G H

16 0 þ DA
AB þ BC ! DC ! AD ¼ AB þ BC þ CD
G H
and the we
Because
Similarly, lettering indicates
could say DC ¼ .that . . . . . the
. . . . . end
. of the last vector coincides with the
beginning
Similarly, we of the say
could first.DC
The ¼ vector
. . . . . . . .diagram
. . . . is thus a closed figure and therefore the
AB þ BC ! DC ! AD ¼ AB þ BC þ CD þ DA
sum of the vectors is 0.
andNowthe here are some
lettering for you
indicates thatto DCdo:
the¼end DG þ VECTORS
ofGHtheþ last
HC vector coincides with the 19
beginning of the first. The vector
(a) PQSome
þ QR þexercises
RS þ ST ¼from . .DC
diagram
¼. .DG
. . . .Stroud’s
is
. . . .þ GH
thus a
þ HC closed figure and therefore the
Engineering Mathematics 7th Edition
19
sum of the vectors is 0.
So we have:
areþsome
(b) AC
Now here CL !forMLyou¼ . to
. . . do:
........
So we have:A
1 (c) GH þ HJ þ JK þ KL þ LG ¼ . . . . . . . . . . . .AB ¼ AG þ GH þ HB
(a) PQ þ QR þ RS þ ST ¼ . . . . . B. . . . . . .
A
(d) AB þ BC þ CD þ DB ¼B. . . . . . . . . . . . AB DC¼¼AG DG þþ
GHGH þþ
HBHC
(b) AC þG CL ! ML ¼ . . . . . . . . . . . . H
DC ¼ DG þ GH þ HC
(c) GHGþ HJ þ JKWhenþ KL youþ LG ¼ .Hfinished
have . . . . . . . . .all
. . four, check with the results in the next frame
C
(d) AB þ D BC þ CD þ DB ¼ . . . . . . . . . . . .
C
17 Here D are the results:
When you have finished allþfour, check
; AB þ DC ¼ AG þ GH þ HB þ DG GH þ HC with the results in the next frame
(a) PQ þ QR þ RS þ ST ¼ PT
; AB þ DC ¼¼AG þ GH
2GH þ ðAGþ HB þ DGÞþ DGþþðHB GHþþHCÞ HC
17 (b) AC þ
Here are the results:
Now,
CL ! ML ¼ AC þ CL
¼ 2GH þ ðAG þ DGÞ þ ðHB þ HCÞ
þ LM ¼ AM
(c)GGH is the mid-point
þ HJ þ JK þ KL ofþAD.
LG Therefore,
¼0 vectors AG and DG are equal in length but
(a) PQ G isþthe
opposite
Now, in þ RS þ ST of
QRsense.
mid-point ¼ PT
AD. Therefore, vectors AG and DG are equal in length but
opposite [Since the end of the last vector coincides with the beginning of the first.]
(b) AC þinCL sense.
; DG! ML ¼ AC þ CL þ LM ¼ AM
¼ "AG
(d) AB þ BC þ CD þ DB ¼ AB
GH þ;HJ
(c)Similarly DGþ JK
HC þ"HB
¼¼"AGKL þ LG ¼ 0
The last three vectors form a closed coincidesfigure D
[Since
; AB the
Similarly þHCDCend of the
¼¼"HB
2GH þlast
ðAGvector
" AGÞ þ ðHB " HBÞ with the beginning of the first.]
and therefore the sum of these three
(d) ; ABABþþ BCDC þ CD þ
¼ 2GH DBþ¼ AB" AGÞ þ ðHB " HBÞ
ðAG
vectors is zero,¼ leaving2GH only AB to be C
Theconsidered.
last three vectors ¼ 2GHform a closed figure D Next frame
and therefore the sum of these three A B Next frame
vectors is zero, leaving only AB to be C
Example 2
considered. Now on to Frame 18
20
2 Example
Points L,2M, N are mid-points of the sides AB, BC, CA of the triangle
A B
ABC. Show that: 20
526 Points L, M, N are mid-points of the sides AB, BC, CA of the triangle ABC. Programme 6
Show that:
(a) AB þ BC þ CA ¼ 0
þ BC þ CA Now on to Frame 18
(b)AB
(a) 2AB þ 3BC þ¼ CA0 ¼ 2LC
Components of a given vector
(b)
(c)2ABAMþþ3BC BN þþ CL
CA ¼ ¼ 02LC
21 (c) AM þ BN þ CL ¼ 0 closed figure
18 Components of a given vector
A
Just as AB þ BC þ CD þ DE (a) can We be replaced
can dispose by AE,ofsotheanyfirst
single vector
part PT can
straight be
away
Now replaced
for partby A (b):
any number of component
without
(a) We can vectors
dispose so
any trouble. oflong
We can asfirst
the see they
from form aProgramme
chain
thestraight
part vector in the
diagram
away
526 6
vector diagram, beginningwithout at
that P and ABany þending
BC þ CA
trouble.at T.
¼ 0can
We since
see these
from thethree
vectorvectors form
diagram
To show that 2AB þ 3BC þ CA ¼ 2LC
18 AB þ BC þ CD þ DE can
Just ase.g. a be
that . . .AB
.replaced
. .þ. . BC
. . . .þbyCAAE,¼ 0sosince
any these
single three
vectorvectors
PT canform
be
replaced B by any bnumber C of a . .
component. . . . . . . . . .
vectors so
A long as they form a chain in the
A c PT ¼ a þ b þ c þ d
21 vectorBdiagram, beginning
L
C
atNP and ending closed at figure
L T.
L
L

e.g. C
b
Now fora part (b):
B M c C B PT ¼ Ba þ b þ c þ d C
d
To the
From show that 2AB þ 3BC þ CA ¼ 2LC
figure:
P T
ABa ¼ 2AL; BC ¼ BL þCA ¼ CL þ LA
A LC; A
d L
N 3BL þ 3LC þ L
; 2AB þ 3BC þ CAL ¼ 4AL þ CL þ LA L
P T C
Now BL ¼ "AL; BCL ¼ "LC;
M LAC¼ "AL
B B C
Substituting these in the previous line, gives
From the figure:
2AB
ABþ¼
3BC þ CA
2AL; BC¼¼
. . BL
. . . .þ. .LC;
. . . . CA ¼ CL þ LA

; 2AB þ 3BC þ CA ¼ 4AL þ 3BL þ 3LC þ CL þ LA

22 Now BL ¼ "AL; CL ¼ "LC; LA ¼ "AL
2LC
Substituting these in the previous line, gives
Because
2AB
2AB þ þþ
3BC CAþ¼CA
3BC ¼þ
4AL . . 3BL
. . . . .þ
. .3LC
. . . þ CL þ LA
¼ 4AL " 3AL þ 3LC " LC " AL
¼ 4AL " 4AL þ 3LC " LC
22 2LC
¼ 2LC
Because
Now part (c):
2AB þ 3BC þ CA ¼ 4AL þ 3BL þ 3LC þ CL þ LA
To prove that AM þ BN þ CL ¼ 0
¼ 4AL " 3AL þ 3LC " LC " AL
From the figure in Frame 1
¼ 4AL21, we can
" 4AL say:" LC
þ 3LC
AM ¼ AB þ BM ¼ 2LC
BN ¼ BC þ CN
 2AB þ 3BC þ CA ¼ 4AL þ 3BL þ 3LC þ CL þ 1LA 527
Vectors 527
Vectors AM þin 527
Because
From the figure ¼þ4AL
BNFrame ¼
" ðAB
CL 21, weþ
3AL þ BC
can þ" LCþ
CAÞ
say:
3LC ðBC þ CA þ ABÞ
"2AL
AM ¼ AB þ BMNow ¼ 4AL
AB þ"BC
4ALþþCA is a" closed
3LC LC figure ; Vector sum ¼ 0
AM þ BN
BN ¼ BC þ CN and
þ CL ¼ 0
Vectors AM þ BN
¼ 2LC
BCþþCL AM þ BN þ CL ¼ 0 ; Vector sum ¼ 0
CA¼þ0AB is a closed figure 24 24 24
527
527
Similarly
Now part (c): ; AM þ BN þ CL ¼ 0 1
1 þþBN þ CL 1
þ CLBecause
¼ ðAB þAM
BCþþBN Because
CAÞþþ ðBC
¼ .ðAB
CL ¼ þAM CA
þ
. . .BC
ABÞ
.þ
. CAÞ þ ¼ ðBC
ðAB þ
þ CA
BC þ CAÞ þ ðBC þ CA þ ABÞ
þ ABÞ
2
CL
To is. .another.
2prove
Here . .that . .AM þ BN þ
2 CL ¼ 0
Vectors 527
AB þ BC þ CA is Now From
a closedABAMþþ the
BC
figure
Example BN þ figure
3 CA ;CL
þ
Now
isin
Vector¼
AB þ BC
a Frame
0 sum 21,
closed ¼ 0þ
figure we
AMCA ;þisBN
can a closed
say:þ CL
Vector sum 0¼ 0 ; Vector sum ¼ 0
¼figure
24 24
isand BC þ figure
¼ 0þCL
CA AB;isVector
a closed ¼ 0 ; Vector sum ¼ 0 527
figure
BC þ Vectors 23
CA þ AB is aand BC
closed AMþ CA
figure
ABCDAM
Because
¼ AB þ;
is a þ
AB
þ BM
BN
Vector a closed
1 þ CL ¼ ðAB
quadrilateral
sum
in whichþ BC P
þ
¼andCA Q
CAÞ þ
1 sum
þ are
AL
ðBCtheþmid-points
CA þ ABÞ of the diagonals AC and
AM þ
; AM BN þ
þ BN CL ¼
þ CL ¼ ðAB
0 ;þBD BC þ¼ CAÞ þþþ ðBC
¼; 0þAM CA þ þ BNABÞþ CL ¼ 0 2
AM BN þ BN BC
respectively. CL 2CN AM þ BN þ CL ¼ 0 24
Here is another. þþ þþ
HereNowis another.
AB þ BC þ SoSimilarly
AM
CA
Show is þathat
BN
closed þNow CL ¼AB
figure
AB þAB AD ;BC
þBM Vector
CB CA
þBC isþa¼CN
sum
CD closed
¼
4PQþ 1CA
0 þ AL ; Vector sum ¼ 0
figure

and BC
Example
Because AM þ BN
3 þ CA þ First,
ABCL is ¼
Example a .closed
just
and þAM CL
BC þ
.¼. . ðAB
. . . . .figure
. .3draw .the
¼
þ BN
;
figure.
ðAB
CA
þ BC þ þþCL
Vector
BC
AB
þ CAÞ ¼ þ
is0
sum
CAÞ
a þ ðBC
closed figure
¼ 0 2þ CN þ ALÞ
þ ðBM
þ CA;þVector
ABÞ sum ¼ 0 24
þ BN þABCD ¼ which ; AB AMþþBC BNþþ 1CA CLis¼a0closed
1 Q are Then move0 on to Frame
¼diagonals 25
;is aAM
in Because
eralABCDwhich andþQBN
AM CLCL
areþthe
quadrilateral
P in 0is
¼ aðAB
mid-points
Now
quadrilateral
Pþand BC¼of ðAB
þ CAÞ
Qtheare þin þwhich
BC
the þ
diagonals ðBCCAÞPþand
mid-pointsþ
AC ðBC
þofABÞ
CAand figure
þ
the the
CA ; Vector
mid-points
þ ABÞ
diagonals sum
of
AC and the AC and
BDisrespectively. 2 2
BD respectively. Here
another. another.and BC þ CA þ AB is a closed figure ; Vector sum ¼ 0
23 Now AB þ BC þ CA
¼ . . . . . . . . . . . . CL ¼ CA þ AL
is AD
aþclosed þ figureB¼ 0 ; Vector sumC¼ 0 25
Show that Show
þ AD
ABExample þ CB that
3 þ CD ; ¼ AM
AB þ
4PQ BN
þ CB CL
þ CD ¼ 4PQ
þeAD3 þ CB þ CD ¼ 4PQand BC þ CA þ AB is a closed figure ; Vector sum ¼ 0 Finish it off
First, just draw the Here isisanother.
First,
figure.
ABCD just
a draw the figure.
quadrilateral in which P and Q
P
are
Q
the mid-points of the diagonals AC and
sfigure.
a quadrilateral in which;P AMSo AM
andþQBN þ BN
areþtheþ CL ¼
CLmid-points
¼0 AB þ BM þ BC þ CN þ CA
of the diagonals AC and þ AL
BD respectively. Then move on to Frame Then
25 move on to Frame 25
ectively. Example 3 Then ¼ ðABmove þ onBCto þ Frame
CAÞ þ 25 ðBM þ CN þ ALÞ
Here is another. A D
hat AB þ AD3þ CBABCD Show
þ CD isthat
¼ a4PQ AB þ AD þ CB þ CD ¼ 4PQ 1 the mid-points of the diagonals AC and
quadrilateral
B
in which P and Q
¼ ðAB þ BC CþBCAÞ þ ðBC þ CA Cþ ABÞare
25 25
Example B 3 BD respectively. C
st draw the figure. First, just draw the figure. 252
To prove that AB þP¼AD . . .þ . . . .þ. .CD
.Q.CB . ¼ 4PQ P Q the diagonals
ThenACmove
ABCD is a quadrilateral in which AB þPAD andþQCB are the
þThenCD mid-points
¼ 4PQon to of
move Frame 25 andon to Frame 25
P Show Q that
BD respectively. Taking the vectors on the left-hand side, one at a time, we can write: Finish it off
First, just draw the figure.
ShowA that ABBþ AB AD ¼
A
þ AP
CBD þþPQ CDþ¼CQB 4PQ
A
B D C
25 D
Then move on to Frame 25 25
First, just draw the figure. AD ¼ AP þ PQ þ QD P Q
P Q
To prove that AB þ AD
AD þ CB þ CD ¼ 4PQ
þ CB
To CB
prove¼ .þ.that .CD ¼
. . . .AB. . .4PQ
þ. . AD þ CB Bþ CD ¼ 4PQ Then move C on to Frame 25 25
Taking the vectors A on
CDthe
Taking¼ .left-hand
.the . . . . .side,
. . . .vectors . on DoneA at
the a time, we
left-hand can
side, write:
one at aDtime, we can write:
P Q
rs on the left-hand side, one at a time,B we can write:
AB ¼ AP þ PQ þ QB AB ¼ AP þ PQ þ QB C 25
QB AD ¼ AP þ PQ To prove that þ AD þP CBAþQ CD ¼ 4PQ
e that AB þ AD þ CB þ þ QD CD AD ¼
¼ 4PQ AP AB þ PQ þ QD CB ¼ CP þ PQ þ QB; CD ¼ CPDþ PQ þ QD 26
QD CB ¼ . . . . . . . . . . . . CB ¼ . . .vectors
. one
. . . . . at
. .on
.a time,
g the vectors on the left-hand Taking the
side, the left-hand side, one at a time, we can write:
we can write:
. CD ¼ . . . . . . . . . To
. . . Adding
CD ¼ all. . . A
four
. . . . .lines
. . . . together, we D
have:
prove
AB ¼ AP that þ PQ AB þ þ AD QB þ CB þ CD ¼ 4PQ
¼ AP þ PQ þ QB
.
¼ AP þ PQ þ QD ADAB
Taking¼þ AP
theAD þ CB
þvectors
PQ þþ QD CDthe
on ¼ 4PQ þ 2APside,
left-hand þ 2CPoneþ at
2QB þ 2QD
a time, we can write:
To prove that AB þ AD þ CB þ CD ¼ 4PQ
¼ ............ CB ¼
AB ¼ AP
.CP
. . .þþ. .PQ. . . .þ
PQ þ. .QB
QB;CBCD ¼¼4PQ
¼ CP
CP þþPQ
2ðAP
þ PQ þ CPÞ
þ QB;QDCD þ 2ðQB
¼ CPþ þQDÞ
PQ þ QD 26 26
...¼
¼ .CB
Taking
...þ
. . .CP
the
. . PQ þ QB; Now
vectorsCD ¼
CD
AD ¼on
¼what
.CP
AP
the
. . .þ þ left-hand
.PQ
. .can
PQ . . .þ þ
. .QD
we QD side, one at
say about ðAP þ CPÞ? a 26
time, we can write:
AddingABall¼four
AP þlines together,
PQAdding
þ QB all we
four have:
lines together, we have:
CB ¼ . . . . . . . . . . . .
es together, þ ADwe have:
¼þ þþ ¼ 4PQ
AB AD APCB PQCD þ AB
CD QD . .þ
¼ .þ. .AD . .þ2AP . . .þ
. .CB þ2CP CD ¼ þ 4PQ
2QB þ þ 2QD
2AP þ 2CP þ 2QB þ 2QD
2627
CD ¼ 4PQCB þ¼
528
CB ¼ CP þ PQ þ QB; CD ¼ CP
. . .þ
2AP . . . . .þ
. . 2CP ..¼
2QB4PQ þ 2QD þ 2ðAP þ CPÞ¼þ4PQ
CB þ ¼PQ þ QD
CP þ PQ þ QB;
2ðQBþþ2ðAP
AP þCD CP¼¼CP
QDÞþ CPÞ þ 2ðQB þ QDÞ
26
0 þ PQ þ QD Programme 6

¼ 4PQ
Now CDþ¼
what 2ðAP. . . .þ
can we CPÞ
. . Adding
. .say. .þ.about
.Because 2ðQB
all P þiscan
ðAP
four QDÞþ
the CPÞ?
lines together,
mid-point ofweAC. have: ; AP ¼ PC
all four lines together, Now
we have:what we CBsay¼aboutCP þ PQ ðAP þþQB;CPÞ? CD ¼ CP þ PQ þ QD 26
say about ðAP þ CPÞ? AB þ AD þ CB þ CD ¼ 4PQ þ 2AP þ 2CP þ 2QB þ 2QD
28
AD þ CB þ CD ¼ 4PQ þ 2AP þ 2CP þ 2QB þ 2QD; CP ¼ "PC ¼ "AP QB þ QD ¼ 0
¼ 4PQ Adding
þ 2ðAP ;CB all
APþ¼four
þ CP
CPÞ CPþ lines
þ¼PQ AP
2ðQB þ
þ "¼
APtogether,
QB;
þ AP
CP 4PQ
¼
QDÞ¼CD þwe
00. ¼ CP þAP
have:
2ðAP CPÞ
PQ þþ
þ 2ðQB þ QDÞ
CPQD¼0 2726 27
hat can we say about
Adding
Because
AP þðAP
P isallthefour
NowCPSince
AB
Inþ
lines
mid-point
¼ þ
what
the Q
AD is
þ
can
together,
of
the
CB
AC.
weþ
we
mid-point
;
CD
say
have:
AP
¼
about4PQ of þ
ðAPBD.
0 same way, ðQB þ QDÞ ¼ . . . . . . . . . . . .
CPÞ?
¼ PC
2AP
þ ;27
þ
CPÞ? QD
2CP ¼ þ"QB
2QB þ 2QD
Because P is the ; QB mid-point
þ¼QD 4PQ¼of þQB AC.
2ðAP" QB ;CPÞ
þ AP0¼
¼ þ PC
2ðQB þ QDÞ
; AB
CP þ
¼ AD
"PC
d-point of AC. ; APNow þ ¼ CB "AP
¼ PCþ CD ¼ 4PQ
þ þ 2AP þ 2CP þ 2QB þ 2QD
; AB
what CPcan ¼ AD weþsay
"PC CB"AP
¼ þ CD ¼
about ðAP4PQ þ CPÞ?þ
AP0þþCP 0 ¼¼4PQ 27
; AP þ CP ¼ AP " AP AP
¼ ¼ þ4PQ
0. CP ¼ þ 0
2ðAP þ CPÞ þ 2ðQB þ QDÞ 27 0
"AP ; AP þ CP ¼ AP " AP ¼ 0.
In ¼Now
the whatway,
same can ðQB we Insayþthe about
QDÞ is¼ . ðAP. . .þ. ðQB
.way,
.mid-point.CPÞ?
. . . .þ QDÞ ¼. .PC
"
P AP
is the mid-point ofBecause
0.
29 AC.
Here;isAP
P same
one ¼thePC
more.
of AC. ¼ .; . .AP
.AP .þ. . .CP .¼
. 0 27
PQB¼þ QDÞ¼¼"AP
"PC ............ ; CP ¼ "PC ¼ "AP
Example 4
P þ CP ¼ AP " AP ¼ 0.Because ; AP PþisCP the¼ APmid-point
" AP þ of ¼ 0 ; AP ¼ PC
0. AC.
¼ CP
Prove by vectors that the line joining the mid-points of two sides of a triangle is
27
ame way, ðQB þ QDÞIn ¼; . . .CP
the .¼
. .same
parallel "PC
. . .to . ¼third
. .way,
the "APþside
ðQB QDÞ ¼ .half
and . . . . .its
. . .length.
...
Because P is the mid-point of AC. ; AP ¼ PC
; AP þ CP ¼ AP " AP ¼ 0.
Let D and E be the mid-points of AB and A
; CP ¼ "PC ¼ "AP
In AC the respectively.
same way, ðQB þ QDÞ ¼ . . . . . . . . . . . .
; AP þ CP ¼ AP " AP ¼ 0.
We have DE ¼ DA þ AE D E
In the same way, ðQB þ QDÞ ¼ . . . . . . . . . . . .
B C
2
Now express DA and AE in terms of BA and AC respectively and see if you can get the
required results.
 29
z 1 þ z2 ¼zHere
1OB
is ð2
þ z¼ oneþ more.
2 ¼ OB ¼þ
5Þi ð2ð4
þþ þ¼
5Þi2Þj þþ
ð47i 2Þj6j¼ 7i þ 6j
Example 4
z2 z2
29 Proveis by
Here onevectors y
more. that the yline joining the
B mid-points
B of two sides of a triangle is
parallel to the third side zand
1 half
z its
1 length.
2 2
Example 4
5 5
4 Let D by
Prove and E be the
vectors thatmid-points of AB and
the 4line joining
4 the mid-points of Atwo sides of a triangle is
AC respectively.
parallel to the third side and half its length.
WeDhave DEthe ¼ODA þ AEO D E
Let and E be mid-points
2 2 of AB and x x A
AC respectively.
i.e. total i.e.
up total up thecomponents
the vector vector components
along Ox,along Ox, B C
We have DE ¼ DA þ AE D E
and total up the vector components
and total up the vector components along Oy along Oy
Now express DA and AE in terms of BA and AC respectively and see if you can get the
Of we
Of course, required
course, we
can do results.
can without
this do this without a diagram:
a diagram: B C
Ifþz12j¼and
If z1 ¼ 3i 3i þ 2j¼and ¼ 4i þ 3j
þz23j
Now expressz2DA 4i
and Then
AE in terms of BA and AC respectively and see on can
if you to Frame 30
get the
¼z13iþþz22j¼
z1 þ z2 required 4iþþ2j
þ3i
results. 3jþ 4i þ 3j
30 ¼Here
7i þis5jthe
¼ 7iworking.
þ 5j Check through it.
Then on to Frame 30
And in
And in much DE
the ¼same
much DAthe þway,
AE samez2 ! z1 ¼z2. .!. .z. 1. .¼
way, . .. . . . . . . . . . . .
Vectors 533
30 Here is ¼theBA 1 working. 1
þ AC Check through it.
2 2
DE ¼ DA 1 þ AE
¼ ðBA þ ACÞ z2 ! z1 ¼z2i þ ! jz1 ¼ i þ j 33 33
530 Scalar product of two vectors
12
¼ BA þ AC
1 Programme 6
21 2
DE ¼ BC !þ ¼ ð4i þ 3jÞ ! ð3i þ 2jÞ
and bBecause
If aBecause are ¼ 12 vectors,z2the
two ¼z2ð4i
! z1scalar z13jÞ ! ð3i þ 2jÞ
product of a ; and 2
DEb isishalf
ðBA þ ACÞ
defined as the scalar
the magnitude þ 3j¼!4i
¼ 4i(length) 3iofþ!BC 2j!and
3j 3ia !acts
2j in the same direction. 41
34
(number) ab cos !
DE ¼DE BC
1
where a and b are the
(a)
¼ 1i þ 1j 12i ¼ 1i (b)
þ 1j ! 2i ! 4j
magnitudes of i.e.
530 530
530
2 and BC
the vectors a and arebparallel.
and ! is Programme 6 66
Programme
Programme
Here is the working: ¼ iþj ¼iþj
the angle between
; DE isthem. half the magnitude (length) of BC and actsb in the same direction.
Now 3j;for the next section of the work: move on to Frame 31
5 Similarly,
Similarly, if
The scalar(a) z ¼
i.e.z1DE
1
product
if!z12j;¼ z5i
5i
þ zand
2isþdenoted
zBC
! 3i
¼
3 2¼are
2j;þz23j;¼ z3i
5i ! ¼
þ 3i3(often
2j a:b
by
parallel. þ
þ 4i
3j þ !zcalled
1j
3
4i
¼ 4i ! 1j
! 1jthe ‘dot product’ for obvious
34 3431
reasons). (a)then (a) z1 þ z2¼þzð5 z1 3þ z2. .þ. .z. 3. .¼
þ¼(a)
.. .. .. . . . . . . . . .
. .ð3
34then
and
Components
and (b) ! !
of
z !a 3 þ 12i
z vector
!
(a)þ12i
4Þi
(a)
z
1 3 ¼ 2. . . . . Now
12i in(b)
3. . . . .. .for
¼ .
! 2 (b)
.. . terms
.the
! 1Þj!
(b)2i
. . . .next
!!¼2i
. . . of
2i12i
4j !!
unit
4j vectors
4j
section of the work: move on to Frame 31
; a:b(b)
¼ ab cos ! z z z
(b) z1 ! z2 ! z3 ¼ ð5i ! 2jÞ ! ð3i þ 3jÞ ! ð4i ! 1jÞ
1 2
HereHere
is The
the working:
vector OPofisbdefined
¼ a !isis
Here the
the working:
projection working: on a byInitsboth magnitude cases you
When the(r)have and its
result direction
scalar (!).onIttocould
is aresults,
the
also be
defined by its ¼ ð5components
two ! 3 ! 4Þi When þ ð!2 in you the!have3Ox þ 1Þjthe
and ¼
results,
Oy 4j on move
!2idirections.
!move to Frame 34Frame 34
31 !þprojection
(a)¼ Components
zb(a)
(a)
1 zzz121þþ
þzzz232þ¼
þzz5i3of
3¼
!¼ 2j
of
a5ion
5i þ
a
!!b3i
2jþ
2j þ
vectorþ3i 3j þ
quantity.
3i þþ3j 4i
in
3jþ !þ 1j
terms
4i4i!!1j 1j of unit vectors
Now this one. y
For example: The vector OP ¼ ð5is¼þ ð5þ
3 þþ4Þi
¼defined
ð5 33þþ þ4Þi
by ð3its
4Þi !
þ ð3!
2
þmagnitude
ð3 !!1Þj22!!¼1Þj 12i
1Þj (r)
¼¼12i and
12i Pits direction (!). It could also be
If OA
defined
!zzz21!¼ !3i
by þits
¼ 5jtwoand OB ¼
components 5i ! 2j,in find
the AB.
Ox and Oy
. directions.
(b) z(b)(b)
1 !zzz32!
b 1 !zzð5i
2 3¼3¼!ð5i
2jÞ!!!2jÞ
ð5i ð3i!!þð3i
2jÞ 3jÞ
a:b
ð3i þþ!¼ ð4i
3jÞ
3jÞ . .!.!!.ð4i1jÞ
.ð4i
. . .!!. .1jÞ
.1jÞ
r
As usual, a diagram ¼will
¼ ð5¼! ð5!help. Here it3is:
7 3
ð5 33!!þ4Þi
!!4Þi ð!2
4Þi yþ !ð!2
þð!2 þ 33þþ¼1Þj
!!1Þj !2i
1Þj¼¼! 4j
!2i
!2ib!!4j
4j
P
y a O First
NowNowthis this
Now one.
this o one. a of all, fromx the diagram, write down a
45 one. 5 A
rrelationship between the vectors. Then
6 If OAIfIfi.e.
¼OA OPþ
3i ¼is5j and and¼OB
þ 5j OB
3iequivalent 5i a!
to 2j,
5i !find
¼vector 2j, AB.
find
a in theAB. b
them þ
Ox direction inaterms
vectorofbthe
in the Oyvectors.
direction.
OOA ¼ 3i þ 5j and OB ¼ 5i ! 2j, find AB. express unit
As usual,
As ai.e.
As usual,
usual,diagram
aOP ¼ awill
a diagram
diagram help. Here
willOx)
(along
will help.
help. itO(along
Here
þ Here
b is:itit is:
is:Oy) aAB ¼ . . . . . . x. . . . . .
O
y x pffiFirst
i.e. OPyyis equivalent
A to a vector 35a in 2theffiffi Ox of
Firstall,
First offrom
direction
of all, the
þ adiagram,
all,from
from vector
the b write
thediagram,
diagram,
in thedown
write a aa
down
Oy down
write direction. 42
AA relationship between the the
vectors. ThenThen
a:b ¼ relationship
relationship between
between the vectors.
vectors. Then
i.e. OP ¼ a (along Ox) Bþ b (along 2 express Oy) express
them in terms
them in terms of the
terms ofunit vectors.
the unit
unit vectors.
express them in of the vectors.
Because we have: AB ¼AB
AB. . .¼¼ . .........................
O OO
35 x
AB ¼ 2i ! 7j xx
b a:b ¼ a:b cos !
Because
7 we have B BB ¼ 5:7: cos 458
a pffiffiffi
OA þ AB o ¼ OB (from diagram) 1 35 2
45 5 ¼ 35: pffiffiffi ¼
35
35 35 ; AB ¼ OB ! OA AB ¼ABAB ¼2i
!
2i¼ 2i!!7j
7j 7j
2 2
O
¼ ð5i ! 2jÞ ! ð3i þ 5jÞ ¼ 2i ! 7j
Because
Because we have
we have
Because we have
Now what about this case: On to Frame 36
OA þOAABþþ¼AB
OA AB ¼¼(from
OB OB (from
OB (from diagram)
diagram)
diagram)
7 ; AB ¼ OB ! OA
; AB;¼AB
OB¼!OB OA ! OA The scalar product of a and b is
¼ ð5i¼¼!ð5i
ð5i
2jÞ!!!2jÞ
ð3i!!þð3i
2jÞ ð3i
5jÞþþ¼5jÞ
5jÞ
2i¼ ¼ 7j
! 2i ! 7j
2i !¼7j. . . . . . . . . . . .
Vectors in space
b a:b
On to Frame
On to
OnFrame
36
36 36
to Frame
90o
a
36 So far we have only considered vectors that lie in the x–y plane. These vectors are
described using the mutually perpendicular unit vectors i and j that lie in the x- and
Vectors
Vectors in space
in in
Vectors space
space
y-directions respectively. To consider 0 vectors in space we need a third direction with 43
an axis that is perpendicular to both the x and y axes. This is provided by the
36
36 36 Because
So far
z-axis.The
in
So
So this
we
far we
case
have
farof
we
x-, y- only
have and z-axes
¼
a:bonly
only
have abconsidered
cos
considered
define
considered
¼ ab0
908vectors
three that
vectors
¼that
vectors
mutually
0. that
So
lie the
in perpendicular
liescalar
inliethe
the x–y plane.
theproduct
in x–y plane.
directions
These
of These
These
x–y plane. any two
vectors
for the
vectors are
are are
vectors 3
axes reference which obey the ‘right-hand’ rule.
described using the mutually perpendicular unit vectors i and j that lie in the x- and
vectors atdescribed
right-angles
described using thetomutually
using each
the other
mutually isperpendicular
always zero.
perpendicular unitunit
vectors i andi and
vectors j that lie inliethe
j that in x-
theand
x- and
y-directions
Ox, respectively.
Oy,respectively.
Ozrespectively.
form aTo To considerset
right-handed vectors
if in space we need a third direction with
y-directions
y-directions consider
To vectors
consider in space
vectors in we need
space we a zthird
need a direction
third withwith
direction
And in thisan case
axisnow,
that with two vectors in
is perpendicular to the
both same
thedirection,
x and y axes.! ¼ 08This is provided by the
rotation
an axis from
that is Ox to Oy to
perpendicular takes
botha theright-
x and y axes. This is provided by the
 534 90 ; a:b ¼ ab O cos ! a Programme 6
a
534 Programme
Programme 66
a Now what ¼ about a ! projection of b on a In both cases the result is a scalar
If a and b are this two case: vectors, the scalar
product of¼aband ! projection b is defined of aasonthe b scalar quantity. 41
534
(number) ab cos ! where a and b are the
0 a
43
Programme 6 0

4444 For example:

magnitudes of the vectors a and b andab
0
!ab
ab
The 43
scalar
isa:b ¼ . . . . . . . . . . . .
productProgramme of a and6 b is
Because
the angle inbetween this case
b b a:b ¼ ab cos 908 ¼ ab0
them. ¼a:b0. Because ¼So. . the in
. . . .this
. . . . .scalar case a:b
. bproduct of¼anyab costwo 908 ¼ ab0 ¼ 0. So the scalar pro
cause in this case a:b vectors¼ ab cos 908 ¼
at right-angles ab0 ¼to0.each
o
So the other scalaris always product zero. vectors
of any two at right-angles to each other is always zero.
7 90
44
ctors at right-angles Because Because
Because
to each
Thea:b a:b
a:b scalar
¼
other ¼ ¼ab ababcos
is
cos
product
cos always 08
08 08¼ ¼¼is ab:1 denoted
zero.¼¼aab
ab:1
ab:1 ¼ ab abab by a:b (often called the ‘dot product’ for obvious
4 534 534 And
reasons).
Now suppose
in this case 45
suppose our our two
now,
twovectors
o
vectors
with
a
5 are
ab two vectors in the same
areexpressed
expressedininterms termsofofthe
Anddirection,
in this case
theunit
! ¼now,
unitvectors
vectors
with two vectors in the same direction, ! ¼
08Programme
Programme
i, j and 6 6
nd in this case 8 now, Now
Now with suppose two vectors our two in vectors the sameare expressed
direction, a! ¼ 08 in terms of the unit vectors i, j and j k.
i, k. and k. a
534 Because a:b ; ¼ ab
a:b cos ¼ ab 08 ¼
cos !
ab:1 ¼ ab Programme 6
Because a:bLet Let
¼Let ab cosa08 aa ¼ ¼
¼ a1O
aab:1 1iiþ þ¼ aaa22jab jjþþaa33kk
534 Now suppose and our
¼ ¼ a
two 1 a i !þ
b11iivectors
a
projection 2 þ a 3 k of b on a In 0 both cases the result is 43
a scalar
Programme 6 b
bb22jjþþbare b33kkexpressed in terms of the unit vectors i, j and k.
¼ b
534 and bb ¼ bb þþ Programme 6
Now suppose 4444 andso our two
aa:b
b¼¼.vectors ¼ b. 1. .i.þ
.ða
!
.þ
projection
. .a bare bj þ
a.22j3.jþ
expressed
.kþ ab3kÞ:ðb k of a on
in termsabb quantity.
of thepunit
ab ffiffiffi so vectors
a:b ¼ . .i,. .j. .and . . . . k. ..
Let Then Then
. a. ¼ aForBecause
¼ a:b
a:b a1¼ ¼iþ
inða a1i2ijþ
1 this þ a 2 case a a:b
3 3kÞ:ðb ¼ 1 i
ab
1 þbb2 908
iþcos 2 jþþb¼
j b
3 kÞ kÞ35¼ 0.
3ab0 2 So the scalar product of any two 42
a:b ¼ . . .Let
. . . . . and
. .Then 1bi þ ab2 jða
example: þ aib3þ kþ þi:kb2þja:b ¼ kÞ
44 a:b
vectors
Because
¼¼ 1¼
a:b ¼iat þ a¼ ab
21ji:i
a11right-angles
1bb 1 cos
i:i a2þ
þb308
jþ
aak 11b¼
ba223i:j kÞ:ðb
i:j
to
ab:1 þþ each
a¼a111biab
b3other
i:k
3 þ aab
þa
is
2b
bb13j:i
2always
1 j:i þþ
a:b 2a¼ a
zero.
2b 2.2b.j:j . .þ.þ
2. j:j .a.2a
.b.23.bj:k
.3 j:k
and 44
44
Then a:bAnd
b1 i þ ¼
b ¼ Because
¼ ðain
b2 jaa:b
1i þ
þbb¼
this1 aþ þ
3i:i
2 jcase
1
kabþcos
a
aþ33ba13now, b ak:i
kÞ:ðb
1k:i
b 08 ¼ ab:1 ¼ ab
1 b þ
2
þ 1awithi:j a þb
i33bþ22k:j a
k:j
btwo
2 jþ
1 b þ3 i:ka
þavectors
b33b3kÞb þ
3 k:k
3
a
k:k 2ab
b 1 j:i þ
ab the same direction,
in
a 2 b 2 j:j þ a 2 b3 j:k
! ¼ 08
Then a:b ¼ Now
ða Because
i þ suppose
a j þ we a our have:
kÞ:ðb 7 two i þ vectors
b j þ b are
kÞ expressed in terms of the unit vectors i, j and k.
Because Now
1 ¼a:b a suppose
2
b¼ ab
i:i þ þ 3cos a a 3 ourb08
b 1 1 k:i
i:j two
¼ þ þ
ab:1 avectors
2 a b3 ¼bi:k
2 3k:j
ab þ are þ
a expressed
a
b 3 b
j:i 3 k:k
þ a b in terms
j:j þ a bof j:kthe unit vectors i, j and k.
This can1 now now
1 be1ab simplified.
2 1 3 a 2 1 a 2 2 2 3
9 ¼This b1can
Because
a1Let
Because i:i þþaaaa:b
Letnow 1a:b
3a
b¼b2 be
1¼
a¼
i:j¼ 1 iþ
k:i
simplified.
ab
a1þ
þa45
iþ
cos
a1 b
cos 2ob
a3ab22jk:j
08
þ
j3 i:k
08 a¼ ¼þ
þ5aþ3 kab:1
a
ab:1
3k
2 b 1
¼
j:i
¼
a3expressed
b3 k:k
ab
þ
ab a 2 b 2 j:j þ a 2 b 3
a:b ¼ofj:k a:bthe cos unit !
Thissuppose
Now can
Because
Because
and b
our
i:i
i:i ¼ be
¼¼ two simplified.
ð1Þð1Þðcos
bað1Þð1Þðcos
ibþ
vectors
btwo j þavectors 08Þ
b08Þ
are
¼¼11 in
b terms vectors i, j and k.
þ
Now a b k:i
suppose þ our k:j 2þ b33kk:k are expressed in terms of the unit vectors
ThisLet can Now
now and 3 1
suppose
be b ¼ O
13 b
our 27
1 i þ two b 2 j 3 þ
vectors b 3 k are expressed in terms ¼ 5:7: of cos
the 458
unit vectors i, i, jj and
and k. k.
Because
;
Then
; soLeti:i
i:i aa:b
a:b ¼¼ ¼ i:i
¼ 1;
1;¼ asimplified.
¼.1a ij:j
.j:j
ða .¼þ
ð1Þð1Þðcos
.1 i¼ .¼ a
.aþ.21; .iaj.þ
1; þ .k:k
.2 jk:k .aa3jak
þ ¼ ¼08Þ 1
kÞ:ðb1 ¼ ai1 þ b j þ b kÞ (a)(a) pffiffiffi
This can now Then beLet simplified.
a:b ¼¼
a ðaa11i iþ 1 þaa22j jþþa5a33kÞ:ðb
2 þ3 a3 k 1
k 2
þ b2 j þ b3 kÞ
3 1 35 2
1¼þ0a b1 ii:k
o
Because
and Also i:ibi:j ¼¼ ð1Þð1Þðcos
¼bj:j ai1¼ þ
1ð1Þð1Þðcosb1bi:i b2ij45 þþ 08Þ
þab1b b3¼
908Þ kþ i:j þ a2 b1 j:i þ a2 b¼ 35: pffiffib
2 j:j þ a
ffi ¼
22 3 j:k 2
Because ; i:i Also
¼ ¼i:j1;
i:ið1Þð1Þðcos
and
and ¼ b
ð1Þð1Þðcos
b ¼¼
08Þ b 1;1¼
¼ a1 b11 i:i þ 2a1 b2 i:j i þ1 k:k 908Þ
b 2 j
j2¼
þ ¼ b
b1 30 k 1 3
3 þ a1 b3 i:k þ a2 b1 j:ip
k þffiffiffi a2 b2 j:j þ (a) a2 b3 j:k
; i:i ¼
Then a:b
; 1;i:j¼j:j ¼ ða ¼
0; 1 i¼
1;þ j:k þO ak:ka¼2i3j0;
b0; þ¼ 1 k:i ak:i1k:i þ¼
kÞ:ðb a30 b12ik:jþk:j þ
bi2þ aj 3þb3bk:k
a:b kÞ ¼
35 (a) 2
(b)
42
; i:i ¼ 1; Also ;Then
Then
j:j ¼ i:j ¼
i:j1;¼ k:k a:b
a:b0; ð1Þð1Þðcos¼j:k ða
¼ 11 3 908Þ
ða ¼ þ
1 i þ
aþ a
b
a 2
1
3jk:i
j þ
þ¼ þa
a 0
¼ kÞ:ðb
a
3 30 2 1
3 kÞ:ðbb 1 i þþ b
ba 2 j
jb3þ
þ k:k
23 3 (a)
b
b 3 kÞ
kÞ (b)
2 3 2
AlsoThis i:jNow
So,
¼can
using ¼ what
ð1Þð1Þðcos
anow1 b1¼
the ¼ i:i be
about
a
a
results 1þ908Þb
b 1 ai:i
simplified.1 this
i:i ¼
b(a)
þ
þ 2 i:j a
a and þ
01case:
b
b 2 a1(b),
i:j
i:j bþ
þ 3a i:k
a we
1 b
b þi:k
3 i:k
get:a2þ þb1aaj:i
2 b
b þj:i
1 j:iaþ2 ba
þ b22þ
a222j:j
b j:j aþ
j:j þ2 b aa32 b j:k
b 3 j:k
j:k
Also i:j ¼; So, using
This
i:j
ð1Þð1Þðcos ¼ can 0;the now
j:k
908Þ results ¼ 1
¼be 1
0 simplified.
0; (a) k:iand 1
¼ 0(b), we get:
2 1 3 2 1
(b) 2 3
; i:j ¼ Because
0;
Because j:k þ
i:i
¼ we a¼3have:
0; bð1Þð1Þðcos
k:iþ
þ
1 k:i aa ¼ 3 b
bþ 0
1 a
k:i
k:i 3 b þ
08Þ
þ 2 k:j
a
a ¼
3 b
b þ
21 k:j
k:ja 3 þb
þ 3 a
ak:k
3 b
b 3 k:k
k:k (b)
a:bBecause¼ ............i:i ....¼ .....ð1Þð1Þðcos.3 1 3 2 3 3
; i:j ¼ So,
a:b
0; using
j:k ¼¼0; the k:iresults .¼ 0 . (a) and 08Þ (b), ¼1
we get: (b)The scalar product of a and b is
So, Thisusing This
;
can the i:i
now ¼
can
results 1; benow j:j ¼
(a)beand
simplified. 1; k:k
simplified.
b (b), we get: ¼ 1 a:b ¼ a:b (a)cos !
So, using the results; i:i (a) ¼ 1; j:j ¼ 1; k:k ¼ 1 a:b ¼ . . . .(a)
........
a:b .¼
¼ .Also . .. i:i
.Because..i:j
.. ..¼ .¼ .and. . .¼.(b),
....ð1Þð1Þðcos
.i:i
b .7ð1Þð1Þðcos we 908Þ get: ¼08Þ 0 ¼1 ¼ 5:7: cos 458
45 a:b Because
a:b ¼ . . . . . . . . .Also . . . i:j ¼ ð1Þð1Þðcos
ð1Þð1Þðcos
90 o
08Þ ¼
908Þ ¼
1a:b
a:b ¼ a b þ a
0 ¼ a1 b1 1 1þ a2 b22 2þ a3 b33 3
a
b þ a b pffiffiffi
i:j1;i:i¼ j:j 0; 1; j:j¼¼ o k:i ¼ ¼ 1 35 2
; i:i;¼; ¼ ¼j:k1; k:k0;
451; ¼k:k 1a 50 1 ¼ 35:
(b)(a)
(a) pffiffiffi ¼
; i:j ¼ 0; j:k ¼ 0; k:i ¼ 0 (b)2 2
45
45 Also
Because
So, using
Because Also i:j
i:j ¼ ð1Þð1Þðcos
the¼results ð1Þð1Þðcos
O 908Þ ¼
(a) and 908Þ¼
a:b 0 a:b
¼a0we
(b), 1 b1¼ þget:
aa12bb12 þ aa32bb32 þ a3 b3
5 So,a:b
a:b; a:b
using
¼i:j.¼ ¼
.¼
the
. a.a1.0; 1.bb.11.:1
results
:1
. .þ
j:k .þ a:b
.¼aa10; ¼(a)
1bb22:0
a:01and
k:i b¼
þþ
þ (b),
a b we þ aget:
a101bb332:0:02þþaa2 b23b
1a b13:0 þ a2 b2 :1 þ a(b)
1 :0 þ0 a2 b2 :1 þ a2 b23b:0 3 :0

Because
; i:jNow ¼a:b 0; what ¼ j:k . . . ¼. about
. .0;
þaa33bb11:0 . . . k:i
. .this
. ¼ 0
case:
:0 þaa33bb22:0:0þþaa3 3bb3 :1 :1
(b) 43
Because So, using the þ resultsþ(a) and (b), we3 get:
BecauseSo, using the
a:b results
¼:1aaþ þaa:0 (a) and þab (b), we get:
; 1 b1 2bbþ a33b:0 b3 a b :0 þ a b :1 þ a b :0
45
a:b ¼
a:b;
a b
¼a:b
a:b
:1
a:b
a1¼
Because
þ
b¼ ¼
1
a
a.1.in
b
b1.b1. :1
:0 þ
.1þ
a.1this .bþ .2. 2.acase
a b
.1.2bþ
2a
:0 þ
1a:b
2 :0 þ aa:b
a
3 3¼þ
beach
ab 2cos
1 b3 ¼
:0 þof
:01aþ
a2the
908
1 ba 12¼
b2 :1is
þb21aab0
22b2
:0
a2The
þalways
þ¼þa0. a23b
scalar
b3 :0zero.
2bSo 3 the þ a2scalar
23:1 product b3 :0of product
a and b is of any two
45 a:b 1
i.e.¼vectors
1 . . . .þ
we
i.e. we just þ
. .a.at
just 1 .3 b.sum
2 .1 :0
sum
. . þ the
right-angles
ab3bb:0the
1
1 :0
a 3 b
3 2products :0
products þto 2 a
þ ba3:1b2 3:0 3þofa3the
1b :1
a:b other ¼ a bcoefficients
þ
b3 :11coefficients
1 a b
a:b ¼of
2 2 þ a of
b
.3. .3the
the
. . . . .unit
unit vectors
. . . . vectors along the
along the
þ a
corresponding3
¼ a1 bin b 1 :0 þ a 3 axes.2 þ a 3 3
; a:b Because
corresponding
And 1þ this a2 b axes.
case2þa now,3 b3 with two vectors in the same direction, ! ¼ 08
; a:b ¼ ;45 a:b ¼ a b þ a 90
1 þ a2 b21þ1a3 b3 2 2
a1 bBecause
Forjust example:
b o þ a3 b3 a:b ¼ a11b11 þ a22b22 þ a33 b33
45
i.e. we
i.e. weFor
i.e.
just we
sum
a:b
example:
just
sum
the
¼ athe
sum
1 b1 :1products
products the
þ a1 b2 :0 þ
of productsthe
a of a:b1the
coefficientsof
þ a b :0
a b3 :0 coefficients
the
a þ a b :1 þ aunit
¼ a1 b12þ1a2 b2 þ2ofa23 the
coefficients
of the unit of
b :0
b3 2 3 vectors along the
vectors thealong unitthe vectors along the
corresponding ¼a:b axes. ¼ 3j þ
a1abþ31b:1 1 :0 þand þa1ab32bb:02¼ þþ
:0 a1þ b:03 :1
ab3 1j þ a6k 2 b1b:0 þ a2 b2 :1 þ a2 b3 :0
corresponding 10 If aa ¼
Because
Because
If
corresponding axes.
2i
2i þ þ 3j
axes. þ 5k 5k and b ¼ 4i4iþ 1j þþ6k
; a:ba:b ¼ a¼ 1 b2 þþ aa432þ bþb12:0 þ! þa1 3ab3þ 3b25:0 þ :0 a3 b :1
For example:
Because then a:b ¼ a2.111.! b! :1 . .3.3 a! b1 :0 þ5 aa !! 66
b þ3 a a22 b
b11:0:0 þþ a b :1 þ a b :0
For example: Fori.e.
so a:b
then
example: ;
a:b
a:b
a:b
¼¼
¼
. . .a
¼
a
b
b
.11.4 . .þþ
:1
þ a
a
b
1b
1
þ
2 :0
2 þþ
a b
1b
1 3 :0 þ
3 0 a22 b22:1 þ a22b33 :0 43
2iwe just ¼ sum þa3aathe products :0þof athe b :1coefficients of the unit vectors along the
1 þ 1 2 :0 2 þ 3 3 þ6k
If a ¼a:b Vectors ¼þ 3j a1 bþ1¼ 5k
:1 88þ and
þ 33þbb þb 1 :0 30
¼ þþ4iaaaþ 3bb1j
:0 þ
2 :0
þ aa332bb331:1:0 þ a2 b2 :1 þ a2 b3 :0 537
corresponding
þ
axes. 13b 21:0 30 13b3 2
If a ¼ 2i If þ 3j
i.e. þ 5k
we a:b and ¼
just a b 1sum b ¼ þ4i a þ b 1j þþ a 6k b
then a a:b ;
¼;¼
Because 2ia:b 2þ þ! ¼in
¼
3j
¼a43a41 þ þ
41
b1 b3:0
this 1
5k
1
1 þþ
! case1athe
and
; ; 2 b2a:b
2þ
a 3a:b
2b5products
a:bþ b!¼
2 :0
a¼¼¼
63 b4i
3þ
41
3 þ
ab
41
a3 b
3 cos of1j908
3 :1
the
þ¼ 6kcoefficients
ab0 ¼ 0. So of thethe scalarunitproduct vectors ofalong any thetwo
then a:bFor corresponding
2example:
¼ i.e. ! we
vectors 4 þ just 3
at !right-angles
1sum þaxes. 5 !the 6 products to each other is always zero.
;Onetheni.e.for
So,
a:b ¼bya:b
¼we a8 1way
you: ¼
just
bþ 13
2If
þ ofþ ! asump230 4b¼2þþ
review: 3ithe 3a!! 3b
1
products
2j þ 5 ! 6of the
3 þ 1k; qof¼ the 2iþþ3j
coefficients of
coefficients
3j!!4k 4k
of the the unit unit vectors vectors along along the the
One
¼(a)For
If for
corresponding
a
8 þScalar ¼ you:
example:
3in 2i
þ this þ
30product If3j p þ ¼
axes.
5k 3i and ! 2j b þ ¼ 1k; 4i þ q 1j¼ þ2i 6k
And
corresponding case axes. now, product’) with two vectors in the same direction, ! ¼ 08
i.e. wethen then just ¼p:q p:q41sum ¼¼ ¼8...þ .the
.; ...3 . ..a:b .þ. .(‘dot
..30
products
. ..¼ .. ..41 . of! 6the coefficients of the unit vectors along the
¼For then
For
41Ifa:b a ¼¼a:b
example: ;2i ¼a:b þcos2 !
¼ !þ
3j 4415k þ 3 !
and 1þ 5¼
bquantity 4i þ 1j þ 6k a
corresponding example: ab
axes. a scalar
One for you: If p¼¼ ¼41 3iþ !32jþ ; þ30a:b 1k; ¼ q 41 ¼ 2i þ 3j ! 4k
Ifthen a ¼ a:b 2i þ8 ¼ 3j 2 þ! 5k
4 þ and
3 ! b
1 þ¼ 54i!þ61j þ 6kb
One for11 you: If (b)pIf¼ ¼a 3i ¼! 2iproduct2jþþ 3j1k; þ (‘cross 5kqand ¼ 2i bþ¼3j4i!þ4k 1j þ 6k
46
46For
then
One example:
p:q
for
Vector
you:
then
then
. . . a:b . .If
a:b ¼ . .p ¼..¼
41
¼
¼
.2. !
28 !þ
.3i4;
3
4 ! þ
þ
þ 2j
3
a:b
30
3
!þ
!
product’)
¼ 11k;
1
þ
415
þ
5 !q6¼ 2i
! 6 !4!4þ 3j ! 4k
then p:q ¼ . . . . a. .! so a:b . .b¼ . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . ¼ vector of magnitude ab sin !, acting in a direction to make a, b and a ! b a
a ¼ 2i
Ifthen þyou: ¼ 3j .þ.If.¼ 5k8.¼þ and 3þ .b; 30 ¼þ4i1k; þ 1j þ 6k
Because
One for
Because p:qright-handed ¼.p.8 41þ . .set. 3i3. .þ ! .30
2ja:b
Also: ¼ 41q ¼ 2i þ 3j ! 4k
46 then then
p:q ¼
a:b ¼forp:q¼!
33 !
2¼2 !.!¼!
þ .4i.If41 .þ.p.3.j¼
41
ð!2Þ .!
!!
. 3i .1 .; 3.!
k
þ!a:b
þþ
! 5!
11!
¼6
! 41 !4
ð!4Þ
6 One
p:q
a¼for!¼ b!
you:
8¼6
2þ !¼
þ!!a3If
ð!2Þ
þ 30 a2 3ia3!! 2j
3; 2j
!a:b
¼þ
þ¼ð!4Þ
!4
ða1k;
41 q ¼ 2i þ 3j ! 4k
1k;
2 b3 ! qa¼ 3 b2i2 Þiþ !3j ða! 1 b4k3 ! a3 b1 Þj þ ða1 b2 ! a2 b1 Þk
66p:q
14
One you: ..p . . .¼
! !
46
Because
Because One then¼for
¼ !4 !4
!you: 6! !¼bIf 4
1 pb¼
. . . . 3. .!.2j þ
2 3ib! 1k; q ¼ 2i !4
;p:q p:q¼¼!4 !4
þ 3j ! 4k
46 p:q ¼ 3 ! then
then ¼2þ
Andp:q
¼ p:q41 ¼ !
ð!2Þ
here ¼ is
. . .;
..3 .one
. . .a:b
.þ
. . . .¼
. . .1final . .!. .ð!4Þ
. . 41 ;
. example on this point.
p:q ¼Because 3 !¼2 6þ!ð!2Þ 6 !If !4 3p þ¼13i ! ð!4Þ Nowonon
46
One Because for you: ! 2j þ 1k; q ¼ 2i þ 3j!4 ! 4k Now to to Frame
Frame 4747
¼12
46 6! p:q
¼ 6Find
!
!4 ¼ 4 3
the vector product of p and q where:
! 2 þ ð!2Þ ! 3 þ ; 1 !
p:q ð!4Þ ¼ !4 !4
46 thenp:q
¼ !4 Because
p:q
p¼ ¼¼3i 3 .!! . .24j . .þ.þ.ð!2Þ .2k . . . and
;
.! 3 þ
p:qq ¼ ¼!
1 2ið!4Þ
!4 þ 5j ! k !4
¼
Because 6
¼ !6 !6 !
6 ! 4 4 Now on to Frame 47
Because p:q
¼p:q !4 ¼ 3 ! 2 þ ð!2Þ ! 3 þ 1 !; ð!4Þ p:q ¼ !4 Now on to Frame 47
¼ !4 ; p:q ¼ !4
46 p:q ¼
¼ 3 ! 2 þ ð!2Þ ! 3 þ 1 !pð!4Þ
¼3 6! !2 6þ ! ð!2Þ 4 ! 3 þ 1 ! ð!4Þ !4
! q ¼ !6i þ 7j þ 23k 52
¼6!6!4 Now Now on to onFrame 47
Because ¼6 !4 !6!4 ; p:q ¼ !4 to Frame 47
Because ¼ !4 ; p:q ¼ !4
¼ !4! i !
j k !
! ; p:q ¼ !4
p:q ¼ 3 ! 2 þ !!ð!2Þ ! 3 þ 1!! ! ð!4Þ Now on to Frame 47
Now on to Frame 47
p ! q ¼ ! 3 !4
¼ 6 ! 6 ! !!4
2!
! Now on to Frame 47 4
2 5 !1 !
¼ !4 ! !4
! ; p:q ! ¼ !!4
! 3 !4 !
2 !! !3 2 !!
! ! !
¼ i!! ! j ! þ k ! !
5 !1 ! ! 2 !1 ! !2 5!
 p ¼ 3i ! 4j þ 2k and q ¼ 2i þ 5j ! k

p ! q ¼ !6i þ 7j þ 23k 52
Because
! !
!i j k !!
!
p ! q ¼ ! 3 !4 2!
! !
! !
!2 5 !1 !
! !4 2 !! !3 2 !! ! 3 !4 !
! ! ! ! ! !
¼ i!! ! j ! þ k! !
5 !1 ! !2!1 ! !2 5!
¼ ið4 ! 10Þ ! jð!3 ! 4Þ þ kð15 þ 8Þ
¼ !6i þ 7j þ 23k
Remember that the order in which the vectors appear in the vector product is
important. It is a simple matter to verify that:
q ! p ¼ 6i ! 7j ! 23k ¼ !ðp ! qÞ
On to Frame 53

Angle between two vectors

Let a be one vector with direction cosines ½ l; m; n! 53

0 0 0
Let b be the other vector with direction cosines ½ l ; m ; n !
We have to find the angle between these two vectors.
0
Let OP and OP be unit vectors parallel to a and b respectively. Then P has coordinates
ðl; m; nÞ and P0 has coordinates ðl0 ; m0 ; n0 Þ.

P
(n – n')

P'
(l – l')
y
O
x (m – m')