultatively in
other ways.

System-4 The management as the most important participativeof all and referred
to it as ―Participative -group‖. Managers have complete trust and confidence in
subordinates in all matters, they always get ideas and opinions from subordinates
and constructively used them. They engage in much communication down and up
and with pears, encourage decision making throughout the organization, and
operate among themselves and with their subordinates as a group.

3.The Managerial Grid

A well known approach to defining leadership styles is the managerial grid,

developed some years ago by Robert Blanke and Jane Mociton. Devised a clever
device to dramatize this concern. The grid, has been used throughout the world as
a means of training managers and of identifying various combinations of
leadership styles.

Grid dimension

The grid has two dimensions. Concern for people and concern for production.
As Blake and Mouton have emphasized, their use of the phrase, concern for is
meant by to convey how‖ managers are concerned about production or how‖ they
are concerned about people, and not such things as how much‖ production they are
concerned about getting out a group. The four extreme styles Blake and Mouton
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recognize four extremes of styles. Under the improvised management managers
concern themselves very little with either people or production and have minimum.
Involvement in their jobs, to al intents and purpose, they have abandoned their jobs
and only mark time or act as managers communication information from superiors
to subordinates. At the other extreme and the 9.9 managers. Who display in their
actions the highest possible dedication both to people and to production. They are
the real team managers‖ who are able to mesh the production needs of the
enterprise with the needs of individuals.

Another style is called country club management‖ by some in which mangers

have little or no concern for production but are concerned only for people. They
promote an environment in which everyone is relaxed, friendly and happy and no
one is concerned about putting forth co-ordinated effort to accomplish enterprise
goals. At another extreme are the 9.1 managers some-times referred to as
autocratic task managers‖, who are concerned only with developing an efficient
operation, who have little or no concern for people and who are quite autocratic in
their style of leadership.

5. Leadership as a continuum

The adaptation of leadership styles to different contingencies has been well

characterized by Robert Tannenbaum and Warren H. Schmiolt developers of
the leadership continuum concept. They see leadership as involving a variety at
styles, ranging from one that is highly boss centered to one that is highly
subordinates centered. The styles vary with the degree of freedom a leader or
manager grants to subordinates. Thus instead of suggesting a choice etween the
two-styles of leadership-authorization or democratic – this approach offers a
range of style, with no suggestion that one is always right and another is always

69
 wrong. The continuum theory recognizes that which style of leadership is
appropriate depends on the leader, the followers and the situation.

The most important elements that may influence a manager‘s style can be seen
along a continum as;

i. The forces operating in the manager‘s personality. Including his or her value
system, confidence in subordinates, inclination toward leadership styles and
feelings of security in uncertain situations

ii. The force in subordinates (such as their willingers to assume responsibility, their
knowledge and experience, and their tolerance for ambiguity) that will affect the
manager‘s behavior

iii. The forces in the situation, such as organization values and traditions, the
effectiveness of subordinates working as a unit, the nature of a problem and the
feasibility of safety delegating the authority to handle it and the pressure of time.

Fiedler’s Contingency approach to Leadership

Although their approach to leadership theory is primarily one of analysis

leadership style, Fred. E. Fiedler and his associated at the University of illions have
suggested a contingency theory of leadership. The theory holds that people
become leaders not only because of the attributes of their personalities but also
because of various situational factors and the interaction between leaders and
group members. Critical dimensions of the leadership situation; On the basis of
his studies, Fiedler described three critical dimensions of the leadership situation
that help determine what style of leadership will be most effective.

(i) Position power This is the degree to which the power of a position, as
distinguished from others source of power, such as personality or expertise enables

70
a leader to get group members to comply with directions, in the case of managers,
this is the power arising from organizational authority.

(ii) Task Structure It tasks are clear (rather than vague and unstructured), the
quality of performance can be more easily controlled and group member can be
hold more definitely responsible for performance.

(iii) Leader-member relatives Since position power and task structure may be
largely under the control of an enterprise. It has to do with their extent to which
group members like, trust, and are willing to follow a leader.

Goal-path approach of leadership behavior

The path-goal theory suggests that the main function of the leader is to clarify
and set goals with subordinates, help them find the best path for achieving the
goals, and remove obstacles. Proponents of this approach have studied leaders
which in a variety of situations. As stated Robert House, the theory builds on
various motivational and leadership theories of others. Factors contributing to
effective leadership should be considered. These situational factors include

1. Characteristics of subordinates, such as their needs, self-confidence, and

abilities.

2. The work environment, including such components, as the task, the reward
system and the relationships with co-workers.

Leader behavior

Leader behavior is categorized into four groups.

1. Supportive leadership : behavior gives consideration to the needs of

subordinates, shows a concern for their well-being and creates a pleasant

71
organizational climate. It has the greatest impact on subordinates‘ performance
when they are frustrated and dissatisfied.

2. Participate leadership allows subordinates to influence the decisions of their

superiors and can results in increased motivation.

3. Instrumental leadership gives subordinates rather specific guidance and

clarifies what is expected of them, this includes aspects of planning, organizing
coordinating and controlling by the leaders.

4. Achievement – oriented leadership involves setting challenging goals, seeking

improvement of performance, and having confidence that subordinates will
achieve high goals.

LEADERSHIP STYLES AND THEIR OUTCOMES

The following outcomes have been documented in relation to either relationally

or non-relationally styles of leadership:

Staff Satisfaction with Work, Role and Pay

Job satisfaction: The highest job satisfaction is associated with a variety of

relational focused leadership styles such as socio-emotional, consideration,
inspirational, resonant, and transformational leadership, but significantly lowers
with more task focused forms of leadership such as instrumental, management by
exception, and laissez-faire leadership.

Satisfaction with their leader: Significantly higher satisfaction with their leader,
when leadership styles were charismatic, resonant and transformational and
reduced satisfaction with their leader was reported, where leadership was
management by exception, transactional and laissez-faire, and dissonant.

72
 Satisfaction with job mobility options, job security, financial rewards and time
to spend with patients: These are significantly higher in association With resonant,
empowering, initiating structure and consideration styles of leadership in
association with dissonant (pacesetting and commanding) styles of leadership.

Staff Relationships with Work

Organizational commitment: There is significantly increased organizational

commitment with transformational leadership, supportive leadership, consideration
and charismatic leadership and has lower organizational commitment was observed
with management by exception and instrumental leadership styles, with the
leadership practice of inspiring a shared vision.

Nurses intent to stay: The intent to stay nurses is significantly higher with
consideration leadership and lower with decision decentralization.

Actual retention: it is significantly higher with consideration and significantly

lower following decision decentralization.

Decrease in turnover: There is decrease in turnover of stay with leader-member

exchange and transformational leadership practices.

Staff health and wellbeing: Staff health is better while anxiety, emotional
exhaustion and stress were reported lower with transformational leadership,
empowering leadership, supportive leadership, resonant leadership and nurse-
assessed nurse manager ability, leadership and support of nurses. Emotional
exhaustion and poorer emotional health of nurses is associated with dissonant
leadership and management by exception.

73
Job tension: The job tension decreases when nurses had a positive perception of
nursing leadership.

Healthy Work Environment

Nurse empowerment: Greater nurse empowerment is documented with

transformational leadership, connective leadership, leadership empowering
behaviours, and motivational leadership style of the nurse managers

Culture and climate: It is better in association with leadership support for

improvement, structural leadership, initiative structure and change oriented
leadership style

Role clarity: It is greater and conflict and ambiguity reduces in association with
transformational leadership and initiating structure activities

Teamwork: Team work between physicians and nurses is reported to be better in

association with resonant leadership, greater nurse manager ability, leadership and
support of nurses, and leader empowering behaviours

Other characteristics: Innovation, group cohesion, nursing workgroup

collaboration, conflict management, and nursing models of care is significantly
higher in association with consideration leadership, resonant leadership, socio-
emotional leadership, change oriented leadership, leader empowering behaviours,
nurse manager ability, leadership and support of nurses, transformational
leadership and peer leadership.

Organizational Productivity and Effectiveness

Factors reflecting individual, team and organizational productivity and

effectiveness are reported to be higher in association with charismatic,

74
transformational and change oriented-leadership styles. The reduced effectiveness
and productivity is associated with management by exception, transactional,
laissez-faire and peer leadership style of nurse managers.

ASSERTIVENESS

INTRODUCTION

As nursing moves towards expanded roles and more responsibility m patient

care, new approaches must be developed. Although nurses comprise the largest
segment of health care workers, they remain by and large passive, unorganized and
non assertive group. In order to strengthen the position of nursing m the health care
system and co increase its influence on patient care system nurses need to be
independent, decisive, assertive individuals, self-confident m knowledge and
ability. With less energy spent on frustrating, self-defeating behavior patterns,
more energy would be available for changing the system and for becoming patient
and nurse advocate, new tools are needed for this task Assertiveness may not be
the only answer, but it surely is one method that can help. If the position and
influence of nursing in the health care system are to be strengthened, then nurses
muse be assertive individuals, self-confidence which leads to more assertion and
increased self-esteem. The more nurses are satisfied with their action, the mo re
energy they will have to devote to patient care and patient advocacy.

Definition

Assertive behavior has been defined as an honest the direct and appropriate
expression of one’s feelings, beliefs and opinion ALBERI and EMMONS explain
it as a type of interpersonal behavior, which evolves an individual to her own best
interest without anxiety co exercise her own rights without denying the rights of
other.
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ASSERTIVENESS TECHNIQUES

NON VERBAL BEHAVOIUR

Assertiveness encompasses non-verbal and verbal behaviours. In every

interpersonal interaction a strong message 1s given by nonverbal behavior
(posture, distance, voice and eye contact).

In assertive encounters, facial expressions must be consistent with the spoken

message. When pointing out a potentially serious mistake made by an aide or
colleague, smiling 1s m direct opposition to the intended verbal message. Other
nonassertive behaviours include lateral or downward head tilts Submission may be
portrayed by looking up to another person. Most nurses are women, shorter than
predominantly male physicians and therefore, may project submission in this subtle
way.

VERBAL BEHAVIOUR

Generally assertive encounters involve the use of”I” statements. For example.
When colleague does not follow through on the plan of care for a patient, an
assertive response is “I am upset that. Alternative responses include the aggressive
statement that “You caused Mr. Smith an extra days stay because or the
nonassertive response of saying nothing. “I” statements are less threatening and
allow you to assume responsibility for Your own feelings.

Assertive verbal statements are direct and specific to particular incident,

Assertive statements do not begin “You always but focus on the behavior in
question only. An example of an assertive statement is, “I am concerned about
your lace arrival this morning , a nonassertive response is, “You always co come in
10 minutes late.

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 Assertive responses are honest and sensitive to the occasion. It is inappropriate
to discuss problematic behavior in a crowded nursing station. Assertive nurses
contemplate m a riming of their message to opnm1ze its impact while considering
the feelings of the other person.

LEARNING TO BE ASSERTIVE

(An Assertive Training Programme for Nurses)

1. The first exercise we try involves making introduction. Participants form
pairs and introduce themselves to each other. Each person 1s given 2
minutes to tell the other who she is. This is a test of listening skills,
because the partners are then asked to introduce each other to the whole
group. Most are able to remember the important aspects of what their
partner has said and find it fairly easy to speak in front of the group, but
many comment chat 1t was difficult to talk about themselves to the other
person. This exercise also gives us the opportunity to encourage group
members to use self-disclosure in communication.
2. The next major task is directed toward helping individuals incorporate
assertive rights into their personal belief systems. Unless this
internalization occurs either during the workshop or shortly thereafter,
the participant will probably not use any learned assertive skills because
she will not believe she has the right to act assertively. Jakubowsky
spector believes that individuals are much more likely to assert
themselves once they accept the fact that there are basic, interpersonal,
assertive rights; they no longer feel guilty about asserting themselves and
they no longer need another s good wishes to continue co act assertively.
Ideally, the workshop participant will come to believe 2 other things
before the training ends; that she will be happier as an assertive person

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 and that non-assertiveness will eventually be harmful to her relationships
with others.
Many people have fears about what will happen when they assert
themselves, so we take time to discuss these fears and irrational beliefs.
The group is asked to talk; we then bring up other, less oblivious reasons
why assertion could be difficult.
3. Becoming an assertive person is not an easy cask; rather, it is a
demanding energy-consuming one which requires much practice.
Learning new behaviours and responses is necessary in becoming
asserter, and many people become discouraged and need the support of
another person. For this reason, we suggest chat members of the
workshop serve as a continuing support system for each other.

Following the discussion of assertive rights, we introduce 2 exercises designed to

stress the importance of expressing positive feelings about self and others.

1. In the first exercise the group participants write down ten things char are
good about themselves and then read the list to the group. Many of the
participants have a great deal of difficulty with this. Few of them can think
of ten things for their list and when reading w the group they almost always
qualify what they have written with such comments as “I think I am good at,
or sometimes I am good at or I have been told I am good at Few maintain
good eye contact with the group while reading their list. These things are
pointed out to the participants. Then we ask them to add to the list of things
good about themselves during the following week.
2. In the second exercise, the participants divide into groups of three for a
session on giving and receiving compliments, we stress the importance of
complimenting others, especially among nurses. (We feel that nurses, m

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general, have low self esteem and frequently rely on physicians and other
authority figures, rather than on peers, for their positive feedback.) The
group 1s taught to receive compliments graciously, without degrading the
person giving them.. They are instructed co say simply “Thank you or
“Thanks, that makes me feel good, “rather than to put down the
compliments. The triads the practice this skill, with one member being an
observer while two exchange compliments the observer comments on how
well the others did. This segment of the workshop concludes with a
consciousness-raising talk about nurses recognizing their own importance
and their unique contributions to health care. Telling each other about these
things through compliments and above all, supporting each other, are
important factors.
ASSERTIVE NON – ASSERTIVE AND AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOUR
ASSERTIVE
Assertive behavior 1s that type of interpersonal behavior, which enables
an individual to act in his own best interest, to stand up for himself without
anxiety and to exercise his rights m such a way that the rights of another are
not violated. Assertive behavior is an honest and appropriate expression of
one’s feelings, opinions and beliefs. It is maintaining a balance between
aggression and non-assertive behavior. It includes making eye contact with
others, smiling, initiating conversations and being able to say no ma matter
of fact manner. An assertive person is outgoing but not over bearing,
demonstrates spontaneous behavior without being exhibitionistic, Assertion
is not continual confrontation but making conscious choice about what m
say, when, how and to whom.
The assertive nurse chooses to remain open to issues, is able to discuss
both sides. The assertive person is outgoing but not overbearing,
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spontaneous of a conflict, expects others to be assertive, 1s not a bully and
can compromise as well as wm in interactions, While not allowing others to
take advantage of her, she does not withdraw, but remains involved in
interactions with people and this behavior demonstrates respect for her-self
and for others involved.
NON-ASSERTIVES
In contrast, the non-assertive nurse hedges when attempting to say no so
that the other person makes the decisions, even though later this may be
resented. She rarely expresses any feelings, but uses avoidance or
withdrawal behavior instead. If a disagreement arises, the non-assertive
nurse looks at the Boor or away from the person involved and feels quite
helpless and powerless. In any conflict with nurses or physician she demes
that she has any interpersonal rights. The non-assertive nurse lacks
spontaneity, bur spends a lot of time talking about others and past conflicts
and avoids directly confronting people. Often she feels sorry for herself and
is constantly looking for others, particularly physicians, to rescue or reassure
her. This has consequences in terms of patient care; for e.g., if the unit
admits a number of patients and has only one nurse and a technician on the
evening shift the nonassertive nurse may overlook orders, not ask for
additional help, feel very helpless and powerless and spend two hours after
work telling anyone who will listen how awful the work situation was.
Nurses as well as women in general have been rewarded by society for using
non-assertive behavior. Frequently, this is expressed in such comments as
She’s so kind, she never says anything but the best about her friends, and she
will do anything for you.

AGGRESSIVE

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‘The aggressive nurse is expressive to the extent that often she dominates,
humiliates, deprecates or embarrasses others by using a loud voice and by
nor being sensitive to situations. She gives a loud message chat she 1s right
and must have her way at all costs. The aggressive nurse is often seen as
obnoxious or vicious, She obtains what she wants but at the expense of
others. Generally aggressive people do not go into the profession of nursing
or other nurturing professions. Indirect forms of aggressive behavior could
be as such as, trickery, seduction, alluding to situations or manipulations,
Society often sanctions this indirectness by implying chat women use ·
womanly wiles to get what they want. Nurses who express anger indirectly
are often the issue in hospitals.
ASSERTIVE COMMUNICATION SKILL
It is helpful when becoming assertive to build a repertoire of assertive verbal
and non-verbal communication skills.

Verbal Skills

1. Think and talk about yourself positively

a. Actively thinking, positive thoughts and making positive self-
statements in conversations will not only increase self-respect, bur
will also enhance self confidence and help you build and maintain
assertive behavior skills.
2. I st Statements
b. Using I st statements indicates to another You are taking
responsibilities for what you say and feel. It also indicates char you
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 believe and trust your thoughts and feelings and have decided they are
worthwhile to share with others. You are able to risk being a authentic
person and do not need to blame others.
3. Initiating conversations
4. Giving and getting information
5. Self disclosing
6. Giving constructive criticism
7. Accepting criticism
8. Giving personal criticism
9. Making statements without explanations
10.Persistence
11.Giving and receiving compliments
12.“Feeling ’talk”
13.Protective skills
14.Precise words

Non Verbal Skills

Assertive body language

Often nurses become so involved in work that they forger to look directly at the
person to whom they are speaking, to maintain a firm, even voice or to stand up
straight. This non-assertive body language does not enhance communication with
others, even when assertive content is utilized. It is helpful for Nurses to keep the
following in mind when practicing or observing their own assertive non-verbal
behavior.

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 1. Physical distance: in every culture there is a defined physical distance that is
acceptable and that one is expected to maintain. Reducing or increasing this
distance may make the other person uncomfortable.
2. Posture: A straight erect posture connotes pride and confidence, while
stooped shoulders convey the opposite impression.
3. Hand movements: The use offhand movements can either add expression to
a conversation or detract from it. Assertive hand movements accentuate what
the verbal message is and gestures unrelated to the message will distract.
4. Eye contact: Maintaining eye contact during interaction adds personal
involvement to the communication shows interest and reduces anxiety.
5. Facial expressions: Assertion training helps nurses express emotions in their
faces, thus more effectively communicating feelings to others.
6. Fluency: A voice tone that is steady and E.rm conveys the message that the
speaker knows what she is saying. A spark to the tone helps stimulate others
to listen. Monotone voices become boring.
7. Content: Know your subject matter. Then one can organize it naturally so
that speech will flow and be understood by others easily.

ASSERTIVE BEHAVIOUR

The application of assertive behavior to nursing practice has unlimited

possibilities. Any interaction you have with patients, physicians, laboratory
technicians, aides or other nurses have the potential to be an assertive experience
with positive consequences in terms of moral and self image.

REFUSING REQUESTS: SAYING NO

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 Saying no in a matter-of-fact manner and proceeding with ones work is not easy
bur essential for nurses. Nurses who are decisive enough to say no are often
considered by onlookers to be not –womanly” or aggressive or selfish.

Since nurses have been trained to exist only for others and not to think of
themselves, it is easier to say Yes or nothing at all rather than deal with the guile
after refusing a request of a colleague, physician or patient. Also since many nurses
believe they occupy a position of low status particularly when compared to
physicians and powerless in the bureaucratic system, they tend to allow others to
walk on them. Nurses who cannot say no only perpetuate the doormat
phenomenon. When nurses act as they have no rights this becomes an open
invitation for others to take advantage.

Nurses must decide themselves to refuse or grant the request rather than looking
to others. Feelings of hesitation, being trapped or a general nervous reaction may
be clues that the request is unreasonable. Refusing a request is particularly
important when nurse have over extended their own physical energy or taken on
too much responsibility.

MAKING SIMPLE REQUEST: SAYING WHAT YOU WANT

Making simple request and beginning them with “I want” “I would like
reinforces a basic human right to make ones wants known. Hinting or indirectly
talking around issues is a way of getting the other person busy at interpreting. The
responsibility for getting your desires met starts with your request. Requests are
often made indirectly in the hope that the other person may suggest or decide what

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is wanted. This ambiguous communication gives neither party full permission to
his or her rights as a person or a chance to maintain self esteem because neither
“Party knows what they want .

ASKING FOR A CHANGE IN BEHAVIOUR: LIKE SAYING WHAT YOU

WOULD LIKE

Once comfortable saying no and making requests, nurses may combine these
skills to ask a colleague, physician or patient to change their behavior. Asking for
changes in behavior and practicing the asking increases chances for more
egalitarian interactions in the health care system. Practicing this technique helps
you increase your feelings of self worth and self-power.

CARING ASSERTIONS: GIVING TO SELF AND OTHERS

This means caring for oneself as well as others. This means being cognitively
assertive in caring ways, such as thinking good things about ourselves, giving
ourselves compliments, treating ourselves to positive thoughts and our bodies to
good physical care, eating well, exercising and protecting your health, other ways
of caring for yourself. Giving personal caring in forms of tenderness and affection
to others and when you begin to give and share the feelings cowards others you
become aware of the positive things people say about you.

SPEAKING FOR OTHERS: PATIENT ADVOCACY

The role of patient advocate m nursing g is very familiar and traditional. Nurses
have often asserted themselves to assure that the rights of the patient are not
violated when the patient cannot do so for herself or himself or if the difficulty is a
staff problem that affects the patient. To be accountable in the area of advocacy it
is essential to know and understand the standards of nursing as well as the patient’s

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bill of rights that have been established for the specific state and institution, With
this legal knowledge as a base, nurses can make appropriate and reasonable
assertions on behalf of the patient.

TEACHING OTHERS TO SPEAK FOR THEMSELVES: TEACHING

CONSUMER RIGHTS

The best person to speak for patient or consumer right is the patient or consumer
himself. Teaching patient and consumers that they have right to speak for
themselves and be involved in health care decisions involving themselves and their
bodies m high level prevention and insure patient/ consumer participation in health
care issue. Consumers who assert themselves in asking for results of laboratory
tests, X rays, alternatives to surgery, asking questions regarding patients rights etc,
initiate more openness and equality m interactions from nurses and other health
professionals about healthcare.

SUMMARY

Leadership represents an abstract quality in a man. It is a psychological process

of influencing followers or subordinates and providing guidance to them. Thus the
essence of leadership is follower ship. It is the followers who make a person as
leader. An executive has to earn followers. He may not get subordinates because he
is in authority but he may not get a follower unless he makes the people to follow

86
him only willing followers can and will make him a leader. Successful
organization has one major attribute that sets it apart from unsuccessful
organizations, that is the dynamic and effective leadership. It is one of the most
effective tools of managerial accomplishments. The will to do is triggered by
leadership and the lukewarm desires for achievement are transformed into burning
passion for unsuccessful accomplishments by the skillful use of leadership. Good
leadership helps, solves these tasks and provides a cushion for absorbing the
impact of difficulties to crop up in any managerial activity.

CONCLUSION

Effective leadership is not easy to describe effective leadership. There is

certainly no magic formula that will guarantee effective leadership. As noted in the
previous discussion of leadership theories and styles, effective leaders have vision,
influence, and power. The vision of the future guides the leader in making day,
today decisions. Leaders use influence, which is the informal strategy of
cooperation combined with formal authority of a position to develop trust. The
leader needs to be persuasive and use productive communication. Power enables
the leader to influence others, and by doing this, the leader can change staff
attitudes and behavior, hopefully moving toward meeting expected outcomes.
Values, the importance that is attached to something that guides action, are more
important today in understanding effective leadership. An example of the impact of
values is found in health care organizations that focus on the bottom line, cutting
costs with little concern about the effect his bas on the quality of care. This
communicates a particular value to their staff, patients, and community. Health
care organizations, however, that communicate the importance of a caring
environment where the highest quality care is provided to individual patients are
communicating_ a different value. Leaders of these two types of organizations are

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actively involved in communicating critical values, though very different ones. The
leader in the first type of organization focuses more on financial issues and is less
willing to listen to staff concerns about the quality of care unless it has a major
impact on costs. The leader in the second type of organization is more willing to
look at the total care picture, listen to staff, and look for opportunities to improve
care, but does not forget the need to monitor costs. Understanding a leaders values
is critical to understanding how cha. T leader might function in an organization and
how the organization’s values might mesh or collide with the leader’s values,
which has an impact on the effectiveness of leadership.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BOOK REFERENCE

1. Rebecca Samson, leadership and management in nursing practice and

education, jaypee brothers publications, 2009, pp: 5 – 7.

2. Persis Mary Hamilton, Realities Of Contemporary Nursing, California, 2nd

Edition 1996, Pp: 276.

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3. Sullivan J. Eleanor and Decker J. Phillip (1997), “ Effective Leadership and
Management in Nursing”. Forth Edition, Addison Wesley Longman, Menlo Park,
Page No 56-57, 435-449.

4. Wise Yoder (1995), ― Leading and Managing in Nursing”. First edition,

Mosbyyear book publication St.Louis Page No. 480-493.

5.Tomey- Ann Marriner(1996). ―Nusing Management and Leadership”, 5th

Edition, Mosby year book publication, St.Louis Page No.- 299-308.

6. Marquis L. Bessie and Huston J. Carol (2000). ―Leadership Roles and

Management Functions in Nursing”. 3rd Edition, Lippin Cott Publishers, Page No-
166-183

JOURNAL REFERENCE

1. Ann Marriner Tomey Indiana State University College of Nursing, Health

and Human Services 13001 Turtle Cove Trail North Fort Myers Florida
33903 USA First published: 23 December 2008
2. Tappen Ruth M.; Davis, F. A.; Tradewell, Golden T. MSN, MA, RN
JNSD-Journal of Nursing Staff Development: September-October 1995 -
Volume 11 -Issue 5 - ppg 280 Book Reviews: 

NET REFERENCE
1. https://www.senecacollege.ca/programs/fulltime/NLM.html
2. https://www.americannursetoday.com/nine-principles-of-successful-nursing-leadership/
3. https://online.regiscollege.edu/blog/9-essential-qualities-nurse-leadership/

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