MBAZ514

ZIMBABWE OPEN UNIVERSITY
bp
Master of Business
Administration
Human Resource Management
Module MBA 508

Published by: The Zimbabwe Open University
P.O. Box MP1119
Mount Pleasant
Harare, ZIMBABWE
The Zimbabwe Open University is a distance teaching and open

learning institution.
Year: 2004 Reprinted: 2006/2008/May 2015
Cover design: B. Pillay
Layout : S. Mapfumo
Printed by: Fidelity Printers
Typeset in Garamond, 12 point on auto leading
© Zimbabwe Open University. All rights reserved. No part of this

publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of
the Zimbabwe Open University.
Authors: M. Magaramombe
M Sc. Sociology and Social Anthropology (UZ)
B A Hons Sociology (Thames Polytechnic, London)
Diploma in Socio-Legal Studies (Ealing College,
London)
Diploma in Personnel Management (IPMZ)
N.R.M Shora
M Ed (Adult Education) (UZ)
B. Ed (Adult Education) (UZ)
Diploma (Adult Education) (UZ)
Diploma (Social Work) (School of Social Work, Harare)
Certificate (Management Consultancy) (Effectiveness
Consultancy - Scandinavia)
G. P. Manungo
M Sc. Human Resource Management (University of
Manchester)
E. L. Mahamba-Sithole
M Ed (Educational Administration) (UZ)
B Ed (UZ)
Certificate (Personnel Training and Labour) (IPMZ)
C. Chingombe
Master of Public Administration (UZ)
B Ed (UZ)
Certificate in Education (NTC)
Secondary Teacher’s Certificate (GTC)
Diploma in Personnel Management (IPMZ)
Diploma in Management of Training (IPMZ)
Content Reviewer: G. Magaramombe

MSc. Industrial Relations and Personnel Management
London School of Economics (University of London)
Editor: C.J Matembo

B.Sc (UZ)
Physics
Maths
High National Diploma in Computers (Harare
Polytechnic)
Project Management (UZ)
To the student
The demand for skills and knowledge academics, technologists and
and the requirement to adjust and administrators of varied backgrounds,
change with changing technology, places training, skills, experiences and personal
on us a need to learn continually interests. The combination of all these
throughout life. As all people need an qualities inevitably facilitates the
education of one form or another, it has production of learning materials that
been found that conventional education teach successfully any student, anywhere
institutions cannot cope with the and far removed from the tutor in space
demand for education of this magnitude. and time. We emphasize that our
It has, however, been discovered that learning materials should enable you to
distance education and open learning, solve both work-related problems and
now also exploiting e-learning other life challenges.
technology, itself an offshoot of e-
commerce, has become the most To avoid stereotyping and professional
effective way of transmitting these narrowness, our teams of learning
appropriate skills and knowledge materials producers come from different
required for national and international universities in and outside Zimbabwe,
development. and from Commerce and Industry. This
openness enables ZOU to produce
Since attainment of independence in materials that have a long shelf life and
1980, the Zimbabwe Government has are sufficiently comprehensive to cater
spearheaded the development of for the needs of all of you, our learners
distance education and open learning at in different walks of life. You, the
tertiary level, resulting in the learner, have a large number of optional
establishment of the Zimbabwe Open courses to choose from so that the
University (ZOU) on 1 March, 1999. knowledge and skills developed suit the
career path that you choose. Thus, we
ZOU is the first, leading, and currently strive to tailor-make the learning
materials so that they can suit your
the only university in Zimbabwe entirely
personal and professional needs. In
dedicated to teaching by distance
developing the ZOU learning materials,
education and open learning. We are
we are guided by the desire to provide
determined to maintain our leading
you, the learner, with all the knowledge
position by both satisfying our clients
and skill that will make you a better
and maintaining high academic performer all round, be this at certificate,
standards. To achieve the leading diploma, undergraduate or postgraduate
position, we have adopted the course level. We aim for products that will settle
team approach to producing the varied comfortably in the global village and
learning materials that will holistically competing successfully with anyone. Our
shape you, the learner to be an all-round target is, therefore, to satisfy your quest
performer in the field of your own for knowledge and skills through
choice. Our course teams comprise distance education and open learning
Any course or programme launched by ZOU is you may never meet in life. It is our intention
conceived from the cross-pollination of ideas to bring the computer, email, internet chat-
from consumers of the product, chief among rooms, whiteboards and other modern methods
whom are you, the students and your employers. of delivering learning to all the doorsteps of
We consult you and listen to your critical analysis our learners, wherever they may be. For all these
of the concepts and how they are presented. We developments and for the latest information on
also consult other academics from universities what is taking place at ZOU, visit the ZOU
the world over and other international bodies website at www.zou.ac.zw
whose reputation in distance education and open
learning is of a very high calibre. We carry out Having worked as best we can to prepare your
pilot studies of the course outlines, the content learning path, hopefully like John the Baptist
and the programme component. We are only prepared for the coming of Jesus Christ, it is my
too glad to subject our learning materials to hope as your Vice Chancellor that all of you,
academic and professional criticism with the will experience unimpeded success in your
hope of improving them all the time. We are educational endeavours. We, on our part, shall
determined to continue improving by changing continually strive to improve the learning
the learning materials to suit the idiosyncratic materials through evaluation, transformation of
needs of our learners, their employers, research, delivery methodologies, adjustments and
economic circumstances, technological sometimes complete overhauls of both the
development, changing times and geographic materials and organizational structures and
location, in order to maintain our leading culture that are central to providing you with
position. We aim at giving you an education the high quality education that you deserve. Note
that will work for you at any time anywhere and that your needs, the learner ‘s needs, occupy a
in varying circumstances and that your central position within ZOU’s core activities.
performance should be second to none.
Best wishes and success in your studies.
As a progressive university that is forward
looking and determined to be a successful part
of the twenty-first century, ZOU has started to
introduce e-learning materials that will enable
you, our students, to access any source of
information, anywhere in the world through
internet and to communicate, converse, discuss _____________________
and collaborate synchronously and Prof. Primrose Kurasha
asynchronously, with peers and tutors whom Vice Chancellor
The Six Hour Tutorial Session At
The Zimbabwe Open University
A s you embark on your studies with the Zimbabwe
Open University (ZOU) by open and distance
learning, we need to advise you so that you can make
This is where the six hour tutorial comes in. For it
to work, you need to know that:
· There is insufficient time for the tutor to
the best use of the learning materials, your time and
the tutors who are based at your regional office. lecture you
· Any ideas that you discuss in the tutorial,
The most important point that you need to note is originate from your experience as you
that in distance education and open learning, there work on the materials. All the issues
are no lectures like those found in conventional raised above are a good source of topics
universities. Instead, you have learning packages that (as they pertain to your learning) for
may comprise written modules, tapes, CDs, DVDs discussion during the tutorial
and other referral materials for extra reading. All these
· The answers come from you while the
including radio, television, telephone, fax and email
can be used to deliver learning to you. As such, at tutor’s task is to confirm, spur further
the ZOU, we do not expect the tutor to lecture you discussion, clarify, explain, give
when you meet him/her. We believe that that task is additional information, guide the
accomplished by the learning package that you receive discussion and help you put together full
at registration. What then is the purpose of the six answers for each question that you bring
hour tutorial for each course on offer? · You must prepare for the tutorial by
bringing all the questions and answers
At the ZOU, as at any other distance and open that you have found out on the topics to
learning university, you the student are at the centre the discussion
of learning. After you receive the learning package, · For the tutor to help you effectively, give
you study the tutorial letter and other guiding him/her the topics beforehand so that in
documents before using the learning materials. During cases where information has to be
the study, it is obvious that you will come across gathered, there is sufficient time to do
concepts/ideas that may not be that easy to understand so. If the questions can get to the tutor
or that are not so clearly explained. You may also at least two weeks before the tutorial,
come across issues that you do not agree with, that that will create enough time for thorough
actually conflict with the practice that you are familiar preparation.
with. In your discussion groups, your friends can bring
ideas that are totally different from yours and In the tutorial, you are expected and required to
arguments may begin. You may also find that an idea take part all the time through contributing in every
is not clearly explained and you remain with more way possible. You can give your views, even if
questions than answers. You need someone to help they are wrong, (many students may hold the same
you in such matters. wrong views and the discussion will help correct
The Six Hour Tutorial Session At The Zimbabwe Open University
the errors), they still help you learn the correct thing as the tutor may dwell on matters irrelevant to the
as much as the correct ideas. You also need to be ZOU course.
open-minded, frank, inquisitive and should leave no
stone unturned as you analyze ideas and seek
clarification on any issues. It has been found that Distance education, by its nature, keeps the tutor
those who take part in tutorials actively, do better in and student separate. By introducing the six hour
assignments and examinations because their ideas are tutorial, ZOU hopes to help you come in touch with
streamlined. Taking part properly means that you the physical being, who marks your assignments,
prepare for the tutorial beforehand by putting together assesses them, guides you on preparing for writing
relevant questions and their possible answers and examinations and assignments and who runs your
those areas that cause you confusion. general academic affairs. This helps you to settle
down in your course having been advised on how
Only in cases where the information being discussed to go about your learning. Personal human contact
is not found in the learning package can the tutor is, therefore, upheld by the ZOU.
provide extra learning materials, but this should not
be the dominant feature of the six hour tutorial. As
stated, it should be rare because the information
needed for the course is found in the learning package
together with the sources to which you are referred.
Fully-fledged lectures can, therefore, be misleading
The six hour tutorials should be so structured that the

tasks for each session are very clear. Work for each
session, as much as possible, follows the structure given
below.
Session I (Two Hours)

Session I should be held at the beginning of the semester. The main aim
of this session is to guide you, the student, on how you are going to
approach the course. During the session, you will be given the overview
of the course, how to tackle the assignments, how to organize the logistics
of the course and formation of study groups that you will belong to. It is
also during this session that you will be advised on how to use your
learning materials effectively.
The Six Hour Tutorial Session At The Zimbabwe Open University
Session II (Two Hours)

This session comes in the middle of the semester to respond to the
challenges, queries, experiences, uncertainties, and ideas that you are
facing as you go through the course. In this session, difficult areas in the
module are explained through the combined effort of the students and
the tutor. It should also give direction and feedback where you have not
done well in the first assignment as well as reinforce those areas where
performance in the first assignment is good.
Session III (Two Hours)

The final session, Session III, comes towards the end of the semester.
In this session, you polish up any areas that you still need clarification on.
Your tutor gives you feedback on the assignments so that you can use
the experience for preparation for the end of semester examination.
Note that in all the three sessions, you identify the areas
that your tutor should give help. You also take a very
important part in finding answers to the problems posed.
You are the most important part of the solutions to your
learning challenges.
Conclusion for this course, but also to prepare yourself to

contribute in the best way possible so that you
In conclusion, we should be very clear that six can maximally benefit from it. We also urge you
hours is too little for lectures and it is not to avoid forcing the tutor to lecture you.
necessary, in view of the provision of fully self-
contained learning materials in the package, to BEST WISHES IN YOUR STUDIES.
turn the little time into lectures. We, therefore,
urge you not only to attend the six hour tutorials ZOU
Contents
Module Overview and Aims ___________________________________ 1
Unit One: The Nature of Human Resource Management (HRM)
1.0 _______ Introduction ____________________________________________________ 5

1.1 _______ Objectives ______________________________________________________ 6
1.2 _______ HRM Etymology _________________________________________________ 6
__________ 1.2.1 American and British Normative Models of HRM and PM______ 7
__________ Activity 1.1 _____________________________________________________ 11
__________ 1.2.2 Two Versions of HRM ______________________________________ 13
__________ 1.2.3 HRM and Key People Management Aspects ___________________ 13
__________ Activity 1.2 _____________________________________________________ 15
1.3 _______ Summary ______________________________________________________ 15
1.4 _______ References _____________________________________________________ 16
Unit Two: Human Resource Strategy/Planning
2.0 _______ Introduction ___________________________________________________ 17

2.1 _______ Objectives _____________________________________________________ 18
2.2 _______ Relationship Between Strategic Planning and Human Resource _____
__________ Management ___________________________________________________ 18
2.3 _______ Responsibilities of Strategic Human Resource Management ______ 19
__________ Activity 2.1 _____________________________________________________ 19
2.4 _______ The Meaning of Strategic Human Resource Management _________ 19
__________ 2.4.1 Characteristics of Human Resource Management ___________ 20
__________ 2.4.2 HR Takes on New Roles _____________________________________ 21
__________ 2.4.3 What Human Resource Strategy can Deliver _________________ 21
2.5 _______ Carrying Out an HR SWOT Analysis _____________________________ 22
2.6 _______ Process of Developing a Human Resource Strategy _______________ 22
__________ 2.6.2 Components of a Human Resource Strategy _________________ 24
__________ 2.6.3 Process Development ______________________________________ 25
__________ 2.6.4 Workforce Development ___________________________________ 25
__________ 2.6.5 Organisational Values______________________________________ 25
2.7 _______ Developing the Human Resource Plan ___________________________ 26
__________ Activity 2.2 _____________________________________________________ 27
2.8 _______ Summary ______________________________________________________ 28
2.9 _______ References _____________________________________________________ 28
Unit Three: Recruitment and Selection
3.0 _______ Introduction ___________________________________________________ 29

3.1 _______ Objectives _____________________________________________________ 31
3.2 _______ Key Elements of Human Resource Planning _____________________ 31
__________ 3.2.1 Forecasting ________________________________________________ 32
__________ 3.2.2 Supply Analysis ____________________________________________ 32
__________ 3.2.3 Balancing Supply and Demand Considerations _______________ 33
3.3 _______ Recruitment ___________________________________________________ 33
__________ 3.3.1 Recruitment and Selection in the African Context ___________ 33
__________ 3.3.2 The Process of Recruitment ________________________________ 34
__________ Activity 3.1 _____________________________________________________ 41
__________ 3.3.3 Sources of Recruitment ____________________________________ 41
__________ 3.3.4 Methods of Recruitment ___________________________________ 43
__________ Activity 3.2 _____________________________________________________ 48
__________ 3.3.5 The Recruitment Responsibility ____________________________ 49
__________ 3.3.6 Legislative Framework of Recruitment and Selection ________ 50
3.4 _______ Selection _______________________________________________________ 52
__________ 3.4.1 The Essence of Selection ___________________________________ 52
__________ 3.4.2 Who Should be Involved in the Selection Process? ____________ 52
__________ 3.4.3 The Selection Process ______________________________________ 53
__________ 3.4.4 The Application Form ______________________________________ 54
__________ 3.4.5 Reference Checks _________________________________________ 56
__________ 3.4.6 The Interview _____________________________________________ 56
__________ Activity 3.3 _____________________________________________________ 58
__________ 3.4.7 Types of Interviews ________________________________________ 58
__________ 3.4.8 Methods of Interviewing ___________________________________ 59
__________ 3.4.9 Selection Tests _____________________________________________ 61
__________ Activity 3.4 _____________________________________________________ 63
3.5 _______ Finalising the Selection Process _________________________________ 63
__________ Activity 3.5 _____________________________________________________ 65
3.6 _______ Case Study: Finding People for Jobs _______________________________ 65
__________ Activity 3.6 _____________________________________________________ 67
3.7 _______ The Changing Role of the Human Resources Function ___________ 67
__________ Activity 3.7 _____________________________________________________ 68
3.8 _______ Summary ______________________________________________________ 68
3.9 _______ References _____________________________________________________ 69
Unit Four: Motivation to Work
4.0 _______ Introduction ___________________________________________________ 71

4.1 _______ Objectives _____________________________________________________ 72
4.2 _______ Motivation: What is it? __________________________________________ 72
4.3 _______ Early Ideas on Motivation _______________________________________ 73
__________ 4.3.1 Scientific Management ____________________________________ 73
__________ 4.3.2 The Human Relations Movement ___________________________ 74
4.4 _______ Theories of Motivation _________________________________________ 76
__________ 4.4.1 A. Maslow: Hierarchy of Needs ______________________________ 76
__________ Activity 4.1 _____________________________________________________ 78
__________ 4.4.2 C. Aldefer: ERG Theory _____________________________________ 78
__________ 4.4.3 Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory _____________________ 78
__________ 4.4.4 D. McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y _______________________ 80
__________ 4.4.5 V.H. Vroom’s Expectancy Theory ____________________________ 80
__________ 4.4.6 B.F. Skinner _______________________________________________ 81
__________ Activity 4.2 _____________________________________________________ 82
4.5 _______ Other Motivation Theories ______________________________________ 82
__________ 4.5.1 The Goal Theory ___________________________________________ 82
__________ 4.5.2 Equity Theory or Social Comparison Theory _________________ 82
4.6 _______ The Link Between Motivation Theory and the Manager’s Ability to ___
__________ Motivate Workers _______________________________________________ 83
__________ 4.6.1 Increase Job Satisfaction ____________________________________ 84
__________ 4.6.2 Improving Rewards ________________________________________ 85
__________ 4.6.3 Increasing Commitment ___________________________________ 85
__________ 4.6.4 Recognizing Demotivators _________________________________ 86
__________ Activity 4.3 _____________________________________________________ 87
4.7 _______ Summary ______________________________________________________ 87
4.8 _______ References _____________________________________________________ 88
Unit Five: Employee Learning
5.0 _______ Introduction ___________________________________________________ 89

5.1 _______ Objectives _____________________________________________________ 90
5.2 _______ The Significance of Employee Learning __________________________ 91
5.3 _______ Major Learning Theories ________________________________________ 92
__________ 5.3.1 Behaviourist Learning Theories ____________________________ 94
__________ 5.3.2 Cognitive Learning Theories _______________________________ 97
__________ 5.3.3 Humanist Learning Theories ______________________________ 101
__________ Activity 5.1 ____________________________________________________ 103
5.4 _______ Case Study ____________________________________________________ 103
__________ Activity 5.2____________________________________________________ 106
5.5 _______ Summary _____________________________________________________ 106
5.6 _______ References ____________________________________________________ 108
Unit Six: Employee Development
6.0 _______ Introduction __________________________________________________ 111

6.1 _______ Objectives ____________________________________________________ 114
6.2 _______ Cost/Benefit Analysis of Employee Development ________________ 115
6.3 _______ The Role of Government in the Training and Development of ______
__________ Employees ____________________________________________________ 116
6.4 _______ The Role of Trainers/Employee Development Specialists ________ 118
6.5 _______ Employee Development Approaches ____________________________ 120
__________ Activity 6.1 ____________________________________________________ 122
__________ 6.5.1 The Systems Approach to Employee Development __________ 122
__________ Activity 6.2 ____________________________________________________ 129
6.6 _______ Evaluation of Training ________________________________________ 129
__________ Activity 6.3 ____________________________________________________ 132
6.7 _______ Summary _____________________________________________________ 132
6.8 _______ References ____________________________________________________ 133
Unit Seven: Performance Management
7.0 _______ Introduction __________________________________________________ 135

7.1 _______ Objectives ____________________________________________________ 136
__________ Activity 7.1 ____________________________________________________ 137
7.2 _______ History of Performance Management ___________________________ 137
__________ Activity 7.2 ____________________________________________________ 138
7.3 _______ The Present ___________________________________________________ 138
7.4 _______ Context of Performance Management ___________________________ 138
__________ Activity 7.3 ____________________________________________________ 141
7.5 _______ What is Performance Management? _____________________________ 141
7.6 _______ Current Themes in Performance Management __________________ 143
__________ Activity 7.4 ____________________________________________________ 145
7.7 _______ Learning Organisations ________________________________________ 145
__________ Activity 7.5 ____________________________________________________ 146
7.8 _______ Performance Appraisals and Performance Management __________ 146
__________ 7.8.1 Manager Conducted Appraisal _____________________________ 147
__________ 7.8.2 Self Appraisal ____________________________________________ 147
__________ 7.8.3 Peer Conducted Appraisal _________________________________ 148
__________ 7.8.4 Subordinate Conducted Appraisal __________________________ 149
__________ 7.8.5 Outside Third Party Assessors _____________________________ 149
__________ Activity 7.6 ____________________________________________________ 150
7.9 _______ Performance Appraisal Methods ________________________________ 150
__________ 7.9.1 Trait Method _____________________________________________ 150
__________ 7.9.2 Objective Based Methods/Management By Objectives (MBO) 152
__________ 7.9.3 The Balanced Score Card __________________________________ 153
__________ 7.9.4 Competency Based Methods/Behaviourally Anchored __________
__________ Rating Scales (BARS) ___________________________________________ 154
__________ 7.9.5 360 Degree Method ________________________________________ 156
7.10 ______ Sources of Ineffective Performance ____________________________ 157
__________ 7.10.1 Recruitment, Selection and Promotion ____________________ 157
__________ 7.10.2 Lack of Induction ________________________________________ 158
__________ 7.10.3 Ineffective Communication _____________________________ 158
__________ 7.10.4 Treating Appraisals as a One-off Exercise _________________ 158
__________ 7.10.5 Transferring of Performance Problems ___________________ 159
__________ 7.10.6 Appraiser Lacking Adequate Knowledge of Appraisee _______ 159
__________ 7.10.7 Reliance on Previous/Past Performance Record ___________ 160
__________ 7.10.8 Inadequate Staffing ______________________________________ 160
__________ 7.10.9 Work Organisation _______________________________________ 160
__________ 7.10.10 Conditions of Service ___________________________________ 160
7.11 ______ Performance Management Ethics _______________________________ 161
__________ Activity 7.7 ____________________________________________________ 161
7.12 ______ Summary _____________________________________________________ 161
7.13 ______ References ____________________________________________________ 163
Unit Eight: Reward Management
8.0 _______ Introduction __________________________________________________ 165

8.1 _______ Objectives ____________________________________________________ 167
8.2 _______ The Basis of Reward Strategies _________________________________ 167
8.3 _______ Factors Affecting Salary and Wage Levels ________________________ 168
8.4 _______ The Components of Reward Management Strategy ______________ 169
8.5 _______ Principles of Wage and Salary Administration ___________________ 169
__________ Activity 8.1 ____________________________________________________ 170
__________ Activity 8.2 ____________________________________________________ 171
__________ 8.5.1 The Wage-Effort Bargain __________________________________ 172
8.6 _______ Wage and Salary Administration Policies_________________________ 172
__________ Activity 8.3____________________________________________________ 173
8.7 _______ Job Evaluation and Design of Pay Structures ____________________ 173
__________ 8.7.1 External Pay Comparisons ________________________________ 174
__________ 8.7.2 Market Rate Survey _______________________________________ 174
__________ 8.7.3 Establishing a Pay System _________________________________ 174
__________ 8.7.4 Pay Incentives ____________________________________________ 175
__________ 8.7.5 A ‘Felt-fair’ System ________________________________________ 175
__________ Activity 8.4 ____________________________________________________ 176
__________ 8.7.6 Length of Service Pay System ______________________________ 176
__________ 8.7.7 Piece Work _______________________________________________ 176
__________ 8.7.8 Payment by Results Systems _______________________________ 176
__________ 8.7.9 Practical Problems _______________________________________ 177
__________ 8.7.10 Measured Daywork System _______________________________ 178
__________ 8.7.11 Profit Sharing and Share Ownership Systems ______________ 178
__________ 8.7.12 General Comments on Wages and Salary Administration____ 179
__________ Activity 8.5 ____________________________________________________ 179
8.8 _______ Summary _____________________________________________________ 179
8.9 _______ References ____________________________________________________ 180
Unit Nine: Employee Involvement and Participation
9.0 _______ Introduction __________________________________________________ 181

9.1 _______ Objectives ____________________________________________________ 182
9.2 _______ Employee Involvement and Employee Participation _____________ 182
9.3 _______ Reasons for Employee Involvement and Employee Participation __ 183
__________ Activity 9.1 ____________________________________________________ 184
9.4 _______ Ten Steps to Successful Employee Involvement __________________ 184
9.5 _______ Zimbabwean Scenario _________________________________________ 188
__________ Activity 9.2 ____________________________________________________ 188
9.6 _______ Summary _____________________________________________________ 188
9.7 _______ References ____________________________________________________ 189
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Overview
Y ou have probably heard the assertion that: “In an organisation, people

are the greatest asset”. This has almost become a cliché and mantra
repeated from time to time even by managers/leaders who do not “walk the
talk”! Nevertheless, there is a lot of enduring truth in the assertion.
Human Resource Management Module MBA 508
The word “asset” connotes value. In this sense, who can seriously dispute
that people/employees are of value to an organisation? It would be strange if
this were not so. Employers spend large amounts of time and invest millions
of dollars in recruiting, paying wages and salaries and training and developing
staff, thus demonstrating the importance of employees to the organisation.
Indeed, generally speaking, it is acknowledged that labour costs constitute
the biggest portion of all production costs in an organisation. So the assertion
after all, may not constitute a basis for a serious dispute with anyone!
It can be stated with some justification that if there is an area where

Zimbabwean management skills can be said to be weak, it is the area of
people management skills. It is hoped that through an exploration of the various
concepts related to people management practices, this module will stimulate
a greater interest in the area of human resource management and firmly place
on the top of your organisational agenda, human resource management related
issues.
It is increasingly accepted world-wide that people management practices can

offer a strong competitive advantage to an organisation. This module neither
provides you with panaceas nor quick-fix recipes or solutions. Nevertheless,
it is hoped that it will provide you a basis or foundation upon which to think
critically and creatively about the role of human resources in your organisation
and how they can be utilised to best advantage.
Unit One interrogates the concept of human resource management and its
philosophical underpinnings. Unit Two focuses on human resource strategy/
planning and stresses the need for a link between business/organisational
objectives and a human resource strategy/plan which is often lacking in
organisations. Unit Three looks at recruitment and various selection instruments
that assist you to identify the best applicants from a competent pool of
applicants. It also dwells on the qualities and attributes that one should look
for when selecting a top management candidate. The quality of top management
can break or make an organisation. Indeed, the quality of top management is
a factor that can influence the conduct of investors and the value of shares on
the stock exchange!
What is motivation and how can an employee be best motivated? Unit Four
explains and explores the various theories of motivation and how they relate
to organisational practices and outcomes.
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2 Zimbabwe Open University
Overview
Units Five and Six focus on employee learning and development and the
critical role of these activities in the life of the organisation. Unit Seven discusses
the topical issue of performance management.
Employees need to be rewarded at work. The topic of reward management

is explored in Unit Eight while the value of employee participation and
involvement is examined in Unit Nine.
Hopefully, this module will strengthen your convictions with regard to the
superiority of the human asset in the organisation and equally important, assist
you to “walk the talk”!
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Zimbabwe Open University 3
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Unit One
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The Nature of Human Resource

Management (HRM)
1.0 Introduction
T his unit seeks to explore and shed some light on the nature and meaning
of Human Resource Management (HRM).
Storey (1989) states that a lot has been written and said about HRM since
the early 1980s. But, what exactly is HRM? What is the relationship between,
for example, HRM and Personnel Management (PM), HRM and Industrial
Relations (IR), HRM and Human Resource Development (HRD) or training?
Is there a relationship between HRM and Business Planning or Business
Strategy? What factors have given rise to the emergency, high visibility and
apparent popularity of HRM?
This unit will discuss issues raised by or related to these questions and in the
process attempt to provide some answers.
1.1 Objectives
By the end of this unit you should be able to:
* Identify similarities or differences between HRM and PM/IR and HRD.
* Explain the meaning of the abovementioned terms and relate them to
organizational practice or strategy.
* Pin-point the factors behind the emergence of HRM and its high profile
image or visibility.
1.2 HRM Etymology

Storey (ibid) suggests that HRM can be understood at a number of levels as
follows:
¾ as simply terminology that is interchangeable with PM. Storey notes

that, historically in North America HRM has been used in this sense.
¾ as a distinct set of people management practices characterized by a
conscious managerial focus on the individual employee as opposed to
the employee collective in the form of, for example, the trade union.
¾ as a fad or fashionable concept.
Beaumont (1993) uses Table 1.2 constructed by Guest (1987) to illustrate

the differences between HRM and PM. It should be noted that what is said to
constitute PM is based on observation while what is said to constitute HRM
is more of a theoretical construct and normative model and is therefore based
on assumptions. In trying to understand the nature and meaning of HRM, it
is important to bear this point in mind.
Commentators on HRM have highlighted the fact that a key problem in

understanding the nature of HRM is that writers often conflate description
with prescription, in other words, what is with what ought to be. (Storey;
ibid; Beaumont: ibid; Mabey et al 2000).
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Unit 1 The Nature of Human Resource Management (HRM)
1.2.1 American and British Normative Models of HRM and

PM
Legge (1989) observes that in order to bring clarity to the discussion on the
nature of HRM, a necessary pre-condition is the construction of both HRM
and PM models. The models can then be used to identify similarities and
differences. She suggests four possible outcomes from such an endeavour as
demonstrated in Table 1.1. Legge (Storey: ibid) citing Guest (1987:507)
states that “… we cannot really ask what human resource management looks
like in practice unless we have a model about what it should constitute”.
Table 1.1 HRM and PM Models and Outcomes
Nature of Models Practice Conclusion/Outcome

1. Similar PM/HRM models 1. Different practices PM/HRM are different
2. Different PM/HRM Models 2. Similar practices PM/HRM are similar
3. Similar PM/HRM models 3. Similar practices PM/HRM are similar
4. Different PM/HRM models 4. Different practices PM/HRM are different
(Source: Adapted from Storey J., 1989:20)
A key inference that can be drawn from the matrix in Table 1.1 is that the
differentiating factor between HRM and PM lies not in the label or title but in
the practice.
It can be argued that writers and commentators on HRM are consciously or

unconsciously not only seeking to explain what HRM is but are also playing a
crusader role by advocating a particular form of HRM. This is not surprising
because firstly, HRM is still in a state of flux with therefore less defined and
rigid parameters and this very fact makes it more vulnerable to subjective
interpretations. Secondly, HRM has implications for the manner in which work
is organized and executed for both occupational and institutional roles. It is
thus bound to excite the self-interested views of both detractors and supporters.
In this respect, it is plausible to view discussions on the nature of HRM within
the context of a competing set of interests and values at work and in the wider
society.
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Table 1.2 Stereotypes of personnel management and human resource Management
Bench-marks Personnel Management Human Resource Management

Time and planning Short-term, reactive, ad Long-term, proactive, strategic,
perspective hoc, marginal integrated
Psychological contract Compliance Commitment
Control systems External controls Self-control
Employee-relations Pluralist, collective, Unitarist, individual, high-trust

Perspective low-trust
Preferred structures/ Bureaucratic, mechanistic, Organic, devolved, flexible roles

systems centralized, formal defined
roles
Roles Specialist/professional Largely integrated into line

management
Evaluation criteria Cost-minimisation Maximum utilisation (human asset

accounting)
(Source: Beaumont P. B., 1993:13)
Legge (Storey:ibid) makes a comparative analysis of American and British

normative models of PM and HRM based on pronouncements by
commentators as illustrated in
Tables 1.3 and 1.4.
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Table 1.3 Normative Models of Personnel Management
American British
1. “Personnel administration is … organizing 1. “…Personnel management is a
and treating individuals at work so that responsibility of all those who manage people
they … get the greatest possible realisation of … It … aims to achieve both efficiency
their intrinsic abilities thus attaining maximum and justice … neither of which can be
efficiency … and giving the enterprise … its pursued successfully without the other”.
competitive advantage …” (Pigors and Myers, (IPM, 1963).
1969).
2. “… the most significant aspect of Personnel 2. “… Personnel management is concerned

Management is … the direction and control of with obtaining the best … staff for an
the human resources … successful organization and … looking after them
performance of the personnel function so that they … give of their best …”
necessitates that each manager orient himself (Cumming, 1975).
within his total business environment … to
achieve … various organizational programmes
and objectives”. (Megginson, 1972).
3. “… personnel management is concerned 3. “… Personnel management is a series

with the matching of people to the jobs that of activities which … enable working people
must be done to achieve the organization’s and their employing organizations to agree
goals”. (Glueck 1974) about the objectives and nature of their
working relationship and … ensures that the
agreement is fulfilled”. (Torrington and Hall
1987).
(Source: Storey J., 1989:21-22)
Common to the above American and British postulations on the nature of PM

are the following characteristics:
¾ Selection, development and rewarding of employees.

¾ Direction of employees in a way that satisfies them and facilitates
attainment of organizational goals.
¾ The centrality of PM to all managers and not only personnel specialists.
If the above are similarities, differences in the conceptualization of PM by the
American and British can be cited as follows:
The American conceptualizations project a non-problematic unitary frame of

reference.
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The British conceptualizations on the other hand, betray an underlying pluralistic

perspective.
Table 1.4 Normative Models of Human Resource Management
American British
1. “… the transformation … amounts to more 1. “… there are two themes which overlap …
than a subtle shift in the traditional practices of the first contained in the term ‘strategic’, the
personnel … The assumptions are: second in the … philosophy, of ‘human
· pro-active, system-wide interventions… resources’. The latter suggests people are a
linking HRM with strategic planning and valued … critical investment in an
cultural change (c.f. old assumption: organization’s current performance and future
reactive, piecemeal interventions in growth. The term ‘strategic’ … has both
response to specific problems). established and new connotations …
· People are social capital capable of - The use of planning.
development (c. f. people as variable - Coherent approach to the design and
cost). management of personnel systems
· Coincidence of interest between based on an employment policy and
stakeholders can be developed manpower strategy, and often under-
(c.f. self-interest dominates, conflict pinned by a ‘philosophy’.
between stakeholder). - Matching HRM activities and policies
· Seeks power equalisation for trust and to some explicit business strategy.
collaboration (c.f. seeks power - Seeing the people … as a ‘strategic
advantages for bargaining and resource’ for achieving ‘competitive
confrontation). advantage’ (Hendry and Pettigrew:
· Open channels of communication to 1986).
build trust, commitment (c.f. control
of information flow to enhance 2. The main dimensions of HRM involve the
efficiency, power). goal of integration (i.e. if human resources can
· Goal orientation (c.f. relationship be integrated into strategic plans, if human
orientation). resource policies cohere, if line managers have
· Participation and informed choice internalized the importance of human resources
(c.f. control from top)”. (Beer and and this is reflected in their behaviour and if
Spector: 1985). employees identify with the company, then the
2. “The new HRM model is composed of company’s strategic plans are likely to be
policies that promote mutuality - mutual goals, successfully implemented).
mutual influence, mutual respect, mutual
rewards, mutual responsibility … will elicit The goal of employee commitment, the goal of
commitment which in turn will yield … better flexibility/adaptability (i.e. organic structures,
economic performance and greater human functional flexibility), the goal of quality (i.e.
development”. (Walton: 1985). quality of staff, standards and public image)”.
(Guest: 1987).
3. “… human resource management does 3. “There is greater emphasis on planning,

not exist in a vacuum but must be related to monitoring, and control, rather than on
the overall strategy of the organization. problem-solving and mediation …
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Personnel managers have a tendency to … Underpinning personnel management are …

function in their … little world … their primary twin ideas that people have a right to proper
function is helping to realize top and line treatment as dignified human beings…
management goals”. (Foulkes: 1986). at work, and that they are …effective as
employees when their job related personal
needs are met. Underpinning human resource
management is the idea that the management of
human resources is much the same as any
other aspect of management, and getting the
deployment of right numbers and skills at the
right place is more important than interfering
with people’s personal affairs” (Torrington
and Hall: 1987).
(SOURCE : Storey J, 1989: 23-24)
Activity 1.1
?
* How useful are the stereotypes and normative models of personnel
management and human resource management in shedding light on the
nature of HRM? Relate this question to practices in organisations you
are familiar with.
Common to the American and British statements on the identity of HRM are
the following elements:
¾ The perception of employees as a source of value and competitive

advantage to the organisation.
¾ The integration of human resource policies with strategic business
planning.
Again as is the case with PM, the American pronouncements reflect a stronger
unitary orientation compared to the British assertions. Legge (Storey : ibid
25) cites Fowler (1987) who asks whether it is really possible “… to claim
full mutuality when at the end of the day the employer can decide unilaterally
to close the company or sell it to someone else?” She also cites Guest ( 1987)
who states that “for many, the unitaristic implications of human resource
management could only begin to have an appeal following a much more radical
shift of ownership and control in industry”.
When American and British normative models of PM and HRM are compared,
what are the similarities and differences? Legge (Storey : ibid) identifies the
following similarities:
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¾ In both models there is an emphasis on the integration of PM/HRM

practices with organizational goals.
¾ PM/HRM is located in line management.
¾ The models link the meeting of employee job-related needs with
organizational success.
The differences, according to Legge (Storey: ibid), are more of emphasis
than substance. Beaumont (ibid : 10) agrees with such an observation when
he states that “… the predominant theme which is held to differentiate human
resource management from its predecessor, personnel administration, is a
broadening or widening notion”. For example:
¾ Employment forecasting and succession planning as conceptualized

under PM has developed to encompass a more explicit linkage with
organizational strategy and business planning under HRM.
¾ Collective bargaining under PM has been overtaken or supplemented
by non-collective bargaining initiatives centering on employee
involvement such as quality circles.
¾ The concern with employee job satisfaction under PM leading to a
focus on “organizational climate” has evolved under HRM to a concern
with the broader notion of “organizational culture”.
¾ Under PM, the focus on individuals in respect of selection, performance
appraisal and compensation decisions with the accompanying detailed
individual job descriptions has changed under HRM to a focus on
effective team or group working.
¾ Training under PM has a narrow focus on individual job skills. Under
HRM training is a much more encompassing activity concerned with
the total and long-term development of the employee.
As Keep observes (Storey: ibid III), “… training and development should be
regarded as central to anything that can sensibly be termed HRM. Companies
that … fail to invest in training and development … cannot meaningfully be
said to be practising human resource management”. According to Keep
(Storey: ibid III), human resource development (HRD) “… emphasizes the
centrality to competitive advantage of investment in the training and
development of all levels of the workforce, of improved communication…
and of the motivational benefits … attendant upon these developments”.
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1.2.2 Two Versions of HRM

Discussions on the nature of HRM often identify and contrast its “hard” and
“soft” versions. The former version refers to the quantitative aspect of HRM
and its concern with headcounts (or the number of employees) and economic
efficiency while the latter version is anchored in the human relations school
and stresses the importance of organizational factors such as communication,
motivation and leadership (Storey: ibid). Legge (Storey: ibid 26) states that:
“Put differently the ‘hard’ version might be said to emphasize the management
aspect, and the soft version, the human resource aspect of HRM”. The
‘soft’ version of HRM in other words reflects a concern with the way
employees are handled or treated.
1.2.3 HRM and Key People Management Aspects

Storey (ibid) and other commentators as indicated below view the following
as important aspects that characterise HRM:
A focus on the individual employee as opposed to the work collective (e.g.

the trade union) leading to direct forms of communication and involvement
(e.g. team briefing and quality circles). This in turn has contributed to a change
in terminology from industrial relations to employee relations and from
PM to HRM. Such a conceptualization and focus raises the question of
the compatibility of HRM with traditional industrial relations. Gunnigle
(1998) for example, makes the point that since the Second World War,
industrial relations in Western Europe was characterized by collective bargaining
– the pluralist industrial relations model.
Citing Bain and Clegg (1974), Storey (ibid: 9) state that the classic definition
of industrial relations is “the making and administering of rules which regulate
employment relationships” with the focus of study being “the institutions of
job regulation”. Storey (ibid: 9) concludes that HRM “… implies something
different from the proceduralized approach to handling labour … What is
distinctive about HRM in both the hard and soft versions, is that it eschews
the joint regulative approach … It is impatient of custom and practice, of
the going rate, of parity … of rule-books and procedure manuals, of deferring
to personnel and IR specialists”.
Indeed, according to Storey (ibid : 9) the Trades Union Congress (TUC), the
British union umbrella body was concerned about the spread of HRM “…
not least because of its association in the United States with non-unionism”.
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Guest (cited in Storey: ibid 43) in some respects concurs with Storey.
According to him, “HRM values are essentially individualistic in that they
emphasize the individual-organization linkage in preference to operating
through group and representative systems … These values underpinning
HRM leave little scope for collective arrangements and assume little need for
collective bargaining. HRM therefore poses a considerable challenge to
traditional industrial relations and more particularly to trade unionism.
At the same time, HRM is not necessarily anti-union … neither strategic
integration nor quality is in any sense incompatible with trade union activity …
flexibility is likely to pose a significant challenge to some unions, more particularly
at multi-union sites … The main challenge to the unions is likely to come from
the pursuit of employee commitment”.
¾ A shift from the traditional recruitment and selection criteria that focus
on “job fit” (i.e. matching the narrow requirements of the job to the
candidate’s skills) to broader criteria concerned with “employability/
adaptability” (i.e. ability to learn new skills and adapt to different jobs
over time) (Gunnigle: ibid).
¾ Linked to the above is greater numerical and functional flexibility or

cross-functional mobility. As Storey (ibid : 9) points out, HRM places
emphasis “on utilizing labour to its full capacity or potential … through
training or by job redesign so that labour is deployed more flexibly
across tasks, it may also mean … de-manning so that the remaining
labour time is … used more intensively”.
¾ Gunnigle (ibid) states that the rationale for such a thrust is intensified
global competition and the need to reduce labour costs and improve
productivity and that this has resulted in the use of different forms of
employment such as contracting – in or out sourcing. He also points
out that the recession in the 1980s led to a decline in union membership
in Europe and North America weakening the basis of collectivism and
pluralism and promoting individualistic approaches to labour
management.
¾ Integrated reward systems characterized by greater variation in pay
levels, greater use of contigent pay systems (e.g. performance related
pay and bonuses), more experimentation with reward systems and
greater individualization of rewards based on skill and job performance
with pay determination located more at enterprise than at industry/
national level (Gunnigle: ibid).
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Activity 1.2
*
?
(a). Reflect on the titles given to departments that have a specific
responsibility for handling people issues in organizations you are
familiar with. What are these titles? What were the reasons behind
these titles, if any?
(b). In the event that the titles changed over the years, find out the
reasons for the changes.
* To what extent do you think the Zimbabwean environment (or country
environment in which you operate) is conducive to the development
and growth of HRM? Give reasons for your answer.
1.3 Summary
The distinction between PM and HRM can on one hand be looked at as a
matter of semantics. On the other hand, it can be argued that the distinction
goes beyond mere semantics and represents different organizational outlooks
and practices. HRM has grown and thrived as a response to global competitive
pressures and the need to secure competitive advantage from the workforce.
The decline in union density in Europe and North America in the 1980s helped
to weaken collectivism in the workforce and to promote individualistic
approaches in workforce management – an aspect considered integral to
HRM.
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1.4 References
Beaumont, P. B. (1993). Human Resource Management, Routledge,
London.
Gunnigle, P. (1998). Developments in Human Resource Management,
Concord Services (Pvt) Ltd. Harare.
Gunnigle, P. et al (1997). Human Resource Management in Irish
Organistions, Oak Press, Ireland.
Storey, J. (1989). New Perspectives on Human Resource Management,
Routledge, London.
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2
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Unit T wo
Two
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Human Resource Strategy/

Planning
2.0 Introduction
I t is now generally accepted that the most important resource that an

organisation has is its human resource – the people who work for the
organisation. Indeed their skills, knowledge and attitudes can offer the
organisation the competitive edge in today’s world. This realisation has resulted,
for most organisations, in the need for an essentially different attitude to people
– stemming from the awareness of management for the importance of the
human function. Human resource strategy must focus on how to attract,
retain, appraise, reward and develop the kind of people who can best achieve
the objectives demanded by the corporate strategy. Strategic human resource
management seeks to integrate the planning for human resources with the
overall business objectives in order to strengthen and promote organisational
competitiveness. Such an approach has implications on the role of the human
resource function in organisations as discussed in the following sections.
2.1 Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
* Define the concept of Strategic Human Resource
Management.
* Demonstrate linkages between Corporate Strategy and
Human Resource Strategy.
* Outline the process of formulating a Human Resource Plan.
2.2 Relationship Between Strategic Planning and

Human Resource Management
The process which organisations use to anticipate the future in a complex and
changing environment is called strategic management. It involves making those
decisions that define the overall mission and objectives of the organisation,
determining the most effective utilisation of its resources, as well as crafting
and executing the strategy in ways that produce the intended results.
Business planning is management’s game plan. It is the tangible evidence of

management thinking. A strategy defines what resources and competencies
an organisation will use to establish its position in the market and achieve its
strategic vision. On the other hand, people strategy focuses on the enterprise
–wide design of organisation, roles and human resource programmes required
to support business strategy. Strategic Human Resource Management
addresses the human resource implications of the business plan. For instance,
it asks questions like: What sort of people do we need to achieve our stated
vision and mission? If the business strategy is to expand into new foreign
markets, HR defines the human resource and skills implications of that move.
HR strategy also focuses on how to efficiently and effectively deliver HR
services to the business through people, process, organisation and technology.
The HR strategy has to be congruent with, and supportive of, the overall
strategy of the organisation. According to Armstrong (1995), Strategic Human
Resource Management “will address any major people issues which affect or
are affected by the strategic plans of the organisation and will provide agendas
for change which set out intentions on how these issues will be handled”. HR
management crosses all functions and is fully integrated with all the significant
parts of the organisation: operations, marketing, finance and so on.
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Unit 2 Human Resource Strategy/Planning
2.3 Responsibilities of Strategic Human Resource

Management
The responsibility for Human Resource Management is always shared among
all managers in the enterprise. Three groups of people can legitimately lay
claim for managing the human resource.
¾ Senior Managers – Because if human resources are the most

important resource and the organisation’s success is dependent on its
people, then Senior Managers must give it top priority.
¾ All Managers – Because they are in close contact with the workforce
and have an up-to-date knowledge of workers. In addition, they are
responsible for combining the human resource with other resources to
achieve operational targets.
¾ Human Resources Managers – Because they have the technical
knowhow on people management and are required to put this technical
skill at the disposal of line managers.
HR issues are the responsibility of every manager in every department. The
HR staff are themselves resources to be called on in support of operating
managers. Whether managers are in charge of sales, accounts, or information
systems, they are responsible for people, and are therefore HR managers.
Activity 2.1
?
* With reference to your organisation or the one you are familiar with,
discuss the statement:
* “HR issues are the responsibility of every manager in every department.”
2.4 The Meaning of Strategic Human Resource

Management
According to Armstrong (1995), Human Resource Management can be
defined as a strategic and coherent approach to the management of an
organisation’s most valued assets – the people who individually and collectively
contribute to the achievement of the objectives of the business. Miller (1989),
argues that “Strategic human resource management encompasses those
decisions and actions which concern the management of employees at all
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levels in the business and which are directed towards creating and sustaining
competitive advantage”.
A “soft” interpretation of HRM emphasizes the human part of the term, stressing
collaboration, teamwork, empowerment and facilitative management. The other
“hard” interpretation concentrates on the resource management part of the
term, stressing competencies, performance appraisal and rewards. In other
words, the “soft” version focuses on the qualitative aspects of HRM while the
‘hard” version highlights its quantitative side as pointed out by Storey (1989).
2.4.1 Characteristics of Human Resource Management

The characteristics of human resource management include the following:
¾ It is a top management driven and management-oriented activity

¾ The performance and delivery of Human Resource Management is a
line management responsibility
¾ It emphasizes the need for strategic fit – the integration of business with
HR strategies
¾ It stresses the importance of gaining commitment to the organisation’s
mission and values – it’s commitment oriented
¾ Importance is attached to strong cultures and values
¾ It is performance oriented, emphasizing the need for ever higher levels
of achievement to meet new challenges
¾ Rewards are differentiated according to performance, competence or
skill
¾ It views the people in the organisation as a strategic resource for the
achievement of competitive advantage.
The above characteristics of HRM may be contrasted with the traditional

view of the personnel management function where HR is reactive and not
proactive in providing human resource solutions to the organisation.
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2.4.2 HR Takes on New Roles

Strategic Partner
There are grounds for believing that, HR is transforming itself to focus on the
following:
¾ Human capital development and organisational productivity

¾ People as a source of strategic advantage
¾ Individual, team, business and corporate performance
¾ Repositioning HR as part of top management team reporting directly to
the Chief Executive Officer in most companies
¾ Board level representation where major decisions are made.
Change Agent
As a Change Agent, the HR function will deliver the following initiatives:
¾ Driving change initiatives

¾ Re-designing work processes
¾ Supporting cultural transformation.
2.4.3 What Human Resource Strategy can Deliver
Table 2.1
Traditional HR Response New HR Response

What HR People Do What HR can Deliver
· Staffing · Strategy Execution
· Development · Administrative Efficiency
· Compensation · Employee Contribution
· Benefits · Capacity for Change
· Communication
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2.5 Carrying Out an HR SWOT Analysis

A simple technique that can be used in writing about a strategic response is
the SWOT Analysis to identify the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and
threats that exist. This can be done in one or two ways, either as a general
form of analysis of the people side of the business or as an assessment of the
specific capacity in relation to one part of the strategy of the business. The
whole purpose of a SWOT analysis is to enable the business to build on its
human resource strengths, minimise on its weaknesses, take advantage of its
human resource opportunities and counter the threats.
Table 2.2 Swot Analysis
Strengths Weaknesses
· Experienced and qualified staff · No performance management system in place
· Culture fits strategy · Shortage of IT staff
· Competitive pay rates in most areas · High level of absence
· Low staff turnover . · Lack of defined roles/responsibilities
Opportunities Threats
· New product line provides promotion · Recent 45% hike in pay rates for
prospects IT staff at Company X
· Graduate intake has been doubled · All overseas sales team have been approached
this year with lucrative offers from a South African
· New flexible payment scheme competitor
ready for launch soon · HIV/AIDS pandemic
2.6 Process of Developing a Human Resource

Strategy
The process of formulating a human resource strategy involves the answering
of three questions, which are normally asked during strategic planning sessions
as follows:
¾ Where are we now?

¾ Where do we want to go?
¾ How do we get there?
The sequential way of developing a human resource strategy is shown
diagrammatically below:
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2.6.1 Process for Formulating a HR Strategy
ORGANISATION
VISION/MISSION/OBJECTIVES
CORPORATE STRATEGY
: CRITICAL SUCCESS FACTORS (CSFs)

FOR ACHIEVING ORGANISATION
GOALS
Analysis of Analysis of
Internal CONTRIBUTION OF HR TO
External
Environment Environmentnt
SWOT ANALYSIS OF HR
KEY HR ISSUES TO CONTRIBUTE

TO CSFs
Benchmark
Internal TOP MANAGEMENT External
Workshops/ REVIEW Organisation
Discussions
HR OBJECTIVES AND
HR PLANS
IMPLEMENTATIO
(Source: Armstrong , 1991)
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Figure 2.1
The following are some of the questions that should be answered during the
HR Strategy Development Process:
BUSINESS HR
What Business are we in? What sort of people do we need to
What is our Mission? What are our achieve the strategic objectives of
strategic objectives? the business?
Where are we going? What sort of organisation do we need

to get there?
What are our strengths, weaknesses, To what extent are the strengths and
opportunities and threats? weaknesses related to HR capability?
What opportunities do we have to
What are the main strategic issues develop and motivate our staff?
facing the business? What are the threats in such areas
as skill shortages and the retention
of key staff?
What are the critical success factors, To what extent do these issues involve
which determine how well we organisation and HR considerations?
achieve our mission?
How far will business success be
helped or hindered by the quality,
motivation, commitment and attitudes
of our employees?
(Source: Armstrong, 1995)
2.6.2 Components of a Human Resource Strategy

An HR strategy will be built around three main elements:
¾ Development of processes and systems which continually improve core

capabilities.
¾ Development of the workforce in line with the organization’s needs and
external factors and influences.
¾ Change or reinforcement, in line with the organisation’structure, culture
and values, in order to meet its objectives and ensure survival.
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In addition, an HR strategy will address activity areas covered in the following

sub-sections:
2.6.3 Process Development

This includes:
¾ Recruitment and selection

¾ Career management
¾ Efficiency and performance management
¾ Job analysis and evaluation
¾ Remuneration
¾ Employee relations
¾ Heath and safety.
2.6.4 Workforce Development

This involves:
¾ Performance management
¾ Training and development (developing skills and flexibility)
¾ Change and innovation
¾ Career counselling
¾ Reward linked to performance.
2.6.5 Organisational Values

These include:
¾ Commonality in culture, concepts, values and standards.
¾ Shared and agreed vision, mission and direction.
¾ Team working.
¾ Systematic and appropriate objective setting and appraisal.
¾ Open communications.
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2.7 Developing the Human Resource Plan

Once the human resource strategy has been crafted, it is now time to develop
a comprehensive human resource plan for the organisation.
Human Resource Planning (HRP) can be defined as the process for determining
an organisation’s human resource requirements and converting them into
implementable plans.
The process will have the following steps:
Step 1: Situational Analysis
This process involves assessing the context in which HRP is taking place and
involves analysing the environment, business strategy and culture of the
organisation before deducing the HR challenges. Its purpose is to understand
the context in which the organisation is planning for its human resources. It is
intended to define the general human resource challenges or issues facing the
organisation. Taken in the broadest sense, we would first examine the overall
external environment as well as the current organisational strategy and corporate
culture. As human resource implications emerge, these are noted. This will
involve the review of the current establishment, training output, present staffing
trends, personnel policies and staff utilisation.
Step 2: Demand Analysis and Forecasting
This step involves ascertaining the current and future requirements for key
jobs. Fundamentally, demand forecasting is an organisational planning activity,
which includes a careful analysis of the people requirements in terms of both
numbers and capabilities.
Demand analysis and forecasting also involves assessing the impact of business
plans and objectives on the numbers of employees and culture. It will also
analyse the labour costs and productivity levels in the light of defined business
plans and objectives and future patterns of work. The objective ultimately is
to forecast future staffing quantitatively and qualitatively.
Step 3: Supply Analysis and Forecasting
This step involves analysing and projecting the numbers and capabilities of
people who are likely to exist in the organisation over a given period. The
supply analysis can include various capability assessment processes, movement
and turnover analysis, and expected future additions from training and
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recruitment. It also includes analysis of the external labour markets and

projections of skill availability. Supply forecasting involves detailed analysis
of existing manpower according to, e.g. age, length of service, skills and
knowledge, future capability, etc. The whole idea is to forecast the future
availability of people quantitatively and qualitatively.
Step 4: The Human Resource Plan
The fourth step concentrates on the development of the Human Resource

Plan itself and its implementation. The plan is derived from a thorough
comparison of the demand analysis with the supply analysis in terms of the
major human resource challenges facing the organisation or other areas needing
attention. At this stage, consideration will have to be taken of the mis-matches
between supply and demand, viz. distribution and number of staff, skills and
staff productivity. The plan so developed, incorporates plans on how best to
recruit, and develop manpower to meet the organisational objectives. Ways
will also be developed on how best to utilise (manage) the manpower and, if
necessary, transfer/redistribute or rightsize (divest) from areas where there is
excess manpower.
Activity 2.2
*
?
Explain the process of developing a Human Resource Strategy for
your organisation.
* Explain the concepts of demand and supply forecasting as defined in
this module.
* Consider the factors likely to affect Human Resource Planning in your
organisation or the one you are familiar with. What constraints are
likely to be of vital importance at the present time?
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2.8 Summary
¾ For organisations to prosper in today’s complex world, there is need
for Human Resource Strategies to be linked to the overall business
strategy.
¾ Overall responsibility for people management lies with each and every
manager.
¾ Human Reosurce Planning is concerned with bridging the gap between
supply of people and demand for people in organisations. Where there
are gaps, plans are then put in place on how best to recruit, select,
develop, manage or divest human resources.
2.9 References
Armstrong, M. (1995). A Handbook of Personnel Management Practice.
Kogan Page, London.
Storey, J. (1989). New Perspectives on Human Resource Management, ,
Routledge, London.
Recommended Further Reading

Carrell, M.R. et.al (1999). Human Resource Management in South Africa,
Pearson Education, South Africa.
Gerber, P.D. et.al (1994). Human Resources Management. Southern Book
Publishers.
Torrington, D. and Hall, L. (1995) Personnel Management. Prentice, Hall,
London.
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3
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Unit Three
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Recruitment and Selection
3.0 Introduction
T his unit discusses issues involved in the recruitment and selection of

personnel into organizations. Recruitment and selection are concepts
covered under the broad umbrella of manning or Human Resource Planning.
Meeting an organisation’s staffing needs requires effective planning of human
resources, hence human resource planning is the process of anticipating and
making provision for the movement of people into, within, and out of an
organisation.
Human Resource Planning in large organisations is the function co-ordinated

by the Human Resources Department. A number of problems may arise as a
result of inadequate or lack of human resource planning. The following are
some of the problems an organisation may encounter due to inadequate or
lack of human resource planning:
¾ Vacancies can remain unstaffed.

¾ People may stay too long in acting positions.
¾ Employees can be laid off in one department whilst applicants are hired
for similar jobs in another department.
¾ Employees will find it difficult to make effective plans for career or
personal development resulting in some competent and ambitious ones
seeking other employment where they will get better career opportunities.
The Human Resources Department must also concern itself with linking human
resource planning with strategic business planning. Strategic planning is the
process of setting major organisational objectives and developing
comprehensive plans to achieve these objectives. It involves making decisions
on the primary direction of the organisation, including its structure and its
human resources. The relationship between strategic planning and human
resource planning requires that top management and strategic planners
recognise that strategic planning decisions affect and are affected by human
resource functions. Organisations must also accord Human Resources
Departments the credit they deserve for adding value to the organisation by
manning jobs with the right personnel at the right time. Cook (1998:1) pointed
out that human resources managers sometimes have difficulty in convincing
colleagues that their departments also make a major contribution to the
organisation’s success because they do not make or sell things like other
departments. This kind of perception overlooks the fact that people are the
single greatest asset available to the organisation and the Human Resources
Department is tasked with looking after this very valuable asset and should
therefore assume a broader role in the organisation’s strategic plan.
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Unit 3 Recruitment and Selection
3.1 Objectives
* Discuss the relationship between strategic organisational planning and
human resource planning.
* Distinguish between recruitment and selection.
* Explain the legislative framework of recruitment and selection.
* Identify the principal external sources of recruitment.
* Explain the advantages and disadvantages of filling job vacancies with
internal candidates.
* Identify the limitations and subjectivity of the various selection methods.
* Illustrate the added value of valid and reliable methods of employee
selection.
* List the key elements of the Human Resources model.
3.2 Key Elements of Human Resource Planning

Effective human resource planning would normally follow a systematic model
or process comprising three key elements, i.e. making forecasts, performing
supply analysis and balancing supply and demand considerations as shown in
Figure 3.1.
EMPLOYMENT SUPPLY Resulting BALANCING
Leads to
FORECASTING ANALYSIS in SUPPLYAND DEMAND
CONSIDERATIONS
Considerations Internal Recruitment
- Product Service demand - Staffing tables - Full-time
- Economics - Skills inventory - Part-time
- Technology - Management - Recalls
inventories
- Financial resources - Replacement charts - Reductions
- Absenteeism/Turnover External - Terminations
- Organisational growth - Demographic - Layoffs
- Management philosophy changes - Demotions
- Techniques - Education of - Retirement
workforce
- Trend analysis - Labour mobility
- Indexation - Governmental policies
- Modeling - Unemployment rate
- Expertise estimate
- Delphi
(Source: Sherman and Bohlander, 1992)
Figure 3.1 Human Resources Planning Model
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3.2.1 Forecasting
Employment forecasting, a key component of human resource planning, is the
activity of estimating in advance, the number and type of personnel needed to
meet organisational objectives.
It is important to note that forecasting is more of an art than a science in that

the results it provides are inexact approximations rather than absolute ones.
Forecasting uses two approaches, quantitative and qualitative. The quantitative

approach involves statistical or mathematical techniques normally used by
professional planners. Some of the techniques used are trend analysis and
indexation. Trend analysis forecasts employment requirements based on past
human resources growth. Indexation, or ratio analysis, forecasts employment
growth based on some organisational index.
The qualitative approach to forecasting aims to reconcile the interests, abilities

and aspirations of individual employees with the current and future staffing
needs of an organisation. This method is normally used by human resources
practitioners experienced in counseling, training and management development
techniques and can be used to evaluate employee performance and
promotability, as well as management and career development. One of the
expert forecasting methods is the Delphi technique which attempts to decrease
the subjectivity of forecasts by summarizing the judgements of experts to
accommodate diverse views. This approach is based on the systematic
collection and analysis of anonymous managerial opinion.
3.2.2 Supply Analysis

Supply analysis involves determining whether there are sufficient numbers and
types of employees available to staff the anticipated job openings. The analysis
involves looking at both the internal and external sources.
Internal supply analysis may involve preparation of staffing tables and skills
inventory. Staffing tables can be presented in pictorial form showing all
organisational jobs along with numbers of employees in place and future
employment requirements, whilst skills inventories list each individual’s
education, past work experience, vocational interests, specific abilities and
skills, compensation history and job tenure. A good skills inventory allows an
organisation to quickly match forthcoming job openings with employee
backgrounds. Skills inventories done on management employees are called
management inventories. When internal supply is inadequate for promotions
or for staffing new jobs, an organisation has to consider the external supply of
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labour. External supply of labour has to take into account various factors like
demographic changes in the demand for specific employee skills, population
mobility, national and regional economics, education level of the work force,
and governmental policies.
3.2.3 Balancing Supply and Demand Considerations

Whereas supply considerations are based on the determination of where and
how candidates with the required qualifications are to be found to fill vacancies,
demand considerations are based on the forecast of trends in business activity.
Human Resource Planning attempts to strike a balance between demand and
supply considerations in order to ensure good staffing levels.
3.3 Recruitment
Effective Human Resource Planning leads to the decision to recruit or not to
recruit. Recruiting is the process of locating and encouraging potential
employees to apply for existing or anticipated job vacancies. Recruitment
and selection are complementary processes in employment, where selection
is essentially concerned with assessing the identified candidates and engaging
those found most suitable for employment. Simpson (Leopold J. Ed; 2002:
54) says recruitment may be thought of as a positive process of generating a
pool of candidates by reaching the right audience, suitable to fill the vacancy
while selection can be seen as a more negative process of choosing or picking
from the pool the most suitable candidates, both willing and able to fill the
vacancies. Simpson also likens recruitment and selection to a net, attracting
and catching candidates, with funnels and filters to select them by various
criteria.
3.3.1 Recruitment and Selection in the African Context

In Africa, recruitment and selection is largely modeled on concepts of
organisations imported from the west. This personnel function however,
attracts more interest and attention for managers and decision makers than in
the West. Blunt and Popoola (1985:51) pointed out that, in settings where
paid work is scarce, and where there are pressures to allocate jobs in a
particularistic fashion, the selection process constitutes a prime means of fulfilling
one’s obligations to kin and other personal contacts. Blunt and Popoola
(1985:51) cite Werlin (1972:253) who says about Ghana, “many Ghanaians
would agree with the analysis that; the more successful a civil servant or
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politician becomes, the more he is expected to share his good fortune with his
kinsmen”.
Blunt and Popoola (1985:51) cited particularism as one of the African

personnel manager’s major burdens. They note that this practice also affects
performance appraisal and promotion. They also cite kinship and ethnicity as
the major cause of organisational malfunctioning in public enterprises in Africa.
Blunt and Popoola are not arguing that standard methods of recruitment and
selection do not have a part to play in the African context, in improving
organisational effectiveness, but are concerned that ways of ensuring fair play
in the interest of the organisation must be found.
3.3.2 The Process of Recruitment

Most organisations try to follow a policy of filling job vacancies through
promotions and transfers within the organisation. There are times however,
when organisations have to opt for alternative ways of recruitment. Table 3.1
shows an overview of the recruitment and selection process.
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Table 3.1
Stage Question Action

1. Examination of strategic implications Review in line with organisational and
of vacancy in light of organisational functional strategy, senior management,
philosophy and circumstances (buy recruitment strategy, business cycle.
in/grow on) and capability. Will Exit interview?
recruitment be targeted and how?
2. Replacement or new position? No. Obtain authority.
Authorisation? Yes.
3. Existing job description and person No? Job analysis exercise for JD then PS
specification? Up to date? Yes. No? Review and amend.
4. Terms and conditions agreed? (relate No? Negotiate and agree within organisation.
to stage 1) Yes.
5. In-house or external trawl? Advertise? External to stage 6. Not necessary; offer
promotion/redeployment to stage 10.
6. Advertise in-house. Decide target Problems if this is too broad, too narrow,
group. failing to create a diverse workforce, not
reflecting community in which located, or its
customer base.
7. Decide appropriate recruitment Seek specialist advice or refer to past
methods. practices, revised as necessary with regard to
cost effectiveness.
8. Decide organisation’s response to initial Design and send information pack.
enquiry. Information pack? Yes. No?
Pre-screen? Yes. No. Send application Arrange pre-screening.
form on request CV/letter. Shortlist and Arrange shortlisting meeting,
send rejection letters. Invite to reasons for rejection on selection.
interview. (Equal opportunities) and administrative
follow up.
9. Selection. If no suitable candidate, Feedback from interviews and candidates for
revise and repeat recruitment exercise. evaluation.
10. Evaluate effectiveness of recruitment/ Feedback above and induction, immediate
selection, (short and long term) and manager, appraisals, exit interviews,
implement improvements. labour turnover.
(Source: Adapted from Leopold, 2002:61)
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The Vacancy
The first step in the recruitment process is to ask if there is a vacancy. The
question should be asked even if the position was there before. Questions
have to be asked because organisations and tasks change and alternative
solutions may emerge.
Job Analysis
Having ascertained that a vacancy exists and needs to be filled, the next step
is analysis of the job itself. This involves the study of tasks performed in a
particular job, the activities, skills, and personal attributes necessary to perform
the job, and the job’s relation to other jobs. “Job analysis is the process of
determining by observation and study, and reporting, pertinent information
relating to the nature of a specific job” (definition of the US Department of
Labour).
Identification of information for job analysis can be done by various methods,

some of which are:
¾ Interview of employee and/or his/her supervisor. This method can be
time consuming and disruptive and relies mostly on the interviewee’s
job knowledge, but it is the most widely used and capable of providing
sound and thorough analysis.
¾ Observation is also potentially disruptive as it is difficult for employees

to perform their job freely in the presence of an observer. The advantage
of this method is that the relative importance of the various tasks can be
observed.
¾ The Questionnaire’s accuracy is questionable in that the worker may

not always be able to express the information in a meaningful and clear
way. It may, however, be more useful in a situation where the job is
being performed by many people.
¾ Daily Diary, can yield useful information but is rarely used.
¾ Checklist, this involves gathering information on how tasks are

performed, what skills are required, the extent of the employee’s
interaction with other people, why tasks are performed the way they
are, when tasks are performed, and why they are performed at a
particular time, the main duties of a job and main areas of responsibility.
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Uses of Job Analysis
Job analysis is not only useful for manning purposes but is also used for the
following:
¾ Establishing proper rates of pay

¾ Redesign of jobs
¾ Employee training and management development
¾ Performance appraisal
¾ Introducing safety and health measures.
The Job Description
From the information obtained in the job analysis, a job description can be
derived. A job description is an organized statement of the general purpose of
the job, providing an outline of the duties and responsibilities involved. The
job description usually includes:
¾ job title
¾ location/department
¾ who the job holder is responsible to; and who they are responsible for
¾ main purpose of the job/overall objectives
¾ relationships both internal and external to the organisation
¾ specific responsibilities/duties
¾ working conditions including physical or economic conditions
¾ any other duties.
Job Specification
The job specification covers two major areas, the skills required to perform
the job and the physical demands the job places on the employee performing
it.
Simpson (Leopold J (Edit) 2002:64), looks at two systems of person/job

specification by Rogers (seven-point plan) and Munro Fraser (five-point plan)
shown in Tables 3.2 and 3.3.
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Table 3.2 Roger’s Seven-point Plan
Physical make-up Health, strength, personal appearance, energy.

Attainments Educational qualifications, vocational training
and experience.
General intelligence Thinking and mental skills, specific intellectual

skills.
Special aptitudes Particular skills needed for the job.
Interests The personal interests that could be relevant

to the performance of the job.
Disposition The personality type that is most suitable for

the position.
Circumstances Special circumstances that might be required

of candidates.
(Source: Leopold, J. (Edit) 2002: Human Resources in Organisations)

Table 3.3 Munro Fraser’s Five-point plan
Impact on others Physical make-up, appearance, energy.

Acquired qualifications Education, vocational training, work
experience.
Innate abilities Natural quickness of comprehension and

aptitude for learning.
Motivation Kinds of goals set by the individual,

consistency, determination in following them
up, and success in achieving them.
Adjustment Emotional stability, ability to stand up to

stress and to get on with people.
(Source: Leopold J. (Edit) 2002: Human Resources in Organisations)
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The attributes set out in Tables 3.2 and 3.3 provide a structure which enables
recruiters to focus on the knowledge, skills and personal attributes needed or
considered ideal for the job. Person specifications should distinguish essential
attributes from desirable ones so that the absence of an aspect deemed
‘essential’ removes the candidate from consideration since they would not be
able to fulfill the required duties.
On a cautionary note, Simpson (Leopold J. Ed. 2002:64) noted that although

the broad framework of the job attributes may be valid, it is now unethical,
inappropriate and potentially discriminatory to probe too deeply into some of
the areas of the person specification. What comes to mind when one thinks of
specifications such as personal appearance, health and strength is for instance,
that at interviews in this age and time when people are pre-occupied with
issues surrounding the HIV/AIDS pandemic, a candidate who is naturally thin
and with not so smooth a skin may be suspected of being HIV positive and
may be sidelined because of that.
Problems with Job Descriptions
Sherman and Bohlander (1992:123) noted that although Human Resources

Managers consider job descriptions a valuable tool for performing their
functions, several problems are frequently associated with these documents.
They cite the following problems:
¾ They are often poorly written, providing little guidance to the jobholder.
¾ They are not updated as job duties or specifications change.
¾ They may violate the law by containing specifications not related to job
success.
¾ The job duties they include are written in vague rather than specific
terms.
¾ They can limit the scope of activities of the job holder.
The authors make the following suggestion as a way of making job descriptions
clearer:
¾ It is essential to use statements that are tense, direct, and simply worded.
¾ Eliminate unnecessary words and phrases.
¾ The term ‘occasionally’ is used to describe those duties that are
performed once in a while.
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¾ The term ‘may’ is used in connection with those duties performed only
by some workers on the job.
Interpretation of a Job Description
A good number of job descriptions contain the catch-all sentence “Carry out
any related or similar duties”. The judgment in the case of Zimbabwe United
Omnibus Company versus (1) Gwauya Mabande and (2) Champion Mawire
(Supreme Court of Zimbabwe Judgment No. 122/98) highlights the legal
significance of this sentence.
In April 1992, Zimbabwe United Omnibus Company drivers went on a go-

slow. Mabande and Mawire who were employed as driving instructors were
ordered by the company to drive passengers for hire or reward. The two
refused to do so. They were suspended from duty and permission was sought
to terminate their employment on the grounds of willful disobedience to a
lawful order in terms of Section 3 (1) (b) of the Labour Relations (General
Conditions of Employment) (Termination of Employment) Regulations, SI 371
of 1985.
The contract, which governed the employment of the two defendants, listed
twelve duties. Eleven of these duties related to the training responsibilities of a
driving instructor. The twelfth duty was worded thus “Carry out any related
or similar duties as and when required”. The employer argued that driving
buses for hire/reward amounted to “related or similar duties”.
The Supreme Court ruled that:
¾ “Related or similar duties” had to be in line with other listed duties.

¾ An essential identity was necessary between “related or similar duties”
and other listed duties.
¾ The duties of the two employees were restricted to the training of
employees to drive buses.
¾ Driving buses for hire/reward was not a related or similar duty, as it did
not “appertain to the character or capacity of their contracts of
employment”.
¾ Mabande and Mawire may once have been employed as drivers. This
did not mean that the employer was entitled to ask them to perform
dissimilar and unrelated duties.
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¾ Although they retained the ability and skill to ferry the company’s
passengers, the capacity in which Mabande and Mawire had initially
been employed had changed on promotion.
Activity 3.1
*
?
Distinguish between job descriptions and job specifications.
* What does job analysis entail, and who, within the organisation,
participates in the job analysis process?
* Discuss the relationship between strategic planning and human
resources planning within an organisation.
* In your organisation or the one you are familiar with, do job descriptions
contain the sentence “Carry out any related or similar duties”?
(a) If so, do you recall an incident when the employer relied upon the
provision?
(b) If there was such an incident, was the reliance in line with the
requirements of the law in the light of the United Omnibus case?
(c) Discuss in your group why you agree or disagree with the
Judgment in the United Omnibus case.
3.3.3 Sources of Recruitment

There are various sources from which organisations can recruit to fill vacant
or newly created positions. All these sources have their advantages and
disadvantages. Vacancies are either filled through internal or external
recruitment. Whether a particular vacancy will be filled by someone within the
organisation or by someone from outside, depends on the availability of suitable
internal candidates, the organisation’s human resources policies, and the
requirements of the job to be filled.
Advantages of Recruiting from Within
The advantages of recruiting from within the organisation include the following:
¾ Promotion serves as a reward for employees for their good performance

and motivates them to do better.
¾ Although transfer at the same level may not have the value of promotion,
it sometimes serves to protect employees from being laid off or to
broaden their job experience.
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¾ Internal recruitment also cuts the costs that external recruitment would
entail and can also eliminate the costs of training and orientation as
candidates already know the organisation and its operations.
¾ Management has better knowledge of the performance record of the
employee than they have from the application letter, curriculum vitae
and references of an external candidate.
Disadvantages of Recruiting from Within
One notable disadvantage is that internal recruitment can promote stagnation

in the organisation by ignoring new initiatives from outside, i.e. reproducing
more of the same or ‘employee cloning’ where the attitude becomes ‘we
have always done it this way’. Organisational culture should not be nurtured
to an extent where employees become resistant to change.
The best way of looking at recruitment options, i.e. whether to recruit from
within or from outside the organisation is to consider the type and level of the
job to be filled. High level professional and managerial positions may be best
dealt with by considering both internal and external candidates.
Recruiting Outside the Organisation
External recruitment may be necessary where a job holder has moved to

another job within the organisation or when the Chief Executive of an
organisation retires, a chain reaction of promotions may subsequently occur
leaving openings along the line. External recruitment may also be necessary
especially in organisations which do not normally have succession plans, if the
Chief Executive position falls vacant. Usually, high level professional, technical
and managerial jobs require that the organisation casts its net wider in the
effort to fill vacant positions. Some vacancies actually require advertising even
at international level, e.g. college professorship and lectureship positions.
Sources of External Recruitment
Simpson (Leopold, J. Ed. 2002:67) points out that external recruitment can
be split into direct and indirect methods. Direct methods involve the organisation
itself handling the vacancy and placing an advertisement in the media. Indirect
methods involve the Human Resources Department getting an external agent
to handle part or all of the recruitment process. This may be due to lack of
expertise to handle the recruitment of a certain position or for purposes of
confidentiality. It may also be due to the fact that organisations know that
recruitment consultants know individuals experienced in specialised areas who
can be approached as potential candidates.
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Other external sources of recruitment include journals, personal contacts,

professional and other publications.
3.3.4 Methods of Recruitment

1. Advertising
One of the principal means of attracting applicants is advertising. Advertising

has the advantage of reaching many possible applicants. Advertising allows
the advertiser to limit applicants by targeting a particular group through
advertising in a particular newspaper or journal directed at a particular group
of readers.
Advertising should minimise unsuitable applicants and increase the possibility

of identifying suitable candidates. The preparation of an advertisement
therefore, requires creativity in developing the message content. The message
content is usually created to attract attention to the vacancy and organisation
by using a mixture of graphics and key words about the job or qualities of the
person required. The design may include elements of the job description and
the person specification. The role of the job advertisement is one of persuading
the reader to feel dissatisfied with their present job and see more potential for
self development and self actualisation in the prospective job.
A job advertisement must include details on how to obtain further information,

how the application should be prepared and delivered, and the closing date
for application.
The job advertisement should however, be both persuasive and realistic.

Instead of just putting in positive information, the advertisement should include
those aspects of the job that may make an applicant think twice about
responding to the advertisement. Including realistic information leads people
to self-select and those who would normally be tempted to apply for every
job regardless of whether they meet the requirements or not may be dissuaded
from applying. Jefkins (1989:111) warns that “advertising must not be so
exaggerated that people are suspicious, or so false that it is disbelieved”.
Simpson (Leopold J. Ed. 2002:71) states that the recruitment process should
also be a valuable opportunity for public relations such that even unsuccessful
candidates should be so impressed with the organisation that they would still
recommend it to other people.
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What to Include in an Advertisement
An advertisement can only succeed if it conveys the right information to the

right people. A job advertisement should include the following:
¾ A careful analysis of the job itself must be the foundation of the

advertisement.
¾ The kind of training and experience required for the job must be specified.
¾ The location of the job, remuneration and the benefits that go with the
job will make people decide whether or not to apply for the job.
¾ The advertisement should be factual, relevant and unambiguous.
¾ Salary level is usually included for certain levels of jobs but not for top
positions yet this is one of the major attractions to a job. People usually
move jobs for higher remuneration although in some situations they can
move for better fringe benefits. Whether to include the salary in the
advertisement or to leave it out presents problems for the advertiser.
Some applicants might say either the company does not know what it
should pay or the remuneration is not attractive and the company fears
that applicants will be put off. Vague terms like “attractive salary will be
offered” are not very useful.
¾ The advertisement should enable the reader to assess their chances of
getting the job.
¾ It should include the ‘feel of the company’, i.e. the environment and the
demands of the job, e.g. very long hours.
¾ The advertisement should also include the opportunities offered.
2. Advertising Agencies
Advertising agencies may offer specialist services including recruitment

advertising. The agency has expert knowledge on the writing and designing of
advertisements for various media and they plan, purchase and recommend
the appropriate media for the advertisement. When using an advertising agency,
the advertiser must ask the following questions:
¾ Is recruitment the main business of the agency?

¾ How much does the agency know about personnel selection?
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¾ How knowledgeable, experienced and professional is the agency in

the area of recruitment and for what level of jobs?
3. Employment Agencies
Employment agencies charge organisations a fee for introducing a candidate

who is successful in getting a job. The fee is charged as a percentage based
on the annual salary for the position filled. Employment agencies tend to
specialise in a particular type of employee such as secretaries although some
service all types of appointments.
When using an employment agency, the employer has to give the agency
adequate information on the candidate they require. This helps the agency to
pre-select only those candidates who meet the employer’s criteria.
4. Executive Search Firms
Executive search firms help employers to find the right person for the job.
They seek out candidates with qualifications that match the requirements of
the positions their client firms are seeking to fill. Executive search firms, just
like employment agencies in Zimbabwe, do not accept a fee from the individual
being placed. The fee is paid by the client firm and may range from 30 to 40
percent of the annual salary for the position to be filled. In Europe and North
America, most high calibre Chief Executive Officers are placed through
executive search firms who normally rely on informal contacts to identify the
most suitable candidate.
One international executive search firm, Korn/Ferry, has drawn up a list of 20

questions for use in assessing the extent to which a top management candidate
is fit to run an organisation in the new millennium. The questions are listed
below, with notes to help interpret the answers.
Leadership Ability
How do you define leadership? For someone aspiring to a high position, it is

important to judge the extent to which he or she has thought about leadership.
The response will show whether the candidate has the essential qualities of
consensus building and team leading.
What changes have you instigated in your organisation? It does not matter
whether the changes are big or small: “… the best leaders make many small
incremental changes, saving the organisation major trauma by anticipating the
larger changes that would otherwise be required”.
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How were the changes successful? You want to find out how the candidate
defines and measures success. Where he sets high but realistic goals, this can
lead to confidence in taking on more challenges. Where, however, the candidate
sets unrealistically high standards, this can lead to defeatism and inaction.
What did you do right or wrong in implementing these changes? This

should show a willingness to review results objectively and to accept
responsibility for mistakes as well as achievements. It should also reveal the
extent to which the candidate sees success as an individual or collective
endeavour.
What did you learn personally as a result of making the changes? People
who have not analysed their past actions and learned from them are unlikely
to be effective leaders over the long term. Learning from experience is the
hallmark of true leadership.
What might you do differently if a similar situation arose again? Lessons

from experience are of value when they are used to guide future action. It is a
positive indicator where the candidate can apply lessons from experience to a
replay of the situation.
How did you secure support from key constituents when unpopular
decisions had to be made? This should reveal the candidate’s ability to “self”
change and persuade others to share a vision.
How did you build the support needed throughout the organisation? The
candidate should be able to show that he/she can motivate all levels of staff.
What methods did you use to minimise disruption to the organisation as

the changes were implemented? The leader must be able to implement
change with minimum disruption to operations.
Communication Skills
How do you communicate with your staff and the community? Leaders
must have a vision – but for that vision to count they have to be able to
communicate it to others. Ask the candidate to draft a one-page description
of his vision for your organisation. This will enable you to see whether he can
express ideas clearly, logically and convincingly.
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Building and Empowering Teams
What strategies have you employed to enlist commitment to your personal

vision and your organisation’s goals? Discuss your hits and misses. While
communicating a vision is an essential first step, consider how (and how well)
the candidate took concrete additional steps to enlist people’s commitment.
To the extent that your strategies have worked, why do you think they
have been successful? This question helps reveal perceptions about human
nature and group dynamics. It comes back to the candidate’s ability to “sell”
to a varied constituency.
Would your board (or the person you report to) agree with your answer?
Leadership is vital, as is the ability to take direction and carry out a superior’s
vision. “Lone rangers” are effective on the high plateaus but can wreak havoc
in the boardroom. Listen for nuances and underlying attitudes in the answer to
this question.
What process would you use to solve the following problem? (The
candidate should be given a hypothetical problem to solve – one that might be
encountered in an organisation or industry similar to yours). This exercise will
help you determine whether the individual would take a team approach to
developing solutions, empowering others in the process, or use an autocratic,
command-and-control approach.
Motivating People and Ensuring Results
Having established your objectives, what motivational techniques would

you choose to ensure that they are met? The importance of a leader’s
ability to motivate cannot be underestimated. The candidate should be able to
articulate the tested motivational techniques that he would use to move the
plan forward.
How would you measure your progress in reaching your objectives? A

leader should have in place a means of assessing how well a plan is working
so that timely corrective action can be taken if necessary.
What would be the follow-up procedures? A leader should have in place an

effective mechanism (and not adopt a hit-or-miss approach) for reviewing
plan implementation.
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Negotiating Agreement and Handling Conflict
Does your negotiation style emphasize competition, compromise,

accommodation or avoidance? If you employ a combination of these,
which do you use most often and why? Most individuals use all of the
above techniques, according to the circumstances. Few will admit to being
highly competitive or avoiding responsibility. The style that an individual uses
most is an indicator of his style of leadership.
Give an example of situations in which you might have used one style or
another. Why would you have picked that style? This question should be
used to check the candidate’s response to the previous question. It also helps
to show the candidate’s flexibility in adapting his style to a given situation.
What conflicts have you faced recently in your organisation? What role
did you play in resolving them? The response to this question should provide
further information on leadership ability and management style.
“One of the dangers with recruiting is the tendency for people to hire in
their own image or that of their work colleagues. It is very tempting to
opt for the candidate who seems a close personal fit with you and the
rest of top management. But if you want different thinking to shake up
those complacent ideas, you need new, aggressive input. This pitfall can
be avoided through a performance management programme which
rewards diversity and helps ensure that managers responsible for
recruiting interview a diverse set of candidates.”
(Source: Labour Relations Information Service Vol. 14 No. 1 September

2000. Executive Selection. Adapted from Winning the People Wars (Talent
and the Battle for Human Capital) – Peerson Education Limited, Edinburgh)
Activity 3.2
*
?
“High level professional and managerial positions may be best dealt
with by considering both internal and external candidates”. Critically
evaluate this statement.
* Assess the strengths and weaknesses of the Korn/Ferry top
management selection criteria.
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Employee Referrals
Another method of recruitment is through employee referrals or ‘word of

mouth’. In this case, applicants are recruited through existing employees.
Gunnigle et al. (1997:67-68), cite the works of Breaugh and Mann, 1984;
Kirkman et al., 1989 and Dewitte (1989) who advocate that, besides being
cheaper, the “grape-vine” method finds employees who stay longer because
they have a clear idea of what the job involves. They cite DeWitte’s studies
on labour turnover which showed a 51 per cent turnover of applicants recruited
by advertising, a 37 per cent turnover for spontaneous applicants and a 30
per cent turnover for applicants recommended by existing employees. The
argument put forward for this was that people who were suggested by other
employees were better and more realistically informed about the job and in a
better position to assess their own suitability. The negative side of employee
referrals is that it tends to encourage nepotism and favouritism.
Unsolicited Applications
This is a recruitment source that cannot be ignored although the majority of

applicants may be unsuitable. There could be excellent candidates in this pool.
Where there are no chances of employment for applicants, it is not good

practice to send them application forms or send them responses saying their
application letter has been put on file for future consideration. Applicants should
be informed that there is no possibility of employment within the organisation.
3.3.5 The Recruitment Responsibility

The size of the organisation and the financial resources available determine
who performs the recruitment function. Large, affluent employers hire
professional recruiters while medium and smaller organizations may use their
Human Resources Departments or even managers to carry out this function.
Sherman and Bohlander (1992:159-160) noted that regardless of who does

the recruiting, it is important to note that recruiters have an influence on
applicants’ job decisions. They pointed out that some studies have shown
that recruiters may have a significant impact on perceived job attractiveness,
regard for job and company, and intention to accept the job.
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3.3.6 Legislative Framework of Recruitment and Selection

In Zimbabwe, Section 5 of the Labour Act (Chapter 28:01) lays down the
law on discrimination in employment. Discrimination is deemed to have taken
place if an act or omission “causes or is likely to cause persons of a particular
race, tribe, place of origin, political opinion, colour, creed or gender to be
treated:
(a) less favourably; or

(b) more favourably; than persons of another race, tribe, place of origine,
political opinion, colour, creed ‘or gender …”.
Makings, G. (1986) pointed out that the test for discrimination contains two
important factors which must be considered jointly:
1. There must be more or less favourable treatment.

2. That treatment must have been attributable to the race, tribe, place of
origin, etc., of the aggrieved party.
In terms of recruitment, the law says:
“No employer shall discriminate against any employee or prospective employee

on the grounds of race, tribe, place of origin, political opinion, colour, creed,
gender, pregnancy, HIV/AIDS status, or subject to the Disabled Persons Act
(Chapter 17:01), any disability referred in the definition of ‘disabled person’
in that Act in relation to:
(a) the advertisement of employment;

(b) the recruitment for employment;
(c) the creation, classification or abolition of jobs;
(d) the determination or allocation of wages, salaries, pensions,
accommodation, leave or other such benefits;
(e) the choice of person for jobs or posts, training, advancement,
apprenticeships, transfers, promotion or retrenchment;
(f) the provision of facilities related to or connected with employment; or
(g) any other matter related to employment.”
Makings (ibid) looked at the law as it relates to Advertising of Employment

and Recruitment for Employment.
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Advertising of Employment
The restriction on advertising can be interpreted in two ways:
(a) no advertisement may show preference for a particular group, e.g. “Girl
Fridays” or “able bodied young men”.
(b) all positions falling vacant within the company must be advertised.
The wider context interpretation (b) is more appropriate in equal opportunities
legislation such as in the USA than in Zimbabwe. If a company employs a
cross-section of Zimbabwean society, it can justify in-house promotions,
especially at the lower levels, on the basis that such action does not prejudice
people outside the company on grounds of race, nationality, sex, etc. However,
in specialist areas or where senior posts are concerned, I believe it is safer to
advertise if only in order to be able to say that the internal candidate was
found more suitable.
Recruitment for Employment
Allegations of discrimination in this area can be avoided by applying

internationally accepted practices:
¾ Application forms must avoid social or racial overtones.

¾ Interviewing must be carried out by competent personnel officers in
order to standardize the approach.
¾ Interviews must be carefully documented for future reference and to
facilitate accurate comparison of candidates.
¾ Job descriptions and person specifications must be carefully prepared
and adhered to.
¾ There must be valid reasons for the selection of one person rather than
another.
(Source: Extracts from George Makings’ paper “Local Discrimination Law”
presented at a seminar organized by the Institute of Personnel Management
of Zimbabwe (IPMZ) and National Commercial Employers Association of
Zimbabwe (NCEAZ) on DISCRIMINATION IN THE WORKPLACE: 27 NOVEMBER
1986, Harare)
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3.4 Selection
3.4.1 The Essence of Selection
The selection process ensures that appropriate candidates identified through
the recruitment process are placed into positions. Simpson (Leopold, J. Ed.
2002:79) pointed out that selection is constrained by the success or failure of
recruitment i.e. the selection techniques cannot overcome the shortcomings in
recruitment. A pool of poor candidates can only be highlighted by rigorous
selection techniques and can only yield the best candidate out of the poor
choice of applicants.
Recruitment and selection as pointed out before, are complementary processes.

Having assessed the demands of the job and identified the attributes necessary
for the performance of the job, the next stage is identifying which methods to
use to identify the suitable candidates. The selection process is about obtaining,
analyzing and interpreting information about people so that the less suitable or
unsuitable are screened and the pool of applicants is narrowed until the right
candidate or candidates are found.
The assessors themselves have to be competent in the use of techniques to

sift through the pool of applicants.
3.4.2 Who Should be Involved in the Selection Process?

Managers and supervisors in organisations are well acquainted with the
requirements pertaining to skill, physical demands, and other factors for jobs
in their respective departments. Even in situations where recruitment was
outsourced to consultants or agencies, the Human Resources Department
and the line manager from the user department will have some input into the
selection. Involving line management will increase their ownership of the seletion
process and will help in situations where a decision has to be made to either
modify requirements where the candidates do not match expectations or to
re-advertise the position hoping to find more suitable candidates.
The Human Resources Department usually maintains an overview of the whole

selection process, particularly in relation to the legislative requirements.
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3.4.3 The Selection Process

Selection tools available to organisations range from the more traditional
methods of application forms, references and interviews to the more
sophisticated techniques such as biographical data, aptitude tests and
psychological testing. Each method has its merits and demerits. Gunnigle et al
(1997:82) state that a good selection method should meet the following
requirements: it should be “practical to utilize; sensitive in that it can distinguish
between candidates; reliable in that it consistently comes up with the same
answer; and valid in that it measures what it is supposed to measure – the
inferences that it makes about a person are correct”.
Generally, evidence points to the fact that more use is made of the traditional
forms of selection. Gunnigle et al (1997:82) cite the findings of the Price
Waterhouse Cranfield Project (1992) which indicated that relatively little use
was being made, by Irish organisations, of what are considered the more
sophisticated selection techniques and that the application form, the interview
and reference checks continue to be the most commonly used selection methods
in Ireland. Below is a survey done by Price Waterhouse Cranfield and Limerick
University in 1995:
Table 3.4
Every Most Some Few Not

Appoint. Appoint. Apoint. Appoint. Used
Interview Panel 41% 28% 18% 6% 7% N = 235
One to one Interview 37% 14% 23% 14% 12% N = 217
Application Forms 59% 20% 12% 3% 6% N = 241
Aptitude Tests 6% 13% 37% 15% 29% N = 201
Psychometric Tests 4% 9% 275 11% 49% N = 199
Assessment Centre 2% 2% 9% 8% 79% N = 181
Graphology 0.6% 0.6% 4% 1% 94% N=169
References 70% 22% 5% 1% 2% N=230
(Source: Gunnigle et al, 1997)
The sections that follow discuss the most commonly used selection techniques.
Each technique is discussed citing its strengths and limitations.
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3.4.4 The Application Form

The application form provides a fairly quick and systematic means of obtaining
a variety of information about the applicant. For most jobs, it is possible and
indeed essential, to eliminate the majority of applicants without interviewing
them by relying on the information on the application form.
The application form is more reliable than the initial application letter because
the letter varies widely in the amount of relevant information it contains. The
application form is therefore more reliable because it has standard information.
The application form also provides a basis for questions the interviewers will
ask about the applicant’s background and also offers sources for reference
checks. Sherman and Bohlander (1992:176) cite Robert Half, founder of the
Robert Half recruiting firm who estimated that 30 per cent of job applicants
lie on their curriculum vitaes. Half warned that one “should beware of the
‘cookie-cutter, too slick-look’ curriculum vitae”. It is for this reason that the
application form is crucial, some people are not good liers and inconsistencies
in the curriculum vitae and the application form can easily show that one is not
telling the truth.
What to Include in the Application Form
The aim of the application form is to compare the demands of the job with the
candidate’s capacities and inclinations. The form usually includes information
on the candidates’ personal details, their marital status, educational history,
work history, recognised achievements and referees.
Some Weaknesses that May be Found in the Application Form
The weaknesses include:
¾ Vagueness of questions: Some questions may mean different things

to different people. The questions may elicit information that is not being
sought.
¾ Irrelevant questions: Some questions may have no productive value
for the performance of the job in question.
¾ Questions soliciting opinion: Many application forms tend to solicit
for opinion and most candidates are reluctant to express a clear opinion
as they do not know what the organisation’s culture is. Such questions
should be reserved for the interview.
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¾ Haphazard Structuring of the form: More often than not, application

forms are designed using forms used by other companies or by previous
personnel managers. The forms are not reviewed when major changes
take place within the organisation and as a result may contain a number
of redundant questions. The way the form is designed and the
information it elicits result in it becoming just a standard procedure to
be completed but not useful at the interview.
Analysis of Application Form
The application form cannot tell the whole story but selectors can learn a lot
from what the applicant says. Some considerations to take into account may
include:
Height/Weight: Abnormally large or small persons who would not be suitable

for the job can be detected.
Education: The type of education and how well planned it is can show
conscious career planning on the part of the applicant. Honours and
Scholarships are evidence of excellence in academic work.
Extra-curriculum activities: These reveal the candidate’s special interests

and leadership potential. Too much involvement in such activities might also
reveal the candidate’s dislike of the academic side things.
Employment history: Watch out for gaps in the employment record and
follow this up at the interview. Some gaps are due to imprisonment or lengthy
hospitalisation and such information is vital for selection purposes.
Note also the job titles to see how related they are. This reveals good career
planning on the part of the candidate or whether they take up any job that
offers more remuneration.
Watch out for ‘job-hoppers’. Such people change jobs for various reasons
and one of these might be incompetency.
Vocational plans: This reveals whether the applicant is realistic or over-

estimate/under-estimate themselves. It also reveals planning ability and self-
confidence.
Personality: Demonstrates the degree of self-insight the person has. It should

however, not be taken at face value.
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Social life: This may indicate how well the person gets on with other people.
Lack of social activity might indicate disregard for others and may not be a
good indicator for team work.
3.4.5 Reference Checks

The application form, no matter how expertly designed it is, will not give us all
the information we need. References are one of the methods used to obtain
additional information on the applicants. There are, however, mixed opinions
regarding the value of the reference as a source of information. Simpson
(Leopold J. Ed. 2002:96) cited Taylor (1998) who commented that researchers
find references to be of very limited value because, even the most unlikely
candidate can find someone to write positively on their behalf.
Regardless of this limitation, however, reference checks are a good source of

double-checking information such as dates of employment, certain claims made
at the interview, job grading and status as well as confirming issues about the
applicants’ personality, co-operativeness, honesty and social adjustment.
References are usually written although some organisations may use the
telephone. The major weakness of using the telephone however, is the
reluctance of the person on the other end to provide information to someone
he does not know. The written reference also has the weakness that it affords
the referee time to think over what he wants to say. Whichever way a reference
is done, there may also be the aspect of bad relations between the applicant
and the person at his workplace or previous company which may lead to an
unfavourable reference.
Another problem with references sought from the current employer is that the
employer may not be too happy that the applicant is looking for another job.
This kind of information might lead to strained relations at their work place
should the applicant fail to get the job. It is usually best to ask for such a
reference only when a job offer is being made and only then, with the consent
of the applicant.
3.4.6 The Interview

The interview is the most frequently used method of selection. The employment
interview is a goal-oriented conversation in which the interviewer seeks to
assess and employ the best candidate whilst the candidate seeks to make a
good impression on the interviewer so they can secure a job. Table 3.5 shows
the “script” of a typical selection interview.
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Table 3.5
Scene Applicant Script Interviewer Script
1. Precontact Check appearance/dress. Review resume. Review interview

activities guide.
Enter environment. Announce Make notes of questions.
arrival. Review notes while Prepare setting.
waiting.
2. Greetings and Shake hands. Sit when asked. Shake hands. Sit applicant.
establishing rapport Make good impression in small Relax applicant with appropriate
talk. small talk.
3. Ask job-related Provide educational history. Ask educational background. Seek
questions Provide details of work history. relevant details about work history.
Detail personal skills and Discuss special skills and abilities.
abilities. Try to demonstrate Get to applicant’s motivation to
proper motivation for the job. work.
4. Answer applicant’s Ask about pay and benefits. Answer-applicant’s questions
questions putting face on organisation.
Ask about opportunities for Try to create positive impression

advancement. Ask about about organisation.
organisation culture-work norms
and the like.
5. Disengagement Wait for interviewer cue Show that interview is about to
that the interview is over. conclude. Suggest what the next
(Source: Adapted from William L. Tullar, 1989)
Table 3.5 clearly shows that the employment interview provides an opportunity
for both the interviewer and the interviewee to assess each other. Whereas
the interviewer is concerned with establishing whether the candidate is suitable
for employment, the interviewee is concerned with whether the interviewer
has given them a fair hearing. Candidates are sometimes disappointed when,
after serious preparation for an interview, they are dismissed within five minutes
after being asked questions unrelated to the job. Tom Peters (1987:317)
advises interviewers to spend time lavishly on recruiting. Peters says: “A lengthy
set of interviews unmistakenly demonstrates that the firm cares enough about
the candidate and the working environment to get people at all levels deeply
involved in recruitment”. Peters (ibid: 315) stated that “best” companies follow
three tenets in the recruitment process:
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¾ Spend time, and lots of it.

¾ Insist that line people dominate the process.
¾ Don’t waffle about the qualities you are looking for in a candidate –
look for what you value.
Activity 3.3
? * In your group, discuss the strengths and weaknesses of
reference checks as a screening mechanism.
3.4.7 Types of Interviews

Interviews may either be highly structured or have virtually no structure at all.
Since the interview is some kind of test and must be shown to be valid,
structured interviews are more defensible in cases where questions are raised
as to how a particular candidate was selected.
¾ The unstructured (non-directive) interview. In this type of interview,

the interviewer asks probing, open-ended questions. The interview is
comprehensive and the applicant is encouraged to talk.
¾ The structured (directive or patterned) interview. This type of
interview consists of a series of job-related questions that are consistently
asked of each applicant for a particular job in order to increase accuracy
and reliability. This type of interview also increases fairness and
objectivity as applicants are judged on the same questions. The structured
interview would involve questions on (1) The job situation, i.e. what
applicants would do in that situation; (2) Job knowledge questions
where interviewers probe the applicants’ job-related knowledge; (3)
Job-sample simulation questions where an applicant may be required
to perform a sample task from the job, and (4) Worker requirement
questions which seek to determine the applicant’s willingness to conform
to the requirements of the job.
¾ Behaviour description interview. This type of interview is structured
and is aimed at asking questions that probe the candidate’s behaviour
in specific situations.
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3.4.8 Methods of Interviewing

Interviews may be conducted in several ways. A typical interview involves the
applicant meeting the interviewer one-on-one. Such a situation is less
threatening than meeting with a number of interviewers.
¾ Group interview: This interview involves several applicants interacting

in the presence of one or more company representatives. This interview
may provide, among other things, some useful insights into the
candidate’s interpersonal competence.
¾ Board interview: In this interview, one candidate is interviewed by
several representatives of the company. The time devoted to a board
interview normally depends on the type and level of the job.
¾ Stress interview: Most interviews are designed to minimise stress on
the part of the candidate, but the stress interview intentionally creates
anxiety to determine how a candidate will react to stress on the job.
The interviewer deliberately makes the candidate uncomfortable by
asking blunt and very discourteous questions. This interview is important
for jobs that require the ability to deal with high levels of stress.
Planning for the Interviews
The following should be considered when planning for an interview:
¾ The physical location of the interview should be both pleasant and private,
with no interruptions.
¾ Develop a job profile based on the job description.
¾ Interviewer must familiarise themselves with the applicant’s record by
reviewing data collected from other selection tools.
¾ Compare applicant’s curriculum vitae with the job requirements.
¾ Develop questions related to the qualities sought.
Potential Interviewing Problems
Table 3.6 shows potential interviewing problems.
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Table 3.6
Inappropriate Questions
Many questions are clearly inappropriate and some create legal liability for the employer. The
most basic interviewing rule is: “Ask only job-related questions.”
Premature Judgements
Research suggests that interviewers often make judgements about candidates in the first few
minutes of the interview. When this occurs, a great deal of potentially valuable information is
not considered.
Interviewer Domination
In successful interviews, relevant information must flow both ways. Therefore, interviewers
must learn to be good listeners as well as suppliers of information.
Inconsistent Questions
If interviewers ask applicants essentially the same questions and in the same sequence, all
applicants are judged on the same basis. This enables better decisions to be made while
decreasing the likelihood of discrimination charges.
Central Tendency
When interviewers rate virtually all candidates as average, they fail to differentiate between
strong and weak candidates.
Halo Error
When interviewers permit only one or a few personal characteristics to influence their overall
impression of candidates, the best candidate may not be selected.
Contrast Effect
An error in judgement may occur when, for example an interviewer meets with several poorly
qualified applicants and then confronts a mediocre candidate. By comparison, the last
candidate may appear to be better qualified than he or she actually is.
Interviewer Bias
Interviewers must understand and acknowledge their own prejudices and learn to deal with
them. The only valid bias for an interviewer is to favour the best qualified candidate for the
open position.
Lack of Training
When the cost of making poor selection decisions is considered, the expense of training
employees in interviewing skills can be easily justified.
Behaviour Sample
Even if an interviewer spent a week with an applicant, the sample of behaviour might be too
small to properly judge the candidate’s qualifications. In addition, the candidate’s behaviour
during the interview is seldom typical or natural.
Non-verbal Communication
Interviewers should make a conscious effort to view themselves as applicants do in order to
avoid sending inappropriate or unintended non-verbal signals.
(Source: Mondy, R. W. and Noe, R.M., 1986)
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3.4.9 Selection Tests

Selection tests assist in assessing an applicant’s qualifications and potential
for success. Although not always used, a selection test is considered one of
the most reliable and accurate means of selecting candidates from a pool of
applicants.
A properly designed selection test has the following characteristics:
¾ It is standardized: Standardisation refers to the uniformity of the

procedures and conditions related to the administration of the test.
¾ Objectivity: Objectivity in testing is achieved when candidates giving
the same responses obtain the same results.
¾ Norms: A norm provides a frame of reference for comparing an
applicant’s performance with that of others. Specifically, a norm reflects
the distribution of many scores obtained by people similar to the applicant
being tested. A normalised test will result in the majority of applicants
being in the middle (average scorers) and a small percentage of
unsuccessful and highly successful candidates at the two extreme ends.
¾ Reliability: Reliability is the extent to which a selection test provides
consistent results. Reliability builds confidence in the test but it does not
guarantee validity. To verify the reliability of a test, the test-retest method
is used where the test is given twice to the same group of individuals
and correlating the two sets of scores.
¾ Validity: The basic requirement of a selection test is that it is valid.
Validity is the extent to which a test measures what it purports to
measure. If the test cannot, for instance, indicate ability to perform the
job, it has no value as a predictor.
Types of Selection Tests
Selection tests include the following:

¾ Aptitude Tests: Cognitive aptitude tests measure the candidate’s ability
to learn, as well as to perform a job. This test is particularly appropriate
for making a selection from a group of inexperienced candidates. Some
of the aptitudes for which these tests are administered are:
(a) Verbal aptitude - a good command of written or spoken English.
(b) Arithmetical aptitude - ability in addition, subtraction, multiplication
and division.
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(c) Spatial aptitude - facility in judging shapes and dimensions. It is

important in drawing or packing.
(d) Mechanical aptitude - understanding of mechanical principles.
(e) Manual/Psychomotor dexterity - it measures strength, co-ordination
and dexterity.
Aptitude tests are almost always carried out by registered psychologists or
under their guidance.
¾ Job Knowledge Tests: These tests are designed to measure a

candidate’s knowledge of the duties of the position which he or she is
applying for.
¾ Intelligence Tests: Psychologists allege that by studying large numbers
of people in a certain occupation, it is possible to say that to be
successful a candidate for a certain kind of job must have a certain
minimum IQ. In this case, an intelligence test may be given in order to
eliminate those who fail to reach this minimum score.
¾ Personality Tests: Personality tests are designed to identify people’s
traits and behaviours and ranking the strength of reaction to different
situations. Personality tests are often considered to be very controversial
because they emphasize subjective interpretation. Personality tests have
been found to be characterized by low reliability and validity for various
reasons, some of which are that:
(a) When people answer questions about their personality, they are likely
to try and present themselves in the best light. The prospective employer
is not likely to know which answers are genuine or false.
(b) One’s personality as one sees oneself, may not correspond with one’s
personality as seen by others.
(c) It has been found that personality questionnaires, for instance, are not
reliable predictors of success in a job and that when the same candidates
are given the same test, different scores are obtained.
¾ Testing for Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS): In

Zimbabwe, Statutory Instrument 202 of 1998 deals with regulations to
do with HIV and AIDS issues. With reference to selection and
employment, Section 4 (1) says:
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“No employer shall require, whether directly or indirectly, any person to

undergo any form of testing for HIV as a precondition for employment.
Statutory Instrument 202 of 1998 does however, state that “subsection (1)
shall not prevent the medical testing of persons for fitness for work as a
precondition to the offer of employment”.
Medical experts have argued that testing for AIDS is not justified, because
AIDS is a protected handicap and infection through routine work contacts is
impossible, moreover, presently available tests identify the anti-body and not
the disease.
Activity 3.4
?
* If an organisation wants to use selection tests, how should tests be
designed to avoid discriminatory practices?
* Discuss the merits and de-merits of various selection tests.
* Discuss the relevance of the following concepts in people selection:
(i) objectivity
(ii) norms
(iii) reliability
(iv) validity
* “Section 4 (1) of SI 202/98 is of no value as employers invariably find
ways of circumventing it.” Discuss.
3.5 Finalising the Selection Process

During the selection process, information about the candidates will have been
obtained from application letters, application forms, interviews and possibly
tests. Some applicants will have been dropped along the way for various
reasons. Other applicants may have withdrawn for their own reasons like
promotion within their own organisations or more attractive offers elsewhere.
To reach a final decision, the human resources manager or the selection panel
piece together all they learnt about each candidate and then do an item-by-
item comparison of candidates’ attributes with each specific requirement of
the job specification. Some interviewers adopt a grading scale to quantify
their impressions of candidates during or immediately after the interview. The
final decision will be based not just on the arithmetical average or total score
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but on the weighting of all candidates’ weak and strong points. This is because
some candidates may score highly on attributes like physical appearance whilst
they score low on job knowledge and experience. If one candidate scores
above everyone else on all the attributes, the selectors’ job is made much
easier. In normal circumstances, however, several of the candidates tend to
have similar ratings which leaves interviewers with the task of looking for
those extra qualities, qualifications or experience that will put one of the
candidates one rung above the rest.
During the interview, the issue of salary should be brought in so that the
employer gets an indication of the candidate’s expectations. In most cases,
the candidate needs to know the basis of salary reviews, fringe benefits and
assistance offered to meet relocation costs if they are coming from a different
location. Wage earners usually want to know basic wage rates, overtime rates,
special allowances, meal subsidies if any, and the basis for increments.
The Human Resources Department must also deal with candidates who are
rejected. All candidates must feel that they have been fairly treated. If a
candidate does not meet the requirements of any of the available vacancies, a
letter informing them that they were not successful should be sent.
The offer of employment for the successful candidate must be in writing. Even
where a verbal offer has been made, it is necessary to follow up with a letter
confirming what has been agreed upon and all the conditions attached to the
offer.
The job offer is more often than not, conditional on the candidate passing a
physical examination. The purpose of the physical examination is to determine
whether an applicant is physically capable of performing the work.
When an employee is offered a job and accepts the job offer, an induction
programme is organised for them. Induction is the process of receiving the
employee when he begins work, introducing him to his colleagues, and informing
him of the activities, customs and traditions of the organisation.
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Activity 3.5
* “Recruitment and selection procedures are a mere smoke screen as
? more often than not, employers have already identified their preferred
candidates.” Discuss.
* Identify and discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the recruitment
and selection process in an organisation you are familiar with.
3.6 Case Study: Finding People for Jobs

Organisations are about people. Recruiting the right staff is thus an important
process, and we at Deloitte & Touche have developed what we believe to be
the best practice in recruiting at a senior level.
Deloitte & Touche Executive Placements is essentially a recruitment

consultancy, rather than an employment agency. Our methodology has been
carefully developed and refined over a number of years to meet the demands
of a changing market place.
The first time that we justify this description of our consultancy is when we
visit the client - considerable time and effort is expended in the process of
getting to know the firm, its products, its culture and the key responsibilities of
the post. At this stage, we will give advice on ideal qualifications, experience,
salary ranges and, if necessary, help our client to develop a clearer idea of the
duties of the vacancy. If appropriate, we will advise our client against
proceeding with the recruitment project at all or at the level that they had
originally envisaged.
Once this process is complete, we produce a detailed advertisement for the

vacancy. This includes a description of the company, key responsibilities of
the job and ideal profile of the person. We are totally opposed to head hunting,
for ethical reasons both from our perspective and from the client’s perspective.
Many individuals who are being head hunted view this as a bargaining
opportunity with their current employer.
By insisting that people declare their interest in a particular vacancy by

physically making application, this scenario is avoided and it is for this reason
that we do not have a data bank of curricula vitae. In addition, we believe that
advertising the vacancy is a way of managing current employees at the client’s
place of work – we believe it important that each and every current employee
sees the recruitment process as being transparent and fair.
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Applications are collected via a Telephone Response Service, rather than by

requesting applicants to send in their curricula vitae – this also enables us to
properly compare applications as identical questions are posed to each
applicant. The applications are carefully screened and the client is involved in
the final decision as to whether to progress with any of the applications further.
On occasion, we have indicated our belief that none of the applicants are
worth progressing any further – our business is to find the right person, rather
than the best of a bad lot. If agreement is reached to progress any applications,
we invite each of the applicants for a detailed interview at our premises –
these interviews will commence with a description of the company and the
reason why the post has become vacant or was created.
Original certificates are examined, the formal interview generally lasts between
two and three hours, all responses are recorded and the interview script is
specifically designed to suit the actual vacancy, rather than using a template
script. Some individuals do find this process rather intimidating, but many
view it as a chance to really examine their careers and aspirations.
Immediately after the interview, a detailed report is produced after which we

produce a recommendation on whether we believe it would be worthwhile
for the client to hold another interview with the applicant. Following this
intensive process, the client is unlikely to need to spend more than one hour
with the applicant as Deloitte & Touche Executive Placements has done the
majority of the investigative work already.
We only undertake reference checks once a client has indicated that they are
interested in a particular individual. These reference checks are made with the
applicant’s managers, rather than the referees cited in their Curriculum Vitae,
for obvious reasons, and are structured such that they relate to the key
responsibilities of the post applied for, rather than concentrating only on the
individual’s personality and social life.
If an individual is made an offer, accepts the offer and commences employment,

we maintain regular contact with the incumbent and their manager once a
month until such time as both the incumbent and manager feel comfortable in
their relationship.
Probably the most attractive aspect of our services is our fee – it is identical to
that of agencies who provide a package of curricula vitae and require the
client to undertake the majority of the work themselves. Given the harsh
economic environment, we have also taken a strategic decision to ‘cap’ our
fees, which include all costs incurred in the process, including one advertisement.
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Our entire process is methodical, detailed, properly documented and highly

professional in every way. At the end of the day, we regard our methodology
as being based on the concept of finding people for jobs, rather than jobs for
people. Over the years, we have been responsible for recruiting many of
Zimbabwe’s foremost managers and executives.
(Source: The Standard, October, 2002)
Activity 3.6
*
?
Identify the key elements in Deloitte & Touche Executive Placements’
recruitment and selection methodology and critically evaluate them.
* How valid is the distinction between a recruitment consultancy and an
employment agency?
* Answer this question by reference to recruitment consultancy firms
and employment agencies you are familiar with.
3.7 The Changing Role of the Human Resources

Function
The recent trend is that there is a general shift on emphasis from the human
resources function to line management, with managers having greater
responsibility over issues of recruitment, selection, training and development.
Others have suggested that the human resources function is adopting more of
a consultancy orientation and a generalist focus while line managers take on
the day-to-day human resources management.
Gunnigle et al (1997: 222-223), argued that this development may have both
negative and positive implications for the human resources function. They
suggest that on the negative, it may be seen as stripping away responsibilities
traditionally seen as the work of the human resources function. On the positive
side, it may be seen as a kind of emancipation, freeing the human resources
function from strictly personnel functions and providing an opportunity to
develop a more strategic, proactive role in organisations.
It is very true today that the function of the human resources department
continues to change. We are living in times when human resources personnel
have to be more flexible and multi-skilled whilst they are also required to
retain their specialist function as the experts in people at work. Change is
evident in our very organisations and we hear on a daily basis buzzwords
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which tell us something is happening around us. We hear words like

”empowerment, teams, virtual offices, global markets, global competition,
downsizing, core business, restructuring, reengineering”, to name but a few.
Such words are indicative of the challenges facing human resources personnel
today. They indicate that yesterday’s solutions may not be sufficient for today’s
challenges.
Activity 3.7
?
* What are the advantages of involving line management in the selection
process?
* Can you think of situations where it may be appropriate for the Human
Resources Department to play a predominant role in the selection
process?
* What are the recruitment and selection challenges being faced by the
human resources manager in Zimbabwe today? How may these
challenges be overcome?
3.8 Summary
Mondy and Noe (ibid:5) quote one senior bank executive who said, “ I am
now a strategic partner with line management and participate in business
decisions which bring human resources perspectives to the general
management of the company.” As a strategic partner with line management,
the human resource manager helps the organisation achieve its goals through
a good human resources management programme which ensures that the
organisation recruits the right calibre of people in the first place. Effective
recruitment and selection reduces labour turnover and increases employee
morale. Getting the right people who will add value to the organisation remains
therefore a critical function of the personnel practitioner. A human resource
plan or strategy assists in ensuring the recruitment is not done on a haphazard
or ad hoc basis. Decisions will have to be made and justified with regard to
the sources of recruitment. In some organisations, preference in the filling of
vacancies may be given to internal candidates as new blood can bring in fresh
perspectives into the organisation. For maximum benefits to be derived,
recruitment and selection should be done by trained and competent personnel.
Selection tests contribute greatly to the selection process and the legal context
of recruitment and selection should always be borne in mind.
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3.9 References
Gunnigle, P. et al (1997) Human Resource Management in Irish
Organisations.Oak Tree Press: Dublin.
Mondy, R. W. and Noe, R. M. (1996: 6th Edition) Human Resource
Management. Prentice Hall: United States of America.
Makings, G. (1986) Local Discrimination Law. Paper presented at a Seminar
jointly organized by the National Commercial Employers Association
of Zimbabwe (NCEAZ) and the Institute of Personnel Management of
Zimbabwe (IPMZ) on Discrimination in the Workplace on 27
November 1986: Harare.
Sherman, A. W. and Bohlander, G. W. (1992:9th Edition) Human Resources
Management. Roger L. Ross Publishers.
Leopold, J. (2002) Human Resources in Organisations. Peerson Education
Limited: United States of America.
Statutory Instrument 202 of 1998. Labour Relations (HIV and AIDS)
Regulations, 1998.
Blunt, P. and Popoola, O. E. (1985) Personnel Management in Africa.
Longman Group Limited, London.
Peters, T. (1989) Thriving on Chaos: Handbook for a Management
Revolution. MacMillan: United Kingdom.
Zimbabwe United Omnibus Company versus (1) Gwauya Mabande, and (2)
Champion Mawire as reported in the Labour Relations Information
Service (Supreme Court Judgment No. SC 122/98) Vol. 11 No. 12
August 1998.
Graham, H. T. (1986:5th Edition) Human Resource Management.

Macdonald and Evans Limited: United Kingdom.
Milkovich, G. T. and Boudreau, J. W. (1991:6th Edition) Human Resource
Management. Richard D. Irwin, Inc. United States of America.
Cook, M. (1998) Personnel Selection: Adding Value Through People.
John Wiley and Sons Limited: United Kingdom.
Labour Act (Chapter 28:01). Government Printers, Harare.
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Unit Four
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Motivation to Work
4.0 Introduction
T his unit looks at leading theories of motivation and examines issues that
are crucial in the creation of a motivated workforce. Motivation has so
much to do with how people behave in the workplace. Some people achieve
success in whatever they do, and the attainment of success satisfies a basic
need in their personality. Such people seem to have a built-in motivation and
need no incentive to do well in whatever they do, yet some people seem not
to do well in what they do. Understanding what motivates different employees
gives the manager the most powerful tool for dealing with them. The manager
gets results through people and no matter how perfect their plans, tools of
control and methods of organisation, they cannot achieve much without a
willing and co-operative workforce. Cole, G.A. (1986:74) noted that people
are the greatest single asset available to an enterprise, and that unfortunately,
people are the only asset that can actively work against the organisation’s
goals.
Studies in motivation assume that at any given point in time, people vary in the
extent to which they are willing to direct their energies towards the attainment
of organisational objectives. It is therefore the manager’s responsibility to find
ways of inspiring, encouraging and impelling people to take a required course
of action, hence the importance of the link between motivation theory and the
practice of management.
4.1 Objectives
* Discuss the main theories and concepts of motivation to work and
evaluate their relevance in the work situation.
* Identify needs and expectations of people at work.
* Identify the link between management/leadership style and causes of
high or low motivation in the work situation.
* Identify factors that contribute to a person’s sense of job enrichment.
4.2 Motivation: What is it?

Denny, R. (1993) states that there is no single or precise definition of motivation.
He further suggests that looking at what motivation is, and what it is not, might
give us insight into motivation at a personal level and as a management tool.
¾ It is not manipulation. Whereas manipulation is a way of getting

somebody to do something because you want them to do it, motivation
is getting somebody to do something because they want to do it.
¾ It is not pushing. An effective leader will get people to do things without
pushing or use of threats.
¾ It is not management through fear or coercion. This approach is
only effective up to a certain point, the more people are pushed and
threatened, the more they tend to resist.
¾ It is not making promises in order to get people to do things. A
manager should never promise things he/she cannot deliver otherwise
people soon lose confidence and trust in them when they fail to keep
promises.
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Unit 4 Motivation to Work
¾ At a personal level, motivation is a process in which an individual chooses

between alternative forms of behaviour in order to achieve personal
goals.
¾ For the manager, motivation is what the manager does to stimulate,
prompt, inspire, encourage or influence people to take the required
action.
¾ Motivation is strongly linked to satisfaction, i.e. satisfaction of personal
needs and job satisfaction.
¾ Motivation is also strongly linked to commitment. A well motivated
person has commitment to the job and the organisation. Commitment
involves:
(i) Belief in, and acceptance of the organisation and its goals and values.
(ii) A willingness to exert effort on behalf of the organisation beyond what
is contracted for, which might include giving private time to work,
postponing a holiday or making some personal sacrifice for the
organisation without expecting personal gain.
(iii) Loyalty to, and a desire to, maintain membership of the organisation.
4.3 Early Ideas on Motivation

The concepts and theories explained below are from Vroom and Deci (1970).
4.3.1 Scientific Management

Early ideas on motivation to work started with the scientific management
approach by Frederick Taylor in the late 19th Century. Taylor’s importance
as the leader of the scientific management movement has to be understood in
its historical context. The movement which became known as ‘Taylorism’
arose at a time when there was increased rationalized division and
mechanisation of tasks. Scientific management which gave the world the idea
of piece-rates, work-study and time- and-motion study was a response to
the need to co-ordinate human work efforts in order to maximize productivity.
‘Taylorism’ was based on the premise that the worker is basically an economic
animal, a self-seeking, non-social individual who prefers management to do
all the thinking and planning related to the job. Taylor assumed that a person
will be motivated if rewards and penalties are tied directly to performance,
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e.g. individual wage incentives, promotion on merit, or warnings, reprimands

or dismissals for violating regulations.
Taylor saw the manager’s role as that of working out the most efficient way of
organizing work and then tie it to the monetary rewards of the work level of
output achieved by the individual. Taylor thought this would produce results
which would benefit the employer and employee alike, thus removing the
likelihood of conflict and the need for trade unions.
‘Taylorism’ introduced task specialisation and workers became highly

proficient in their individual tasks. However, emphasis was more on the work
itself and little attention was paid to the worker. As an approach, Taylorism
fell short in that efficient methods by themselves were not the whole answer,
machinery and processes could run no better than people wanted them to
operate. Slowdowns, strikes, apathy and disinterest became common-place.
This gave rise to the need to study human behaviour at work and the birth of
the Human Relations Movement.
4.3.2 The Human Relations Movement

In the 1920s, an explicitly sociological approach to workplace behaviour
started at the Hawthorne works of the Western Electrical company in Chicago.
The Hawthorne experiments became the basis of the Human Relations
Movement. One of the Hawthorne experiments involved putting a number of
girls in a room where lighting was varied from one extreme to the other, i.e.
good lighting to poor lighting. The production rate of this group was compared
with that of girls who were left undisturbed. The results showed that production
went up no matter what lighting was used even if the lighting was poor. Elton
Mayo, a sociologist was called in to analyse the results and he concluded that
the girls put in the experimental situation were so stimulated and interested at
being singled out for special attention that this alone was enough to ensure
increased productivity. From this experiment, researchers learnt the importance
of man as a social being rather than an isolated individual in the work situation.
The experiment also highlighted man’s need for recognition in that the girls in
the experimental group were motivated by being singled out for special
attention.
Elton Mayo, who popularized the Hawthorne experiments was searching for
ways of explaining how man’s scientific and technical discoveries had led to
the breakdown of the established society of pre-industrial era. He argued that
man’s knowledge of social processes was inadequate for the creation of an
adaptive society. He saw the solution to the problem of social disorganisation
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as lying in the development of social skills, particularly by managers and

administrators and the development of a shared purpose within the industrial
set up which took account of the worker’s social satisfaction as well as material
rewards.
Other experiments undertaken by proponents of the Human Relations

Movement involved studies on the relationship between leadership styles and
group participation in decision-making. Experimentation of laissez-faire,
authoritarian and democratic leadership styles showed that the most satisfied
groups were those with democratic leadership.
The Human Relations tradition was, however, not without its limitations. Some
of the criticisms levelled against the approach were that:
¾ Elton Mayo made a sweeping analysis of the problem of industrial

societies and saw only one of the many possible solutions to the problems
of social disorganisation.
¾ Mayo ignored the possibilities of building social integration through
associations such as churches, community groups and trade unions
rather than the factory work group.
¾ Emphasis on social satisfaction gained from membership of a cohesive
work group distracted attention from the question of economic rewards,
conflict of interests over distribution of the income of the enterprise and
the power differentials between management and workers.
¾ The concern with co-operation and equilibrium within the factory, led
to the underplaying of the existence and functions of conflict and its
inescapability in a free society.
¾ The Human Relations movement’s analysis of industrial relations tended
to remain within the plant. It becomes difficult to explain through a
Human Relations framework, why certain industries should have high
and others low strike records.
¾ The Human Relations approach emphasized work groups and worker-
supervisor relations in isolation from the wider social setting, i.e. the
economic and social forces which can influence the behaviour of
management and workers.
¾ Much of the research intentionally or unintentionally, has served to
increase management control over workers because of the value-
orientations of the researchers.
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4.4 Theories of Motivation

The Human Relations approach provided evidence of the need to think in
terms of ‘social man’, and awareness of man’s needs has led to discussion of
‘self-actualisation’ or ‘complex man’ rather than ‘social man’. Later Human
Relations approaches focused more on what causes motivation rather than
on how to increase productivity which was the earlier preoccupation.
Theories that focus on what causes motivation can be divided into two
categories, content and process. Content theories of motivation are based
on the assumption that all individuals possess the same set of needs, and, as
individuals, behave in ways which satisfy these needs. These theories put
emphasis on what motivates people to perform well at work. Content theories
include the works of Douglas McGregor, Frederick Herzberg and Abraham
Maslow.
Process theories, on the other hand, acknowledge the differences in people’s

needs, focusing on the processes that create these differences. The assumption
being that people are aware of their goals and behaviour, i.e. they are
purposive and rational. Process theories identify how behaviour is initiated,
directed and sustained. Process theories include the work of B.F. Skinner,
V.H. Vroom and D. McClelland.
4.4.1 A. Maslow: Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow’s theory ties motivation to human needs. His general argument is that
human needs operate at different levels, from basic physiological needs such
as hunger, to higher-level needs such as self-fulfilment. The levels of needs
can be arranged in a hiearchy as in Fig. 4.1.
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Self-
Actualisation
needs
Esteem needs
Social needs
Safety and Security needs
Physiological needs
(Source: Halloran, J. (1986) Personnel and Human Resource Management,

Prentice Hall, United States of America)
Figure 4. 1 Maslow’s Hiearchy of Needs
Maslow argued that people strive to satisfy their lowest needs first and once
these are fulfilled they move to the higher level needs.
Critics have found one major limitation with Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
theory. They argue that the levels of needs are too rigid and in reality, people
do not satisfy their needs in a relatively systematic way from bottom to top as
it were. If we take our Zimbabwean context, for instance, shelter is a high
level rather than low level need. The majority of workers of all levels, see
owning a house as a priority because living in rented accommodation is
problematic. We also find in this country, people whom we can say have
attained self-actualisation such as professors, who do not have the basic need,
shelter. This cautions us against generalizing those neatly arranged needs. We
need to take into account the cultural, social and economic context of the
actors we are dealing with.
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Activity 4.1
? * Critically evaluate Maslow’s Hierachy of human needs. How useful is

this theory in the Zimbabwean context?
4.4.2 C. Aldefer: ERG Theory

According to Statt, D. (1994:88) Clayton Aldefer (1972) followed up
Maslow’s idea and came up with the Existence, Relatedness and Growth
(ERG) theory of motivation. He suggested that people’s needs are arranged
in a continuum, rather than a hierarchy, and that there are three rather than five
groups of needs, i.e. Existence, Relatedness and Growth. Existence needs
correspond to Maslow’s lower level needs, Relatedness corresponds to his
social needs and Growth needs correspond to his higher level needs (esteem
and self-actualisation needs). Aldefer’s theory allows for people to deal with
two sets of needs at once rather than deal with one level before moving to the
next. Surely, if we all waited to satisfy our basic needs we would grow grey
hair before we got to actualisation needs or we would never get there at all!
4.4.3 Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory

Herzberg’s view was that man lives at two levels, the physical and the
psychological. At the physical level, man desires to avoid pain and at the
psychological level, he desires to grow psychologically.
Herzberg’s experiment with two hundred engineers and accountants involved

asking respondents about when they felt exceptionally good about their jobs
and then to recall negative feelings they had experienced. His interpretation of
the results led him to his two-factor theory, the motivation-hygiene theory
shown in Table 4.
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Table4.1 Factors affecting job attitude (Herzberg)
Factors Leading to Extreme Factors Leading to Extreme

Dissatisfaction (Hygiene Factors) Satisfaction (Motivation)
Company policy and administration. Achievement, Recognition.

Relationship with supervisor. Work itself.
Supervision. Responsibility.
Work conditions. Advancement.
Salary. Growth.
Relationship with peers.
Personal life.
Relationship with subordinates.
Status.
Security.
(Adapted from Vroom and Deci, 1970)
Table 4.1 outlines factors that were persistently mentioned as leading to

employee satisfaction (motivators) and those that were cited as leading to
dissatisfaction (hygiene factors). The results showed that motivators were
closely linked to the job whilst hygienic factors were linked to job environment.
Hertzberg concludes that, to increase motivation, managers and employers

need to ensure that the factors contributing to job satisfaction are always
present.
As far as the dissatisfiers are concerned, Herzberg argued that improving

them or removing them would not increase motivation. He suggested that job
enrichment would increase motivation and must be the manager’s aim.
Critics of Herzberg’s two-factor theory argue that there is no evidence to

support his concept of two independent sets of factors in motivation. They
point out that, in an empirical sense, Herzberg’s work has been concerned
more with job satisfaction/dissatisfaction than with how people behave at
work. Critics of the two-factor theory do, however, credit Herzberg with
influencing the job enrichment and quality of working life movement.
Critics of the two factor theory also argue that some of Herzberg’s hygienic
factors e.g. pay rise or praise from the supervisor can act as motivators because
they provide recognition for achievement.
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4.4.4 D. McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y

McGregor characterises the scientific management type of approach which is
adopted by unenlightened managers as based on Theory X which sees human
beings as naturally disliking work and therefore avoiding it if they can. He
suggested that people prefer to avoid responsibility and like to be given
direction if they can. Theory X argues that people have limited ambitions and
see security as a priority. The manager has to control and coerce people
towards the meeting of organisational goals.
The consequences of a Theory X scenario are that employees end up taking

a passive role of accepting the situation of coercion and control by management,
leading to a lack of initiative and creativity on their part. Resentment may also
build up leading to lack of co-operation by employees.
In Theory Y, McGregor argues that people are not at all like what Theory X
suggests, but people would generally prefer to exercise self-control and self-
discipline at work. He believed that given the opportunity to contribute
creatively to organisational problems, employees would satisfy their need for
self-actualisation.
4.4.5 V.H. Vroom’s Expectancy Theory

The premise of expectancy theory is that people are influenced by the expected
results of their actions. The essential element in Vroom’s theory is that motivated
behaviour is a product of two key variables:
a) the Valence (anticipated satisfaction from an outcome) for the individual.

b) the Expectancy that a particular act will be followed by a predictable
outcome.
According to Vroom, the motivation for a certain form of behaviour is
determined by the combination of valence and expectancy. He calls this the
motivational force. The strength of the force of the individual’s motivation to
behave in a particular way is evaluated in an equation as:
F=ExV
where F = motivation to behave,
E = the expectation that a behaviour will result in a particular outcome, and
V = the valence of the outcome.
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Vroom’s ideas have been pursued by other theorists and are regarded as
having provided the dominant framework for understanding motivation to work.
4.4.6 B.F. Skinner

Skinner belongs to what became known as the Behaviourist tradition because
of his interest in investigating observable behaviour. His early experiments
were conducted on rats and pigeons in controlled conditions where he
introduced different stimuli, positive and negative, to test the animals’ ability
to adapt. He was interested in the concept of reinforcement of behaviour.
Reinforcement involves the strengthening of a subject’s responses. It may be
achieved by means of positive stimuli, i.e. rewards or by the removal of rewards
(negative stimuli). Skinner’s view was that punishment is not a reinforcer since
it tends to weaken responses rather than strengthen them.
Criticisms of the behaviourist approach include the following:
¾ The Behaviourist approach has been criticized by other researchers

who argue that the be haviourists made no allowance for factors such
as insight or imagination and this resulted in them being narrow in their
conclusion about learning.
¾ Critics of the behaviourist approach argue that learning and behaviour
are not necessarily synonymous. A good example of the critics’ argument
can be that of an irresponsible person who in this era of the HIV/AIDS
pandemic, with all the information and education about the dangers of
irresponsible sexual activities, will not change their behaviour. This
illustrates that learning and behaviour are interrelated but are not one
and the same thing as the behaviourists claim.
¾ Another criticism that can be advanced against the stimuli-response
theory is that desired responses cannot always be elicited by the use of
rewards because the whole process depends on how the respondent
will assess and take the whole situation. It may have been possible
when experiments were made on rats and pigeons but with human beings,
the response cannot be anticipated. Human beings respond after
considering the advantages or disadvantages of a given situation and
that may not always be the anticipated response.
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Activity 4.2
?
* Discuss the concept of motivation in light of B. F. Skinner’s assumption
that, “We are all simply a product of the stimuli we get from the external
world. Specify the environment completely enough and you can exactly
predict the individual’s action.”
4.5 Other Motivation Theories

4.5.1 The Goal Theory
The Goal Theory was put forward by E.A. Locke (1976) in his research on
“The Nature and Causes of Job Satisfaction”. Locke’s view was that it is the
goal that an individual is aiming for which motivates them, rather than just the
satisfaction of attaining it. Locke’s research also indicated that individual
performance was better when people had been set specific goals of a
challenging or difficult nature, and when they received feedback on their
performance.
In formulating the Goal-setting theory, Locke, as explained by Statt, D.

(1994:289), drew on two primary sources, one academic source was T. A.
Ryan who argued for the role of the individual’s intention in understanding his
motivated behaviour. The managerial source was Peter Drucker with his
celebrated formulation of Management by Objectives (MBO) which
highlighted the importance of setting specific objectives for and by each member
of an organisation, as well as various branches of the organisation.
This approach therefore, has implications for the practice of management-

by-objectives or target-setting which relies for its success on the mutual
agreement of specific goals between a manager and his/her subordinates.
4.5.2 Equity Theory or Social Comparison Theory

Adams and Jacobs (1976) in their research on the ‘Effects of Wage Inequities
on Work Quality’, suggest that people at work compare themselves with
others doing similar work in similar circumstances and judge whether they are
being fairly treated by comparison. They found that if employees thought they
were being treated equitably, their work effort was sustained; if they thought
they were not being treated equitably compared to other employees, then
their effort declined.
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However, commenting on a study by Stockner, J. and Adis, L. (1986) on

“The Moderating Effects of Sex on the Equity – Satisfaction Relationship”
which pointed out that women are less concerned with equity than men, Statt,
D. (1994:289) said the Equity Theory can therefore be classified as another
interesting but limited account of human motivation.
4.6 The Link Between Motivation Theory and the

Manager’s Ability to Motivate Workers
Mark McCormack (1984 : 9) says: “The best lesson anyone can learn from
a business school is an awareness of what it can’t teach you – all the ins and
outs of everyday business life.” Likewise, learning the best motivation theories
in the book does not make the manager an expert in motivation. It does,
however, give the manager the tools to analyze his/her environment and see
what can be done to improve it.
Various job advertisements today ask for candidates who are ‘self-motivated’.
When these ‘self-motivated’ individuals join these companies, do they find
the environment encouraging or is their motivation dampened by what they
find? Some company traditions kill motivation and new employees come and
go because they cannot stand being stifled by the environment, only ‘faithful’
long- serving employees who say “we have always done it this way”, may
stay on with the company.
With the threats of closure of companies, cutting down on the workforce

through retrenchments or changing from permanent employment to contract
work, can one really talk of motivation at work? This is one of the challenges
facing managers today – motivating workers in uncertain times. Motivation
involves the ability to communicate, to set an example, to challenge, to
encourage, to obtain feedback, to involve workers, to train and develop, to
inform and to provide a just reward. There is therefore scope for the manager
to perform the task of motivation – even in this uncertain economic environment.
Various theories discussed above touched on the issues of self-esteem, self-

actualisation, goal-setting and equity, safety needs, and social needs. Most
workers would probably like to belong, to be part of the work group or
organisation, they want self-respect and respect for others, they want to feel
a sense of achievement in what they do and they want to have a feeling of self-
worth. The concepts of job satisfaction/dissatisfaction and job enrichment
developed out of these various theories showed that the nature of the job and
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how the worker relates to it has much to do with the worker’s motivation to
perform better or to be lax and indifferent.
Since motivation is the work a manager performs to encourage, inspire, compel,

etc., people to take required action, the following are some of the things the
manager can do to improve performance.
4.6.1 Increase Job Satisfaction

One way of tackling the issue of employee performance and satisfaction is to
improve the motivating factors of the job. Herzberg came up with the term
job enrichment to denote the vertical enlargement of a job by adding
responsibility and opportunity for personal growth. Job enrichment is different
from job enlargement which generally involves only the horizontal extension
of the job, i.e. adding more of the same thing. Job enrichment provides the
opportunity for the employee’s psychological growth, while job enlargement
merely makes the job structurally bigger.
There are seven principles of vertical job loading a manager can adopt to
enrich jobs and these are:
¾ Removing some controls while retaining accountability.

¾ Increasing the accountability of individuals for their own work.
¾ Giving a person a complete unit of work.
¾ Granting additional authority to an employee.
¾ Making periodic reports back to the employee rather than to his
supervisor.
¾ Introducing new and more difficult tasks.
¾ Assigning individuals tasks which enable them to become experts.
Job enrichment involves improving both task efficiency and human satisfaction
by building into jobs, greater responsibility, greater scope for personal
achievement and recognition, more challenging and responsible work and
opportunity for personal growth and development. It is anticipated that by
doing this, job satisfaction will lead to improved motivation and higher
productivity. The satisfaction can be both extrinsic, i.e. better pay, better
working conditions, relationship with peers and superiors, or intrinsic, i.e.
recognition, responsibility, advancement and achievement. Involving the
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individual in the design of their job can also have a marked effect on how they
experience work and achieve satisfaction.
4.6.2 Improving Rewards

This entails the following:
¾ Where possible, ensure above average performance is appropriately

rewarded.
¾ Try to influence your organisation to provide a ‘means’ of rewards, e.g.
staff outings, extra time off, flexible hours, overtime, company
performance share outs, subsidized meals, car loans, housing loans, as
well as assistance with children’s education.
¾ Where possible ensure salary/wage levels are comparable with those
of competitors.
The continuing ability to recruit, retain and motivate staff is vital to employee
resourcing. Care should be taken with how rewards such as benefits can be
perceived by workers at different levels. Benefits tend to be more visible than
pay and they can therefore be a major source of resentment. In a situation
where lower grade workers are not paid well and the company always argues
to pay low percentages at each collective bargaining exercise, workers may
not take well to luxurious company cars, executive dining rooms, paid vacations
and other perquisites which top management enjoy. Managers need to be
aware of the impact of such benefits on the majority of the workforce who do
not benefit from these.
4.6.3 Increasing Commitment

This entails the following:
¾ Make sure all your staff is aware of the organisation’s mission values.
¾ When setting individuals/team objectives, relate these to organizational
objectives. Involve staff in defining problems and working out solutions.
¾ Encourage team working.
¾ Ensure you have comprehensive induction programmes.
¾ Use workshops to get people to discuss organisation-wide issues and
contribute ideas.
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¾ Start a suggestion box and take action on good ideas, giving due
recognition to the originators.
¾ Introduce recreational activities, e.g. soccer teams, netball, darts,
athletics, etc.
Commitment involves a sense of belonging to the organisation, a sense of
excitement in the job and confidence in the management.
4.6.4 Recognizing Demotivators

Just as it is important to know the principles of motivation, it is equally important
to be able to recognize the demotivators.
A person who is demotivated will show through their body language, their
appearance, facial expression, and negative utterances among other signs.
The following are the signs that might be exhibited by a demotivated person:
¾ Lack of Confidence: This could have been caused by what the

supervisor did or said leading the employees feel they are not good
enough and that they are unable to carry out the task.
¾ Worry: Worry is a serious demotivator. People worry about what will
happen if they fail. Will they lose their jobs? Or will they be ridiculed
by others? etc.
¾ Negative Opinions: An employee with a good idea may fail to carry it
through because of a fear of negative feedback, e.g. your idea will not
work, it is not the right time, or you would not be able to carry it out.
¾ A Feeling of ‘No Future Here’: When employees feel they have no
future in the organisation, they are going to be demotivated. In
companies where promotion is not easily available and employees have
to wait for ‘dead man’s shoes’ so to speak, employees have nothing to
look forward to unless someone above them literally dies, retires or
leaves the company. The manager who is faced with the situation where
there are no career advancement opportunities in the organisation can
deal with the situation by providing the stimulus and motivation through
immediate and visible recognition for jobs well done, changing, sharing
responsibilities, and involving staff in decision-making.
¾ I Don’t Know What’s Going On: This is a common demotivator at
all levels of staff. They feel nobody bothers to tell them what is going
on or they are the last to know. If information is power, sharing the
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necessary information is a source of individiual and organisational

strength.
¾ People are Rewarded Not for What They Do, But for Who they
are: In any organisation where people are promoted, rewarded or
recognised for being a member of the right family or due to personal
relationship, demotivation on the part of other employees may result.
Activity 4.3
*
?
Rational-economic man; ‘social man’ and ‘self-actualising man’ are
theories that have been advanced successively about the motivation of
employees at work. How useful are they in aiding the manager to
successfully perform his/her role of managing employees?
* How would you assist a fellow manager who tells you they are finding
it difficult to find workers who are willing to work hard and they seem
to be doing everything by themselves?
4.7 Summary
¾ Human motivation is an issue that is as complex as it is important for
management in organisations.
¾ To motivate others is the most important task of management.
¾ Motivation involves the ability to set goals, communicate, set an example,
challenge, encourage, obtain feedback, develop and train employees,
inform and provide a just reward.
¾ When theory is linked to practice, motivation becomes a more complex
issue requiring the manager to know a variety of managerial strategies
in order to deal with different work-groups and different tasks.
Motivation ceases to be just what the manager does to get better
production, it becomes some kind of a ‘psychological contract’, based
on the expectation of the employees and the management in meeting
organizational and individual needs.
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4.8 References
Cole, G.A. (1997:4th Ed) Personnel Management: Theory and Practice.
Continuum London. New York.
Denny, R. (1993) Motivate to Win. Kogan Page td. London.
McCormack, M.H. (1985) What They Don’t Teach You at Havard Business
School. William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd., London, United Kingdom.
Vroom, V.H. and Deci, E.L. Ed. (1970) Management and Motivation:
Selected Readings. Penguin Books, United States of America.
Halloran, J. (1986) Personnel and Human Resource Management. Prentice
Hall, United States of America.
Statt, D. A. (1994) Psychology and the World of Work. Macmillan Press
(Ltd). London.
Blanchard. K. et al (1987) Leadership and the one Minute Manager. Fontana

Books. United Kingdom.
Peters, T .J. and Waterman, R. H. (1982) In Search of Excellence. Lessons
from America’s Best-Run Companies. Haper and Row Publishers,
New York.
Shultz, D.P. and Shultz, S.E. (1986. 4th Ed.). Psychology Today: An
Introduction to Industrial and Organisational Psychology.
McMillan Publishing Company, London.
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5
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Unit Five
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Employee Learning
5.0 Introduction
I t is imperative to understand the nature of learning, in order to fully understand

organisational behaviour. Such an understanding will enable those charged
with the responsibility of managing organisations to grapple with the issue of
shaping and predicting, the outcomes of organisational behaviour. Human
resources management strategies are better informed by an understanding of
the learning process.
Stewart (1997:186) defines learning “… as a relatively permanent change in

performance potential that arises from experience”. Buchanan and Huczynstic
(1997:107) define it as “a process of acquiring knowledge, through experience
which leads to an enduring change in behaviour”. While the various theorists
do not agree on the nature of the learning process, they concur on the basic
premise that learning takes place, whenever, one adopts new or modifies
existing behaviour patterns, for example, transforming from an ordinary to a
defensive driver.
The change of behaviour arises from past experience and must be distinguished
from “… behaviour which arises from maturation or physical deformity” (Child
1981:82). Learning theorists unanimously agree that learning is a process. It
recurs in the life of the individual. The essence of learning is change, which is
designed to enable one to adapt to one’s social or physical environment.
Learning involves the acquisition of knowledge, skills and attitudes in relation
to a given task.
In addition to making reference to learning as a process, the definitions also

allude to learning as outcomes. The resultant behaviour is an outcome of the
learning process.
Childs (1981:81) has noted that learning is an essential activity of all living
organisms, on which their survival depends. Child (1981) observes that the
versatility of human adaptation to varied environments lies in the capacity to
learn.
5.1 Objectives
* Define the concept of learning.
* Describe the significance of individual learning in the context of Human
Resource Management.
* Describe the traditions of the major psychological perspectives from
which learning theories are drawn.
* Explain the distinguishing features of the major theories of individual
learning.
* Contrast the similarities and differences of the major theories of individual
learning.
* List the conditions for effective learning.
* Identify the applications of individual learning to organisations.
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Unit 5 Employee Learning
5.2 The Significance of Employee Learning

It has been argued that human resource management is the most critical function,
in both public and private organisations. The success or failure of organisations
is ultimately influenced by the quality of their human resources. Individual
learning should be viewed as an integral part of the strategy to improve the
quality of the organisation’s human resources (Tracey, 1994:80). Human
resource management focuses on the effective management, direction and
utilisation of people. Some people are responsible for producing, marketing
or selling the products or services of an organisation while others are engaged
in supporting the internal activities of the organisation. The challenge for
organisations is to remain competitive. Individuals must constantly engage in
learning in order to help their organisations remain competitive.
Gains in efficiency, quality and customer satisfaction arise from employee skills.
As part of human resource management, individual learning can contribute to
the goals and mission of an organisation. It is increasingly necessary for
employees to maximize their potential, as well as utilize their skills effectively.
Cohen (1994:48) observes that “…workers of tomorrow will be responsible

for continually upgrading their skills on their own initiative”. Both employee
and manager are being subjected to continuous change that is being imposed
by a worldwide technology that is changing rapidly.
The challenge is for organisations to keep abreast of technological change,

while striving to learn new skills and knowledge in order to remain competitive.
It is necessary for employees to be innovative and creative enough to see

things differently. The achievement of this objective entails an individual learning
process. The individual must be prepared to learn a wider spectrum of subject
matter, in a wide variety of social environments. One of the critical skills that
must be imparted to individuals is the skill of learning in order to maximize the
benefits of individual learning. Human resource’s most urgent challenge is to
maintain competitive advantage by improving relevant knowledge, skills and
attitudes. Individual learning can facilitate the integration of the various
components of the human resources function.
Human resources development provides the possibility of improving job

performance in all its aspects. Individual learning has the potential to improve
individual, group and organisational performance. It contributes to the general
growth of the employees in the organisation. Learning by individuals in
organisations can be and should be a continuous process.
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There is a growing recognition of the improvements in productivity and

profitability and other organisational benefits that can be generated by cost-
effective training and development strategies. Individual learning is the basis
of these training and development strategies.
Nadler (1994:19) specifies the following roles for the human resources function:
¾ “Mobilize human resources development programmes and services.

¾ Increase the supply of knowledge workers.
¾ Train the functionally illiterate.
¾ Re-educate, re-train and re-deploy people.
¾ Cultivate ethical behaviour, trust and team work.
¾ Individual learning is central in promoting these roles”.
5.3 Major Learning Theories

Although they may not recognize it, every human resources manager, employee
development specialist or a parent has a personal learning theory or theories
about how learning takes place.
The nature of rewards and punishments an organisation uses is indicative of

the learning theories it holds. We all have our own philosophies about what
works or does not work when applied to the individual.
Learning theories have been produced mostly by psychologists. A substantial

number of useful learning theories have been developed by social psychologists
and sociologists (Myers, 1995, Mckenna, 2000). The thrust of the learning
theories produced by social psychologists and sociologists is on organisational
learning. Learning theories have informed human resources policies in such
areas as recruitment, selection and reward management. As was observed by
LeBoeuf (1979), what gets rewarded gets done. Employees who engage in
prescribed behaviours and outcomes are rewarded appropriately by
management.
Human resource management is an eclectic discipline which draws its theories

and practices from a wide range of social sciences. The foci of social sciences
overlap. By focusing on the individual, psychology has adopted a micro-focus.
Sociology focuses on society (macro-focus), while social psychology has
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adopted an intermediary focus by adopting the interaction of two or more

individuals as its unit of analysis (Stewart: 1999).
Different understanding and interpretations of the notion of science have

influenced human resource management. Only the individual enjoys a “mental
life”. Mental processes are found at the heart of the study of psychology.
Groups and societies cannot experience a mental life.
The question arises whether psychology should concern itself with studying
mental processes or behaviour, as the latter is a product of mental processes.
Human resources practitioners also have to grapple with the issues of mental
processes and behaviour in their strategies.
There is a plethora of classifications of psychological perspectives in literature,

although there is a general agreement that there are three major categories of
the perspectives.
The first perspective to clearly emerge is behavourism. This was followed by

cognitivism which, in many ways, is a reaction to behavourism. Humanist
psychology while accepting the fundamental tenets of both behaviourism and
cognitivism, introduced its own unique views on the nature of learning. Child
(1982:82) notes that there is no single theory that is applicable to all educational
settings. He, however, poses the following questions or problems for evaluating
the comprehensiveness of a given theory:
1. “How can we determine the limits and influence of the capacity of

learning in the individual?
2. What is the effect of experience?
3. What is the importance of understanding in attempting to learn?
4. There should be a place for an explanation of the complexities of
symbolic learning (individuals learn from symbols such as clothes, cars,
various forms of music, etc.).
5. Because learning takes place as part and parcel of body mechanisms,
any theory should be capable of incorporating physiological and
ethological findings.
6. Practice has a central function in learning. Is there a threshold beyond
which one cannot practise?
7. What is the place of drives, incentives, rewards and punishment in
learning programmes?
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8. To what extent can learning in specific situations be generalized to similar,

but not identical situations?
9. What part does attention or perception play in the process of forgetting
and remembering?”
According to Stewart (2001), the basic question to be addressed is how and
why individuals learn.
5.3.1 Behaviourist Learning Theories

The work of J.B. Watson and B.F. Skinner helped earlier attempts to make
psychology emerge as a distinct discipline. A basic tenet of behaviourist
psychology is that “… human behaviour is the product of experiences of …
the physical and social environments” (Stewart 1999: 180).
Behaviourists concern themselves with what is publicly observable, i.e. stimuli

and responses. According to Stewart (2001:181), the first major “…affirming
characteristic of behavioural psychology is its general rejection of the internal
workings of the mind as an area of study and investigation”. Behavourists
view it as sufficient to study the observables in order to understand human
behaviour. Strict behaviourists avoid any speculation about what is going on
in the mind.
A second major characteristic of behavourist psychology, is its view that human

behaviour is a product of its social and physical environments. All human
behaviour is learned.
The characteristics outlined above were vigorously maintained by behaviourists

in an attempt to maintain the status of psychology as a science. Their focus is
on understanding the details of the learning process. Many theories with a
behaviourist orientation have been developed to explain the learning process.
It should be emphasized that behaviourism is concerned with explaining the

totality of human behaviour.
Pavlov, the Russian physiologist, demonstrated how animals and men can be
taught to respond to stimuli chosen by an experimenter. The stimulus may not
have any apparent resemblence to the response that is elicited. The famous
salivation response to the sound of a bell originally pared with food, is a case
in point. The bell was a conditioned stimulus which elicited a conditioned
response (saliva). This behaviour pattern was termed classical conditioning.
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Pavlov made a distinction between conditioned and unconditioned stimuli and

responses. As observed by Stewart (2001), the dog had learned to associate
the bell sound with food through conditioning. It created associative learning.
Skinner, (1969) developed a second type of conditioning termed operant

conditioning. While Pavlov focused on stimuli and responses which the
organism does not control, operant conditioning focuses on controllable and
spontaneous behaviour.
Skinner built on the “Law of effect” to establish an association between operant

behaviour and its results or outcomes. The organism and its environment
experience effects and consequences, arising from operant behaviour. Skinner
noted that if operant behaviour results in some valued outcome, the behaviour
tends to be repeated. If the operant behaviour, is associated with some
unpleasant outcomes or consequences, it becomes less likely to occur.
Reinforcers which are either positive or negative have the effect of increasing
the frequency of specific behaviours.
Skinner differentiated positive from negative reinforcers. Examples of positive

reinforcers are food, money and attention. Negative reinforcers are designed
to strengthen a response by removing an unpleasant stimulus such as pain,
disapproval or isolation. It was Skinner’s strong view that these two types of
reinforcement were more effective than punishment in shaping a learner’s
behaviour. Skinner’s learning theory has informed social policy, therapeutic
interventions, socialisation practices and human resources practices in work
situations.
The thrust of these applications has been to shape behaviour by strengthening

operant behaviour, in a prescribed direction. Undesirable behaviour ceases
as it is simply ignored. A reinforcement schedule can be designed and varied
to suit circumstances and desired objectives.
Use can be made of Skinner’s learning theory in designing training and

development programmes, either in a generalized way or through specific
behaviour modifications interventions. Such interventions have wide
applications across various types of employee groups, occupations and
organisational issues. Performance management systems which have been
adopted by many public and private organisations trace their roots to behaviour
modification interventions.
The work of Hammer, Luthans and Krietner (1977) focus on the applications
of behaviour modification designs as attempts to shape behaviour. Skinner,
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after rigorous experiments, drew four valuable conclusions about the learning
process as follows:
(a) Each step in the learning process should be short and should grow out
of previously learnt experience.
(b) In the early stage, learning should be regularly rewarded and at all stages
controlled by a schedule of continuous and/or intermittent reinforcement.
(c) Reward should follow quickly when the correct response appears. This
is referred to as feedback and is based on the principle that motivation
is enhanced when we are informed of our progress.
(d) The learner should be given an opportunity to discuss the stimulus
discriminations for the most likely path to success.
Thorndike quoted by Child (1981) observed that bonds between stimuli and
response are strengthened, when they occur simultaneously and repeatedly.
He formulated three laws, which capture his observation:
(a) “The law of effect which emphasizes that organisms acquire responses
which lead to satisfying effects.
(b) The law of exercise where the thrust is the replication of a meaningful
connection to strengthen learning.
(c) The law of readiness which stresses that a pleasurable bond maximizes
learning”.
Bandura’s (1970) social learning theory contains elements drawn from both
behavourist and cognitive theories of learning. While accepting the principles
of behaviourism, he factored the role and impact of mental processes in the
learning process. He incorporated operant conditioning into his learning theory.
Bandura (1970) investigated the role of imitation and modeling in the learning
process. It was his view that learning was essentially a social process.
Individuals learn by observing and imitating the behaviour of others. Operant
conditioning is influential in imitation and behaviour modeling.
The behaviours that are reinforced either positively or negatively, when imitated
are adopted. The status of the person being imitated was not found to be a
significant factor in imitation.
Bandura’s social learning theory has been widely received. It explains how
children are socialised into conforming members of society. Debate on the
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role of films and television in behaviour modeling have been “sparked” by the
social theory.
Many organisations are now engaged in attempts to maintain positive corporate

cultures, through human resource management rooted in the social learning
theory.
5.3.2 Cognitive Learning Theories

Cognitive learning theories developed as a response to what was perceived
as inadequacies of behaviourist psychology. Cognitivists argue that human
behaviour is too complex to be reduced to simple stimuli-responses patterns.
They believe that there are activities that occur between stimuli and responses,
which are vital to an understanding of behaviour.
Cognitive theories are characterized by such words as “understanding”,

“thinking”, “memory”, “cognitive structures” and “cognitive processes”. The
cognitive perspective is currently the most dominant within the discipline of
psychology. Cognitivists accept the behaviourist viewpoint that behaviour is
the product of its social and physical environments. However, cognitivists
believe that behaviour can only be adequately understood in the context of
the interaction between individual mental processes and the physical and social
environments. Cognitivists, in common with behaviourists, accept that the world
exists independently and is amenable to a scientific study. Cognitivists, also in
common with bahavourists, accept the paradigm and research methods applied
in the natural sciences. They claim that they are able to study mental processes
using the same research methods. The human being is conceptualized as an
information processor whose attitudes and beliefs are transformed as a result
of information processed from the interaction of the individual and his/her
environment. This interaction is the process of learning. Wartman, Loftus and
Marshall (1992) observe that cognitivists argue that such human learning did
not depend on the meting out of rewards and punishments. Latent and
observational learning occurs in the absence of rewards and punishments.
Experience is a critical factor in understanding human behaviour according to
cognitivists.
Kasler and Koffkla from the gestalt psychology school studied the role of
perception in the learning process. They demonstrated that the sudden,
immediate and repeatable behaviour called insight could be transferred to
other situations. They observed that trial and error was only evident in the
early stages of the exploration of a problem or a task. Once a task is seen as
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a whole by an individual, the individual is able to recognize his/her perceptual

field to create new solutions to the problem.
Gagne (1977) makes a distinction between internal and external conditions of

learning. The internal conditions relate to the skill and processes previously
used, which serve to inform the performer of the skill.
External conditions include making sure the task has meaning, rehearsal
techniques, transfer, motivation and stimulation by others. Gagne (1977) who
favoured the information-processing model of learning, identified five categories
of learning:
(a) Intellectual skills

(b) Cognitive strategies
(c) Verbal information
(d) Motor skills
(e) Attitudes.
Gagne recognized the inter-dependence of the categories of learning outlined
above. Sign and latent learning are offshoots of the cognitive learning theory.
A great deal of the learning of an individual may be dormant until a situation
arises to use it.
It also gave birth to the concept of “cognitive maps” (or signs, e.g. danger
sign, the cross) which suggests that individuals “…. produce representations
of their own understanding of their environments and experiences of those
environments” (Stewart 2001). Cognitive maps which are learned, guide the
behaviour of the individual irrespective of the context. They inform future
behaviour of an individual. Schema developed by Barlette (1932) is an example
of cognitive maps.
Barlette’s schema is information that has been organized into meaningful

relationships and patterns. Schema are used to make sense of, and respond
to, experiences around them.
“Personal constructs” developed by Kelly are an example of schema.

Individuals produce unique responses to the same stimuli on the basis of their
personal constructs. For example, individuals react differently to the concept
of a city or a growth point. This explains the uniqueness of learning outcomes
to individuals. The outcomes of learning vary from individual to individual.
This finding constitutes a challenge to the claims of behaviourists.
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Cognitive theories have yielded more applications for human resources

strategies. It has informed the writing of mission statements and values of
organisations. Individual members or organisations are expected to be guided
by the mission statements and values. Mission statements and values are
examples of schema. Literature on cultural change emphasizes the need to
“manage meaning” in the organisation (Mckena 2000, Buchanan and Haczynsk
1997, Antony, 1994). Many culture change programmes have been premised
on cognitive learning theories.
Kolbs’ experiential cyclical learning model is rooted in the cognitive learning

theory. Learning according to Kolb proceeds through the experience,
observation, conceptualisation and experimental stages. At the experience
stage, the individual needs to fully open herself to an experience. The individual
needs to be fully aware of the physical and emotional aspects of an experience.
At the observation stage, the individual must have the ability to recall an aspect
of his/her experience fully. At the conceptualisation stage, the individual is
involved in disentangling causes from effects of an experience. At the
experimental stage, the individual is involved in “trying out the concepts and
generalisations to test the new found knowledge" Kolbs experimental learning
model is illustrated in Fig. 5.1.
Experience
Experimentation Observation
Conceptualisation
(Source: Stewart, 1997:188)
Figure 5.1 Kolbs” experimental learning model
The cyclical nature of Kolbs’ learning model suggests that learning is continuous.
It recognizes that learning occurs in all contexts and settings. Learning is both
a formal and informal process.
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The stages in the learning cycle are mutually reinforcing. As learning is goal
directed, it is purposeful.
Blooms and Gagnes learning models, although not explicit, are also cyclical.
It has been observed that individuals can enter the learning cycle at any point
in the learning cycle. They also tend to be attracted to various stages of the
learning cycle depending on their interests.
Thus, individuals with a “scientific orientation” will be more interested in

generalizing concepts than “non-scientists”. Managerial employees, by focusing
more on active experimentation, are more concerned with “….identifying and
applying solutions to organisational problems (Stewart 2001)”. However, all
the four stages are required for an integrated learning experience.
Individual learning styles are an offshoot of the concept of the learning cycle.
Individuals have varying learning styles, that reflect individual goals. Learning
styles are embedded in an individual’s preferred stages in the learning cycle,
according to Kolb. It has been argued that as one grows a personality, one
develops a distinct style of learning.
A variety of instruments have been developed to measure individual learning

styles. Kolb and associates identified four broad learning styles. Each of the
learning styles is based on a continuation of two stages in the learning cycle:
(a) Converger: This style is a combination of the conceptualisation and

experimentation stages of the learning cycle. It is associated with the
ability to develop practical applications for ideas.
(b) Diverger: The style draws its character from a combination of
experimentation and observation. Individuals with such a style can view
situations from different angles.
(c) Assimilater: It blends the conceptualisation and observation stages of
the learning cycle. The style is associated with the ability to synthesize
data into coherent theories or ideas.
(d) Accommodator: The ingredients of this style are experimentation and
experience. Individuals with this style of learning are action-oriented.
They take risks while pursuing a course of action.
A knowledge of learning styles of members of the organisation can inform
human resource management strategies.
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Watson (1986) has developed also a learning cycle with four stages, some of
which approximates the Kolb learning stages.
(a) Knowing about
(b) Understanding
(c) Acceptance
(d) Ability to apply.
As is the case with Kolb's learning stages, all the stages outlined above must
be reached for a total learning experience. This model also recognizes that
learning is a continuous process.
5.3.3 Humanist Learning Theories

The psychologists of this perspective claim that their approach is rigorous and
scientific. According to humanist psychologists, being scientific means being
systematic and rigorous. They do not subscribe to the notion that, the observer
can detach himself from an object he is studying. They have accepted the
phenomenological tradition that reality is a matter of “… a widely agreed
interpretation rather than a specification of an objective fact” (Stewart 2001).
Reality, according to phenomenology, cannot be universal over-time and space.
Reality is subject to individual interpretation and all human experience is
subjective. The behaviour of a human being is purposeful and goal directed.
Maslow articulated a hierarchy of needs, in which the ultimate goal is to self-
actualise (realize full potential).
Learning theories associated with humanistic psychology have been influenced

by the phenomenological view of reality and ultimate need to self-actualise. A
substantial number of learning theories based on this have achieved a major
impact on human resource management, particularly the training and
development component.
Rogers (1972) contends that man acts purposively with his basic tendency to
actualise, maintain and enhance his experiences. Rogers supports student-
centred teaching in which the role of the instructor is facilitating learning. The
role of the teacher, as conceptualised by Rogers, involves being an effective
listener and inter-acting in a genuine, accepting and empathetic manner with
the listener.
The instructor must listen to students and convey a sense of truly being
interested in what they say. Furthermore, by paraphrasing the statements made
by the student, the instructor indicates an understanding of what has been said
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and facilitates communication between students. Rogers also welcomes and

outlines individual differences which he saw as maximising individual creativity.
He also advocated the sharing of responsibility for the content and format of
a course. Rogers also encouraged the development of self-evaluative
individuals as well as active participation in an ongoing evaluation process.
He also advocates constructive and meaningful criticism in order to facilitate
the individuals growth and development.
Knowles (1980) proposed four assumptions on which the training of adults

should be based.
1. “Changes in self-concept: An adult progresses from total dependency

as an infant to increasing self-directedness.
2. The Role of Experience: An individual becomes an increasingly rich
resource of learning, as his/her reservour of experience expands. The
emphasis of teaching or training is ever away from transmission
techniques of traditional teaching to an emphasis on experimental
techniques such as discussion, role-playing, project work and other
action-oriented learning techniques.
3. Readiness to Learn: As the individual matures, his/her readiness to
learn is determined by the development tasks required for the
performance of his/her evolving roles. The implication deduced by
Knowles (1979:57) is that the timing of learning experiences should
coincide with a learner’s developmental tasks, for example, when an
employee is promoted to a supervisor.
4. The learning of adults must be problem-centred. Knowles (1997)
observes that generally adults enter into an education activity largely
because they are experiencing some inadequacy in coping with their
current life problems.
Learning is a change of behaviour as a result of an exposure to an experience.
The designer of the learning experience must factor conditions that facilitate
the intended learning experiences. Some conditions of learning are internal,
while others are external to the individual. Miller (1964), in a classic study,
proposed the following conditions of learning which have been corraborated
by the work of Gagne (1977):
1. “The learner must be aware of the inadequacy of his present behaviour.
Learning new behaviour begins with an acceptance of the need to do
so.
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2. The learner must have a clear picture of the behaviour he/she is required
to adopt.
3. Learning must be problem-centred. The problem provides a context of
the learning process.
4. Adults are motivated to learn by both extrinsic and intrinsic motivation.
5. Adults enter into a learning experience with a task-oriented, problem-
centred, and life-centred orientation.
6. Adults become ready to learn when they experience a need to learn in
order to perform more effectively and satisfactorily.
The conditions of learning identified by Miller (1964), Craig (1987), Gagne
(1977) and others can inform training and development programmes. It is
critical to formulate training and development programmes based on the real
needs of the individual learner in the context of their tasks. Providing a context
to the training programmes also harnesses the motivation of the learners.
The conditions of learning also assist in bench marking the learning process
for evaluation purposes."
Activity 5.1
?
* What are the defining characteristics of each of the learning theories?
* What are the common views shared by all the learning theories?
* In what ways do learning theories complement and contradict each
other?
* In what ways can learning theories be applied in your organisation?
5.4 Case Study

Joe Chimuti has worked for three companies as a human resources manager,
since he graduated from college. He initially studied for the B Sc degree in
Sociology, before enrolling for the Diploma in Human Resource Management
by distance education.
He has been working for Progressive Milling Company for the past three
years. Progressive milling has a branch in every provincial capital in the country,
but it has its headquarters in Bulawayo. The company employs approximately
5 000 staff in various grades. Progressive Milling is operating in a highly
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competitive business environment. Recently the milling industry has been

entered by ambitious indigenous businessmen/women with strong government
backing. There are currently ten strong players in the industry. The Government
has imposed price controls on basic food commodities. Progressive Milling
Company is aware of the need to satisfy its broad range of stakeholders.
Joe Chimuti believes that the human resources function can make a substantial
contribution to the business success of his company. Its revamped mission
statement and organisational values are designed to deliver first class products
and services to all its customers in various social classes. Each department, of
which there are five, has developed its own mission statement consistent with
the mission statement of the entire company. The departmental mission
statements specify the standards of the products and service its external
customers must expect. The behaviour of employees are expected to be
informed by the mission statements and agreed values.
Each department develops its operational strategies based on its business

philosophy. Seventy eight percent of the workforce works in the primary and
secondary production, the balance of the 5 000 employees work in retail
operations managing and delivering services, customer services, finance and
human resources. Joe Chimuti reports to the Managing Director who is a
very task-oriented person with little understanding of human resources issues.
The primary and secondary departments operate their own staff training and
development programmes. Joe Chimuti is expected to give professional advice.
Recently, he introduced common training courses in an effort to promote a
common organisational culture. It has been made mandatory for Departments
to produce employee training and development annual plans which should
cover all the grades.
Chimuti has also persuaded management to adopt a training policy whose

thrust is to offer demand driven training programmes. It is a requirement to
conduct training needs assessments in the organisation once in three years.
The training policy recognizes the complement unity of the job and on job
training. Departments are also urged to use non-formal methods of training
such as secondments, planned visits, monitoring and job rotations. A formal
Management Development Programme which covers all supervisory grades
has been introduced.
It has also been recognized through the Management Development

Programme, that those staff members who embark on relevant diploma and
degree programmes, receive incentives such as reimbursement of fees and
bonuses on completion of their programmes. The Board which now takes a
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keen interest in employee training and development matters, approved a budget

to establish a training centre to provide the bulk of the training required by the
operational and supervisory management levels in the company. This initiative
will reduce the current expenditure of $4 000 000 the company incurs on
employee development annually.
The training centre will be manned by ten people, including a Senior Training
Officer, who will be in charge.
The thrust of Joe Chimuti’s work over the past two years has been to introduce
performance management to all the grades and the company. He has also
spent considerable time organizing customer care workshops for the benefit
of all the staff. His approach has been characterised by the introduction of
performance management and customer care initially to the senior echelons
of the company. He believes that top management must always lead by
example in order to set the tone for the intended increased competitiveness.
He also involves them in delivering lower level courses.
The performance management workshops are designed to make each

employee accountable for the resources allocated to him/her. Each of the
objectives assigned to the employee on an annual basis should be specific,
measurable, achievable, results oriented and time framed (SMART). A
quarterly and formal appraisal system has been introduced and is covered in
the training offered. In order to create cohesive business units and teams in
the organisation, team-building workshops have been run by the Human
Resources Management Department. Some of the old employees in the
company have resisted the new performance management system. It is viewed
as time-consuming to implement.
The management development programme has proved particularly beneficial

to the professional and technical group as they have become less bureaucratic
in the approach to work. It has also enabled them to become innovative in the
company operations. On the whole, training has had the impact of improving
morale in the company. Employees are now more eager to engage in problem-
solving and creative thinking in dealing with day-to-day operational problems.
Some of the operational staff have enrolled to attend evening classes to pursue
various studies of their choice. Some employees in the supervisory grades
have been seconded to other departments. A lot has happened in the business
life of Joe Chimuti in the past two years. Training has been offered to employees
on a more systematic basis. The courses and seminars are more focused.
However, there is room for further improvement in the area of evaluation. All
the training programmes need to be evaluated for efficiency and effectiveness.
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Joe Chimuti wonders what the future holds for training and development once
programme evaluation measures have been instituted.
Activity 5.2
? *
*
Which learning theory or theories do you think have been applied?
(Refer to the Case Study.)
What evidence supports your answer?
* What learning theories have under-pinned the performance management
courses? Please justify your answer.
* What learning theories do you think are more effective in promoting
innovativeness and creativity?
* Do you think the training of operational staff and supervisory
management levels should be guided by different learning theories?
Justify your position.
* Provide examples of how individual learning can improve the activities
of your organisation.
5.5 Summary
Human resource management is a multifaceted function which includes
individual learning. Individual learning can be harnessed to shape the
organisational behaviour such as improved co-operation, team spirit and
customer focus. It helps to create synergy in the various elements of human
resource management.
Learning involves a change in behaviour arising from an experience. It involves

the acquisition of new knowledge, skills and attitudes that are needed to perform
a task satisfactorily or effectively. Learning occurs in both formal and informal
contexts and settings. Learning is continuous. An individual engages in learning
throughout his/her entire life.
Individual learning has a direct bearing on the quality of products or services

produced by an organisation. The market challenge for organisations is to
remain competitive, in an ever increasingly competitive, globalized and ever
changing economic environment. Individual learning should be part of the
overall human resources strategy to continuously upgrade the quality of the
human resources of an organisation. The challenge is to teach the individual
the skills of learning.
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Behaviourism, cognitivism and humanist psychology are the three major schools
of thought in psychology. Learning theories reflecting these perspectives have
been developed since psychology emerged as the science of behaviour and
mental processes. Human resource management has drawn from these learning
theories to inform its policies and practice.
Behaviourism is concerned with the totality of human behaviour. It contends

that all human behaviour is learned from the social and physical environments.
The internal working of the mind should be rejected as an area of study and
investigation.
Pavlov discovered classical conditioning by pairing conditioned and

unconditioned stimuli to produce a conditioned response. Skinner discovered
operant conditioning which is based on Thorndyke’s law of effect. He
discovered that the satisfying consequence of a stimulus has the effect of
repeating a response. Consequences such as punishment and rewards reinforce
desired behaviours. Reinforcement schedules can be designed to shape
behaviour.
The view of the cognitive learning theorists is that learning is a product of the
interaction between internal mental processes and the social and physical
environments. Experience is a critical factor in understanding human behaviour.
The individual learns by accessing, processing and transforming information

from the environment guided by his/her mental processes.
All the learning theorists claim that they share the same paradigm (approach)
and research methods as used in the natural sciences. They also agree that
learning is both a process and outcome arising from an experience. Learning
involves acquiring knowledge, skills and attitudes. The different learning theories
complement and contradict each other.
Examples of application of cognitive theories include:
1. designing of mission statements and of common organisational values.

2. organisational culture change programmes with their emphasis on the
management of meaning.
3. designing employee training and development programmes.
4. development of learning styles and instruments.
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Application of learning theories based on behaviourism identified by Stewart

(1997) include:
1. Social policy.
2. Disciplines such as social work and psychiatry.
3. Design and implementation of training and development programmes.
4. Employee development programmes based on behaviour modification
designs, e.g. sales training, health and safety training.
5. Programmed learning /instruction.
6. Organisation-wide intervention, e.g. performance management system,
employer-employee relations, e.g. code of conduct/discipline.
7. Reward management system.
All these applications are an attempt to shape the behaviour of employees to
conform to specified standards of the organisations.
5.6 References
Ashton, D. and Felstead, D. (1995). Training and Development in Storey,
J. (Ed), Human Resources Management: A Critical Text. Routledge,
London.
Atkinson, J. (1985) Flexibility Planning for an Uncertain Future:
Manpower Planning and Practice: London, Prentice Hall.
Bandura, A. (1969). Principles of Behaviour Modification. Helt, New
York.
Beardwell, J. and Holden, L. (1994). Human Resources Management: A
Contemporary Approach. Prentice Hall, London.
Boydell, T. H. (1983) : A Guide to the Identification of Training Needs: British
Association for the Commercial and Industrial Education. London.
Buchanan, D and Hucynski, A. (1991). Organisation Behaviour: An
Introductory Text (3rd Ed.). Prentice Hall, New York.
Bloom, B. E. (1972). Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Book 1 The
Cognitive Domain. Daud Mckay Company, New York.
Child, D. (1981). Psychology and the Teacher. Holt Rinehart and Winston,
London.
Coopers and Lybrand and Associates (1985). A Challenge to Complacency:
Changing Attitudes to Training. A Report to the Manpower Services
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Commissions and the National Economic Development Office:

MSC, Sheffield.
Gagne, R. M. (1997). The Conditions of Learning. Holt, Rinehord and
Winston, Hong Kong.
Hall, C. (1998). “Most of Britain’s New Doctors are Recruited Abroad: Daily
Telegraph (Online).
Hall, R. (2002). Content and Practice of Employee Development in
Human Resources in Organization. Prentice Hall, London.
Keep, E. (1992). Corporate Training Strategies, the Vital Component,
Human Resources Strategy. Open University, London.
Kenney, J. and Reid, M. A. (1986). Training Interventions. Institute of
Personnel Management. Dotesios Printers, London.
Knowles, M. S. (1973). The Practice of Adult Education. Chicago, Fallet
Publishing Company, New York.
Leboeuf, M. (1979). Working Smart. McGraw-Hill, New York.
Malloney, R. (1986). Training Plant Employees in Handling Human
Resources Administration. McGraw-Hill, New York.
Miller, H. L. The Conditions of Learning. McGraw-Hill, New York.
Madler, L. (1996) Designing Training Programmes: The Critical Incident
Approach. Addison, Machassutes.
Pettigrew, A. and Jones, E. and Reason, P. (1982). Training and Development
Roles in heir Organisational Setting . Training Division.
Reid, M. and Berrington, H. (1994). Training Interventions IPD. London.
Rogers, C. (1969). Freedom to Learn. Meril Columbus, London.
Skinner, B. F. (1969). Contigencies of Learning: A Theoretical Analysis.
Appleton, New York.
Stewart, J. (1999). Employee Development Practice. Pitman, London.
Tracey, C. (1984). Training and Development. In Training and Development
Handbook. American Society for Training and Development, New York.
Zimbabwe Government (1996). The Public Service National Training
Policy (Bacon, C.). Public Service Commission, Harare.
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6
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Unit Six
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Employee Development
6.0 Introduction
T here is increasing conscientiousness that there should be an integration

of the human resource management strategy with an organisation’s
business strategy to ensure the organisation’s competitiveness and prosperity.
The challenge of the human resources function is to adequately address the
economic, social, political and legal factors that constitute the context within
which an organisation exists. The wide range of elements found in the human
resources function must be harmonized to enable it to integrate an organisation’s
internal and external factors. Employee development can provide the unifying
influence among the elements of human resource management.
Employee development has been defined by Tracey (1987:10), as the

“…process by which individuals increase their understanding and knowledge,
or improve their skills and abilities, to perform better in their current positions,
or to prepare themselves for positions to which they can realistically aspire” in
the near future. Employee development programmes should be practical and
results oriented. Being practical implies that employee development should
have identifiable beginning and ending benchmarks. Criteria for success for
an organisation’s employee development must be clearly spelt out.
Hall (2002:190) notes that a link has been established between the “practice
of employee development and human resources management goals”. The major
policy goals which can be promoted through effective employee development
are strategic integration, commitment, quality and flexibility. Commitment is
cultivated by giving employees the opportunity to develop. This enhances the
motivation of the individual employee.
Employee development is also a mechanism for enhancing the ability of an

employee to adapt in an era of rapid change. The impact of the concept of
“managing change” or “change management” in the 1990s is reflected by the
large volume of training courses, business journals and texts on the market.
The popularity of the concept of flexibility at the workplace is reflected by the
development of training and development programmes now focusing on
promoting functional flexibility through the practice of multi-skilling workers.
Research has indicated that multi-skilling is the second reason for increasing
the skills needs. Technological changes take precedence over changing work
practices as the rationale for increasing the range of skills required by
employees, in the workplace.
Sims (1994:430) concurs with Hall (2002) that training can increase an
employee’s level of commitment to the organization. Organized learning
experiences provided by the employer is a tool for a manager to improve job
performance. It also contributes to the general growth of the employees in the
organisation.
A correlation has been established between high quality employees and high
quality goods and services. The correlation justifies the notion of investing in
training and development of employees. Employee development promotes
the internal coherence of an organisation, as well as the integration of its human
resources strategy and business strategy (Hall, 2002: 191). Keep (1992:32)
quoted by Hall makes a strong case for the integration of training and
development with the other elements of human resource management or
development.
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Unit 6 Employee Development
Some benefits of training accrue to the organisation while others accrue to the
employee. Kenney and Reid (1986:53) have identified other personal benefits
that accrue from training and development. Training increases the value of an
employee on the labour market. It also provides an employee and his/her
family with a higher standard of living. In addition, trained employees enjoy a
higher status, greater job security, better prospects for finding other jobs in
the event of being made redundant, better chances for promotion and enhanced
job satisfaction.
Organisational and personal benefits created by training and development

reinforce each other to mutual benefit. It is essential to differentiate between
training, education and development in the context of human resource
management. Training has been defined as “… consisting of formal or informal
groups or individual short-term learning experiences designed to impart or
improve the skills, knowledge and job performances of employees …”. Tracey
(1994:11), Kennedy and Reid (1986:3) described it as a “… planned process
to modify attitude, knowledge, or skill behaviour through learning experience
to achieve effective performance in an activity or a range of activities”.
The immediate objective of training is to improve job performance. It is a

deliberate process designed to facilitate the acquisition of new skills, knowledge
or attitudes or the upgrading of the existing skills or knowledge base of an
employee. It takes place in the context of a job or a task. The overall purpose
of training is to contribute towards the achievement of organisational objectives.
Training also results in the raising of standards of efficiency and effectiveness
of an organisation. It has been observed that the process of training also
generates ideas of organisational improvement. Training in this sense, acts as
a catalyst for change.
According to Maloney (1986:21), training contributes to an organisation’s

business strategy by:
(a) increasing production.
(b) achieving a higher quality of goods and/or services.
(c) achieving better attitudes in employees.
(d) lowering unit costs.
Kenney and Reid (1986:3) defined development as the “… growth or

realisation of a person’s ability, through conscious or unconscious learning”.
Many elements are involved in development programmes. They include planned
study and work experiences.
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The concepts of training and development overlap. Both concepts involve the
acquisition of attitudes, skills and knowledge which can improve job
performance.
Evaluating the impact of training from a financial point of view poses serious
challenges to an organisation.
Organisations that have adopted the view that training is a cost reflect this
philosophy through their recruitment and selection practices. Such organisations
have the tendency of “poaching” employees with certain “desirable” skills
from other organisations. The “attitude” of treating training as a cost, creates
a vicious cycle as organisations may be reluctant to invest in training and
development. Unattractive employees are less likely to be “poached” by
competitors.
An effective human resources strategy suggests that an organisation should

invest in training and development in order to achieve strategic integration.
The human resources practices must retain employees, after their training and
development. Such a strategy generates long-term benefits from the investment.
6.1 Objectives
* Describe the role of training and development in human resources
management.
* Explain the benefits of training to the organisation and the individual.
* Contrast approaches to employee development.
* Compare the different approaches to employee development used by
different Governments.
* Explain the different roles an employee development specialist can
adopt.
* Describe the roles that line management can adopt in employee
development.
* Classify the types of learning an individual can pursue.
* List the different types of training methods.
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6.2 Cost/Benefit Analysis of Employee Development

It is relatively difficult to demonstrate the immediate benefits to organisations
of training and development.
An organisation can readily justify an investment in a new piece of machinery

by compiling statistics that demonstrate an increase in productivity. The linkage
between the cost and benefit of a piece of machinery can easily be illustrated.
This is unlike training and development, which is difficult to quantify.
The problem of quantifying the benefits of training to an organisation can

influence an organisation to adopt a short-term perspective of the impact of
training on productivity. Keep (1992) quoted by Hall (2001:192) observes
that organisations that adopt a short-term perspective, have a tendency of
treating training as a cost and not as an investment.
Atkinson (1984) quoted by Hall, introduced the concept of core and periphery
workers. The periphery workers as non-core workers are treated as a cost.
Treating periphery workers as a cost to be minimized is associated with the
tendency to keep investment in the training and development at a minimum.
The benefits accruing to the organisation are undermined seriously by a lack

of investment in the training and development of periphery workers. Such an
approach results in the human resource management function only concentrating
on a narrow band of core workers, as is noted by Ashton and Felstead
(1995:235).
The level of commitment in terms of financial investment is a critical criterion

for determining the way an organisation manages its workforce.
Organisations that view training as a cost have a tendency to rely on the

labour markets for sourcing required skills and knowledge. They are also less
likely to invest in training and development. Organisations that treat labour as
a resource, invest in the training and development of their employees. The
training offered increase the skills base of the individual.
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6.3 The Role of Government in the Training and

Development of Employees
The role a Government adopts in the provision of training and development
influences the nature of employee development. Various forms of regulations
on training systems in different countries, have been observed. These regulations
are attempts by governments to make their economies competitive. A
comparative analysis of various regulations obtaining in some countries will
be made to illustrate various approaches to employee development.
All the European Union countries except the United Kingdom regulate their
training systems. They also accommodate the interests of the trade unions in
the policy formulation for training. The role of the employer in the provision of
training of European Union countries, except the United Kingdom, has been
regulated. Vocational training is treated as a voluntary responsibility of the
employers in the United Kingdom.
In France and Zimbabwe, the approach to vocational training is termed a

state-interventionist approach as they have imposed a minimum training tax
on the wage bill. In France the statutory minimum is 1.5 per cent while in
Zimbabwe it is 1.9 percent of the wage bill. A “hybrid” system whereby the
provision of training and vocational education is shared between the state and
employers, is found in Germany, Switzerland, Austria and Denmark. The
“hybrid” system is also termed the “Dual System” or a “corporatist approach”.
As the intervention of Government in the United Kingdom is not explicit, its

approach has been termed “voluntarist ”. This approach denotes that matters
relating to the management of the labour-force are the prerogative of industry
and the employer.
The role of Government in the United Kingdom is confined to designing and

launching training initiatives such as career development and the provision of
training credits for the benefit of individuals. The thrust of the Government’s
initiative is to fill in gaps in terms of the employer’s provision of training and
development opportunities.
It should be noted, however, that there are merits and demerits of state
involvement with vocational education and training provision. Discontent has
been voiced against the “voluntarist approach” to employee training and
development. Kenny and Reid (1986), have offered the following criticisms
against the United Kingdom system:
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(a) “The aggregate investment in training and development made by

employers is inadequate in quantity and quality.”
(b) “… the training and retraining systems lack the capacity to respond
quickly enough to the demands for new skills and knowledge created
by rapid technological change”.
(c) “… there is an imbalance between the skills and qualification required
by employers and those available in the nation’s workforce”. It has
been argued, that the vocational training systems prevailing in Germany
and France are better able to respond to technological change and
economic growth. In the United Kingdom, the skill level is lower than
that found in Germany and Japan. Ashton and Felstead (1995:241),
declare that the “… failure of employers to demand higher level skills”
constitutes the heart of the British training problem. In Zimbabwe, for
years industry and the public sectors have been plagued by a constant
loss of skilled labour to other countries in the region as well to the
Developed World. This state of affairs is attributed to a combination of
economic and political factors. Companies and public sector
organisations are generally unable to retain skills created through their
training and development efforts, because of the unstable economic
environment evident for sometime now.
As is the case with the United Kingdom, the cost of training is borne by and
large by the employer. Training provision in terms of quality and quantity has
been consistently inadequate in the United Kingdom.
A National Task Force set up in the United Kingdom failed to reach consensus
on how to tackle the adult skills gap. Some members of the Task Force felt
that there was a need to compel employers to “… meet some form of minimum
requirements”. A statutory delegation would compel organisations to place
training and development on the corporate agenda. Other members did not
share this view.
A benchmark survey conducted in 1985 by Coopers and Lybrand concluded

that few employers in the United Kingdom “… think training is to be sufficiently
central to their business for it to be a component in their corporate strategy”
(1985:4). Follow up studies to the Coopers and Lybrands survey have been
conducted.
A labour force survey conducted in 1999/2000 revealed a drop in the number

of employees receiving job related training in the same period. However, a
steady increase of 5 percent points in the working population receiving training
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in the 1985 to 2000 period was recorded. During the same period, the same
survey revealed that nearly two thirds of all the job training was paid for by
the employers or potential employers. Male employees benefited more from
training than female employees (68.1 percent as opposed to 58.6 per cent for
women).
The statistics also indicated that more women were paying for their own training
in various ways.
By and large company training was driven by “push” factors such as health
and safety requirements and occupational requirements, rather than “pull”
factors embedded in Human Resource Management techniques. One study
concluded that training was being undertaken as a reaction to legislation, rather
than a response to technological change and the demands of globalisation.
Studies have also indicated that a disproportionate amount of training

undertaken is in favour of the higher and senior echelons of organisations. The
professional and technical groups also tend to dominate in training provision
than the operational staff. The studies have also shown that one third of all the
employers provide training for only 0-10 percent of their workforce. Smaller
firms also provide less training, probably due to lack of resources in terms of
finance, requisite skills and knowledge.
6.4 The Role of Trainers/Employee Development

Specialists
Hall (2002:198) notes that the role of an employee development specialist is
influenced by a number of internal and external conditions. The role occupied
by an employee development specialist is influenced by structural factors and
the internal issues of inter-relationships.
Stewart (1999:84) quoted by Hall (2002) identified the factors that influence
the role of employee development shown in Table 6.1.
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Table 6.1 Factors that Influence the role of Employee Development

· Top management support for, and interest in, employee development.
· Size of organisation in terms of numbers employed.
· Nature of operations and business of the organisation, e.g. degree of
complexity, range of occupational groups.
· Need for training and development, e.g. make of internal and external
labour markets.
· Location and hierarchical position of person with ultimate responsibility
for employee development.
· External factors, e.g. degree of legislative regulation.
· Expertise, professionalism, and credibility of development specialists.
(Source: Stewart, 1999: 84)
The factors outlined in Table 6.1 are instructive. The majority of the factors
identified by Stewart are internal to the position of the employee development
specialist.
The roles of employee development specialists who are known by different

titles or designations have been researched. Different typologies of the roles
of employee development specialists have been drawn.
Nadler and Nadler (1994:94) proposed a three-dimensional classification of

an employee development specialist roles.
(a) “Learning Specialist

¾ facilitator of learning
¾ designer of learning programmes
¾ developer of human resources strategies.
(b) Manager of Human Resources Development (HRD)
¾ supervisor of human resources development programmes
¾ developer of human resources development personnel.
¾ arranger of facilities and finance.
(c) Consultant
¾ expert
¾ advocate
¾ stimulator”
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Nadler and Nadler (1994) classification suggests that their roles are mutually
inclusive. The roles can be performed simultaneously.
Pettigrew, Jones and Reasons’ model of trainer roles suggest that the roles
are mutually exclusive.
Table 6: 2
The provider: It represents the “traditional” view of employee
development. It is concerned with the operational
aspects of a trainer’s role.
The passive provider: In this role, the trainer is reactive rather than
proactive in approach. The role is confined to low
level involvement with little impact on the
organisation.
The trainer manager: The emphasis in this role is on planning and

resource allocation. In addition, the role involves
co-coordinating training activities using efficient
and effective administrative systems.
The change agent: The thrust of this role is to develop and change
the organisation. There is a shift from prescriptive
and traditional courses to learning and
organisational development activities. The
employee development specialist acts as a
provider.
Role in transition: It has been described as a movement of the

practitioner form provider to change agent.
The roles discussed in Table 6.2 influence the nature of the internal relationships
between the trainer and line managers.
6.5 Employee Development Approaches

Approaches to employee development have been documented by substantial
research studies in recent years.
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The most frequently quoted classifications of employee development

approaches emanate from the Ashridge Research (Barham et al: 1987) and
the Megginson model (Boydell, 1983). Approaches to employee development
are influenced by contextual issues surrounding an organisation.
The Ashridge researchers identified three basic types of approaches, which

were influenced by different historical circumstances. They identified the
fragmented, formalised and focused approaches to employee development.
The hallmark of the fragmented approach is that employee development

activities are ad hoc and unplanned. Such activities are viewed as a cost
rather than an investment. There is no deliberate linkage of such activities to
organisation objectives and strategies. Organisations using this approach
prescribe and direct courses. The focus of training is on the acquisition of
knowledge.
The formalised approach is characterized by the deliberate linking of

organisational objectives and individual goals to human resources development
strategies. Training and development activities are integrated with the other
components of human resource management. There is a clear focus on the
development needs of the individual. The training and development activities
are designed to acquire both knowledge and skills. This approach is also
characterized by an increased involvement of line managers in employee
development activities.
The focused approach, in line with the formalised approach, links human
resources development strategies to both organisational objectives and
individual goals. The varied activities of this approach are designed to impart
knowledge, skill, value and attitudes. They are much more encompassing in
terms of their targets. The individual collaborates with the employee
development specialist in managing the learning process such as in identifying
learning needs and evaluating the impact of training. Line managers play a
pivotal role in the development of their staff. The focused approach is also
characterized by an emphasis on evaluating the effectiveness of human resources
development.
The practice and context of the fragmented approach is the 1950s/1960s.

The context and practice of the formalised approach is the 1970s/1980. The
focused approach is more recent and its practice and context is the 1990s
and beyond.
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The Megginson Model of employee development approaches focuses on

approaches to identifying training needs. The five category classification was
influenced by the research into the practice of training of selected organisations.
Activity 6.1
?
* Compare the different roles that your organisation could assign
to its employee development specialist.
6.5.1 The Systems Approach to Employee Development

The concept of a system has been utilised by many authors in biology, physics,
psychology, economics, management and a variety of other basic and applied
fields of study. All the definitions of a system denote interdependency or
interaction of components as parts of an identifiable whole or “gestalt”. A
system is goal or end orientated. Some organisations use the systems approach
to employee development.
Rose (1979) proposed a seven stage systematic training cycle, as follows:
Stage I : “Determine Performance Requirements on the basis of a

detailed Occupational analysis of skills, knowledge and
attitudes required now and in the foreseeable future.
Stage 2: Determine Personnel Resources focusing on assessing present

and potential ability of job holders in terms of knowledge, skills
and attitudes indicated in Stage I.
Stage 3: Determine Training Requirements - This step involves

determining the types, levels and amount of training required
to develop competencies required for performance on the job.
Stage 4: Determine Training Resources – Assess available and

obtainable resources including:
(a) facilities and equipment
(b) instructors and supervisors
(c) training materials such as texts and training aids.
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Stage 5: Planning Instruction – The thrust at this stage is to develop an

approach, curriculum, lesson plans, and training materials which
facilitate the raising of proficiency levels to the required point.
Stage 6: Process of Instruction and Evaluation Training is provided at

this stage in accordance with the plan, including adaptation
necessary for individual learners.
Stage 7: Production and Evaluation of Instruction – The evaluator

determines the changes in trainees required by job performance
standards, including adequacy and suitability of proficiencies
developed.
Hall (2001: 204) has condensed his systematic training cycle into four distinct
but over-lapping stages shown in Fig. 6.1.
Identify
Training Needs
Evaluate Design Training

Effectiveness Solutions
Implement
Training Solutions
(Source: Hall, 2001:204).
Figure 6.1 The condensed systematic training cycle
Needs may be defined as gaps in knowledge, skills and attitudes. The needs
may exist at organisational level, as all the members may require common
knowledge, skills and attitudes irrespective of their job or occupation, for
example, knowledge of customer care. Training needs in the areas cited above
may exist at occupational or job level.
To the extent that an individual’s knowledge, skills and attitudes are inadequate,
training needs exist at this level.
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Beardwell and Holden (1994) and Boydell (1983) identified a variety of

methods and documentation available for training needs at organisational,
occupational and individual level.
At an organisational level, training needs can be identified by perusing:
¾ Job descriptions
¾ Job analysis
¾ Interview with line managers performance objectives
¾ Performance objectives
¾ Analysis of competency requirements and person specification.
At the individual level, needs can be identified by means of:
¾ Personal files
¾ Self-assessment
¾ Assessment centres and training audits.
Different organisations prefer different practices and methods of identifying
training needs. The practitioner must be rigorous in establishing training needs.
It is critical to distinguish between training and non-training causes of
performance deficiencies. Failure to make this important distinction results in
wastage of resources and frustration.
The following host of common training problems were identified by Stewart

(1999:153):
¾ Inadequate training
¾ Inappropriate training
¾ Skills, knowledge gaps
¾ Inadequate recruitment and selection.
Common non-training problems include:
¾ Lack of feedback/motivation
¾ Job design faults
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¾ Organisation structure
¾ Recruitment and selection procedure
¾ Poor equipment/tools.
Models have been established to identify training needs (Stewart: 1999:153,
Bacon, 1995). Each of the models has advantages and disadvantages.
Irrespective of the approach the practitioner uses to identify training needs,
the symptoms of a problem, must be separated from its causes. This will
avoid a situation where symptoms are treated, rather than the causes.
In Stewart’s (1999) six stage model for identifying training needs, the point of
departure is the description of the symptoms of the problem. At the second
stage of the process, the practitioner is concerned with determining the
magnitude of the problem. The crucial question to ask is “Is the problem
worth solving?” At the third stage of the process, the causes of the problem
are identified. Alternative training solutions are considered at the fourth stage
of the cycle. Each possible solution is then evaluated in terms of its cost and
benefits. After assessing the relative merits and demerits of each solution, the
best solution is recommended for adaptation at the sixth stage, to decision-
makers.
The competency study reviewed by Rummler (1987) approach consists of

three dimensions:
(a) Ask people what they think or feel the trainee or performer requires to
do the job or x portion of the job (competencies).
(b) Determine the knowledge and skills required to attain the stated
competencies.
(c) Prioritize the knowledge and skills recommended and summarize these
as a training agenda.
A survey conducted into the methods used for identifying training needs
established the following methods in rank order:
¾ Line manager
¾ Employee requests
¾ Training audit
¾ Analysis of business plan
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¾ Project analysis
¾ Cost/benefit analysis.
Although it is the least preferred method, cost/benefit analysis was more
frequently used in the private sector than public sector. It was unfortunate that
business analysis was not widely used as a method of identifying training needs,
although awareness existed of the need to link training to business plans. The
study pointed out a gap between principle and practice.
Designing and implementing training closely interlink, to the extent that it is

prudent to discuss them simultaneously. The establishment and prioritization
of training needs sets the stage for the formulation of aims and objectives.
Training and development activities are influenced by learning theories and
processes. The nature of what must be learned determines the type of learning
process. Learning theorists have developed different classifications of what
trainees can learn in different contexts.
A typology of learning objectives was developed by Bloom and reproduced

by Kerr (1971):
(a) Cognitive Domain

1. Knowledge
1.1 Knowledge of specifics
1.2 Knowledge of ways and means of dealing with specifics
1.3 Knowledge of universals and abstractions.
2. Comprehension
2.1 Translation
2.2 Interpretation
2.3 Extrapolation.
3. Application
4. Analysis
4.1 Analysis of elements
4.2 Analysis of relationships
4.3 Analysis of organisational principles.
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5. Synthesis
5.1 Production of unique characteristics
5.2 Production of unique characteristics or a proposed set of
operations
5.3 Derivation of a set of abstract relations.
6. Evaluation
1.1 Judgement in terms of external evidence
1.2 Judgement in terms of external criteria.
(b) Affective Domain (Class or Area)
1. Receiving (attending)
6.1 Awareness
6.2 Willingness to receive
6.3 Controlled or selected attention.
2. Responding
2.1 Acquiescence in responding
2.2 Willing to respond
2.3 Satisfaction in response.
3. Valuing
3.1 Acceptance of a value
2.2 Reference of a value
2.3 Commitment.
Docins (1995) quoted by Hall (2001) developed a significantly less elaborate
typology of learning consisting of three levels. He argued that all objectives
could fit into one of the following domains:
(a) Memorising
(b) Understanding
(c) Doing.
He thus, created the mnemonic MUD. As with Bloom's taxonomy of learning
objectives, different methods of learning are appropriate to different types of
learning. The possible ways in which the potential learners might be organized
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also have a bearing on the selection of training methods. In selecting training

methods, the employee development specialist, must also consider, the
resources and capabilities of his organisation. Hall (2002) also suggests that
training methods must be determined by the learning requirements of the
individual.
The theory of “preferred learning styles” suggests that individuals will respond
better to certain types of methods influenced by their preferred learning style.
Some individuals learn better using case studies, while others respond better
to role playing, etc.
A vast range of different training methods have been developed to facilitate

learning. Various types of classifications have been drawn to inform decision
making relating to what type of solution to implement.
Hall (2002:208) reproduced the classification of training methods developed

by Reid and Barrington:
(a) On the job training. The traditional type of training which includes “sitting
by Nellie’s” approach whereby the learner observes a more experienced
worker in action (for example a defensive driver).
(b) Planned work Experience. This includes mentoring, involvement in
projects, secondments and visits.
(c) In-house Courses. These are tailor-made courses that reflect the peculiar
needs of the organisation as well as generic issues.
(d) Planned Experience Outside the Organisation. It includes visits and
secondments to clients and competitors.
(e) External Courses. These are run by external providers such as consultants
and universities, and they may lead to formal qualifications and
accreditation.
(e) Self-management. Individuals take the learning initiative to identify their
own learning needs as well as sourcing appropriate learning opportunities.
A survey conducted in the United Kingdom establishments revealed use of
the following training methods in rank order:
¾ on the job training

¾ face-to-face training
¾ formal education
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¾ coaching and mentoring

¾ conferences
¾ open learning
¾ video-based learning
¾ other computer-based learning
¾ action learning
¾ internet.
The most popular training methods are face-to-face training and on the job
training. However, there is increasing evidence of the use of technology on
training delivery.
Activity 6.2
?
* Explain the significance of employee development.
* Identify the benefits of training that could accrue to your organisation
and the individual members.
* Identify the most appropriate training methods that your organisation
should use.
6.6 Evaluation of Training

Designers of training concur that evaluation is the final stage in the systematic
training cycle.
Nadler and Nadler (1994:17) have defined evaluation as the “… process of

relating outcomes to objectives or purposes”. When a programme has been
implemented, it is important for the practitioner to marshall information on its
effects. The value accruing from the training must be determined. Irrespective
of the problems associated with demonstrating the costs/benefits, serious
attempts must be made. The long-term benefits are difficult to gauge, as these
would entail a costly financial outlay to sustain ongoing evaluation. One can
only be certain of the effects of a training programme if a pre-test is administered
before a training programme is run. Evaluation is important as it assists in
continually improving a training provision.
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Atkinson (1976:56) made a distinction between formative and summative

evaluation. Formative evaluation is designed to provide feedback to organizers
of training programmes, and helps to improve them while they are still in the
fluid or developmental stage. Summative evaluation is concerned with
determining the ultimate worth of a training effort. Different models of evaluation
have been developed to enable employee development specialists to conduct
evaluation efforts validly and objectively.
Knowles (1973:223) proposes a four-phase model:

1. “Formulating the questions you want answered (or establishing the
criteria, yardsticks or benchmarks).
2. Collecting the data that will enable you to answer the questions.
3. Analysing the data that will enable you to answer the questions.
4. Modifying your plans, operations and programmes in the light of your
findings”.
Reid and Berrington’s (1994:291) model has been drawn in the form of
questions.
1. “Why is evaluation required?

2. Who should do it?
3. What aspects should be evaluated and when should this be done?
4. What kinds of measurement will be used?”
Evaluation is undertaken to enable the effectiveness of an investment to be
evaluated. It will establish the relevancy and level of the learning experience.
Evaluation will also provide feedback or the effectiveness of the training
methods to deliver learning. Individual learners are also able to assess their
learning process. Data generated from evaluation will be used to effect
improvement.
Evaluation should be undertaken by the managers, trainers and learners as it

creates opportunities for learning. It should be conducted scientifically in order
to avoid bias. This requires credibility, expertise and knowledge on the part
of the evaluators. Five dimensions of the training effort can be evaluated
according to Reid and Berrington (1994:293).
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Level I: “Reactions of trainees and trainers to the methods and

contents of the course. This also includes their reactions to
other logistical factors.
Level II: Actual learning (quantity) achieved from the learning process.
This is in relation to what was achieved.
Level III: Impact on job performance to determine the transfer of

learning.
Level IV: Impact on the department in terms of productivity, efficiency

and effectiveness.
Level V: Impact on the whole organisation in terms of profitability or

survival.
At Level I - the evaluation uses questionnaires, interviews and group discussion.
At Level 2 - tests, examinations, projects and case studies can be used.
At Level 3 – on-the-job performance and improvement is the most valid

approach.
At Levels 4 and 5 – use can be made of organisational health indicators such

as profitability, staff turnover and customer feedback. Short-term and long-
term issues are problematic to the evaluator at these levels. Monitoring
behavioural change is difficult in the long term.
With each successive level, evaluation becomes increasingly complex and

difficult. Formal off the job training is easier to evaluate than on the job training
as the latter occurs in an informal way. Such training is subjective and is open
to varying interpretations. The evaluator faces greater difficult at the higher
levels, as improvement cannot be attributed purely to training due to other
external intervening variables.
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Activity 6.3
?
* Identify the employee development approach currently used by your
organisation or by the one you are familiar with.
* Recommend the types of learning that members of your organisation
must engage to improve their job performances.
* Recommend an approach to vocational training for Zimbabwe.
6.7 Summary
There is need for an organisation to integrate human resource management
strategies with business strategies to achieve the best organisational
performance. Employee development as a component of human resource
management can provide the link between business strategies and human
resource management. It can also facilitate synergy among human resource
management elements. The level of financial investment in employee
development is a litmus test for commitment of an organisation to human
resources development.
Organisational and personal benefits accruing from training and development

reinforce each other, to mutual benefit.
It is difficult to demonstrate the benefits of training. Various forms of regulation

on training prevail in different countries.
In some countries, including Zimbabwe, the interventionist approach is

characterized by an imposed tax percentage on the wage bill.
Other countries’ approach is termed a corporatist approach which is

responsible for vocational training and is shared between the State and
employers. The United Kingdom uses a voluntarist approach as its intervention
is not explicit.
Internal and external factors influence this nature of the role of an employee
development specialist. Trainers must adopt a proactive role that influences
performance.
Employee development approaches are influenced by contextual issues. The

focused approach makes it possible to link an organisation’s objectives to
training and development strategies. The most widely applied approach to
employee development is the systems approach. This approach is cyclical in
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nature. All systematic training models begin with the identification of training
needs or requirements and end with evaluation.
Learning needs translate into learning aims and objectives. Different types of
learning require different and appropriate training methods.
6.8 References
Ashton, D. and Felstead, D. (1995). Training and Development in Storey, J.
(Ed), Human Resources Management: A Critical Text. Routledge,
London.
Atkinson, J. (1985) Flexibility Planning for an Uncertain Future: Manpower
Planning and Practice: London, Prentice Hall.
Bandura, A. (1969). Principles of Behaviour Modification. Helt, New
York.
Beardwell, J. and Holden, L. (1994). Human Resources Management: A
Contemporary Approach. Prentice Hall, London.
Boydell, T. H. (1983): A Guide to the Identification of Training Needs:
British Association for the Commercial and Industrial
Education: London.
Buchanan, D and Hucynski, A. (1991). Organisation Behaviour: An
Introductory Text (3rd Ed.). Prentice Hall, New York.
Bloom, B. E. (1972). Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Book 1 The
Cognitive Domain. Daud Mckay Company, New York.
Child, D. (1981). Psychology and the Teacher. Holt Rinehart and Winston,
London.
Coopers and Lybrand and Associates (1985). A Challenge to Complacency:
Changing Attitudes to Training. A Report to the Manpower Services
Commissions and the National Economic Development Office: MSC,
Sheffield.
Gagne, R. M. (1997). The Conditions of Learning. Holt, Rinehord and
Winston, Hong Kong.
Hall, C. (1998). “Most of Britain’s New Doctors are Recruited Abroad: Daily
Telegraph (Online).
Hall, R. (22002). Content and Practice of Employee Development in
Human Resources in Organisations. Prentice Hall, London.
Keep, E. (1992). Corporate Training Strategies, the Vital Component,
Human Resources Strategy. Open University, London.
Kenney, J. and Reid, M. A. (1986). Training Interventions. Institute of
Personnel Management. Dotesios Printers, London.
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Knowles, M. S. (1973). The Practice of Adult Eduction. Chicago, Fallet

Publishing Company, New York.
Leboeuf, M. (1979). Working Smart. McGraw-Hill, New York.
Malloney, R. (1986). Training Plant Employees in Handling Human
Resources Administration. McGraw-Hill, New York.
Miller, H. L. (1996) The Conditions of Learning. McGraw-Hill, New York.
Madler, L. (1995 ). Designing Training Programmes: The Critical Incident
Approach. Addison, Machassutes.
Pettigrew, A. and Jones, E. and Reason, P. (1982). Training and
Development Roles in their Organisational Setting. Training Division.
Reid, M. and Berrington, H. (1994). Training Interventions IPD. London.
Rogers, C. (1969). Freedom to Learn. Meril Columbus, London.
Skinner, B. F. (1969). Contigencies of Learning: A Theoretical Analysis.
Appleton, New York.
Stewart, J. (1999). Employee Development Practice. Pitman, London.
Tracey, C. (1984). Training and Development. In Training and Development
Handbook. American Society for Training and Development, New York.
Zimbabwe Government (1996). The Public Service National Training
Policy (Bacon, C.). Public Service Commission, Harare.
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7
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Unit Seven
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Performance Management
7.0 Introduction
B usiness success is measured in terms of an organisation’s ability to attain

set goals. The ability to attain set goals is a function of managerial
competence. But managers on their own can not do all the work required for
that success. They must work with and through others. The manner in which
they do that is the subject of this unit. This unit is intended to assist the student
to develop a working knowledge of the key managerial role, that is getting
results through others – performance management.
Many businesses that operate in similar environments and with equal access
to resources required for the successful achievement of organisational goals
invariably achieve different levels of success. This observation eliminates factors
external to the organisation as the causes of such differences of success between
businesses. In addition, if the organisations have equal access to resources,
then resources per se, are also eliminated as causal factors of such differences.
It can be argued therefore that factors internal to the organisation are

responsible for the differences in success between organisations. Expressed
in simple terms, and using the Process/Content Model (Effectiveness
Consultants: 1999), if the ‘what’of the business is similar, then differences in
organisational performance must be a function of the remaining variable, the
‘how’. The ‘how’ is an internal factor. Differences between businesses in
their approach to people issues account for differences in critical organisational
competencies. Organisational competencies reside mainly in people. The
optimum application of these competencies is made possible by the manner in
which people are managed, or how they are led, in short, how organisational
knowledge is marshalled and applied. Everything being equal, an organisation’s
success depends on how people are viewed and treated and how they in turn
view the organisation and behave towards it. This notion gives rise to the
critical role of performance management in business success.
7.1 Objectives
* Describe the place of performance management in the managerial task.
* Define performance management.
* Describe the various stages in the process of performance management.
* Explain the advantages and disadvantages of various types of
performance appraisal schemes.
* Point out pitfalls in the traditional performance management process.
* Identify the advantages of continuous performance monitoring and
feedback.
* Set SMART performance objectives.
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Unit 7 Performance Management
Activity 7.1
?
* Identify one business that you know which has been successful and
one which failed and had to wind down.
* Identify the people management systems in both businesses and point
out the differences.
7.2 History of Performance Management

Performance management is a key activity for managers because they obtain
their results through others. It will be of assistance to briefly explore the history
of the discipline called management with a view to exposing the place of the
practice called performance management, within it.
Adam Smith’s classic work (1974) propounded the concept of the division
of labour. This was the beginning of the scientific era in the study of management,
in which Frederick Winslow Taylor is a recognised guru, for his writings on
the first forms (at least in the Western World) of the application of scientific
methods to the management of people.
Taylor’s theme, which surrounded ‘method’ more than anything else, was to
be the first thought out and documented method of how to get results through
people, hence his idea of “one best way” for any job to be done. It is pertinent
to note here that concern was centred not on people but on the method of
task execution, that the main object was the correct sequencing of work activity,
without consideration whatsoever to psycho-social and other environmental
factors prevailing at the workplace.
Later efforts by another group of scholars known as Behaviourists added

substance to the then existing body of knowledge, as concern increased on
maximizing work output as a method of reducing costs and increasing
profitability through improved operational efficiency. For the first time, the
effect of management styles and environmental factors on people, hence
productivity was measured and found to have a significant impact. Many others,
includingAbraham Maslow began to focus on the individual and what motivates
them to behave the way they do, in an attempt to link management styles,
human motivation and work performance behaviour. It became clear that
people came to work to pursue achievement of their own personal needs,
rather than those of the business, and that managers had to take this into
account as they sought a fine balance between business needs and individual
workers’ needs. Many other behaviourists carried out research that enabled
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the more recent modernists to research on and enrich the body of knowledge
on people management.
Human resource management, earlier known as personnel management, is a

very young and belated offspring of the discipline called management. Young,
because the effect of the human element in management seems to have
remained fairly obscure, if not totally out of sight until recently. Belated, because
to study management without first understanding human behaviour thoroughly
is akin to putting the cart before the horse.
Activity 7.2
?
* In your group critique the assertion that “to practise
management without first understanding human behaviour is
akin to putting the cart before the horse”.
7.3 The Present

Human Resource Management, the discipline within which performance
management has become a focal point in the search for competitive advantage,
is increasingly being accepted as an essential consideration in business strategy
(Spangernberg, H. 1994). Therefore, business strategies must incorporate a
human resource strategy. Gratton, L. (2000) proposes that a business strategy
that does not have people issues at its core is bound to fail.
Johnson G, & Scholes, K. (1997) state that the resources and competencies
of the organisation are critical internal influences that determine organisational
success. The key resource is people. Organisational competencies are
embedded in the skills and abilities of its staff.
7.4 Context of Performance Management

Another view that places performance management within the context of
organisational strategy and goals was advanced by Robins, S.P., (1988) who
defined the organisation as “a systematic arrangement of people to accomplish
some specific task”. He went further to define managers as “individuals in an
organisation who direct the work to others”. These definitions refer both to
an organisation as a process and a structure as illustrated in Table 7.1.
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Table 7.1
Organisation In the business context

Systematic arrangement To give order and meaning to process.
Specific task Around which performance and its management
take place.
Manager Drivers of action
Work The subject matter of performance management.
Others The individual to be affected by the process.
(Source: Robins, S.P., 1988)
Effectiveness Consultants (1999), in an unpublished article, refer to a model

developed by Marvin R. Weisbord in which the organisation is viewed as a
system made up of factors including purpose, structure, rewards, helping
mechanisms and relationships, with leadership at the centre, acting as the hub
from which all other factors are controlled (see Fig. 7.1).
FOCUS
Relationships LEADERSHIP Structure
Purpose
Enabling Programmes
Mechanisms
Institutional
integrity Rewards
Environment
(Source: Effectiveness Consultants, 1999)
Figure 7.1 Six Factor Model (adapted)

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In this model, the main role of managers in organisations is leadership.

Leadership is seen as a common factor that determines organisational success.
In articulating the six factors, leadership provides the organisation and followers
with a sense of purpose.
Purpose is translated into programmes which are facilitated by the leader for
the achievement of organisational goals. It is within such a context that
performance management must be viewed. The quality of leadership therefore
determines how people are viewed and treated.
Another important factor in examining the context within which performance

takes place is organisational culture. Fowler, A (1990) states that both people
and process systems are bound to fail if they are not compatible with an
organisation’s culture, that is its styles, beliefs and values. Johnson and Scholes
(1997) in an adaptation from E. Schein (1985) portray culture through three
layers as illustrated in Fig. 7.2.
VALUES
BELIEFS
PARADIGM
Taken for
Granted
Assumptions
(Source: Johnson & Scholes, 1997)
Figure 7.2 The Cultural Web
In the view of these authors, the paradigm, or frame of reference that people
use will determine what it is that they take for granted. For example, in western
business organisations today, one thing that is generally taken for granted is
the view that senior management must always provide leadership in all new
organisational initiatives. Some writers argue that leadership should be shared
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according to competency in a particular field, and not according to positional

authority. On this subject, Martin, J., (1995) argues that in some modern
organisations “virtuoso employees have to be empowered because their
manager cannot understand what they are doing”. Virtuoso employees are
regarded as the modern technocrats who are highly skilled in their areas and
who are so passionate and absorbed in their job that to try and apply rules to
govern their performance activities will only serve to kill initiative. Therefore,
the paradigm which says that senior management provides leadership,
supervision and control, has been challenged. This notion must of necessity
be taken into account when tackling the subject of performance management,
especially in the area of setting performance targets and monitoring progress.
Activity 7.3
?
* Discuss in your group the following statement: “A business strategy
that does not have people issues at its core is bound to fail.”
* Critically examine the role of culture in the success or failure of
organisations with special reference to Zimbabwean organisations.
7.5 What is Performance Management?

Various descriptions and definitions of performance management are given
by different authors in the literature. However, all have in common the fact
that performance management is a process involving the following distinct
elements, namely:
Objective setting
Performance monitoring
Support/coaching
Appraisal/review
Development plans
Rewards and sanctions
Dealing with under-performance.
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Performance management is the tool which managers use to achieve

organisational goals through other people.
Armstrong, M. (1998), in his definition of management explains that in the

process of “getting results through people”, managers play three crucial roles
which are:
Interpersonal – facilitating co-operation among members

Informational – Receiving and giving information required to assist in
the attainment of organisational goals.
Resource allocation – enabling individuals and groups to perform
their tasks.
The performance management process encompasses all the above roles of a
manager at both individual and team levels. It is described as a continuous
process as illustrated in figure 7.3.
PLAN
REVIEW
ACT
MEASURE
(Source: Armstrong M., 1998 p6)
Figure 7.3 The Performance Management Cycle
The aim of the performance management process according to Armstrong is

to:
Clarify expectations, so that both the individual and the manager share
the same knowledge about the what and how of a job.
Find linkage between individual and organisational goals. Primarily,
individuals and organisations have different objectives. The performance
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management process aims to establish areas of mutual interest so that

the individual is motivated to perform.
Focus on improvement by learning from the mistakes of the past,
identifying performance strengths and weaknesses and then acting
accordingly.
This description of performance management illustrates various stages in the
continuous process. This way, performance reviews will yield good results.
As Collard, R. and Baron, S. (1992) point out, more and more evidence is
being gathered which shows that “effective people management practices
really do relate directly to people performance”.
7.6 Current Themes in Performance Management

Butterick, R. (1997) observes that “all organisations say that their most
important asset is their people”. It must be questioned whether businesses are
practising what they preach. If people were the organisation’s most important
asset, then this should be evident in the manner in which people (skills) are
handled. For example, business organisations are not always in the habit of
checking to see whether their human resources are fully utilised. Martin, J.
(1995) says “unused corporate knowledge is as undesirable as unused
inventory”.
Performance management is about optimizing the contribution of people to

the organisation while at the same time meeting the individual needs of
employees. If this be correct, then it can be argued that not many businesses
are aware whether or not they are achieving a reasonable return on investment
in their human capital. Indeed, the currently used General Applied Accounting
Principles do not provide for the value of human resources to be reflected on
the balance sheet.
While many businesses are able to establish direct costs of employing people,
they are not aware of their full payroll costs, some of which are never reflected
in books of accounts, such as unproductive payroll costs due to sickness,
lateness, absenteeism and loitering. If it was true that organisations regarded
people as their most important asset, then payroll costs would be viewed and
treated as an investment. So far, available evidence of human resource practices
by many businesses indicate the contrary. As Martin (ibid) again argued “if
we maximize what every employee contributes, we maximize the value of the
corporation”. There appears therefore to be a gap between what managers
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say they believe in and what they actually do. According to Effectiveness
Consultants (1999, p107) and citing H. Mintzberg, the nature of managerial
work has been described in terms of what they “should do, but not what they
actually do”.
Martin, J. (1995) identifies the following barriers to the optimisation of the

value of people to the organisation:
Horizontal barriers: these divide the organisation by function, so that

one part does not really see itself as complementary to the other.
Vertical barriers: organisational layers divide people according to
grade. While this may be effective in the uniformed forces, it defeats
the purpose in business organisations by creating the “them and us”
attitude among people at various levels of the organisational hierarchy.
External barriers: Communication between the organisation and the
outside world eliminates walls between the organisation and the outside
world.
Martin (ibid) argues that there is no one whose value to the organisation cannot
increase. Therefore, a primary challenge for management is to find out how to
help each individual increase their value. Individuals can contribute more if
they have more expertise, more powerful tools, access to knowledge, and if
a common area is found between their individual goals and those of the
organisation.
If people are going to be motivated to perform, there must be some clear

benefit for them in the first place, before they respond positively to calls for
more and better productivity. Cockerton, S and Bevan. S (1998) argue that
“as long as the leverage is on aspects of employee performance that lead
directly and unambiguously to improved business performance, everyone
(except poor performers) will benefit”.
This assumes the use of equitable reward systems, where employees see a
defendable balance between organisational and individual gains. The above
authors quote David Ulrich who said that businesses must manage for investors,
customers and employees, and that employees must be assisted to focus on
outcomes, and not roles.
Performance management is therefore also about brokering of interests among

different stakeholders in business. Organisations that achieve this brokering
role will maximize human performance and will in the process achieve significant
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competitive advantage. This only happens if managers understand human

behaviour.
Activity 7.4
?
* What is performance management?
* What are the three crucial roles that a manager plays in performance
management?
* Describe the performance management process and explain its
objectives.
* Identify and discuss organisational barriers to the optimisation of the
value of people in a business set-up. Think about more barriers that
you can add to this list.
7.7 Learning Organisations

The level of thinking within any organisation must of necessity be a function of
the organisation’s level of intelligence. Organisational intelligence is reflected
in the organisation’s capacity for acquiring and applying knowledge.
According to Checkland, P. (1999 p 33) there are different forms and typologies
of knowledge as indicated below.
Embodied knowledge is acquired through action.

Embedded knowledge is that which we have when we see various
models.
Embrained knowledge depends on our conceptual skills.
Encultured knowledge exists in language and language patterns.
Encoded knowledge is described by the way in which information is
portrayed.
Organisations need all types of knowledge for maximum effectiveness. Senge,
P. (1990 p13) states that “a learning organisation is a place where people are
continually discovering how they create their reality”. He also believes that
sustainable competitive advantage for businesses will be their ability to learn
faster than their competitors. He describes the five systems of:
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Systems thinking which includes

Mental modes
Genuine vision, and
Personal mastery, to facilitate
Team learning.
He proposes that systems thinking, the fifth discipline, integrates the other
disciplines, fitting them into a coherent body of theory and practice.
Mental modes refer to “deeply ingrained assumptions, generalisations, or even

pictures or images that influence how we understand the world and how we
take action” (ibid). Where there is genuine vision people learn and excel,
not because they are told to, but because they want to.
Senge concludes that team learning results in a situation where “the intelligence
of the team exceeds the intelligence of individuals in the team, and where
teams develop extraordinary capacity for co-ordinated action” (ibid).
The important message here is the notion that considers the whole person
within his or her environment, taking into account objective and subjective
views and feelings, and considering organisations as complex macro systems
with immense capacities based on knowledge management as a key tool for
business success.
Activity 7.5
?
* Apply the concept of a learning organisation to a business
you are familiar with and explain how it has helped that business
to gain sustainable competitive
7.8 Performance Appraisals and Performance

Management
Performance appraisals are an important aspect of performance management.
How the appraisals are conducted, can have negative or positive implications
for performance management and therefore for business success. In some
organisations in Zimbabwe, the process is formalised and systematic while in
others if it exists at all, it is ad hoc and unco-ordinated. The performance
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appraisal process often fails because it lacks focus in that it is not linked to
overall organisational goals and objectives. It also fails when it is done
ritualistically and dutifully to meet the requirements of policy or the Human
Resources department. When subjectivity comes into play, the process
(including the appraiser) loses legitimacy and credibility and it becomes a
potential source of conflict and organisational strife, especially where the
appraisal decisions are linked to rewards and sanctions.
Some of the people who can undertake an appraisal are the employee’s
superior, peers, subordinates and outside assessors. The employee can also
conduct a self-appraisal to be discussed with the superior.
7.8.1 Manager Conducted Appraisal

Where the manager possesses the relevant appraisal skills, the appraisal stands
a better chance of meeting its objectives. The converse is also true. For manager
conducted appraisals to be successful, the manager should:
set achievable, realistic and measurable performance objectives with

the employee to be achieved over a given period of time.
believe in the value of the appraisal process.
be familiar with the requirements of the appraisal scheme.
promote two way communication that makes the employee relax and
comfortable.
communicate clearly and effectively without offending or patronising
the appraisee.
focus first on the strengths of the appraisee before moving on to the
problem areas (virtually all employees have some strengths).
jointly agree with the employee over the problem areas and what needs
to be done to overcome them.
set and agree on performance review dates.
7.8.2 Self Appraisal

In some organisations, self assessment may be seen as a threat to the traditional
authority of management. When threats are perceived, they trigger resistance,
reducing the potential success of a project or scheme. Both employees and
management therefore require training on the purpose, value and practice of
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self assessment. Self appraisals should not be used to cynically “trap”, degrade
and reduce the self-esteem of a poorly performing employee. The purpose of
a performance appraisal is to identify strengths and weaknesses, reinforce the
strengths and find ways and means of eliminating the weaknesses. Where the
self assessment method is “suddenly” thrust on the employee without adequate
prior induction and explanation of purpose, this may create justified suspicions
on the part of the employee with regard to the motives of the superior.
D. Lowry in Leopold J, (2002) makes the following observations with regard

to self-assessment:
Through direct involvement, it can promote employee ownership of the

appraisal.
It’s suitable for employees enjoying a high degree of job autonomy or
with scarce specialist skills or those working in isolated areas.
It works better when combined with other forms of assessment.
When linked to rewards and promotion, it may be open to abuse.
Lowry further states that “… .studies suggest low correlation with
assessment by supervisors and research findings indicate that there is
significant gender effect in self-assessment whereby women tend to
rate themselves lower than do men”.
7.8.3 Peer Conducted Appraisal

Colleagues and group members are in a position to provide useful information
with regard to the work behaviour and performance of a peer. However,
Lowry (ibid) cautions as follows:
Peer assessment is not necessarily suitable for each and every job.
It is more appropriate in situations where the superior is not in a position
to quickly assess work outputs or observe on-job behaviour.
It is less suitable in highly competitive work situations.
It is time consuming.
Employees may view it as a way of putting a wedge between them.
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7.8.4 Subordinate Conducted Appraisal

Subordinates are also in a position to provide useful information with regard
to the work behaviour and performance of a superior. Such information can
be useful for the self-development and growth of the superior. However, the
superior may resist such an assessment as it may be seen as undermining a
traditional basis of organisational authority. For such an assessment to work,
top management would need to be visibly committed to it and to align it with
the organisation’s central values. These values would need to be known by all
concerned.
Lowry (ibid) notes that:
employees may feel uncomfortable with assessing a superior.

employees may assess selectively according to how the superior is
perceived as meeting their own needs.
managers may feel their authority is undermined.
assessment by subordinates can be time consuming.
7.8.5 Outside Third Party Assessors

Outside third party assessor agencies such as consultants and assessment
centres may also be used in the appraisal process. Lowry (ibid) states that:
they promote impartiality.

work relationships are less likely to be adversely affected.
the method is suitable to selection of staff for development.
the assessors may have inadequate knowledge of the employees.
the method may encourage superiors to abdicate a key responsibility
of communicating with subordinates, giving them feedback and
motivating them.
the method is costly.
The question of who does an appraisal must not be treated lightly or left to
chance. The decision must be well thought out and must reflect the
organisation’s values, goals and objectives.
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Activity 7.6
*
?
Discuss the assertion that: “How performance appraisals are conducted
can have negative or positive implications for performance management
and therefore for business success.”
* Through which party should appraisals in your organisation or the one
you are familiar with be conducted?.
7.9 Performance Appraisal Methods

There are a number of performance appraisal methods in use at the work
place. Some of the performance appraisal methods are listed below:
trait method
objective based methods
competency based methods
360 degree appraisal.
7.9.1 Trait Method

This method is also known as conventional rating. An example of a trait method
system is shown in Table 7.2. The “trait” or “attribute” is listed on a scale and
the employee is rated according to the extent to which the trait or attribute is
shown to exist.
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Table 7.2 Example of a trait-oriented performance appraisal rating
Employee Name:
Department Section Position
Reporting Period
Rating key a = superior b = above average c = average
d = below average e = unsatisfactory
1 Ability to adapt 2 Diligence and application 3 Co-operation with others
a b c d e a b c d e a b c d e
4 Quality of work 5 Communication skills 6 Leadership
7 Planning 8 Manner and appearance 9 Loyalty
10 Initiative
a b c d e
(Source: Leopold , J., 2002)
According to Lowry (op cit) the trait method has a number of problems as
enumerated below:
Traits often focus on personality and not on the job. She quotes Drucker
(1974) as follows: “An employer has no business with an employee’s
personality. Employment is a specific contract calling for specific
performance and for nothing else. Any attempt of an employer to go
beyond this is unsurpation …. It is abuse of power. An employee owes
no “loyalty”, no “love” and no “attitudes” – an employee owes
performance and nothing else … Management should concern
themselves with changes in behaviour likely to make an employee more
effective.”
The traits are often ambiguous terms or phrases open to subjective
interpretations.
Trait systems ignore the specific aspects of a job and if the appraisal is
to influence performance, this dimension cannot be ignored.
The value of trait systems is reduced by errors linked to leniency,
strictness, central tendency and the halo effect. When all employees
are favourably rated, a rating error is committed in respect of leniency.
When all employees are “strictly” rated, a rating error is committed in
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respect of strictness. When all employees are evaluated as “average”,

the appraiser has fallen into the central tendency trap. Halo effect error
shows itself when a high rating on one factor perceived as important by
the appraiser influences the other factor ratings for the employee.
Trait systems have little use if any for employee development since they
focus on aspects other than the requirements of the job.
7.9.2 Objective Based Methods/Management By Objectives

(MBO)
Objective based methods came into being in order to overcome the weaknesses
and limitations of a trait system and in an attempt to link more directly employee
behaviour to outcomes or performance results. Under MBO, organisational
targets are broken down into sub-targets. The manager and employee agree
on the goals of the unit and the targets to be met during the assessment period.
Assessment should be continuous and carried out throughout the assessment
period. At the end of this period, new targets are agreed upon for the next
assessment. While this is an improvement on the trait system, the following
are some potential weaknesses:
Long-term goals may be sacrificed at the expense of short-term goals.

Goals may be set unrealistically low putting into question the value of
what is achieved.
There is a danger of individual goal attainments compromising the
attainment of team goals.
Important aspects of work behaviour (for example, innovation) which
may not affect goal attainment (at least in the short run) may be
discouraged.
The emphasis on outcomes (i.e. results) may be at the expense of process
(i.e. how the job is carried out).
When MBO is used to reward employees in different units, sections or
departments, the basis for comparison may prove even more elusive in
the absence of a uniform target setting standard.
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7.9.3 The Balanced Score Card

The balanced score card approach is being used more frequently, especially
in Europe and North America as an individual performance assessment tool
although it was originally conceived by Kaplan and Norton as an organisational
performance management system. It is illustrated in diagrammatic form in Figure
7.4.
Lowry (ibid) states that in a United Kingdom bank, the balanced score card
has been translated into individual score cards that relate to group and
organisational score cards as well as organisational and individual performance.
1. What is my vision of the future?
VISION STATEMENT
2. If my vision succeeds, Financial Customer Internal Innovation

how will I differ? perspective perspective perspective and
learning
to my … to my … with … with
shareholders customers my internal my ability to
management innovate
processes
3. What are the critical …………… …………… ………......... ……………

success factors? ……………. …………… ……………… ……………
……………. ……………. ……………… ……………
……………. …………… ……………… ……………
……………. …………… ……………… ……………
4. What are the critical ………....... ……………. …………….. ………..…..

measurements? ………….... ……………. …………….. ……..……..
…………….. ……………. …………….. …………....
…………….. ....…………. …………….. ………..…..
…………….. …………..... …………….. …………….
THE BALANCED SCORECARD
(Source: Leopold, J., 2002)
Figure 7.4 The Balanced Score Card Approach

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The balanced score card system operates under four key headings which are:
financial perspective.
customer perspective.
internal perspective.
innovation and learning.
There are four main steps in the balanced score card approach and these
involve:
identification of future vision.
assessment of impact of vision.
identification of critical success factors.
identification of measurements for assessing success.
7.9.4 Competency Based Methods/Behaviourally Anchored

Rating Scales (BARS)
Competency based methods signal an attempt to break away from
performance management systems relying wholly on quantifiable and
measurable targets and objectives. Competency based methods focus on the
process (the how part of the job) as this is seen as important as the outputs
(the what part of the job). The issue of process and quality service (not
always easy to measure in quantifiable terms) is critical in the service sector
and hence the importance of BARS.
The development of BARS can be summarized thus:
compilation by job experts of behaviour patterns constituting effective

and ineffective performance;
assembling of behaviour patterns into performance dimensions;
repetition of the above steps by a second group of job experts to confirm
validity of process; and
rating of the example of each dimension on a numerical scale.
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This method requires sound job knowledge on the part of the rater. This
method
promotes objectivity;
promotes clarity and exactness on measurement standards; and
is time consuming.
Table 7.3 Behaviourally Anchored Rating Scale
Job Dimension: Organising and conducting meetings

Job Title: Project Manager
EXCELLENT 1. Displays exceptional ability to assess the progress of a

meeting and alter its sequence, pace or format quickly.
2. Ensures there is mutual agreement among participants as to
the work to be done as a result of each meeting before it
closes.
3. Anticipates questions which will be asked during meetings.
Provides clear, concise and accurate answers.
4. Makes use of visual aids which are creative, interesting and
enhance understanding of subject matter.
5. Receives positive feedback during and after meetings.
AVERAGE 1. Capable of conducting entire meeting. Makes adequate prior

preparation.
2. Shows some awareness of level of understanding by
audience. Usually alters presentation if necessary to make
allowance for this.
3. Presents information clearly, concisely and unambiguously.
Usually answers questions directly.
4. Occasionally uses visual aids.
5. Uses written agenda.
UNSATISFACTORY 1. Finds it very hard to respond to level of understanding of
audience. Sticks rigidly to same presentation and style.
2. Fails to prepare for meetings.
3. Unable to display link between actions and objectives.
4. Finds it very hard to respond even to simple questions on
status of work.
5 Creates hostile environment by criticising members of
audience openly.
6. No use of written agenda or other documentation.
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7.9.5 360 Degree Method

The 360 degree method is a comprehensive multi-source feedback instrument
where the employee may be rated by subordinates, peers, superiors and even
customers (see Fig. 7.5). Self-assessment can also be an aspect of the 360
degree method. In-puts from a variety of sources are integrated by a third
party such as the Human Resource Department or a consultant into a
performance profile. Questionnaires rather than interviews are used more often
to gather data.
Although the 360 degree method has received initial resistance in hierachical
organisations, Lowry (op cit) states that due to changing organisational
structures and the loosening of the traditional ideas of management, there is
evidence its popularity has increased of late in the United Kingdom.
Manager
Internal Peers
Customers Employee
Subordinates
Figure 7.5 360 Degree Appraisal
The following observations can be made with regard to this method:
It has the advantage of not relying on a single powerful person who is

often the superior and therefore is likely to be a more valid and accurate
assessment system.
By involving many parties, it increases the sense of ownership and
control of the appraisal process.
It signals to employees that the organisation places a premium value on
performance management and may facilitate the emergence of a robust
employee development culture.
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When negative feedback is overwhelming, employees might feel hurt

and therefore the instrument ought to be handled with care.
It requires a lot of resources, is time consuming and costly.
7.10 Sources of Ineffective Performance

In managing ineffective performance, it is important to realize and accept that
both the organisation and the employee have a role in the creation and
maintenance of effective performance. In Zimbabwe, poor performance can
be traced to a number of sources as indicated in the following sub-sections.
7.10.1 Recruitment, Selection and Promotion

It can be argued that a number of poor performance cases can be traced to
the recruitment, selection and promotion door. Where, for example, job
descriptions, job specifications and person specifications are non-existent,
vague or unclear and where those with the responsibility to recruit, select and
promote lack the requisite skills, an inappropriate candidate may be selected
leading to poor performance.
Poor performance is a common ground for seeking to terminate the employee’s

contract of employment. However, organisations may not always acknowledge
their culpability in the emergence of poor performance. Under Section 12B
of the Labour Act (Chapter 28:01), an employer may rely on some of the
following performance related provisions to terminate the contract of an
employee:
habitual and substantial neglect of his/her duties.

gross incompetence or inefficiency in the performance of his/her work.
lack of a skill which the employee expressly or impliedly held himself/
herself out to possess.
In all of the above instances, it cannot be said that the organisation’s conduct
is neutral and free from potential blame.
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7.10.2 Lack of Induction

A clearly laid down induction programme with a time frame and objectives
assists with the integration of the employee into the new work environment.
However, it is not unusual for a new employee to stumble and wander around
without a clear sense of purpose due to the absence of an induction
programme. This can result in feelings of alienation on the part of the employee
which compromise performance goals and objectives. The employee who
might have proved to be an asset may also leave the organisation sooner than
later with adverse implications for performance attainment, especially when
replacements have to be frequently made.
7.10.3 Ineffective Communication

An important aspect of the managerial/leadership role is the ability to
communicate effectively. For example, performance goals and objectives need
to be communicated clearly. Employees also need to know where they are
going wrong and when they are doing things right. Effective communication
should also build and engender trust. This means among other things that the
manager must:
establish and maintain a track record of communicating consistently.

communicate in good faith without hidden motives.
accept and openly acknowledge that, like anybody else, he/she can be
wrong.
When these principles of communication are violated, this can lead to a culture
of blame, anxiety, disillusionment, uncertainty and mistrust. Indeed it can be
argued that it is the “little” things that the manager does or does not do in the
area of people relationships which inflict the greatest harm on performance
management. The effective communicator instantly and openly celebrates the
success of the employee. His/her visibility in the presence of the employee
should not only be high when things have gone wrong. Positive and negative
feedback and reinforcement should be entrenched aspects of the performance
management process.
7.10.4 Treating Appraisals as a One-off Exercise

When appraisals are treated as a one-off annual exercise, they become
ritualistic instruments and lose their potency and efficacy to contribute to
performance management. As stated earlier on, performance management is
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a process and not an event. Performance management is too important to be

relegated to the margins of organisational activity. Performance management
is a critical, high visibility, on-going and pervasive organisational imperative
characterized by goal-setting, coaching, training and development, reviews
and instant praises and corrections. The annual performance appraisal then
becomes a mirror, a record and an affirmation of these events and processes.
Such an approach becomes a sound basis for linking the appraisal to rewards
or sanctions. Decisions based on such an approach are easier to defend.
Some employers in Zimbabwe have had problems in defending poor
performance cases before the courts of law because the cases were not
supported by any documented record of performance short-comings.
7.10.5 Transferring of Performance Problems

Some managers, because they lack performance management skills, seek the
“easy” way out by transferring the employee to another section or department.
When the transfer is an inter-departmental one, glowing references are given
in support of the employee being transferred. However, from a corporate
global perspective, the problem remains unresolved as it has merely been
transferred elsewhere. When the transfer is intra-departmental, the employee
may be transferred to another section under the pretext of “staff development”!
Another favourite tactic is to argue that the organisation’s rules allow the
employee to be transferred to any of its operations without any explanation or
justification. A number of objections can be raised to this approach. First,
rights have to be exercised responsibly otherwise an unfair labour practice
may be committed. Second, in line with organisational “best” practice, it is
proper that the basis for the implementation of the right be made clear in the
name of transparency. This is not the same thing as asking for permission
from the employee to implement the decision. As a human being, the employee
needs to know why certain things are happening or not happening. Third and
lastly, when the right is exercised in its narrow technical sense with an ulterior
motive, the issue of poor performance still remains unattended to. The exercise
of the right under such circumstances therefore does not resolve anything and
might actually serve to compound the performance problem.
7.10.6 Appraiser Lacking Adequate Knowledge of Appraisee

It might appear a self-evident truth that when appraiser lacks adequate conduct
and performance knowledge of appraisee, then no meaningful appraisal can
take place. The reality, however, is that such appraisals often take place to
the detriment of performance management.
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7.10.7 Reliance on Previous/Past Performance Record

Due to lack of familiarity with the requirements of the appraisal process or
due to inadequate knowledge of appraisee, sometimes reliance is made on
previous/past performance records. For the exercise to be fair, it should focus
on the current review period, otherwise the appraiser might be influenced
positively or negatively by an appraisal irrelevant to the performance review
period. When this happens, the goals of performance management are
subverted.
7.10.8 Inadequate Staffing

Where inadequate staffing exists, this can lead to work over load and stress,
resulting in poor performance. However, where a human resource strategy
and plan has been put in place, it should assist by providing information on
human resource requirements. It is unrealistic and unfair for an organisation to
expect results when the requisite human resources have not been adequately
provided.
7.10.9 Work Organisation

The way work is organised may also lead to ineffective performance. This
would require the redesigning of jobs and workflow processes. Where also
work of a conceptual nature (e.g. creation or revision of rules and regulations)
is not given adequate time due to management-by-crisis, performance results
are also adversely affected.
7.10.10 Conditions of Service

Where the conditions of service are not conducive (e.g. lack of equipment/
exposure to excessive heat or cold), this can also lead to sub-standard
performance. Under the Labour Act (Chapter 28:01) Section 12B (3) (a), an
employee can be deemed to have been “constructively” and unfairly dismissed
“if the employee terminated the contract of employment with or without notice
because the employer deliberately made continued employment intolerable
for the employee”.
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7.11 Performance Management Ethics

There is a strong ethical component to the performance management process.
This ethical component is made even more urgent and real where the appraiser
is the superior and as such, has power over the subordinate. There is therefore
the danger that in the wrong, untrained and unprofessional hands, this power
may be abused. The power can be abused to allocate rewards and sanctions
to employees unfairly. When the performance management process is
collectively owned through the participation of the employees or through a
strong organisational value system that supports it by making its goals and
practices transparent and accountable, these dangers are likely to be reduced.
Activity 7.7
*
?
Which performance appraisal method do you think is suitable for your
organisation or the one you are familiar with and why?
* In your group, discuss the assertion that “an employer has no business
with an employee’s personality”.
* “Both the organisation and the employee have a role in the creation
and maintenance of effective performance.” Critically evaluate this
statement.
* Discuss the ethical performance management problems in an
organisation known to you. How may these problems be overcome?
7.12 Summary
To achieve organisational results, managers work with and through others.
How they do that is critical to performance management.
Differences in approach by businesses to people issues has implications

for the success or failure of those businesses because people are an
important source of sustainable competitive advantage.
Performance management is concerned with the setting of measurable,
achievable and realistic objectives. If the objectives are not measurable
it is difficult to assess success or failure. If they are neither achievable
nor realistic, this defeats the whole purpose of performance management
and makes it meaningless.
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The performance management process is supported by monitoring

systems, coaching, appraisals, reviews, development plans, rewards
and sanctions. Immediate positive and negative reinforcements are crucial
for the success of the performance management process.
The three roles of a manager in performance management are focused
on the facilitation of co-operation among team members (inter-
personal), receiving and disseminating the information required
(informational) and empowering individuals and groups through resource
allocation.
Performance management clarifies expectations, establishes a link
between individual and organisational goals and focuses on improvement
through learning from mistakes. Horizontal, vertical and external barriers
are a hindrance to effective organisational performance. The concept
of a learning organisation is critical to business success. It is concerned
with the organisation’s capacity for acquiring and applying knowledge.
Organisations which learn faster than their competitors possess an
important competitive advantage.
Performance appraisals are an important aspect of performance
management. Their objective is to improve performance by reinforcing
strengths and eliminating weaknesses. The issue of who does the
appraisal and their ability to do so affects the outcome of the appraisal.
There are a number of appraisal methods such as the trait, objective
based, balanced score card, competency based and the 360 degree
methods. These methods have their advantages and disadvantages.
Ineffective performance can derive from a number of sources such as
recruitment, selection, induction and promotion, poor communication, treating
appraisals as a one-off exercise, failure or inability to address the performance
problem, improper reliance on previous/past performance records, inadequate
staffing, ineffective workflow processes and unconducive conditions of service.
The process of performance management raises some ethical issues, especially

where the appraiser is a superior with power over the subordinate. The
superior’s power can be abused to allocate rewards and sanctions unfairly to
employees. When the employees own the performance appraisal process,
these dangers can be minimized or even removed.
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7.13 References
Armstrong, M. Managing People: Practice Guide for Line Managers.
Logan Page, London 1999.
Butterick, R. The Project Workout. Pitman Publishing, London 1997.
Checkland, P. Systems Thinking. John Wiley & Sons London, 2000.
Cockerton, S & Bevan, S. Playing Hard to Get People Management. IPD
London August 1998.
Coilard, R. Baron, A. Human Resources and the Bottom Line. People
Management, IPD. London October 1999.
Cooper, R. Sentimental Value. People Management. IPD, London April
1989.
De Geus, A. Learning Organisations. Mc Graw Hill London 1997.
Effectiveness Consultants. The Six Box Model. Adapted from Welbord.
Unpublished Article, 1999.
Fowler, A. Performance Management. The MBO of the 90’s Personnel
Management, July 1990.
Gratton, L. A Real Step Change. People Management, IPD, London, March
2000.
Johnson, G. & Scholes, K. 1997. Exploring Corporate Strategy, Texts
and Cases. Prentice Hall Europe, Hertfordshire, 1997.
Martin, J. The Great Transition. Amacon New Yor1995.
Pickard, J. Future Organisations Will Need Higher IQs. People
Management. IPD, London December 1997.
Robins, S. P. Management Concepts and Applications. Prentice Hall Int,
New Jersey 1998.
Senge, P. The Fifth Discipline. Deli Publishing Company London, 2000.
Spangenberg , H. Understanding and Implementing Performance
Management. Juta & Co. Ltd., Johannesburg 1994.
Stewart, T. Knowledge Management Role of Human Resources. People
Management, IPD London December 1998.
Wilson, B. Innovative Reward Systems for the Changing Workplace.
McGraw Hill Inc. New York 1995.
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Blumes, H. Methodological Principles of Empirical Science. Sociological

Methods, Butterworths, London 1970.
Demming, E. On Errors in Survey. Sociological Methods. Butterworths,
London 1970.
Denzin, N. K. Sociological Methods: A Sourcebook. Butterworths, London
1970.
Dutewicz, V. & Higgins, M. Soul Searching. People Management, IPD
London October 1998.
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8
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Unit Eight
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Reward Management
8.0 Introduction
R eward Management strategies define the intentions of the organisation

on the remuneration policies and systems required to ensure that it
continues to obtain, motivate and retain the committed and competent people
it needs to accomplish its mission (M. Armstrong, 1991:497).
According to Beach D.S. (1980:461), reward management is also known as

compensation administration or alternatively wage and salary administration.
The term wage is commonly used for those employees whose pay is calculated
according to the number of hours worked. The word salary applies to
compensation that is uniform from one pay period to the next and does not
depend upon the number of hours worked. Salary often implies a status
distinction, because those on salary generally are white-collar, administrative,
professional and executive employees, whereas wage earners are designated
as hourly or non-supervisory or blue-collar.
Lloyd, L. Byars and Leslie W. Rue (1994:318) defined an organisational

reward system as one which consists of the types of rewards to be offered
and their distinction. Organisational rewards include all the types of rewards,
both intrinsic and extrinsic, that are received as a result of employment by the
organisation. Intrinsic rewards are rewards that are internal to the individual
and are normally derived from involvement in certain activities or tasks. Extrinsic
rewards are the rewards that are controlled and distributed directly by the
organisation and are of a tangible nature. Work is a significant component of
most people’s lives. While some of us may be lucky enough to derive feelings
of satisfaction and self-worth from the nature of our work activities, we are
normally unlikely to be fully satisfied if we are not paid well enough for the
jobs we perform.
The assumption behind most reward systems is that pay is a key motivator.
Pay is essentially not a motivator. However, it is a major factor in the
employment relationship. It is the management’s task to find the package of
inducements which prompts maximum employee productivity. To be effective,
reward systems must fit particular organisational circumstances and be reviewed
regularly.
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Unit 8 Reward Management
8.1 Objectives
* Define organisational rewards.
* Distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic rewards.
* List at least ten desirable pre-conditions for implementing a
pay-for- performance programme.
* Define job satisfaction and list its five major components.
* Summarize the satisfaction-performance relationships.
* Define compensation, pay incentives and benefits.
* Describe how an organisation can come up with an effective and fair
compensation reward system.
Table 8.1 Intrinsic Versus Extrinsic Rewards
Intrinsic Rewards Extrinsic Rewards
- Achievement - formal recognition

- feelings of accomplishment - fringe benefits
- Informal recognition - incentive payments
- Job satisfaction - pay
- Personal growth - promotion
- Status - social relationships
- work environment
(Source: Lloyd, L. Byars and Leslie, W. Rue, 1994 : 319)
8.2 The Basis of Reward Strategies

The reward management strategies must:
¾ be congruent with and support corporate values and beliefs.

¾ emanate from business strategy and goals.
¾ be linked to organisation performance.
¾ drive and support desired behaviour at all levels.
¾ fit desired management style.
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¾ provide the competitive edge needed to attract and retain the high level
of skills the organisation needs.
8.3 Factors Affecting Salary and Wage Levels

These include:
¾ importance of the individual or the job to the organisation.

¾ productivity of the individual groups.
¾ profitability of the organisation.
¾ supply of, and demand for, particular skills in the labour market.
¾ general movement in pay levels.
Ideally, pay levels should reflect:
(i) the rate for labour in the labour market;

(ii) internal organisational factors (mainly associated with the establishment
and maintenance of pay differentials); and
(iii) individual factors associated with performance and commitment
demonstrated, for instance, by length of service.
The level of pay can be seen as the result of interaction between management’s
desire to obtain maximum employee productivity at minimum cost and
employees’ wishes for the highest possible reward for the least effort. It is a
wage-effort bargain. Management’s perception of the wage-effort bargain
will vary according to the type of organisation, its management style and the
sorts of people employed. Wage and salary administration policies therefore
differ widely.
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8.4 The Components of Reward Management

Strategy
Reward management strategy covers the following areas:
¾ Reward policies.
¾ Pay levels and relativities – the analysis of the market rates and the use
of job evaluation to develop pay structures.
¾ Reward structures – the development and design of pay structures.
¾ Paying for performance – the design and management of systems of
performance – related pay, relating to the corporate achievements.
¾ Employee benefits and total remuneration – the development of the
employee benefits package and the use of a total remuneration approach
to reward management.
8.5 Principles of Wage and Salary Administration

According to Beach (ibid), the following are the key principles of wage and
salary administration.
1. There should be a definite norm in which differences in pay for jobs are
based upon variation in job requirements, such as skill, effort,
responsibility, and job conditions.
2. The general level of wages and salaries should be reasonably in line
with that prevailing in the labour market.
3. The organisation should carefully distinguish between jobs and
employees. A job carries a certain wage rate and a person is assigned
to fill it at that rate.
4. Equal pay for equal work. If two jobs are equal the pay should be the
same regardless of who fills them. The principle of “equal remuneration”
for work of “equal value” is enshrined under sections of the Labour Act
(Chapter 28:01).
5. An equitable means should be adopted for recognizing individual
differences in ability and contributions.
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6. The employees and the union, if there is one, should be adequately

informed about the procedures used to establish wage rates.
Activity 8.1
?
* “Pay is not a motivator.” Do you agree with this statement? Give reasons
for your answer.
* In your group, discuss the distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic
rewards and how these apply in your respective organisations.
* Discuss the objectives of reward strategies in your organisation and
the factors affecting salary and wage levels.
* What are the principles that underpin wage and salary administration
in your organisation?
Style and quality of

supervision
Job design (scope, depth, Job Satisfaction Commitment to

interest, perceived value) the organisation
Compensation (external
and internal consistency)
or
Social relationship Staff turnover,
absenteeism,
Working conditions Job tardineness,
dissatisfaction accidents, strikes
Perceived long-range grievances,
opportunities sabotage.
Perceived opportunities
elsewhere.
(Source : Lloyd L.S and Leslie W. Rue, 1994 : 323)
Figure 8.1 Determinants of Employee Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction
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Table 8. 2 Components of Employee Compensation
Joining a union
Increased
performance
Desire for Strikes

more pay
Absenteeism
Pay Grievances
dissatisfactio
Staff
Search for turnover Psychological
higher-paying withdrawal
Job
Lower dissatisfaction Visit to
attractiveness doctor
Absenteeism Poor mental

health
Tardiness
(Source: Adapted from Edward E. Lawler III, Pay and Organisational

Effectiveness: A Psychological View (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1971), p.
233)
Figure 8. 2 Model of the Consequence of Pay Dissatisfaction
Activity 8.2
*
?
What role does compensation play as a determinant of employee
satisfaction in your organisation or the one you are familiar with?
* Discuss the components of employee compensation in organisations
you are familiar with. What are the similarities and differences?
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8.5.1 The Wage-Effort Bargain

There is always possible conflict between the organisation’s and the employees’
view of pay. Organisations regard pay as a cost which is directly related to
operating profit. This implies that when profits are low, wages should be low
also and vice-versa. On the other hand, employees regard pay as income.
No matter how low profits are, they will want both job stability and a stable
income.
When an individual joins an organisation, the employer expects a particular

quantity and quality of performance and the individual on the other hand expects
to be fairly rewarded accordingly, say in terms of money, status, and sense of
achievement, etc. The complexity of the bargaining relationship lies in the fact
that not all employees expect similar rewards. Also, management is normally
not too specific about the effort required from the employee. This arises from
the desire to use labour flexibly so that new requirements can be placed on
employees as working processes or organiasational structure changes.
8.6 Wage and Salary Administration Policies

There are many and broad objectives in devising remuneration policies. These
include:
¾ Attract sufficient suitable employees.

¾ Encourage employees to improve their performance.
¾ Encourage effective employees to remain in the organisation.
¾ Create sufficient flexibility to reward high performance and deal with
poor performance.
¾ Operate at optimal cost.
¾ Ensure that jobs of equivalent value to the organisation are rewarded
equally.
¾ Ensure that employees are well rewarded for the jobs they do.
The conversion of these broad objectives into practice will depend on the
relative priorities accorded to them in light of organisational circumstances.
For example, a company struggling for survival will place greater emphasis on
operating at minimum cost and paying the lowest possible wages, rather than
on the attraction and retention of employees.
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According to their policy objectives, managers are likely to be concerned

with three issues in the establishment of fair pay:
1. Wage and salary relativities – to ensure that what is paid is fair by

comparison with payments received by other employees within the
organisation.
2. To ensure that pay is fair in comparison with other employees outside
the organisation but within the same sector.
3. Designing methods of payment which encourage effective performance.
Activity 8.3
?
* What are the factors that determine wage and salary administration
policies in an organisation you are familiar with?
* If employers and employees view pay differently, what can be done to
reconcile their views?
8.7 Job Evaluation and Design of Pay Structures

Job evaluation attempts to establish the relative value of jobs to the employing
organisation in which they are situated. Job evaluation, however, is not an
exact science. It relies on a systematic judgment based on applicable criteria
in identifying and assessing differences between jobs. Also job evaluation is
not a method of determining rates of pay. It precedes pay determination.
After the relative value of jobs to the organisation has been established, they
are grouped into grades or categories. Pay is then attached to these.
Whether the individual carries out the job adequately is a different thing
altogether. Good performance may be rewarded by merit payments but job
evaluation is concerned with the value of the job relative to other jobs and not
with the relative value of the employee as compared with other employees.
In summary, job evaluation attempts to answer three questions critical to

managing people:
(e) What is the relative value of a job to the organisation?

(ii) How can this value be determined?
(iv) How can this be done in a way which is accepted as fair by employees?
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Job evaluation can only answer these questions if it is part of the “total system
of remuneration and motivation”.
8.7.1 External Pay Comparisons

After the relative value of jobs to the organisation have been determined,
managers must find out what effect market rates are likely to have on the pay
structure as a whole.
8.7.2 Market Rate Survey

It is often necessary to use market rates to develop and maintain competitive
salary and wage structures. Four sources of such information are:
¾ Company surveys;
¾ General published surveys;
¾ Specialised surveys – carried out by professional parties, trade unions
and employers’ or trade associations; and
¾ Analysis of job advertisements.
8.7.3 Establishing a Pay System

Final pay level will be established either by managerial judgment or by
negotiation with recognized trade unions. So far as manual jobs are concerned,
this may be the end of the story, since there is likely to be a rate for the job
regardless of length of service or performance. For non-manual workers it is
more likely that, for each grade or job, there will be an associated salary
range with a minimum and maximum rate of pay. It is assumed that all jobs
within one grade are of equivalent value to the organisation but that the salary
of individuals may vary.
Progression through grades may be entirely on the basis of managerial judgment

of merit or automatically with length of service. Very often there is an overlap
between the salary range associated with one grade and that of adjacent
grades. The rationale is that an employee with much experience in a job at
one level is worth more to the organisation than a new recruit to a job in the
grade above.
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Broad pay scales emphasize the performance of the individual within the grade
whereas narrow scales place more importance on the level of the job and on
promotion from one category to another. Narrow scales are mostly common
in junior grades, recognising that there are limited variations in performance at
this level.
For more senior staff, broad scales are needed for recognition of individual
responsibilities. Sometimes there is provision to pay exceptional staff more
than the top of the salary scale of the grade in which their job falls.
8.7.4 Pay Incentives

Job evaluation is used frequently to give a structure for basic pay. Other pay
elements are then added to this. One of the most common, for production
employees in particular, has tended to be incentive payments directly related
to the effort expended by the individual or the work.
8.7.5 A ‘Felt-fair’ System

With this system, such employee has his/her salary decided individually at a
rate which is felt fair-for-the-job. The pay is usually altered according to:
¾ how well a person performs on the job;

¾ how much extra responsibility is needed;
¾ qualifications obtained;
¾ promotion; and
¾ economic factors such as company profits, inflation, etc.
This system is mostly used in small organisations. Trade unions tend to be
hostile to such a system.
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Activity 8.4
*
?
Explain the concepts of job evaluation and pay incentives.
* What pay incentives are in place in an organisation known to you and
what problems have been experienced with these incentives?
* What are the solutions to these problems?
8.7.6 Length of Service Pay System

This is mostly used in the Civil Service, Government owned businesses and
many big private companies. Employees receive annual increments each year.
The system assumes that individuals become more efficient the longer they
are in a job. The system does not recognize differing levels of efficiency between
people of the same length of service in the same grade.
The problem is that when employees get automatic annual increments and
regular upward annual reviews of salaries, they will not be motivated to work
harder. And indeed if the annual increase is not high enough, it may be a
source of dissatisfaction. This approach to compensation creates a counter-
productive culture of entitlement.
8.7.7 Piece Work

The other name for this system is piece rate. Heller, R. (1987:172-173) states
that: “each piece of work carries a price … the more pieces, the more money
… straight piece work has gone out of the window … because the workers
have no guarantee of a livelihood … piece work deprives management of
control over production and is totally unsuited to the age of automation”.
8.7.8 Payment by Results Systems

Payment by results (PBR) systems are based on work study. They are
systematic rather than scientific techniques. They are designed on the
assumption that the “carrot” of more pay will encourage workers to increase
output.
Payment by results systems rest on the concept of a “standard time” – i.e. the
time necessary for an appropriately qualified operator to complete a clearly
defined task at an acceptable level of quality. Time standards are established
through systematic application techniques.
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Payment by results systems are used in production situations where:
¾ work cycles are generally short and repetitive;

¾ output can be measured in terms of units produced; and
¾ work has a high labour content, and jobs are relatively stable.
Other conditions for the successfull introduction of payment by results systems
are:
¾ co-operation must be forthcoming from employees who are not able to

participate in the bonus scheme;
¾ high bonus earnings of individuals or groups will not stimulate pressure
for parity in the bonus scheme; and
¾ work study specialists are available.
8.7.9 Practical Problems

The following problems may arise when managers use PBR systems:
¾ Bargaining over rates. Work study or management services techniques

though systematic, remain subjective. As a result some jobs are “tightly”
timed whilst others are “loosely” timed. For the later ones, employees
make more money for less effort when compared to the former ones.
As a result, there is likely to be bargaining both over work allocation
and the time allocated to particular jobs.
¾ Work group pressure to keep production down. Employees whose
output is much higher than the norm of the group are often subject to
group pressure to reduce their productivity. This is because very high
output by an individual can endanger bonus earnings since management
may be led to believe that all are capable of more effort and may cut
the rate paid accordingly.
¾ Employees’ dislike of fluctuating earnings. Employees’ attempt to create
stabilizing devices which may distort management’s assessment of
output.
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8.7.10 Measured Daywork System

Often these are introduced to overcome the disadvantages of both payment
by results and payment on the basis of time. Here pay is fixed at a higher level
than management would normally pay for a time-rate worker on the
understanding that performance is maintained at a specific level. Bonus is
paid for achieving this level of performance but the level will not fluctuate in
the short term with actual performance. If an employee fails consistently to
achieve the required standard even after further help and training, a wide
range of sanctions are applied – withdrawal or reduction of bonus and ultimately
dismissal.
Reasons that may lead managers to prefer day-work to PBR could be:
¾ the employee relations problems of PBR system are likely to be avoided.

¾ there is a strong sanction against poor performance.
¾ there should be less resistance to changes in working methods since
earnings will not be affected.
¾ employee co-operation and flexibility is expected to be greater because
bonus paid is the same on any job.
¾ the system is cheaper to administer since bonus is standard.
However, measured day-work requires closer and better supervision than
PBR systems and a steady workflow and effective monitoring of the system.
8.7.11 Profit Sharing and Share Ownership Systems

These systems involve the distribution of either cash after profit or shares
from the company. But it has been proved through experience that many
companies with profit sharing and share ownership schemes do not always
improve productivity. However, a rationale for these schemes is that they
promote employee loyalty by increasing employee identification with company
objectives and the economic activities of the organisation. In any case,
productivity improvement is a complex issue dependent on move than a single
variable.
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8.7.12 General Comments on Wages and Salary

Administration
Salary structures must not be rigid. This is because the content of jobs might
change over time due to, for example:
¾ technological developments in work methods.

¾ types of customers being served.
¾ types of products or services being offered.
When designing pay structure, managers should bear in mind that money is a
motivator only to the extent that a person needs it. However, it is generally
agreed that if there is a clear, short-term and direct link between extra effort,
results and high pay, then an individual can be considerably motivated by
money.
It can be argued that pay is an incentive only where a willingness to perform

better already exists. From this argument it has been suggested that pay is
more useful as a means of keeping an organisation adequately staffed rather
than as a means of getting people to work harder.
Activity 8.5
?
* “Pay is more useful as a means of keeping an organisation adequately
staffed rather than as a means of getting people to work harder.”
Discuss.
8.8 Summary
Managers are expected to build up a salary and wages structure which must
be attractive enough to ensure the recruitment and retention of a labour force
of the right size and quality to meet the circumstances in which their
organisations operate. There is no one best pay system capable of universal
application.
Equity in pay between levels of tasks is vital to generate a sense of fair treatment
in pay and benefits.
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8.9 References
Armstrong, M. (1991). A Handbook in Personnel Management. Kogan
Page, London.
Beach, D. S. (1985) Personnel Management of People at Work. Macmillan
Publishing Company: New York.
Edward E. Lawler III (1971). Pay and Organisational Effectiveness: A
Psychological View. McGraw-Hill, New York.
Heller, R. (1987), The Pocket Manager. Coronet Books, Great Britain.
Labour Act. (Chapter 28:01), Government Printers, Harare.
Lloyd Byars and Leslie W. Rue (1994) Human Resource Management.
Irwin: Sydney.
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9
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Unit Nine
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Employee Involvement and

Participation
9.0 Introduction
T he terms employee involvement and employee articipation can, in

one sense, be used interchangeably. In another sense, they can be used
differently. Indeed, the trend currently is to distinguish the two terms. The
purpose of this unit is to explore the meaning of these terms and their significance
in the world of work.
9.1 Objectives
* Distinguish the difference between employee involvement and
employee participation.
* Determine involvement and participation objectives.
* Explain the benefits of involvement and participation schemes.
* Identify the pre-conditions for successful involvement and
participation schemes.
9.2 Employee Involvement and Employee

Participation
Employee participation is characterized by state involvement through which
procedures are advocated or introduced to regulate potential conflict between
employers and labour. In Zimbabwe, the Labour Act (Chapter 28:01)
recognizes the fundamental right of employees to join a workers’ committee
or a trade union. When this right is violated, the Act declares it an unfair
labour practice. Through the medium of the workers’ committee or trade
union, employees engage in collective bargaining with the employer. Collective
bargaining helps to regulate the conflict between the employees and the
employer. When conflict is regulated, its worst effects are mitigated and it
becomes a “normal” aspect of institutional industrial relations. On the other
hand, employee involvement schemes owe their existence more to managerial
than state initiatives. Participation occurs when those at the bottom of the
hierarchy take part in the authority and managerial functions of the enterprise.
J. Leopold (2002) contrasts involvement and participation schemes as

illustrated in Table 9.1.
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Unit 9 Employee Involvement and Participation
Table 9.1
Employee Involvement Employee Participation
Individualistic Collective
Direct Indirect via employee

representatives, usually but not
always, union based.
Championed by management. Championed by trade unions.
Purpose – to elicit employee identifi- Purpose – to exercise
cation and commitment. employment rights.
Grown without specific legislative Often supported by legislation.
support.
Assumes common interest between Based on assumption of
employees and management. reconciling a plurality of interests.
(Source: J. Leopold, 2002)
9.3 Reasons for Employee Involvement and

Employee Participation
Contributions to effective and efficient use of human resources may come
about through involvement and participation for the following reasons:
(i) Workers have ideas which can be useful.
(ii). Workers may accept decisions better if they are involved and if they
participate in them.
(iii). Effective communication upwards is essential to sound decision making
at the top.
(v) Workers may work harder if they share in decisions that affect them.
(vi) Workers may work more intelligently if they are better informed. Such
empowerment can be possible by involvement and participation
schemes.
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(vii) Workers’ participation may foster a more co-operative attitude amongst

workers and management thus, raising efficiency by improving team
work and reducing the loss of efficiency arising from disputes.
(viii) Workers’ participation and involvement may act as a spur to managerial
efficiency.
S. Caudron (1998) asserts that when employees are empowered, the business
gets better results.
Activity 9.1
?
* “The distinction between employee involvement and employee
participation is more of semantics.” Do you agree? Give reasons for
your answer.
* “It is management and not the employee which benefits from involvement
and participation programmes.” Discuss.
9.4 Ten Steps to Successful Employee Involvement

Those with a responsibility for managing or leading people in organisations
should develop ways which entice workers to be involved in the progress of
the enterprise. This can be done in ten steps as outlined by Caudron, S (ibid):
1. Define the Reason for Change: Why may the enterprise want its
employees to have more decision making authority?
Clearly this is to improve customer service, reduce cycle time or boost

product quality. When managers clearly articulate the business reasons
for empowering employees, then employees can begin to appreciate
what is expected of them.
Managers need to provide concrete examples of what the employees’

new level of authority will include. Will it include ability to resolve
customer complaints or determine work and vacation schedules? Be
specific on “Will empowerment or involvement be limited to problem
solving within the employee’s own work team and handling operational
issues?”
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2. Change Senior Management Behaviour: The biggest challenge

managers have to overcome in creating an empowered work
environment is learning to “let go”. V. Gentile Junior, president of Foranne
Manufacturing Inc. in the United States of America decided to let his
15-person machine shop have more direct contact with customers.
By empowering managers to work directly with customers, the
customers’ needs were met more quickly.
3. Determine Decisions Employees Can be Involved in: It is probably

true that most employees are accustomed to having other people make
major decisions. It takes time for employees not only to learn how to
make good decisions, but to trust that managers will abide by the
decisions the employees make. G. Wills, Director of manufacturing for
D & H Manufacturing Company in the United States of America,
explains that “the reality is that employees don’t really like the decisions
that other people make but given the opportunity they don’t really want
to make those decisions themselves”.
Empowerment and involvement begins with the Chief Executive Officer

but it must be embraced and believed by all management and employees.
One of the best ways for managers and employees to understand how
their behaviour must change, is by methodically determining what kinds
of decisions managers are willing to hand over.
4. Establish Work Teams: Virtually every successful empowerment/

involvement effort on record involves to some extent the use of teams.
For employees to have input on their jobs, they must understand how
their jobs impact other employees and the business as a whole.
The introduction of Quality Circles in Japan has been recognized
internationally.
The Quality Circle was seen by the Japanese as a means of practising
participative management on the shop floor. Recognising the need to
provide workers with the opportunity to achieve and obtain recognition,
status and satisfaction through team membership, the Japanese returned
a large measure of responsibility for product quality to those who were
in closer contact with the job, thereby developing latent individual talent
for the benefit of both the individual and the organisation.
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Wakefield (1988) argues that Quality Circles have been used in hundreds
of companies in Japan, United States of America, United Kingdom,
Brazil, South Africa and Sweden. They are also known as Work
Involvement Teams or Action Teams. The fundamental wisdom of using
the human resource to its full capacity has been proved beyond doubt.
By reorganizing the company into work teams and physically putting
team members together at shop floor, a lot of interchange is gained, not
only in management issues but problem solving is also done more quickly.
5. Share Information: Information is power. It must be shared if business

has to succeed in attaining its objectives.
For employees to make better decisions for the company, they need
better information about the company. Empowered employees should
have access to information that helps them understand their job or their
team contribution to the company as a whole.
The more employees understand the “why’s” of what they are doing,
the more they will give in return. The degree of employee involvement
will be dependent upon the information shared amongst workers and
their management. Fischer (1998) observes that information sharing
works two ways – its also imperative to have employees present their
own suggestions to managers as well as evaluate managers.
6. Select The Right People: Employees who do best in an involvement

scheme, team based environment are those who possess initiative and
ability to get along with other people. These are resourceful employees
with high interpersonal and social skills. The recruitment and selection
programme should therefore be the starting point for identifying and
selecting employees who can fit easily in a team based involvement and
participation driven environment.
Beach (1985) opines that the human resource is properly viewed as

the most important organisational asset. The successes and failures of
the organisation is largely determined by the calibre of its workforce
(starting with management) and by the efforts it exerts.
7. Provide Training: It would be unrealistic to expect employees to be

fully conversant with sound decision making and how to work closely
with others. Courses on, for example, decision-making, problem solving,
conflict management and effective meetings are imperative for
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companies’ intent on employee involvement schemes. Beach (1985)

outlines some of the major contributions that training can make such as:
¾ Reduction of learning time to reach acceptable performance in identified
areas.
¾ Attitude reorientation - a common objective of company training
programmes is the moulding of employee attitudes to achieve support
for company activities and to obtain better co-operation and greater
loyalty.
P. Allen (1982) argues that: “The probability of change varies inversely with
the strength of the attitude.”
8. Communicate Expectations: When people have goals, they tend to
work toward them. Goals are a motivator and should be clearly
communicated to the employees.
9. Align Reward with the Organisation’s Overall Goals: For

involvement to take hold, the activities employees are being rewarded
for must be aligned with the company’s overall goals.
Baddon et al (1989) discovered from a survey of 1 000 companies, four
main management objectives behind the introduction of profit-sharing and
employee share ownership schemes.
¾ Encouraging the co-operation and involvement of all employees in

improving the performance of the business.
¾ Giving employees a sense of identification with the company.
¾ Rewarding employees for past performance.
¾ Generating a sense of business awareness among employees.
10. Have Patience and Expect Problems: One of the reasons why
empowerment/involvement efforts fail is that managers give up too soon.
Involvement, like any behavioural change, takes time and practice for
managers and their employees to get it right. The progress is sometimes
slow and it can be frustrating with mistakes being made.
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9.5 Zimbabwean Scenario

In Zimbabwe, the process of involvement/participation is outlined in the Labour
Act (Chapter 28:01). Management and workers are required to negotiate in
good faith in matters which affect them such as wages/salaries, benefits and
other conditions of service. Workers can be represented by workers
committees or trade unions and together with their management negotiate for
better conditions of service. By so doing, they will be involved in the decision
making process.
Activity 9.2
?
* Identify employee involvement and participation programmes in
Zimbabwean organisations and discuss their merits and demerits.
9.6 Summary
Employee involvement and participation has the potential to secure positive
results for organisations. Management has to take a leading role to elicit
employee commitment through involvement and participation within the context
of the overall corporate/business strategy to gain and retain competitive
advantage. Involvement and participation have become important success
factors in organisations.
While the two terms may be used interchangeably, the trend is to differentiate
one from the other. In participation, employee influence is indirect through
istitutional structures such as workers’ committees and trade unions. Employee
involvement on the other hand is characterised by managerial initiatives to
harness employee commitment outside the traditional collective bargaining
framework. Employee involvement can be made to work more effectively
when goals are clearly defined, training provided to employees and information
is shared.
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9.7 References
Baddon, L., et al (1989) People’s Capitalism? A Critical Examination of
Profit Sharing and Employee share Ownership. Routledge, New
York.
Beach, D. S. (1985) Personnel Management of People at Work. MacMillan,
New York.
Caudron, S., (1998) Ten Steps to Employee Involvement, Empower the
People. IW Growing Companies, United States of America.
Labour Act (Chapter 28:01). Government Printers, Harare.
Leopold, J. (2002) Human Resources in Organisations. Prentice Hall, Essex,
United Kingdom.
Beer, M., Lawrence, P. R., Mills, D. Q., and Walton, R. E., (1984) Managing
Human Assets. Free Press, New York.
Walton, Richard E. “From Control to Commitment in the Workplace”.
Harvard Business Review March-April 1985: 77-84.
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ZIMBABWE OPEN UNIVERSITY

Human Resource Management

Module MBA 508

P.O. Box MP1119

The Zimbabwe Open University is a distance teaching and open

Year: 2004 Reprinted: 2006/2008/May 2015

Cover design: B. Pillay

Printed by: Fidelity Printers

Typeset in Garamond, 12 point on auto leading

© Zimbabwe Open University. All rights reserved. No part of this

Content Reviewer: G. Magaramombe

Editor: C.J Matembo

The six hour tutorials should be so structured that the

Session I (Two Hours)

Session II (Two Hours)

Session III (Two Hours)

Conclusion for this course, but also to prepare yourself to

Module Overview and Aims ___________________________________ 1

Unit One: The Nature of Human Resource Management (HRM)

1.0 _______ Introduction ____________________________________________________ 5

Unit Two: Human Resource Strategy/Planning

2.0 _______ Introduction ___________________________________________________ 17

3.0 _______ Introduction ___________________________________________________ 29

Unit Four: Motivation to Work

4.0 _______ Introduction ___________________________________________________ 71

Unit Five: Employee Learning

5.0 _______ Introduction ___________________________________________________ 89

Unit Six: Employee Development

6.0 _______ Introduction __________________________________________________ 111

7.0 _______ Introduction __________________________________________________ 135

Unit Eight: Reward Management

8.0 _______ Introduction __________________________________________________ 165

Unit Nine: Employee Involvement and Participation

9.0 _______ Introduction __________________________________________________ 181

Y ou have probably heard the assertion that: “In an organisation, people

It can be stated with some justification that if there is an area where

It is increasingly accepted world-wide that people management practices can

Employees need to be rewarded at work. The topic of reward management

The Nature of Human Resource

1.2 HRM Etymology

¾ as simply terminology that is interchangeable with PM. Storey notes

Beaumont (1993) uses Table 1.2 constructed by Guest (1987) to illustrate

Commentators on HRM have highlighted the fact that a key problem in

1.2.1 American and British Normative Models of HRM and

Nature of Models Practice Conclusion/Outcome

It can be argued that writers and commentators on HRM are consciously or

Table 1.2 Stereotypes of personnel management and human resource Management

Bench-marks Personnel Management Human Resource Management

Control systems External controls Self-control

Employee-relations Pluralist, collective, Unitarist, individual, high-trust

Preferred structures/ Bureaucratic, mechanistic, Organic, devolved, flexible roles

Roles Specialist/professional Largely integrated into line

Evaluation criteria Cost-minimisation Maximum utilisation (human asset

(Source: Beaumont P. B., 1993:13)

Legge (Storey:ibid) makes a comparative analysis of American and British

Tables 1.3 and 1.4.

Table 1.3 Normative Models of Personnel Management

2. “… the most significant aspect of Personnel 2. “… Personnel management is concerned

3. “… personnel management is concerned 3. “… Personnel management is a series

Common to the above American and British postulations on the nature of PM

¾ Selection, development and rewarding of employees.

The American conceptualizations project a non-problematic unitary frame of

The British conceptualizations on the other hand, betray an underlying pluralistic

3. “… human resource management does 3. “There is greater emphasis on planning,

1.0 _ Introduction ______________________________________________ 5

2.0 _ Introduction _____________________________________________ 17

3.0 _ Introduction _____________________________________________ 29

4.0 _ Introduction _____________________________________________ 71

5.0 _ Introduction _____________________________________________ 89

6.0 _ Introduction ____________________________________________ 111

7.0 _ Introduction ____________________________________________ 135

8.0 _ Introduction ____________________________________________ 165

9.0 _ Introduction ____________________________________________ 181