Bio 137 Lab Manual

BIO 137
Human Anatomy &

Physiology I
Laboratory Manual
All Sections
Written and compiled by
Becky McCane
Lab Exercise 1
Measurements
Body Organization
Body Systems
Textbook Reference: See Chapter 1 and Atlas A
What you need to be able to do on the exam after completing this lab exercise:
• Be able to convert from one metric unit to another.

• Be able to explain what each metric base unit measures.
• Be able to identify directional terms on the muscle man model and the skin model.
• Be able to identify each body plane on a diagram and organ.
• Be able to identify all specified regions on the baby doll.
• Be able to identify the major body organs on a torso model.
• Be able to identify each body cavity on the torso model and know which major
organs are housed within each cavity.
• Be able to identify the abdominopelvic regions and quadrants on a torso model.
• Be able to identify the correct body systems and organs on the models or
diagrams.
1-1
Measurements
We will be using 3 base units: gram (to measure mass)
meter (to measure distance)
liter (to measure volume)
1.Metric Conversion Chart
Giga- Mega- Kilo- Hecta- Deca- Base deci- centi- milli- micro- nano-
G X X M X X K H D(a) BU d c m X X µ X X n
Move decimal to the left (divide by 10) Move decimal to the right (multiply by 10)
Units get BIGGER as you go left Units get smaller as you go right
• Decimal begins at the unit you are given
• Move decimal to the unit you are asked
o Move decimal the number of spaces and the direction until you get to the unit you are asked
1-2
To convert from mm to m, move your decimal point 3 places to the left (since the base unit is
three places to the left of milli- on the chart).
46 mm = ____ m
46 mm = .046 m
To convert from cg to mg, move your decimal point 1 place to the right (since milli- is 1 place to
the right of centi- on the chart).
400 cg = ____ mg
400 cg = 4,000 mg
Practice. Convert the following:
1. 25 mL = __________ dL 5. 3,500 mm = __________ m
2. 15 g = __________ mg 6. 0.005 km = __________ m
3. 750 g = __________ kg 7. 250 cL = __________ mL
4. 275 mm = __________cm 8. 6,750 cg = __________ kg
1-3
Body Organization
Anatomical Position
In Human Anatomy & Physiology, we refer to the body parts as if a person was standing in the
anatomical position.
Criteria: (Fill in the blanks)
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
1-4
Directional Terminology
When comparing the location of one body part to another, we use directional terms.
Know the following directional terms on Muscle Man:
A is ____________________ to B F & G are _____________________ (on the same side)
B is ____________________ to A J & A are _____________________ (on opposite sides)
B is ____________________ to D (on back) G is _________________________ to H
D is ____________________ to C H is _________________________ to G
E is ____________________ to F (on side) G is _________________________ to H & K
F is _____________________ to E 1-5
Planes of Reference
Know the following planes of reference on a diagram or organ:
A Frontal plane divides the body/organ into Anterior/Posterior halves.
A Median (Midsagittal) plane divides the body/organ into equal Left/Right halves.
A Transverse plane divides the body/organ into Superior/Inferior halves.
Midsagittal Section of Sheep Brain
1-6
Frontal (Coronal) Section of Sheep Brain
Transverse Section of Sheep Brain
1-7
Regional Terminology
In Human Anatomy & Physiology, we use scientific terms for various regions of the body.
Know the following regional terms on the baby doll:
1-8
1-9
Major Body Organs
Know the following organs on the torso model:
A. ______________________________ E. ______________________________
B. ______________________________ G. ______________________________
D. ______________________________ H. ______________________________
1-10
B. ______________________________ I. ______________________________
C. ______________________________ J. ______________________________
F. ______________________________ K. ______________________________
1-11
Body Cavities
Body cavities are areas in the body that usually house an organ, bone, or other body part.
Know the following body cavities.
1-12
In addition to the information above:
The Pleural cavities house the ____________________.
The Pericardial cavity houses the _________________.
1-13
Abdominopelvic Quadrants
In Human Anatomy & Physiology, we sometimes divide the abdominopelvic cavity into
quadrants to make studying the cavity easier.
Know the following body quadrants:
1-14
Abdominopelvic Regions
In Human Anatomy & Physiology, we sometimes divide the abdominopelvic cavity into nine
regions to make studying the cavity easier.
Know the following abdominopelvic regions:
1-15
Body Systems
For each of the following body systems, know the organs that are listed and to which body
system the organs belong:
Integumentary System
Know the parts of the Integumentary System (listed below) on the skin model in the lab.
A. ______________________________ D. ______________________________
B. ______________________________ E. ______________________________
C. ______________________________ F. _______________________________
More Directional Terms on Skin Model:
A is ____________________ to B
B is ____________________ to A
1-16
Skeletal System
Know the parts of the skeletal system (listed below the picture) on the knee joint model in lab.
A. _________________________ (femur, tibia, fibula on diagram)
B. _________________________ (1, 2, 3, 4, 5 on diagram)
C. _________________________ (6 & 7 on diagram)
1-17
Muscular System
Know the parts of the Muscular System (listed below the picture) on the Muscle Man model in
the lab.
A. _________________________ (red on diagram)
B. _________________________ (grayish white on diagram)
1-18
Nervous System
Know the parts of the Nervous System (listed below the picture) on the Nerve Man model in the
lab.
A. _________________________ (in skull)
B. _________________________ (extends from brain)
C. _________________________ (yellow on diagram; extend from brain/spinal cord)

1-19
Endocrine System
Know the glands of the Endocrine System on the model board in the lab.
1. ______________________________ 13. ______________________________
5. ______________________________ 16. ______________________________
8. ______________________________ 20. ______________________________
9. ______________________________
You will not need to know the Pineal Gland for the first lab exam. It will be covered when we
study the brain.
1-20
Cardiovascular System
Know the organs of the Cardiovascular System (listed below the picture) on the Heart model in
the lab.
A. Heart
B. Aorta (large red vessel extending from top of heart)
C. Arteries
D. Veins
1-21
Lymphatic System
Know the following parts of the lymphatic system on the diagram displayed in the lab.
Note: The diagram in the lab looks different from this one, but has the same organs.
A. Lymph Nodes
B. Lymph Vessels
C. Spleen
D. Thymus
You do not need to know “Tonsil” 1-22

Respiratory System
Know the parts of the Respiratory System (listed below the picture) on the Respiratory system
model in the lab.
A. ___________________________________
B. ___________________________________
C. & D. _______________________________
Bronchi (not shown in picture) 1-23

Digestive System
Know the parts of the Digestive System (listed below the picture) on the Digestive system model
in the lab.
1. ______________________________ 12. _______________________________
6. ______________________________ 13. _______________________________
7. ______________________________ 15a. ______________________________
9. ______________________________ 15b. ______________________________
11. _____________________________ 15c. ______________________________

1-24
Urinary System
Know the parts of the Urinary System (listed below the picture) on the Urinary system model in
the lab.
12. ___________________________________
24. ___________________________________
37. ___________________________________
Urethra 1-25
Male Reproductive System
Know the parts of the Male Reproductive System (listed below the picture) on the Male
Reproductive system model in the lab.
1. ______________________________ 52. ______________________________
3. ______________________________ 53. ______________________________
38. ______________________________
40. ______________________________
1-26
Female Reproductive System
Know the parts of the Female Reproductive System (listed below the model) on the Female
Reproductive system model in the lab.
20. ____________________________________
21. ____________________________________
22. ____________________________________
29. _____________________________________
1-27
Lab Exercise 2
Microscopy
Cell Structure
Textbook Reference: See Chapter 3 for Cell Structure
 Be able to name the parts of the microscope and give the function of each part.
 Be able to explain the proper usage and care of the microscope.
 Be able to demonstrate the proper usage of the microscope by locating, focusing, and
identifying a specimen on a microscope slide.
 Be able to explain how working distance, field size, brightness, and resolution change
with increasing magnification.
 Be able to explain the lens effect and depth of field as it relates to microscope usage.
 Be able to calculate the total magnification of your microscope.
 Be able to explain how to prepare a wet mount slide.
 Be able to identify cell parts on the cell model.
 Be able to identify various cells and cell structures under the microscope.
2-1
The Microscope
We will be using a compound light microscope in this lab to view various cells and tissues. It is
very important that you learn to use the microscope correctly, and can efficiently get images into
the proper focus for study.
Know the following parts of the microscope and the function of each part.
2-2
Know the following functions of the microscope parts.
PART FUNCTION
Arm Used to carry the microscope; located between the body
tube and the base
Base Supports the microscope; used to carry the microscope
Body tube (Head) Supports the objective lens system and the ocular lens;
directs light toward the ocular lens
Coarse focus (adjustment) Brings the specimen into focus by raising or lowering the
stage; never use the coarse focus on high power!
Condenser Substage lens that concentrates light on the specimen; the

condenser control knob will raise and lower the condenser
to vary the light; the best position for the condenser is just
below the opening in the stage
Fine focus (adjustment) Used for final focusing (fine-tuning the image)
Iris diaphragm Regulates the amount of light that passes through the stage;
located at the base of the condenser
Objective lenses Magnify the specimen for viewing; scanning lens (red ring)
magnifies 4X, low power lens (yellow ring) magnifies 10X,
high power lens (blue ring) magnifies 40X, oil immersion
lens (white ring) magnifies 100X
Ocular lens (eyepiece) The lens (or lenses) you look through; magnifies the
specimen 10X; monocular microscopes have one ocular
lens, binocular microscopes have two ocular lens
Revolving nosepiece Contains the objective lenses; use nosepiece to rotate the
correct objective lens into place over the opening in the
stage
Stage Flat platform where the slide is placed for viewing
Stage clips Hold the slide in place; two knobs below the stage control
the precise movement of the specimen on a mechanical
stage
Substage light Light source; a light dimmer dial on the base varies the
intensity of the light source
2-3
Use and Care of a Compound Microscope
1. Always use both hands when transporting the microscope. Place one hand on the arm
and the other hand under the base. Make sure the cord is not hanging down so you don’t
trip over it.
2. Carefully place the microscope on your work table.
3. Carefully remove the dust cover and set it aside.
4. Place the cord behind the microscope then plug it into the outlet. Be very careful not to
trip over the cord or pull on it.
5. Once you have the microscope plugged in, sit down and find the light switch. The light
switch on your microscope is located on the side of the base (see microscope picture
above). Turn on the light switch and adjust the intensity of the light with the light
dimmer dial (see microscope picture above).
6. Turn and “lock” the scanning lens (4X objective) in place above the opening in the stage. If
the lens is in the correct place, you should see a bright circle of light when you look through
the eyepiece. This circle of light is your field of view.
7. Without looking through the eyepiece, lower the stage completely and carefully place the
microscope slide on the microscope stage with the specimen on the slide directly over the
opening in the stage. If your microscope has stage clips, secure the slide under the stage
clips. If your microscope has a mechanical stage, turn the control knobs (below one side
of the stage) to position the specimen directly over the opening in the stage.
8. While looking through the eyepiece, carefully turn the coarse adjustment knob to raise the
stage until the specimen comes into view.
9. Use the fine adjustment knob for final focusing of the image.
10. Since the scanning lens allows you to see a larger portion of your slide in less detail, you
may need to increase your magnification. To switch to the next magnification, carefully
turn the revolving nosepiece until the low power lens (10X objective) is locked in place.
11. Your compound light microscope is parfocal. If your image was in proper focus before
you changed the objective lens, you should only have to do minimal focusing to get the
image in focus with the new objective. You should only have to use the fine focus knob
on low power to get the image in proper focus.
12. If you need to increase your magnification to the high power lens (40X objective), simply
turn the revolving nosepiece until the 40X objective is locked in place. Make sure your
image is in proper focus on low power before switching to the high power objective.
2-4
13. Use ONLY the fine adjustment knob to focus on high power. NEVER USE THE
COARSE FOCUS KNOB ON HIGH POWER! The high power lens should be very
close to your slide when in proper focus. If you turn the coarse adjustment knob while on
high power, the objective could easily break your slide.
NOTE: If you lose the image on high power, go back to low power and find/focus it
before going up to high power again.
14. When you are finished with the microscope, return the scanning lens (4X) to place.
Lower the stage completely, remove the slide, and carefully place into the correct box.
15. Carefully clean all the lenses with lens paper. Never use paper towels or any other kind
of paper/cloth on your microscope lenses as it may scratch the glass.
16. Carefully unplug the microscope and wrap the cord snugly around the base.
17. Place the dust cover over the microscope and carefully carry it with both hands back to
where you got it.
NOTE: Most likely your microscope will already be set up on your lab bench before you get to
the lab. If so, do not worry about Steps 1 - 3 and 17 when working in the BIO 137 lab.
2-5
Viewing Objects Through the Microscope
Procedure:
1. Place a paramecium slide on the microscope.
2. Bring the slide into focus using the scanning (4X) lens.
3. Observe how much of the paramecium you can see. Make a drawing of your paramecium below.
Scanning Lens Observation:
4. Now, switch to low power (10X) and use the fine adjustment knob to focus the image.
Note: Before switching to the low power lens, make sure your paramecium is in the center of
your field of view.
5. Observe how much of the paramecium you can see. Make a drawing below.
Low Power Observation:
6. Lastly, switch to high power (40X). Make sure your paramecium is in the center of your low power
field of view before you switch to the high power lens. If you lose the image, go back to the low
power lens, focus it, put it in the center, switch to the high power lens, and use fine focus only.
7. Observe how much of the paramecium you can see now. Make a drawing below.
High Power Observation:
2-6
Answer the parts of Question #8 with either “Increased” or “Decreased”
8. As you increased the magnification, what happened to the:

(A) working distance (distance between the lens and specimen)?
(B) field size (how much of the slide in your field of view)?
(C) image brightness and resolution (clearness of the image)?
Estimating the Size of the Field
1. Switch to the scanning lens on your microscope, lower the stage, and remove the slide.
2. Obtain a metric ruler and place it under the stage clips with the millimeters (smallest marks)
over the opening in the stage.
3. Switch to the low power lens and raise the stage until the millimeters are in focus.
4. Count the number of millimeters that will fit in your low power field of view. The
millimeters are counted as the spaces between the dark lines. Record the number below.
Diameter of Low Power Field of View = ____________mm
5. To calculate the diameter of your low power field of view in micrometers, multiply your
answer in #4 by 1,000.
Diameter of Low Power Field of View =
____________mm x 1,000 = ____________µm
6. Lower the stage completely and remove the ruler.
7. Place the paramecium slide on the microscope and bring into focus using the low power
lens.
8. Choose one paramecium cell and estimate its length and width in µm (based on the diameter
of the entire field of view).
Example: if the low power field of view was 1000µm and the paramecium cell occupied
one-half of the field of view, you could estimate the length to be 500µm. If it occupied
one-fourth of the field of view, you could estimate the length to be 250µm.
Length = ____________µm Width = ____________µm

2-7
The Lens Effect
1. Place the “Letter e” slide in the stage clips (slide label right side up).
2. Get the letter “e” in focus using the low power lens.
3. Observe the position of the letter. Make a drawing below.
Letter “e” Observation:
4. How does the position of the letter viewed through the microscope differ from the actual
position of the letter on the slide?
5. Looking through the microscope, move your slide to the right.
In which direction does the image move? _________________
6. Looking through the microscope, move your slide forward (away from you).
In which direction does the image move? _________________
The mirrors in the microscope flip and reverse the image before it reaches your eyes. This is
called the lens effect. This may be a little confusing at first, but with practice you will learn to
move the slide in the desired direction with no problem.
2-8
Perceiving Depth and the Depth of Field
1. Obtain a slide with three colored threads crossed and get the image into focus on low power.
2. Adjust the light with the diaphragm, if necessary, to increase the contrast of the threads.
3. Move the slide so that the area where all three threads overlap is in the center of your field of
view and adjust the image so that it is in clear focus.
4. Switch to the high power lens and use the fine adjustment knob to fine-tune the image. Move
the slide so you can see all three colors at once. Note: you will only be able to see a very
small portion of each color.
5. Looking through the microscope, turn the fine adjustment knob to lower the stage just until
the threads are out of focus. Now, slowly roll the stage back up noting which color thread
comes into clear focus first, then second, then last. The first thread to come into focus when
you raise the stage is the one that is on top. The second thread to come into focus is the one
in the middle.
Record your observations, relative to which color of thread is uppermost, middle, and lowest.
Top thread color __________________________
Middle thread color _______________________
Bottom thread color _______________________
There is always a certain amount of distance between the cover glass and the slide. This distance
becomes more apparent when you increase the magnification of the specimen.
Put out your hand in front of you so you can see your hand and the wall behind it. Can you get
your hand and the distant wall into clear focus at the same time? No. This is similar to what you
are experiencing when trying to view a specimen on high power. You cannot get the entire
specimen into focus at the same time. The portion of the slide that is in clear focus at any given
time is the depth of field.
When you view the various tissue slides in upcoming lab exercises, you will likely be viewing
more than one layer of cells. When viewing these slides on high power, you will need to move
the fine adjustment back and forth slowly to view the entire slide.
2-9
Determining Total Magnification
Total magnification is the total number of times the specimen you are viewing is magnified. To
determine the total magnification you multiply the ocular lens magnification times the
objective lens magnification. On your microscopes, the ocular lens always magnifies 10X.
Example: 10X (ocular) x 4X (objective) = 40X (total magnification)
Scanning Low power High power Oil immersion

Magnification of
Objective Lens
Magnification of
Ocular Lens
Total
Magnification
Preparation of a Wet Mount
1. Obtain a clean microscope slide, a cover slip, and a toothpick.
2. Place a small drop of methylene blue stain on the clean microscope slide.
3. Take a clean toothpick and gently scrape the inside of your cheek.
4. Roll the toothpick with the cheek scrapings into the drop of stain on your slide and stir the contents
gently.
5. Put the toothpick into the coffee can provided on your lab bench.
6. Carefully lower a cover slip over the stain/cheek scrapings mixture.
Note: Slowly lowering the cover slip at about a 450 degree angle helps avoid air bubbles getting
trapped beneath the cover slip.
This is called a temporary, wet mount, since a cover slip was placed over a specimen within a
liquid.
2-10
7. Observe your cheek scrapings under the scanning lens (4X), the low power lens (10X), and the
high power lens (40X). Remember to put the cells in the center of your field of view before
increasing magnification.
8. Find a few isolated cheek cells. You may see clumps of cells and/or crumpled cells. Try to find a
few whole, flat cells out by themselves and focus on them. You should see roundish cells, with a
stained nucleus in the center.
9. Make drawings of your cheek cells below.
10. When you are finished, return the scanning lens to position, lower the stage, remove the slide and
place the slide in the coffee can provided on your lab bench.
Scanning Observation:
Low Power Observation:
High Power Observation:
2-11
Cell Structure
All living organisms are composed of cells. The cell is the basic unit of structure and function
for all living things.
Know the following parts of the cell on the cell model. You do not need to know the functions
in lab. You will learn those in lecture.
1. Nuclear Pore 7. Ribosomes (red specks)

2. Nuclear Membrane 8. Mitochondrion
3. Chromatin 9. Golgi Apparatus
4. Nucleolus 12. Centrioles
5. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum 17. Cytoplasm
6. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum 18. Plasma Membrane
2-12
Observing Various Cells and Cell Structures
Procedure:
1. Obtain prepared slides of simple squamous epithelium, cardiac muscle cells, human blood,
and sperm.
2. Observe each slide under the microscope with the scanning lens, low power lens, and high
power lens. Carefully note the similarities and differences between the different cell types.
Note the sizes and shapes of the cells and the position of the nucleus.
3. Make a drawing of each type of cells, as seen on high power. Label the visible cell parts.
Note: You will not see very much detail due to the small size of the cells.
Simple Squamous Epithelium Cells Observation:
Cardiac Muscle Cells Observation:
Human Blood Cells Observation:
Sperm Cells Observation:

2-13
Lab Exercise 3
Epithelial Tissues
Connective Tissue Proper
Textbook Reference: See Chapter X

4 5
 Be able to identify each type of epithelial tissue on a microscope slide (or photo) and give
its location and function in the body
 Be able to identify the specified features for each epithelial tissue on a microscope slide
or photo
 Be able to identify each type of connective tissue proper on a microscope slide (or photo)
and give its location and function in the body
 Be able to identify the specified features for each connective tissue proper on a
microscope slide or photo
NOTE: On the exam, you may be asked to give the name, location, and function of the tissues.
If you miss the name of the tissue, you may also miss the location and function. Make sure you
can correctly identify all 12 tissues in this lab!
3-1
Epithelial Tissues
Epithelial tissue covers surfaces/organs, and lines cavities, organs, and tubules.
Epithelial tissue is classified by the cell shape and by the number of cell layers.
Cell Shapes:
Squamous cells are flat.
Cuboidal cells are cubelike.
Columnar cells are tall and column-like.
Cell Layers:
Simple epithelial tissue has one layer of cells.
Stratified epithelial tissue has many layers of cells.
Types of Epithelial Tissues
Simple Squamous Epithelium
Identification: a single layer of

small flat cells arranged around
a large empty space
Location: lungs (lining the

alveoli, or air sacs) and lining of
blood vessels
Function: gas exchange

(diffusion)
Features to know: nuclei
3-2
Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

cubelike cells with large round
nuclei (arrows), usually
arranged in a circle (tubule)
Location: kidney tubules
Function: absorption and

secretion
Simple Columnar Epithelium

tall, column-like cells with a
single, neat row of oval nuclei,
usually toward the base of the
cell (in bracket)
Location: jejunum of small

intestine (in lining of intestine)
Function: absorption and

secretion
Features to know: goblet cells

(1), nuclei (2), microvilli (3)
3-3
Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium

cells of differing heights
(bracketed), with nuclei in
irregular “rows”, cilia cover outer
surface of cells
Location: trachea (in inner

lining)
Function: secretion and

movement of mucus
Features to know: cilia (1),

goblet cells (2), nuclei (3)
Stratified Squamous Epithelium
Identification: many layers of

cells; cells toward surface are
flattened and become more
cuboidal toward bottom of tissue;
cells darker at bottom of tissue
Location: lining mouth and

esophagus
Function: protection from

abrasion and infection
3-4
Transitional Epithelium
Identification: many layers of

cells of varying and often
irregular shape; surface in
urinary bladder appears bumpy
Location: ureter and urinary

bladder
Function: elasticity; stretch and

recoil
You will NOT need to know anything about stratified cuboidal or stratified columnar
epithelium in this lab.
Identifying Epithelial Tissues Under the Microscope
Procedure:
Simple Squamous Epithelium
1. Obtain a simple squamous (or lung) slide and bring into focus using the scanning lens
(4X). Look for flattened rings of cells around white spaces.
2. Focus on the cells, position them to the center of your field of view, and switch to the low
power lens (10X).
3. Focus on a few cells, position them to the center of your field of view, and switch to the high
power lens (40X). Notice that the cells are flattened and irregular in shape with a prominent
nucleus.
4. Make a drawing of the tissue on high power in the space below. Label the nucleus.
3-5
Simple Cuboidal Epithelium
1. Obtain a simple cuboidal (kidney) slide and bring into focus using the scanning lens
(4X). Look for squarish cells with dark nuclei, arranged in a circle.
power lens (10X).
power lens (40X).
4. Make a drawing of the tissue on high power in the space below. Label the nucleus.
Simple Columnar Epithelium
1. Obtain a simple columnar (jejunum) slide and bring into focus using the scanning lens
(4X). Look for column-like cells with large, dark nuclei arranged in a neat row.
power lens (10X).
power lens (40X).
4. Make a drawing of the tissue on high power in the space below. Label the microvilli, goblet
cells, and nuclei.
3-6
Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium
1. Obtain a pseudostratified columnar (trachea) slide and bring into focus using the scanning
lens (4X). Look for many dark nuclei toward the outer edge of the tissue.
power lens (10X).
power lens (40X).
4. Make a drawing of the tissue on high power in the space below. Label the cilia, goblet cells,
and nuclei.
Transitional Epithelium
1. Obtain a transitional (urinary bladder) slide and bring into focus using the scanning
lens (4X). Look for many layers of cells surrounding the central white area.
power lens (10X).
power lens (40X).
4. Make a drawing of the tissue on high power in the space below. Label the nuclei.
3-7
Connective Tissue Proper
While epithelial tissue has a high degree of cellularity, connective tissue has more extracellular
matrix between the cells.
Cells visible in connective tissue proper include:
Fibroblasts
Lymphoblasts
Adipocytes
Connective tissue also consists of fibers in the matrix The fibers found in connective tissue
include:
Collagen fibers
Elastic fibers
Types of Connective Tissue Proper
Areolar Connective Tissue
Identification: loose arrangement of

thick fibers (collagen) and thin
fibers (elastic & reticular) fibers that
randomly criss-cross
Location: surrounding most organs,

underneath epithelia
Functions: wraps, cushions, holds

defensive cells, holds fluids
Fibers present: collagen fibers,

elastic fibers, reticular fibers
Features to know: coallagen fibers

(1), elastic fibers (2), fibroblasts (3)
3-8
Reticular Connective Tissue
Identification: dark-staining
reticular fibers (2), many
nuclei of lymphoblasts and
other cells (1); overall
brownish color is characteristic
of this tissue
Location: spleen, bone

marrow, lymph nodes
Function: forms a scaffolding

to support loose tissue cells
Fibers present: reticular fibers

(2)
Features to know:
lymphoblasts (1)
Adipose Connective Tissue
Identification: greatly enlarged

cells, nearly the entire volume
of which is a fat vacuole (white
space); few nuclei will be
visible
Location: underneath skin, in

breasts, surrounding eyes &
kidneys
Functions: energy storage,

cushioning, insulation
Fibers present: none visible
Features to know: adipocyte

nucleus (arrow)
3-9
Dense Regular Connective Tissue
Identification: densely packed

parallel fibers with fibroblasts
scattered throughout
Location: ligaments and

tendons
Functions: attaches bone to

bone or bone to muscle; resists
tensile (pulling)forces in a
single direction
Fibers present: collagen fibers
Features to know: fibroblast(1)
Dense Irregular Connective Tissue
Identification: irregular clumps

of collagen fibers, separated by
space; overall blotchy
appearance
Location: dermis of skin
Function: provides strength;

can withstand tensile forces in
many directions
Fibers present: collagen fibers
Features to know: fibroblasts,

if visible
3-10
Elastic Connective Tissue
Identification: densely packed

collagen fibers with distinct dark,
usually zigzagging lines of elastic
fibers; similar to dense regular
connective tissue
Location: aorta
Function: elasticity
Fibers to know: collagen fibers,

elastic fibers
Features to know: fibroblasts
Identifying Connective Tissue Proper Under the Microscope
Procedure:
Areolar (Loose) Connective Tissue
1. Obtain an areolar connective tissue slide and bring into focus using the scanning lens
(4X). Look for criss-crossing fibers of thick and thin fibers with much space around the
fibers.
2. Focus on the tissue, position it in the center of your field of view, and switch to the low
power lens (10X).
3. Focus on the tissue, position it in the center of your field of view, and switch to the high
power lens (40X).
4. Make a drawing of the tissue on high power in the space below. Label the fibroblast nuclei,
collagen fibers, and elastic fibers.
3-11
Reticular Connective Tissue
1. Obtain a reticular connective tissue slide and bring into focus using the scanning lens
(4X). Look for a brownish tissue with many nuclei and dark fibers.
power lens (10X).
power lens (40X).
4. Make a drawing of the tissue on high power in the space below. Label the fibroblast nuclei,
and reticular fibers.
Adipose Connective Tissue
1. Obtain an adipose connective tissue slide and bring into focus using the scanning lens
(4X). Look for thin cells surrounding a large, round fat vacuole.
power lens (10X).
power lens (40X).
4. Make a drawing of the tissue on high power in the space below. Label the adipocyte nuclei.
3-12
Dense Regular Connective Tissue
1. Obtain a dense regular connective tissue (tendon or ligament) slide and bring into focus
using the scanning lens (4X). Look for many fibers running in the same direction.
power lens (10X).
power lens (40X).
4. Make a drawing of the tissue on high power in the space below. Label the fibroblast nuclei
and collagen fibers.
Dense Irregular Connective Tissue
1. Obtain a dense irregular connective tissue (skin) slide and bring into focus using the
scanning lens (4X). Look for scattered patches of collagen fibers.
power lens (10X).
power lens (40X).
and collagen fibers.
3-13
Elastic Connective Tissue
1. Obtain an elastic connective tissue (aorta) slide and bring into focus using the
scanning lens (4X). Look for the dark-stained elastic fibers.
power lens (10X).
power lens (40X).
and elastic fibers.
3-14
Bio137 — Human Anatomy & Physiology I
Epithelial Tissues
Fill in the following table.
Tissue Cell Shape1 Layers2 Special Features3 Functions Locations4
Simple
Squamous
Stratified
Squamous
Simple
Cuboidal
Stratified
Cuboidal
(Not in lab!)
Simple
Columnar
Pseudostratified
Columnar
Stratified
Columnar
(Not in lab!)
Transitional
1 Flattened, cube-shaped, or column-shaped

2 One or multiple
3 Special features include any additional identifiable structures except nuclei (which you should be able to
identify for all tissues). These may include cilia, microvilli, and goblet cells.
4 For lab, only need locations of the specific tissues on the slides, not all possible locations.
BIO 137 — Human Anatomy & Physiology I Lab
Connective Tissues Proper

Tissue Cell Visible Distinctive Functions Locations

Types1 Fibers2 Features3
Areolar
(Loose) CT
Adipose
Tissue
Reticular CT
Dense
Regular CT
Dense
Irregular CT
(Dense
Irreg.)
Elastic CT
1
Cell types that are present in tissue may include: adipocytes, fibrocytes/fibroblasts, lymphoblasts
2
Collagen, elastic, and/or reticular
3
Any features that would be helpful in remembering this tissue
Lab Exercise 4
Membrane Transport Mechanisms and Osmosis
The Cell Cycle
Textbook Reference: See Chapter X

3 4
 Be able to define Brownian motion
 Be able to explain the criteria for passive transport and how certain factors influence it
 Be able to name and explain the different types of passive transport
 Be able to explain osmosis and explain which way water will move in or out of a cell
 Be able to define hypotonic, hypertonic, and isotonic, and explain what happens to a cell
when placed in each of these solutions
 Be able to explain the results of the osmosis demonstration
 Be able to name all phases in the cell cycle and explain what happens in each phase
 Be able to identify the phases of the cell cycle on the lab models
 Be able to identify the specified cell structures on the lab models
 Be able to identify the phases of the cell cycle on microscope slides
4-1
Membrane Transport Mechanisms & Osmosis
Brownian Motion
In 1827, the English botanist Robert Brown noticed that pollen grains suspended in water jiggled
about under the lens of the microscope, following a zigzag path. This zigzag motion of the
particles resulted from collisions with smaller particles and is referred to as Brownian motion.
Although the individual molecules cannot be seen, the random motion of the molecules colliding
with one another can be observed. The higher the temperature of the liquid, the faster the
movement of the particles.
We will not be observing Brownian motion in this lab, but know the definition of Brownian
motion.
 Answer Questions 1 – 2 on your “Membrane Transport & Osmosis” homework sheet.
Passive Transport
Passive transport involves the movement of particles from an area of higher concentration to an
area of lower concentration, without the input of energy.
Simple diffusion: Simple diffusion is a type of passive transport. Molecules simply move from
where they are more concentrated to where they are less concentrated, down the concentration
gradient (the difference between high and low concentration).
In simple diffusion, molecules may move through a solid (such as gel-like agar), a liquid (such as
water or blood), or a gas (such as the air).
Several factors can affect the rate of diffusion. Some of these include temperature, particle size,
molecular weight, and concentration of particles.
The higher the temperature, the faster the rate of diffusion.

The smaller the particle size, the faster the rate of diffusion.
The smaller the molecular weight, the faster the rate of diffusion.
The more concentrated the particles, the faster the rate of diffusion.
 Answer Questions 3 – 4 on your “Membrane Transport & Osmosis” homework sheet.
4-2
Observing the Simple Diffusion of Dye Through Water
Your instructor will do this activity as a class demonstration.
1. Your instructor will place a few crystals of potassium permanganate dye into a large beaker of
water.
2. Observe the movement of the dye in the water. At first you can differentiate between the dye
and the water. As the dye continues to diffuse through the water (down the concentration
gradient), the dye particles move from where they are more concentrated to where they
are less concentrated, without an input of energy.
3. Observe the beaker again toward the end of the lab period. The dye molecules should have
reached equilibrium and are now equally concentrated throughout the water.
4. How does the temperature of the water affect the movement of the dye molecules?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
Facilitated Diffusion
To travel in or out of a cell, molecules must move across the plasma membrane.
The plasma membrane is selectively permeable. It acts as a barrier to the movement of some
molecules, but allows other molecules to pass through. You could say it “selects” what
ions/molecules can enter and leave the cell.
If the ions/molecules require the aid of a membrane-protein to move in or out of the cell, we call
the movement facilitated diffusion. The movement is facilitated (or “helped”) by membrane-
proteins.
 Answer Question 5 on your “Membrane Transport & Osmosis” homework sheet.
4-3
Osmosis
The diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane is called osmosis. Water will
move from where it is more concentrated to where it is less concentrated across the plasma
membrane.
Since most solvents contain water, osmosis is the movement of solvent across the membrane.
Water moves from the side of the membrane that has a lower solute concentration to the side of
the membrane that has a higher solute concentration.
Hypotonic describes the solution with a lower solute concentration; higher water concentration
Hypertonic describes the solution with a higher solute concentration; lower water concentration
Isotonic describes the solution with an equal solute concentration; equal water concentration
Water moves from a hypotonic solution to a hypertonic solution (Hypo  Hyper) across a
selectively permeable membrane.
If you place a cell (70% water/30% solute) in a hypotonic solution (90% water/10% solute), the
cell will gain water and swell. Water moves by osmosis from the solution (which has a higher
water concentration) into the cell (which has a lower water concentration).
If you place a cell (70% water/30%solute) in a hypertonic solution (40% water/60% solute), the
cell will lose water and shrink (crenate). Water moves by osmosis from the cell (which has a
higher water concentration) into the solution (which has a lower water concentration).
If you place a cell (70% water/30% solute) in an isotonic solution (70% water/30% solute), the
cell will not gain or lose water and will stay the same. Water moves in and out of the cell at
the same rate, so there is no net gain or loss of water.
4-4
Observing Osmosis Through a Selectively Permeable Membrane
Your instructor will do this activity as a class demonstration. You will record the data on your
“Membrane Transport & Osmosis” homework sheet (Question #7).
Procedure:
1. On the front desk, you should see three beakers with the following solutions:
Beaker #1 – 0% sucrose solution
2. Your instructor will fill the first bag of dialysis tubing (a selectively permeable membrane)
with 40% sucrose solution. The bag will be weighed on the balance before the instructor
places it into Beaker #1.
3. Next, your instructor will fill the second bag with a 0% sucrose solution. The bag will be
weighed on the balance before being placed into Beaker #2.
4. Finally, your instructor will fill a third bag with 0% sucrose solution. The bag will be
weighed on the balance before being placed into Beaker #3.
5. Your instructor will leave the bags in the beakers for approximately 1 hour.
6. After 1 hour, your instructor will take each bag out of the beaker one-by-one, dry off the
excess water on the outside of the bag, and weigh each bag on the balance.
7. Calculate and record the change in weight for each bag.
 Answer Questions 6 & 8 – 11 on your “Membrane Transport & Osmosis” homework sheet.
Filtration
Filtration is a passive transport process where water and solutes move from an area of higher
hydrostatic (fluid) pressure to an area of lower hydrostatic (fluid) pressure. The water and
solutes will move through pores in the membrane, down a pressure gradient.
Example: Coffee moves by filtration through the pores of a coffee filter from the side of the
filter that has the highest (gravitational) pressure to the side of the filter that has the lowest
pressure.
4-5
The Cell Cycle
Most of your cells divide for growth and repair. The stages that a cell goes through from the
time it is formed until it divides is called the cell cycle.
Two main stages of the cell cycle include:

Interphase
Mitotic Phase
Interphase is sub-divided into 3 stages:

G1 (gap 1)
S (synthesis)
G2 (gap 2)
In G1 of interphase, the cell is growing and doing its job – making proteins and undergoing
routine metabolism
In S of interphase, DNA replicates. Each chromosome makes an exact copy of itself.
The duplicated chromosomes are held together by a structure called a centromere. As long as
the duplicated chromosomes are held together by the centromere, they are referred to as sister
chromatids.
4-6
In G2 of interphase, the cell continues to make proteins, undergo routine metabolism, and also
prepares the cell for division by making more cytoplasm and replicating the centrioles.
The mitotic phase includes:

Mitosis
Cytokinesis
Mitosis is sub-divided into 4 stages:

Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
Prophase centrioles move to opposite poles

chromatin condenses into visible chromosomes
mitotic spindles (microtubules) form
nuclear envelope and nucleolus disappear
Metaphase sister chromatids line up at the metaphase plate (equator) of the cell
Anaphase sister chromatids separate and are pulled toward opposite poles of the cell
Telophase chromosomes relax to form chromatin

spindle microtubules disappear
nuclear envelope and nucleolus reappear
cleavage furrow forms, which is a “pinching-in” of the plasma membrane that
will eventually separate the two daughter cells
Cytokinesis is the division of the cytoplasm. As the cleavage furrow pinches the cell in two, the
cytoplasm divides so that each new daughter cell has enough cytoplasm to begin it’s life as a
new cell.
The formation of the cleavage furrow and cytokinesis begin at the end of anaphase and continue
to the end of telophase.
4-7
Identifying Interphase and the Mitotic Stages on Mitosis Models
In the lab are interphase and mitosis models. Know the name of the stage represented by each
model.
Be able to identify the following cell structures on the models:
Cytoplasm Centrosomes (Centrioles)

Nucleus Mitotic Spindles (Spindle Microtubules)
Nucleolus Cleavage Furrow
Chromosomes
Interphase Early Prophase
Late Prophase Metaphase
4-8
Early Anaphase Late Anaphase
Telophase Interphase
C = Cytoplasm N = Nucleolus
Ch = Chromosome Z1, Z2 = Centrosome (Centrioles)
E = Cleavage Furrow AF, AS = Mitotic Spindle (Spindle Microtubules)
K = Nucleus
4-9
Identifying Interphase and the Mitotic Stages on Onion Root (Allium) Tip Slides
Procedure:
1. Place the onion root tip slide on the microscope and position the specimen over the opening in
the stage.
2. Using the scanning lens (4X), bring one of the root tips into focus (there may be 2 -3 onion
root tips on your slide). It is best to look toward the bottom of your onion root tip, but not at
the very tip.
3. You should see vertical columns of cells. Each small box-like structure is a cell. The cells
will be in various stages of the cell cycle.
4. Position the root tip in the center of your field of view and switch to the low power lens
(10X). You should be able to see the cells a bit more clearly now. The dark structures around
the center of each cell (box) is either the nucleus or the visible chromosomes, depending upon
the stage.
5. Position the cells in the center of your field of view and switch to the high power lens (40X).
6. Use the fine adjustment to make your image as clear as possible.
7. Locate cells in each of the following stages on your slide: interphase, prophase, metaphase,
anaphase, telophase.
Note: You may have to move your slide around while viewing it to find all 5 phases. You
should be able to find all 5 phases on one root tip, but if not, look at the other root tips on
your slide.
Examples:
In this onion root tip, 4 cells are in Interphase,

2 cells are in Prophase, and 1 cell is in
Anaphase.
Can you spot the phases?
4-10
In these onion root tip cells, 1-2 are in
Interphase, 3-5 are in Prophase, 6-7 are in
Metaphase, 8 is in Anaphase, 9-10 are in
Telophase.
In the onion root tip, a cleavage furrow does

not form during telophase. Instead a cell
plate forms between the two sets of
chromosomes.
8. Make a drawing of a cell from your onion root tip slide in each of stages of the cell cycle.
Interphase Prophase Metaphase
Anaphase Telophase
4-11
Bio 137 — Human Anatomy & Physiology I
Membrane Transport & Osmosis Study Sheet
Directions: Before lab, answer questions 1 – 9. During lab, answer questions 10-14.
1. The zigzag motion of particles resulting from collisions with smaller particles is called:
_____________________________
2. What effect would increasing temperature have on Brownian motion? ________________
3. Define diffusion:
4. Diffusion involves movement of the: (circle one) solute or solvent
5. For molecules with a given amount of kinetic energy, small molecules move more rapidly
than large molecules. This difference is even more pronounced when diffusing through
a semi-solid substance, such as agar, that can hinder the movement of molecules: small
molecules can slip through the gaps more easily than large ones.
Given the following solutions:

potassium permanganate (molecular weight = 158)
methylene blue (mw = 320)
congo red (mw = 697)
Which would move the slowest and go the furthest through agar? _____________________
6. How would temperature affect diffusion rates?
Higher temperature: (circle one) increase decrease stay the same
Lower temperature: (circle one) increase decrease stay the same
7. A _________________ ____________________ membrane acts as a barrier to the

movement of some molecules but allows other molecules to pass through.
8. Define osmosis:
9. Osmosis involves movement of the: (circle one) solute or solvent

Bio 137 — Human Anatomy & Physiology I Page 2
10. Record the results from your instructor’s demonstration of osmosis in the table below:
Sucrose Sucrose The bag solution is

Concentration Concentration ___* to the beaker
Weight at Weight at Change in
in in solution.
Start End Weight
Dialysis Bag Beaker
* isotonic, hypotonic, or hypertonic
11. Predict which bag(s) will gain weight and which should lose weight:
Gain weight: ___________________ Lose weight: _________________________
12. a) If the observed results matched your prediction, explain why.
b) If the observed results did not match your prediction, explain some possible reasons.
A B
13. The two artificial cells above are separated by a selectively permeable membrane that is
permeable to water but impermeable to sodium chloride (NaCl). Cell A contains a 30% NaCl
solution, while cell B contains a 20% NaCl solution.
a. Cell A is hypotonic / hypertonic / isotonic compared to cell B.
b. Draw an arrow on the diagram to indicate in which direction water would move.
14. If you were hospitalized and needed to be given fluids intravenously (IV), would you
want that fluid to be hypertonic to your cells? (circle one) Yes No
Explain what would occur if you were to receive hypertonic IV fluid, including the
direction of fluid movement and how it would affect the cell.
Lab Exercise 5
Axial Skeleton
Textbook Reference: See Chapter 8
Be able to name all the listed bone and bone features on the skull models.
Be able to name the listed parts of the ribcage and sternum on the models in the lab.
Be able to name the hyoid bone, if shown individually.
Be able to name the different vertebrae, if shown individually, as given in this lab exercise.
Be able to name the listed features of each vertebra on the vertebrae in the lab.
Be able to name the sacrum and the listed parts of the sacrum on the models in the lab.
Be able to name the coccyx, if individually shown.
5-1
The following tables contain terms that are useful when learning the various bone features. The
terms will NOT be on the test. They are simply here for you to use when learning the names of
the bone features.
5-2
Axial Skeleton
The axial skeleton consists of the skull, the ribcage, and the vertebrae.
The Skull
Know the following bones/bone features on the skull models.
1. frontal bone 10. sphenoid bone 21. coronoid process

2. parietal bone 11. zygomatic bone 22. mandibular condyle
3. occipital bone 12. nasal bone 23. coronal suture
4. temporal bone 13. maxilla 25. lambdoid suture
5. mastoid process 14. lacrimal bone 28. squamous suture
8. mandibular fossa 15. ethmoid bone 42. external auditory meatus
9. styloid process 20. mandible 52. mental foramen
62. greater wing (of sphenoid)
5-3
3. occipital bone 10. sphenoid bone 19. occipital condyles
4. temporal bone 11. zygomatic bone 30. zygomatic arch
5. mastoid process 13. maxilla 47. carotid canal
8. manibular fossa 16. vomer 48. jugular foramen
9. styloid process 17. palantine bone 62. greater wing
5-4
1. frontal bone 48. jugular foramen 63. sella turcica
3. occipital bone 58. crista galli 67. internal auditory meatus
4. temporal bone 59. cribriform plate 68. hypoglossal canal
10. sphenoid bone 61. lesser wing 69. foramen magnum
15. ethmoid bone 62. greater wing
5-5
1. frontal bone 15. ethmoid bone 39b. inferior orbital fissure
10. sphenoid bone 16. vomer 52. mental foramen
11. zygomatic bone 20. mandible 62. greater wing
12. nasal bone 30. zygomatic arch
13. maxilla 39a. superior orbital fissure
5-6
2. parietal bone
3. occipital bone
24. sagittal suture
25. lambdoid suture
5-7
Rib Cage
Know the following bones of the ribcage on the ribcage model:
The first seven pairs of ribs are true ribs because they attach directly to the sternum via the costal
cartilage.
The last five pairs of ribs are false ribs because they either attach indirectly to the sternum or not at all.
The last two pairs of false ribs are floating ribs because they do not attach to the sternum at all.
5-8
The Sternum
The sternum is the breastbone. It is composed of three bones fused together.

The top bone is the manubrium. It has three notches, a jugular notch at the top for the jugular vein,
and two clavicular notches, which articulate with the clavicles.
The middle bone is the body.
The bottom bone is the xiphoid process. It is usually pointed at the bottom and is used as a point of
reference for the Heimlich maneuver.
5-9
The Ribs
The anterior end of a rib is the end that articulates with the costal cartilage.
The rib head articulates with the thoracic vertebra of the spinal column.
The tubercle is a small bump on the posterior end of the rib that articulates with the vertebra below the
vertebra which with the head articulates.
The Hyoid Bone
The hyoid bone is found between the chin and the thyroid gland on the anterior neck. This U-shaped
bone serves as an attachment site for several muscles that help elevate the larynx during swallowing. It
also supports the tongue. The hyoid bone is the only bone in the body that does not articulate with
another bone. During an autopsy, a fractured hyoid bone is an indicator of strangulation.
5-10
The Vertebrae
There are 7 cervical vertebrae, 12 thoracic vertebrae, 5 lumbar vertebrae, 1 sacrum, and 1 coccyx.
Cervical vertebrae
The atlas, the first cervical vertebra (C1), articulates with the occipital condyles of the skull. It is
the only vertebra without a body. It has a very large vertebral foramen through which the dens of
the axis protrudes at the anterior end. It is also the only vertebra that does not have a spinous
process. Instead, it has a posterior tubercle.
The axis, the second cervical vertebra (C2), articulates with the atlas. It has a prominent,
toothlike process, called the dens, that projects superiorly from the body of the vertebra and fits
into the anterior portion of the vertebral foramen of the atlas.
All 7 cervical vertebrae have a vertebral foramen that is larger than the body (with the
exception of the atlas, which has no body). The spinous process of the cervical vertebrae
(except the atlas) is short and bifid (forked). Another distinctive feature of cervical vertebrae are
the transverse foramina, two additional openings in the transverse processes.
The thoracic vertebrae are a bit larger than the cervical vertebrae (to support more body
weight). The vertebral foramen is round, and the body is usually heart-shaped. The thoracic
vertebrae become larger as they get closer to the lumbar vertebrae. They have a distinctively
long, slender (triangular) spinous process. The transverse processes are long, thick, and
strong. When viewed from the side, thoracic vertebrae resemble an elephant.
The lumbar vertebrae have large, thick bodies (to support much body weight). The large body
has a wide oval shape. The vertebral foramen is small and somewhat triangular. The spinous
process is thick, broad, flattened, and rounded at the tip. When viewed from the side, the lumbar
vertebrae resemble a moose.
The sacrum is a large, triangular bone that articulates with the fifth lumbar vertebra. It consists
of five fused vertebrae. It is concave on the anterior side, to give increased capacity to the pelvic
cavity. There are four pairs of sacral foramina, for the passage of spinal nerves. The dorsal
(posterior) side of the sacrum is convex. At the top of the dorsal side is the superior sacral
canal, which forms a passageway for the spinal cord. At the inferior end is the sacral hiatus,
which is an opening for the exit of inferior spinal nerves.
The coccyx consists of four (or five) fused vertebrae below the sacrum. They diminish in size
from the first to the fourth. The coccyx is also known as the “tailbone”.
5-11
5-12
The Vertebrae
5-13
The Sacrum and Coccyx
5-14
Bones and Markings of the Axial Skeleton

The Skull The Vertebral Column
1. Frontal bone Cervical vertebrae (7)

2. Parietal bone body
3. Occipital bone spinous process
19. occipital condyles transverse process
68. hypoglossal canal transverse foramen
69. foramen magnum vertebral foramen
4. Temporal bone Atlas
5. mastoid process anterior tubercle
8. mandibular fossa posterior tubercle
9. styloid process Axis
30. zygomatic arch dens
42. external auditory meatus Thoracic vertebrae (12)
67. internal auditory meatus body
47. carotid canal spinous process
48. jugular foramen transverse process
11. Zygomatic bone vertebral foramen
12. Nasal bone Lumbar vertebrae (5)
13. Maxilla body
39b. inferior orbital fissure spinous process
14. Lacrimal bone transverse process
15. Ethmoid bone vertebral foramen
58. crista galli Sacrum
59. cribriform plate body
16. Vomer sacral hiatus
17. Palatine bone superior sacral canal
10. Sphenoid bone sacral foramina
39a. superior orbital fissure Coccyx
61. lesser wing
62. greater wing The Thoracic Cage
63. sella turcica
20. Mandible Sternum
52. mental foramen body/gladiolus
21. coronoid process manubrium
22. mandibular condyle clavicular notch
jugular notch
Sutures xiphoid process
23. Coronal Suture
24. Sagittal Suture Ribs
25. Lambdoid Suture anterior end
28. Squamous Suture head
tubercle (articular surface)
true ribs (7 pairs)
The Hyoid Bone false ribs (5 pairs)
floating ribs (2 pairs)
Lab Exercise 6
Appendicular Skeleton
Articulations (Joints)
Textbook Reference: See Chapters 8 and 9
Be able to name all the listed bones and bone features of the shoulder girdle.
Be able to differentiate between a right scapula and a left scapula.
Be able to name all the listed bones and bone features of the proximal limbs (humerus and femur).
Be able to differentiate between a right humerus and a left humerus.
Be able to differentiate between a right femur and a left femur.
Be able to name all the listed bones and bone features of the distal limbs (radius, ulna, tibia, and fibula).
Be able to identify/name the three bones that make up the pelvis.
Be able to name all the listed bone features of the pelvis.
Be able to differentiate between a male pelvis and a female pelvis.
Be able to name all the listed bones of the hands and feet.
Be able to name all the listed parts of a synovial joint on the synovial joint model of the knee joint.
Be able to name the listed ligaments of the shoulder joint, hip joint, knee joint, and elbow joint.
6-1
Appendicular Skeleton
The Appendicular Skeleton includes the shoulder girdle, upper limbs, pelvic girdle, and lower limbs.
**Know all the listed bones and bone features on the bones in the lab.
The Shoulder (Pectoral) Girdle includes the scapula (shoulder blade) and the clavicle (collar bone).
Right Scapula
Acromial process Lateral border

Coracoid process Medial border
Glenoid fossa Spine
Clavicle
Acromial end Sternal end
**Be able to distinguish the right scapula from the left scapula.
In order to determine if a scapula is right or left, orient it so the glenoid fossa (articulating surface)
faces laterally (outward) and the spine is posterior (toward back) and superior (upper). The coracoid
process should be superior and anterior.
6-2
Proximal Limbs (Femur – 2 on left and Humerus – 2 on right)
**Be able to distinguish the right femur and humerus from the left femur and humerus.
Identification: These two bones both are large and have a distinct rounded head, allowing for a great
range of movement. The femur has a distinct neck separating the head from the rest of the bone, while
the humerus lacks such a neck.
Determining side: In order to distinguish right from left, first orient the bones so that the rounded head
is superior (up) and pointing medially (toward the body's midline). Then you will need to determine the
anterior vs. posterior side. On the femur, look for the patellar surface, which is anterior. Also note how
the articulating surfaces of the condyles extends far back on the posterior side (since the knee bends
back but not forward). On the humerus, look for the deep olecranon fossa on the posterior side (where
the olecranon process of the ulna fits in when the elbow is straightened). Both specimens above are
from the right side.
6-3
Distal Limbs (from left to right – Tibia, Fibula, Ulna Radius)
Identification: The tibia is a large, heavy bone and thus potentially confused with the femur or
humerus. Note that its superior end is rather flat-topped and lacks any sort of a rounded head. The other
three bones are more slender and could be confused with each other. The fibula is distinguished by
being longer and proportionately more slender than any other bone (the specimens are not quite to scale
here). Also note that it is enlarged and pointed at both ends. The ulna is best identified by the
distinctive U-shaped notch made by the olecranon and coracoid processes (think U for Ulna). The
radius' most distinctive feature is the nearly perfectly round, flat-topped head (think radial).
Determining side: You only need to tell right from left for the tibia, not the smaller bones. To do so,
first orient the tibia so that the larger flatter end is superior (up). The anterior crest (shin) should of
course be anterior (front). Finally, the medial side can be determined by the medial malleolus
(remember that the malleoli bracket the ankle and since the tibia is the medial bone of the lower limb,
its malleolus must be medial). A right tibia is shown.
6-4
Pelvis – Ilium, Ischium, and Pubis
The photo below indicates the three fused bones that make up the pelvis.
6-5
Pelvis
**Know the bone features of the pelvis listed in the picture below.
In order to determine if a pelvis is right or left, hold it with acetabulum facing laterally and the
obturator foramen inferior (down). Now all you need to do is determine which side is anterior vs
posterior, which can be done by looking for the pubic symphysis (anterior) or the sciatic notches
(posterior). The specimen in the photo is a right pelvic bone.
6-6
The Difference Between a Male Pelvis and a Female Pelvis
**Know the difference between a male pelvis and a female pelvis.
In the pictures below, the male pelvis is on the left and the female pelvis is on the right.
6-7
Hands and Feet
**Know the bones of the hands and feet, as shown in the pictures below.
6-8
Articulations/Joints
Articulations are where two bones join together.

Three structural classifications of joint:
1. Fibrous joints – sutures, tibiofibular joints, radioulnar joints, and gomphosis joints (between tooth
and jaw)
2. Cartilaginous joints – intervertebral joints, pubic symphysis, joint between manubrium and
sternum, and epiphyseal plate
3. Synovial joints – most of the joints of the limbs
Synovial Joint Structure (Knee Joint Model)
**Know the following parts of the synovial joint structure.
1. Synovial Fluid (blue) 6. Lateral Meniscus

2. Synovial Membrane (white) 7. Fibrous Capsule (green)
3. Femur 8. Tibial Collateral Ligament (gray)
4. Tibia 9. Spongy (Cancellous) Bone
5. Medial Meniscus 10. Medullary (Marrow) Cavity (opening)
6-9
Shoulder Joint
**Know the following ligaments of the shoulder joint.
1. Coracohumeral Ligament
2. Glenohumeral Ligament
6-10
Hip Joint
**Know the following ligaments of the hip joint.
1. Iliofemoral Ligament
2. Ischiofemoral Ligament
3. Pubofemoral Ligament
6-11
Knee Joint
**Know the following ligaments and cartilage of the knee joint.
1. Patellar Ligament 5. Posterior Ligament

2. Lateral (Fibular) Collateral Ligament 6. Medial Meniscus
3. Medial (Tibial) Collateral Ligament 7. Lateral Meniscus
4. Anterior Cruciate Ligament

6-12
Elbow Joint
**Know the following ligaments of the elbow joint.
1. Lateral (Radial) Collateral Ligament
2. Medial (Ulnar) Collateral Ligament
6-13
Bones and Markings of the Appendicular Skeleton
UPPER LIMB LOWER LIMB
Clavicle Coxal (or Innominate) Bone*†

acromial (lateral) end acetabulum
sternal (medial) end Ilium
greater sciatic notch
Scapula* iliac crest
acromion process posterior inferior iliac spine
coracoid process posterior superior iliac spine
glenoid fossa (cavity) anterior inferior iliac spine
lateral border anterior superior iliac spine
medial border Ischium
spine ischial spine
ischial tuberosity
Humerus* lesser sciatic notch
greater tubercle Pubis
lesser tubercle symphysis pubis
lateral epicondyle obturator foramen
medial epicondyle
olecranon fossa Femur*
trochlea head
captitulum neck
coronoid fossa greater trochanter
anatomical neck lesser trochanter
surgical neck patellar surface
lateral condyle
Radius medial condyle
head
radial tuberosity Patella
styloid process
Tibia*
Ulna anterior crest (shin)
coronoid process lateral condyle
olecranon process medial condyle
radial notch tibial tuberosity
trochlear notch medial malleolus
styloid process
Fibula
Carpals head
lateral malleolus
Metacarpals
Tarsals
Phalanges Calcaneus
Talus
Metatarsals
Phalanges
________________________________ ________________________________
* Need to know right from left * Need to know right from left
† Need to distinguish male from female (on
intact pelvis only)
Lab Exercise 7
Cartilage, Bone and Blood Tissues
Introduction to the Skeletal System
Textbook Reference: See Chapter 5 for Cartilage, Bone, and Blood Tissue
See Chapter 6 for the Integumentary System
See Chapter 7 for Introduction of the Skeletal System
Be able to recognize/name all three types of cartilage, and give the locations and functions of
each type.
Be able to recognize/name the chondrocytes in lacunae and the visible fibers.
Be able to recognize bone tissue and list its functions.
Be able to name the visible cells and structures on a ground bone microscope slide, as listed in
this lab exercise.
Be able to name the parts of an osteon on the osteon model in the lab (picture not in this lab
exercise).
Be able to recognize blood tissue and give its function.
Be able to name the plasma and the cells on a blood smear slide.
Be able to name all the listed parts of the integumentary system on the skin models.
Be able to name the listed parts of the skin slides.
Be able to give examples of each bone shape and when given a bone be able to give its shape, as
listed in the lab exercise.
Be able to name the parts of a long bone on a bone or picture.
7-1
Cartilage, Bone, & Blood Tissues
Cartilage is a tough, but flexible, tissue in the body. It contains collagen fibers and elastic
fibers. The cells, called chondrocytes, are located in depressions, called lacunae, in the matrix.
There are 3 types of cartilage: hyaline cartilage, elastic cartilage, and fibrocartilage.
Hyaline Cartilage
Identification: Overall smooth, glassy

appearance with distinctive lacunae,
most occupied by chondrocytes
(arrow); lacunae are often paired
Location: nose, larynx, trachea,

between ribs and sternum, ends of long
bones
Function: structural support; cushions

joints
Fibers present: collagen fibers (not

visible)
Features to know: chrondrocyte in
lacuna (arrow)
7-2
Elastic Cartilage
Identification: distinctive large, often

paired lacunae; extensive dark elastic
fibers (2)
Location: earlobe, epiglottis
Function: flexibility
Fibers present: elastic fibers (collagen

fibers are also present but not visible)
Features to know: chondrocyte in

lacuna (1), elastic fibers (2)
Fibrocartilage
Identification: nearly parallel (often

blue) collagen fibers and the
distinctive chondrocytes in lacunae
(arrow)
Location: intervertebral disks, pubic

symphysis, meniscus of knee joint
Function: resists compressive forces
Fibers Present: collagen
Features to know: chondrocyte in

lacuna (arrow)
7-3
Identifying Cartilage Tissues Under the Microscope
Procedure:
Hyaline Cartilage
1. Obtain a hyaline cartilage slide and bring into focus using the scanning lens (4X).
Look for the large chondrocytes and lacunae.
power lens (10X).
3. Focus on a few cells, position them to the center of your field of view, and switch to the
high power lens (40X). Notice the smooth background and the large, distinctive
chondrocytes in their lacunae.
4. Make a drawing of the tissue on high power in the space below. Label the chondrocytes
and lacunae.
Elastic Cartilage
1. Obtain an elastic cartilage slide and bring into focus using the scanning lens (4X). Look
for the dark elastic fibers and large chondrocytes in lacunae.
power lens (10X).
high power lens (40X). Notice the dark elastic fibers and the large, distinctive chondrocytes
in their lacunae.
4. Make a drawing of the tissue on high power in the space below. Label the chondrocytes,
lacunae, and elastic fibers.
7-4
Fibrocartilage
1. Obtain a fibrocartilage slide and bring into focus using the scanning lens (4X).
Look for the nearly parallel collagen fibers and chrondrocytes in lacunae.
power lens (10X).
high power lens (40X). Notice the collagen fibers and the distinctive chondrocytes in
their lacunae.
4. Make a drawing of the tissue on high power in the space below. Label the chondrocytes,
lacunae, and collagen fibers.
7-5
Bone Tissue
Bone tissue is a living tissue consisting of three types of cells. The mature bone cells are called
osteocytes. The osteocytes are located within shallow depressions, called lacunae, in the hard,
bony matrix.
The basic structural unit of compact bone is called the Haversian system, or osteon. It consists of
a central opening, called the Haversian (or central) canal. Surrounding this canal are concentric
rings of bony matrix. These concentric rings are called lamellae. Between the lamellae are the
osteocytes within lacunae. Very small canals run perpendicular to the lamellae. These tiny
canals are called canaliculi.
Bone tissue
Identification: large, dark circles with
concentric circles surrounding it,
much like tree rings
Location: bones
Function: support, protection, mineral

storage, attachment sites for muscles
Features to know: lamellae (1),

osteocytes in lacunae (2), canaliculi
(3) and Haversian (central) canal (4).
The entire circular unit, including the

Haversian canal and the lamellae, is
called the Haversian system (or
osteon).
7-6
Identifying Bone Tissue Under the Microscope
Procedure:
1. Obtain a ground bone slide and bring into focus using the scanning lens (4X). Look for the
circular osteons.
2. Focus on an osteon, position it to the center of your field of view, and switch to the low
power lens (10X).
3. Focus on the lamellae, position them to the center of your field of view, and switch to the
High power lens (40X). Notice dark osteocytes in the lacunae and the tiny canaliculi.
4. Switch back to the low power lens and make a drawing of the tissue in the space below.
Focus on an osteon and label the Haversian (central) canal, lamellae, osteocytes in lacunae,
and canaliculi.
Blood Tissue
Blood tissue consists of a liquid matrix, called plasma, and formed elements. The formed elements
include erythrocytes (red blood cells), leukocytes (white blood cells), and platelets
(thrombocytes).
The erythrocytes are small and pink. They lack a nucleus. The center is depressed and usually
appears lighter than the rest of the cell.
The leukocytes are usually stained purple. They are fewer and larger than the erythrocytes. Most
leukocytes have either a bi-lobed or multi-lobed nucleus.
The platelets are small cell fragments that are stained blue or purple. They are smaller than the
erythrocytes and are scattered between the cells in the tissue.
7-7
Blood
Identification: Numerous pink, round

red blood cells with larger, purple
white blood cells scattered throughout
Location: within the blood vessels
Function: transport of nutrients,

gases, wastes. Etc
Features to know: plasma (white

background), erythrocytes (round and
pink), and leukocytes (1)
Identifying Blood Tissue Under the Microscope
Procedure:
1. Obtain a blood smear slide and bring into focus using the scanning lens
(4X). Look for numerous, very small pink circles with larger purple cells scattered
throughout.
power lens (10X).
power lens (40X).
4. Make a drawing of the tissue on high power in the space below. Label the plasma,
erythrocytes, and leukocytes.
7-8
The Integumentary System
The Integumentary System includes the skin, hair, and nails.
Three main layers of the skin include the epidermis (outermost layer), dermis (main middle layer),
and the hypodermis (innermost layer).
The epidermis is stratified squamous epithelial tissue consisting of 4-5 distinct layers.
The layers of the skin, other than the palms and soles, include:
Stratum corneum – outermost layer consisting of several layers of flattened dead cells
Stratum granulosum – second, thin, layer consisting of cells with keratin granules
Stratum spinosum – thickest layer of the epidermis
Stratum basale – bottom-most dark, thin layer consisting of pigmented cells
The dermis is dense irregular connective tissue. It consists of two main layers: (1) the thin
uppermost papillary layer is folded into peg-like projections called dermal papillae; and (2) the
thick reticular layer, which accounts for the majority of the dermis, consists of several appendages,
including hair follicles, sebaceous glands, arrector pili muscles, sweat glands, Meissener’s
corpuscles, and Pacinian corpuscles.
Most sebaceous glands are formed from the hair follicle and are located beside the hair follicle.
The hair follicle produces the hair. The arrector pili muscle is attached to the hair follicle. When
it contracts, it pulls the hair follicle up and forms a “goose bump”. The sweat glands are located
throughout the dermis and have a duct that leads to the outside of the skin. Meissener’s corpuscles
are small, encapsulated sensory nerve endings located near the top of the dermis. Pacinian
corpuscles are larger plate-like sensory nerve endings located near the bottom of the dermis.
The hypodermis consists of adipose tissue and is not considered part of the skin. It is below the
skin.
7-9
Know the following parts of the skin model:
Epidermis Reticular layer

Stratum corneum Meissner’s corpuscle
Stratum granulosum Hair follicle
Stratum spinosum Sebaceous gland
Stratum basale Arrector pili muscle
Dermis Sweat gland
Papillary layer Pacinian corpuscle
Dermal papillae Hypodermis
7-10
7-11
Microscopic Investigation of the Skin
Bald Scalp
In a cross-section of a bald scalp, you

can see sweat glands (1), sebaceous
gland (3), and hair follicle (4). All
of these are found in the reticular
layer (2).
Scalp with Hair
The visible layers of the epidermis include

the outer stratum corneum layer (5), the
thick stratum spinosum layer (6), and the
thin, dark stratum basale (7).
The dermis consists of the upper papillary

layer (8) and the main reticular layer (9).
You can see the prominent hair follicle (2)
and hair (1). You should also be able to see
the sebaceous glands (3). Also visible may
be the arrector pili muscle (4) and the
hypodermis (10).
7-12
Identifying Skin Tissue Under the Microscope
Procedure:
1. Obtain a skin (scalp) slide and bring into focus using the scanning lens (4X). Look for the
epidermal layers, the hair follicles, and sebaceous glands.
2. Focus on the tissue, position it to the center of your field of view, and switch to the low
power lens (10X).
3. Make a drawing of the tissue on low power in the space below. Label the epidermis, dermis,
hair follicle, and sebaceous gland (if visible). You may need to move the slide around while
viewing it to see all the features.
7-13
Introduction to the Skeletal System
Bone Shape
The Skeletal system consists of bones and ligaments. Human bones come in different sizes and
shapes. Bones can be classified on the basis of shape. Common bone shapes include long bones,
short bones, flat bones, and irregular bones.
Long bones are longer than they are wide. Long bones include all bones of the limbs, except the
patella (kneecap), wrist bones, and ankle bones.
Short bones are smaller than long bones and many are roughly cube-shaped. Short bones include
the wrist bone and ankle bones.
A sesamoid bone is a type of short bone that is shaped like a sesame seed and form in a
tendon. The patella is an example of a sesamoid bone.
Flat bones are flattened bones. Flat bones include the sternum (breastbone), scapulae (shoulder
blades), ribs, and most skull bones.
Irregular bones are irregularly shaped and do not fit into any of the preceding categories. Irregular
bones include the vertebrae and hip bones.
**Know the examples of each type of bone shape on display in the lab
Structure of a Long Bone
The shaft of a long bone is called the diaphysis. Each knob-like end is called an epiphysis. The
canal that runs through the diaphysis is called the medullary cavity. It is surrounded by a thin
layer of porous spongy bone, which is surrounded by a thicker layer of hard compact bone. The
epiphyses contain spongy bone.
**Know the following parts of a long bone on the long bone model in the lab.
7-14
Connective Tissues
Visible Distinctive
Tissue Cell Types1 Fibers2 Features3 Functions Locations
Hyaline
Cartilage
Elastic
Cartilage
Fibrocartilage
Bone
Blood
1 Adipocytes, chondrocytes, erythrocytes, fibrocytes/fibroblasts, leukocytes, or osteocytes

2 Collagen, elastic, and/or reticular
3 Lacunae, osteon, Haversian canal, canaliculi, lamellae & descriptions useful for identification
Lab Exercise 8
Muscle Tissue
Muscles
Textbook Reference: See Chapters 10 & 11
Be able to answer questions covering the Muscle Physiology Pre-Lab Assignment.
Be able to identify the three types of muscle tissue on microscope slides.
Be able to name the distinguishing features of each type of muscle tissue, including nuclei,
striations, and intercalated disks.
Be able to identify the listed muscles on the head/neck model, the muscle man model, the arm
models, and the leg models.
Be able to give the listed functions of the muscles.
8-1
Muscle Physiology Pre-Lab Assignment
Muscle Physiology Pre-Lab Assignment

The Muscle Physiology Pre-Lab Assignment should be done prior to lab this week.
Please fill out while watching the videos posted in Blackboard under the Lab Information tab.
8-2
Muscle Tissue
There are three types of muscle tissue: skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle.
Skeletal Muscle
Identification: Teased or l.s. section shows

distinct, very large, straight fibers that are striated
(striped) and multinucleate (many nuclei).
Features to Know: striations composed of dark A-

bands and light I-bands; nuclei pushed to edge of
fiber; sarcolemna (plasma membrane surrounding
fiber).
Where Located: skeletal muscles; under voluntary

control.
Cardiac Muscle
Identification: Note faint striations across fibers.

Fibers distinct, typically with numerous small
gaps between them.
Features to Know: nuclei (1), intercalated disk

(2).
Where Located: involuntary muscle of the heart.
8-3
Smooth Muscle
Identification: Muscle cells are packed tightly

together (no gaps between cells) and usually not
distinct. Nuclei (arrow) may or may not be visible.
Note lack of striations. Two views are shown. To
find smooth muscle look near the outer portions of
the organs on the slides.
Features to Know: nuclei (if visible) (arrow).
Where Located: under involuntary control; found

surrounding most hollow organs.
Identifying Muscle Tissues under the Microscope

Procedure:
Skeletal Muscle Tissue
1. Obtain a skeletal muscle slide and bring into focus using the scanning lens (4X).
Look for long, cylindrical muscle fibers with fine stripes and many nuclei.
2. Focus on the cells, position them to the center of your field of view, and switch to the
low power lens (10X).
3. Focus on a cell or two and position them to the center of your field of view, and switch to
the high power lens (40X).
4. Make a drawing of the tissue on high power in the space below. Label the striations and
nuclei.
Cardiac Muscle Tissue
1. Obtain a cardiac muscle slide and bring into focus using the scanning lens
(4X). Look for cells with fine stripes and dark pink intercalated disks between
them.
power lens (10X).
3. Focus on a cell or two and position them to the center of your field of view, and switch to the
high power lens (40X).
4. Make a drawing of the tissue on high power in the space below. Label the striations,
intercalated disks, and nuclei.
Smooth Muscle Tissue
1. Obtain a smooth muscle slide and bring into focus using the scanning lens (4X). Look for
long cells with many nuclei.
power lens (10X).
3. Focus on a cell or two and position them to the center of your field of view, and switch to the
high power lens (40X).
4. Make a drawing of the tissue on high power in the space below. Label the nuclei.
Muscles
Head and Neck Model

**Know the following head and neck muscles on the Head and Neck Model.
Muscle Man – Anterior Side
**Know the following muscles on the Muscle Man model. Use your book or lab videos to
label each.
Muscle Man – Posterior Side
**Know the following muscles on the Muscle Man model. Use your book or lab videos to
label each number.
Arm Muscles
**Know the following muscles on the Arm Muscle Model.
Leg Muscles **Know the following muscles on the Leg Muscle Model
8-10
**Know the following muscles on the models in the lab and the function of each.
Head and Neck Muscles

Frontalis Raises eyebrows and wrinkles forehead
Orbicularis oculi Closes eye
Orbicularis oris Closes lips; kissing and whistling
Sternocleidomastoid Flexes, tilts, and rotates head
Zygomaticus Raises corners of mouth; smiling
Masseter Elevates (closes) and protracts jaw, as when chewing
Torso Muscles
Trapezius Shrug shoulders
Latissimus dorsi Extends, adducts, and medially rotates arm
Pectoralis major Flexes, adducts, and medially rotates arm
External oblique Lateral rotation of the vertebral column; twisting
Rectus abdominis Flexion of the vertebral column; sit ups
Upper Limb Muscles

Deltoid Abducts, flexes, and rotates arm
Triceps brachii Extends forearm
Biceps brachii Flexes forearm
Brachioradialis Flexes arm
Extensor digitorum Extends fingers and hand
Extensor carpi radialis longus Extends hand
Flexor carpi ulnaris Flexes hand
Palmaris longus Flexes hand
Lower Limb Muscles

Tensor fasciae latae Flexes, abducts, and rotates thigh
Adductor longus Adducts, flexes, and rotates thigh
Gluteus maximus Extends, abducts, and rotates thigh
Gracilis Adducts thigh and flexes leg
Sartorius Crosses the leg
Vastus medialis Extends leg
Vastus lateralis Extends leg
Biceps femoris Extends thigh and flexes leg
Rectus femoris Flexes thigh and extends leg
Tibialis anterior Dorsiflexion of the foot; inverts foot
Fibularis longus Plantar flexion of the foot; everts foot
Gastrocnemius Plantar flexion of the foot; flexes leg
8-11
GENERAL REVIEW QUESTIONS
What is a motor unit?
What does the term “motor unit recruitment” mean?
What is meant by “tonus”?
Define “fatigue.”
What is the difference between psychological fatigue and physiological fatigue?

Muscle Physiology Pre-lab Assignment
Instructions: Answer the questions below before the beginning of lab. View the “Muscular System”
module of the InterActive Physiology CD-ROM included with your lecture text. This assignment
covers the “Contraction of Motor Units” and “Contraction of Whole Muscle” topics. Click on each
of these topics and answer the relevant questions below. Note: students lacking the CDs will be able
to use them in the open labs or in the library.
Topic: Contraction of Motor Units
1. What is a motor unit?
2. What is meant by recruitment?
3. Why do some motor units only have a few muscle cells?
4. The constant state of low level tension in a muscle is called ______________________________.
Topic: Contraction of Whole Muscle
5. A ___________________________ is a contraction due to a single stimulus.
6. What are the three phases of muscle contraction?
Phase 1: ______________________________
Phase 2: ______________________________
Phase 3: ______________________________
7. _____________________________ summation occurs when a second contraction is added to

the first before complete relaxation.
8. _____________________________ occurs when stimulation is so rapid that the contraction

is smooth and continuous without any relaxation.
9. What are the three factors that determine the strength of a muscle contraction?
10. According to the simulation, unstretched/moderately-stretched /overstretched (circle one)

muscles have the strongest contractions.
.
Muscle Tissues
Tissue Fiber shape1 # of Special features3 Control4 Locations

nuclei2
Skeletal
Cardiac
Smooth
Nervous Tissue
Tissue Cell shape1 Special features3 Function Locations
Nervous
1
Describe shape (cylindrical, branching, spindle); use to identify tissue type
2
Number of nuclei per fiber (1 or multiple); use to identify tissue type
3
Special features include any additional identifiable structures except nuclei (which you should be able to identify
for all tissues). These may include striations, intercalated discs, axon/dendrites, cell body, and glial cells.
4
Voluntary or involuntary
Lab Exercise 9
Nervous Tissue
Brain
Cranial Nerves
Spinal Cord
Spinal Nerves
Textbook Reference: See Chapter 11 for histology of nerve tissue and spinal cord
See Chapter 12 for brain and spinal cord anatomy
See Chapter 13 for cranial nerves and spinal nerves
Be able to identify nerve tissue and identifying features, such as nerve cell body, nuclelus,
nucleolus, processes, supporting cell nuclei, etc.
Be able to identify the listed parts of the brain on the brain models.
Be able to identify the listed parts of the brain on the sheep brains.
Be able to identify the cranial nerves by name, Roman numeral, and function on the brain and
brainstem models.
Be able to identify the listed parts of the spinal cord on the spinal cord models.
Be able to identify the listed parts of the spinal cord on the spinal cord microscope slides.
Be able to identify the listed plexuses and major spinal nerves on the nerve man model.
For a handy supplemental study guide, please print the “Nervous System Handout” under
“Virtual Lab Nine” on the Virtual Lab website.
9-1
Nervous Tissue
Nervous tissue is composed of two major cell types: supporting cells and neurons.
Supporting cells are non-conducting cells that far outnumber the neurons and function to protect,
support, and insulate the neurons.
Neurons are the large conducting cells of nervous tissue. They all have a nucleus-containing cell
body, and their cytoplasm is drawn out into long extensions (processes). There are two types of
neuron processes, dendrites and axons. Dendrites deliver the nerve impulse to the cell body and the
axon carries the nerve impulse away from the cell body.
Nervous Tissue
Identification: Note the

distinctive shape of neuron, with
long processes (dendrites and/or
axons, 5) extending out from the
main cell body.
Features to Know: The large,

irregularly shaped cell body (3)
contains a darker nucleus (2),
which contains an even darker-
staining nucleolus (1). There are
also numerous supporting (glial)
cells, though only their small dark
nuclei (4) are easily seen.
9-2
Identifying Nervous Tissue Under the Microscope
Procedure:
1. Place the neuron smear slide on the microscope and bring it into focus using the scanning
objective lens (4X).
2. Locate a large neuron and move it to the center of your field of view.
3. Switch to the low power lens (10X), get the neuron into focus, and move it to the center of your
field of view.
4. Note the processes extending from the cell body. On the slide, you cannot distinguish the
dendrites from the axon. Also, note the small dark spots around the neuron cell bodies. These
are the supporting cell nuclei.
4. Switch to the high power lens (40X) and get into focus using the fine adjustment knob ONLY!
5. Locate the nerve cell body. Identify the nucleus and the nucleolus. The nucleolus will stain
very dark and the nucleus will appear as a lighter halo around it.
6. Make a drawing of a neuron in the space below and label the following: cell body, nucleus,
nucleolus, processes, and supporting cell nuclei.
9-3
The Brain
**Know the following parts of the human brain on the brain models in the lab.
1. Frontal lobe 5. Central sulcus 35. Cerebellum II. Optic nerve
2. Parietal lobe 6. Gyrus 36. Pons
3. Occipital lobe 14. Lateral sulcus 37. Medulla Oblongata
4. Temporal lobe 16. Transverse fissure I. Olfactory nerve
9-4
1. Frontal lobe 20. Hypothalamus 35. Cerebellum
2. Parietal lobe 23. Pineal gland 35d. Arbor vitae
3. Occipital lobe 24. Optic Chiasma 36. Pons
6. Gyrus 30. Superior colliculus 37. Medulla oblongata

of Corpora quadrigemina
10. Corpus callosum 31. Inferior colliculus I. Olfactory nerve

Of Corpora quadrigemina
15. Parieto-occipital sulcus 32. Midbrain (includes 30 & 31) II. Optic nerve
19. Thalamus
9-5
Sheep Brain
**Know the following parts of the sheep brain on the sheep brains in the lab.
9-6
9-7
Cranial Nerves
There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves that branch from the brain.
**Know the 12 pairs of cranial nerves by name, Roman numeral, and function on the
brainstem models and brain models.
Cranial Nerve Function

(I) Olfactory Nerve Sense of smell
(II) Optic Nerve Sense of vision
(III) Oculomotor Nerve Superior, inferior and medial
movement of the eye
(IV) Trochlear Nerve Movement of the eye
(V) Trigeminal Nerve Sensations of pain, touch, and temperature; chewing
(VI) Abducens Nerve Lateral movement of the eye
(VII) Facial Nerve Facial expression, secretion of saliva and tears, sense of taste
(VIII) Vestibulocochlear Nerve Sense of hearing and balance
(IX) Glossopharyngeal Nerve Sense of taste, secretion of saliva
(X) Vagus Nerve Contraction and relaxation of smooth muscle, sensory reception
of supplied visceral organs
(XI) Accessory Nerve Swallowing, movement of the head
(XII) Hypoglossal Nerve Movement of the tongue
Mnemonics for memorizing cranial nerves:
“On Occasion Our Trusty Truck Acts Funny Very Good Vehicle Any How”
“On Old Olympus’ Towering Tops A Friendly Viking Grew Vines And Hops”
9-8
Brainstem Model
**Know the cranial nerves by name, Roman numeral, and function on the brainstem models
The olfactory nerves lie on the anterior inferior surface of the brain and are not present on the
brainstem models.
9-9
Spinal Cord
**Know the following parts of the spinal on the spinal cord models in the lab.
9. Dura mater 25. Anterior median fissure
10. Epidural space 28. Posterior median sulcus
11. Subdural space 30. Anterior funiculus
12. Arachnoid 31. Lateral funiculus
13. Subarachnoid space 32. Posterior funiculus
24. Pia mater 35. Central canal
9-10
1. Posterior funiculus* 9. Central canal
2. Lateral funiculus* 10. Posterior median sulcus
3. Anterior funiculus* 14. Anterior median fissure
5. Posterior horn** 23. Dorsal root
6. Lateral horn** 24. Dorsal root ganglion
7. Anterior horn** 25. Ventral root
8. Gray commissure** 26. Spinal nerve
*White Matter
** Gray Matter
9-11
**Know the following parts of the spinal cord on the hanging spinal cord model.
9-12
Spinal Cord
** Know the following parts of the spinal cord on the spinal cord microscope slide.
Structures: White Matter:

1. Posterior Median Sulcus 8. Posterior Funiculus
2. Gray Commissure 9. Lateral Funiculus
3. Central Canal 10. Anterior Funiculus
4. Anterior Median Fissure
Gray Matter:
5. Posterior Horn
6. Lateral Horn
7. Anterior Horn
9-13
Structures: White Matter:
1. Posterior Median Sulcus 8. Posterior Funiculus
2. Gray Commissure 9. Lateral Funiculus
3. Central Canal 10. Anterior Funiculus
4. Anterior Median Fissure
Gray Matter: Optional Features:

5. Posterior Horn 11. Pia Mater
6. Lateral Horn 12. Subarachnoid Space
7. Anterior Horn 13. Dura & Arachnoid Maters
9-14
Spinal Nerves
**Know the following plexuses and spinal nerves on the nerve man model.
9-15
Bio 137 — Human Anatomy & Physiology I Lab
The Cranial Nerves

Number Name Functions Notes

Not on brainstem model
I
II
III
IV
VI
VII
VIII
IX
Only cranial nerve to

X leave head & neck
XI
XII
Nervous System Lab
Students will be responsible for the structures and features listed below
Structures to Identify on the Brain:

Know for
Structure Brain model Sheep’s brain
Arbor Vitae  
Central Sulcus 
Cerebrum (Cerebral Hemisphere)  
Cerebellum (Cerebellar Hemisphere)  
Corpus Callosum  
Corpora Quadrigemina  
Inferior Colliculus  
Superior Colliculus  
Frontal Lobe  
Gyrus (Convolution)  
Hypothalamus  
Lateral Sulcus 
Longitudinal Fissure 
Medulla Oblongata  
Midbrain (includes Corpora Quadrigemina)  
Occipital Lobe  
Olfactory Nerve 
Olfactory Bulb 
Optic Chiasma  
Optic Nerve  
Parietal Lobe  
Parieto-occipital Sulcus 
Pineal Gland  
Pituitary Gland  
Pons  
Sulcus  
Temporal Lobe 
Thalamus  
Transverse Fissure 
Structures to Identify on the Spinal Cord (cross section):

Know for
Bare spinal Spinal cord in Spinal cord
Structure cord model vertebra model slide
White Matter
Anterior Median Fissure   
Anterior Funiculus   
Lateral Funiculus   
Posterior Median Sulcus   
Posterior Funiculus   
Gray Matter
Anterior Horn   
Central Canal   
Gray commissure   
Lateral Horn   
Posterior Horn   
Meninges
Arachnoid Mater 
Epidural Space 
Pia Mater 
Subarachnoid Space 
Subdural Space 
Spinal Nerve
Dorsal Root 
Dorsal Root Ganglion 
Ventral Root 
Spinal Nerve 
Gross Structures of the Spinal Cord:

Hanging spinal cord/ Diagram
Structure vertebral column model (Fig. 18.1)
Cervical Enlargement 
Lumbar Enlargement 
Cauda Equina  
Conus Medullaris 
Filum Terminale  
Sacral Plexus 
Spinal Nerves 
Peripheral Nerves to Identify (nerve man model unless indicated otherwise):

Cervical Plexus
Phrenic Nerve (diagram only)
Brachial Plexus
Axillary Nerve
Musculocutaneous Nerve
Radial Nerve
Median Nerve
Ulnar Nerve
Lumbar Plexus
Femoral Nerve
Obturator Nerve
Sacral Plexus
Common Peroneal Nerve
Tibial Nerve
Sciatic Nerve
Pudendal Nerve (diagram only)
Cranial Nerves (brain stem model): Know number (Roman), name, and function for each and be
able to identify them on the brain stem model (or brain model for olfactory nerve).
No. Cranial Nerve Functions

I Olfactory Nerve Sense of smell
II Optic Nerve Sense of vision
III Oculomotor Nerve Superior, inferior and medial movement of the eye
IV Trochlear Movement of the eye
V Trigeminal Sensations of pain, touch and temperature, chewing
VI Abducens Lateral movement of the eye

Facial expression, secretion of saliva and tears, sense of
VII Facial taste
VIII Vestibulocochlear Sense of hearing and balance
IX Glossopharyngeal Sense of taste, secretion of saliva

Contraction and relaxation of smooth muscle, sensory
X Vagus reception of supplied visceral organs
Swallowing, movement of the head (Sternocleidomastoid
XI Accessory and trapezius muscles)
XII Hypoglossal Movement of the tongue
Lab Exercise 10
Sensory Tests
Eye Anatomy
Vision Tests
Ear Anatomy
Hearing Tests
Textbook Reference: See Chapter XX

15 16
Be able to answer any question regarding the reflex/sensory tests, including the name of the
reflex/sensory test, how it is performed, and what it is testing. For example, the patellar reflex
test is testing the conduction of the femoral nerve.
Be able to identify the listed parts of the eye on the eye models.
Be able to answer any question regarding the vision tests, including the name of the test, how the
test is performed, and what the results mean.
Be able to identify the listed parts of the ear on the ear models.
Be able to answer any question regarding the hearing tests, including the name of the test, how
the test is performed, and what the results mean.
10-1
Sensory Tests
Reflexes are involuntary, instantaneous movements in response to stimuli. Reflexes are
mediated via a reflex arc, which includes a receptor, sensory neuron, integration center,
motor neuron, and effector.
Stretch Reflexes
A stretch reflex is a muscle contraction in response to stretching within a muscle.
Patellar Reflex
The patellar (knee-jerk) reflex is an example of a stretch reflex. The patellar reflex tests the
conduction of the femoral nerve.
1. Sit on the lab bench with your feet dangling down.
2. Have your lab partner tap the patellar ligament with the blunt side of a patellar reflex hammer.
The tap should be 3-4 inches below the kneecap, and firm, but not hard enough to hurt.
3. Look for an extension of the leg as a response to the patellar reflex.
Check the reflex movement of your foot:
_______ Normal reflex – foot moves a few inches

_______ Hyperreflexic – foot moves extensively
_______ Hyporeflexic – foot moves little or not at all
Calcaneal (Achilles) Tendon Reflex
The calcaneal (Achilles) tendon reflex tests the tibial nerve. It is a reflex bending of the foot
resulting from the contraction of the calf muscles when the Achilles tendon is tapped.
1. Kneel on a chair (backwards) with your foot hanging over the front edge.
2. Have your lab partner tap your calcaneal tendon (Achilles tendon).
3. Look for plantar flexion of the foot.
Check the reflex movement of your foot:
_______ Normal _______ Hyperreflexic _______ Hyporeflexic

10-2
Eye Reflex
Corneal Reflex
The corneal reflex involves the automatic blinking of the eye, which is important to keep
material, such as dust and debris, away from the outer layer of the eye, known as the cornea.
1. Have your lab partner try to make you blink by carefully flicking his/her fingers near your
eyes. He/she should come close to the eye without actually touching it.
2. Can you prevent the corneal (blinking) reflex? _______ Yes _______ No
3. Have your lab partner take a clean rubber squeeze bulb and squirt a blast of air across the
surface of the eye.
Foot Reflex
Babinski Reflex (plantar response)
The Babinski reflex involves the extension of the big toe in response to stroking the plantar
surface of the foot. The response is perfectly normal in infants under the age of one. A plantar
response in adults may occur due to damage to the pyramidal tracts and is important in
determining spinal damage. A normal response in adults is to flex the toes.
1. Take your shoe and sock off one foot.
2. Kneel in a chair (backwards) with the bare foot hanging off the front edge.
3. Have your lab partner stroke your foot from the heel along the lateral, inferior surface and
then toward the ball of the foot using the metal end of the patellar hammer. The pressure
should be firm, but not uncomfortable.
4. Record the response: ________________________________________________________
10-3
Sensory Receptors
Two-Point Discrimination Test
The two-point discrimination test is the most frequently used test for the assessment of the
sensory outcome after nerve repair. It measures the sensitivity of an area on the skin. It tests the
ability to distinguish between two points.
1. Using a blue caliper and a metric ruler, test your ability to differentiate between two distinct
sensations when the skin is touched simultaneously by two points.
2. Close your eyes and have your partner test the following areas of your body listed in the
following table.
3. Starting the test with the caliper arms completely together, you should feel only ONE point
touch you. Have your partner gradually increase the distance between the two arms, touching the
same area of skin each time, until you feel TWO distinct points touch you. This measurement,
the smallest distance at which you could distinguish two separate points of contact, is the two-
point discrimination threshold. (Your partner should randomly touch you with just one point to
discourage you from guessing.)
4. As soon as you feel TWO distinct points touch you, measure the distance between the two
caliper arms and record the results in the table below.
Body Area Tested Two-Point Discrimination

Threshold (mm)
Back of Hand
Palm of Hand
Fingertip
Back of Neck
Posterior Forearm
10-4
Locating Stimulus with Proprioception
Proprioception is the awareness of the position of one’s body. It is the sense of the orientation
of one’s limbs in space. It is what police officers test for when they pull someone over and
suspect they are drunk.
1. Sit in a chair, rest your forearm on the lab table and close your eyes.
2. Have your lab partner touch your forearm with a felt marker.
3. Keep your eyes closed and with a different color felt marker, try to locate (touch) the same
spot on your arm.
4. Test at least five locations on various parts of the forearm and repeat each location at least
twice.
5. Now try the fingertip and palm of the hand
6. Measure the distance error with a metric ruler and record the result.
Maximum distance error on the forearm: _____________________________________
On the palm: ___________________________________________________________
On the fingertip: ________________________________________________________
Another test:
1. Close your eyes and gently try to touch the lateral corner of your own eye with your fingertip.
2. Have your lab partner watch you and determine the accuracy of your attempt.
3. While your eyes are still closed, bring your hand far behind your head and try to touch the
bottom part of your earlobe or the exact tip to your chin.
4. Record the error distance, if any, for each location.
Corner of eye: ____________________________________________________________
Earlobe: _________________________________________________________________
Tip of Chin: ______________________________________________________________
10-5
Eye Anatomy
**Know the following parts of the eye on the eye models in the lab.
Anterior compartment (aqueous humor) Iris

Anterior chamber/Posterior chamber Lens
Choroid Optic disk
Ciliary body Posterior compartment (vitreous humor)
Cornea Pupil
Extrinsic muscles of the eye Retina
Inferior rectus Sclera
Inferior oblique
Lateral rectus
Medial rectus
Superior rectus
Superior oblique tendon
10-6
10-7
Vision Tests
Vision Tests
Visual Tracking
Your six extrinsic eye muscles precisely control eye movements. You can test the effectiveness
of these muscles.
1. Sit in a chair with your eyes open.
2. Have your lab partner move his/her finger slowly from side-to-side while you follow the
finger with your eyes.
3. Ask your lab partner to tell you if your eye movement was smooth or jerky and record below.
Smooth eye movement _________ Jerky eye movement _________
Determining the Near Point of Accommodation
The elasticity of the lens is responsible for being able to see clearly far away or close up. The
near point of vision, which is how close you can see something clearly, is about 10cm from the
eye in adults. It is closer in children and farther in old age.
The elasticity of the lens decreases dramatically with age, resulting in difficulty in focusing for
near (or close) vision. You can test the lens elasticity by measuring the near point of
accommodation.
1. Sit in a chair and hold this lab exercise page at arm’s length in front of
one eye.
2. Slowly move the paper toward that eye until the words becomes distorted.
3. Have your lab partner use a metric ruler to measure the distance from your eye to the paper at
this point and record the distance below.
4. Repeat the procedure for the other eye.
Near point for the right eye _____________________
Near point for the left eye ______________________

10-8
Visual Acuity
Visual acuity is the sharpness of vision. It is generally tested with a Snellen eye chart, which
consists of letters of various sizes printed on a white card. This test is based on the fact that
letters of a certain size can be seen clearly by eyes with normal vision at a specific distance. The
distance at which the normal eye can read a line of letters is printed at the end of that line.
1. Stand 20 feet in front of the posted Snellen eye chart (hanging on the back wall). There is a
strip of masking tape on the lab floor that marks the 20 foot distance.
2. Have your lab partner stand at the Snellen eye chart. Cover one eye with your hand and read
each consecutive line on the chart aloud and have your lab partner check for accuracy. If you
wear glasses, take the test twice – first with glasses off and then with glasses one. Do not
remove contact lenses, but note that they were in place during the test.
3. Record the number of the line with the smallest-sized letters read correctly.
If it is 20/20, your vision for that eye is normal.
If the second number is more than 20, you have less than the normal visual acuity. If it is
20/40, you can see at 20 feet what a person with normal vision can see at 40 feet. If it is
20/60, you can see at 20 feet what a person with normal vision can see at 60 feet, and so on.
If the visual acuity is 20/15, your vision is better than normal. You can see at 20 feet what a
person with normal vision can see at 15 feet.
4. Repeat the above process with the other eye and record the results below.
Visual acuity, right eye without glasses ___________________________
Visual acuity, left eye without glasses ____________________________
If you normally wear glasses, record the results below:
Visual acuity, right eye with glasses _____________________________
Visual acuity, left eye with glasses ______________________________
10-9
Pupillary Light Reflex
The pupil of the eye reacts to light. In response to low light, the pupil will enlarge (to allow
more light to enter the eye). In response to brighter light, the pupil will constrict (get smaller to
prevent too much light from entering the eye).
Pupils that dilate in response to bright light, or are sluggish to close, are abnormal and may
indicate a neurological disorder (such as autism, Alzheimer’s disease, etc), or it may indicate
drunkenness.
1. Sit in a chair and have your lab partner shine a pen light quickly in your right eye. Record the
response of the pupil below.
2. Have your lab partner shine the pen light quickly in your left eye and record the response of
the pupil below.
Pupillary response in the right eye __________________________________
Pupillary response in the left eye ___________________________________
Testing for Color Blindness
People who are colorblind cannot see certain colors. There are many different types of color
blindness, but red-green color blindness is the most common. There are color vision tests that
can assess if a person has normal color vision or not. Ishihara plates are a common test for color
blindness.
1. Look at the various Ishihara plates in the booklet in the lab.
2. Read the plate interpretation instructions for each plate to see if you have a type of color
blindness.
10-10
Ear Anatomy
**Know the following parts of the ear anatomy on the ear models in the lab.
Auricle (Pinna) Oval Window

Cochlea Semicircular Canals
Eustachian Tube Stapes
External Auditory Meatus Tympanic Membrane
Incus Vestibule
Malleus Vestibulocochlear Nerve
10-11
10-12
Hearing Tests
Hearing Tests
Weber Test
The Weber test is a quick test for determining a hearing impairment. It can differentiate
between conductive hearing loss and sensorineural hearing loss.
1. Sit in a chair and have your lab partner strike a tuning fork and while it is vibrating hold the
handle of the tuning fork to your forehead.
2. Is the sound the same in both ears or is it louder in the left or right ear?
_______________________________________________________
Reading Test Results:

Normal hearing – sound is the same in both ears
Conductive hearing loss – sound is louder in the ear with conductive hearing loss
Sensorineural hearing loss – sound is louder in the ear without hearing loss
Rinne Test
The Rinne test is a hearing test that compares hearing through the air and bone conduction
hearing through the mastoid process.
1. Sit in a chair and have your lab partner strike a tuning fork and while it is vibrating hold the
handle of the tuning fork on your mastoid process for a few seconds. After the sound
diminishes, hold the fork a few centimeters from the external auditory canal.
2. Which way was the sound louder?
__________ through the mastoid process _______ through the air
Reading Test Results:

Normal hearing – sound is louder through the air than through the mastoid process
Conductive hearing loss – sound is louder through the mastoid process than the air
10-13
Criteria:
Standing Erect
Facing Forward
Arms at Sides
Palms Forward
Feet Slightly Apart
1-4
Directional Terminology
When comparing the location of one body part to another, we use directional terms.
Know the following directional terms on Muscle Man:
A is Superior to B F & G are Ipsilateral (on the same side)
B is Inferior to A J & A are Contralateral (the opposite sides)
B is Anterior to D (on back side) G is Proximal to H
D is Posterior to C H is Distal to G
E is Medial to F (on side of leg) G is Intermediate to H & K
F is Lateral to E 1-5
Planes of Reference
Know the following planes of reference on a diagram or organ:
A Frontal plane divides the body or an organ into Anterior/Posterior halves.
A Median (Midsagittal) plane divides the body or an organ into equal Left/Right halves.
A Transverse plane divides the body or an organ into Superior/Inferior halves.
Midsagittal Section of Sheep Brain
1-6
Frontal (Coronal) Section of Sheep Brain
Transverse Section of Sheep Brain
1-7
Regional Terminology
In Human Anatomy & Physiology, we use scientific terms for various regions of the body.
Know the following regional terms on the baby doll:
1-8
1-9
Major Body Organs
Know the following organs on the torso model:
A. Larynx E. Stomach B. Lung G. Small

Intestine
D. Liver H. Large Intestine
1-10
B. Lung I. Kidney
C. Heart J. Adrenal Gland
F. Pancreas K. Urinary Bladder
1-11
Body Cavities
Body cavities are open areas in the body that usually house an organ, bone, or other body part.
Know the following body cavities.
1-12
The diagram below lists the organs housed within the body cavities.
In addition to the information above:
The Pleural cavities house the lungs.
The Pericardial cavity houses the heart.
1-13
Abdominopelvic Quadrants
In Human Anatomy & Physiology, we sometimes divide the abdominopelvic cavity into
quadrants to make studying the cavity easier.
Know the following body quadrants:
1-14
Abdominopelvic Regions
In Human Anatomy & Physiology, we sometimes divide the abdominopelvic cavity into nine
regions to make studying the cavity easier.
Know the following abdominopelvic regions:
1-15
Body Systems
For each of the following body systems, know the organs that are listed and to which body
system those organs belong:
Know the parts of the Integumentary System (listed below) on the skin model in the lab.
A. Epidermis D. Hair
B. Dermis E. Sebaceous Gland
C. Hypodermis F. Sweat Gland
More Directional Terms on Skin Model:

A is Superficial to B
B is Deep to A
1-16
Skeletal System
Know the parts of the Skeletal System (listed below the picture) on the knee joint model in lab.
A. Bone (femur, tibia, fibula on diagram)
B. Ligament (1, 2, 3, 4, 5 on diagram)
C. Cartilage (6 & 7 on diagram)
1-17
Muscular System
Know the parts of the Muscular System (listed below the picture) on the muscle man model in
the lab.
A. Muscle (red on diagram)
B. Tendon (grayish white on diagram)
1-18
Nervous System
Know the parts of the Nervous System (listed below the picture) on the nerve man model in the
lab.
A. Brain (in skull)
B. Spinal Cord (extends from brain)
C. Peripheral Nerves (yellow on diagram; extend from brain/spinal cord) Endocrine System
1-19
Know the listed glands of the Endocrine System on the model board in the lab.
1. Pituitary Gland 13. Pancreas
5. Thyroid Gland 16. Testis
8. Parathyroid Gland 20. Ovary
9. Adrenal Gland
You will not need to know the Pineal Gland for the first lab exam. It will be covered when we
study the brain.
1-20
Cardiovascular System
Know the organs of the Cardiovascular System (listed below the picture) on the heart model in
the lab.
A. Heart
B. Aorta (large red vessel extending from top of heart)
C. Arteries
D. Veins
1-21
Lymphatic System
Know the following parts of the Lymphatic System on the diagram displayed in the lab.
Note: The diagram in the lab looks different from this one, but has the same organs.
A. Lymph Nodes
B. Lymph Vessels
C. Spleen
D. Thymus
You do not need to know “Tonsil”

1-22
Respiratory System
Know the parts of the Respiratory System (listed below the picture) on the respiratory system
model in the lab.
A. Larynx
B. Trachea
C. & D. Lungs
Bronchi (branches of trachea, not shown in picture)
1-23
Digestive System
Know the parts of the Digestive System (listed below the picture) on the digestive system model
in the lab.
1. Teeth 12. Liver
6. Esophagus 13. Small Intestine
7. Stomach 15a. Ascending Colon
9. Pancreas 15b. Transverse Colon
11. Gallbladder 15c. Descending Colon

1-24
Urinary System
Know the parts of the Urinary System (listed below the picture) on the urinary system model in
the lab.
12. Kidney
24. Ureter
37. Urinary Bladder
Urethra
1-25
Male Reproductive System
Know the parts of the Male Reproductive System (listed below the picture) on the male
reproductive system model in the lab.
1. Penis 52. Testes
3. Scrotum 53. Epididymis
38. Seminal Vesicle Vas Deferens

(on diagram displayed in lab)
40. Prostate Gland
1-26
Female Reproductive System
Know the parts of the Female Reproductive System (listed below the model) on the female
reproductive system model in the lab.
20. Fallopian Tubes
21. Ovary
22. Uterus
29. Vagina
1-27

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BIO 137

Human Anatomy &

Textbook Reference: See Chapter 1 and Atlas A

• Be able to convert from one metric unit to another.

• Be able to identify the abdominopelvic regions and quadrants on a torso model.

1.Metric Conversion Chart

Practice. Convert the following:

1. 25 mL = __________ dL 5. 3,500 mm = __________ m

2. 15 g = __________ mg 6. 0.005 km = __________ m

3. 750 g = __________ kg 7. 250 cL = __________ mL

4. 275 mm = __________cm 8. 6,750 cg = __________ kg

Criteria: (Fill in the blanks)

Know the following directional terms on Muscle Man:

A is ____________________ to B F & G are _____________________ (on the same side)

B is ____________________ to A J & A are _____________________ (on opposite sides)

B is ____________________ to D (on back) G is _________________________ to H

E is ____________________ to F (on side) G is _________________________ to H & K

Know the following planes of reference on a diagram or organ:

A Frontal plane divides the body/organ into Anterior/Posterior halves.

A Transverse plane divides the body/organ into Superior/Inferior halves.

Midsagittal Section of Sheep Brain

Transverse Section of Sheep Brain

Know the following regional terms on the baby doll:

Know the following organs on the torso model:

Know the following body cavities.

The Pleural cavities house the ____________________.

The Pericardial cavity houses the _________________.

Know the following body quadrants:

Know the following abdominopelvic regions:

More Directional Terms on Skin Model:

A. _________________________ (femur, tibia, fibula on diagram)

B. _________________________ (1, 2, 3, 4, 5 on diagram)

C. _________________________ (6 & 7 on diagram)

A. _________________________ (red on diagram)

B. _________________________ (grayish white on diagram)

A. _________________________ (in skull)

B. _________________________ (extends from brain)

C. _________________________ (yellow on diagram; extend from brain/spinal cord)

1. ______________________________ 13. ______________________________

5. ______________________________ 16. ______________________________

8. ______________________________ 20. ______________________________

B. Aorta (large red vessel extending from top of heart)

You do not need to know “Tonsil” 1-22

Bronchi (not shown in picture) 1-23

1. ______________________________ 12. _______________________________

6. ______________________________ 13. _______________________________

7. ______________________________ 15a. ______________________________

9. ______________________________ 15b. ______________________________

11. _____________________________ 15c. ______________________________

1. ______________________________ 52. ______________________________

3. ______________________________ 53. ______________________________

Textbook Reference: See Chapter 3 for Cell Structure

 Be able to explain the proper usage and care of the microscope.

 Be able to calculate the total magnification of your microscope.

 Be able to explain how to prepare a wet mount slide.

 Be able to identify cell parts on the cell model.

Base Supports the microscope; used to carry the microscope

Condenser Substage lens that concentrates light on the specimen; the

Stage Flat platform where the slide is placed for viewing

2. Carefully place the microscope on your work table.

3. Carefully remove the dust cover and set it aside.

1. Place a paramecium slide on the microscope.

Scanning Lens Observation:

1. 25 mL = dL 5. 3,500 mm = m

2. 15 g = mg 6. 0.005 km = m

3. 750 g = kg 7. 250 cL = mL

4. 275 mm = cm 8. 6,750 cg = kg

A is to B F & G are _ (on the same side)

B is to A J & A are _ (on opposite sides)

B is to D (on back) G is _____ to H

E is to F (on side) G is _____ to H & K

1. 13.

5. 16.

8. 20.

1. 12. _

6. 13. _

7. 15a.

9. 15b.

11. _ 15c. __

1. 52.

3. 53.

mm x 1,000 = µm

Length = µm Width = µm