MODULE FOR HISTORY OF ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN

FOR HLIS

Module Writers

Surafel Gelgelo (Ph.D)………………… Addis Ababa University

Deressa Debu (Ph.D)……………..…. Jimma University
Dereje Hinew (Ph.D).…………………Wollaga University
Meseret Worku (M.A) ………………... Debre-Tabor University

Addis Ababa
November 2019

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Table of Contents
Introduction to the Module 4
Unit One 7
Introduction (3 hours) 7
1.1. The Nature and Uses of History 7
1.2. Sources and Methods of Historical Study 13
1.3. The History of Historical Writing in Ethiopia and the Horn 14
1.4. The Geographical Context of Human History in Ethiopia and the Horn 20
Unit Two 25
Peoples and Cultures in Ethiopia and the Horn 25
2.1. Human Evolution 26
2.2. Neolithic Revolution 29
2.3. The Peopling of the Region 30
2.4. Religion and Religious Processes 34
Unit Three 45
Polities, Economy and Socio-Cultural Processes in Ethiopia and the Horn to the End of the 13th
Century 45
3.1. Evolution of States 46
3.2. Ancient Polities 47
3.3. External Contacts 57
3.4. Economic Formations 59
3.5. Socio-cultural Achievements 60
Unit Four 66
Politics, Economy and Socio-Cultural Processes from the Late Thirteenth to the beginning of
the Sixteenth Centuries (6 hours) 66
4.1. The “Restoration” of the “Solomonic’’ Dynasty 67
4.2. Power Struggle, Consolidation, Territorial and Religious Expansion of the Christian Kingdom
68
4.3. Political and Socio-Economic Dynamics of Muslim Sultanates 74
4.4. Rivalry between the Christian Kingdom and the Muslim Sultanates 76
4.5. External Relations 78
Unit Five 83
Politics, Economy and Socio-Cultural Processes from Early Sixteenth to the End of the
Eighteenth Centuries (10 hrs) 83
5.1. Interaction and Conflicts between the Christian Kingdom and the Sultanate of Adal 84
5.2. Foreign Interventions and Religious Controversies 89
5.3. Population Movements 91
5.4. Interaction and Integration across Ethnic and Religious Diversities 102
5.5. Peoples and States in Eastern, Central, Southern and Western Regions 104
5.6. The Period of Gondar (1636-1769) and Zemene-Mesafint / Era of the Princes (1769-1855) 115
Unit Six 125

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Internal Interactions and External Relations in Ethiopia and the Horn, 1800-1941 (10 hours)
125
6.1. The Nature of Interactions among Peoples and States of Ethiopia and the Horn 126
6.2. Power Rivalry 131
6.3. The Making of Modern Ethiopian State 133
6.4. Modernization Attempts 138
6.5. Socio-Economic Issues/Developments 141
6.6. External Relations: Challenges and Threats 145
Unit Seven 159
Internal Developments and External Relations, 1941–1994 (5 hours) 159
7.1. Post-1941 Imperial Period 161
7.2. The Derg Regime (1974-1991) 182
7.3. Historical Developments, 1991-4 194

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 Introduction to the Module

This teaching material is prepared for a common course given to Higher Learning Institutions
Students. The purpose is to help students understand a history of Ethiopia and the Horn from
ancient to 1994 as a base for shaping and bettering of the future. The module generally focus
on major topics in the history of Ethiopia and the Horn including social, cultural, economic,
political experiences that were also intertwined. The contents of the module are categorized
considering the chronology and thematic relations of events in time and space. To make this
course inclusive and representative, the module also included regional histories across the
period.

The module is divided into seven units and each unit has its own specific objectives. The first
unit defines history, describes why history is important, how history is studied and introduces
the region Ethiopia and the Horn. The second unit seeks to explain peoples and cultures in
the region. The major topics treated in the unit are human evolution, Neolithic Revolution,
settlement patterns as well as religion and religious processes in Ethiopia and the Horn.
Based on these historical backgrounds, the third unit describes states, external contacts,
economic formations and achievement in terms of architecture, writing, calendar, and others
to the end of the 13th century. Unit four treats political developments, evangelization and
religious movements, trade and external relations of the region from late 13th to the
beginning the 16th century. It explains how Christian and Muslim sultanates evolved in the
region and how their interactions shaped the history of the region in the pre 16th century.
Unit five is devoted to describe a history of the region from the early 16th to the end of the
18th Century. It deals with interaction between states, foreign interventions, religious
controversies, population movements, and how these contributed to the integration of peoples
across ethnic and religious diversities to the end of the 18th century. Besides, the unit
describes peoples and states in different parts of the Horn. The unit ends up its discussion
depicting the major condition and achievements of the period of Gonder, the era of princes
and Yejju rule.

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The social, cultural, economic, and political experiences of Ethiopia and the Horn in the 19th
century and the early 20th century that played significant role in shaping the modern history
of the region are given space in unit six. Historical processes including states formation and
power rivalry, trade, external relation, threats and major battles, centralization and
modernization attempts, Italian occupation, and socio-economic conditions from 1800 to
1941 makes central position in the modern history of the region. It also underlines how
personalities helped change the setting, how societies interacted, and its implication for
history of Ethiopia and the Horn. The last unit is devoted to describe historical developments
in the region from the period of liberation from the Italian rule (1941) to the period of the
ratification transitional charter (1994). To this, interactions such as consolidation of Imperial
Power and socio-economic conditions, oppositions, national questions, reforms, and political
changes of the period are given space. Finally, we would like to underline that despite serious
attempts, the module is far from being comprehensive in terms of coverage of themes and
issues across time and spaces in the region. Certainly, however, the topics and approaches
considered in the module derive attention of learners and instructors of higher institutions,
and help to develop smarter teaching material.

Objectives
The general objective of this module is to introduce students to the diverse histories of
Ethiopia and the Horn and the extent to which interaction between peoples throughout the
region and with the outside world have shaped human history. The specific objectives are:

 distinguish the nature and uses of history

 identify pertinent sources for the history of the peoples of Ethiopia and the Horn
 describe changes & continuities that unfolded in Ethiopia and the Horn
 elucidate the causes, courses and consequences of events happened in the region
 explain the nature of the region‟s external contacts and their effects
 appreciate peoples‟ achievements, heritages and cultural diversities of the region

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Competences

This module enables students to:

 comprehend the nature of history;
 analyze relevant sources for History of Ethiopia and the Horn;
 understand Ethiopia and the Horn in relation to Human Evolution and Neolithic
Revolution;
 trace the origin, developments and achievements of states in the region during the
ancient period;
 examine the long-term effect of the „‟Solomonic‟‟ dynasty in the region;
 scrutinize dynamics of territorial expansion of the Christian kingdom and rivalry
between the Christian Kingdom and Muslim Sultanates in the region;
 know the role of foreign relations and interventions from ancient to modern times
in the region;
 realize the interplay between local developments and foreign influences;
 explicate the role of population movements in shaping modern Ethiopia and the
Horn;
 illustrate the major socio-economic, religious & political achievements of Gondar
period;
 discuss salient features and effects of the “Zemene Mesafint”;
 assess developments in Eastern, Central, Southern & Western parts of Ethiopia &
the Horn;
 expound the political process for formation of Modern Ethiopia and the Horn;
 discern the move towards modernization and the challenges encountered;
 point out legacies of major battles, victories and the roles of patriots;
 elaborate the socio-economic and political progresses of the post 1941 imperial
period;
 differentiate the major changes, and challenges that led to the demise of the
monarchy;
 reveal the political momentum, reforms and oppositions during the Derg period;
 clarify historical developments from 1991-4.

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 Unit One

Introduction (3 hours)
1.1. The Nature and Uses of History

Einführung

Dear learners,

This unit introduces you with the nature of history and historiography, the

diverse histories of Ethiopia and the Horn and the extent to which interaction

between societies throughout the region have shaped human history. History is

a systematic study and organized knowledge of the past. The purpose of

historical study is not simply to produce a mere list of chronological events

about the deeds of the dead but to find patterns and establish meaning through

the rigorous study and interpretation of surviving records. Historiography, on

the other hand, refers to the history of history; it explores changes in

historical interpretations through time. Accordingly, the unit considers popular

and academic conceptions of history, the why and how of studying history and

the state of historical writing in Ethiopia and the Horn focusing on Ethiopia.

Finally, the unit discusses the role of geography in the region’s human history.

In this regard, it shows that despite the region’s diverse environments, peoples

of Ethiopia and the Horn were never isolated but they interacted throughout

history. As a result, the social, economic, cultural and political history of

Ethiopia and the Horn is highly intertwined.

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Unit Objectives

At the end of this unit, students will be able to:

 differentiate between past and history.
 distinguish between popular and scholarly conceptions of history.
 understand the relationship between history and other disciplines.
 identify categories of historical sources.
 understand what methods historians use to study the past.
 discern basic patterns of continuity and change.
 explain the uses of history.
 avoid judging the past solely in terms of present-day norms and values.
 explain how the writing and purposes of history have changed over time

 discuss the role of geography in human history.

Unit Starters

 What is history?
 What do you think are the similarities and differences between past and history?
 What is the relevance of knowing about the past?
 What study history?
 What are sources?
 Identify categories of historical sources.
 What techniques do historians use to write about the past?
 What is historiography?
 Have you ever read a historical work? Do you remember the title and author of the
work?
 Can you name some writers of Ethiopian history?
 How do you think geographical factors impact, as incentives and deterrents, the
movement of people and goods in a region?

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A. Nature
The term history is derived from the Greek word historia which meant “inquiry” or “an
account of one‟s inquiries.” The first use of the term is attributed to one of the ancient Greek
historians, Herodotus (c. 484–c. 420 B.C.E.), who is often held to be the “father of written
history.” In ordinary usage history means all the things that have happened in the human past.
The past signifies events, which have taken place and the facts of the past which are kept in
writing. More specifically, the distinction is between what actually happened in the past or
that part which exists independently of the historian and still awaits to be recorded and the
accounts of the past provided by historians, that is, „history‟. Historians apply their expertise
to surviving records and write history in the form of accounts of the past. Academically,
history can be defined as an organized and systematic study of the past. The study involves
the discovery, collection, organization, and presentation of information about past events.
History can also mean the period of time after the development of complex social and
political organizations along with the invention of writing.

Evidently, what actually happened in the past is almost infinite. Historians select which
topics and problems they wish to study, as do scientists. In this regard, the major concern of
history is the study of human society and its interaction with the natural environment which
is also the subject of study by many other disciplines. What differentiates history from other
disciplines is that while the latter study the interaction between humans and their
environment in the present state, history studies the interaction between the two in the past
within the framework of the continuous process of change taking place in time. Because of
the longevity of that time, historians organize and divide the human past into discrete periods
after identifying significant developments in politics, society, economy, culture, environment
etc. through the rigorous study of documents and artifacts left by people of other times and
other places. They then give a label to each period to convey the key characteristics and
developments of that era. This is what we call periodization in history; one of the key
characteristics of the discipline.

When historians talk about continuity, they are not implying that a particular pattern applied
to everyone in the world or even in a particular country or region. Nor are they claiming that

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absolutely nothing changed in the pattern they are describing. All aspects of human life i.e.
social, cultural, economic and political in the past have been changing from time to time; and
none of them were practiced in exactly the same way in the lifetime of our ancestors. But
some things stay more or less the same for long periods of time, since few things ever change
completely. For example, we continue to speak the languages of our forefathers; follow their
beliefs and religious practices; wear the costumes they were wearing; continue to practice
their agricultural or pastoral ways of life; maintain the fundamental components or structures
of their social organization. In the same vein, the basic fabric of society in Ethiopia and the
Horn remains similar and continues to have special characteristics. This is why E. H. Carr
defined history as an “unending dialogue between the present and the past.” In short, the past
does not exist now, but continues to live in present.

Until the early twentieth century the study and teaching of history was limited to narrative
presentation of “what happened” in the past. At the core of this narration had been political
events relating to the deeds of “great men” and “great women”. As societies have become
more complex, as the different areas of the world have become more closely interconnected,
as new types of primary source and research methods are brought into use, so more rigorous
accounts of the past have become more necessary. Thus, history assumed three dimensions as
its main job i.e. to narrate what happened, to discuss how it happened and to analyze why it
happened. Contemporary history teaching and research pursue a more integrative approach
offering students an expanded view of historical knowledge that includes aspects of
environment, religion, gender, philosophy, economics, technology, art and society instead of
mere cataloguing of political events.

B. Uses
People live in the present. They plan for and worry about the future. History, however, is the
study of the past. Given all the demands that press in from living in the present and
anticipating what is yet to come, why bother with the past? Why is history worth attention as
a subject of study?

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History should be studied because it is essential to the individual and the society. The uses of
history in the context of the relationship between the past and the present and its role in
defining our own identity along with a variety of other reasons why the study of history is a
rewarding venture are summarized below.

History Helps Us Better Understand the Present

History is the only significant storehouse of information available for the examination and
analysis of how people behaved and acted in the past, and people need to have some sense of
how societies function simply to run their own lives. A purely contemporary analysis of
social changes may shed some light on contemporary developments, but knowledge of
relevant historical background is essential for a balanced and in-depth understanding of many
current world situations. Societies have felt a need to produce some sort of account of their
past because it is difficult to understand problems that face in humanity and society today
without tracing their origins in the past.

History Provides Us a Sense of Our Own Identity

Knowledge of history is indispensable to understand who we are and where we fit in world.
Each of us is born into a nation, but also into a region, a culture, an ethnic group, a social
class, and a family. Each such grouping can and does influence us in a number of ways. The
study of history helps us to get our bearings in such respects allowing us to achieve a social
as well as a personal identity. An individual without memory finds great difficulty in relating
to others and in taking intelligent decisions. A society without history would be in similar
condition. It is only through sense of history that communities establish their identity, orient
them, and understand their relationships with the past and with other societies.

History Provides the Basic Background for Many Other Disciplines

Historical knowledge is extremely valuable in the pursuit of other disciplines such as

literature, art, philosophy religion, sociology, political science, anthropology and economics.

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With regard to the last four, it is fair to argue that history is a mother discipline for they arose
out of historical investigation or formed part of historical writing.

The Careful Study of History Teaches One Many Critical Skills

Studying history helps students to develop some critical skills relating to the how of doing
research. These include but not limited to how to find and evaluate sources; how to make
coherent arguments based on various kinds of evidence and present clearly in writing. These
analytical and communication skills are highly usable in other academic pursuits. Gaining
skills in sorting through diverse interpretations is also essential to make informed decisions
in our day-to-day life.

History Can Help One Develop Tolerance and Open-Mindedness

Most of us have a tendency to regard our own cultural practices, styles, and values as right
and proper. Studying different societies in the past is like going to a foreign country which
contributes to rid ourselves of some of our inherent cultural provincialism. By studying the
past, students of history acquire a broad perspective that gives them the range and flexibility
required in many life situations.

History Can be Entertainment

Finally, history supplies us an endless source of fascination. Exploring the ways people in
distant ages constructed their lives involves a sense of beauty and excitement, and ultimately
another perspective on human life and society.

To conclude, history should be studied because we cannot escape from our past. Only
through studying history can we grasp how things change; only through history can we begin
to comprehend the factors that cause change; and only through history can we understand
what elements of an institution or a society persist despite change. Aesthetic and humanistic
goals also inspire people to study the past, far removed from present-day utility. Nevertheless,

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just as history can be useful, it can also be abused. Such abuses come mainly from the
deliberate manipulation of the past to fit current political agenda. In such cases, history is
written backwards. That is, the past is described and interpreted to justify the present. While
personal biases are not always avoidable, a historian is different from the propagandist in that
the former takes care to document his judgment and assertions so that they can be subjected
to independent and external verification. That said, how do historians study and interpret the
past and the changes that took place in periods during which they have not lived themselves?

1.2. Sources and Methods of Historical Study

Historians are not creative writers like novelists; the work of historian must be supported by
evidence arising from sources. Sources are instruments that bring to life what appear to have
been dead. Where there are no sources there is no history. Sources are, therefore, key to the
study and writing of history. Historical sources are broadly classified into two types: Primary
and Secondary. Primary sources are surviving traces of the past available to us in the present.
They are original or first hand in their proximity to the event both in time and space.
Examples of primary sources are manuscripts (handwritten materials), diaries, letters,
minutes, court and administrative files, travel documents, photographs, maps, video and
audiovisual materials, and physical remains or relics such as coins, fossils, weapons, utensils,
and buildings. Secondary sources, on the other hand, are second-hand published accounts
about events that happened in the past. Examples of secondary sources are articles, books,
textbooks, biographies, and published stories or movies about historical events. Secondary
sources often use primary sources, but are written long after the event has occurred,
providing an interpretation of what happened, why it happened, and how it happened.
Secondary sources give us what appear to be finished accounts of certain historical periods
and phenomena. Nevertheless, as new sources keep coming to light, no history work can be
taken as final. New sources make possible new historical interpretations or entirely new
historical reconstructions.

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Oral sources are also indispensable to study and document the history of non-literate
societies. In many societies, oral information can pass from one generation to another
without being recorded. This type of oral data is called oral tradition.

For the history of Ethiopia and the Horn, historians use a combination of the sources
described above. However, whatever the source of information-primary or secondary, written
or oral- the data should be subjected to critical evaluation before used as evidence. Primary
sources have to be verified for their originality and authenticity because some times primary
sources like letters may be forged. Secondary sources have to be examined for the reliability
of their reconstructions. An oral tradition may lose its originality and authenticity due to
omission, exaggeration and distortion through time. Therefore, it should be crosschecked
with other sources such as written documents to determine its veracity. In short, historians
(unlike novelists) must find evidence about the past, ask questions of that evidence, and come
up with explanations that make sense of what the evidence says about the people, events,
places and time periods they study.

1.3. The History of Historical Writing in Ethiopia and the Horn

Historiography is the history of historical accounts, studying how knowledge of the past,
either recent or distant, is obtained and transmitted. People have had some sense of the past
perhaps since the beginning of humanity. Yet historiography as an intentional attempt to
know and represent descriptions of past events in writing has rather a briefer career
throughout the world. The organized study and narration of the past was introduced by the
Greeks Herodotus (c. 484–c. 420 B.C.E.) and Thucydides (d. c. 401 B.C.E.). The other major
tradition of thinking and writing about the past is the Chinese. The most important early
figure in Chinese historical thought and writing was the Han dynasty figure Sima Qian (145–
86 B.C.E.). Despite such early historiographical traditions, history emerged as an academic
discipline in the second half of the nineteenth century first in Europe and subsequently in
other parts of the world notably in the US. The German historian, Leopold Von Ranke
(1795–1886), and his colleagues established history as an independent discipline in Bonn
with its own set of methods and concepts by which historians collect evidence of past events,

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evaluate that evidence, and present a meaningful discussion of the subject. Ranke‟s greatest
contribution to the scientific study of the past is such that he is considered as the “father of
modern historiography”.

Modern Western-style historical writing in Africa has much shorter life span than the global
trend noted above. Nonetheless, it is not the case that the Africa had no history prior to
colonial times- a view once confidently held among Eurocentric writers. Such unfounded
assumption has been successfully refuted after independence owing to both the considerable
efforts of Africans to recover their past through oral traditions and the growing knowledge of
the existence of writing before the arrival of Europeans. Poetry and folk tales from different
regions of Africa have been used to establish reasonably reliable chronologies of historical
events with or without the presence of literacy. Writing in many parts of Africa was
introduced by Arabs in the centuries following the rise of Islam. An exception to this trite
generalization is Ethiopia where there had been an indigenous tradition of history writing
from at least the fourteenth century as will be discussed shortly.

Historiography of Ethiopia and the Horn has changed enormously during the past hundred
years in ways that merit fuller treatment than can be afforded here. This section is devoted to
exploring significant transformations in historical writing. In order to appreciate twentieth-
century historiography of the region, it is first necessary to examine earlier forms of history
(historical writing). The earliest known reference that we have on history of Ethiopia and the
Horn is the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea, written in the first century A.D by an anonymous
author. Another document describing Aksum‟s trade and the then Aksumite king‟s
campaigns on both sides of the sea is the Christian Topography composed by Cosmas
Indicopleustes, a Greek sailor, in the sixth century A.D.

Unfortunately, contemporary Ethiopian materials are non-existent to substantiate the

information from the above sources despite the country‟s reputation for an ancient
civilization of literacy. The earliest Ethiopian material, a manuscript, dates from medieval
times. The document was found in Haiq Istifanos monastery of Wallo in the thirteenth
century A.D. The value of manuscripts is essentially religious. Yet, for historians, they have

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the added value of providing insights into the country‟s past. For example, the manuscript
cited above contains the list of medieval kings and their history in brief. The largest groups
of sources available for medieval Ethiopian history are hagiographies originating from
Ethiopian Orthodox Church. Invariably written in Ge‟ez, an important function of
hagiographies is enhancing the prestige of saints. Yet other related anecdotes are also
introduced, and often discussed in detail such as the development of the church and the state
including territorial conquests by reigning monarchs. A parallel hagiographical tradition
existed within the Muslim communities of the country. One such account offers tremendous
insight into the life of a Muslim saint, Shaykh Ja‟far Bukko of Gattira, in present day Wallo,
in the late nineteenth century. Besides the saint‟s life, the development of indigenous Islam
and contacts between the region‟s Muslim community and the outside world are some of the
issues discussed in this document.

Ethiopia had also an indigenous tradition of history writing called chronicles. Chronicles in
the ancient Ethiopian Ge‟ez tongue first appeared in the fourteenth century and continue
(sometimes in Amharic) into the early twentieth. Kings or their successors entrusted the
writing of chronicles to court scribes or clergymen of recognized clerical training and
calligraphic skills. The first and the last of such documents are the Glorious Victories of
Amde-Tsion and Tarika Zemen Za Dagmawi Menilek respectively. Chronicles incorporate
both legends and facts- past and contemporary about the monarch‟s genealogy, upbringing
military exploits, piety and statesmanship. Chronicles are known for their factual detail and
strong chronological framework, even if it would require considerable labour to convert their
relative chronology to an absolute one. They are also averse to quantification. Major events
in and around the imperial residence are explained mainly in religious terms; the chronicle,
therefore offers very little by way of social and economic developments even in the environs
of the palace. However, in conjunction with other varieties of written documents, such as
hagiographies and travel accounts by foreign observers, chronicles can provide us with a
glimpse into the character and lives of kings, their preoccupations and relations with
subordinate officials and, though inadequately, the evolution of the Ethiopian state and
society.

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Written accounts of Arabic-speaking visitors to the coast also provide useful information on
various aspects of the region‟s history. For example, al-Masudi and Ibn Battuta described the
culture, language and import-export trade in the main central region of the east African coast
in the tenth and in the fourteenth centuries respectively. For the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries we have two documents composed by Yemeni writers who were eyewitnesses to
the events they described. The first document titled Futuh al Habesha (The Conquest of
Abyssinia) was composed by Shihab al-Din, who recorded the conflict between the Christian
kingdom and the Muslim principalities in the sixteenth century. Besides the operation of the
war including the conquest of northern and central Ethiopia by Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-
Ghazi, the document describes major towns and their inhabitants in the southeastern part of
Ethiopia, although the discussion abruptly ends in 1535. The other first-hand account is left
to us by Al-Haymi, who led a Yemeni delegation in 1647 to the court of Fasiledes (r. 1632-
67).

Other materials that appeared in the sixteenth century include Aba Bahrey‟s Amharic script
the History of the [Oromo]. Written in the 1590s, this document provides firsthand
information about the Oromo population movement in the stated period.

The contribution of missionaries and travellers to the development of Ethiopian

historiography is also significant. From the early sixteenth until the later nineteenth centuries,
missionaries (Catholics and Protestants) were generally the only Europeans who came to the
country with the intention of staying, and who, nevertheless, maintained intimate links with
Europe. Thus, mission records provide us with a run off information covering a considerable
period of time. Some of the major topics covered by missionary sources include religious and
political developments within Ethiopia, and the country‟s foreign relations. An example of
such account is The Prester John of the Indies, composed by a Portuguese priest, Francisco
Alvarez, who led the Portuguese mission to the court of Lebne-Dengel in 1520. Added to
missionary sources, travel documents had important contribution to the development of
Ethiopian historiography. One example of travel documents is James Bruce‟s Travels to
Discover the Source of the Nile. Like other sources, however, both mission and travel

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materials can only be used with considerable reservations and with care for they are socially
and politically biased.

Foreigners also developed interest in Ethiopian studies. One of these figures was a German,
Hiob Ludolf (l.1624-1704). Ludolf was the founder of Ethiopian studies in Europe in the
seventeenth century. He wrote Historica Aethiopica (translated into English as A New
History of Ethiopia). Ludolf never visited Ethiopia; he wrote the country‟s history based on
information he collected from an Ethiopian priest named Abba Gorgorios (Aba Gregory)
who was in Europe at that time. In the nineteenth century, August Dillman published two
studies on ancient Ethiopian history. Compared to Ludolf, Dillman demonstrated all markers
of objectivity in his historical research endeavours.

Historical writing made some departures from the chronicle tradition in the early twentieth
century. This period saw the emergence of traditional Ethiopian writers who made conscious
efforts to distance themselves from chroniclers whom they criticized for adulatory tone when
writing about monarchs. Unlike chroniclers, writers in this period discussed a range of topics
from social justice, administrative reform and economic analysis to history. The earliest
group of these writers include Aleqa Taye Gebre-Mariam, Aleqa Asme Giorgis and Onesmus
Nasib (Aba Gemechis). Later, they were joined by Negadrases Afework Gebre-Iyesus and
Gebre-Hiwot Baykedagn. Unlike chroniclers, these writers dealt with a range of topics from
social justice, administrative reform and economic analysis to history. Taye and Asme wrote
Yeityopia Hizb Tarik (The History of Ethiopian People) and Ye [Oromo] Tarik (The History
of the Oromo) respectively while Onesmus translated the Bible into his native tongue, Afan
Oromo. Notwithstanding his other works, Afework wrote the first Amharic novel, Tobiya, in
Ethiopian history while Gebre-Hiwot has Atse Menilekna Ityopia (Emperor Menilek and
Ethiopia) and Mengistna Yehizb Astedader (Government and Public Administration) to his
name. The most prolific writer of the early twentieth century Ethiopia was, however, Blatten
Geta Hiruy Wolde-Selassie. Hiruy published four major works namely Ethiopiana Metema
(Ethiopia and Metema), Wazema (Eve), Yehiwot Tarik (A Biographical Dictionary) and
Yeityopia Tarik (The History of Ethiopia). In contrast to their predecessors, Gebre-Hiwot and
Hiruy exhibited relative objectivity and methodological sophistication in their works.

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Unfortunately, the Italian occupation of Ethiopia interrupted the early experiment in modern
history writing and publications.

After liberation, Tekle-Tsadik Mekuria formed a bridge between writers in pre-1935 and
Ethiopia professional historians who came after him. Tekle-Tsadik has published some eight
historical works. He made better evaluation of his sources than his predecessors. Yet like his
precursors, bias permeates most of his works. Another work of importance in this period is
Yilma Deressa‟s A History of Ethiopia in the Sixteenth Century. The book addresses the
Oromo population movement and the wars between the Christian Kingdom and the Muslim
principalities as its main subjects. Tekle-Tsadik and Yilma‟s works are written in Amharic
and therefore can be used by the wider public and scholars alike. Blatten Geta Mahteme-
Selassie Wolde-Meskel also contributed his share. Among others, he wrote Zikre Neger
(Things Remembered). Zikre Neger is a comprehensive account of Ethiopia‟s prewar land
tenure systems and taxation, but fails to capture localized circumstances, responses, and
conflicts and silent on the actual impacts of government legislation on regulating access to
resource control. Zikre Neger should also be treated with some caution because one of its
main aims is to extol the modernization efforts and achievements of the country‟s reigning
monarchs notably Emperor Haile-Selssie I. Another work dealing specifically with aspects of
land tenure is left to us by Gebre-Wold Engidawork and has been translated into English.
Another writer of the same category was Dejazmach Kebede Tesema. Kebede wrote his
memoir of the imperial period, published with as Yetarik Mastawesha in 1962 E.C.

The 1960s was a crucial decade in the development of Ethiopian historiography for it was in
this period that history emerged as an academic discipline. The pursuit of historical studies as
a full-time occupation began with the opening of the Department of History at the then Haile
Selassie I University (HSIU). The production of BA theses began towards the end of the
decade. The Department launched its MA program in the early 1980s. Since then researches
by faculty (both Ethiopians and expatriates) and students have been produced on various
topics. Although entirely a research organization, the Institute of Ethiopian Studies (IES) is
the other institutional home of professional historiography in Ethiopia. The IES library

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contains literary works of diverse disciplines and has its fair share in the evolution and
development of professional historiography in Ethiopia.

The professionalization of history in other parts of the Horn is a post-colonial phenomenon.

With the establishment of independent nations, a deeper interest in exploring their own past
quickly emerged among African populations, perhaps stimulated by reactions to decades of
education in an alien imperial historiography. With this came an urgent need to recast the
historical record and to recover evidence of many lost pre-colonial civilizations. The
decolonization of African historiography required new methodological approach (tools of
investigation) to the study of the past that involved a critical use of oral data and tapping the
percepts of ancillary disciplines like archeology, anthropology and linguistics. At the same
time, European intellectuals‟ own discomfort with the Eurocentrism of previous scholarship
provided for the intensive academic study of African history, an innovation that had spread to
North America by the 1960s. Foundational research was done at the School of Oriental and
African Studies (SOAS) in London and the Department of History at the University of
Wisconsin-Madison. Francophone scholars have been as influential as Anglophones. Yet
African historiography has not been the sole creation of interested Europeans. African
universities have, despite the instabilities of politics and civil war in many areas, trained their
own scholars and sent many others overseas for training who eventually published numerous
works on different aspects of the region‟s history.

1.4. The Geographical Context of Human History in Ethiopia and the Horn

The term “Ethiopia and the Horn” refers to that part of Northeast Africa which now contains
the countries of Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia and Somalia. The region occupies a total land area
of 1,882,857 square kilometers and consists chiefly of mountains uplifted through the
formation of the Great Rift Valley. The Rift Valley is a fissure in the Earth‟s crust running
down from Turkey to Mozambique and marking the separation of the African and Arabian
tectonic plates. The major physiographic features of the region are a massive highland
complex of mountains and plateaus divided by the Great Rift Valley and surrounded by
lowlands, semi-desert, deserts and tropical forests along the periphery. The diversity of the

20
terrain led to regional variations in climate, natural vegetation, soil composition, and
settlement patterns. As with the physical features, people across the region are remarkably
diverse: they speak a vast number of different languages, profess to many distinct religions,
live in a variety types of dwellings, and engage in a wide range of economic activities. At
the same time, however, peoples of the region were never isolated; they interacted
throughout history from a diversity of locations. Thus, as much as there are many things that
make people of a certain area unique from the other, there are also a lot of areas in which
peoples of Ethiopia and the Horn share common past.

The history of Ethiopia and the Horn has been shaped by contacts with others through
commerce, migrations, wars, slavery, colonialism, and the waxing and waning of state
systems. Yet the evolution of human history owed much to geographical factors notably
location, landforms, resource endowment, climate and drainage systems which continue to
impact, as incentives and deterrents, the movement of people and goods in the region. In this
section, we will study the impact that the region‟s geography has on the way people live and
organize themselves into societies.

Spatial location in relationship to other spaces and locations in the world is one geographical
factor that has significant bearing on the ways in which history unfolds. Ethiopia and the
Horn lies between the Red Sea, Gulf of Aden and Indian Ocean on the one hand, and the
present-day eastern frontiers of Sudan and Kenya on the other. Since early times, the Red Sea
and the Gulf of Aden linked Northeast Africa to the Eastern Mediterranean, the Near and
Middle East, India, and the Far East. Likewise, the Indian Ocean has linked East Africa to the
Near and Middle East, India and the Far East.

Another element of geography that had profound impact on human history is drainage system.
Ethiopia and the Horn has five principal drainage systems. These are the Nile River System,
Gibe/Omo–Gojeb, and Genale/Jubba-Shebele River Systems, the Ethiopian Rift Valley
Lakes System, and the Awash River System. Flowing from Uganda in the south to the Sudan
in the north, the White Nile meets the Blue Nile (Abay in Ethiopia that starts from the
environs of Tana Lake) in Khartoum and eventually, drains into the Mediterranean Sea

21
through Egypt. The Awash River System is an entirely Ethiopian system and links the cool
rich highlands of Central Ethiopia with the hot, dry lowlands of the Danakil Depression. The
Ethiopian Rift Valley Lakes System is a self-contained drainage basin, and includes a string
of lakes stretching from Lake Ziway in the north to Lake Turkana (formerly known as
Rudolf) on the Ethio-Kenyan border. The Gibe/Omo–Gojeb River System links southern
Ethiopia to the semi-desert lowlands of northern Kenya. The Shebele and Genale rivers
originate in the Eastern highlands and flow southeast toward Somalia and the Indian Ocean.
Only the Genale (known as the Jubba in Somalia) makes it to the Indian Ocean; the Shebele
disappears in sand just inside the coastline.

The above watersheds are very important in the life and history of the peoples inhabiting the
region. Besides providing people with the source of their livelihood, the drainage systems
facilitated the movement of peoples and goods across diverse environments, resulting the
exchange of ideas, technology, knowledge, cultural expressions and beliefs. Thus, studying
the drainage systems of Ethiopia and the Horn is crucial for proper understanding of the
relationships of the peoples living within the various basins.

Ethiopia and the Horn can be divided into three major distinct environmental zones. The vast
Eastern lowland covers the narrow coastal strip of northeastern Eritrea, widens gradually and
descends southwards to include much of lowland Eritrea, the Sahel, the Danakil Desert, the
lower Awash valley, and the arid terrain in northeast of the Republic of Djibouti. It then
extends to the Ogaden, the lower parts of Hararghe, Bale, Borana, Sidamo and the whole
territory of the Republic of Somalia. There is not much seasonal variation in climatic
condition of this zone. Hot and dry conditions prevail year-round along with periodic
monsoon winds and irregular (little) rainfall except in limited areas along the rivers Awash,
Wabe Shebele and Genale/Jubba which traverse the region and a few off-shore islands (eg.
Dahlak, Socotra) in the Red Sea, Aden Gulf and Indian Ocean which are' inhabited by people
closely related to those of immediate mainland districts. Much of the lowland territory is
covered only by shrub and bush as its major vegetation.

22
Immediately to the west of and opposite to the eastern lowland region forms the highland
massif that starts from northern Eritrea and continues all the way to southern Ethiopia. The
eastern extension of the highland massif consists the Arssi, Bale and Hararghe plateau. The
major divide between the western and eastern parts of this zone is the Rift Valley. The major
physiographic features of the zone are complex of mountains, deep valleys, and extensive
plateaus. It is generally said that rainfall has declined Ethiopia and the Horn since the 1960s
causing drought and famine, such as the well-known Ethiopian famines of 1970s and 1980s.

Further to the west, along the western foothills or on the periphery of the plateau and on
borderlands of the Sudan, stretching from north to south, hot lowlands were characterized in
earlier times by thick forests chiefly on the banks of the Nile and its tributaries.

Despite the varied physical environments discussed above, the countries of the Horn of
Africa are, for the most part, linguistically and ethnically linked together as far back as
recorded history goes. Population movements had caused a continuous process of interaction,
creating a very complex picture of settlement patterns. This is the case, for example, in
Ethiopia where a number of Cushitic groups live surrounding as well as interspersed among
more or less semitized population in the northern and central highlands of the country. The
high degree of interaction, the long common history of much of the population and their
adherence to Christianity or Islam, had weakened ethnic dividing lines in large parts of the
region. Linguistic and cultural affinities are therefore as important as ethnic origin in the
grouping of the population.

Learning activities

 Discuss the connections between past, history, sources and historian.

 What do we mean by change and continuity in history?
 Of what benefit is history to the individual and the society?
 What is the difference between primary and secondary sources?
 What are the different sources of history? How will you evaluate them?
 What is the difference between history and historiography?

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 Who was Leopold von Ranke? Discuss his views on history.
 Discuss how the writing of Ethiopian history has changed over the last hundred years
by using the writings of individual historians.
 Briefly describe the similarities and differences between chronicles and hagiographies
and their use to write Ethiopian history.
 Describe the contribution of missionary sources to the study of Ethiopian history.
 Explain how geography shaped human history in Ethiopia and the Horn.

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 Unit Two

Peoples and Cultures in Ethiopia and the Horn

Einführung

Dear learners,

The region Ethiopia and the Horn is referred to as the cradle of humankind. It

is also a region where ancient civilizations including religion, making tools, and

food production occurred. These developments contributed to the social

evolutions, economic formations, and socio-cultural and political settings. This

unit traces human evolutions and Neolithic Revolutions and then describes

languages and peoples settlement along with cultural settings of the region. The

purpose is to show that the region is home to diverse peoples, and cultures

(languages, religion, customs…) and economic activities.

Unit Objectives
 At the end of this unit, students will be able to:
 evaluate evidences for Ethiopia and the Horn as the cradle of mankind;
 understand Ethiopia and the Horn in relation to Neolithic Revolution;
 identify the peoples and languages of Ethiopia and the Horn;
 elucidate settlement patterns and economic formations of the peoples of Ethiopia and
the Horn;
 discuss religion and religious processes of Ethiopia and the Horn.

Unit starters
 Define language and language families.
 Explain how trade facilitates peoples‟ relations.

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  What do you know about the domestication of plants and animals?
 How do you think human beings came into being?
 What is religion?
 What do we mean by indigenous religion?
 Can you name some religious practices in Ethiopia and the Horn?

2.1. Human Evolution

Regarding origin of human being, there are two divergent views. The first view is creationist
view that contends super natural force or God created non-living and living things including
human being with complete physical shape and structure. The other view is evolutionist view
which argues that living things and non living things developed from small beings through
gradual changes of many million years. The earliest evolution theorist Charles Darwin (1809-
1882) published Theory of Evolution or Origin of Species by Natural Selection (1859) and
Descent of Man (1871).

According to evolutionists, human evolution accounts only fraction of history of the globe
that had been formed through natural process about 4. 5 billion years ago or before present
(B. P.) The earliest known life came in to being between 3, 000 &1, 000 million years B.P.
Blue green algae, small plants, fishes, birds and other small animals (mainly invertebrates)
emerged at about/circa (c.) 800 million years B. P. In due course, first primates branched out
of Tarsiers and main placental mammal stream as of 200-170 million years B. P. Gradually,
some primates developed into Pongidae such as baboons, monkeys, gorilla, chimpanzee,
orangutan, gibbon etc while others evolved in to Hominidae (human beings). Hence,
scientists verify that human beings and apes share common ancestors.

Scientists have considered East African Rift Valley as cradle of humanity. A fossil named as
Cororapithecus dated 10 million B. P. was discovered in Ancar (in Hararghe) in 2007.
Ardipithicus Ramidus (dated 4. 2 million B.P.) was discovered by Tim D. White at Aramis in
Afar in 1994 A. D. Other Australopithecines were also discovered at Belohdelie (dated back
3.6 million years B.P.), Maka etc. Fossilised animal bones (3.4 million years) were found

26
with stone-tool-inflicted marks on them (the oldest evidence of stone tool use ever found in
the world) by international team led by Shannon McPherron in Lower Awash Valley in 2010.
Fossil termed as Australopithecus Afarnesis/Lucy/Dinkinesh (dated c. 3.18 million years
B.P.) with 40% complete body parts, weight 30kg, height 1.07 meters and pelvis looks like
bipedal female was discovered by Donald Carl Johnson at Hadar in 1974 A.D.

Picture 1: Skelton named as Australopithecus Afarensis/Lucy/Dinkinesh

Fossil named as Australopithecus Anamensis was discovered around Lake Turkana.

Ethiopian Anthropologist Berhane Asfaw and his team discovered eco-fact named as
Australopithecus Garhi (means surprise in Afar language) between 1996 and 1999 A.D.
Other species like Australopithecus Bosei, Australopithecus Aethiopicus and Pithecan were
also discovered in different areas of East Africa. Dr. Richard Luis Leaky and Mary Leaky
found proto-human fossil named as Zinjanthropus in 1959.

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Homo Habilis is derived from Latin terms Homo which meant human being and Habilis
meant skillful or handy. Homo Habilis (dated back 2-2.5 Million years B.P.) with brain size
of 650- 800 C.C. was discovered at Kobi Fora in Kenya; Laetoli and Olduvai Gorge in
Tanzania with Oldwan obsidian flint stone tools between 1972 and 1986. Artifact findings
suggest that tools made and used by Homo Habilis were also discovered near Gona (dated
2.52 million years ago in 1992) and at Shungura in Ethiopia. Skeleton of 12 years old boy
named as Homo Erectus was discovered at Nario Kotome by Kenyan Archaeologist Kamoya
Kimeu c. 1984. Erectus (dated 1. 6 million years B. P.) was also discovered at Melka
Kunture, Konso Gardula and Gadebi in Ethiopia with clothes, ornaments, burials and fire
usage indicators as well as 185 cm tall, 68kg weight, 5-6 inches height and 900-1100 cc brain
size. Dutch hydrologist Gerrard Dekker found Acheulian tools (over million years old) at
Kella in 1963.

Archaic Homo-Sapiens/wise human being (dated 400,000 years B.P.) was discovered as
Neanderthalensis in Germany in 1856; Cromagnon in France-Spain in 1868; Java in
Indonesia; Peknaisi in China; Kabwe in Zambia; Bodo in Middle Awash with brain size of
1300-1400cc. Fossils of Homo Sapiens Sapiens (100, 000 years B.P.) were discovered at
Porc Epic near Dire Dawa and Kibish around Lower Omo (by Leakey in 1967). Kibish ones
were re-dated in 2004 to 195, 000 years old, the oldest date anywhere in world for modern
Homo Sapiens. Homo sapiens idaltu, found in Middle Awash in 1997, lived about 160, 000
years ago.

The period of the usage of lithus/ stone tools is divided into sub-periods. The first is
Paleolithic (Old Stone Age) up to 11, 000 B.P. This was the period when human being
developed language with shelter in cave using stone, bone, wood, furs & skin materials to
prepare food and clothing. There was sex-age labor division with able-bodied males as
hunters of fauna and children & females as gatherers of plants. In due course, society
developed from matriarchal to partriachial hierarchy. Gademotta Stone Age site in central
Ethiopian Rift Valley is one of the oldest sites in African continent and has been dated back
to 200,000 B.P. Other sites such as Gorgora, Ki‟one, Tiyya, Tuto Fala & Yabaldho in
Ethiopia and Midhidhishi & Gudgud in Somalia are important sites that have offered

28
noteworthy information about Stone Age communities in the Horn of Africa. Mesolithic/
middle Stone Age (11, 000-10,000 B.P.) was transition between Old and Neolithic/New
Stone Ages. Neolithic (10,000-6,000 B.P.) was time when human being used micro-lithic
tools.

2.2. Neolithic Revolution

It was during Neolithic (10,000-6,000 B.P.) that human beings began to transform from
mobile way of life to sedentary one that was radical shift from hunting and gathering to
growing plants and breeding animals. A combination of global warning and increased hunter-
gatherers‟ population brought about a diminishing in numbers of animals and availability of
plants. As food gatherers were already aware of growing cycle of most of grass types, they
began to thickly grow those which were most common and yielded more edible seeds. The
big animals which depended on dense bushes for sustenance were reduced by hunting and
animals that people were able to domesticate easily were smaller ones. Peoples had to
descend from mountain sides to build houses near cultivated plots fencing both and harvested
crops had to be stored & protected from humidity & rodents. For better security and to help
each other in hard works, families preferred to live together forming larger communities.
Using stick or hoe for planting was also gradually replaced by ox-drawn plough. Farmers
acquired surplus produce to exchange with better tools and clothes with the craftsmen who
were able to concentrate on and specialize in the production of these items. Gradually
intermediaries (traders) also began to buy the products of both to take to predetermined
places or markets and sell.

The process of domestication took place independently in the various parts of the world. In
Ethiopia and the Horn especially in the more elevated and wetter-parts, people began to
cultivate plants including Eragrotisteff/poa abyssinica, dagussa/Eleusine Coracana/millet,
nug/Guzotia Abyssinica/oilseeds, Ensete Ventricosum etc. The domestication of the enset
plant/Ensete edule reduced continuous clearing of new plots/shifting cultivation slowing
down soil exhaustion. Enset was widely cultivated over central and northern Ethiopia until
increasing demands of states which had to support many units of professional soldiers forced

29
farmers to cultivate cereals like teff only. The existence of Neolithic material culture is
attested from Laga Oda near Carcar, Gobdura rock shelter near Aksum, Fakeda around
Adigrat, Aqordat and Barentu in Eritrea. These sites provide direct archaeological evidence
such as polished axes, ceramics, grinding stones, beads, stone figures, remains of animals
like camels etc. Archaeologist Dombrowiski excavated chickpeas and vegetables at Lalibela
cave near Lake Tana. Evidence of domesticated cattle comes from Lake Basaqa near
Matahara. Playa Napata & Kado in Sudan and Futajalon in West Africa were among known
places of domestication including Nidamawa and Zebu (Bos indicus) cattle.

2.3. The Peopling of the Region

2.3.1. Languages and Linguistic Processes

According to Ethnologue, there are 88 languages with 200 dialects, of which 86 are living
and 2 are extinct in Ethiopia and the Horn.

A. Afro-Asiatic
 Cushitic: linguists divided this language family into four branches.
 Northern: is represented by Beja, spoken at western edge of Eritrea on Sudan
border.
 Central: Agaw includes Awing, Qimant; Tamtanga & Bilen/Bogos.
 East Cush: this includes diversified linguistic groups like Afar, Alaba, Arbore,
Baiso, Burji, Bussa, Darashe, Dasanech, Gauwada, Gedeo, Hadiya, Kambata,
Konso, Libido, Oromo, Saho, Sidama, Somali, Tambaro & Tsemai. Yet, the
Oromo have inhabited throughout the eastern, northern, southern and western
parts of Ethiopia and the Horn.
 Ethiopian Semitic: the Semitic languages of Ethiopia are generally known as Ethio-
Semitic because other Semitic languages are spoken mainly in the Middle East.
 North: Tegra (in Ertrean Lowland), Tigrinya; Ge'ez (endangered, liturgical)
 South
 Transverse: Amharic, Argoba, Harari, Silte, Wolane and Zay.
 Outer: Gafat (extinct), Gurage and Mesmes (endangered).

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  Omotic: Anfillo, Ari, Bambasi, Basketo, Bench,Boro (Shinasha), Chara, Dawro,
Dime, Dizi, Doko, Dorze, Gamo, Ganza, Gayil, Gofa, Hamer-Banna,, Hozo,
Kachama-Ganjule, Karo, Keficho, Konta, Korete, Male, Melo, Nayi, Oyda, Sezo,
Shekkacho, Sheko,Wolaytta, Yem and Zayse.Among its groups, Ometo includes
Wolayttaand Gamo while main Gonga is Keficho.
 Nilotic: Anywa, Berta, Gumuz, Kacipo-Balesi, Komo, Kunama, Kwama,Kwegu,
Majang, Mi'en, Murle , Mursi, Nuer, Nyangatom, Opuo,Shabo, Suri& Uduk.
 Unclassified: Weyto (might be Cushitic or Semitic); Ongota (moribund possibly
Omotic or separate branch of Afro-Asiatic or not at all) & Rer Bare (extinct-may be
Bantu).

2.3.2. Settlement Patterns

The Cushitic Speaking peoples are indigenous to East Africa inhabiting from Sudan to
Tanzania. The proto Cushitic speaking peoples are said to have been dominant between the
Blue Nile valley in the west and Red Sea in the East in Northeast Africa. The peoples
speaking this language family regarded as the descendants of the ancient Ethiopia or Kush
and once shared the Nile valley civilization. Specifically, Nubia (the land of Kush with
capital first at Napata and later Meroe) was from where most probably Cushitic peoples
dispersed. According to Ehret, it was around the seventh millennium BC (before Christ) that
the ancestral Cushitic began to spread in the northern edge of the Ethiopian highland. The
proto-Cushitic are said to have dispersed further south and formed various subdivisions or
separate linguistic and cultural groups and subgroups in the sixth and fifth millennium BC.
They are said to have evolved into a separate identity from the Cushitic speaking peoples in
between 4th and 3rd millennium BC. Among these Cushitic peoples, major change took
place toward the later part of the first millennium B. C. when the Afar, Somali and Saho
descended eastward from the southern temperate plateau regions. The Cushitic speaking
peoples were dominant inhabitants in the north, central, southern, western, eastern and rift
valley regions of Ethiopia as well as the Djibouti and Somalia. Broadly, the Cushitic
language speaking peoples occupy the largest portion of Ethiopia and the Horn and also
spread over into such neighboring regions even as far south as Tanzania.

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According to Harold Marcus, the Afro-Asiatic group of languages developed and fissured in
the Sudan-Ethiopian borderlands. Proto-Cushitic and Proto-Semitic began their evolution
there. On the other hand, according to some historical sources, Ethio-Semitic is believed to
be introduced from the Middle East especially Arabian Peninsula. Whatever the case, the
Semitic language family in Ethiopia is the second major family next to the Cushitic.

Omotic languages speakers are indigenous to Ethiopia. The majority of Omotic peoples are
dominant in southwestern Ethiopia being concentrated along Omo River basin bordering in
all directions. Nevertheless, this is exceptional for Shinasha who is living in southwestern
Gojjam and South Mao in southwestern Wollagga. Many Omotic languages have been kept
aloof and evolved from dialects to independent languages because of mountainous landscape.

Nilo-Saharan Super Family peoples are dominant societies of western lowlands from north to
south along Ethio-Sudanese borderlands. Nilo-Sahara entered Ethiopia from the Sudan in
about 3rd millennium B. C. and believed to have settled in western and southwestern
Ethiopia between third Millennium B. C. to the first Millennium B.C. Some of the Chari-Nile
family settled in western Ethiopia along Ethio-Sudanese border and other in southern Omo.
These are identified as the Karamojo cluster living around Turkana Lake along the Ethio-
Kenyan border. On the other hand, the majority of the speakers of this language super family
also live outside Ethiopia.

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Map 1: The Distribution of Languages of Ethiopia and the Horn

According to 2007 Ethiopian census, Oromo (the largest linguistic group) accounted to
34.4%, Amhara 27%, Somali 6.2%, Tigray 6.1%, Sidama 4%, Gurage 2.5%, Wolayta 2.3%,
Afar 1.73%, Hadiya 1.72, Gamo 1.5 & others 12.55%. Afan Oromo has 33.8% speakers,
Amharic 29.33%, Somali 6.25%, Tigrigna 5. 86%, Sidama 4.84%, Wolayta 2.21%, Gurage
2.01%, Afar 1.74%, Hadiya 1. 69%, Gamo 1.45% and others 11.62%. Only 14 languages
cover about 93 % of population. 41 languages are institutional, 14 developing, 18 vigorous, 8
in danger and 5 near extinction. Hudson (1999:96) states that a language with fewer than 10,
000 speakers is likely to become extinct within generation, there are 22 such languages in
Ethiopia and the Horn.

2.3.3. Economic Formations

A predominantly pastoral economy characterized the eastern lowland region since early
periods. A transhumance pastoral economy has characterized the life of the majority of the
Eastern lowland Cushitic communities since very early times. Camel, goat and cattle are the
most common domestic animals among the Afar, Saho and Somali as well as Karayu and

33
Borana Oromo. The life of Afar and Karrayu is highly associated with Awash River while
the Somali owe a great deal to Wabi Shebelle and Genale/Juba Rivers.
The plateaus have sustained plough agriculture for thousands of years supporting sizable
populations. It is here that the large majority of the populations of the region live. It is also
here that the Cushitic had started and advanced mixed sedentary agriculture since 10, 000 B.
P. and ancient processes of state formation were taken place first by the Cushitic and then
together with the Semitic, who used to practice plow agriculture economic activity for long.
The life of Omotic societies has been highly intertwined with Omo River. The major
economic activity of the Omotic has been mixed farming and trade in northern Omo while
southern Omo have predominantly practiced pastoralist and fishing. The Omotic have been
distinguished by the large-scale cultivation of enset (a staple food) and evolution of highly
organized polities. Many of them have also been famous in metallurgy, weaving and other
crafts.

Peoples in the sparsely populated western lowland region earned their livelihood from a
range of activities. Here lived, small groups of hunter-gatherers leading a basically nomadic
way of life and being almost entirely dependent on fruits and forest animals. Nilo-Saharans
along Nile have been shifting cultivators where sorghum has been a staple food. Among
majority Nilotic communities, cattle have high economic and social values. Berta and other
Nilotes had trade and other social contacts with northern Sudan.

2.4. Religion and Religious Processes

2.4.1. Indigenous Religion

Distinctive mark of indigenous religion is belief in one omnipotent, omniscient, eternal or
transcendental Supreme Entity, but special powers are attributed to natural phenomena that
are declared to be sacred. Vicars (parsons and diviners) who officiate over these rituals &
propitiate spirits are held in a lot of respect as intermediaries between society and spirits.

Among indigenous religious groups, Oromo Waaqeffannaa is one. The Waaqeffata have
believed in existence of one supernatural power called Waaqaa that is believed to be source

34
of life & nature, Beelii Belelii/Alpha-Omega/ultimate power in the universe. Under Waaqaa,
there are divinities called Ayyaanaa, each seen as manifestation of Waaqaa. These include
Abdaari (crop land fertility spirit), Ateetee Ayyobar/Ayyolee (women or human & animal
fertility spirit), Awaayii/Tiyyanaa (sanctity spirit), Balas (victory spirit), Caattoo/Doora (wild
animals defender), Gijaaree/Nabi (father & mother‟s sprit), Jaaricha (peace spirit), Qasaa
(anti-disease spirit) etc. Adbaar that is still witnessed on September 17/Masqal & May 1st E.
C. is a relic of rite in veneration of Abdaar in a syncreticized form. Oromo also believe that
the dead exist in form of ghost called Ekeraa in surrounding of his/her abode before death or
dachee of his/her cemetery/Tujuba. Nonetheless, they have not believed in suffering in hell,
but if human beings have committed sin, they would be punished while alive with tolerable
punishment. Just at the beginnings of autumn and spring seasons every year at ever flowing
river side and top of mountain respectively, Oromo have thanks giving festival called
Irreechaa besides Ifaanoo (torch light) and Birboo (New Year) ceremonies.

Effective relationship between Ayyaanaa and Oromo has been often maintained by revered
expert known as Qaalluu/Ladduu for male and Qaallitti for female. Qaalluu or Qaallitti care
for spiritual wellbeing as well as influence socio-economic & political life of the community.
Place of worship or Qaalluu house is called Galmaa located on hilltop/side or in grove of
large trees. On Wednesday and Friday nights, there are special prayer ceremonies to practice
Dalaga/ecstasy at which Qaalluu or Qaallitti is possessed by Ayyaanaa so that s/he can
interpret mysteries. Worship places also include under trees, beside large bodies of water, by
side of big mountains, hills etc. However, these are not objects of worship but simply places
of worship. In fifth year of Gadaa period, Lubaa in power sent Jilaa/Makkalaa (delegated
messengers) as pilgrims or hajj, with kallachaa and gifts like qumbii (myrrh) to make their
reverence pledges to get blessings of senior Qaalluu known as Abbaa Muudaa or anointment
father centered at Ribuu Fugug. Abbaa Muudaa used to consecrate other Qaalluus to
different regions or clans and had turban surrirufa or cloth of tri-colors: black at top, red at
center and white at bottom representing those who yet to enter active life, those in active life
(Lubaa) and those who passed active life respectively.

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Among the Hadiya the Supreme Being is known as Waa, who is believed to exist before
everything (hundam issancho) or create world (qoccancho) and whose eyes are represented
by elincho (sun) & agana (moon). Spirits like Jara (male‟s protector), Idota (female‟s guard),
Hausula, Qedane & Warriqa attracted most of prayers and sacrifices at Shonkolla &
Kallalamo mountains chosen by Anjancho & Jaramanjcho. Native Hadiyas known as
Worqimene are believed to have the power to send rain in drought. Fandanano (sing.
Fandancho) practice believed to be introduced by either spiritual leaders, Itto & Albaja, or
Boyamo, father of five Hadiya clans. Fandanano was largely followed by inhabitants of
Badawacho, Badogo, Boshana, Lemo, Libido, Misha, Shashogo & Soro areas. Hadiya related
Kambata called God as Negita and have religious officials known as Magnancho
(Magananna, God‟s people). Konso also practice traditional religion centered on worship of
Waaq/Wakh. Among the Gurage there have been Waq/Goita (supreme deity), Bozha (thunder
God) and Damwamwit (health Goddess).

The Wolayta called God as Tosa & spirit as Ayyana including Tawa Awa/Moytiliya (father‟s
spirit), Sawuna (justice spirit), Wombo (rain spirit), Micho (goat spirit), Nago (sheep spirit),
Kuchuruwa (emergency spirit), Gomashera (war spirit), Talahiya (Beta Talaye or talheya,
Omo spirit) etc. Grasses that grew on Dufuwa (grave) should not be cut down and used since
Dufuwa was believed to be abode of Moytiliya. Annual worship of spirits was performed at a
sacred place called Mitta usually at the end of May and beginning of June to offer sacrifice of
the first fruits called Teramo or Pageta (Dubusha). People gathered around tree called
Dongowa which varied from clan to clan: sycamore/ficussur exasperata for the Bubula,
podocarpo for Zatuwa etc. The Qesiga called their meeting place Kasha (Dabre). To protect
men from eating crop before harvesting Zomboro clan used Diqaysa practice by planting in
their fields sour olive and nubica trees. The Wolayta also had the practice of Chaganna
(prohibited days to work) to protect their produce from natural disaster. The Wolayta also
chose and kept with special care dark brown heifer called Beka (Beqabe) or Baqa Potilliya
(Lit. ritual cattle) which was believed as their birth day fate. If they made error in
respecting this custom they would anoint their bodies with certain leaf called Aydameta
(ground red pepper) as repentance. Religious practitioners known as Sharechuwa had Becha
or Kera Eza Keta (ritual house).

36
Yem worshipped Sky God/Ha’o. So‟ala clan was considered as top in religious duties since it
was in charge of the most important deity (Shashokam). There was also deity known as Aba
at Henar. Religious functions were performed through couriers in each village called Magos.

Kafa called the Supreme Being as Yero; spirit as Eqo; and a person who hosts Eqo is known
as Alamo or medium and referred to as eke-nayo (person in service of spirit). Father of all
spirits is dochi or dehe-tateno and its host is called dochi-nayo or Ibedechino/Ibede-gudeno
(including Arito & Wudia Riti), king of all Alamos with residence at Adio. Spirit of harvest is
called Kollo and sacrifice to it is known as dejo (altogether kollo-dejo). Spirits of earth &
area are known as Showe-kollo & Dude-baro respectively. There are also local spirits like
damochechi of Channa, yaferochi of Sharada and wogidochi of Adio as well as gepetato or
king of hill that is identified by Yetecho clan as land owner. Spiritual services were headed
by Dugo clan. Kafa related to Konta‟s spirit-cult was called Docho.

The Nuer believe that God is spirit of sky or Kuoth Nhial (God in Heaven) creator, but Nuers
believe in coming of God through rain, lightning & thunder and rainbow is necklace of God.
Sun and moon as well as other entities are also manifestation or sign of God. There are also
spirits associated with clan-spears names such as WiW, spirit of war, associated with thunder.
The Nuer believe that when a man or woman dies, flesh is committed to earth while breath or
life goes back to God (Kuoth) and soul that signifies human personality remains alive as a
shadow or a reflection, and departs together with ox sacrificed to place of ghosts.

2.4.2. Judaism

Judaism is the religion of the ancient Jewish/Hebrew people. It is considered to be the

expression of the covenant that Yahweh/Jehovah/God established with the Israeli. It has been
followed in Ethiopia and the Horn by the people called Beta Israel (literally, "house of Israel"
began to be clearly noticed in the 4th century AD, when the community refused to be
converted to Christianity). The Beta Israel/Ethiopian Jews practiced Haymanot (religious
practices, which are generally recognized as Israelite religion that differs from Rabbinic

37
Judaism). Many of the Beta Israel accounts of their own origins stress that they stem from the
very ancient migration of some portion of the Tribe of Dan to Ethiopia, led it is said by sons
of Moses, perhaps even at the time of the Exodus (1400-1200 B.C.). Alternative timelines
include perhaps the later crises in Judea, e. g., at the time of the split of the northern
Kingdom of Israel from the southern Kingdom of Judah after the death of King Solomon or
at the time of the Babylonian Exile. Other Beta Israel take as their basis the account of return
to Ethiopia of Menilek I, who is believed to be the son of King Solomon(r. 974-932 B.C.) of
ancient Israel and Makeda, ancient Queen of Saba/ Sheba, and considered to be the first
Solomonic Emperor of Ethiopia. Another group of Jews are said to have arrived in Ethiopia
led by Azonos and Phinhas in 6th century A.D. Still others are said to have been Jewish
immigrants intermarried with Agaws. Whatever the case, the Jews appear to have been
isolated from mainstream Jewish for at least a millennium. The Jewish developed and lived
for centuries in northern and northwestern Ethiopia, in more than 500 small villages spread
over a wide territory. Most of them were concentrated mainly on North Gondar, Shire Enda-
Selassie, Wolqayit, Tselemti, Dembiya, Segelt, Quara and Belesa.

2.4.3. Christianity

Evidences show that Aksumite King Ezana (r. 320-360 AD) dropped pre-Christian gods like
Ares/Hariman/Maharram/war god, Arwe (serpent-python god), Bahir (sea god) & Midir
(earth god) and embraced Christianity. Instrumental in conversion were Syrian brothers,
Aedesius & Fremnatos (Frementius). When Fremnatos (also called Kasate Birhane by
locales) visited Alexandria, Patriarch Atnatewos (328-373), appointed him first Bishop of
Ethiopia under title Aba Salama. This made Ethiopian Orthodox Church (EOC) subservient
to Coptic in Egypt until full independence i.e. consecration of its own patriarch, Abune
Baslios was achieved in 1959.

Christianity was further expanded to the mass of the society in later part of 5th century,
during the reign of Ella Amida II (478-86) by the Nine Saints shown in the table below.

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 Table I: The Nine saints

Name Origin Church Commemoration Date

Abuna Aregawwi/Abba Za
Rome Debre Damo 14 Tekmet/ 25 October
Mika‟el
Abuna Isaq/Abba Gerima Rome Medera 17 Sene /24 June
Abba Pentelwon Rome Asbo 6 Tekmet/17 October
Abba Afse Ladocia Yeha 29 Genbot/6 June
Abba Alef Qa‟esare‟a Biheza/Haleluya11 Megabet/20 March
Abba Gubba Cilicia West of Medera29 Genbot/6 June
Abba Liqanos ConstantinopleDebre Qonasel 28 Hedar/8 December
Abba Sehama Antioch Tsedania 16 Ter/25 January
Abba Yima‟ata Qosa‟iti Ger‟alta 28 Tekmet/8 November
The saints translated Bible and other religious books into Geez.

Then expansion of Christianity chiefly gained fresh momentum in Zagwe period (1150-1270).
During early Medieval (1270-1527) many churches and monasteries were constructed
including Debra-Bizan of Hamasen in Eritrea; Debra-Hayiq in Wallo; Debre-Dima & Debre-
Werq in Gojjam; Debra-Libanos in Shawa and Debre-Asabot on the way to Harar.
In 16th and 17th centuries, Jesuits tried to convert Monophysite EOC to Dyophysite Catholic.
Yet this led to bloody conflicts that in turn led to expulsion of the Jesuits. However, the
Jesuits intervention triggered religious controversies with in Ethiopian Orthodox Church.

EOC spread to central, south, east & western parts following their conquest by the northern
Christian Kingdom. People were baptized as government obligatory decree. Lately,
monopolization of burial places by Church forced people to accept Tawahedo.

Since 1804, missionaries‟ religious expansion was one of the dominant themes of treaties
concluded between European diplomats and Ethiopian authorities. Catholic Giuseppe Sapeto,
Lazarist mission founder; Giustino De Jacobis, Capuchin order founder; Cardinal Massaja,
Antoine and Arnauld d'Abbadie were active. Protestant missionaries were led by Anglican
Church Missionary Society/ACMS, Church Missionary Society of London/CMSL &
Wesleyan Methodist Society and their major leaders were Samuel Gobat, C.W. Isenberg, J. L.
Krapf & Theophil Lefebvre. Systematic approach of trained Protestants enabled them to win

39
confidence of local people. They translated religious books into vernacular languages. They
adopted old names for Supreme Being like Waaqayyoo, Tossa and used them in new versions
as equivalent to God. Village schools were established by Protestants as a way to preach their
religion. These schools were open to all children of local chiefs and peasant farmers. They
also provided medical facilities. All these attracted a large number of followers. Eventually,
continuous and systematic indoctrinations seem to have resulted in grafting of new teaching
on indigenous religion.

2.4.4. Islam

Islam was founded by Prophet Mohammed (PBUH). When his teachings faced opposition
from the Quraysh rulers, Aksumite king Armah Ella Seham/Ashama b. Abjar in Arabic
sources gave asylum for the early followers including his daughter Rukiya & her husband
Uthman and his future wives Umm Habiba and Umm Salma led by Jafar Ali Talib from 615-
628 A. D. Armah refused to return them to persecutors and is said to have declared,” If you
were to offer me a mountain of gold I would not give up these people who have taken refuge
with me.” Accordingly, there has grown a tradition, chiefly in Arabic sources and among
Ethiopian Muslims, that the Aksumite king Ahmed al-Nejash was converted to Islam. As a
result of these early peaceful contacts, Islam was introduced to the Horn of Africa not
through Jihad, but through trade routes. It was well established in Dahlak/Alalay Islands on
Red Sea by beginning of 8th century. By the beginning of 10th century, the Muslim
community on islands developed a sultanate. At about the same time other places on the Red
Sea coast were settled by the Muslims. It was from these coastal centers that Islam gradually
spread among the predominantly pastoral communities of the interior, largely through the
agency of preachers and merchants.

It was from these coastal centers that Islam gradually spread among the predominantly
pastoral communities of the interior, largely through the agency of preachers and merchants.
The Dahlak route, however, played a minor role in introduction of Islam into the interior as
Christianity was strongly entrenched as a state religion in Axum and later states of northern
Ethiopia and open proselytization of Islam was prohibited. The port of Zeila on western coast

40
of Gulf of Aden served as the more important gateway for the penetration of Islam in a larger
scale into mainly Shawa, Wallo and Hararghe. Islam firmly established itself in the coastal
areas by the eighth and ninth centuries. From there, it radiated to central, southern and
eastern Ethiopia by means of Muslim clerics who followed in the footsteps of traders.

Islam was introduced into Somalia in 8th c A. D. through Benadir coasts of Mogadishu,
Brava & Merca. Abu Bakr Ibn Fukur/Fakhira al Din Sahil set up Mogadishu Minirate c.1269
A.D. Islam further expanded in Somalia by Tariqa/mystical orders. Among these, Qadiriyya
(named after Hanbali jurist Abd al-Qadir al-Jilani, 1077-1166) that emphasized collective
devotion (hadra). Ahmadiyya , which had been set up by Ahmad Ibn Idris al Fasi of Fez in
Morocco (1760-1837), that stressed austerity, turban & ve‟il. It had contacts with Tijaniyya
(named after Abu‟l-Abbas Ahmad b. Muhammad b. al-Mukhtar al Tijani/1737-1815) and
Summaniyya (named after Muhammad b. Abd al-Karim al Sammāni/1718-75). The Ulama
of these orders expanded Islam as far as the Gibe region in mid-19th c. Later, the people
especially in Arssi, Bale and Hararghe adopted Islam en masse as opposition to the imposed
EOC.

Picture 2: Dirre Sheik Hussein Mosque

41
Apart from these, societies in Ethiopia and the Horn developed indigenous knowledge
systems that embraced social, religious, political, economic and environmental values. This
includes the knowledge, skill and practices in the fields of governance, peace and social order,
education, production and reproduction, rehabilitation of the destitute, resource management
and disease protection. In the past, recognition and utilization of indigenous knowledge in
response to social, economic, and political crisis proved success in time and space. Taken in
totality, indigenous knowledge enabled many peoples to live sustainably within their local
environments for many thousands of years. Among the bulk of indigenous knowledge of
peoples were the values of peace and practices in maintaining it. In many cultures, the
application of indigenous knowledge enabled members of a society to anticipate conflict and
social disorder. Accordingly, they had mechanisms to ease the social consequence pre-hand.
For long, such knowledge-enabled societies to configure balanced utilization of resources,
establish social harmony, self-help associations, and support the needy members for better
live. Retroactive mechanism of problem solving includes urgent response to fundamental
problems such as conflict, drought, famine, resource depletion, soil exhaustion, production
failure, and other underlying problems. Among others, the most dominant practice in the
aspect of peace and order was conflict resolution.

Peoples in Ethiopia and the Horn practiced a number of conflict resolution mechanisms.
Among others, some of them are Shemgelenna among the Amhara, Yajoka among the
Gurage, Seera among the Kambata, Gumaa among the Oromo, Makabanto among the Afar,
Gudu’emale among the Sidama, Dayad among the Somali, Bayto among the Tigray people
and others. These wisdoms worked effectively for centuries with less cost because first they
were part of the culture and values of peoples that they espoused in common. Secondly, such
conflict resolution mechanisms emphasis on inter-connectedness governed by a principle "I
am because we are," emphasis on restoration, forgiveness and reconciliation instead of
punishment. It also emphasizes people-to-people peace building and promote local
ownership of the peace.

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The other indigenous culture was the practice of folk medicine. In the region, medical system
varied across ecological diversities, socio-cultural background of the different ethnic groups
as well as history of disease. These health care systems have their own historical background,
perceptions about health and illness, practices and types of healers. In the system, peoples
utilized innumerable varieties of traditional medicine to treat human and animal health
problems. A major component of traditional medicine was the use of medicinal plants.
Herbal medicines were utilized to treat externally and internally illness. Those for internal
use consisted of the roots, bark, leaves, fruit and seeds of a wide variety of plants. Medicines
for external application were even more numerous. Many medicines also contained butter,
while others were made with honey, white-of-egg, fig-juice, or the latex. Various medicinal
plants, such as degessa and gizewa were utilized as vapor baths. Thermal waters also known
as tsebel was the most common treatment. Tsebel is waters blessed in the name of a
particular saint and which are used as treatment for a wide range of illnesses.

Healing in traditional medicine was not only concerned with curing of diseases but also with
the protection and promotion of human physical, spiritual, social, mental and material
wellbeing. It is widely believed in Ethiopia that the skill of traditional health practitioners is
'given by God' and knowledge on traditional medicines passed orally from father to a favorite
child.

Healers obtained their drugs mainly from natural substances and in descending order of
frequency; these constitute plants, animals and minerals. They prepared in various dosage in
the form of liquids, ointments, powders and pills. When side effects became severe, antidotes
were claimed to be used. The healers imposed restriction when patients took certain types of
drugs. Drugs were stored usually in containers such as bottles, papers, pieces of cloth, leaves
and horns, and were kept anywhere at home. Traditional medication also involved prevention
to avoid contiguous diseases. In the past, the spread of highly infectious diseases such as
smallpox was prevented by deserting places where the epidemics occurred. Moreover,
sweeping or covering floors with particular plants was another traditionally preventive
measure.

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Learning Activities
 Briefly describe the differences between creationist and evolutionist views of human
origin.
 Briefly describe the differences between creationist and evolutionist theories of
human.
 Why do you think Lucy had attracted more attention from the world than other human
remains discovered in Ethiopia and the Horn?
 Discuss the salient features of the three species of Homo family.
 List major developments in the three stone Ages.
 Explain the link between hunting and taming animals and gathering and plant
domestication.
 Explain the relations between the domestication of plants and animals and early
civilizations in Ethiopia and the Horn?
 What are the major categories of language families in Ethiopia and the Horn?
Describe also their geographical distribution in the region.
 Explain how the study of language can be useful in understanding cultures and
societies.
 Discuss the connections between drainage systems and economic formations in
Ethiopia and the Horn.
 Identify the commonalities among indigenous religions of Ethiopia.
 Discuss the role of trade and religion in the relations between peoples of Ethiopia and
the Horn.
 Explain how physical environment -land forms, vegetation, climate- affects the way
people live and the ways that humans organize themselves in social, political, and
economic institutions. Illustrate your discussion with examples from the experience
of peoples of Ethiopia and the Horn.
 Sketch on map of Ethiopia the major trade routes and the flow of trade items.

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 Unit Three

Polities, Economy and Socio-Cultural Processes in Ethiopia and the Horn

to the End of the 13th Century

Einführung

Dear Learners,

From ancient to the 13th century, societies in Ethiopia and the Horn underwent

political, economic, social and cultural changes. One remarkable change in the

period was the evolution of polities with diverse socio-cultural and economic

settings. While agriculture and trade contributed to the evolution of states,

religions shaped the socio-cultural setup of the states in different parts of

Ethiopia and the Horn. The results of the period were socio-cultural

achievements such as architecture, arts, writing, calendar, numerals etc. It also

explains the external relations of the period that had significant role in shaping

the history of region.

Unit Objectives
At the end of this unit, students will be able to:
 show the evolution of states in Ethiopia and the Horn;
 identify the prominent ancient states of the Ethiopian and the Horn;
 elucidate the factors for the rise and developments of these states;
 examine the relation among these states thereby analyzing the impact.

Unit starters
 What does a state mean?

45
  Can you name some of the earliest states in Ethiopia and the Horn?
 Tell how Ethiopian people in different geographical locations maintained
relationships.
 Explain how religion facilitates peoples‟ relations.

3.1. Evolution of States

Not until perhaps 5,000 B.C. did villages begin to aggregate into larger political units, but
once this process began, it continued at a progressively faster pace and led, around 4000 B.C.,
to the formation of the first state in history that was by all odds the most far-reaching
development. Here a state means an autonomous political unit, encompassing many
communities within its territory and having a government with the power to decree and
enforce laws. State was the outcome of a regular and determinate cultural process. Moreover,
it was a recurring phenomenon: states arose independently in different places and at different
times. Where the appropriate conditions existed, the states emerged. The first states were
theocratic states, and the social and religious affairs of their community were maintained &
regulated by priests/shaman with voluntary contributions. As production became market
oriented the priests were gradually replaced by chiefs who began collecting compulsory
tributes known as protection payments with which they maintained themselves, their
supporters and other followers. Favorable environmental conditions helped to hasten the rate
of transformation in some regions of the globe.

Ethiopia and the Horn is one of few places in Africa where early state formation has taken
place. There emerged first small states that gradually developed into powerful kingdoms and
even empires with a well-demarcated social structure in the various parts of it. Geographical
locations like nearness to and control of the international water bodies like Red Sea, Gulf of
Aden and Indian Ocean along with their ports as well as rich interior favored some of them to
become the strongest of their neighbors and eventually to dominate them.

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3.2. Ancient Polities

3.2.1. North and Northeast

A. Punt
Punt was the earliest recorded state in Ethiopia and the Horn. It was probably stretched from
Swakim or Massawa to Straits of Babel Mandeb (Gate of Tears) and Cape Gardafui. The
evidence of Punt does not come from the Horn but in Egyptian hieroglyphic writings, at
times accompanied, by vivid paintings, tell of a series of naval expeditions which the
Egyptian Pharaohs sent to Punt. Pharaoh Sahure (r. 2743-2731 B.C.) sent expedition to
collect myrrh, ebony and electrum (gold and silver alloy). During Pharaoh Asosi, treasurer of
God Bawardede took dancing dwarf “dink" to Egypt from Punt. At time of Pharaoh Pepi II
(2625-2475) expedition led by Captain Sebni took resins. Captain Harkhuf moved through
Byblos and took all good tribute from Punt. Senekhkere ordered his officer Henu through
Coptos and Kosseir to Punt. Pharaoh Sesotris (1980-1935) continued contact with Punt.
Amenemhat II (1938-1903) sent captain Khentkhetwer to Punt.

Queen Hatshepsut/Hashepsowe (1490-1468 B.C.), whose expedition is documented at Dier

El Bahri tomb, sent 5 ships under black Nubian captain Nehasi via Wadi-Tumilat. The
expedition was warmly welcomed by the Hamitic Puntites king/Perehu, his wife/Ati, his sons
& daughters and followers. The expedition was able to return collecting frank incense,
cinnamon (sweet smelling woods/sandal), spices, ivory, rhinoceros horn, leopard skins,
ostrich feathers & egg, live monkeys, giraffes, people etc. Hatshepsut presented some parts
of imports to her god Amun. It was because of the ritual importance of their exports that
Puntites were also known as Khebis of the Ta Netjeru/divine or ghosts land. Iron, bronze,
asses, foxes, cattle, animals fur, dying and medicinal plants were also exported from Punt to
Egypt. In return axes, daggers, swords, knives, sickles, clothes, bracelets, necklaces, beads
and other trinkets were imported from Egypt to Punt.

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Map 2: The Land of Punt
B. Damat and Other Cultural Centers in Northern Ethiopia

Habashite and Agazian clans are thought to have migrated from Ma'in, Qataban, Himyar,
Hadramawit and chiefly Sabean states of South Arabia to Eritrea and Tigray around 1000
B.C. They named their new settlements after places in Arabia from which they came with
nostalgic memories. Thus, Ahsea, northwest of Yeha, corresponds to Ahsiyah of Tihama in
Yemen. Assab is corrupt form of Sabat. Bisicia between Aqordat and Kassala can be
identified with Bahilah in central Yemen. Coloe in Eritrea recalls Cullai in Qataban. Hauzen
in Tigray is derived from south Arabian Hausan. Madera, southwest of Yeha, is coined from
Madaran in South Arabia. The Mereb River is named after Arabian dam of Marib. Sahart in
Tigray is named after Sahartan, 75 km from Hodeida on Arabian coast of Redsea. Sarae is
named after Sarwan/Sarat Mountain in Yemen.

With indigenous Cushitic material base, Sabean influence encouraged emergence of Damat
state with center south of Aksum led by Mukkarib (south Arabian title for king) from
6thcentury B. C. onward. Various south Arabian gods and goddesses like
Almouqah/principal god, Astater/heaven god, Shamsi/sun god, Sin/moon god and Nura‟u
were also worshipped. There were also other cultural centers like Addi Gelemo, Addi

48
Grameten, Addi Kewih, Addi Saglamani, Azbi Dera, Feqiya, Hawulti-Melazo, Hinzat, Sefra,
Senafe, Tekonda etc.

Map 3: Ancient Sites of civilization in Northern Ethiopia

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C. Axum
According to sources, Axumite state emerged c. 200-100 B.C. Initially, its power was limited
to a relatively small area comprising the town of Aksum and its environs. Gradually,
however, it expanded to include large territories in all directions. In its heyday, Axumite
territories extended from Red sea in East coast to Western edge of Ethiopian plateau
overlooking the vast Nile Valley in west and from the northern most corner of Eritrea as far
south as north Shawa.

According to Periplus of Erithrean Sea, Adulis on Ethiopia coast of the Red sea was the
major port of Axum till 702 A. D. The long distance trade routes from Adulis and other posts
on the Red Sea coast passed inland through such centers as Kaskasse, Matara and even
further west across Takaze River. The document also mentioned ports of Aden/Eudaemon
Gulf like Avalites/Zayila & Malao/Barbera and Indian Ocean Benadir Coasts like Serapion/
Moqadishu, Nicon/Brava & Merca. The major items of export of the Axumite state consisted
mainly of the natural products such as ivory, myrrh, emerald, frankincense and some spices
(like ginger, cassia and cinnamon). Gold, rhinoceros horns, hippopotamus hides, tortoise
shells and some curiosity animals like apes were also exported. In turn, a number of
manufactured products like garments and textiles from Egypt, Indian, Italy, and Persia;
glassware and jewelry from Egypt and other places; metallic sheets, tools or utensils of
various kind, oil and wine from Italy and Syria were imported. Zoscales/Za Haqel/c. 76-89,
then the king of Axum, used to communicate in Greek language, Lingua Franca of Greco-
Roman world. Axum also had relations with Celon/Sirlanka and Laodicea/Asia Minor.

Adulis inscription of the unknown king published in Cosmos‟s book, Christian Topography
describes about the commercial activities of the Red sea areas. Another historical value of
Cosmos‟s book is its description of the internal long distance trade between Aksum and a
distant region called Sasu, most probably Beni Shangul and the adjoining lands beyond the
Blue Nile. A big caravan made up of close to five hundred merchants some of them special
agents of the kings of Aksurn would take to Sasu cattle, lumps of salt (probably salt blocks)
and iron to exchange for gold. Yet as they did not speak each other‟s language for verbal
communication and did not even trust near to each other and bargain through signs and

50
gestures the whole exchange was done without one side seeing the other. This was a good
example of silent trade.

In overseas, peoples in southern part of Arabian Peninsula, in present day Yemen were
having difficulties in defending themselves against Habashat armies of Gadarat by c. 200 AD.
From the 3rd century AD. to the 7th AD. Axum kings like Endybis, Aphilas/Feliya, Bazen,
Ousanas II, Sembruthes, Wazeba etc. minted and issued different kinds of coins in gold,
silver and bronze for both overseas and local trade transactions. Aksumite ships would have
been the main means of transporting goods. Aksum was the only one with sufficient sources
of timber for shipbuilding. And in those days the technology for it did exist in Adulis. Aksum
had a large fleet of ships which was used not only for trade but also for its wars across the
Red Sea.

Caleb/Ella Atseba (r. 500-535) expanded oversea territories of Axum beyond Himyar and
Saba, but the local prince YusufAsar Yathar (Dhu-Nuwas in the Arab accounts) converted to
Judaism, marched to Zafar & Nagran, and killed many Christians. Byzantine Vasaliev
Justinian (r. 527-65) with consecration of Patriarch Timit III (518-538) provided Caleb with a
number of ships transporting armies led by Julianos and Nonossus against Du Nuwas. Du
Nuwas was defeated and Caleb appointed Abraha/Sumyafa` Ashwa` as governor of Arabia
that continued until 570 A.D. Caleb was succeeded by his son Gabra Masqal (535-48) who
built church at Zur Amba in Gayint. It was during Gabra Maskal that Yared developed
Ethiopian cultural music.

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Map 4: Aksumite Empire
In the 7th century, the whole network of Axumite international trade came under the control
of Arab Muslims and Axum was isolated from its old commercial and diplomatic partners. In
addition, the Beja and Wolqayit people as well as Queen Bani al Hamwiyah (Yodit-
Gudit/Judith) invaded Axum that led to general shift of the center of the state south wards to
Kubar highland rural area.

D. Zagwe Dynasty (1150-1270)

The Zagwe Dynasty appeared in Bugna district within Wag and Lasta, more exactly at Adafa
near Roha/Lalibala. The Agaw prince Zawuge Mika'el/Merera/Mara Teklehaimanot married
daughter of the last Aksumite king Dil Na'od known as Masobe Worq, and later overthrew
his father-in-law and took control of power. Merera‟s successors include were Tantawidim,
Yimirahana Kirstos, Harbe, Lalibala (1160-1211), Ne'akuto La'ab and Yetbarek.

Map 5: Christian kingdom Territories during the Zagwe period

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Zagwe rulers renewed cultural and trade contact with eastern Mediterranean region. The
most important items for export included slaves, ivory and rare spices while cotton, linen,
sliver and copper vessels, various types of drags and newly minted coins were imported.

Zagwe period was also a golden age in Ethiopia's paintings and the translation of some of
religious works from Arabic in to Ge'ez. Yet, Zagwe rulers are best known for construction
of cave, semi-hewn & monolithic churches:

1. Cave: with some decoration inside, almost similar with natural cave, eg. Bete-Mesqel

2. Semi-hewn: with detailed interior decoration & partial decoration outside. They are not
totally separated from surrounding rock. Their roofs or walls are still attached to rock, eg.
Bete Denagil; Debresina/Mikael, Golgota, Merqoriwos and Aba Libanos.

3. Monolithic: with detailed decoration inside including roof & outside. They are completely
separated/carved out from surrounding rock. Amanuel, Giyorgis, Mariyam & Medhanialem.

Table II: Eleven Churches of Lalibela

Group 1 Gare Group 2 Grou Group 3
Medhanelem( the largest of all) Amanu‟el ( the largest from this group) Giyorgis
(special)
Mariyam Marqorewos
Masqal-Sillase Abba Libanos
Debresina-Mika‟el Gabri‟el-Rufa‟el
Danagel
Golgotha

Picture 3: Rockhewn church of Lalibela

It is also referred that Island monastery of Tana Qirqos, Ekka Mika'el, Adadi Mariam and
Abuhe Gabra Manfes Qidus of Cuqqaalaa/Zuqu‟ala were constructed during Zagwe period.

Zagwe kings were considered as illegitimate rulers on the basis of legend of Queen of Sheba/
Saba. The legend was based on a book known as Kebra-Negest (Glory of Kings, used as

53
constitutional document together with Ser‟ate-Mengest and Fetha-Negest) that was begun to
be translated from Coptic & Arabic in to Ge‟ez by priests like Nabura‟id Yeshaq around
1225 A. D. According to the legend, it has been believed that the first Ethiopian Queen
Azeb/ Makedda once (c. 1000 B.C.) visited king Solomon of Israel, who tracked the queen
sleep with him after which she returned to her country pregnant and gave birth to Ibn Hakim
Malik or Menilek I. Menilek I is believed as the first king of Ethiopia and the dynasty
founded by him called Solomonic ruled Aksumite Kingdom until its power was usurpered by
the Zagwes in 1150 A. D.

The hard core of resistance to Zagwe came from the ecclesiastical hierarchy of Ethiopian
churches led by Aksum Tsion Mary Cathedral, Debre-Damo Monastery, St. Stephen‟s
Dabra-Hayiq Monastery under Aqabe Sa‟at Mo‟a Iyesus and Dabra Libanos Monastery
under Abune Tekle-Haymanot (1215-1313). Tesfa-Iyesus/Yekuno-Amlak (r. 1270-1285),
who claimed decent from the last Aksumite king Dilna‟od, after carefully organized his
forces that is, he obtained military assistance from Shawa & his Amhara troops, attempted to
engage the last king of Zagwe, Yetbarek in battle. Yitbark tried to resist but was forced to
flee from Lasta to Begemider and was mercilessly killed in Ansefa in Gaynt at his last stand
in the walls of Dege-Qirqos Church. Yet c. 1268, the Agaws moved to Abba Meta monastery
at Ham in Shimezana in Eritrea and continued their struggle under Emnet Delanda and
Yikwinat. Nevertheless, Yekuno-Amlak mobilized his followers and overwhelmed the
Agaws at Amba-Sannayata, and declared himself as “Mo‟a Anbessa Ze-emnegede Yihuda,
the conquering Lion of the Tribe of Judah.”

3.2.2. East, Central, Southern and Western

3.2.2.1. Bizamo, Damot, Enarya and Gafat

A. Bizamo: was a Cushitic Kingdom located on the southern bend of Abay River just
opposite to the present districts of Gojjam and around the current Wambara area. Information
on its history is scanty, but there are evidences for its early connections with Damot.

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B. Damot: this was very strong kingdom that seems to have dominated most of the lands to
south of Abay and north of Lake Turkana or Rudolf/Galoppi as well as west of Awash and
east of Dhidhessa covering Wencit and Muger Rivers. In the 13th century, Damot king
Motelemi is said to have invaded Ittesa in northern Shawa and captured many Christian
communities. Yet, from 1270, the danger from Damot against the Christians kingdom seems
to have reduced. Yikuno-Amlak conducted a strong military campaign against Damot, which
began to give the Christian Kingdom a dominant position in Shawan region. After this
successful Christian offense, Motalami was baptized by Abune Tekle-Haymanot and
converted to Christianity to bring friendly relations. Thus, Yekuno-Amlak was said to have
appointed Motalami as a king over the land beyond the Gibe River.

C. Enarya: was a kingdom in the Gibe region in southwestern Ethiopia. The royal Hinnario
clan, the Hinnare Bushasho/Hinnaro Busaso is said to have migrated from north Ethiopia or
even Israel. In the 9th century Aksumite king Digna-Jan is said to have led a campaign into
Enarya, accompanied by "150 priests carrying 60 consecrated tablets (tabot)." In the 13th
century, Enarya was recorded to be a province of the Motelemi of Damot. Enarya kingship
was a divine one: the king (Hinnare-tato) dined one time a day, always behind a curtain and
with his meal resting on the back and shoulders of a slave. He probably also sat behind a
curtain when a visitor came along, communicating with him via an intermediary, Afe Busho.
The kings wore rich golden jewelry like a bracelet, a crown with a cross on its top as well as
a phallic projection on the front and two pieces representing the two sexes, symbolizing
"eternal fertility and prosperity". Royal insignia also consisted of a white-red-black (from left
to right) flag, an umbrella and diverse musical instruments. The kings had residences in
Yadare and Gowi. The real power rested with Mikretcho (council) including Awa-rasha
(king's spokesman) and Atche-rasha (royal treasurer).
D. Gafat: the original homeland of the Gafat lies south of Abay (Blue Nile) River adjoining
Damot. It is not clear from the scanty records in Ethiopian chronicles whether the Gafat
formed a “state” or “kingdom,” or not, but Gafat mountains provided a rich source of gold.

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3.2.2.2. Muslim Sultanates

A. Shawa: Makhzumi Khalid ibn al-Walid, who claimed decent from Meca, set up this
state in 896 A. D/283 A.H. on northeastern foothill of Shawan plateau.
B. Fatagar: was founded in areas of Minjar, Shenkora and Ada‟a in the 11th c. It was a
hilly lowland area with thoroughly cultivated fields of wheat and barley, fruits, and
extensive grazing grounds full of numerous herds of cattle, sheep, and goats.
C. Dawaro: located between upper waters of Awash and Wabi-Shebelle extending to
Carcar in Northeast and Gindhir in Southeast.
D. Balli: an extensive kingdom occupying high plateau, separating basins of Shebelle
and Rift valley Lakes. It is here that Abd al Qadir al Jilan and Sheikh Hussein‟s
Ziqtum or Ayna-Gebo and SOF Umar cave mosques were founded.
E. Ifat: between 1271 and 1285, Umar Walasma, who claimed decent from Hashamite
clan and came from Arabia, established Ifat sultanate in the adjacent to Shawan
Sultanate. He intervened between quarrelsome Shawan princes Dil-Marrah & Dil-
Gamis, weakened Shawa and annexed it into his own Sultanate. The new state was
also called Ifat by Christians and as Wafat or Awfat by Muslim writers. It seems to
have been a long narrow escarpment of northeastern Shawa running in a northeast-
southwesterly direction in the Afar plain extending eastward to the Awash. Its capital
was situated upon an elevation above a river valley. The sultanate was fertile & well
watered because of sufficient rainfall. Its inhabitants earned their living from
cultivation of wheat, sorghum, millet &teff and from animal husbandry. Sugar cane,
bananas, variety of fruits, beans, squashes, cucumbers, and cabbage completed the
diet. Chat was described for the first time as being consumed as a stimulant.
F. Other: mutually independent states like Arababani (between Hadiya & Dawwaro),
Biqulzar, Dera (between Dawaro & Ballii), Fadise, Gidaya, Hargaya, Harla, Kwilgora,
Qadise and Sharkah (Arssi) were established by the people like the Gebel, the Warjih
etc.

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3.3. External Contacts

Ethiopia and the Horn had contacts with Egypt since 3,000 B. C. These relations may be
Ethiopia‟s earliest contacts with the Mediterranean world or the Greco-Roman World to
which Egypt was part and parcel later. Ethiopia and the Horn had very close relations with all
commercially active South Arabian Kingdoms starting sometimes before 1,000 B.C. The
introduction of Christianity via Egypt established a new pattern of relation between the
region of Ethiopia & the Horn and Egypt. Until the introduction of Islam into Egypt and the
general reduction of the Christians into minority, relations between the two were fairly
smooth and friendly. After the introduction of Christianity, Ethiopia and the Horn also had
established close relationship with the East Roman or Byzantine Empire. Aksum and
Byzantine shared common commercial interest in the Red Sea area against their rival
Persians. Yet, in the seven century, this relation became complicated and began to deteriorate.
After the consolidation of Muslim power in Arabia, rapid expansion of the Muslim Arabs
through the Near and Middle East, North Africa and the Nile valley brought the collapse of
the whole network of land routes and shipping lines. Successive Egyptian Muslim rulers
began to use the consecration and sending of a bishop as an instrument to further their own
foreign policy objectives and to squeeze concessions from Ethiopian Kings. The Ethiopian
Christian rulers reacted by threatening to divert the Nile. Yet, the famous Egyptian king,
Salah-al-Din, founder of Ayyubid dynasty that ruled Egypt from 1171-1250, is said to have
given many sites to EOC in Jerusalem in Palestine in the last decades of the 12th century to
discourage probable alliance of Christian Ethiopia with the Christian Europe in Crusades
(1096-1291).Coming to power of Mamluks that ruled Egypt from 1250-1517 inaugurated
marked hostility distinguished by reciprocal persecution of religious minorities. Moreover,
the Mamluks also presented a barrier to the contacts that Ethiopian monarchs sought to
establish with their European counterparts.

However, the tradition to visit Jerusalem and other Holy places in the Middle East had begun
at the end of the first millennium and continued afterward. In order to arrive at the Holy
places, the Ethiopian pilgrims used the land route to Egypt, which passed through the

57
northern parts of Eritrea, Suwakin in Sudan and then across the desert and the Nile to arrive
in Cairo. From Cairo again they used the land route to the Holy land. Consequently, there
were considerable numbers of Ethiopian religious communities found in different regions, in
Egyptian monasteries, in the Holy places of Palestine and Armenia, and in Italian city-states
in subsequent centuries. The Ethiopian communities living in different parts of the world
served as an important link or bridge between the Christian kingdom of Ethiopia and Europe.

When these Ethiopians met their fellow Christians of Europe in the Holy places, they
transmitted information about the Ethiopian Church and its exceptional liturgical practices.
They also explained about the territorial extent of the Christian kingdom. From the
information, the Europeans began to consider Ethiopia as a very powerful and wealthy
Christian state existing in the Horn of Africa. Consequently, they wanted to use this
imaginary strong Christian power against the Muslim powers in the Holy land. Around the
middle of the 12th century, a myth about a very rich and powerful Christian ruler known as
Prester John of the Indies began to circulate in Europe. The legend was fabricated and
developed when the balance of war between the Christians of Europe and the Muslims of the
Middle East was in favor of the latter. The crusade war was fought over Jerusalem. The
crusaders, however, failed to crush the Muslim powers in the Middle East. The objective of
creating this imaginary priest-king was mainly to reinforce the religious morale of the
European crusaders. In 1165, a letter addressed to European kings, thought to be sent by the
Prester John appeared in Europe. The letter mentions about enormous power of the Prester
John which created remarkable interest among the Europeans. The geographical location of
the country of Prester John was not known to Europe for over a century. However, the
Europeans began to regard Ethiopian Christian Kingdom as the land of Prester John. This
was because Europeans could not find a Christian state between the Red Sea and the Indian
sub-continent. The only Christian kingdom close to the Indian Ocean in the east is Ethiopian
Christian Kingdom. Then, they began to search for the location of Ethiopian Christian
Kingdom and to make an alliance with it.

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3.4. Economic Formations

A. Agriculture
In economy, the ancient states were based on thriving plow agriculture in highland provinces.
The mastery of the technology of irrigation also contributed to the growth of agricultural
production. Land has always been one of the most precious possessions of human society
throughout history. And the rules according to which members of the society share and use
land constitute what was known as the land holding tenure system. It has been since ancient
time that the traditional system of land tenure seems to have developed.

The most ancient system of land holding which survived in very many parts of Ethiopia until
our own times is the communal land tenure system. Communal right to land is a group right.
Here group refers to the family, the clan and the other lineage groups to which the individual
belonged. Each of these groups had communal right to the land they lived in and freely
exploited the resources of the land.

The northern subjects had rist rights in their respective provinces. Rist is a kind of communal
birth right to land by members of the families and clans of families whose ancestors had
settled and lived in the area over long periods of time. It is inherited from generation to
generation in accordance to with customary law. All the subjects of the state had the rist
rights. The rist owners were known as bale-rist. Yet, they paid tributes to the state and all
land belongs to the state theoretically. Tribute was collected through a complex hierarchy of
state functionaries or officials who were given gult right over the areas and populations they
administered on behalf of the central government. Gult is a right to levy tribute on the rest
owners‟ produce. The tributes collected by bale-gult, partly allotted for their own up keep
and the rest were sent to the center. Gult right that became hereditary was called Riste-Gult
as famous well placed officials used to transfer their position to their offspring.

B. Handicraft
Ethiopian crafts have diverse forms and applications. These include beadwork, body
scarification, tattoos, carving (on leather, wood and stone), farming implements and

59
harvesting tools; housing, construction methods, furniture, iconography etc. Technology in
ancient Ethiopian societies was fairly advanced. This can be seen from the magnificent of the
ruins of residential houses and temples, from the quality of ornaments. The artisans
demonstrated a high level of technological advancement in the fields of masonry, jewelry,
weaponry, pottery etc.

C. Trade
Trade was another important economic activity of the ancient states that obtained
considerable income from both internal and international trade. Indeed, trade seems to have
been one of the major factors in the initial formation of states in Ethiopia. The major socio-
economic and political centers of earliest states seem to have also been major trade centers
with wide ranging contacts in various directions within the region itself and with merchants
coming to the area across the international water bodies. A network of roads connected the
centers with the coast and various dependencies in the interior. Local and international
merchants frequented these roads. The region was crisscrossed by various trade routes
connecting various market places in all directions. The regular flow of trade was so vital to
the states in that one of their major concerns was to protect the trade routes and make them
safe from robbers. Only very few of these ancient market centers have been studied by
archaeologists.

3.5. Socio-cultural Achievements

A. Architecture
As the states expanded, architecture also began to flourish and one of the unique architectural
technologies was the engraving of stele around the 3rd century AD. There were totally fifty
eight steles in and around Axum that can be grouped into well made & decorated, half
completed and megaliths (not hewn). As local tradition says, the steles were engraved
specifically at a place called Hinzat, from which they were transported and planted in Axum.
The longest one of these stele measures 33meters heights (the first in the world). It is highly
decorated in all of its four sides. It represents a-14 storied building with many windows and a
false door at the bottom. It also bears a pre-Christian symbol which is a disc and a crescent
(half moon) at the top. Some scholars suggest that this giant stele was broken while the

60
people were trying to erect it while others conclude that it was broken during war. The
second longest obelisk measures 24 meters height that was successfully erected and
represents a ten storied building with many windows and a false door at the bottom. The third
longest stele measures 21 meters and represents a nine storied building with many windows
and a false door at the bottom. It is smooth at the back of its side. It is without any decoration.

Picture 4: Axumite Stele

Zagwe churches are regarded as some of the finest architecture of artistic achievements of the
Christian world and that is why they have been recognized by UNESCO as part of world
cultural heritage in 1978 two years before that of Axumite stele.

B. Writing
Sabeans introduced Sabean language which had alphabet with boustrophedon writing type
that is paleographical writing from left to right and right to left alternatively. As a result of
strong Sabean influence, most of the inscriptions of this period were written in Sabean
language. The earliest inscriptions in Eritrea and Ethiopia date to the 9th century BC in
Epigraphic South Arabian (ESA). One peculiar feature of the Sabean inscriptions is the
absence of vowels in the written words. Most of the words written are consonants. For

61
instance, the state of Damat was described as D‟mt, while its three consecutive kings as
RDM, RBH and LMN. The rulers also used another south Arabian title, mlkn.

After the 7th and 6th centuries BC, however, variants of the script arose, evolving in the
direction of the Geʽez abugida (a writing system that is also called an alpha syllabary). This
evolution can be seen most clearly in evidence from inscriptions mainly graffiti on rocks and
caves. Geʽez script also originated as an abjad (consonant-only alphabet). By the first
centuries AD, "Old Geʽez alphabet" arose, an abjad written left-to-right with letters basically
identical to the first-order forms of the modern vocalized alphabet. Vocalization of Geʽez
occurred in the 4th century. Though the first completely vocalized texts known are
inscriptions by Ezana (who left trilingual inscriptions in Greek, Sabean and Ge'ez), vocalized
letters predate him by some years, as vocalized letter exists in his predecessor Wazeba‟s coin
some 30 or so years before Ezana. The vocalization may have been adopted to preserve the
pronunciation of Geʽez texts due to the already moribund or extinct status of Geʽez.
Kobishchanov, Daniels and others have suggested possible influence from the Brahmic
family of alphabets in vocalization, as they are also abugidas. The original consonantal form
of the Geʽez fidel is believed to have been divinely revealed to Henos "as an instrument for
codifying the laws." A separate tradition, recorded by Aleqa Taye, holds that the Geʽez
consonantal alphabet was first adapted by Zegdur, a legendary king of the Ag'azyan Sabaean
dynasty held to have ruled in Ethiopia c. 1300 BC.

The abjad, used until c. 330 AD, had 26 consonantal letters. The Geʽez abugida developed
under the influence of Christian scripture by adding/fusing obligatory vocalic diacritics for
the vowels, u, i, a, e, ə, o, to the consonantal letters in a recognizable but slightly irregular
way, so that the system is laid out as a syllabary. The original form of the consonant was
used when the vowel was ä (/ə/), the so-called inherent vowel. For some vowels, there is an
eighth form for the diphthong -wa or -oa; and for some of those, a ninth for -yä. To represent
a consonant with no following vowel, for example at the end of a syllable or in a consonant
cluster, the ə (/ɨ/) form is used (the letter in the sixth column). Vocalization is attributed to a
team of scholars led by Frumentius . It has been argued that the vowel marking pattern of the
script reflects a South Asian system, such as would have been known by Frumentius.

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C. Calendar
People needed to know and remember the times when the rains would begin and end as well
as the rise and fall of the water level. The responsibility of understanding these vital climatic
cycles fell on expertise. It was thus that calendars were invented. In most cases the length of
the month was based on the movement of the moon or the apparent movement of the sun.
Otherwise the number of days in the week or in the year varied from region to region.

Oromo calendar has been based on astronomical observations of moon in conjunction with
seven or eight particular stars or group of stars called Urjii Dhahaa/guiding stars or
Bakkalcha. There are 291/2 dates in a month (which have special names symbolizing 20
fingers of hands and legs, seven holes on face, and two taboo holes) and 354 days in 12
months of a year. The landmark for this calendar was the beginning of Gadaa System that
traced back to c. 9, 000 years ago. Pillars (dated 300 B.C.), which were discovered in
northwestern Kenya from 1978-86 by Archaeologists Lynch, Robbins and Doyl have
suggested to represent site used to develop Oromo calendar. In connection with this, c. 900
A.D. Oromo person Waqlim is said to have taken art of shaping phallic bowls to Zimbabwe.

The Sidama calendar rotates following movements of stars with 13 months a year, 12 of
which are divided equally into 28 days while the 13th month has 29 days as Sidama week has
only 4 days (Dikko, Deela, Qawadoo & Qawalanka) and hence each month has 7 weeks.
Nominated Moote (King) is presented to Fichche, New Year ritual, for Qeexala or popular
demonstration.

Ethiopian and Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church Calendar is a solar calendar which in
turn derives from the Egyptian calendar, but corresponds to or like the Old-Style Julian
Calendar, it adds a leap day every four years without exception, and begins the year on
August 29 or August 30 in Julian calendar. Like the Coptic calendar, Ethiopic calendar has
12 months of 30 days plus 5 or 6 Epagomenal/ Qaamme days, which comprise a
thirteenth/13th month. A 6th Epagomenal day is added every 4 years, without exception, on
August 29 of Julian calendar, 6 months before corresponding Julian leap day. Ethiopian

63
months begin on the same days as those of the Coptic, but their names are in Ge'ez. A gap of
7–8 years between Ethiopian and Gregorian calendars results from alternative calculation in
determining date of Annunciation. Thus the first day of the Ethiopian year, 1 Meskerem /
Enkutatash is usually September 11 (Gregorian). However, it falls on September 12 in years
before the Gregorian leap year.

D. Numerals

Geʽez uses numeral system comparable to the Hebrew, Arabic & Greek numerals, and
Ethiopian numerals are said to have been borrowed from the Greek numerals, possibly via
Coptic uncial letters. Geʽez uses numeral system differs from Hebrew, Arabic & Greek
systems, however, in that it lacks individual characters for the multiples of 100. Numbers are
over- and underlined with a vinculum; in proper typesetting these combine to make a single
bar, but some less sophisticated fonts cannot render this and show separate bars above and
below each character.

Learning activities
 Do further research in your library on the histories of ancient states of Ethiopia and
the Horn and present your findings to the class. Make sure to address the what, where,
when, why, how and by whom questions in your assignment.
 Explain the role of agriculture and trade in the formation and consolidation of ancient
and medieval states of Ethiopia and the Horn. Use examples to illustrate your
discussion.
 Discuss how Christianity and Islam expanded in Ethiopia and assess their importance
in the political and cultural life of ancient and medieval states of the region.
 Discuss the debates surrounding the location of Punt.
 What differences did you observe between the Axumite stele and the Egyptian
pyramids?
 Discuss the origin and growth of the Aksumite state.
 Discuss outstanding political and cultural achievements of the Aksumite state.
 What did the states of Punt and Aksum have in common?

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 Discuss the internal and external factors for the decline and fall of the Axumite
kingdom.
 What were the major reasons that led king Lalibela to construct rock-hewn churches?
 What was the significance of the ancient legend of Queen of Sheba in Ethiopian
politics?
 What factors brought an end to the Zagwe dynasty?
 Compare and contrast peasant conditions in ancient Ethiopia and Egypt.
 Discuss the role of trade and trade routes in the interactions between peoples and
states in Ethiopia and the Horn and assess the outcomes of these relationships.
 Sketch the major trade routes that linked northern and southern Ethiopia with the
outside world.
 Explain how Ethiopian societies were both influenced by contact with the outside
world while concurrently influencing external societies with whom they had contact.

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 Unit Four

Politics, Economy and Socio-Cultural Processes from the Late Thirteenth

to the beginning of the Sixteenth Centuries (6 hours)

Einführung

Dear Learners,

The period from late 13th to the beginning of the 16th centuries experienced

dynamics of politics, economy, and socio-cultural processes that contributed to

the formation of modern Ethiopia. Among the events that brought enduring

influence on the politics of the region were the restoration of the "Solomonic

dynasty," territorial expansion, religious expansions, trade, and conflicts. This

unit entertains the "restoration" of "Solomonic Dynasty" territorial expansion,

evangelization processes, succession problems in the Christian Kingdom and

subsequent interactions with the neighboring polities and peoples in the Horn.

The unit also entertains social, economic and political Dynamics of Muslim

Sultanates, the role of trade and rivalry between the Christian and Muslim

sultanate and external relations in the period.

Unit Objectives
At the end of this unit, students will be able to:
 explain the phrase “restoration of Solomonic dynasty;”
 scrutinize dynamics of territorial expansion of the Christian kingdom;
 elaborate the relationship between trade & expansion of Islam in the region;
 identify the characteristics of inter-state relation during the period under discussion;

66
  understand the long aged factors for interaction of the people of the region in the
period;
 discuss rivalry between the Christian Kingdom and Muslim Sultanates in the region;
 point out countries/Empires with which Ethiopia had external relation during the
period.

Unit starters
 What do you remember about the legend of the Queen of Sheba and its role in
Ethiopian politics?
 What does territorial expansion mean?
 What do we mean by evangelization?
 What do you think are the roles of trade in a society?

4.1. The “Restoration” of the “Solomonic‟‟ Dynasty

Yekuno-Amlak‟s victory over the last Zagwe ruler and his enthronement as a king led to the
“revival or restoration of Solomonic” dynasty and also marked the beginning of Ethiopia‟s
medieval period. The Kibre-Negest is a national epic that glorifies a particular monarchical
line and also indelibly associates Ethiopia with the Judeo-Christian tradition.
According to Marcus (pp. 17-18)
The revised Ethiopian constitution of 1955 claimed that the ruling line
descended from Menelik I, the son of Makeda, queen of Ethiopia, and King
Solomon.” …The Kebre-Negest's primary goal was to legitimize the
ascendancy of Emperor Yekuno-Amlak and the "Restored" Solomonic line.

From about 1270 when Yekuno-Amlak took power from the hands of the Zagwe until the
deposition of Emperors Haile Sillasse I in 1974, all Ethiopian monarchs claimed descent
from the family of Yekuno-Amlak.

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4.2. Power Struggle, Consolidation, Territorial and Religious Expansion of the
Christian Kingdom

4.2.1. Succession Problem and the Establishment of „Royal Prison‟

Yekuno-Amlak ruled peacefully, and after his death in 1285, his successor eldest son, Yegba-
Tsion‟s reign (r. 1285-94) and the following decade or more was characterized by constant
power struggles among the sons and grandsons of Yekuno Amlak. The existence of power
struggle civil war was reflected in a letter written by Yegba-Tsion to the Sultan of Egypt and
the Patriarch of Alexandria in 1290. The serious and dangerous power struggle reached in its
zenith or a worse situation during Yegba-Tsion‟s sons (Senfe-Ar‟ad, Hezbe-Asseggid,
Qedme-Asseggid, Seb-Asseggid and Jan-Asseggid) reign (1294 to 1299).

This continuous succession problem was resolved around 1300, during the reign of Widim-
Ra‟ad (r. 1299-1314); when Amba-Gishen was established as „royal prison to avoid further
power struggle among contending princes. According to the rule, all males tracing descent
from Yikunno Amlak except the sons of the reigning emperor were imprisoned at Amba-
Gishen. Amba Gishen was guarded by soldiers under a commandant loyal to the reigning
monarch. When the reigning king/ emperor died the eldest son would be put on the throne
and his brothers would be sent to Amba-Gishen due to many of heirs. However, if the dying
king did not have a son the higher officials would discuss and make a choice. Then they
would send an army to Amba-Gishen to escort the chosen and put him on the throne. This
practice continued until Amba-Gishen was destroyed by Imam Ahmad Ibrahim Al-Ghazi in
1540.

4.2.2. Consolidation and Territorial Expansion

The center of the “restored” dynasty was at first in medieval Amhara (today‟s South Wallo)
around Lake Haiq. But, it gradually shifted its center into Shawa, in to the districts like:
Menz, Tegulet, Bulga, Yerer, Entoto, Menagesha, Wachacha, Furi and Zequalla. From 1270,

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until the establishment of Gondar in 1636, the medieval monarchs spent their reign in mobile
court/ roving capital.

After „restoration‟ one of the first tasks of Yekuno-Amlak was to consolidate his authority
throughout the empire and expand his administration. He quickly subdued Yifat, the Muslim
center adjacent to Shawa. Yet, until the coming of Amde-Tsion, the center and the territorial
limit of the Christian kingdom was mainly in nowadays areas of Tigray, Lasta, the Amhara
regions of Wallo and Shawa. It was mainly as a result of the internal power struggle.

Apart from the previous rulers, in relatively speaking, there was stability during the reign of
Widim-Ra‟ad. The Christian kingdom could bring extensive territories during the reign of
Emperor Amde-Tsion (r.1314 to 1344). He was the first Solomonic king, who embarked
upon a policy of wider and rapid territorial expansion. His main motives of expansion were
economic and political (to control the trade routes and expand territories). During this period
commodities flowed to the coast along, one: from Sudan to Massawa north of Lake Tana via
Lasta; second, from central provinces through southern Shawa to Massawa or Zeila; and third
from southern provinces with the route through Shawa to Zeila.)

In the process of consolidating his power, Amde-Tsion subdued rebellions and was able to
bring an end to the centrifugal tendency, which threatened the unity of the Christian
Kingdom. He made territorial expansion in to:

A. The Agaw (Awi) of Gojjam: Amde-Tsion annexed the region around 1323-24. The
expansion into Agaw was soon followed by the establishment of churches and
monasteries.
B. Bizamo: this was conquered c. 1316/7 and existed until the end of the 16th century
under the control of the Christian Kingdom.
C. Damot: the process of subjugation started by Yekuno-Amlak was effectively
accomplished under Amde-Tsion when Damot became a tributary state of the
Christian Kingdom c. 1316/17.

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 D. The Falasha/Bete-Israel: the successive campaigns of Amde-Tsion around 1332
pushed the people further into the inaccessible mountain districts north of Begemder
from Dembeya in south to Tekeze in east & north. Yet, it was not final. The Felasha
continued to resist and rebel against the growing Christian Kingdom‟s domination
throughout the medieval period. E. The Red Sea Coast: Amde-Tsion was deeply
concerned about the dangers of the development of Muslim power in the Red Sea
Coast. It was an important route for diplomatic relations and the desire to share in or
control the northern trade route between interior of Ethiopia and Muslim powers of
Egypt, the Middle East and also beyond. In his continued northward march as far as
the present Eritrea and the Red Sea, in his chronicle Amde-Tsion describes his
victories: “I, king Amda Şiyon, went to the sea of Eritrea. When I reached there, I
mounted on an elephant and entered the sea. I took up my arrow and spears, killed my
enemies, and saved my people.” To consolidate the control of the Christian state over
the provinces of the north extending to the coastal areas of Massawa, Amde-Tsion
claimed to get back territories once belonging to the great kings of Aksum. The north
Muslims resented his campaign against the Muslim State of Ifat and Shawa and they
might have cooperated with the rebellious army at Indarta in northern Tigray, led by
Yaibeka-Igzi in 1320s. He first gave Indarta to his queen Bilen-Saba. However, Bahr-
Sagad, the son of Amde-Tsion, became the governor of Tigre. It seems then that
Amde-Tsion took immediate campaign in today‟s Eritrea region in 1325. After
controlling the whole region he appointed a governor with a title of Makale Bahir
which later on changed into Bahire Negash.

In the southeast, Muslim sultanates, which were located on the line of the trade, were made
tributaries of the Christian kingdom of Amde-Tsion. In the south, the Gurage speaking areas
and some of the Omotic kingdoms like Wolayta and Gamo were also brought under the
control or at least under the influence of the Christian state. Amde-Tsion was in full control
of all the trade routes and sources of trade of the Ethiopian region in the early 1330s.

The consolidation and territorial expansion of the Christian Kingdom continued during the
reigns of the successors of Amde-Tsion.

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Map 6: The Christian kingdom during the reign of Emperor Amde-Tsion (r.1314-1344)

4.2.3. Evangelization and Religious Movements

I. Evangelization
The evangelization process in Ethiopian region during the medieval period was very closely
associated with the expansion and the consolidation of the Christian state. As the 14th
century marked the maximum expansion of the Christian kingdom, at the same time, it
contributed more for the expansion of Orthodox Church to the peoples of different areas. The
Shawan plateau played the most important role for both the military activities of the Christian
army and also propagating Christian teaching. In Shawa there was presence of early
Christians, who had contact with their distant kinsmen of Christian dominated Northern part
of Ethiopia (more with Amhara & Tgire). According to Taddese Tamrat (Church & State,
300 & 305), the province of Amhara was exposed to Christian influences much longer during
the medieval period, but they were lacking cultural Christian centers of learning and

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monastic activities until the time of Iyesus-Mo'a. Particularly his advent to Haiq opened new
opportunities of learning for the Christians in the then time Amhara and Shawa. And this also
opened an evangelization of the newly incorporated non-Christian areas.

Saint Tekle-Haymanot, who was born at Tsilalish in Zorere (in today Bulga), contributed
more for the revival of Christianity in Shawa and the regeneration of the church in the
southern part of Ethiopia including medieval Damot. During the time of Amde-Tsion, under
the direction of the Egyptian bishop in Ethiopia Bishop Yaqob spread to non-Christians areas.
He sent preacher in different parts of the country.

For instance:
 to east direction- Yohannes for Kil'at, Tadewos for Tsilalish and Matyan for Fatagar
 to north-west-Anorewos "the junior" for Moret & Wegda and Merqorewos for
Merhabite.
 to the south and south-west- Anorewos "the elder" for Wereb and Sigaj Adhani for
Damot, Iyosyas for Wej, and Yosef for Enariya.
In addition to the above, Emperor Amde-Tsion also consolidated the expansion of the Church
even among followers of Christianity already existed in the region between the River
Tekezze and Lake Tana including Gojjam.

II. Religious Movements

A. The Ewostatewos Movement
Monasticism assumed a dominant position in Ethiopian church only in the mid-13th C. the
period witnessed rapid development of monasticism, and a religious movement called
Ewostatewos movement arose. Ewostatewos established his own monastic community in
Sara'e. There, he was joined by many students and taught until about1337. His main
argument was Sabbath, one of the Ten Commandments given to Moses. According to him,
Sabbath should be strictly observed as holiday. At the beginning of the movement, he was
opposed by an organized religious rival group of the clergy in Sera'e. Then he left the
country in to Egypt. At Cairo he was accused by Ethiopian pilgrims of refusing to

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communicate with them and of observing the Sabbaths. So his reception in Egypt was clearly
unfavourable. At the end he passed on to Jerusalem, on the way, he died in 1350s.

Immediately after he left Ethiopia, his followers led by Abba Absad became weakened.
However, the movement got renaissance when some of his followers such as Bekimos,
Merkoryewos and Gebre –Iyasus returned back to home from Armenia after his death. All
the follower of Ewostatewos soon became active and dispersed to different monasteries in
northern Ethiopia. And also, the movement spread in the areas like Enfranz, northern Tigre,
Sera'e and Hamessen. Gradually, the movement became strong with new team of better
organization. The king and the Abun opposed their movement as the observance of the
Sabbath is rejected as a Jewish custom by the Egyptian Coptic Church. The anti-
Ewostatewos party among the clergy was led by the Abun of the Hayq Monastery, called
Aqabe-Se‟at Sereq Birhan. They were imprisoned and punished. This was because the king
feared that dispute in the church could divide his kingdom. Accordingly, the local clergy
persecuted and expelled them from the settled areas. In their search for suitable places, they
were forced to withdraw into frontier areas or settle in peripheral areas, and founded the
monasteries of Debre Bizamo Philipos, Debre San (Gebre-Iyesus among the „Felasha‟ in
Infranz) etc. Since all the members of the house of Ewostatewos did not receive Holy Orders
at the hands of the Egyptian bishop, communities of Debre-Bizan, Debre-Maryam and others
lived in an almost complete independence from the rest of the church.

The house of Ewostatewos emerged from the struggle with success. Towards the end of the
reign of the King Dawit, the Ewostatian seem to have acquired complete freedom of
movement throughout the kingdom based on Dawit's decree in 1404. This provided them
with much scope for expansion. The final success of the Ewostatians was their acquisition of
complete freedom to observe the Sabbath.

B. The Religious Reforms of Zara-Yaqob

Zara-Yaqob (r. 1434-68) who was the son of Dawit ascended to the throne with definite pro-
Sabbath convictions. He felt that Christianity was not deeply rooted in most areas. The

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Emperor wanted to end non-Christian practices by strengthening Orthodox Church. The
assimilation of the traditional religious followers into the Christian community, and the
creation of religiously homogeneous society was Zara-Yaqob‟s highest deal. He introduced a
severe punishment against non-Christian practices and the abolition of worshiping traditional
religions in his kingdom.

Therefore, Zara-Yaqob‟s attention was first drawn to the problem of setting the internal
conflicts among the Ethiopian clergy and the creation of a prefect church-state union. To this
end, he designed his own plan. He made peace with the House of Ewostatewos reviving
Sabbath in the Ethiopian church and the Ewostatian agreed to receive Holy orders from the
Ethiopian prelates. In addition, Zara-Yaqob introduced other reforms. He urged the clergy to
be sent to remote areas to preach Christianity or teach and guide the people. On Saturdays
and Sundays, every Christian was expected or required to go to the nearest church to attend
church service, where the priests had to teach the people 'the Worship of God, his
commandments, and the observance of his Sabbaths'. The king instructed the strict
observance of numerous fasting and holy days. Every Christian had to have his own Father
Confessor who looked after his spiritual wellbeing. He declared the sign of the cross had to
be affixed on all the belongings of the Christians.

Lack of sufficient religious books was a problem, thus the king encouraged the establishment
of a library in every church. There was revival of religious literature during the reign of
Emperor Zera-Ya‟eqob. He was a great writer. He himself wrote some books like Metsafe-
Birhan, Metsafe-Me‟lad, Metsafe-Sillasie, Metasfe-teqebo Mister etc. In addition, during his
reign; Te‟amre-Maryam was translated.

Apart to his religious reforms, in creating a uniform religious practice among his subjects, he
applied very harsh rules. Thus, there were political reactions against his high handed rule.

4.3. Political and Socio-Economic Dynamics of Muslim Sultanates

4.3.1. Political Developments in the Muslim Sultanates and the Rise of Adal

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According to Taddese Tamrat, rulers of Ifat were tributary to the king of Damot at the
beginning. Yet, Ifat freed itself from Damot in short period of time and extended its
hegemony into neighboring Sultanates. It also made series offensive and defensive attacks
versus the Christain kingdom. However, one branch of the Walasma exiles family, which
realized that Ifat was becoming an easy target to the Christian kingdom due to its location,
moved further to the southeastern lowlands and established new and vigorous Muslim
Sultanate of Adal in the highland districts around Harar in 1367. The first center of this
extended Walasma Dynasty was at a place called Dakar (Deker), a place located on the
southeast of Harar. The Walasma family consolidated its power in the new center, and began
another phase of offensive military campaigns against the frontiers of the Christian kingdom.
The center of Adal later on in 1520 changed to the city of Harar and after the defeat of Imam
Ahmad; a growing threat from a new force-the Oromo forced the sultanate to change its
capital to Awsa in 1576/7, to the present Afar region.

4.3.2. Trade and the Expansion of Islam

During this time Islam was strongly established in the southeastern lowlands of the region
that was the territory controlled by most of the Muslim sultanates. By using this region as
strong base, Islam spread into the central and southwestern parts of the Ethiopian region
through Muslim merchants and scholars. Trade was not only used as means for expansion of
Islam in the Muslim Sultanates rather it was the base of their economy. The most known
Muslim Sultanates during this period were Ifat (1285-1415) and Adal (1415-1577).

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 Map 7: Trade Routes and Muslim Sultanates in Medieval Ethiopia

4.4. Rivalry between the Christian Kingdom and the Muslim Sultanates

Zeila was the main outlet for the medieval period long distance trade. The ambition to control
this trade route and commodities that passed through Zeila, led to rivalry between the
“Solomonic” rulers and the Sultanate of Ifat. The competition among them became the
source of conflict. Trade had long been the source of friendship, interaction, interdependence
and conflict among the states of the region. The first recorded conflict between the Christian
kingdom and Ifat took place in 1328. It was because of the reason the Muslim Sultanates
organized their armies and took the first offensive action against the Christian kingdom. The
sultan of Ifat Haqaddin I stopped merchants belonging to the Christian king, Amde-Tsion,
confiscating the goods and capturing and imprisoning Amde-Tsion‟s agent, Ti‟iyintay
returning from Cairo. These actions forced Amde-Tsion to wage a campaign against
Haqaddin I; defeated and took him prisoner and eventually replaced him by his brother
Sabradin. Both Ifat and Fatagar became under Sabradin. Sultanates of Hadiya and Dawaro
were showing their alliance to Sabradin.

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However, in 1332, Sabradin broke his allegiance to Amde-Tsion, mobilized all Muslims
Sultanates from the lowlands and declared three pronged attacks (interestingly with the
alliance of the Jewish inhabiting north fringe of Lake Tana) against the Christian kingdom.
Yet, Ifat was defeated and sacked, Sabradin escaped to Dawaro. Amde-Tsion followed and
imprisoned him together with the ruler of Dawaro, Haydara. The hegemony of Ifat came to
an end after Amde-Tsion defeated Sabradin. After the defeat of Sabradin, Ifat was placed
under Jamaldin (another brother of Sabradin) as tributary ruler to Amde-Tsion and Fatagar &
Dawaro were incorporated. Amde-Tsion required from them annual tributes and freedom of
movement for all caravans through Zeila.

As the then time strongest Sultanate Ifat was eventually weakened and became tributary to
the Christian kingdom; the other Muslim sultanates like Sharkha, Harar, Bali, Dara, and
Arbabani were also seriously weakened. It was based on these grounds that some members of
Walasma moved their seat of power further east to Adal, from where they continued their
struggle. To check their attacks on the highlands, the successors of Emperor Amde-Tsion
conducted repeated campaigns into the lowlands. In 1376, internal struggle to the throne of
Ifat resulted in Haqadin II‟s coming to power. He refused to pay tribute and rebelled against
son and successor of Amde-Tsion, Sayfa-Arad (r.1344 -71), but, he was defeated and killed
in battle in 1386. The successor of Haqadin II, Sa‟adaddin II (C. 1386-1402) gained initial
success but king Dawit I (r. 1380-1412) in 1402/3 extended his expansion and defeated him.
Sa‟adaddin II became refuge in Zeila and later on during the reign of King Yishaq (r.1413-
30) in 1415 he was killed. After the death of Sa‟adaddin and the control of Zeila, the Muslim
sultanates in Ethiopia were weakened for a long time. Tens of sons of Sa‟adaddin took refuge
in Yemen and then came back from their exile to bear the title of “sultan of Adal” rather than
Ifat. For this reason, Muslim Sultanates fought each other rather than united. The expansion
of the Christian kingdom to these Muslim Sultanates turned Ethiopian kings in to „Kng of
Kings‟ or emperor. Yet, Yishaq lost his life fighting somewhere in Adal.

The “Solomonic” dynasty reached its peak during the reign of Emperor Zare-Yae‟qob when
the Christian kingdom gained some accesses to the Red Sea commerce and again maritime,
imperial power become strong politically and religiously (built numerous churches and

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monasteries, encouraged literature and art). Emperor Zare-Yaqob controlled Zeila,
reoccupied Massawa and Dahlak became his tributary.

In 1445, Sultan Ahmad Badley mobilized all his forces and invaded the Christian kingdom
but, he was defeated in the battle of Yeguba. The son and successor of Ahmad Badley,
Muhammad Ahmad Badlay (r.1445-71) sent a message of submission to successor of Zara-
Yaqob, Ba‟ede Mariam (r. 1468-78) to continue to be tributary vassal of the Christian kings.
On the death of Muhammad, however, Adal resumed its power and began struggle.

Be‟de-Mariam campaigned against Adal by his stationed army from Dawaro and Bali. The
first two of these campaigns were complete successes. The third and last in 1474 was,
however, a great set back to the Christian army that lost its highest commanding officers.
The subsequent rulers of the Christian kingdom were proved to be weak in their dealing with
Muslim Sultanates. Yet, after Zara-Yaqob had smashed the sultans of Adal and Hadiya, the
Walasma sultans of Adal were obliged to change their policy of war against the Christian
state. They preferred peace to war. They began to acknowledge the power of the Christian
Emperor by paying annual tribute. One of these sultans of Adal was Mohammad ibn Azhar
ad-Din (1488-1518). He made some attempts to harmonize relations with the Christian
kingdom. However, the various Emirs of the southeastern region of Harar such as Leday
Uthman, Mahfuz and Abubakar in collaboration with Garads, Emirs, Wazirs, Imamas, Qadis,
army leaders continued to resist the Christian kingdom. Accordingly, Mahfuz carried out
some effective raids into the highlands. However, Mahfuz died in 1517 in a battle with
Emperor Lebne-Dengel (r. 1508-1540) and his son-in-law, Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-
Ghazi, popularly known as Ahmad Gragn or the left-handed, took over.

N.B. Apart from these rivalries between the Christian Kingdom and Muslim Sultanates;
people of the plain have interaction with those of the plateau just as lowlanders had dealings
with highlanders. These interactions and interdependence in economic, social, cultural and
political spheres laid the ground for the formation of modern Ethiopia.

4.5. External Relations

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4.5.1. With Egypt
In 1272, Yekuno-Amlak sent an embassy to Egypt‟s Sultan Baybars requesting an Abun
from Alexandrian Coptic Orthodox Church. Furthermore, both Egypt and Ethiopia continued
to act as protectors of minority Muslims in Ethiopia and minority Christians in Egypt
respectively mainly as of the coming of the Mamluks to power in Egypt. Egypt also wanted
to insure secure flow of Nile (the Abay River) that originated from Ethiopia.
Mohammed ibn Qala‟un in Cairo persecuted the Copts destroying their churches while Ifat
dynasty interpreted this as a sign of political weakness. Amde-Tsion demanded restoration of
churches destroyed with threat that failure to do so result in diversion of the Nile waters.
Patriarch Marqos (1348- 63) sent words to Sayfa-Arad announcing his imprisonment by the
Sultan. Sayfa-Arad mobilized a huge army and began a move towards Egypt, but the Sultan
after hearing the news released the patriarch and sent a delegation and a gift to the king.

Dawit also took offensive against Egypt, but was settled by patriarch Matewos (1328-1408)
and by the Amir delegated. Dawit welcomed Egyptian diplomats and sent gifts to the sultan.
He received from Jerusalem piece of the true cross and number of religious paintings
including the famous “kuerate resu”, which depicts figure of Christ crowned with thorns.

Zara-Yaqob wrote a letter to Sultan Barsbay in the year 1437/8. The letter was friendly,
requesting the protection of Christians. However, three years later, Patriarch Yohannes XI
wrote to Zara-Yaqob announcing the demolition of the famous church of Mitmaq (Debre-
Mitmaq). He then sent envoys to Sultan Jaqmaq (1438-53) with a strongly worded letter. In
reply to this message Jaqmaq sent envoy to Ethiopia, with complimentary gifts to the king
and rejected the renewal of the church.

There were also similar traditions in which the Muslim of Ethiopia, on their persecution
asked for the help of the Muslim rulers of Egypt.

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4.5.2. Ethiopia‟s Relations with Christian Europe

According to Benjamin Weber, in 12th century, Ethiopians were mentioned in Jerusalem. He

also added that European medieval authors: Isidore of Seville, Honorius Augustodinensis and
Vincent of Beauvais were aware of the existence of Ethiopia. It is also stated that Ethiopians
were recorded in Milan in 1395, during Gian Galeazzo Visconti‟s coronation and three
Ethiopians attended the Council of Constance in 1418. Guillaume Adam, a Dominican monk
sought Ethio-European alliance since he knew the location and condition of the area. He
planned to block the eastern trade at the Gulf of Aden with military cooperation of the
Christians of Ethiopia. In another report presented to King Phillip of France in 1332, he also
mentioned Ethiopians.

The earliest known message to Ethiopia from a European monarch is the letter of King Henry
IV dated 1400 A.D. and addressed to the king of Abyssinia, Prester John. The identification
of the king of Abyssinia with Prester Johan was firmly established in the fourteenth century.
They even thought that it was possible to liberate Jerusalem with the help of this king. Hence
during the reign of king Dawit, the peoples of Rome, Constantinople, Syria, Armenia and
Egypt sent a letter to the king saying- “the rulers of Muslim rose against us, to destroy our
faith in Christ.” King Dawit received some Italian craftsmen consisting mainly of Florentines.
Soon after the letter of king Hennery, the first embassy to Europe, was responded in 1402 led
by a Florentine called Antonio Bartoli.

Alphonso de Paiva V of Argon received a delegation from Yishaq in the city of Valentia, in
1427. Yishaq‟s delegation to Europe was to ask for more artisans and military experts. The
embassy of the Duke of Berry consisting craftsmen, Neapolitan Pietro, a Spaniard and a
Frenchman reached Ethiopia in the reign of Yishaq. In 1432, Pietro only surviving the return
journey was at Pera recruiting craftsmen to go back to Ethiopia.

In 1450 a Silican Pietro Rombulo, who had been in Ethiopia since the last years of Dawit's
reign and who had previously carried out a successful trade mission to India on behalf of the
king, was now sent to Europe as Zara-Yaqob‟s ambassador. An Ethiopian priest, Fikre-

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Mariam and two other individuals accompanied him. The mission was to Alphonso of Argon,
(also ruled as king of Naples and Sicily). King Zara-Yaqob sent delegates to Alphonso to get
political and military technical aid. Alphonso wrote to Zara Yaqob and informed him that he
sent him artisans and masons he requested.

The most authentic pieces of evidence for Ethio-Europe links are Egyptus Novelo (c. 1454)
and Fra Mauro's Mappomondo (1460) which clearly depicted many places and peoples.
Venetian Gregorio or Hieronion Bicini visited Abyssinia in 1482. Pedros da Covilhao/Peter
de Covilham arrived at Abyssinian court of Eskindir (1478-1494) in 1493.

Among the famous female personalities in Ethiopian history, Queen Elleni who was an ex-
Muslim chief of Hadiya baptized about 1445 on marrying King Zara-Yaqob (1434 - 68) is
said to have possessed great wisdom and sound political judgment. Apart from a policy of
appeasement she followed towards Muslim neighbors over the monopoly of the booming
Zeila trade, Queen Elleni had foreseen the danger of Ottoman expansion and played role in
establishing military alliance with Portugal against Ottoman Turks. In 1508 Portugal sent a
person to act as an ambassador to Christian Ethiopia. Around 1512 Queen Elleni, the mother
and regent of Lebne-Dengel sent her envoy an Armenian called Mathew to Portugal. The
Portuguese court doubted his authenticity and was received coldly. The Portuguese Embassy
led by Rodrigo di Lima, Duwarto Galliba and Francisco Alvarez reached Ethiopia in 1520
and left after six years. The objective was to establish a naval port against expanding Turkish
power in Red Sea Area. The mission was not successful.

Learning activities
 What led rulers of the “Solomonic” dynasty to construct a „Royal Prison‟ at Amba-
Gishen?
 What was the Ewostatewos movement about?
 Discuss Emperor Zara-Yaqob‟s religious reforms?
 Discuss the role played by trade in the spread of Islam in Central, Eastern and
Southeastern Ethiopia?
 Describe the circumstances that gave rise to the sultanate of Ifat.

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 What was the major source of rivalry between the Christian kingdom and the Muslim
Sultanates in medieval and post medieval periods? What role did religion play in the
conflict between the two?
 Discuss the motives and outcomes of Ethiopia‟s engagement with Christian Europe in
the late thirteenth through the sixteenth centuries.

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 Unit Five

Politics, Economy and Socio-Cultural Processes from Early Sixteenth to

the End of the Eighteenth Centuries (10 hrs)

Einführung

Dear learners,

In this unit, you will study the socio-economic and political dynamics from the

early 16th century to the late 18th century. These contributed to the making of

modern Ethiopia through the intermingling of peoples and shaping politics. The

period marked conflicts and the expansion of Sultanate of Adal (1529-1543),

population movements, religious expansions, interaction and integration across

ethnic and religious diversities. In the period, societies and states in eastern,

central, southern, and western also passed through different historical

processes. This unit discusses these issues and the Period of Gondar (1636-

1769), “Zemene Mesafint /Era of Princes” (1769-1855) and the Yejju rule

(1786-1853).

Objectives
At the end of this unit, students will be able to:
 identify the nature of interaction and major reasons of conflicts between the Christian
Kingdom and the Sultanate of Adal and the consequences;

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  analyze the background to the involvement of Portuguese and Turks;
 explicate the major population movements and their contributions in the peoples and
linguistic intermingling in Ethiopia and the Horn;
 identify the political, social and economic developments among the peoples and in
Eastern, Central, Southern and Western Regions;
 explain the contribution of Gonder period to the development of urbanization,
architecture, painting, literature, music, trade etc and political conditions and their
effects during the Yejju rule and the “Zemene Mesafint."

Unit starters

 Share orally the causes of the war between the Christian kingdom and Muslim
principalities in medieval and post-medieval periods.
 Do you think trade and trade routes can be sources of conflict between states? How?
Give examples.
 What do we mean by population movement and why and how does it occur?
 Imagine that your community changes its habitat from northern to southern Ethiopia.
What do you think are the likely effects of the movement on the host community and
vice versa?
 What do you remember from the discussion in unit one regarding language families
and their geographical distributions in Ethiopia and the Horn?
 Do you know anything about the Gadaa system?
 Who was Rodrigo di Lima?

5.1. Interaction and Conflicts between the Christian Kingdom and the Sultanate of
Adal

Revival of long-distance trade in the medieval period was accompanied by competition and
struggle for control over the trade routes between the “Solomonic” kingdom and the Muslim
principalities. The main trade outlet/inlet shifted to Zeila and old city-states of Mogadishu,

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Brava, and Merca were used as ports for their hinterland. In the meantime, for the trade in the
northeast, Massawa served as an outlet.

With the revival of trade, different towns and trade centers emerged along the route from
Zeila to the interior. Travellers‟ accounts and chronicles made reference to these towns and
ruins of mosques and residences mark the existence of market centers which followed and
served the trade coasts. The Prester John of the Indies is an account written by the Portuguese
priest, Francisco Alvarez, who came along the Portuguese mission sent to the court of Lebne-
Dengel in 1520. Another one is Futuh al-Habasha (“The Conquest of Abyssinia”) which was
composed by the Yemenite Shihab ad-Din. Futuh al-Habasha provides firsthand information
regarding Imam Ahmad Ibn Ibrahim Al-Ghazi‟s campaigns against the Christian Kingdom.

The ruins that mark the landscape around Jijiga and the highlands of Harar and Charchar
attest the market towns that served the Zeila route. These include Weez-Gebeya in western
Shawa/famous market on the Fatagar-Dawaro-Harar route, Suq-Wayzaro in old Damot, Suq-
Amaja and the very famous market center Gandabalo on the Ifat-Awsa route. Gandabalo was
largely inhabited by Muslim and Christian merchants serving the kings and sultans as agents.

Other big market towns include the ones that linked Amhara with Awsa, called Wasel in the
vicinity of the present day Dessie, Qorqora/Qoreta (south of Waldiya) and Mandalay in
southern Tigray. The towns of Dabarwa, the seat of the Bahre-Negash (“Lord of the Sea”),
and Asmara were the two important entrepots of caravans in the hinterland of Massawa.

Muslim states had significant control over trade routes that passed through Zeila due to their
geographical proximity, although contested by “Solomonic” kingdom especially after its
revival and consolidation. This was followed by series of wars which were depicted as wars
for religious supremacy in historical accounts of Christian or Muslim clerics. While mal-
administration and exploitation of periphery made military mobilization possible, contention
between the cross and the crescent gave ideological justification for the wars. However
generally, the interest to control trade routes lies beneath the conflict between the Christian

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kingdom and the Muslim sultanates that continued for over two centuries, culminating in the
wars between the Christian kingdom and the Sultanate of Adal that lasted from 1529 to 1543.
In Muslim sultanates, internal strife, corruption and anarchy intensified and new leadership
was desperately called for. Such leadership came from Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi/Gragn.
Ahmad was raised by his devout Muslim kin in one of the oases on the route to Zeila called
Jeldesa. He was a rigorous and doctrinal believer of Islam. He soldiered for Sultan Jared
Abun of Adal, who during his few years in power called for Islamic puritanism. Ahmad was
inspired by the sultan that when Jared Abun was assassinated, Ahmad gave up his belief in
secular Muslim rule. According to local traditions, he withdrew to the countryside and started
calling for faultless Islamic practices. Here came fundamental change in cause of Muslim-
Christian confrontations. After Imam Ahmad‟s rise to power, the battles were not just fought
for control of the long-distance trade route going through Zeila but mainly because there was
a demographic pressure from Afar and Somali nomads pushing to approach Harar and the
Christian kingdom. Since several centuries‟ lowland inhabiting non-Christian nomadic cattle
herders, had wanted to expand to high plateaus for better and enough pasture lands and
attempted to do so but only to be held back by the Christian army. With overpopulation and
overgrazing in Somali and Afar of eastern Ethiopia, between the thirteenth and sixteenth
centuries, raiding and counter-raiding at water holes or animal rustling intensified.
Sometimes such raids escalated into full-scale wars among the lowlanders.

Ahmad was successful with his remarkable leadership ability together with the assistance that
he received from religious personalities who convinced Muslim leaders of Afar, Somali and
Harari to not fight amongst themselves but to unite and expand to the Christian kingdom to
resolve their material shortages and at the same time wage a holy war, Jihad. He was able to
gain audience as imam and recruited force of tribesmen to fight the Christian kingdom.

Lebne-Dengel was enthroned when he was only eleven. Assisted by the elderly Elleni and
due to internal conflicts in Adal, the Christian state initially retained its interest and even
advanced into Muslim territory scoring significant victories in the early sixteenth century.
However, shortly, Adal fell to Ahmad‟s army. The imam‟s army fought fiercely and subdued
the periphery. People in the region abandoned their clergy, soldiers, and officials in place of

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Ahmad's men, and had to accept the demolition of their churches, holy books, and relics.
Bale, Sidamo, Hadiya and Kambata were overcome quickly and the heartland was at risk.

By the time Ahmad thought he was ready for confrontations, he refused to pay tribute and
this was followed by an invasion of Christian kingdom in 1527. In 1528, Lebne-Dengel
mobilized a vast force from Tigray, Amhara, the Agaw territories, Begemdir, Gojjam, and
Shawa and encamped about fifty kilometers east of what is now Addis Ababa. There was the
problem of logistics and the Christian army leadership failed to adopt a common strategy to
defeat Adal‟s force. On the other hand, enthusiastic Imam Ahmad's army managed logistics
and with its small-sized army, it had better mobility and flexible tactics with unified
command and an excellent leadership. Therefore, the larger and professional Christian army
was defeated at the battle of Shimbra Kure, near the preset day Mojo in 1529. After the
victory, the Muslims occupied Dawaro, Shawa, Amhara, and Lasta. They continued north
passing the Amhara plateau and by 1535, Ahmad‟s empire stretched from Zeila to Massawa
on the coast and including the Ethiopian interior. As he penetrated, Ahmad established a civil
administration constituted from his own men and collaborators from occupied territories. All
of these forced the Christian king Lebne-Dengel to retreat, he finally died in 1540.

Competition for supremacy over the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean between Portugal and the
Ottoman Turks gave the prolonged conflict between Christian kingdom and Muslim
principalities a global dimension. Persians, Arabs, Syrians, Egyptians, and Turks, traditional
international trade intermediaries, who were under Ottoman Turks were hit by discovery of a
seaway to India by Vasco da Gama in 1498 and tried to prevent rival Portuguese ships from
trading with India. Therefore, Portugal looked up to the Christian kingdom as an ally and
started the old “semi-spiritual quest” for Prester John. From the first decade of the century,
messengers were being sent. However, actual military alliance did not take place because
Ethiopia was not a sea power to give sensible maritime support to Portugal against Ottoman
Turks. On her part Ethiopia had asked Portugal‟s military assistance against its Muslim rival.

Having noticed movement of diplomatic missions between Christian kingdom and Portugal,
the Turks and Arabs encouraged Ahmad. Shihab ad-Din claimed that about one hundred

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Yemeni horsemen armed with muskets had fought at Shimbra Kure, but that does not seem to
be true. Even though both sides, Christian and Muslim, had some muskets and a few bigger
guns, this was not decisive in the battles yet, at least not until 1540 because they neither had
gunpowder nor the training to make effective use of them. In 1540 the Imam turned to his
Muslim ally, Turkey, for assistance and regional Ottoman authorities provided two hundred
Muslim, mostly mercenary, musketeers and ten cannon.
Lebne-Dengel was succeeded by his son Gelawdiwos (r. 1540-1559) who continued to face
the wars this time with more intensity because Ahmad had received Turkish musketeers
mercenaries. In the mean time, after the request made by Lebne-Dengel in 1535, about four
hundred soldiers, also armed with matchlocks, under the leadership of Christopher da Gama,
youngest son of Vasco da Gama, came in January 1541 to fight on the side of the Christian
kingdom after significantly been reduced in number due to difficulties in the journey.
However, in August 1542 the Christian army was defeated. In the battle, about two hundred
Portuguese and their leader Christopher da Gama, fighting for the Christian kingdom were
killed and the leader was beheaded. After the success, Imam Ahmad rewarded his allies with
his booty from the war and sent them back home and let his army camp. On the part of the
Christians, preparations were made for final confrontation under the leadership of Emperor
Gelawdiwos. Due to limited resources, the monarch employed hit and run strategy which
severely affected Imam‟s army. Ahmad‟s army could not use its previous quality of easily
mobility because they did not know where the offensives came from. On February 25, 1543
while Ahmad was encamped near Lake Tana, he was attacked and killed after a fierce
fighting.

Two women were powerful in the politics of the period: Seble-Wangel and Bati-Delwombera.
Seblewongel participated in the war against Imam Ahmad in 1542 when Christians lost 200
of the Portuguese soldiers and their commander Christopher Dagama. As a result, she
advised the march to the south in order to contact a Christian army under her son, Emperor
Gelawdiwos (r.1540-59) for the battel of Woina-Dega. Similarly, Bati Del Wanbara was the
wife of Imam Ahmad Al Ghazi. She was a daughter of a Muslim military commander of
Adal known as Mahfuz. Tradition claimed that Del Wanbara had instigated her husband to
avenge the death of her father. She accompanied her husband throughout his expeditions and

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she is said to have marched even in a state of pregnancy during which she was unable to use
mules. Indeed, she delivered her two sons during the campaigns of 1531 and 1533 in Ifat and
Tigre, respectively.

Emir Nur bin Mujahin came at the helm of Adal‟s power after the death of Imam Ahmad. In
1559, Gelawdiwos led a campaign into Adal and lost his life fighting Adal‟s force under
Emir Nur. The war did not continue as both sides were exhausted due to centuries old
conflict. They were also felt threatened at the magnitude of the Oromo population movement.
Thus, the Christian kingdom retreated from its center in present-day Shawa to the north and
established its center in Dembiya, north of Lake Tana. Likewise Emir Nur built a wall
surrounding Harar to defend it from the Oromo, who had begun to occupy Harar plateau.

The war cost the country hundreds of thousands of lives, and much of its capital. By the early
1550s, Gelawdiwos had restored the “Solomonic” empire, as it had existed at the beginning
of his father‟s reign. However, the whole region was worn out and weak from the war.
Muslims, especially in the border provinces of Ifat, Dawaro, and Bale, remained unaffected,
and in the south, conditions were suitable for the Oromo to occupy large areas of highlands.

5.2. Foreign Interventions and Religious Controversies

As with the state, the church was weakened by the material destruction and loss of life
brought about by the wars against the Adalities and followed by the Oromo population
movement. The destruction of property and deaths of its clergy hampered the operation of the
Church and therefore, its service as an ideological arm of the state. At the same time, the
monarchy could not count on the traditional political and military apparatus to withstand the
continued expansion of the Oromo deep into the Christian kingdom and then to win back the
“Solomonic” empire. Thus, besides in the military, revival was sought in the church.

Ethiopian emperors may have regarded an alliance with Roman Catholicism as a tactic to
secure sufficient modern weaponry and training to win back the “Solomonic” empire. In
contrast to the then weak Ethiopian Orthodox Church, the hierarchy and authoritarianism of
Roman Catholicism must have been deeply attractive to the emperors. Missionaries followed

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the soldiers. In 1557, a total of 160 Jesuit missionaries along with their bishop, Andreas de
Oviedo, came to Ethiopia with the aim of converting Orthodox Christians to Catholicism.
The Jesuits promoted Catholic doctrine of two different, and therefore separate, natures of
Christ-divine and human which was opposed to Monophysite theology of Ethiopian
Orthodox Church which argued that Christ, through union or Tewahedo had a perfect human
nature inseparable from divinity. The leading members of the mission who played key role in
efforts to evangelize the country include Joao Bermudez, Andreas de Oviedo, Pedro Pais
Paez and Alphonso Mendez. The Jesuits began their evangelical effort with the son and
successor of Lebne-Dengel, Gelawdiwos (r.1540-1559), hoping that the rest of the society
would follow suit. Gelawdiwos listened and engaged in doctrinal debates with the
missionaries, but he was not prepared to give in. Instead, he defended the teachings of
Orthodox Christianity in a document entitled the Confession of Faith. Minas and Sartsa-
Dengel who succeeded Gelawdiwos one after the other were too busy fighting against the
Oromo and the Turkish forces to entertain the Jesuits in their courts. The Jesuits got relative
success with Emperor Za-Dengel (r. 1603-1604) who secretly converted into Catholicism,
but Za-Dengel‟s reign was too short for the Jesuits to effect the desired result. Za-Dengel was
overthrown by Yaqob (r. 1598-1603; 1604-1607) who befell a similar fate in the hands of
Susenyos (r. 1607-1632).

Susneyos, as was challenged by provincial leaders who refused to pay tribute, faced other
challenges. The Funj sultanate of Sennar attacked along the northern frontier into Begemdir,
and the Oromo continued infiltrating into Shawa and Gojjam. As a person who lived among
the Oromo and linked by marriage to them, Susneyos‟ policy with regard to the Oromo was
integration. He then integrated Oromo units with the forces of central government and
Ethiopian politics to consolidate his power and then stabilize the country. Probably as a
means to this, Susneyos sought for an alliance which he met through the diplomatic, advisory,
and educative Pedro Paez, a Spanish Jesuit. In 1612 Susneyos converted to Catholicism and
announced it to be state religion later in 1622. In the meantime in 1617-8 several anti-
Catholic voices mounted following the changes in liturgy and religious practices.

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Even worse, with the monarch‟s consent, another Spanish Jesuit, Afonso Mendez who
succeeded Paez as Ethiopia‟s Catholic bishop ordered reconsecration of Orthodox priests and
deacons and rebaptism of the mass. Besides he called for the suspension of Jewish customs
such as male circumcision and the observance of the Sabbath. Additional pronouncements
include prohibition of preaching in Ge‟ez, fasting on Wednesdays and Fridays, reverence for
Ethiopian saints and the ark of covenant (tabot). Meanwhile, he ordered eating pork, Latin
Mass and Gregorian calendar to be adopted. The reforms led to revolts led by the
ecclesiastics and the nobility. Even loyal followers of the emperor including his own son
Fasiledes (r. 1632-67) were opposed to the changes initiated by the Jesuits.

After 1625, controversies, rebellions, repressions mounted and the country came to the verge
of falling apart. In a battle in June 1632, about 8000 peasants reportedly lost their lives in one
day. Finally, the emperor abdicated the throne in favour of Fasiledes, who countered the
Catholic transformation. Fasiliedes restored Tewahedo‟s position as the state‟s official
religion, expelled the Jesuits and punished local converts including Susenyos‟ uncle and the
most ferevent supporter of Catholicism, Se'ela Kristos. By fearing another religious conflict
Emperor Fasiledes introduced a new policy called closed-door policy which isolated Ethiopia
from all Europeans for about a century and a half. Conversely, he initiated and adopted a
policy of close diplomatic relations, and even formed alliance with the hostile neighboring
Muslim states on both sides of the Red Sea to ensure that no European crossed into the
Christian highlands. In 1647, he concluded an agreement with the Ottoman Pashas at Suakin
and Massawa to the effect that the latter should block any European from entering the
country. By doing so, Fasiledes was able to restore peace and order. Ethiopia‟s diplomatic
break from Europe remained effective until the beginning of the nineteenth century with the
exception of secret visits by a French Doctor Charles Jacques Poncet and the Scottish
traveller James Bruce in 1700 and 1769 resepctively.

5.3. Population Movements

The causes of the movements could be attributed to the cumulative centuries long socio-
political movements of the medieval period as the military conflicts and natural factors.
Population movements of the period had far-reaching consequences including the integration

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of peoples across ethnic and religious diversities. One of the major consequences of the
movements was ethnic and linguistic intermixing of peoples that shaped the modern social
setting of Ethiopia and the Horn.

5.3.1. Population Movements of the Somali, Afar and Argoba

The military conflict between the Christian Kingdom and the Sultanate of Adal in the late
15th and the early 16th century was partly responsible for the population movement of the
Somali, Afar and the Argoba. The territories of the Somali and the Afar were in the conflict
zone and hence were the first to be affected by the consequences of the military conflict.
These peoples changed their settlement area to avoid the conflict. Below is a very brief
history of these peoples and their response to the conflict.

A. Somali
The Somali have been subdivided into four major clans i.e. Darod, Dir, Hawiya and Isaq that
inhabited Eastern Berbera, Zeila hinterland, North of Benadir Coasts and Bulhar hinterland
respectively. There are also sub-clans like Bur Bibbugn, Gada Bussi and Sab as well as
mixed ones like Garri. Clan warriors (Waranleh) fought grievances (Godob/ Heer) over
pasture lands of Gubban, Ha‟ud, Ogo etc, but were solved by clan council/shir & religious
holy men (Wadad), who arranged blood compensation (Diya/Jilib).

According to Ibn Said (1214-74), an Arab geographer, the Hawiya had settled in the territory
around Mogadishu. The other Somali clans including Merahim, Yiber, Habermagad, Dir,
Isaaq and Darod occupied the coastal territory between Mogadishu and Babel-Mandeb. Prior
to the 16th century, drought and famine forced them to move towards the south, southwest
and west. In the subsequent decades, the Somali continued to expand in the same direction
until they fully occupied their present territory.

B. Afar
Afar primarily have lived in northeastern Ethiopia and in northern Djibouti, although some
have also inhabited southern point of Eritrea. Afar main classes: asaimara ('reds') have been

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dominant politically and adoimara ('whites'), who are found in Mabla Mountains, have been
workers. Men traditionally sport jile, famous curved knife. The Afar had indigenous
democratic institution known as Makabanto. The Afar people were also first mentioned by
Ibn Said under the name "Danakil". During the 13th century, they occupied the lowland
territory near Bab el-Mandeb. Before the 16th century, due to drought and hunger, the Afar
moved towards the east until they reached the middle Awash. Like the Somali, their territory
laid within the conflict zone. During the conflict, their pastoral economy helped them to
survive the destructive effects of the conflict.

Along with closely related Somali and other adjacent Muslims, Afar are also associated with
medieval Adal Sultanate that flourished many historic cities such as Maduna and Abasa.
Following the collapse of the power of sultanate of Adal in the 16th century, the Afar
established their sultanates like Awsa, Girrifo, Dawe, Tadjourah, Rahaito and Gobad. Awusa
Sultanate succeeded the earlier Imamate of Aussa in the middle Awash. The latter polity had
come into existence in 1577, when Muhammed Jasa moved his capital from Harar to Awsa.
At some point after 1672, Awsa declined and temporarily came to an end in conjunction with
Imam Umar Din bin Adam's recorded ascension to the throne. The Sultanate was
subsequently re-established by Kedafu around 1734, and was thereafter ruled by his Mudaito
Dynasty. Primary symbol of the Sultan was silver baton, which was considered to have
magical properties. Awsa‟s economy was mainly depended on Bati-Ginda‟e trade route.
Later it became center of Islamic learning led by preachers like Tola Anfre.

C. Argoba
The Argoba were also parts of the population movement of the 16th century. Early reference
to the people of Argoba is insufficient. There are two versions on the origin of the people of
Argoba. The first version holds that they descended from the eighty-two followers of Prophet
Mohammed who came to the Horn of Africa and settled at Yifat. The second version claims
that the origin of the Argoba is not Muslim-Arab immigrants, but an ancient and indigenous
people who accepted Islam very early from religious leaders who came from Arabia.
Nonetheless, the Argoba were agents of trade, Islamic expansion and Muslim state
formations in Horn. The Argoba were also the targets of the expanding Christian Kingdom in

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the medieval period. Owing to their location on the caravan trade routes and conflict areas,
the Argoba were perhaps the worst affected societies in the Christian-Muslim conflicts. The
result was the destruction of sultanates and dispersion of the people.

5.3.2. Gadaa System and Oromo Population Movement (1522-1618)

A. The Gadaa System

Etymology of Gadaa has been derived from Ga means law and Daa meant God. There is
also a claim that it has been derived from Oromo word Gaaddisa which means shade. Gadaa
system was the constitution of the Oromo through which they administered, defended their
territory, maintained, and developed their economy. There are scarce studies on the historical
evolution of the Gadaa system. History among the Oromo is the patterned process and
chronologically recorded events based on the eight-year segment of time in the Gadaa
system. Studies based on the Gadaa calendar indicates that, 8 year represented one Gadaa
period, 5-Gadaa period or 40 years represents one generation and 9 generations or 360
(40x9) years stand for an era. Accordingly, the Oromo passed through mysterious eras of
Gadaa Bidiri Dhoqqee which existed for about 5, 400 years. Then the Oromo passed through
the known eras of Xayaa, Xasaa, Muunyoo, Suuftuu, Maaddillee, Abrojjii,
Daawwee/Dhittacha, and Warra Daayee/Wardeeni, each of which survived for 360 years
and altogether 2880 (360 X 8) years until the beginning of Gadaa Boorana-Baarentuu
around 1450 A. D. Overall, Gadaa traced back to nearly 9, 000 years ago (before present/BP).
This implies that the system was an old institution that was subject to transformation from
ancient to recent. At the beginning of 16th century, the Oromo had a highly organized system
that had already developed into a complex socio-economic and political institution. It was for
this reason that many scholars suggest that the system must have existed long before 16th
century.

Under egalitarian Gadaa, all citizens/lammii have equal privileges and responsibilities which
is called „Qixxee‟ or Equality. Females had fair socio-economic rights through Siiqqee
institution even though could not get political authority because of transportation and other

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problems, which made difficult to supervise the whole nation as expected from leader.
Chiefly, females had discretionary powers on family property. When disagreement occurred
between a husband and a wife, it was a husband who should leave house. A husband had no
right to use or exchange family possession without the permission of his wife. A husband
who tries to digress such custom would be ostracized as Qorqodaa/Caabanaa/Qakkee.

In the Gadaa system, two distinct categories that worked in parallel existed: the Gadaa grade
and the Gadaa class (Gogeessa/parties). There were ten different age-based grades and five
different parties to which each Gadaa grades belonged. The Gadaa grades made the system
work in cycles and each grade had tenure of eight years. Thus, legal male members of
community (Miseensa Ilmaan Kormaa) born with in period of one Gadaa rule of eight years
(Hiriyaa) have been divided in to age grades or generation sets. The following table
illustrates Gadaa-grades, ages and responsibilities attributed to the grades.

Table III: Gadaa Grades

s.n Gada Grade Age Responsibilities

1 Dabballee/Suluda birth-8 -socialization age, enjoyed rights of childhood;
-brought up with great care of mothers, who have been identified by
gulmaa/guftaa as emblem;
- given heifers as handhuuraa/private property;
- boys developing hair styles like gubbisa, quncoo/ tuchee etc and
girls‟ guduru, qarree etc after five years.
2 Gaammee/Ruuboo 9-16 - learning historical and cultural tradition;
-performing light works like herding calves and play sundry games.

3 Foollee 17-24 -engaging in military training, agriculture and others by observing

aadaa/culture and seeraa/law of the society; guarded those in power;
fought against injustice;
-hunting wild beasts, galloping horses and performing heavy works
like taking cattle long distance in search of pasture (darabaa/foora);
-nominating future leaders (hayyu council) on basis of wisdom,
ability, bravery, behavior & achievement, not on descent, at the age of
21 years.

4 Qondaala 25-32 warrior class of military service under the direction of abbaa duulaa
( military leader);
-defending a country being organized in cibiraa, and singing bravery
songs like geerarsa, mokkee and xunnee.

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5 Raaba-Doorii 33-40 -expected to gain knowledge of leadership philosophy
-candidates‟ preparation to assume full status;
-allowed to marry (change from qeerroo/single to suubboo/married),
but fathering is possible only at Luba stage.
6 Luba 41-48 -Matured and skilled group that shoulder and discharge societal
responsibilities;
-They gained full privileges and acted as leaders;
-ascent utmost authority ladder with limited period & extent from clan
up to nationwide suzerainty;
-their wives are called kalaalee.
7 Yuba I 49-56 -senior advisors of Gada government and educators;
8 Yuba II 57-64 -received a great deal of respect as wise experienced authorities and
9 Yuba III: 65-72 repositories of law;
-responsible to conduct series of ceremonies and rites.
10 Yuba IV 73-80

After Yubaa stage, members have become folk tellers or Jarsa Gadamojjii/Raaqa/Ginya-
Qululluu (above 80 years, whose wives are called cifiree).

In each grade, individuals have gained formal and applied wisdom to discharge series of
socio-economic & political roles. Individuals have joined one of the classes permanently but
passed from one grade to the next every eight years until they completed the tenth grade.

There are five Gadaa in cycle called Gogeessaa, which have transferred power to each other
every 8 years peacefully, comparable to modern multiparty system as sons become Lubaa 40
years after their fathers. Yet previously, sets of names used by sons were different from those
of fathers and a given name repeated itself every eighty years as follows:

Table IV: Gogeessaa sets among Boroo-Aanaa and Barii-Aantuu Confederations

Botoo-Aanaa Gogeessaa Ituu-Humbannaa (Bareentuu)

Gogeessaa
S. Fathers‟ Sons‟ Gogeessaa Fathers‟ Gogeessaa Sons‟ Gogeessaa
No. Gogeessaa
1. Birmaji Aldaada Badhaadha Wabassa
2. Malba Horata Bultuma Bassira
3 Muudana Biifole Mardiida Da‟ibassa
4 Roobale Sabbaqa Horata Ni‟ukussa
5 Duulo Kiilole Fadata Daa‟imo

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*Alternative sets among the Booran also include Dibbaqa/Sabbooqa, Dibbeessa/Libaasa/
Makula, Darara/Halchisa; Dhallana/Fullaas.

In the system, specified responsibilities were assigned to members of Gadaa class that they
should accomplish during their stay in each grade. In this regard, the six grade was very
important since officials were elected from the members based on their ability and recorded
achievement in the lower grades. The elected officials would assume executive leadership
power and constituted the Gadaa government/administrative body. They administered the
people in accordance with the law of the system. After the service of eight years, the officials
and their class/party would hand over power to their immediate junior i.e. the fifth grade.

Table V: Chief officials of Sabboo-Goonaa (Southern Booranaa)

S. Title No Position
No.
1. Abbaa Gadaa 1 Head of the state
Harbooraa
2. Abbaa Gadaa 2 First & second heads of state
Kontomaa
3. Hayyuu Adulaa 3 Assistants of Abbaa Gadaa Harabooraa
4. Waayyuu 4 Counselors of Abbaa Gadaa Harbooraa & Abbaa
Gadaa Kontomaa
5. Hayyuu Garbaa 14 Assistants of Abbaa Gadaa Harbooraa & Abbaa-
Gadaa Kontomaa
6. Hayyuu Meendhichaa 10 Counselors of Hayyuu Garbaa

Table VI: Tuulamaa-Maccaa Yaa'ii Saglan/Saylan Booranaa (Nine Entire Presidium

Members)

S. Title No Duties
No.
1. Abbaa Muudaa 1 Father of Anointment
2. Abbaa Bokkuu 1 Keeper of wooden or metal scepter, sign of Head of
State authority
3. Abbaa Gadaa Fiixee 1 Chief Executive (Head of
Government/Administration), the highest authority
4. Abbaa Maatii 1 Vice Executive & in Charge of Social Affair

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5. Abbaa Caffee/Abbaa 1 Parliament chairperson/speaker who presents
Dubbii presidium decision to assembly
6. Abbaa Seeraa 1 Memorizer of laws and results of assembly
deliberations
7. Abbaa Alangaa 1 Judge who executes the decision
8. Abbaa Duulaa (Mootii) 1 In charge of the army (commander in chief of the
army)
9. Abbaa Sa'aa 1 Economic Minister
(Dinagdee)

A. Oromo Population Movement (1522-1618)

There are two dominant hypotheses in the Oromo studies concerning their origin and
demographic 'expansion'. The first hypothesis is the south-north ward that is based on the
16th century population movement. The second hypothesis upholds that the Oromo
originated from the north, moved or pushed southeastwards by the expanding Christians and
Muslims. In the first place, the question of 'origin' is epistemologically wrong because the
Oromo constitute a highland and lowland communities from north, west, east, central and
south that have moved back and forth in these directions for several years and were displaced
from and returned to original territories at different periods. The majority of the population
practiced mixed farming in the highlands and pastoral economy in the lowlands. However,
the Oromo in the highlands and the lowlands maintained their ties through various
institutions.

Recent studies based on historical, linguistics, material culture, and inter-Cushitic

comparison support that Oromo history was part of the wider regional processes and patterns
in northeast Africa. Based on evidences from linguistic studies, domestication of plants and
animals, clan stories and place names such studies presented that ancestral places of
settlement of the proto-Oromo and other Cushitic peoples were in the north. Studies by
Christopher Ehret in particular show that by early 6, 000 BC the ancestral Cushitic speaking
groups had moved from lower Nubia to Eritrea as well as north and central Ethiopia. At the
time, the Cushitic speaking groups were engaged in the cultivation of cereals and like their
Nilo-Saharan neighbors were keeping livestock. In the sixth and fifth millennium, the proto-

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Cushitic are said to have formed various subdivisions and dispersed north-south direction to
the regions between Red Sea Hills, the Sudan and Tanzania.

Whatever the case, Oromo culture, ethos, philosophies and beliefs show their long and
sustained relationship with other Cushitic peoples in northeast Africa. It is difficult to clearly
indicate when the Oromo achieved distinct identity. However, evidences show that they are
indigenous to Ethiopia and the Horn, and their Gadaa systemevolved from an age-set socio-
economic and political system of proto-Cushitic stock in ancient times. Therefore, the Oromo
had already settled in the whole parts of East Africa before the first millennium A. D. Yet,
although leaders like Abbolee, Habroo, Cangaree Korboo, Harruu Maaruu and Namoo
Dooyyoo attempted to strengthen Gadaa in 12thc, the prolonged Christian-Muslim conflicts
(13-16th century) pushed the Oromo to the south-east. It is apparent the Oromo revived,
reformed and re-strengthened Gadaa in response to conflicts between the Christian State and
Muslim Sultanates that might also forced them to shift Gadaa central caffee (parliament) and
Abbaa Muudaa seat from Odaa Nabee to Odaa Roobaa and then to Madda Walaabuu in1450.

Precipitated by the conflict between the Christian Kingdom and Muslim Sultanates that put
pressure on them mainly in the rift valley areas, the Oromo organized under Booranaa and
Bareentuu military leagues and began movement in 1522. The Oromo forces took north
direction and passed through a corridor between Mount Walaabuu and Lake Abaya. When
they reached half way between Lake Abaya and Hawassa, they took westward and penetrated
across the Bilatte River to the southwest. However, resisted by the Wolayta State, they
headed northwards to the lakes region of the Rift Valley.

An account authored by Abba Bahrey, an Orthodox monk who lived in Gamo, does not give
clear information on Oromo clans who took part in the movement. Yet, the Bareentuu (Walo,
Rayyaa-Aseebuu, Itu-Humbanna and Arssii) expanded to the north and across the rift valley
and upper course of Wabe-Shebale River respectively. While the Boran moved to the present
day territory, the Guji tradition claims that the Guji were forced to move southward to the
present day because of the attack by the Christian army under Zara-Yaqob (r.1434-1468).

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The Oromo fought twelve Buttaa wars until 1618. Accordingly, the Malbaa (1523-1530)
defeated Abyssinian regiment Batira Amora led by Fasil and liberated the whole Baallii
while Muudanaa (1531-1538) regained up to the edge of Awash River. The Kiilolee (1539-
1546) routed Christian regiment Adal Mabraq at Dawwaaroo while Biifolee (1547-1554)
advanced to Waj & Ereri crushing Abyssinian Buksar Amora led by Portuguese commander
Ayres Di‟az. The Michillee (1555-1562) overwhelmed Hamalmaal at Dagoo and Jan Amora
corps as well as Adali led by Emir Nur Mujahiddin at Mount Hazaaloo and forced Harari to
construct Jagol Wall. The Harmuufa/Hambisaa (1563-1570) fought Giyorgis Hayile led by
Minas/ Adiyam-Saggadi (r.1559-1563) at Qacina & Wayyata; occupied Angot, Ganzyi,
Sayint etc. The Roobalee (1571-1578) was defeated by Sartsa Dingil‟s (r.1563-1597) cavalry
led by Azzaj Halibo at Wayina Daga in c. 1574, but crushed Zara‟a Yohannis forces. The
Birmajii (1579-1586) occupied Ar'ine in Waji, crossed Jamaa to Walaqaa and beset
Daaragootii. The Mul‟ata (1587-1594) attacked Damot, Bizamo, Gafat, Dambiya and Tigray.
The Duuloo (1595-1602), Malbaa (1603-1610) and Muudanaa (1611-1618) expanded to
West & Northern parts of the Horn of Africa while others like Wardaay moved to Kenya and
Bur Haqaba and Majertiin in Somalia. Among others, Gadaa system and particularly the
Gadaa military organization was the reason for the successes of the Oromo.

The Oromo in due course revived, reformed or established assembly centers as they moved
far away from their major center i.e. Madda Walaabuu in Bidiree village of Baalee. Among
Baareentuu groups, Arssii (Siikkoo and Mandoo) moved from Bareedduu Kurkuruu between
Walmal and Maannaa Rivers to Dalloo Baaruk/Deebanuu and Odaa Roobaa. Itu-Humbanna
reestablished their common center at Odaa Bultum around Karra/Gate Qurquraa in
Hararghee.

From Ituu sub clans, Galaan set up centers at Baabboo and Qunnee while Kuraa made
Galamso their center. Humbannaa set up hub around Gabaa River. Waloo, Raayyaa and
Aseebuu set up their centers at Garaadoo/Makoodii.

Sabbo-Goona (southern Borana) set up centers at Tulluuu Namduri, Mount Walal, Gaarres/
Mormor and Gaayo. Gujii (Kontam-Daarimu) set up centers at Haroo Girjaa in Jamjam-

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Dooriyaa and Me‟ee Bokkoo. Tuulama-Macca/Northern Booranaa made Odaa Nabee near
Dukam their common center. However, Macca went to distant areas and formed center at
Oda Xuxe Bisil Osole between Billoo & Gedoo Rivers around Ijaajii; Odaa El Dalloo in
Liiban; Bokkuu Xulee & Cittuu around Ambo; Odaa Bulluq in Horroo Guduruu and Odaa
Doogii in Ilu-Abbaaboor. The Maccaa also formed confederacies of Sadachaa/three from
Obo, Suubaa & Hakaako clans, and Afre/four from Hoke, Calliya, Guduru & Liiban and
moved across Gumar, Shat, Konch etc. based on Makkoo Bilii‟s laws of land occupation.
The Limmuu under Abbaa Duulaas like Teessoo had to crush the resistance of Inarya rulers
like Badancho, Gu‟amcho and Banaro. Though Jimma area was penetrated by clans like
Abbu Kaakoo, Harsuu, Laaloo, Qoree etc under Diggoo Jaarsoo, it was Baabboo Koyyee
who crushed the resistance of Gaaroo (Booshaa) King, Budoo and founded Odaa Hullee that
served as Gadaa center until erudite female Gadaaleader, Makkaahoree.

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Map 8: Gadaa centers

5.4. Interaction and Integration across Ethnic and Religious Diversities

The political, social, and economic processes of the medieval period were the major factors
for the people's interactions across regions. Such interactions occurred during peace and
conflict times. The cases in point were the trade contacts and conflicts to control trade routes,
religious expansion, and territorial expansion and population movements. One of the major
consequences of the interactions in the medieval period particularly in the population
movement of the 16th century was the integration of peoples across ethnic and religious
diversities in Ethiopia and the Horn. Population movement of the period relatively covered
extensive geographical areas in the region. It involved diverse ethnic groups, cultures, and
religions from south to north and from east to west. It is apparent that territorial and religious

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expansion by the Christian kingdom diffused Christian tradition from north to the south.
Similarly, the wars of Imam Ahmad and the population movement of the Somali and the Afar
caused the expansion of Islam into the central parts of Ethiopia.

The Oromo contact with diverse peoples in the 16th century brought far-reaching integrations
among peoples across ethnic and religious background. The Oromo integrated non-Oromo
through two adoption mechanisms: Guddifachaa and Moggaasaa. The former involved
fostering a child to a given parent in which the fostered child deserves all rights and
privileges of real child. The latter was the system of bringing the non-Oromo clan into the
gosa (Oromo clan). Moggaasaa was the practice of incorporation that involved inclusion of
individuals to groups through oath of allegiance with all the rights and obligations that such
members entailed. Moggasa was undertaken by the Abbaa Gadaa on behalf of the clan. The
adopted groups gained both protection and material benefits without changing their original
identity. Moggasa recognized the cultures of those who were adopted and at the same time
granted full citizenship to them. The process significantly contributed to national integration.

The interactions also resulted in an exchange of socio-cultural values and institutions. A

number of peoples in the neighborhood of the Oromo adopted Gada system. Interactions
among peoples were also one factor for revival of long-distance trade. Equally, the Oromo
were exposed to cultures and traditions of the people with whom they came into contact.

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5.5. Peoples and States in Eastern, Central, Southern and Western Regions

5.5.1 Cushitic States

Gedeo
According to a tradition, the origin of the Gedeo is traced back to an aboriginal clan called
Murgga-Gosallo. Another tradition that might have to do with the Oromo practice of mass
adoption known as guddifacha, traces the origin of the Gedeo, to Daraso, who was older
brother of Gujo (Guji‟s ancestor) and Boro (Borana‟s ancestor).

According to this tradition, the seven Gedeo clans; Doobba‟a, Darashsha, Gorggorshsha,
Hanuma, Bakarro, Henbba‟a and Logoda descended from the seven sons of Daraso which he
got from two wives. The clans were grouped in two houses, the first being the shoole baxxe
(senior) house where the first four clans belonged including more than 25 sub-clans and the
second called sase baxee (junior) house where the last three belonged having 10 sub-clans.
Each clan was exogamous and was assigned for particular duty such as ritual, traditional
medicine or leadership.

Before the conquest and incorporation into the Ethiopian empire in the late nineteenth
century, the Gedeo had a culture called baalle, a traditional governance system that worked
with age classes and ranking. The baalle had seven grades with a 10-year period each
creating a 70-year cycle. Sasserogo was a federation of three territories; Sobbho, Ributa and
Rikuta sharing one Aba Gadaa who leaves office every eight years to be replaced by a new
holder with the next age set at baalle ceremony. It was at this ceremony that all positions
ranging from the top, Aba Gadaa down to Hayitcha were assumed. The Gedeo must have
shared this practice from Guji Oromo. Like the neighboring Sidama, with whom they shared
a very close language, their economy was based on the cultivation of enset. The Gedeo called
the Supreme Being, Mageno.

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Sidama
The Sidama originally traced back to the Cushitic population that occupied a large area in the
northeastern and eastern parts of Africa stretching from Sudan to Tanzania. Currently, the
Sidama live in the southern parts of Ethiopia occupying lowlands of about 1500 m a.s.l in the
Great East Africa Rift Valley that cuts through Lakes Hawassa and Abaya up to 3000 m a.s.l
in the eastern Sidama highlands of Arbegona, Bansa and Arroressa Districts. Agriculture,
although done traditionally, remained the basis of Sidama‟s economy. Enset (false banana)
and coffee are Sidama‟s important food and cash crops respectively.

The Sidama had a traditional system of governance led by the Mote (king). The Mote
exercised political and administrative authority in consultation with the council of elders
called Songo. Songo members raised any agenda for discussion within the council and
submitted their decisions to the Mote for approval. Although there was no written
constitution, rules were known by heart through generations and practiced accordingly.

The cultural and ritual leader in Sidama society was the Woma, selected for his ability as a
peacemaker, bodily perfection, oratorical ability, wisdom and caution. The Woma could not
participate in war or cattle raiding as he was considered a man of peace. The Woma handled
cultural matters such as offering sacrifices to the spirits. He also performed other rituals such
as circumcision and marriage.

Sidama society was divided into generation-sets called Luwa. The system had five grades
each lasting for eight years. These are Darara, Fullassa, Hirbora, Wawassa and Mogissa.
Candidates for Luwa received a five-month military training and war songs like gerarsha
under the leadership of the gaden with his deputy called Ja’lawa. The gaden settled disputes
within his Luwa, besides handling the defense of Sidama society together with the Mote.

Another important institution of Sidama society is Seera. Seera was the social constitution of
the Sidama people governing social life based on the Sidama moral code, halale (the ultimate
truth) to judge the right and wrong. Although it was not written and defined with strict

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enforcement mechanisms, people abide by the rules of halale to avoid curse or ostracization
by the society.

Kambata

Many contradictory statements exist regarding the formation of the state of Kambata, as
represented by the Kambata name-bearers today. Mostly, however, local traditions agree that
Kambata was neither ethnically nor linguistically composed a homogeneous bloc before the
sixteenth century. The area encompassed Cushitic, Omotic and Semitic peoples. As far as the
stratification of the society goes, at the bottom, were potters, tanners and hunters. In the
middle were cultivators and at the top were nobles of whom some were Semitic-speaking
military personnel from northern Ethiopia. By about 1550-1570, four communities of
separate origin coalesced to form the contemporary state of Kambata which means “this is
the place” (where we live). The first one, Kambata in the narrow sense, had its original
homeland around Mount Hambericho in the heartland of Kambata territory. The other three
namely the Dubamo, Donga and Tembaro trace their homeland from Sidama highlands.

If the above processes led to the formation of the nucleus of the state, the ethnogenesis of
Kambata also benefitted from Omotic and Semitic peoples who moved into the region at
different times. Emperor Yeshak (r.1414-29) annexed Kambata proper and controlled the
area between Omo and Bilate Rivers which he incorporated into the Christian Ethiopian
Empire. In 1532, the region was captured by Imam Ahmad‟s army which furthered the
interaction of peoples. At the end of the sixteenth century, the groups recognized as and
conscious of the name Kambata related to one of the seven dominant clans in the region. The
people were ensete farmers sharing similar culture and speaking the same language called
Kambatissa which belongs to the Highland East Cushitic family together with Kabena, Alaba,
Hadiya, Sidama, Gedeo and Burji groups.

The Kambata had a traditional administrative institution called the Hambericho Council. The
council had seven members each representing the seven clans in the region. With a king at
the top, the council ruled Kambata until the late nineteenth century.

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Hadiya
The origin of the state of Hadiya goes back to the thirteenth century. It was mentioned in the
Kebre-Negest (Glory of the Kings) and it referred to the area west of the Islamic states in the
federation of Zeila. The people were heterogeneous both linguistically and culturally.
Semitic-speaking agricultural people dominated north of the state while the southern part was
largely inhabited by Cushitic-speaking pastoral communities. There was a considerable
Muslim population. By about 1332, the ruler of the Christian kingdom, Amde-Tsion,
subjugated Hadiya after defeating its ruler, Amano who supported by a Muslim “prophet”
Bel‟am aligned with the then leader of Ifat, Sabraddin to confront the Christian force.

From the thirteenth to the sixteenth centuries, Hadiya‟s political importance was considerable
with sizable population and vast territory. In 1445, Hadiya king called Mahilqo rebelled
against Emperor Zare-Yaqob (r.1434-68) and was consequently replaced by his uncle Bamo.
To stabilize the situation, Zara-Yaqob made a political marriage. Accordingly, Princess
Elleni, from Hadiya, who became an important historical figure, married Emperor Zara-
Yaqob. Another Hadiya leader, Garad Aze refused to pay tribute to Emperor Sartsa-Dengel
(r.1563-1598), but was suppressed in 1568/9.

Abyssinian-Hadiya relation was interrupted following the wars between the Christan
kingdom and Adal and the Oromo population movement until Emperor Menilek‟s force
conquered the region in the late nineteenth century. After these two major developments in
the region notably the latter, Hadiya‟s population became even more diverse. However,
descendants of the old Hadiya can be traced from five different linguistic clusters: the East
Gurage, the Oromo, the Sidama, the Kabena and Alaba, and the Hadiya proper with its sub-
groups-the Mareko, Lemu/Badogo, Soro, Shashogo and Badowacho. As with the Kambata
and Sidama, the Hadiya language belongs to the Highland East Cushitic family and their
languages are intelligible to members of these ethnic groups.

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Konso /Xonso

The name Konso or Xonso is invariably used to refer one of the ancient peoples in Ethiopia
and the Horn who spoke affa Xonso (Konso language) and their land. The literal meaning of
the term is a “heavily forested hill/ area”. A century ago the highlands of Konso, which was
covered by dense forest, had been the traditional home of Konso people while the low-lying
environment along Sagan and Woyito river valley served as hunting grounds. Konso
attracted the attention of local and international researchers interested in the evolution of
human evolution region, as it is one of the earliest human settlement sites in the world.

Agriculture was and remains to be the major economic activity of the Konso. Farmers
practiced a fairly balanced and integrated system of specialized agricultural technology. The
location of mainland Konso within mosquito infested hot and dry lowlands at the edge of the
Great East African Rift Valley led farmers to adopt intensive agriculture. Farmers combined
crop production with cattle breeding. At the same time, they adopted soil conservation
techniques notably the construction of terraces which proved helpful to convert rugged and
hilly areas into permanent cultivation. Farmers were also adept at selecting plant genes that
withstood harsh climatic conditions. Such complex agricultural practices enabled farmers to
produce sufficient food on small plot of land for their sustenance. Besides agriculture,
Konso‟s economy depended on bee-keeping and craftworks. All of these activities attest the
ingenuity of local adaptation strategies.

Until the late nineteenth century, the Konso people lived in walled villages namely Karati
Turo and Takati which were further divided into wards (Kanta). There was no central
authority who acted as sovereign power over the three regions. Each village was ruled by a
council of elders called hayyota who were selected through direct participation of male
members of the village. Membership to the council was not hereditary but rotated every
eighteen years.

At the core of the socio-political organization of the Konso appear to be the clan or lineage
group and xhelta- generation set. The Konso were divided into nine exogamous clans namely

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Toqmaleta, Elayta, Saudata, Pasanta, Kertita, Ishalayta, Mahaleta, Tikisayta and Argamyta.
Meanwhile, male members of each Konso village were divided into generation sets called
xhelta. The xhelta had fixed cycle of years starting from birth, although they varied across
villages- eighteen in Karat, nine in Takati and five in Turo. The major function of the
generation set was informing the responsibilities expected of each age group.

5.5.2 Semitic States

The Emirate of Harar
Harar is one of the earliest Muslim centers in the region of Ethiopia and the Horn. In the
sixteenth century, Harar became the capital of Walasma of Adal replacing Dakkar until 1577
when it was shifted to Awsa due to the pressure from the Oromo. Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrahim
used Harar as a center from where he launched his campaigns into the Christian kingdom in
1527. The Oromo had begun to occupy Harar plateau and the famous Harar wall was built to
defend the city. Harar became a walled city where the sultanate of the Harari developed.

In the mid seventeenth century, Emir Ali ibn Da‟ud (r. 1647-1662,) in cooperation with the
Oromo established a dynasty which was to rule for nearly two centuries and a half. It was
strengthened by Amirs like Abdul Shakur (1783-94). The Amir‟s council, Majilis engaged in
supervising Mosque land, Waqf and offering other assistance to the Amir. The emirate grew
in importance to be a steady center of Islamic culture and power. Its economic power grew as
it controlled trade routes from the Gulf of Aden ports of Zeila and Berbera. Its authority was
established over the surrounding Oromo and Somali through trade, inter-marriage and
expansion of Islamic teachings. Egyptians were attracted by such a prominence that they sent
an expeditionary force in 1875 and controlled the emirate for nearly a century. Although it
was later restored, Menilek‟s expansion to the region shortly followed in 1887.

Shawan Christian Kingdom

Medieval Christian state centered in Shawa before it moved to the north during the wars
between the Christian kingdom and Muslim sultanates and the Oromo expansion of the
sixteenth century. The new northern state center maintained links with the Shawan region
for some time. Local powers started emerging in areas like Merhabete and Bulga and later

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Menz got prominence controlling not only Amhara but also Oromo to the south and
southwest. Kings, such as Iyyasu I in 1696 led expeditions to ensure control over the region.

“Solomonic” dynasty of Shawa Amhara was formed by the Menz ruler Warada Qal Negasi
Kristos (r.1696-1703) and eventually controlled districts like Asandabo, Debdabo, Makfud
and Yifat. The second king was Merid Azmatch Sebestie/Sebastyanos (1703-1718). Abuye/
Abiyye (1718-45) made Haramba, his capital and tried to subjugate surrounding Oromo
before he was killed by Karrayu Oromo. In addition to his unsuccessful attempts to control
Afars and Abitchu Oromo, Amaha Iyesus/ Amayyes (r.1745-75) declared authority over
Bulga, Efrata, Menz and Tegulet with his capital at Doqaqit which later shifted to Ankober.
Asfa Wosen (r.1775-1808) conquered Antsokia, Asbo, Gedam, Gishe, Merhabete, Morat and
Shawa Meda. The dynasty became very strong under negus Sahle-Sellasie (r.1813-47), the
grandfather of Emperor Menilek II. In his reign many travelers visited Shawa and he even
signed “treaty of friendship and commerce” with the British in 1841.

Shawa‟s economy was mainly based on agriculture supplemented by trade and craft. Near the
capital, Ankobar, there was an important trade center in Aleyu Amba administered by the
Shawan court.

Gurage

The Gurage live in southwestern Ethiopia, surrounded by the Awash and Gilgel Gibe Rivers
(a tributary of the Omo River) on the north and southwest respectively, and Lake Ziway on
the east. According to local traditions, the groups that are subsumed under the term Gurage
originated in northern Ethiopia as the descendants of military conquerors.The main Gurage
clans and their sub-divisions are the following; Inor group (Inor, Enner, Endegegna, Gyeto
and Mesemes), Chaha group (Chaha, Muher, Ezha, Gumer and Gura) and the Kistane group
(Aymallal, Dobbi, Gordana, Gogat and Galila). Additional groups included: Gadabano,
Masqan and Nurana. The staple crop in Gurage land is enset.

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The Gurage had traditional system of governance developed over the centuries. There was,
however, no centralized leadership. Power was vested in clan or lineage groups. The descent
groups displayed corporate rights, obligations, and influence. Gurage‟s notable customary
modes of governance include the Yajoka Qicha and the Gordanna Sera.

5.5.3 Omotic States

Kafa
According to traditions, this powerful kingdom emerged in fourteenth century. Around mid
seventeenth century, the state had come to prominence. The ruling Minjo dynasty and the
medieval kingdom of Ennarya had close contact. The Oromo expansion might have forced
the ruling house of Ennarya to flee south of the Gojeb which as a result brought Christianity
and the royal title tato to Kafa.

As with a number of Cushitic and some Semitic peoples of the south, Kafa‟s economy was
based on the cultivation of enset on peasant farms supported by trade. Besides working on
their land, peasants rendered free labor service and tilled royal estates with the support of
slaves who were acquired through raiding or trading, or as payment for debt. As far as trade
is concerned, a prosperous commerce took place with Oromo states of the Gibe region. Major
trade items, such as, musk, coffee, slaves, Ivory, gold, honey-wax, and civet were exported
via markets like Tonkolla, Tiffa, Qeya etc.

From the seventeenth to the eighteenth centuries, the kingdom expanded to Bonesho,
Mashengo, Maji, Nao, She and Chara. At the apex of the administration of the kingdom was
the Tato with his major political center at Bonga. Another seat of power was Anderacha,
seven miles to southeast. The Tato was assisted by a council of seven advisors called
Mickrecho. The mikrecho served to moderate the power ofthe king but they played important
roles in succession as well.

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The Kafa are known for their culture of digging deep trenches called Kuripo. The Gojeb also
served as natural defense against external invasion and it might have contributed to their
relative independence until 1897.

Wolayta
The name Wolayta denotes a specific ethnic group in southern Ethiopia and their powerful
kingdom which first emerged as a state back in the thirteenth century. Wolayta had a strong
centralized state which flourished in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries as a
result of successful wars that the Wolayta fought against their neighbors and the material,
human and territorial gains thereof. At the apex of the social and political hierarchy was the
Kawo (king), assisted by an advisory council of nobles called Ballimalla. Two successive
dynasties ruled Wolayta before its forceful incorporation into the Imperial Ethiopian state in
the late nineteenth century: the Wolayta-Malla and the Tigre. Founded in the thirteenth
century, the Wolayta-Malla seems to have ruled until the end of the fifteenth century. It was
then superseded by the Tigre dynasty, so called because it was supposedly founded by
Tigrean migrants from northern Ethiopia. The kingdom lost political autonomy following its
conquest by Emperor Menelik‟s forces in 1894.

The land of Wolayta is known for its fertility and moderate climate, with green vegetation
cover for the most part of the year. All land was nominally owned by the king who granted it
to his dependents. In practice, land relationships were ordered according to three basic
principles of social organization i.e. kinship, polity and social status. Accordingly, rights over
land were vested in the lineage group, the crown (royal estate) and the nobility. There were
also communal lands allocated for grazing and social gatherings to which all members of the
society except artisans had equal access. The king rewarded people with land on grounds of
gallant deeds in battle and other important contributions to the state. By grants of land or by
threats of dispossession the reigning monarch ensured loyalty to the state. Except those who
worked on the royal estate, landholders paid tribute to the king. The dominant food crop was
enset (Enset Ventricosum).

Yam

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The Yam or Yamma state was located along the eastern banks of the Gibe or to the northeast
of the Kafa kingdom. Major Yam clans include Gezi, Haema, Kamoso, Kanashiro, Kaworn,
Malaqo, Orbatu, Wona and Zatalu. Initially, an indigenous dynasty called Dida or Halmam-
Gamma ruled Yam from its palace in Dudarkema/Zimarma near Oya, in the vicinity of Bor
Ama Mountain. Besides being at the top of the political ladder, the Amno (king) of Yam
acted as a chief priest with attributes of divinity. A state council of 12 clan representatives
named Nanktessor with its chairman Waso assisted the Amno in administering the state.
Erasho were the provincial governors and they were responsible for digging ditches called
bero and erecting a nearly fifty meter wooden or iron pillars at the center of the kingdom
around Brisi Bita so that the war father, the Nomiaw, could patrol the surroundings. Especial
messengers, Wosi carried orders from Amno down to district chiefs, Gagna and vice versa.
In the fourteenth century, the last king Oyokam/Amo Dasha was overthrown by northern
migrants who founded a new dynasty called Mowa (Howa) with its center at Angari. In the
nineteenth century, the neighboring state of Jimma Abba Jifar brought the Yam under its
control which itself was absorbed into the imperial state of Ethiopia under Menelik towards
the end of the century.

Yam‟s economy combined agriculture, trade and crafts. The black smiths, Yirfo, the tanners
and potters, Fuga lived in segregation in the west/ Bulogi.

5.5.4 Nilotic States

Berta and Gumuz

The Berta are one of the Nilo-Saharan speaking peoples that inhabited the present Beni-
Shangul Regional State. Local traditions link the Berta to the Sennar in eastern Sudan, in the
area of the former Funji Kingdom (l. 1521-1804). It is said that they moved to western
Ethiopia in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The place where they first settled in
western Ethiopia was known as Bela Shangul or “Beni Shangul” which literally means „Rock
of Shangul‟ in reference to a sacred stone around a mountain in Menge woreda. In addition to

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the Berta, the area is home for the Gumuz. Islamic influence had been strong on the Berta
and other Nilotes because of their trade and social contacts with the northern Sudan.

Anyua

The Anyua, also known as the Anyuaa people, predominantly inhabit areas along Pibor,
Sobat, Gila, Akobo, Agwei, Oboth, Baro, and Alwero Rivers on the western borderlands of
the present-day Gambella region. The people speak Dha-anywaa, a sub-branch of the Nilo-
Saharan language family. The Anuak had an indigenous administrative system whereby each
village lived under a chief called Kuaari who along with the nobles, Nyiye, managed the
distribution of farm and grazing fields, settled disputes etc with the community. Although
local traditions mention a certain person by the name Oshoda as the founding father of the
Anuak, the administration of the territory was not centralized. Economically, they are
engaged in small-scale cultivation, fishing and hunting. While most Anuak practiced
Christianity, they also believed in traditional religion.

Nuer

The traditional homeland of the Nuer extended across the savannas and marshes of the Bahr
el-Ghazal and the Upper Nile regions. Since the nineteenth century, they had been largely
settled in the plains of Gambella along the Sobat and Baro rivers and parts of the Sudan. The
mainstay of Nuer‟s economy was cattle breeding supplemented by farming. The Nuer had
developed a rather complex spiritual culture around their cattle which were used as bride
wealth as well. The Nuer had an age-set system combining social and political functions.
Neur boys had to pass through a severe test and a series of rites connected with it before they
were initiated into adulthood.

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Majanger

The Majanger formed the southern end of the Nilo-Saharan settlement that covered the
escarpment of the Oromo inhabited highlands to the Baro plains. Linguistic evidence relates
the origin of the Majanger to the Boma plateau in South Sudan. Gradually, they moved
northwards and settled in forested areas of western Ethiopia. By mid twentieth century, their
settlement extended to areas near Dembidolo in the north. Economically, the Majanger
practiced shifting cultivation and animal husbandry. Other economic activities of the
Majanger include beekeeping, hunting and fishing.

5.6. The Period of Gondar (1636-1769) and Zemene-Mesafint / Era of the Princes (1769-
1855)

5.6.1. The Revival the Christian Kingdom

The nobilities renewed their allegiance to Emperor Gelawdiwos and his armies, the emperor
also forgave for Muslims and others for their past disloyalty. It was resulted to quickly
retake possession of the whole of the northern and central plateau. Lots of highland Muslim
community submitted to Gelawdiwos and were not harmed. He was tolerant toward his
Muslim subjects and aimed at national conciliation and to develop revival of smooth
relations with the Muslim world. The restoration of the pre-war territories in South,
particularly in the southeast (in the Muslim dominated areas) was not easy task likewise that
of his success in the North and Shawa. It was because of this that the emperor was busy in
reorganizing his kingdom. Wazir Abbas attempted to form a state composed of Dawaro, Bali,
and Fatagar. But the issue was settled in a battle in 1545. While, this victory in the region did
not provide long lasting effect, Muslim rulers west of the Rift Valley continued the struggle
against the Christian monarch and conditions in the south were complicated by the Oromo
population movement. The recovery and the reconsolidation of Christian kingdom continued
by performing campaigns. The Christian northerners were settled as garrisons (Chewa) in the
South and on the borders. The new Chewa regiments were not only meant to defend the
empire but also to facilitate integration by the diffusion of Christianity and the northern

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culture among the local population. The process was further enhanced by the nearly
uninterrupted presence of the royal camp in the southeastern provinces during the last decade
of Gelawdiwos reign. The rising challenging events during the early parts of reconsolidation
of the Christian kingdom from 1550‟s were the partial recovery of Adal, the Ottoman threat,
Jesuit interlude and the expansion of Oromo Population movement in to the center.

When Emperor Gelawdiwos was going to control Damot, the surviving Sultanate of Adal
under the leadership of Nur Ibn al-waazir Mujahid (Son of Ahmad‟s Sister, who became amir
in 1551/52) made efforts to organize and lead the Adal-Harar Muslims for a revenge war
against the Christian Kingdom. The widow, Bati dil Wombera, made promise to marry Nur,
if he could avenge the loss of the soul of her husband, but his first attempt of against the
Christian kingdom was unsuccessful even his seat, Harar, was sacked in 1550. Yet Harar
recovered from its defeat and stood for offensive. In 1559 the forces of Amir Nur („had been
named amir al-mumin by the people of Harar”) initiated and supported by the people of
Harar and Bati Del Wanbara marched to the north in to Shoa control Fatagar. Punitive
expedition under Hamalmal was sent by Galawdiows (he was from Gojjam) to stop them but
couldn‟t. Gelawdiwos himself met the Muslims with small army. His forces were defeated,
and he was killed and beheaded on Good Friday in 1559 and his head was taken to Harar.

In the long run, the Muslims were unable to continue their victory; and in particular Amir
Nur was forced to retreat to Harar due to the internal power struggle between them and
because of the Oromo attacks of his base area, Harar.

In 1557, when Yishaq (the Bahir-Negash) was accompanying Gelawdiwos in the south east
Ethiopia (Harar), the Ottoman Turks under Ozdemir Pasha by leading three thousand soldiers
took control of Massawa and Arkiko, and established their fortress and erect a tower at
Dabarwa. They also pushed forward and massacred the monks of Dabra Damo, and the
Church. In 1559, Yishaq together with the Tigrians and the chiefs of North provinces
defeated the Turkish forces. As a result of this, the Ethiopians reoccupied Dabarwa and the
Turks were forced to retreat to Swakim, north of Massawa.

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However, towards the last years of Minas (r.1559-1563) Yishaq revolted and allied with the
Turks. In 1562 the organized force defeated Minas and he was forced to flee in to Shawa.
Therefore during the reign of Emperor Sartsa-Dengle (r.1563-1598), Yishaq was the main
focus of rebellion. Yishaq began negotiation with the Turks and Muslim of Harar. On 7
December, 1578 Sartsa-Dengle defeated combined armies of Yishaq and the Turks at Addi
Qorro where both Yishaq and Zamur Pasha were killed. The remaining Turks solders
retreated. The king then moved into the fortress Dabarwa, broke down its walls and
destroyed its mosque. On his return Sartsa-Dengle conducted campaigns against the
rebellions of Agaw, Gumuz, Felaha/Bete-Israel, Sidama, Enarya and the Oromo.

While Sartsa-Dengle was in Enarya, the successor of Yishaq revolted and allied to the Turks
and helped them to reoccupy the Dabarwa region. The emperor then moved to Arkiko and
first attacked the fortress there but he had to retire to mountains of Tigre to eliminate the
rebels once for all. Having accomplished this, the king returned to Dabarwa, South of
Massawa. The coastal areas were restored to the Christian kingdom. Based on peace made in
1589, between the emperor and Pasha Kadawert, Arkiko and Massawa were given to a local
Beja (Belew) chieftain. The Ottomans were there, however because of the decline of
Ottoman government the Turks did not try to conquer Ethiopia.

5.6.2. The Gondar Period Political Developments: “Close Door Policy,” Reforms,
“Byzantine Politics”

One of the political developments of this period was the northward orientation of the political
center of the Christian kingdom from the Northern Shawan highlands to the Lake Tana
region and Gondar area. It was because of the temporary recovery of Adalites and the Oromo
population pressure. Basically, the period of Gondar was started from the reign of Emperor
Sartsa-Dengle that means, when the political center of Ethiopian emperors shifted to Gondar
Area. Emperor Minas stayed in Eastern Gojjam at Mangest-Samyat, but in the meantime he
shifted his center of power into the Lake Tana region. Emperor Sartsa-Dengle attempted
royal camp at Guzara/Enfranz in1571. Emperor Susenyos also tried to establish his capital in
the near surrounding of Gondar like at Qoga, Gorgora, Danqaz and Azazo.

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Apart from this, it is mostly kwon that the actual beginning of the Gondar period or
“Gondarine Period” was from its foundation as a permanent capital in 1636 by Emperor
Fasiledas (r.1632-67) that continued up to the beginning of “Zemene-Mesafint”.

Among ten emperors ruled during the “Gondarian” period, the kingdom achieved its glory
during the reigns of its first three successive emperors: Fasiledas (r.1632–67), Yohannes I
(r.1667 – 1682) and Iyasu I (r.1682 – 1706).

Among the major reforms during this period were restoration of the Orthodox faith, the
establishment of the royal Prison of Amba Wahni to solve the rivalry problems by Fasiledas.
Emperor Yohannes by alarming the progress of Islam as he allied with the Muslim world
called a council and decide to establish Addis Alem as a separate quarter for Muslims.
During the reign of Iyasu, a system of land measurement was introduced in Begemder, the
Fetha Negest (the civil code) revised, land tenure system, taxes, and customs were reformed.
After the Oromo population expanded in to the central and the northern part of Ethiopia, the
Oromo warriors widely participated in central army of Gondar. During this period, relatively
good degree of integration between the surviving Christian communities of Shawa and the
Oromos were formed.

At the beginning, unlike their predecessors, the “Gondarine” emperors led leisure life.
However, after a period of Iyasu I, life in the court of Gondar affected by internal political
instability and it has come to known as “Byzantine politics”. It was characterized by and
Gonder became the center of intrigues, short-lived monarchs, assassinations, instabilities,
chaos, coups d‟état and poising of kings by power claimants.The assassination of Iyasu the
Great opened the beginning of instability. Iyasu the great was assassinated by faction led by
his son Takla-Haymanot. Takla-Haymanot was crowned in the spring of 1706 before the
death of his father and was in turn assassinated by Tewoflos. Tewoflos was again killed by
Yostos, who was also poisoned and replaced by Dawit III, who himself was fallen to
poisoning and replaced by Bakkaafaa. Bakkaafaa tried to bring stability with the support of
his Oromo warriors and his formidable queen, Mentewab of Quara.

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With incapacitation of her husband, around 1728, and beginning from 1728 to 1768 the
Gondarine court politics was dominated by the famous Queen Etege Mentewab together with
her brother Walda Le‟ul (1732-1767, he remained a pillar of the kingdom until his death, in
1767). He dominated the reigns of Iyasu II (1730-1755) and Iyoas (1755-1769). At the death
of Walda Le'ul, however, Mentwab was challenged by her Wallo Oromo daughter-in-law
Wabi/Wubit Amito (her Baptized name was Bersabeh), with support of her brothers Brillee
and Luboo. In reaction, Mentwab invited Ras Micka'el Sehul of Tigray to support her against
the Wallo. Later after the death of Mentwab, Iyoas asked Ras Mika'el to return to Tigray.
Nevertheless, he refused, and killed Iyoas himself, put 70 years old man Yohannes II on
power. Immediately when Yohannes II showed discomfort, Ras Mika'el killed him and put
his son under throne name Takla-Haymanot II (1769-1777) on power. This opened the way
to the Era of Lords or Zemene Masefent (1769-1855).

5.6.3. Gondar Achievements

Gondar became the center of state administration, learning, commerce, education, art and
crafts for more than two centuries. The first three kings were successful not only in political
affairs but also in cultural developments. Gondar had great influence on the country‟s
cultural developments. This enabled Gondar to repeat the splendors of Aksum and Lalibela.
The cultural achievements of the period led some writers to describe Gondarine period in
history as Ethiopian Renaissance.

Architecture
When Gondar served as a permanent capital, for about one hundred fifty years Ethiopian
kings built significant secular buildings like castles, bridges, residences, bath, library, towers,
fortifications and there are squared, round and unknown shape of churches. In the cities
compound the most impressive building known as Fasil Gemb, there are different palaces
corresponded to Emperor Fasiledas, Yohannes I, Iyasu I, Dawit III, Bakkaafaa and regent
Queen Mentewab. The Gondarine architecture would have started before the reign of
emperor Fasiledas during the reign of Emperor Sartsa-Dengle at about 1586, at Guzara near
Enfranz. Even it goes back to the reign of Lebne-Dengel (r.1508-1540) that is the pointed
oval dome over the center of the church of Bahir Gimb Mikael considered as built by him.

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Fasiledas castle architectural styles usually have two stride and almost square; circular
domed corner towers. Not only castle, bridge building did not originate with the reign of
Fasiledas. Rather, Emperor Sartsa-Dengel is said to have built a very fine bridge near his
palace at Guzara, and Emperor Susenyos likewise erected a bridge over Blue Nile at Alata.

Painting
With a wealth of religious paintings on manuscripts and on wood, ornaments, weapons and
other accessories especially, the churches built by Queen Mintwab were known by beautiful
paintings, cross and an art works.

Picture 5: the Quesqam Palace built by Empress Mentewab

Literature
The Imperial and provincial scriptoria produced a great number of manuscripts. Besides the
Gospels, the Miracles of Mary, the Lives of Ethiopian Saints and the Litanies, and many
other kinds of illuminated manuscripts were also produced. Gondar is also known for its
traditional medicine, music and poetry.

Trade &Urbanization
In the early daysGondar was a commercial center that connected long distance trade routes of
the southern region with Massawa and Matama in the Ethio-Sudan border. Gold and salt
were used as the currency in the market. The appearance of daily market was known.

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With spread of urbanization, the city became residences of foreign communities like Indians,
Greeks and Armenians. Its total number of population reached 60,000-70, 000. In addition to
its political and commercial importance it served as religious center of Christians, Muslims
and Bete-IsraelJewish. Mainly, it served as the center of Ethiopian Orthodox Church
(residence of the abun & Ichege) until the mid of 19th Century. Many of Orthodox churches
served as education centers (known by excellence in teaching aqwaqwam), liturgical
chanting was centered at Gondar.

5.6.4. Major Features of Era of Princes (1769-1855) and Yejju Dynasty (1786-1853)

A. The Meaning and Beginning of Zemene Mesafint

The combinations of the two Amharic word Zemene-Mesafints (Zemen refers a certain
period of time or it is equivalent to an English word era and Mesafint literal meaning English
word prince) has a literal meaning of era of princes or it refers to the Biblical “the era of
Judges”. Apart to this, even the princes were not in actual position of political power rather
the political power was in the hand of different regional lords. The exact time of the
beginning of the Zemene-Mesafint is not reached on consensus by scholars. However, most
scholars in their different books and writings remark that the period from the assassination of
king Iyoas in 1769 by Ras Michael Sehul (the collapse of the monarchy) up to 1855 is known
as Zemene-Mesafint; while, others argued that it started when Ali seized power in 1784 by
defeating Emperor Tekle-Giorgis at Aferawnat and continued up to 1855.

B. The Main Political Regions and the Features of Zemene Mesafint

Ras Mika‟el was ruthless, cruel, high handed and manipulative. His bloody measures made
him highly unpopular and his making and unmaking of kings angered other nobles. Moreover,
the announcement of his support of the Karra Haymanot; at the end of his dominance led to
the collaboration of the lords of Gojjam, Amhara, Lasta and Wallo that defeated him at the
battle of Sarba-Kussa in 1771. His rivals and immediate successors followed him in making
and manipulating kings by enthroning and dethroning. However, his period was known by
signs of relative peace.

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Ali Gwangul( Ali I or Ali Talaq is considered as the founder of “Yejju dynasty” in 1786. The
main political regions that Zemene-Mesafint lords ruled were Tigray, Semen, Dembiya,
Begemedir, Lasta, Yejju, Wallo, Gojjam and Shawa (act as an independent from these
politics). When compared to each other the “Yejju dynasty” was the leading power during
the “Era of the princes” by establishing center at Debre-tabor.

Yejju Dynasty reached its zenith under Gugsa Marso (r.1803-1825) who made incessant
struggle against Ras Walde-Silassie of Inderta-Antalo and Dejjazmatch Sabagadis Woldu of
Agame. In 1826 Hayle-Mariam Gebre of Simen was crushed by Gugsa's successor, Yimam
(r.1825-1828). Maru of Dambiya was also killed at the battle of Koso-Ber in 1827.

According to a number of historical accounts Zemene-Mesafint was characterized as follows:

 Ethiopia was divided into several regions with no effective central authority. In other
words, the monarchial state was collapsed or disintegrated.
 The monarchs continued only in name/ puppet. Due to the growing power and
influences of the regional warlords the monarchs totally lost their authority.
 The regional lords constantly fought with each other for aggrandizement of their
territory and to become the guardian of the king of kings at Gondar.
 Coalitions and alliance between regional lords were constantly formed and dissolved.
 The internal crisis further aggravated by the doctrinal divisions and controversy
within the Ethiopian Orthodox Church that was divided in to disputant sects.
Tewahedo (called Karra by its opponents) believed in one birth of Jesus Christ. It
taught that Christ anointed himself and was born from Mary through his divine wish.
It was dominant in Tigray and Lasta. Hulet Lidet/Two Births (Qibat/Unction)
accepted eternal birth as the first, but also claimed that at moment of his incarnation,
when he was born into the world, Holy Ghost anointed him. This sect was dominant
in Gojjam. Sost Lidet/Three Births (Ya Tsaga Lij/Son through Grace) taught that
Christ was first born in eternity as divine being, was born again in womb of Mary
being anointed by Holy Ghost and nine months later was born into the world as

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 perfect man and perfect divinity. This sect was dominant in Gonder and Shawa.
Therefore, the Ethiopian Orthodox Church was unable to play its former unifying role.
 The burning of several churches and castles, which were the cultural heritages of
Gondar.
 The Yejju lords did have predominance or hegemony over other lords of northern
Ethiopia.
 It was a period in which the prevalence of poverty, social, political and economic
crisis were intensified.
 The end of “Close Dore policy” and Ethiopia's door was opened to Europe.

Learning activities

 Who was Shihab ad-Din?

 Assess the changes and continuities in the relations between the Christian kingdom
and Muslim sultanates taking Imam Ahmad‟s rise to power as a break.
 What were the major factors for the defeat of Lebne Dengel‟s army in the hands of
the Imam‟s force at the battle of Shimbra Kure?
 Assess the circumstances that led Portugal and Ottoman Turkey‟s involvement in
Ethiopia‟s domestic affairs in the sixteenth century?
 What were the major consequences of the decade and half long war between the
Christian kingdom and Muslim sultanates?
 Briefly describe the following terms:
Tewahedo
Ye-tsega lij
Qebat
 What was the „close door policy‟ about and how did it affect Ethiopia‟s relations with
the outside world?
 Discuss the process and outcome of the Jesuits‟ evangelical efforts in Ethiopia.
 Why do you think Susenyos adopted Catholicism as a state religion?
 Discuss the function of the Chawa system and its contribution to the intermingling of
peoples along the borders between the Christian and Muslim inhabited areas.

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 Assess the relations between Sartsa-Dengle and Yishaq in the context of the
encroachment of Ottoman Turks against Ethiopia‟s sovereignty in the sixteenth
century.
 Explain the contribution of the Oromo, Afar, Somali, and Argoba population
movements to Ethiopia‟s socio-cultural conditions at present?
 Explain the causes and effects of population movements of the Afar, Somali, and
Argoba in the early sixteenth century?
 Discuss the causes and effects of the Oromo population movement?
 What was the purpose of the buttaa ceremony and how did its function change in the
context of the Oromo population movement in the sixteenth century?
 What is the Gada system and how did it function in Oromo society?
 Which values of the Gada system contributed to social integration?
 Discuss the similarities and differences between Gada, Luwa and Baalle systems of
the Oromo Sidama and Gedeo respectively.
 Discuss the origin, growth and political administration of the following polities.
Kambata
Wolayta
The Emirate of Harar
 What were the major features of the Zemene Mesafint?
 Discuss the social, economic and political circumstances that gave rise to the Zemene
Mesafint.
 Explain key developments during the period of the Yejju dynasty.
 Briefly describe major achievements of the Gondarine period.

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 Unit Six

Internal Interactions and External Relations in Ethiopia and the Horn,

1800-1941 (10 hours)

Einführung

Dear Learners,

This unit is devoted to a survey of a history of the region from the early 19th

century to 1941. It tries to explain series and complex interactions and external

relations that shaped the regions modern history. The region experienced the

rise of trade, state formations, power rivalry, empire building, modernization

and major battles to resist foreign dominance. In the 19th century, several

autonomous states existed at different stages of socio-economic and political

developments. The economic activities ranged from hunting and gathering to a

well-developed agriculture and trade. The political organizations of some of the

states were monarchical system in nature while some others followed indigenous

political systems of different kinds. Despite, the peoples and states were

politically divided, they maintained strong economic relations with one another

that created a single economic unit in the region. It is apparent that power

rivalry and empire building of the late 19th century sought to control such

lucrative resource bases and trade routes. Simultaneously, Ethiopia and the

Horn faced threats from colonial powers because of which peoples of the region

fought major battles including Maqdela, Gura, Gundet, Adwa, Maychew and

liberation from the Italian rule in 1941. This unit also explains the role of

personalities in confrontations against colonial powers.

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Unit Objectives
At the end of this unit, students will be able to:
 point out the different states that existed in Ethiopia and Horn before the formation of
modern Ethiopia;
 analyze the political system, culture and economy of the autonomous states;
 discuss the significances of agriculture and trade in the economy of the region;
 explain the process of territorial expansion of northern Ethiopian Christian Kingdom
to the south leading to the formation of modern Ethiopia;
 appreciate the Ethiopian resistance to foreign powers.

Unit Starters
 Share orally the role played by long-distance trade in the relations between peoples of
Ethiopia.
 What role did population movements play in the interaction and integration of
peoples in Ethiopia and the Horn?
 What was the enduring interest of Ethiopian monarchs in establishing contacts with
the outside world? What major obstacles did they encounter in the process?

6.1. The Nature of Interactions among Peoples and States of Ethiopia and the Horn

At the beginning of the nineteenth century, many independent peoples and states existed in
Ethiopia and the Horn. In the north, several states existed including the Gonder and others
states independent of Gonder rulers. One of these was the kingdom of Shawa that emerged as
a strong state. In the south, several peoples established independent polities and states. The
Muslim communities also possessed well-organized Sheikdoms or emirates. The major
factors for the rise of these states were the rich agricultural resources and lucrative trade.

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6.1.1. Peoples and States of Qabena, Gibe, Leqa, Aqoldi, Khomosha, and Bela-Shangul
A. The State of Qabena: in the southern portion of central Ethiopia, Hadiya, Alaba,
Kambata, Gurage and Silte constituted independent political entities in the period. They
economically, depended on agriculture. Local merchants actively involved in local trade and
to some extent in the long distance trade. Trade routes that connected the interior with the
coast passed through these territories. Among these, the Gurage land was an important
market centre and political entity. Important trade centers such as Soddo and Ayamallel were
located in Gurage land and are said to have been established by King Sahile Sillasie (r.1813-
47) of Shawa. The Gurage had their political organization. Their leaders were known as
Abegaz or Azmatch combined political and military authority. In 1875, Gurage land was
divided into five Negariti or drum districts of Qabena, Walani, Gadabalo, Abso& Mohir.
However, western Gurage and Hadya State of Qabena emerged as a strong political entity. It
became a centre of Muslim revivalist movement in the northeast of the Gibe River. Stirred by
Muslim refugees from Wallo, and with possible connections even with Mahdists Sudan, the
movement swept across a large part and was attended by a fast rate of Islamization.

B. The Gibe States: Towards the beginning of the 19th century, several monarchical states
known as mootummaa emerged among the Macca Oromo at the expense of the Gada system.
Many factors accounted for the transformation of the Gada system. In the process, the war
leaders of the Gadaa system (abba-duulaa) and powerful individuals usurped the power of the
Gadaa government. The abba-duula accumulated wealth from the control and taxation on
long distance trade and utilized the opportunity to rise to power. This development especially
took place among the Oromo around Gibe where the following five monarchical states
emerged.

i. Limmuu-Inaaryaa: Limmu-Inarya was the earliest of the Gibe states. It was formed by
Bofoo/Abbaa Gomol (1800-1825) who abdicated in favor of his son, Ibsaa/Abbaa Bagiboo
(1825-1861).It reached the height of its power during Ibsaa‟s reign, when Agalo, Badifolla
etc. were brought under control. Ibsa was succeeded by A/Bulgaa (1861-1883).

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ii. Guumaa: Jiilchaa A/Bal‟oo of Ciraa killed Sarbaaroodaa of Daagoyyee; began state
formation and succeeded by his son Onchoo (1810-1830) who was in turn followed by
Jawwee (1840-1854). It was from Guma locality/Onjaa that slave raiders captured Ajjaamee/
Bilillee. German prince Herman Pickler Muskau purchased her at Cairo in 1837; changed her
name to Mahbuba meaning beloved and made her his mistress. However, she suddenly died
of poisoned food she ate in fortnight on October 27, 1840.

iii. Gomma: formed by A/Bookee (1800-1829) who was succeeded by his son A/Manoo
(1829-1840) who conquered Qattuu and converted to Islam by Muslim Ulama/scholars. A
place called Coocee-Kattaa Muudugaa in Gomma is said to have been the origin of coffee.

iv. Jimma: Ose Kobbii (A/Faaroo) and Daangilaa (A/Magaal) began state formation that was
completed by Sannaa/Abbaa Jifaar I (r.1830-1855) who formed Jimma Kakaa/confederacy
and left a consolidated state to his successors like A/Reebuu (1855-1859) and Abbaa Booqaa
(1859-1861). There were iron mining center at Daakkaanoo and smelting center at Kittoo.

v. Geeraa: formed by Tulluu Gunjii (1835-1838), followed by A/Baassoo and A/Raagoo I

(1838-1848).

C. The Leeqaa States: Leeqaa-Naqamtee was founded by Bakaree Godaanaa in 1840, and
reached its height under his successors Moroda and Kumsa. Leqa-Qellam was located in the
south western of Wallagga. It was founded by Tullu and became powerful under his son, Jote
being centered at Gidaam and controlling the areas around Sayyo-Dambi Doolloo.

D. Iluu: the Tumme clan leader Caalii Shoonoo set up the well consolidated richest state of
Ilu-Abba Bor. It was from Ilu that Hika/Onesmus Nesib/Abba Gammachis was captured and
sold in to slavery nine times before Menkulluu Swedish mission freed, and educated him.

Each Oromo monarchicalstate had officials like Abbaa Gurmu/prime minister, Abbaa Mizan/
treasurer & foreign affair minister, Daango/Daggi/Abbaa Keella/immigration chief, Lammi/

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ambassador, Abbaa Burqaa/Qoro/governor, Abbaa Ganda/Abbaa Laga/district chief, Abbaa
Buusii/Abbaa Funyoo/tax head, Abbaa Jigaa/murder judge and Abbaa-Qawwee/body-guard.

E. Nilotic Sheikdoms: around course of Blue Nile, Sheikhdoms mentioned below were
established through parallel imposition of Arabic-speaking Sudanese mercantilists over Berta
and Gumuz inhabitants based on agriculture, gold mining and frontier trade in early 19th c.
i. Asosa (Aqoldi): this got preeminence under Sheikh Khojale al Hasan.
ii. Bela/Beni-Shangul: this became famous under Abd al Rahman Khojale.
iii. Khomosha: reached zenith under Khojale Muhammad Wad Mahmud.
iv. Guba: this attained similar prominence in the southwest of Gojjam.
The influences of Islam from the Sudan and cross border trade were the main reason for the
rise of these states. The rich gold of the region also attracted foreign powers like the
Mahdists and Egyptians who attempted to use the sheikdoms to control.

Map: Various Peoples and States of Ethiopia and the Horn c. 1800.

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6.1.2.The Role of Trade and Trade Routes in the Interaction

Beginning from the early 19th century, trade flourished connecting the Ethiopian region from
south to north and west to east. As a result, it became one means of maintaining strong
relations across peoples of different areas and background. In the period, two main trade lines
linked various territories of Ethiopia. Southwestern Ethiopia was the starting point of the two
main lines. The trade route that originated from Bonga, the capital city of Kafa kingdom,
linked peoples and states of the south western Ethiopia with the northern part of the
Ethiopian region. The main market centers on this line were Bonga, Hirmaataa (in Jimma),
Saqa (in Limmuu-Inaaryaa), Billoo in Leeqaa Naqamtee, Asandaaboo (in Guduru), Basso-
Yajube (in Gojjam), Yifaji Darita (in Begemider) and Gonder. From Gonder, one line
bifurcated to westward through Cilga Matamma/Qallabat taking commodities to be sold to
Sudanese Jallaba merchants. The other ran through Adwa (in Tigray), Asmara and entered
Massawa. Still another split at Basso to move via Ancharro and Dawwe in Walo & Awusa in
Affar to Tajura, Obbok & Rahe‟ita in Djibouti.
The second major line of trade route began from Jireen in Jimma and ran via Agabjaa-
Andoodee-Tolee to Sooddoo in southwest Shawa; Roggee near Yerar. Then, the line passed
through Aliyu Amba or Abdul Rasul in northern Shawa and ran eastward to Harar. From
Harar the route branched into Zeila and Berbera, the most important commercial centers in
Somalia. Then Ethiopian products transferred mostly to Jidda, Hude‟ida, Mokha& Makkah.

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Map: Trade Routes of the Horn in the Nineteenth century

In the trade between the interior and the coast, varieties of items were exchanged. The main
sources of lucrative trade items were southwestern regions. Among these, gold, ivory,
rhinoceros horn, skins, civet, musk, honey, wax, coffee, various spices and slaves. Slaves
were either hunted in or bought from the western periphery and exported to Arabia, Persia
and India. Likewise, foreign products were mirrors and iron wares. Items as exchange
mediums included salt bars (amole), iron bars, wines, cowries‟ shells, beads, pieces of cotton
cloth (abujadid), Maria Theresa Thaler (MTT) etc. For internal trade, amole was the only
important commodity and source of wealth. It was mined in Taltal plains at border of Affar
& eastern Tigray and then suitably shaped for transportation. The town of Mekelle emerged
as the salt was cut in and distributed to the highlands from the area under supervision of the
governor of Enderta with the title of Balgada, who had the tributes as tax judge, grew in
importance and rivaled Bahr Negash (the governor of the maritime province to the north).
Maria Theresa Thaler was a coin introduced to the Horn of African region at the end of the
18th c. On the Red Sea Coast, MTT was used with other kinds of European and Middle
Eastern coins.

Diverse peoples of different ethnic and religious background involved in the trade. At each
market centers, local peoples were active traders. However, Muslim merchants were the most
dominant traveling from interior to the coast. Among these were Muslim Northern
merchants/Jabarti and Muslim Oromo merchants of southwestern region known as Afqala.
Similarly, the Argoba from the kingdom of Shawa were active merchants in the trade
between Harar and the northern Somali coast.

6.2. Power Rivalry

Power rivalries had an old history in Ethiopia and the Horn despites varying degrees of
strength on prevailing economic, military and political conditions. As discussed under
"Zemene Mesafint," there were rivalries among regional lords. Building imperial power on

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the debris of "Zemene Mesafint," required the use of forces to subjugate the regional powers
seeking autonomy. Empire builders fought their ways to power with centrifugal powers.

The man who ended the Era of Princes was Kasa Hailu, who had become a free-lance soldier
under his brother Kinfu in crushing Egyptians at Wadkaltabu in 1837. When Ras Ali II (Ali
Alula/Ali Abba Bula) gave Quara to his mother Empress Manan/Halima, Kasa moved to
jungle and became a bandit. Manan sent expeditions under generals like Wandeyrad against
him, but he easily defeated them at Illoha, Chago & Segel. Ali then recognized him as Qwar
governor and arranged for him to marry Tawabach Ali in 1847. Yet, when his army incurred
heavy casualties from Egyptian forces at Dabarki in 1848, Kasa was forced to turn his
attention first against regional lords and confront foreign enemy. He rapidly defeated Goshu
Zawde of Gojjam at Gur Amba on November 27, 1852; Biru Alighaz, Aben, Yazew & Balew
at Togusa (Gorgora Bichen) on April 12, 1853; Ali at Ayshal on 29 June, 1853 and Wube of
Tigray at Darasge on 8 February, 1855. Then Coptic bishop, Abuna Salama anointed Kasa on
9 February 1855, as King of Kings, Tewodros II.

Emperor Tewodros (r.1855-1868) faced stiff resistance from local powers. In Gojjam Tadla
Gwalu, a member of the local dynasty, remained contender to Tewodrosuntil he was crushed
at Injbara. In Walqayt, Tiso/Tasew Gobaze threatened his authority to the level of once even
occupying Gondar. In Lasta, Wag Shum GobazeGabramadhin later Emperor Takla-Giyorgis
(r. 1868-1871) raised the standard of rebellion after he had seen his own father executed by
Tewodros. In Shawa, Sayfu Sahla-Sellase and Bazabeh, the man whom Tewodros himself
had appointed made open resistance. Similarly, in Wallo, Dejjach Liban Amade the
emperor's appointee, joined by an even stronger opponent, Amade Bashir, who remained
Tewodros's rivalalong with Adare Bille and Warqit & Mastawit. Niguse and Tassama
Waldamicha'el of Simen also posed serious challenges up on Tewodros. In 1867, the growing
oppositions from his rivals forced Emperor Tewodros, who had dreamt of uniting Ethiopia,
to retreat and establish his last stronghold in Maqdela. In addition, in the military expedition
of the British to Maqdela in the late 1867, Bezbez Kasa Mercha(Yohannis IV) gave guidance
and material support to the British troops. He also received a large quantity of firearms from
General Robert Napier, the commander of British expedition.

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Following the death of emperor Tewodros in 1868, a war broke out for emperorship. Three
contenders for the throne namely Wagshum Gobeze of Lasta, Ras Kasa Mercha of Tigray
and Nigus Menilek of Shawa aspired to be emperors. In fact, they reigned in that order with
the throne names Takla-Giorgis (r.1868-71), Yohannis (r.1872-89) and Menilek II (r.1889-
1913). Like Tewodros, Yohannis faced challenges from power contenders from Gojjam,
Gondar, Yejju, Hamasen and Shawa. In Gojjam, Adal Tasama (Nigus Tekle-Haymanot)
assumed power by killing his contender Dasta Tadla, although Yohannis tolerated his
regional dynasty. The strongest regional challenger of Emperor Yohannis was Menilek II of
Shawa. Menilek was calling himself king of kings, expanding his territories towards Wallo
and contacting foreign countries independently. This serious rival also did not pay tribute.
Yohannis did not tolerate him but his confrontation with Egyptian compelled him to
postpone his decisive war with Menilek. In 1878, peace initiatives came from Menilek
because of the probably military superiority of Yohannis. This was concluded at Liche
Agreement on which Menilek agreed to pay tribute, drop the title of King of Kings, and stop
his independent dealing with foreign powers. However, both Tekle-Haymanot and Menilek
did not remain loyal to Emperor Yohannis. For instance, in 1888, they made a plot on the
emperor when he was troubled by simultaneous aggression from the Italians and Mahdists.
However, despite the continuing challenges of regional forces, Yohannis was able to
maintain his sovereignty until his death at Metema in the battle with the Mahdists in 1889.

6.3. The Making of Modern Ethiopian State

The process of territorial expansion and making of modern Ethiopia involved the conquest
and the incorporation by imperial power of independent peoples and states from the early
1870s to 1900. The above section indicated that centuries long socio-economic and political
interaction among peoples in the region such as trade, population movement, war etc brought
contact of diverse aspects among the existing peoples and states that shaped the modern
political setting. Despite this, independent peoples and polities existed in many regions up to
the end of the 19th century. During the 19th century, several states in the region emerged and
entered into territorial competition with the plan of resource control and empire building. In
other words, empire building was an agenda of several imperial powers that rose in the 19th

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century. The difference was the level of their strength, ambition and foreign relations. Quite
better in this case were states that existed in the northern and central Ethiopia who were able
to establish military strength by exploiting their access to the sea and relations with colonial
powers. As indicated above, Tewodros II, Yohannis IV and others made empire formation
their project and fought their ways. Yet, the most successful was Emperor Menilek II.

The project of conquest driven by interest to control land and trade routes was not new to
Menilek II. What made Menilek expansion new were the intensity and the degree of success.
Besides, his conquest coincided with European powers colonial expansion in Africa with
whom he concluded partition of territories. The control of resourceful centers that enabled
the emperor to build military muscle as well as the determination of his generals counted for
the success.

One caustive factor of territorial expansion to resource rich areas was the Great Famine kifu
Qen (Evil day) 1888-92. It was the most recalled drought, famine and epidemic in the history
of Ethiopia and the Horn. It was remembered in terms of its intensity, magnitude, and socio-
economic crisis. It affected different parts of the Horn with different scales. For instance, the
cattle disease spread to Somali and in due course spread to South Africa. The disaster forced
Menelik II to march towrds south and southwest for resources.

Before 1870s, following his predecessors footsteps, Menilek had already subjugated the
Tuulamaa Oromo. Yet, in Tuulamaa and Eastern Maccaa territories, most defiant of Shawan
conquest were Tufaa Munaa of Gimbichu, Ashee Anbassaa of Salaalee, Duulaa Ara‟ee of
Gullallee, Cangaree Sooqilee and Birratuu Goolee of Meettaa and Bachoo,Turee Galatee of
Sooddoo, Birratee Waaraa of Kuttaayee and Caboo chiefs. However, the Abbichuu noble
Goobana Daaccii collaborated with Menilek to crush these resistances and conquer Ada‟aa
of Moojoo Boxora, Bachoo Shabo Borde, Caacaa of Daabee, Cuukkoo of Roobii Garasuu,
Eekkaa of Habeebee Tufaa, Jamoo of Tiksee Jimaa, Jiddaa of Dooyyoo, Mandiidaa of
Cangi/Gaarii Duufaa, Sooddoo of Tufo Kalu, Sulultaa of Siida Dabalee etc.

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In 1875-76, Menilek made campaign towards the Gurage. The northern Gurage, the Kistane
peaceful submitted because of their religious affinity, geographical proximity and fear of
surrounding Sooddoo Oromo. On the other hand, the western Gurage, led by Hasan Enjamo
of Qabena which had elements of Hadiya-Gurage coalition, inflicted a number of defeats on
the Shawan forces until Menilek's general, Ras Goobanaa crushed Hasan‟s forces in 1888.

In the western side of Gibe River, Nigus Tekle-Haymanot of Gojjam had first established his
control in mid 1870s. Yet, Horroo forces led by Abishee Garbaa Hurruubaa overwhelmed
Gojjamite forces led by Tekle-Haymaanot‟s commander, Ras Darasu in vicinity of Coomman
valley. However, Qadiidaa Waannabee of Jimmaa Raaree persuaded Abishee to surrender
after which Abishe was taken through Kokor to prison in Gojjam where it was said he
chewed his fingers from anger & frustration and died. Gojjamites then installed Abishe‟s
brother, puppet Fandalala. Competition between the Gojjame and the Shawan was terminated
with the defeat of the Gojjam forces at the battle of Imbaaboo on 6 June 1882. In fact, the
Imbaaboo victory was Menilek's passport to the extensive and rich regions of the southwest.

Yet, Garbii Jiloo of Leeqaa-Billoo, Tuuchoo Daannoo of Leeqaa-Hordaa, Ligdii Bakaree of

Leeqaa-Naqamtee, Geendaa Busan of Sibuu-Siree, Mardaasaa Konche of Nonnoo Migiraa,
Turii Jagan of Noonnoo Roggee and leaders of Limmuu & Gudayyaa formed confederation.
Their coalition devastated Abyssinians led by Dasta, Dilinassawu & Tasamma Nado at Gurra
Doobbaa in Bonayyaa near Waamaa and chased them up to Gudar River. League of
Waaccuu Dabaloo of Sibuu Gaantii, Joorgoo Dagaagoo of Noolee Kaabbaa, leaders of
Wambaraa and others also bitterly fought conquerors and their tutelages like Morodaa &
Amantee Bakaree at Samboo Darroo between Gimbii & Najjoo.

Guumaa King A/Joobir and his brother A/Diggaa fought at Bakkee Ganjii against Gojjame.
Firrisaa A/Foggii of Guumaa made Jihad versus Menilek scoring victoriesat places like Santo
from 1889-1901. Yet, while Firrisaa‟s brother, Wayyeessaa died in battle, another brother
Imama/Qoroo of Siddii fled to Menilek‟s court and his sister, Alima/Ballatishachawu
A/Joobir married Ras Tasamma. A/Booraa of Gommaa crushed Shawans led by Basha

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Aboyye at Tijjee while A/Boossoo was beaten by Räs Damissawu Nasїbu‟s army in1900
after series fighting. There were also skirmishes at places like Bakkee Qacoo in Geeraa.

Tasamma‟s army crushed resistance from A/Quxal of Gachii on upper course of Dhidheessaa
and conquered Bunnoo. Fatansaa Ilu‟s forces made attacks upon Tasamma‟s troops at Gabba
& Qarsaa Googilaa, but Fatansaa‟s forces were routed and he was imprisoned at Barrooyii.

Menilek encountered fierce resistance from the Arssi who fought with spears and arrows
against firearms from 1878 to 1886. The Arssi were led by notables like Leenjisoo Diigaa,
who scored victory at Doddotaa; Gosaa Dilamo who crushed Shawans at Qaldhataa and
Gooroo Bubbee/Roobaa Buttaa. Menilek barely escaped with life in December 1883. Yet,
with intelligence service of koso vendor widow Halkoo & Roobalee Kuullaa, and submission
of Suufaa Kuusoo of Jaawwii & Daammuu Ussuu of Hexoosaa as well as biological warfare
with smallpox, Shawan forces led by Ras Darge Sahlasillase made the final assault on the
Arssi at Azule on 6 Sept. 1886. This was followed by Aannolee amputations (female right
breast and male right limbs were cut off, accompanied by castrations in the extreme cases).

Similarly, the eastern Oromo/Itu Humbanna led by Bakar Waaree and the Harari led by Emir
Abdullahi (r.1885-1887) repulsed the initial Shawan thrust led by Dajjach Walda-Gabr'el.
Yet, the eastern Oromo and the Harari were outgunned and outmaneuvered in the final
engagement at Calanqoo, on 6 January 1887. Menilek‟s cousin, Dajjach (later ras) Makonnen
Walda-Mikael was appointed a governor of the province.

Furthermore, Dawuro-Konta and Kambata were occupied in 1889 and 1890 respectively.
Ogaden, Baalee and Sidamo were controlled in 1891. Gamo Gofa was conquered in 1894.
Wolayta, the powerful southern kingdom, was incorporated after one of the bloodiest
campaigns of the whole process of expansion. Kawa (King) Tona's instigation of the [Dawro]
and the Konta peoples, to the west of Wolayta against Menilek's authority added fuel to the
confrontation. Menilek personally led the campaign. He was accompanied by Ras Mikael of
Wallo, Fitawrari Gabayyahu/Gaboo Gurmuu, Liqa Makwas Abata Bwayalaw, Dajjach
Baalchaa Saafoo/Abbaa Nafso, Ras Walda-Giorgis and Abba Jifar II of Jimma. With

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collaboration of Wolayta personalities like Wazitu Wabilo, Lomina and Adaro, the Shawans
defeated Tona in 1894. Nonetheless, Wolaytan incessant stiff opposition led to Wolaytan
genocide by Menilek‟s forces as explained by Venderheym.

Gedeo was annexed in 1895. Fitwrari Habtegiyorgis Dinagdee/Abba Machal/Abba Mala

built a fort at Megga and took over Booranaa & Konso in 1896-97. The years after the battle
of Adwa marked the success of Menelik to extend his control over peripheries. The successes
were partly because of military superiority and boundary agreement with colonial powers.
The process of the incorporation of Kafa paralleled the Wolayta experience in terms of the
human cost. The final battle between the Shawan forces and Kafa took place in 1897.
Shawan force was led by Ras Walda-Giorgis, Dajjach Tasamma of Gore, Dajjach Demise
Nasib of Horro Guduru & Arjo and Abba Jifar II of Jimma. Ras Walda-Giorgis became the
Governor of Kafa after the defeat of Tato Gaki Sherocho. Beni Shangul was occupied after
Fadogno battle and campaign up to Famaka in 1897/8.Waldagiyorgis also conquered Goldea;
Russian Dajjazmatch Leontieff conquered Maji and extended upto Turkana Lake in 1898/9.
Tasamma Nado also conquered up to Baro (Sobat) and Nasir in Gambella.

As in the case of the medieval period women were the most decisive figures in the modern
politics in ethiopia and the Horn. Like Itege Mintiwab, Empress Menen and Tewabech
(daughter of Ras Ali and Tewodros‟ wife), Empress Taytu (wife of emperor Menelik), apart
from her roles in the centralization process, she played significant roles in military affairs
using their spirited personalities. Empress Taitu commanded her own contingent of about
5000 infantry and 600 cavalrymen and accompanied her husband to the Battle of Adwa. She
was considered as an intelligent, wise, and self-assured woman to whom Menilek owe much
for his success.

The process of centralization and establishing a unitary state continued by abolishing

regional autonomies in the early decades of the 20th century. In the process, Wallo,
Bagemedir, Gojjam and Jimma were reduced to mere provinces.

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6.4. Modernization Attempts

The period from 1800-1941 also witnessed the attempts of imitationg western culture which
was consisderd as marker of modernaization. Although several ethipian regional rulers were
intersetd in European technologies emperor Tewodros had preferable degree of
information/contact about western technologies than his predecessors. He was very aware of
the importances of Eurpoean technlogies to transform his people and coutry. For this purpose,
he attempted to approach eurpoeans for the introduction of western science and technologies.

It is apparent that his defeat by well trained and equipped Egyptian troops at the battle of
Debarki in 1848 forced him to reform his troops and to produce modern weapons that would
withstand foreign military technology or to put the country “on an equal footing with
European powers.” As a result, he introduced military titles, like Yasr Alaqa,Yamsa Alaqa,
and Yashi Alaqa, tried to organize and replace the regional armies of Zemene-Mesafint with
a national army, & salaried army and finally with the help of European missionaries &
artisans tried to manufacture fire arms at his workshop, “Gaffat (near Debre-tabor). At Gafatt
about 35 Cannon were produced known as “Sebastopol." He also tried to build small navy in
Lake Tana.

Administrative reforms of Tewodros more focused on the centralization of power and

securing financial base. He introducing a policy of “general pacification” warning everyone
should return to his lawful avocation, the merchants to his store, and the farmer to his plough.
He tried to separate church and the monarchy. He reduced the churchland and the number of
priest that brought him into conflict with the Ethiopian Orthodox Church and it once
facilitated to his failure.

In the case of socio-economic reforms, he began the construction of Ethiopian first

embryonic road network to link Debre tabor with Gondar, Gojjam, and Maqdela. He also
made attempt to put an end of the slave trade. Attempted land reform, encourage more stable

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marriages, the use of Amharic become more developed, tried to establish traditional library at
Meqdella, expanded the culture of expressed ideas by writing letters( Especially, between
1840-1850 E.C he wrote about 32 different letters to different foreign individuals Queen
Victoria). With regard to religion, he tried to solve the religious doctrines controversy that
continued from the 17th century. He enacted a decree that banned the politics of the
religious doctrinal crisis. His efforts were not sucssuful as he entered into combat with forign
powes and his people in the process of modernization.

With similar interest, emperor Yohannes IV attempted to reform administration. He

recognized and allowed the then competent regional lords to execrcise power. These included
Menelik II of Shawa, Adal Tessema of Gojjam.

Modernization attempts during the reign of emperor Menelik included many aspects.
Particularly in the post Adwa period was marked by the establishment of a postal service and
telecommunications/the telephone-telegraph system, the beginning of construction of railway
line from Djibouti to Addis Ababa.. The opening of bank (the bank of Abyssinia) and the
introduction of paper money. In terms of adminstration, the emperopr introduced a European
style of ministerial system/ministers in 1907. He appointed Afe-Nigus Nesibu Meskelo
(Minister of Justice), Azazh Metaferia Melke-tsadiq (Minister of Imperial Court), Bejirond
MulugetaYigezu (Minister of Finance), Fitawrari Habtegiorgis Dinegde (Minister of War),
Negadras Hailegiorgis-Weldemikael (Minister of Commerce & foreign relations) , and
Tsehafe-Tizaz Gebreselase Weldemikael (Minister of Pen). His reign also witnessed the
opening of a hotel in 1907 (Itege Hotel), a modern schools (Menelik II School in 1908) and
also the foundation of Russian Red Cross hospital in 1906 anda Russian-run hospital
(Menelik II Hospital) in 1910.

During his reign from particularly from 1913-16, Lej Iyasu had also made several reforms.
He attempted to reorganize State finances. For the first time, Iyasu tried to put a distinction
between state property and the monarch‟s personal property. It was reflected during his reign,
after Menelik‟s death when Empress Taytu “asked to share her husband‟s wealth.” He is said
to have replied that „the gold and the silver in the palace were for the government of the

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people than the private property of the empress. In 1915, he established Dire-Dawa
Municipality and re-organized its police with salaries and uniforms.

In addition to these, he also took several administrative progressive measures to strengthen

the process of Ethiopian modernization like: avoided Quragna system, tried to amend Leba
shay It was a method whereby unknown criminals were „discovered‟), introduced a policy of
auditory of governmental accounts, introduced city police/Tirnbulle/ and he also tried to
integrate Ethiopian Muslims into the administration.

His period is also remabered by the innovations like a mechanical flourmill, a printing press,
and a munitions factory and private industrial enterprises like: sawmill, a grinding-mill, a
tannery; and a soap-factory were introduced.

During the period of Diarchy (r. 1916-1930) there were several modernization attempts in
broader scope. The two rulres namely ras Teferi (later emperor Haile-silassie) and empress
Zewditu had different views towards western culture. Because of his close link with
foreigners, ras Teferi had keen interst in modernization by which he wanted to boast the
country‟s image on the international stage. This was marked by the entry of Ethiopia into the
League of Nations and his grand tour to Europe in 1923 and 1924, respectively. Some
remarkable reforms based on European model took place following his coronation as
emperor Haile-Silassie I in 1930. Soe of the reforms were the centraliztionof the governmnt,
promulgation of Ethiopia‟s first constitution, in 1931 (despite its drawbacks), establishment
of Imperial Bodyguard in 1930, with the help of Belgian military mission and the opening of
Ethiopia‟s first Military Academy at Holeta by the help of a Swedish military mission in
1934.

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6.5. Socio-Economic Issues/Developments

The period from 1800-1941 was also marked by changes in socio-economic conditions
including trade, slavery, agricultre, urbanization and manufacturing. Factors for thse changes
included the socio-economic dynamics in the region and at internalional level.

6.5.1. Trade and Slave Trade

In the period, both local and long-distance trade flourished and trade was the major economy
of large number of population. In the period under discussion trade, slavery, agricultural
economy, manufactuaring, and urbanization were interdependent. Earlier in this unit, we
have learnt that both local and long-distance trade florished in the 19th century. The major
commodities traded were ivory, slaves, civet, and gold. Slaves probably the major export
items to Sudan and Arabia in the 19th century. The demand for agricultural products,
manufactured products and labour apparently nessasitated more engagemnt in raids for
slavery, cultivation, manufacturing and even hunting.

Slavery, the practice of owing slave existed since ancient civilizations. It developed under
conditions of social stratifications. The social, economic and legal positions of slaves diffred
across time and space. However, in many cultures from ancient to modern the causes of
enslavement were faiure to debt (tax), commiting crime, war capitve, and the birth of slave
children to slaves. Before the 16th century, in Africa, slavery was endemic and part of the
structure of everyday life. During the time slaves were houshold workers, domestic workers
such as working on the land, incorporated in armies, and traders." Since the 16th century, the
Ducth began importing large number of slaves into their colonies. With the beginning of
plantation agriculture in South America, and the need of human labour exacerbated slave
trade in Africa. Powerful people were engeged in slave trade and sold their people who faild
to pay tax and war capitives into slave. The horrors of slave trade were the largescale slave
raids that brought family breaks, social and economic detrioration.

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Slave and the slave trade have been long history in Ethiopia and the Horn. During the 19th
century, human labour was required in agricultural works, armies and as a source of revenue
through selling into slavery. Thus, several regional and local rulers enslaved people for these
purposes. Slaves were traded as commodities in the local markest and port markets. In
Ethiopia, several slave markets evolved in the 19th century. Slavery reached its peak in
Ethiopia and the Horn in the 1880s when Menelik II waged extensive war for territorial
expansion. In the wars with peoples in the southern half of the country, many war captives
were sold as slaves in different markets. As a result, Jimma and Hirmatta became slave
markets. This was also due to the geographical location of Jimma as a cross road to the
caravans coming from north and south western. In addition, market centres from Bonga to
Mettemma and Missiwa served as market centres. Sources indicate that Abba Jifar II was
referred to as "the ruler of the kingdom of slave" and later as the biggest slave trader in the
world." The majority of slaves were produced through raiding, kidnapping, and warcaptives.

Rulers such as Tewdros, Yohannis and Menelik of the period attempted to regulate slave
trade without abolishing slavery itself. Measure to stop slave tradewas began in 1920s. In
1923, slave trade was banned and in 1924, a decree was issued for emancipation of slaves. In
the 1920s, some freed slave children were kep under the leadership of Hakim Warqenhe
Eshetie. However, slave trade continued unofficially rigth upt the prod of the Italian
ocuupation. The impact was obviously social and economic detrioarion of the country in
general and that of the enslaved families.

6.5.2. Manufacturing
In many cultures in Ethiopia and the Horn, there were age-old indigenous ways of
producing/making tools or food productions. Such manufacturing activites involved simple
procedures, techniques and produced limited quantity of produce. For instance, the
production of tools, furniture, and dersses, food including local drinks were processed by
using traditional techniques based on manual labour.

One result of the contact with the industralized world since the mid 19th century was the
adoption or intrduction manuactiuring technologies. Although evidences donot trace the

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exact period of the beginning of modern industry in Ethiopia, there is a consensus that the
strong interset of rulers in the region for the intrduction of western technologies and the
subsequent contacts with the indutrial world since the mid 19th century contributed to the
introduction of manufacturing. The beginning of diplomatic relations and openings of
legations in the post Adawa period was followid by the coming of many expatrates who
either came with the skill or became agents of the introduction of modern manufacturaing.
Foreign citizens from Armenia, Greece, Italy and India also brought the entrepreneurial
capacity to develop manufacturing industries locally. Among modern manufacturing: Holleta
Grain Mill and Massawa salt were set up in 1896 and 1904, respectively. Up to 1927, about
25 factories were established in Addis Ababa, Dire Dawa, Asmara and Massawa. Thse
included cement factory, wood and clay, tanneries, soap and edible oil plants, ammunition
factories, brewery, tobacco processing plants and grain mill. Most of them were established
by private entrepreneurs. From 1928, including in the short lived Italian rule more than than
ten manufacturing industries were set up. Among these Artistic Printing Press and Ambo
Mineral Water plant were established before Italian ocuupation.

6.5.3. Agriculture and land tenure

The period of the 19th and early 20th centuries was the time when agricultural economy
grew and the demand for land for cultivation and grazing increased. The system favored the
powerful groups to control land that resulted in the change of propert right or the preexisting
land tenuer system. The role of agriculture in the local economy and the politics of the period
could be undestood from the territorial competition and expansions to control surplus
producing areas. Monarchies favored agricultural production and trade since the revenue
from the sector was a source of wealth for the emerging monarchies. This altered people's
relation to land making some privileged and the others unprivileged. As it is held "...the
powerful always drew strength from relating to the land in particular ways and retained their
positions by manipulating against others‟ beneficial uses of it, land tenure dramtically
changed” in the period under discussion.

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The quest for land and surplus production were one factor of territorial expanion by Menelik
in the late 19th century. Land was required to at least settle and feed the warriors and their
families. Hence, Menilik occupation of the southern halsf of the country brought introduced
new resource relations. The state institutionalized different forms of surplus expropriation
and mechanisms to ensure political control in the regions "peacefully" submited and the
regios that fiecely resited. The former relatively enjoyed self-administration but subject to
pay fixed tax (qurx-gibbir. The latter was placed under the naftegna-gabbar system whereby
the new order swiftly removed the indigenous land tenure system in favor of the riflemen. In
the latter case, the major force of change was the settlement and exploitative nature of the
naftegna system that altered both settlement pattern and agricultural system. The general
effects of the implantation of the naftegna-gabbar system were the creation of two classes of
societies: the minorty landholder and the majrty landless. The landholders were largely
governmnet agents while the land less were the locl society who were reduced to gabbar.

The most influential factor of change in agriculture and land tenure was land measurement
(the qalad system of the 1909/10. The purpose was to obatain sufficent land for sale. Land
was it obliterated the access to agricultural resources in diverse ways. The system introduced
fresh rules in which certain social classes gained access to land, which also contradicted the
customary communal land tenure system. The majority of the people had neither the money
nor the interest to buy their own land. Lnd ws catagorized into lam (cultivated), lam-taf
(partly-cutivated and taf uncultivated. Land measuremnt destroyed the access to agricultural
resources in diverse ways. The system introduced fresh rules in which certain social classes
gained access to land while reduced the majority of the people to landless as they had no
money to buy land. The system continued until the Italian occupation who returened land to
tenants.

6.5.4. Urbanization

The period from the early 19th century to 194l marked the evolution of towns owing to
different socio-economic as well as the demographic and ecological factors. During the
period, on one hand, the expansion of both local and long distance trade since early 19th

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century transformed age-old market and socio-political centers into towns in Ethiopia and
Horn. In this case, several towns located on the long-distance trade in western Ethiopia grew
into both towns and political centers. In addition, the opening of railway road from Djibouti
to Addis Ababa since 1917 was followed by the evolution several fast growing towns. Towns
including Dire Dawa, Adama, Bishoftu, Metahara and others were the results of the opening
of the railway and the expansion of trade. On the other hand, politico-religious centers in
several parts of the region evolved into towns. This was true mainly in the northern parts of
Ethiopia. Many centers that once served as "royal camps" evolved into towns and parallel to
this many townd declined with the demographic change when "royal camps" shifted to other
centres. One of the towns that grew from such peocess was Addis Ababa. Addis Ababa was
chosen as a place to live in by the Empress Taytu Betul, after Emperor Menelik II shifted his
seat to there from in 1886. The new site‟s major attraction was its hot springs, Fel-Wuha.
Similarly, since the late 19th century, in Southern Ethiopia, a number of towns emerged
when Menilek's generals established garrisons in suitable locations in order to maintain
control of the conquered provinces. The presence of the military governors and soldiers
provided such areas as permanent areas of economic-political and religious activities. Such
centers of administration known as katamas (garrison towns) became centers of trade and
eventually grew into towns. Towns including Goba, Asalla, Arjo, and others were garrison
that grew into towns. During the Italian rule (1936-41), several of the above towns grew in
volume and other new towns evolved as the result of the socio-economic and political
activities of the period.

6.6. External Relations: Challenges and Threats

6.6.1. External Diplomatic Relations and Treaties

One consequence of the Zemene-Mesafint was the end of the “close door policy.” Thus,
beginning from the early 1800s, regional rulers made independent foreign contacts and
treaties. During the 19th century, the agents of these external relations were travelers. They
came to Ethiopia and the Horn, with the overt motive of adventure, religious missionary,
scientific research, friendship and trade relation on behalf of their government, and with
cover mission of colonialism.”

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One of the earliest private travelers was Henry Salt reached to the court of Ras Wolde-
Silassie of Tigray on 28 August 1805. He came for “scientific” reasons but he claimed that
his mission was to establish friendship between England and Ethiopia.

Several travelers of British nationals including Samuel Gobat and Christian Kugler, C.W.
Isenburg, Giustino De Jacibis arrived in 1830s. Travelers from Germany like Cardinal
Massaja and Eduard Ruppell (a German scholar) arrived in 1846; the d‟Abbadie brothers:
Arnauld and Antoine (France geographers) since 1838; Capitain W.C. Harris, an official
British mission visited Shoa; John Bell, Walter Plowden in the 1840‟s, the Italian Geographic
Society in 1869 and the like arrived for trade relation and scientific purpose.

One result of these contacts was the agreement between Negus Sahle-Selassie of Shewa and
British captain W. Harris in 1841 as well as the French Rochet d‟Hericourt, in 1843. In
addition, Walter Plowden also signed treaty with Ras Ali in 1849.

On the other hand, regional lords had established contacts with religious centers in the
Middle East, particularly with Jerusalem. During the period, Egyptians threatened the
Ethiopian religious community settlement at Deir Al-Sultan in Jerusalem. As a result, in the
early 1850s, strong lords like Ras Ali and Dejjazmach Wube „sent letters to queen Victoria of
England to request support against the Egyptians.

External relations during the reign of Tewodros II seems more elaborate and oriented
towards obtaining western technological knowledge and military support to fight foreign
threats.

Emperor Yohannes IV like Tewodros tried to create strong relations with European. He
understood that European expansion was serious threat to Ethiopian independence. When he
confronted external challenge like Egypt, he tried to solve through negotiation than war. War
was his last choice as he fought with Egypt in 1875/76 and Mahadist Sudan in 1889.

One major diplomatic relations Yohannes concluded was Hiwot /Adwa Treaty. It was peace
negotiation signed between the emperor and British on behalf of Egypt through her envoy

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Rear Admiral William Hewett on 3 June 1884 at Adwa. The purpose was to safely evacuate
the trapped Egyptian troops in Ethio-Sudanese border through Ethiopia. In rewards Ethiopia
was to restore Bogos and, freely use Massawa for the transit of goods and firearms.

Based on the agreement Emperor Yohannes facilitated the safe evacuation of Egyptian troops.
Britain restored Bogos to Ethiopia and against the treaty, Britain secretly transferred
Massawa from Egypt to Italy in February 1885. One consequences of the treaty was that
Mahadist determination to avenge Yohannes that led to the battle Metemma on 9 March 1889
and his death.

In terms of diplomatic relations and quelling external threats, Emperor Menilek II, was more
successful through maintain the balance among powerful forces of the period. He first made
commercial relation with Italy and gradually he acquired military equipments from Italy to
secure his territory. At the same time he concluded treaties and obtained support from
French, Russia, and Britain. As the result of the success at the battle of Adwa, different
foreign countries opened their legation at Addis Ababa to establish relations on formal basis.

During the late 19th century European had interest to control Red Sea area. With the opening
of the Suez Canal in 1869, the Red Sea region acquired great strategic and commercial
importance. One of the great powers was Italy. The relations Italy had with the Horn began
when an Italian private shipping company had bought the port of Assab from local chiefs in
1869. In 1882, the port of Assab was transferred to Italian government. Italy strengthened
foothold in 1885 when Britain secretly transferred Massawa from Egypt to Italy. By using
these basis as spring board Italy began to penetrate into northern Ethiopia and occupied
Sa‟ati, Aylet and Wia to Mereb Melash but they were defeated at battle of Dogali by Ras
Alula Endida. Following the battle signed treaty of neutrality with Menilek in October 1887.

Ethiopia‟s relation with Italy reached its climax with the signing of Wuchale Treaty. It was
drafted by Antonelli and signed on 2 May 1889, at Wuchale, Wollo between Emperor
Menelik-II of Ethiopia and count Pietro Antonelli on behalf of Crispi of Italy. It has twenty
articles and written both in Amharic and Italian languages. However, Article III and XVII
have had major difference on the two languages versions. The Italian version of Article III,

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indicates the “effective occupation” of Italy to legitimize their further expansion towards the
Marab River. While the Amharic version states that Ethiopia could use Italy to conduct its
foreign affairs as optional Article XVII of the Italian version indicates Menelik‟s foreign
contacts must be through the agency of Italy. This happened because Menelik and his
supporter Grazmach Yoseph Neguse had nothing to do with Italians language, while,
Antonelli had knowledge of Amharic and he was very active in Internationals diplomacy. As
a result, Italy easily announced this to all European and gained recognition except Russia. In
January 1890 the Italian government formally declared Eritrea as their colony. The two
articles became points of conflict between the two countries.

Italian action to colonize Ethiopia through misleading treaties; persuasion and the subversive
methods failed when Menelik publically abrogated the Wuchale Treaty in February 1893 and
when Tigrian lords including Ras Mangasha Yohannes, Ras Sebhat Aragawi and Dajjach
Hagos Tafari, began to fight against the Italians through collaborating with Emperor Menelik.
Italians determination to occupy Ethiopia and Ethiopian resistance against colonialism led to
the battle of Adwa, where the latter became victorious.

Furthermore, Emperor Menilek made boundary agreements with the then neighboring
colonial powers like French-Somaliland (the present day Djibouti) on 20 March 1897, with
British-Somaliland (now Somaliland) on June 1897, with Sudan on 15 May 1902, with the
Italian colony of Eritrea on 10 July 1900 and also with British East Africa (Kenya) in 1907
and Italy- Somaliland in 1908. These boundary agreements shaped modern Ethiopian
boundary.

In addition to the above, international politics of the 20th century shaped Ethiopian foreign
relation. For instance, during the First World War (1914-18) Lij Iyasu sided central powers
from the belief that the defeat of the allies (France, Britain) might allow Ethiopia to push
Italy out of Eritrea and Somalia. For his purpose, he also supported the Somali nationalist
leader, Said Mohammed Abdille Hassan against Italy and Britain. One of the successes of
Ethiopian‟s foreign relation in the early 20th was Ethiopia‟s admit to League of Nation in
1923. In the following section, we will discuss some major treaties concluded and battles
Ethiopia fought to defend external threats.

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6. 6. 2. Major Battles Fought Against Foreign Aggressors and Patriotism

Ethiopian peoples fought different battles at different periods against foreign threats. The
following section discusses the patriotism, determination and cooperation as well as the
success and failure of Ethiopian peoples to defend their country.

The Battle of Dabarki (1848)

Debarki was fought between It was fought between Kassa Hailu (later Emperor Tewodros II)
of Quara and Egyptian forces in 1848. Although the forces led by Kassa Hailu lost the battle,
the military imbalance particularly the modern artillery and disciplined Egyptian troops gave
a lesson to Kassa to modernize his troops, acquire modern technologies and initiated him to
widen the horizon of territory from regional level to countywide.

The Battle Maqdella (1868)

Tewodros II had early relation with Britain through the two British travelers, Walter Plowden
and John Bell to obtain help and against aggressors like Egypt. Especially, in 1862, he sent a
letter to Queen Victoria, while, the assigned British consul Captain Charles Cameron
comeback to Ethiopia via his considered threat Egypt without any response to his request.
Suspecting him as supporter of Egypt, Tewodros imprisoned Captain Cameron and others. In
addition, British‟s letter under Hormuzed Rassam also bears no hope an eager Tewodros for
an eager Tewodros.

In response, Britain sent a combined force(32,000) led by Sir Robert Napier from Bombay
through Massawa. This force reached Meqdela by the support of Dejazmach Bezibiz Kassa
of Tigray (later Emperor Yohannes) and Dejazmach Wagshum Gobeze of Lasta in April
1868. On April 10, 1868 about 3,000 to 8,000 fighting men‟s of Tewodros including his
general Gebrye were defeated by the British at the battle of Aroghe, and on the next two days
the Emperor released the captives.

Finally, the people called: “እግዜር ያውቃል እርሳቸው ወንድ፤ ጦሩ ይዘላል አንድ ሺህ ክንድ”። “God
knows he is a brave man, his spear jumps one thousand cubits”; on 13April 1868,Emperor

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Tewodros committed suicide. On April 13, 1868, the British troops burned his fortress;
manuscripts, religious and secular artifacts, Crown of Emperor Tewodros II was looted and
transported to England. The defeat at the battle of Meqdela shows the cost of division and
rivalry among regional lords of the period.

The Battles of Gundet & Gura

Egyptians showed keen interest to occupy Ethiopian region and the Horn particularly in the
19th century. Following their occupation of the Sudan, Egyptians attempted to occupy
Ethiopia. With the motive to build an empire in North-East Africa with master of the source
of the Nile, in 1875, Khedive Ismail Pasha invaded Ethiopia in three directions. Mohammed
Rauf Pasha led the Zeila front and the result was the occupation of Harar Emirate (1875-
1885. Werner Munzinger, the architect of the whole of Ismail‟s invasion to Ethiopia, led
about 500 Egyptian troops equipped with cannons and rocket tubes through the Tajura.
Finally, colonel Arendrup and Arekel led 2,000 well armed troops through Massawa.
Emperor Yohannes and Shaleqa later Ras Alula mobilized 20,000 forces and fought the
Egyptian at the battle of Gundet 16 November 1875. Egyptians were severely defeated.
Egyptian again reorganized their forces and sent to avenge the defeat at Gundet. However,
Ethiopian forces again defeated them at the battle of Gura (7 – 9 March 1876).

It is vital to understand that Egyptians were supported by European powers. For instance, the
architect of the war, Werner Munzinger was Switzerland born adventurer and former French
Consul in Northeast Africa. Colonel Arendrup himself was a Danish Citizen, and General
Charles Stone was fellow-America.

The Battle of Mattama

As indicated above Hewett Treaty caused clashes between Mahdist and Ethiopian forces that
lasted from 1885 to 1889. The first clash was at Kufit between Ras Alula and Uhtman Digna
in September 1885. Initially, the Ethiopian force was victorious. However, when emperor
Yohannis IV was in Northern Ethiopia checking the Italian advance to Mereb Melash, the
destructive invasion of the Mahadist destroying churches and monasteries reached Gondar.
Hence, in January 1887, Yohannes sent Negus Tekle Haymanot of Gojjame to defend the

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Mahdists who defeated them at Metemma. One year later the Mahdists led by Abu Anja,
defeated Negus Tekle Haymanot‟s troops at Sar Wuha in Dembya. By the time, emperor
Yohannis made national call: «የኢትዮጵያ ህዝብ ሆይ!! ኢትዮጵያ የተባሇችዉ ሀገር: 1ኛ እናትህ
ናት፤ 2ኛ ክብርህ ናት፤ 3ኛ ሚስትህ ናት፤ 4ኛ ልጅህ ናት፤ 5ኛ መቃብርህ ናት። እንግዲህ የእናትን
ፍቅር፣ የዘዉድን ክብር፣ የሚስትን የዋህነት፣ የልጅን ዯስታ፣ የመቃብርን ከባድነት አስበህ ተነስ! Hence,
on 9 March 1889, the Emperor marched to Mattema to fight Mahadists where he died.

The Battle of Adwa and Its Aftermath

The disagreement on the Wuchale Treaty finally led to the big battle between Ethiopia and
Italian forces. This was because Italians determined to colonize Ethiopian and Ethiopians
determined to defend. For their motive, Italians crossed Marab River and arrived at Adigrat
and to Amba-Alage. Following emperor‟s proclamation for general mobilization about
100,000 heroes and heroines assembled from every part of the country without any religious,
ethnic, cultural, sex, linguistic, positions, and other differences stood for the inevitable war
with Italians. This force led by Fitawrari Gebayehu Gurmu defeated the Italians at Ambalage
and forced them to retreat to Mekelle. In January 1896, by the leadership of Ras Mekonnen
Ethiopian forces defeated Italians at Mekelle. The strategy was commonly called the “siege
of Mekelle” and was considered to be designed by Empress Tayitu. At Adwa,again,
Ethiopian forces led by Emperor Menilek, Empress Taiytu and war generals like Ras Mikael,
Ras Makonnen, Ras Alula, Ras Mangasha, Fitawrari Gebeyehu, and Negus TakIa-
Haymanot defeated the Italian brigades. At the battle, 8,000 Italian fighters killed, 1, 500
wounded and 3, 000 were captured. On Ethiopian side without any prisoners of war, about
4,000-6,000 were killed.

Despite different interpretations on the results of the battle of Adwa, the heroic national
campaign, cooperation and common successes of peoples in Ethiopia had a positive
implication for the national integration. Ethiopian Orthodox Church participated with St.
George tabot. The victory reflects sense of independence, national pride, uniqueness in
Africa and it becomes the shared memory for Ethiopians. Above all, Italy recognized the
independence of Ethiopia with the signing of the Addis Ababa treaty in 1896. Eurpoean

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powers of the time including Italy, France, Britain, Russia, United States, Germany, Belgium,
Turkey, and others also recognized the independence of Ethiopia through opening legations
at Addis Ababa.

The success of Ethiopians at Adwa had an enduring legacy in the relations between freedom
fighters and colonizing powers. The victory of black people on white colonizes initiated
entire African who was fighting against colonialism. Well-known Pan-Africans like Marcus
Garvey inspired his followers in his “Back to Africa” movement with a victory of Ethiopians.
He used the phrase like “Ethiopia thou land of our fathers” and Ethiopianism becomes the
symbol of anti-colonial movements. Japan also used Ethiopia‟s experience when it fought
against Russia in 1904.

6. 6. 3. Italian Occupation (1936-41) and the Patriotic Resistance Struggle

6.6.3.1. Background of the War

Following their defeat at Adwa in 1896, the Italians suspended their expansionist colonial
policy in north east Africa for a short time. However, they were just waiting the right time to
execute their interests in any possible way.

Italy eventually got its ideological strength in 1922, when Fascists led by Benito Mussolini
held power in Italy. The Fascists who were committed to the principle of restoring the power
and glory of the ancient Roman Empire decided to remove Italy‟s humiliation at Adwa).

Initially Mussolini didn‟t disclose his war ambition against the sovereignty of Ethiopia rather
he was playing diplomatic „cards‟ till the coming of the „right time.‟ To achieve their goal of
occupation of Ethiopia, they raised two significant policies as they tried to use before the
battle of Adwa. These were „subversion‟ & „rapprochement‟. The policy of subversion
which aimed in deteriorating unity of the empire via sowing dissatisfaction in Tigre,
Begemedir, Gojjam and Wallo and this was made the responsibility of Corrado Zoli who was
the governor of Eritrea (1928-1930). Whereas the Italian legation in Addis Ababa, headed by
Guiliano Cora led the policy of „rapprochement’, a pseudo reconciliation tactic which was
trying to persuade the Ethiopian government about the establishment of cordial relations

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between the two countries. For instance, the signing of the 1928 Italo-Ethiopian Treaty of
Peace and Friendship was the manifestation of the success of the rapprochement policy. Here,
beside to their legation in Addis Ababa, the Italians had also consulates in provincial towns
such as Dessie, Adwa, Debre-Markos and Gondar. These consulates played significant role
in propagating dissatisfaction and gathering vital military as well as political intelligence. In
addition to such preparations, the Fascists were also able to get indirect diplomatic support
from Britain and France for their colonial interest in Ethiopia.

Here, although it is difficult to pin point one particular year when the decision was made by
Mussolini to launch the intended invasion, 1932 appears to have been crucial year. Mussolini
who made all necessary preparations to launch an invasion against Ethiopia was only
searching for small pretext, and then fortunately he found Walwal incident. The Walwal
Clash (5 Dec. 1934) was the result of the post-Awa boundary agreement limitations: lack of
demarcation on the ground & lack of effective administrative control on the frontier regions.
However, the Italians refused to give back Walwal and even attacked the Ethiopian soldiers
who were stationed nearby. Thus, this situation gave birth to the so called Walwal Incident.

Surprisingly, although the number of Ethiopian dead during this border clash was three times
as high as the Italians, it was Italy which demanded totally unreasonable apology and
reparation from Ethiopia. Then Ethiopia which refused to accept Italy‟s demand took the
matter into the League of Nations and a period of useless process to resolve the conflict
followed. However, in the meantime Mussolini, who already got the desired pretext, was
finalizing his preparations to launch a total invasion.

6.6.3.2. The 1935 Invasion and After

The Italians executed their aggression via two major fronts: The Northern and the eastern
Front. The war was started in the Northern Front when the Italians crossed the Mereb River
on 3 Oct. 1935 and launched a three pronged invasion and controlled Adigrat, Adwa and
Mekelle. Until 1936, Ethiopia did not make actual resistance for two reasons: to expose the
Italian aggression to the world and to stretch enemy‟s line of supplies by dragging them into
the center. In January 1936, Ethiopian counter offensive marched north through three fronts.
Ras Emiru H/Selasie led the western front, Ras Kassa Hailu (also commander of the entire

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front) and Ras Seyum Mengesha led the Central front and Ras Mulugeta Yigezu (War
Minister) led the eastern front.

Ethiopians failed and this battle historically known as the First Battle of Temben (20-24 Jan.
1936)On 20 January 1936, the Ethiopian army launched a major offensive against the Italians
seeking to isolate Meqelle, but failed to realize its objective due to lack of coordination
among the above mentioned war leaders. On January 24, the Ethiopian force lost to the
Italians at the first Battle in Temben. This was followed by an attack on the Ethiopian force
which was stationed in what seemed to be an impregnable natural fortress of Amba Aradom,
to the south of Mekelle. The Italians scored yet another decisive victory in which the
commander of the Ethiopian army, Ras Mulugeta Yigezu, lost his life. Besides modern
weapons, the Italian force had superiority in the air to the Ethiopian force. Moreover, the
forces of Ras Kassa & Ras Seyum who were outnumbered by the Italian troops lost the
Second Battle of Temben (27-29 February 1936). Ras Kassa & Ras Seyum narrowly escaped
from the battlefield and joined the Emperor at Korem.

On the western front, the Ethiopian army under Ras Emeru put strong resistance against the
advancing force of the Italians. Thanks to Ras Emeru‟s better leadership quality, the number
of deaths of Ethiopian soldiers was less than what it had been in the Northern Front.

The series of battles between the Ethiopian and Italian forces in the Northern Front
culminated in Maychew on 31 March 1936. Although the Ethiopian army (especially
members of the Kebur Zebegna) under the command of the Emperor put strong resistance
against the Italians, they were not able to consummate the battle with victory. Many
Ethiopian soldiers lost their lives from gunpowder and air bombardment during the battle.
Still others were killed by Raya Azebo Shiftas/ bandits on their retreat. Then the Italian
forces controlled Desie and Addis Ababa on 4 April 1936 and 5 May 1936 respectively. The
Ethiopian army in the Southern Front was better equipped and led by able leaders relative to
the North. Ras Desta Damitew (in the south) and Dejazmach Nesibu Zamanuel (in the
southeast) were leaders of the Ethiopian troops in this Front.

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The Ethiopian army lost to the Italians at two major battles in the Southern Front: Qorahe
(November 1935) and Genale Dorya (12-14 January 1936). In the ensuring battles, the Italian
Askaris (recruited from Eritrea) deserted the Italians and joined the Ethiopian force which
boosted the moral of Ras Desta‟s defeated troops. Ras Desta continued to challenge the
Italians until he was captured and executed in early 1937. The number of soldiers the Italians
lost during the fighting in the Southern Front was larger than the North which slowed their
advance to the center; Badoglio entered Addis Ababa before Graziani even crossed Harar.

On 2 May 1936, the Emperor fled the country and on 5 May 1936 the Italians entered Addis
Ababa. Between Haile Selasie‟s departure and the Italians control over the center, Addis
Ababa was beset by burning of buildings, looting and random shooting. The major targets of
the violence were the rich, foreigners and the imperial palace. Many foreigners saved their
lives by taking refuge in foreign legations.

Here, the entry of the Italian forces into the capital in the middle of such chaos was a relief
for both the foreigners and the natives since the Italians were able to bring peace and order to
the city. At this juncture, some scholars suggested that the Italians deliberately delayed their
entry so that the people of the city would consider them as an „angels‟ of peace, and easily
accept their rule. Anyway, after their control of the capital Marshal Badoglio immediately
reported the situation to Mussolini. Benito Mussolini on the other hand announced to the
people of Italy and the world about their control of Ethiopia using the phrase “Ethiopia is
Italian!”

The Italians immediately merge Ethiopia with their colonies of Somaliland and Eritrea. Then
they named the combination of their colonies as Italian East Africa (IEA). The newly formed
Italian East Africa had six administrative regional divisions that dismissed former
international boundaries. These were: Eritrea (including Tigray)  its capital was Asmara;
Amhara (including Begemidr, Gojjam, Wallo& Northern Shewa)  its capital was Gondar;
Oromo & Sidama (including Southern & Southwestern provinces) its capital was Jimma.;
Hararits capital was Harar; Somalia (including Ogaden) its capital was Mogadishu;
Addis Ababa (later changed to Shewa) it was capital of the entire colony.

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During the 5 years Italy‟s control of this colony the following Italians were appointed as
governors consecutively: Marshal Badoglio (till the end of May 1936), Marshal Graziani (till
Feb. 1937), and finally Amadio Umberto d‟Aosta (the Duke of Aosta).

Generally, the Italian administration of IEA was characterized by a top-heavy bureaucracy

and Corruption. For instance, the last governor of IEA, the Duke of Aosta himself
characterized 50% of his officials as inept & 25% as thieves. Moreover, Marshal Badoglio
himself reportedly pocketed about 1, 700,000 Maria Theresa Thalers confiscated from the
Bank of Ethiopia, in the immediate aftermath of the conquest. In the economic respect, the
Italians weakened & destroyed non-Italian foreign firms & replaced them with governmental
enterprises that controlled the industry, trade & agriculture.

The Italians were relatively successful in the sectors of trade and industry as compared to the
agricultural sector. For instance, the Italians planned to settle Italian farmers in selected
Ethiopian areas such as Wegera, Chericher & Jimma. However, their agricultural plan was
failed (they only accomplished 10%) due to the Italians incapability to secure the rural arable
areas from the patriots.

As legacy of the Italian Rule: As indicated above, the Italian‟s administrative control was
largely confined to the urban areas due to the strong patriotic resistance. Thus, their legacy
was also largely reflected in the towns than the rural areas which were actually out of Italians
effective colonial rule. Generally, the legacy of the Italian colonial rule can be explained in
the following brief points:

 Architecture, urban expansion like Addis Ababa‟s expansion;

 Introduction of urban supply of clean water and electricity;
 Social legacies, (The emergence of considerable amount of mixed population,
expansion of prostitution, adoption of European habits-including eating & dressing
styles, and adoption of Italian words) and
 Road construction and development of motor transport.

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6.6.3.3. The Patriotic Resistance and Liberation

The struggle continued but it suffered from serious internal weakness. The resistance was
handicapped by the Ethiopian collaborators called the Banda. Another weakness of the
resistance movement was that it was divided and that there was no one national organization
to coordinate the activities of the many bands dispersed in many parts of the country.
Relations between guerrilla bands were characterized by parochialism and jealousy. Some
guerrilla groups spent more time fighting one another than attacking the declared enemy.

Despite these weaknesses, the patriots carried on a stubborn resistance against Italian fascism,
until suddenly they got external support from Britain in 1941. Ethiopian struggle for
independence merged with World War II, when Italy declared war on France and Britain on
10 June 1940. Mussolini decided to enter the war on the side of Germany in hope of outside
support; the internationalization of the conflict was a good opportunity. For Haile Sillassie
too, the situation was important.

His requests for assistance were finally answered by the British government that decided to
drive out Italians from East Africa. On 12 July 1940, London recognized the Emperor as a
full ally. The British launched a three pronged attack on the Italians. In the north, General
William Platt led the forces that attacked the Italians in Eritrea. In January 1941, Colonel
Sanford and Major Wingate accompanied the Emperor from Sudan into Gojjam at the head
of British and Ethiopian troops called the Gedeon force. General Cunningham led the attack
from Kenya. The advances were rapid largely due to the demoralization that the patriots had
caused among the Italians. Emperor Haile Sellassie entered Addis Ababa on 5 May 1941.

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Learning activities

 Discuss the socio-economic and political circumstances that gave rise to the Gibe
monarchies in Ethiopia?
 Discuss the role of local and long-distance trade in the interactions between
peoples and states of Ethiopia and the Horn?
 Discuss Emperor Tewodros‟ administrative policies and military reforms and
their outcomes.
 Briefly describe Lij Iyasu‟s efforts to reform the country‟s justice system and the
police force.
 Discuss the operation of the leba shay system.
 Discuss the internal and external circumstances that led Menelik II‟s conquest of
southern territories?
 Assess the divergent paths Emperors Tewodros II, Yohannis IV and Menelik II
pursued in the administration of the empire.
 Account for the circumstances that led to the foundation of Addis Ababa as the
empire‟s capital.

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 Unit Seven

Internal Developments and External Relations, 1941–1994 (5 hours)

Einführung

Dear Learners,

This unit examines major social, economic and political developments in

Ethiopia from 1941 to 1994. It does so by reviewing key institutions and

processes that underlay the relationships between the Ethiopian political

center and the provinces and the country’s relations with the outside world.

Specific issues the unit considers include: consolidation of imperial power,

opposition movements, the 1974 Revolution, and the replacement of the

monarchy by a Marxist-leaning military government-the Derg. The Derg

undertook a series of revolutionary measures that brought about profound

social, economic and political changes in the country relatively quickly. In the

long term, however, the measures did not prove valuable to increase and

sustain agricultural productivity and thus improve the condition of peasants.

Meanwhile, the Derg had been beset from its first year in power by strife

within the government, regional and ethnic rebellions and separatist

movements besides the war with Somalia. Finally, the raging civil war in the

north against the backdrop of decelerating economy combined with changes

in global politics led to the demise of the Derg in 1991. This was followed by

the formation of the Transitional Government of Ethiopia (TGE) and then

the promulgation of a new constitution that established a federal form of

government led by the EPRDF. Through the examination of the various topics

and historical developments, the unit aims to further encourage students to

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study the history of Ethiopia and the Horn in general and that of their

country in particular.

Unit Objectives
At the end of this unit, students will be able to:
 identify and discuss major socio-economic and political developments in the
country from 1941-74.
 assess the role and influence of the British and the Americans in Ethiopia‟s
domestic and foreign affairs in the post-liberation period.
 analyze the causes, course and consequences of the 1974 revolution.
 account for the revolutionary measures of the Derg.
 discuss the fundamental and immediate factors for the fall of the Derg regime.
 describe the essential nature of the EPRDF led government with reference to the
measures it took shortly after assuming power.

Unit Starters
 What considerations informed the decision of the British government to help
Ethiopia in June 1940?
 Do you remember who colonels Sanford and Wingate, and General Alan
Cunningham were?
 How did the patriots of Gojjam react to the arrival of the Emperor?
 Which day should be observed as an Ethiopian Victory Day - April 6 or May 5?
Why?

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7.1. Post-1941 Imperial Period

7.1.1. Political Scene: Restoration and Consolidation of Imperial Power and

External Relations

Ethiopia and Britain

In the post 1941 period, Britain recognized Ethiopia‟s status as a sovereign state with
mutual diplomatic accreditation, but it continued to exercise the upper hand because of
the role it played in the liberation of Ethiopia from fascist rule. Another reason for the
preponderant influence of Britain in Ethiopia‟s domestic and international affairs was the
continuation of WWII (c. 1939-45) which required adequate provision for the Allied
defense to win the war. Accordingly, despite protests, the British considered Ethiopia
Occupied Enemy Territory Administration (OETA). The 1942 and 1944 agreements that
Emperor Haile-Selassie I was forced to sign with the British show the ascendancy of the
latter.

The 1942 agreement gave Britain a final authority over Ethiopia‟s foreign affairs,
territorial integrity, administration, finances, the military and the police. The British
minster in Ethiopia enjoyed precedence over other foreign diplomats in Ethiopia and
Britain was to approve employment of other nationals by Ethiopian government. Even
more, British citizens held key posts in Ethiopian administration as advisors and judges
while at the same time they maintained total control over the country‟s police force which
was set up in February 1942. Additionally, British aircraft had exclusive aviation rights
and the emperor had to obtain approval from the Commander in Chief of the British
Forces in East Africa, Sir Philip Mitchell, to implement sovereign matters such as
declaration of war or state of emergency. Britain also decided details on disposal of
Italian prisoners of war and civilians and the administration of Italian properties in the
country. In terms of finance, the British assumed control over currency and foreign
exchange as well as imports and exports.

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The emperor resented such restrictions to his powers and made some diplomatic
engagements. With this and the help of the USA and friends of Ethiopia such as Sylvia
Pankhurst, Britain relaxed the restrictions imposed upon the Ethiopian government. The
second Anglo-Ethiopian agreement, signed in 1944, shows some of the concessions the
emperor won from Britain. According to this agreement, the priority accorded to the
British minster over all other foreign diplomats in Ethiopia was lifted. The Ethiopian
government could now employ non-British foreign personnel and it regained control over
a section of the Addis Ababa-Djibouti railway, a vital line of external communication.
Control over this route assured Ethiopia free access to foreign goods and services
including arms and ammunitions. The British also agreed to evacuate their army from the
region once they equip Ethiopia‟s military force- a task mandated to the British Military
Mission to Ethiopia (BMME). The BMME assisted the government of Ethiopia in
organizing, training, and administration of its army until 1951. Haile-Selassie I Harar
Military Academy was modeled after a British Military Academy called Sandhurst.

Britain did not, however, yield to Ethiopia‟s territorial demands during the negotiation for
the 1944 Agreement. The Ethiopian government requested to annex Eritrea claiming that
it was racially, culturally, and economically inseparable from Ethiopia and Ogaden. Both
Eritrea and Ogaden were part of the Ethiopian empire before they fell into Italian hands
in 1890 and 1936 respectively. But Ethiopia‟s claims to the two territories were met with
little sympathy from the British. Britain insisted that Ogaden should be merged with the
former Italian Somaliland and British Somaliland to form what they called “Greater
Somalia”. Similarly, the western and northern lowlands of Eritrea were intended by the
British to be part of Sudan. Further, they wanted to integrate the Tigrigna-speaking
highlands of Eritrea with Tigray to form a separate state. As a consequence, in
September 1945 at the London conference of Allied powers Ethiopia‟s claims to Eritrea
and Ogaden were rejected.

The territorial issues were resolved only after a decade. In 1948, the British left parts of
Ogaden, and in 1954 they withdrew from the region. In Eritrea people were divided;
those who wanted a union with Ethiopia rallied behind the Unionists. The Liberal

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Progressive Party and later the Muslim League rallied people who sought for separation
and independence. In 1948, the question of Eritrea was referred to the UN by Britain,
France, U. S. A. and U. S. S. R. The UN appointed a commission of five men from
Burma, Guatemala, Norway, Pakistan and South Africa to find out actual wishes of
Eritreans. After a period of investigation, Guatemala and Pakistan recommended granting
independence to Eritrea. While Norway recommended union with Ethiopia, South Africa
and Burma recommended Federation. On December 2, 1950 UN Resolution 390V
granted the Federation of Eritrea with Ethiopia which came into effect in 1952. However,
this arrangement did not satisfy both unionists and the independence bloc; thus, sought to
unmake the federation to fit their respective interests. On November 14 1962, the
Ethiopian government abrogated the federation formula and placed Eritrea under the
imperial umbrella.

Ethiopia and the U.S.A

The first official contacts between Ethiopia and the United States of America dates back
to 1903 when the two countries signed a treaty of friendship and commerce. The relations
between the two countries had been in the doldrums because of the tripartite domination
of the Ethiopian diplomatic scene until the early 1940s. Following the Second World War,
two super-powers, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged. In Ethiopia and the
Horn, British pre-dominance in 1940s was replaced by the dominance of the United
States in 1950s. In his efforts to modernize his country and consolidate his power, Haile-
Selassie I turned towards the United States as a powerful ally than Britain. American
interest in the region began to grow especially after they acquired a communication base
in Asmara known as Radio Marina from the Italians. The radio station was later renamed
Qagnew after the Ethiopian force that fought on the side of the Americans in the Korean
War.
In 1943 the Ethiopian vice finance minister, Yilma Deressa, visited the US to request
expertise especially in law, military, finance. In response, USA extended the Lend-Lease
agreement with Ethiopia and sent a technical mission led by Perry Fellows in May 1944.
Emperor Haile-Selassie I and the American President, Franklin D. Roosevelt, met in

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Egypt and discussed recognition of an American Sinclair Company to prospect for oil in
Ogaden at the beginning of 1945. The renewed contact between the two countries was
concretized with the signing of two agreements in the 1950s. The first Point Four
Agreement that enabled subsequent American assistance in education and public health
was signed in 1952. The second Ethio-US Treaty that granted a continued American use
of the Qagnew base in return for military assistance was signed in 1953. These two
agreements in general but mostly the latter defined the Ethio-American partnership in the
following decades.

Following the 1953 treaty, the US launched a military aid program named the American
Military Assistance Advisory Group (MAAG) to equip Ethiopia‟s armed forces. The
MAAG was to train 60,000 Ethiopian soldiers in 3 separate squadrons namely the air
force, the infantry and the cavalry. In the year between 1953 and 1968, over 2,500
Ethiopians received various forms of military training in the US. It was in the army and
the air force that American military assistance and training was most noticeable. By 1970,
60% of US military aid to Africa went to Ethiopia. In the period between 1946 and 1972,
US military aid was over $180 million. Anti-tank and anti-aircraft weapons, naval craft,
infantry weapons and some times even uniforms like field jackets were of American
origin.

Civil aviation, road transport, and education were other spheres that the Americans took
active part. From September 8 to December 15 1945, the founding conference of the UN
was held at San Francisco. There, the Ethiopian delegation approached American
delegates for assistance to form a civilian airline. Hence, an agreement was concluded
with Transcontinental and Western World Airline (TWA) that established Ethiopian Air
Lines (EAL) in 1946 with five C-47 warplanes that served during WWII and of which
three were converted to passenger version DC-3. In 1962 EAL entered the jet age.
Meanwhile the shortage of trained Ethiopian personnel slowed the progress towards the
Ethiopianization of the EAL. For almost three decades since the signing of the agreement
with the TWA in 1946, key management and executive posts of the Ethiopian airline
were seized by expatriates notably Americans. EAL got its first indigenous pilot,

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Alemayehu Abebe, in 1957 and Colonel Simeret Medhne became the first Ethiopian
General Manager of EAL in 1971. The Imperial Board of Telecommunication was
established with the help of International Telephone and Telegraph (ITT) organization
between 1950 and 1952. In January 1951, with financial loan from the International Bank
for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), the Imperial High Way Authority (IHA)
was set up based on the model of the US Bureau of Roads. It continued to be run by
Americans until 1962. Together with ELA‟s domestic network the improvement of road
transport along with communication services played important role in facilitating national
integration and the speedy transport of such lucrative commodities as coffee. In the field
of education, American presence was particularly evident in the university and high
schools. A variety of American scholarship programs under USAID, African American
Institute and African Graduate Fellowship Program (AFGRAD) with Peace Corps,
offered opportunities for many Ethiopians to go to the United States for their second and
third degrees.

Other foreign countries with significant presence in Imperial Ethiopia include Sweden
and Norway whose advisors were entrusted to the Air force and navy successively.
Germany and Israel trained and equipped the Police Force while the Swedes Imperial
Bodyguard was supported by the Harar Military Academy was entrusted to British
trained Indians. Italians built Qoqa Dam in 1956 and returned the Statue of Judah in 1972,
which they had taken during their occupation of Ethiopia. Russians established good
relations with Ethiopia through their exhibition, library around city hall, post office,
mathematics and literature.

7.1.2. Socio-economic Developments

Ethiopia and the Horn is one of the regions in the world where early domestication of
plants and animals took place. An indication of the antiquity of agriculture in the region
is the production of different varieties of a particular crop naturally adapted to varied
physical environments. In Ethiopia, the agricultural sector provided an agricultural
surplus sufficiently large and reliable enough to support an exceptionally long history of

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political centralization. In the mid-twentieth century, low industrialization meant that
Agriculture was the leading economic sector in providing employment for about 90% of
the population, generating about 70% of the national GDP and supplying almost 100% of
the country‟s income from export trade. Therefore, the holding of land which was a
primary means of production was vital.

Generally, peasants in the northern and central highland parts of Ethiopia held land in the
form of rist. Rist was a communal use of a land which a peasant (gebbar) could claim by
virtue of birth from a real or imaginary founding father i.e. the first occupant. A
hereditary claim to a rist land being inalienable, it was however subject to continuous
division to accommodate claims of descendants from time to time. In the 1970s, more
than 66 percent of the peasant farmers cultivated less than 0.5 hectares each. In the south,
government grants were made for large plots and tenancy was widespread. The disparity
of landownership between north and south Ethiopia by the middle of the twentieth
century can be appreciated from the proportion of tenants to landed peasants. It was only
minority religious and occupational castes who suffered from tenancy in the north while
the tenant population as percentage of total rural population in newly incorporated
regions varied from 37% in Sidamo to a staggering 73% in Illubabor and 75% in
Hararghe, whereas tenancy in northern provinces averaged 11%. Tenants surrendered up
to 60% of their produce to landlords who mostly lived in towns or the capital.

In addition to formal tributes, there were sundry payments that smallholder and landless
farmers had to make, such as “voluntary” contributions to self-help funds for projects
from which they rarely benefitted. Sharecrop tenancy arrangements in the country were
so onerous that increasing production only increased the exploitation of peasants.
Similarly, the extreme taxation to which smallholding peasants were subjected to was
potent enough to discourage peasants from maximizing production beyond subsistence
levels. From 1953 to 1974, the annual growth rate of agricultural production was 2.4%
which was lower than the 2.5% population growth rate. As a consequence, Ethiopia
ranked among the countries with very low per capita income.

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The deteriorating condition of the country‟s economy posed a threat to the social and
political stability of the country and thus, the regime‟s power. This coupled with external
pressure from donors, induced the government to establish a land reform committee in
1961. This later became the Land Reform and Development Authority that grew to
become the Ministry of Land Reform and Administration. Yet no meaningful reform was
implemented because it would affect the vested economic and political interests of
landlords who at that time had taken hold of government.

In 1960s and 1970s commercial agriculture was expanding especially in southern Shawa,
the Setit-Humera region on the Sudan border, and in the Awash valley. The
mechanization of farming in these areas led to eviction of tenants. Profitability of
agriculture led some landlords to work the land by themselves. Sometimes they rented the
land under their ownership to whoever offered them better price in cash (as opposed to
the sharecropping tenancy practice); a price paid in advance and for longer periods. The
effect of all these was the eviction of tenants.

Furthermore the government attempted to enhance the productivity of small farmers

through launching comprehensive agricultural package programs. The most notable in
this regard were the Chilalo Agricultural Development Unit (CADU) and Wolamo [sic]
Agricultural Development Unit (WADU). CADU was launched in 1967 through the
initiative of the Swedish International Development Authority (SIDA) while the World
Bank supported WADU. The major objective of the package programs was
demonstrating the effectiveness and efficiency of agricultural packages to pave the way
for subsequent nationwide emulation of the intensive package approach. Nonetheless, the
plan was conceived and implemented without undertaking the crucial task of land reform,
thereby leaving the targeted population (small peasant producers) at a disadvantageous
position vis-a-vis big landlords when it comes to the distribution of benefits. Although
few participant small farmers gained real benefit, farmers with large land-holdings took
the lion‟s share of the benefits accrued from these projects. CADU aggravated tenant
eviction and was finally diverted to serve the interest of big landlords. The Wolamo [sic]

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Agricultural Development Unit (WADU), initiated by the World Bank, was more
successful in promoting re-settlement instead.

Since the 1950s the government formulated strategic plans for economic development
and this came in a series of five-year plans. The First Five Year Plan (1957-1961)
targeted the development of infrastructure. The Second (1962-1967) turned towards
mining, manufacturing and electricity. The Plan also mentioned major constraints to the
development of the agricultural sector, although in very general terms. The Third (1968-
1972) gave priority to agricultural development and higher living standard. The package
projects noted above were part of the third plan. Following these plans, the Ethiopian
economy witnessed some progress particularly after 1950. Overall domestic output
increased nearly three and a half times and even better progress was registered in
manufacturing. The number of industrial enterprises grew to over four hundred and the
industrial working force to nearly sixty thousand. There was a 24-fold increase in
electricity supply and infrastructure expanded considerably. Road and air communication
enabled linkage of parts of the country. The emergence of new towns and the
development of city life hastened urbanization. Moreover, public revenue and
expenditure both grew nine times and tenfold, respectively. Banking facilities expanded
and the State Bank of Ethiopia was formed in 1942. In 1963 it was divided into the
Commercial Bank and the National Bank of Ethiopia. Also a private bank, Addis Ababa
Bank was established in 1963. The capital Addis Ababa became a continental capital
when the UN Economic Commission for Africa (ECA) and the Organization of African
Unity (OAU) were established in 1958 and 1963 respectively. Overall, there was
unprecedented level of modernization which was reflected in many facets of life: music,
sports, cuisine and dress styles.

Yet, much of Ethiopia remained traditional with a low living standard and Ethiopia was a
least developed country in global terms. While the manufacturing sector contributed less
than 5% of the national income, industrialization was spatially limited in the capital and
its vicinity in addition only to Asmara and Dire Dawa and it only produced light
consumer goods. Moreover, industrial investment was also primarily of foreign origin.

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For example, the Ethiopian share in capital was hardly more than 20% for Wonji-Shawa
and Methara sugar factories which were largely Dutch-owned. Above all, the absence of
meaningful land reform constrained the forces of production in the countryside where the
majority of the population lived.

Consolidation of Autocracy

The post-liberation period witnessed the apogee of the emperor‟s power. As in the period
before, at the center of post-1941 national policies was the state‟s enduring interest to
curb the political and economic bases of the power of regional lords in favour of the
monarch. After he was restored to the throne in May 1941, Emperor Haile-Selassie
embarked on consolidating his power. This was made possible through the
bureaucratization of government, the building of a national army and a centralized fiscal
regime. First of all, in order to fill-in the expanding bureaucracy, education was promoted
at both school and college levels. While primary schools had already been established
prior to 1935, secondary schools were opened in the post 1941 period. The Haile-Selassie
I Secondary School, founded in 1943, and the General Wingate School, established in
1946, became the two most popular and prestigious secondary schools. A significant
number of the educated elites in the 1950s attended either of these two schools. In 1950,
the University College of Addis Ababa (UCAA) was inaugurated. This was followed by
the Engineering and Building College in Addis Ababa, the College of Agriculture in
Alamaya (Hararghe), and the Public Health College in Gondar. These various colleges
were brought together to form the Haile-Selassie I University in 1961 which again was
re-named Addis Ababa University after the outbreak of the Revolution in 1974.

The post-1941 political order was dominated by Haile-Selassie that both the state and the
country came to be identified with the emperor. Significant urban landmarks such as
schools, hospitals, theatre halls, stadiums, main avenues and squares in the country bore
the name of the Emperor. It was common for students to chant songs praising the
emperor who would then gift them with sweets or fruits on holidays such as Ethiopian

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Christmas on January 7.The emperor‟s birthday and coronation day were national
holidays where large sum of money was spent.

Yet another major pre-occupation of the imperial regime was the strengthening of the
military and security apparatus. The ministries of Defense and Interior, in charge of
maintaining public security, consistently received the highest budgetary allocations. For
example, out of the country‟s total budget of ETB 38 million in 1944/5 fiscal year, nearly
11 million was allocated for the Ministry of Interior of which security absorbed almost 5
million and about 8 million went for war. Figures show over 80 million allocation for
Ministry of Defense and nearly 60 million for Ministry of Interior, out of about 400
million ETB in 1967.Ironically although the emperor anticipated that the military that
was composed mainly of the army, the police force and the Imperial Bodyguard would
suppress opposition to the regime, they themselves rebelled more than once. It failed in
1960. It was more successful in 1974.

The traditional aristocracy although made to enjoy urban and rural property, had lost
most of its political privileges. Based on the traditional shum shir, the emperor appointed
and dismissed his ministers, most of whom had humble origins. In 1943, the emperor
appointed eleven ministers to draft laws and appoint junior officials but their
subservience to the monarch was stated in explicit terms. For example, it was only in
1966 that even the prime minster was allowed to select his cabinet members to be
approved by the emperor. Ras Bitweded Mekonnen Endalkachew served as prime
minister from 1943-57. Next to Mekonnen Habte-Wold (1949-58), whose brother, Aklilu,
became the last prime minister of the imperial regime (1961-74), Yilma Deressa left the
strongest mark on the Ministry of Finance. But the most powerful of the ministers in the
post-1941 political order was Tsehafe-Tizaz Wolde-Giorgis Wolde-Yohannis who headed
the strategic Ministry of Pen in the period 1941-55. Besides Wolde-Giorgis held the
portfolios of Justice and Interior on various occasions that he was the defacto prime
minister in the above stated period. Wolde-Giorgis‟access to the emperor and the latter‟s
trust in him made him so powerful. In general, members of royal family, leading nobility
and the Abun still were members of the crown council, which was an advisory body to

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the emperor. In 1959, the Emperor‟s private cabinet was set up as a high-level advisory
body to the emperor and developed into agency doing intelligence.

In 1955, Haile-Selassie promulgated a new constitution, revising the first constitution

issued in 1931. American advisers like John Spencer as well as Tsehafe-Tizaz Wolde-
Giorgis Wolde-Yohannis and Tsehafe-Tizaz Aklilu Habte-Wold were in the drafting
committee of the 1955 revised constitution. More than its predecessor, the 1955 revised
constitution provided the basis for the consolidation of absolutism in Ethiopia. About 36
articles of the 1955 constitution dealt with the question of imperial succession and the
emperor‟s privileges. The constitution clearly states the Emperor‟s personality as sacred,
his dignity inviolable and his power indisputable. Some Human rights provisions like
those of speech and press were accompanied by nullifying phrases like within law limits.
However this constitution introduced universal adult suffrage and elected chamber of
deputies for four years term and that of the senate six years with certain property
qualification.

In the final analysis, however, neither the constitution nor the Parliament that it created
put a limit to the autocratic power of the emperor. He was the head of the three branches
of government: the executive, the legislative and the judiciary. The idea of a
constitutional monarchy was never materialized. Human rights and civic liberties were
restricted and violated. Regional identities, needs and feelings were ignored in the interest
of centralization.

As the years progressed, the emperor started to dedicate his attention to foreign affairs.
He played a significant role in the Non-Aligned Movement and the drive for African
unity and this increased his international stature which finally resulted in the birth of the
Organization of African Unity at the summit of heads of African states held in Addis
Ababa in 1963. As the years progressed, the emperor started to dedicate his attention to
foreign affairs. He played a significant role in the Non-Aligned Movement and the drive
for African unity and this increased his international stature which finally resulted in the
birth of the Organization of African Unity at the summit of heads of African states held in

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Addis Ababa in 1963. But his preoccupation with international affairs detached the
emperor from the domestic affairs that he became unmindful of the signs of trouble at
home.

7.1.3. Opposition: Conspiracies, Revolts and the Downfall of the Monarchical

Regime

Various sectors of the society opposed the imperial rule before the 1974 revolution broke
out. Before the 1960s opposition to the regime took in the form of plots and conspiracies.
After the 1960 Coup d‟état, however, oppositions gained wider mass support and came
out more open. Some leaders of the resistance movement against fascist rule were
opposed to the restoration of the emperor to the throne for he fled the country when it
needed him most whereas others wished for a republican government. Such misgivings
combined with the privileges and rewards accorded to exiles and people who served the
colonial administration exacerbated the resentment against the monarchy leading to
rebellion against the system. One notable patriot who opposed the restoration of the
emperor to the throne after his exile was Dejazmach Belay Zeleqe. The emperor made
Belay governor of a southern province with the rank of Ras because he wanted to remove
him from his base in Bichena in eastern Gojjam. Belay rejected the offer and was even
more dissatisfied at dignified positions of Ras Haylu Belaw (governor general of Gojjam)
and Bitweded Mengesha Jembere (deputy governor general of Gojjam). In February 1943,
forces from Debra-Marqos and Addis Ababa invaded Belay‟s district. After fighting for
three months, Belay surrendered, was detained in Fiche from where he tried to escape and
return to Gojjam a few months later, but was captured with his brother Ejigu. Taken back
to the capital, Belay was finally hanged in public.

Bitweded Negash Bezabih was a vice minister and senate president in the emperor‟s
administration after liberation. He plotted to assassinate the emperor and proclaim a
republic in 1951. In the process, some military officers like Beqele Anasimos were
attracted to the plot, but Dejach Geresu Duki, another patriot, whom the plotters had
unsuccessfully approached to recruit to their cause, exposed them. Finally, the plotters

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were tried and sentenced to various terms of imprisonment after being arrested during
one of their clandestine meetings.

The most fierce and sustained opposition to the emperor came from Blatta Takle Wolde-
Hawaryat couched a plot in constitutionalist terms using Yohannis Iyasu as front and
with the support of some contingents of the army. But the plot was uncovered and he was
detained. In 1945, Blatta Takle Wolde-Hawaryat was released and appointed as deputy
Afe nigus. Yet, he was involved in another plot in 1946 and was detained up to 1954.
Upon his release, he once again became Vice Interior Minister and Afe nigus. He tried to
assassinate the emperor on November 17 1969, but his final plot failed and he barricaded
himself in his house and engaged in a shoot-out with the police in which he was killed.

The most serious challenge to the emperor‟s authority came in 1960 in the form of a coup
attempt. The abortive Coup d'etat of 1960 was led by the Neway brothers, Brigadier
General Mengistu and Girmame. Girmame attended Haile-Sellasie I Secondary School,
and then the University of Wisconsin where he received his B.A and M.A. from
Columbia. Girmame was also president of Ethiopian Students Association during his stay
in the US. Upon his return to Ethiopia, Girmame became the president of a clandestine
alumni association of his former school. As governor of Wolayta, Girmame‟s activities
were alarming to the regime. He monitored police activities, introduced a settlement
program in which he distributed government holdings to landless peasants and ordered
written tenancy agreements. He was then summoned back to Addis Ababa for
explanation. However, unable to criticize Girmame‟s intentions Haile-Selassie sent him
to Jijiga where he continued as radical reformer. He oversaw the digging of new wells
while improving the old, set up clinics and schools etc. But his actions were not liked by
the regime which convinced Girmame of the need for change. Together with his brother
Mengistu Neway, the head of the Imperial Bodyguard and others, the two brothers started
detaining ministers and other members of the nobility when the emperor traveled to
Brazil. They also took over the radio station and spoke about the backwardness of the
country than other newly independent African states. The crown prince Asfawosen was
said to be a salaried constitutional monarch. The prince delivered a speech on Radio

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Addis explaining the rationale of the coup in which he promised the establishment of new
factories, schools etc. On December 14 1960, a new government was declared that was
to be headed by Ras Emiru Haile-Selassie. Major General Mulugeta Buli was chosen as
chief of staff of the armed forces while Brigadier-General Tsige Debu was to lead the
Imperial Bodyguard and the Police Force, and Colonel Workneh Gebeyehu was security
chief.

However, the army and the air force refused to side with the rebels and with the support
of the Americans and the blessing of the patriarch, the loyalists led by General Merid
Mengesha, Ras Asrate Kassa etc attacked. The rebels asked for a ceasefire which the
loyalists rejected. Finally, they had to run for their lives but only after killing the
ministers and other dignitaries they had detained at Geneta L'uel palace. In the meantime
the emperor entered the capital. Finally, Girmame died fighting in the outskirts of the
capital and Mengistu was captured and hanged after trial. The regime made some
concessions after the failed coup attempt, but failed to address the root causes that
triggered the coup itself. Thus, opposition to the imperial regime was only to grow
stronger leading to the outbreak of the 1974 revolution.

A. Peasant Rebellions

The post-liberation period also witnessed growing opposition among peasants in different
parts of the country against Haile Selassie‟s regime thereby giving the opposition a
broader dimension. Peasant revolts, although on a small scale, were especially numerous
in the southern territories, where the imperial government had traditionally rewarded its
supporters with land grants thereby reducing the indigenous peasantry into tenancy. It is
not possible in the space of a brief essay such as this to discuss the numerous peasant
rebellions in the entire country. But an effort will be made to canvas major eruptions in
the country with the intent of showing some of the deficiencies of the system.

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The Woyane Rebellion
The first peasant resistance against imperial rule took place in Tigray, known in history
as the Woyane rebellion. A combination of long-running problems stemming from the
inequities of the system and short-term factors caused the eruption. Peasants felt
victimized by corruption and greed of the territorial army unit stationed in the region and
general administrative inefficiency led to banditry of peasants who possessed armament
left by Italians. This rebellion had the support of members of the nobility who perceived
their position to be endangered by the expansion of central authority. The nobility took
advantage of the popular discontent against government officials and their militias and
put strong resistance against government forces thanks to the able leadership of Blatta
Haile-Mariam Reda. Finally, the government‟s retribution against the Raya-Azebo on
allegation of cattle raids on Afar territory sparked the general rebellion. As such, the
Woyane rebellion was as a continuation of the government‟s punitive campaign against
the region‟s peasants in the late 1920s. The dress rehearsal for the major confrontation
took place on January 11 1942 where the imperial force was crushed and humiliated by
Raya-Azebo peasants. On May 22 1943, the rebels scored an astounding victory fighting
an even larger and well-equipped government army in Addi-Abun. Soon small towns
around Meqelle like Qwiha and Enda-Iyyasus, and Meqelle itself on October 14, 1943
fell in rebel hands. They then expanded to Kilte-Awlalo, Wuqiro etc in central and
eastern Tigray. Such initial advances of the rebel forces, however, did not last long. In
October 1943, the imperial army under the command of Abebe Aregay with the support
of the British Royal Air Force crushed the rebellion. The government exiled or
imprisoned the leaders of the revolt. The emperor took reprisals against peasants
suspected of supporting the Woyane.

The Yejju Rebellion

Overt dissidence of Yejju peasants in Wallo during Haile-Selassie‟s rule occurred three
times. In 1948, peasants rose against the system after their appeal against land alienation
was ignored by the government. With Qegnazmach Melaku Taye and Unda Muhammed
in the forefront, peasants stormed and freed inmates held in Woldya prison. The nech
lebash were called into quell the unrest and eventually the leaders were publicly flogged

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on market day. Throughout the 1950s, localized skirmishes between government forces
and peasants took place in Qobo, Hormat, Tumuga, Karra-Qore etc led by prominent
figures like Ali Dullatti (Aba Jabbi). In 1970 peasants revolted against the introduction of
mechanized agriculture that encroached on pastureland and killed Qegnazmach Abate
Haylu who was a member of the local nobility and direct beneficiary of the new
development. Finally the rising was suppressed by the local militia.

The Gojjam Peasant Rebellion

In 1968, another violent peasant uprising set off in Gojjam caused by the government‟s
attempt to implement new tax on agricultural produce which the parliament adopted in
November 1967. This rebellion was not, however, without its antecedents. The nobles of
Gojjam refused to accept any limitation upon the prevailing land tenure system and
successfully battled the regime over this issue. Although the expansion of central
authority by appointed officials and the development of infrastructural works required a
parallel increase in tax payments, it was fiercely resisted by the local gentry. Against this
background, the then governor of Gojjam, Dejach Kebede Tesema, initiated land
assessment and classification to determine taxation. He then raised tax rate from what it
had been in pre-1935 period. In 1950, a revolt broke out in Mota, Qolla-Daga Damot and
Mecha districts led by people like Dejach Abere Yimam. As a result tax rate was reduced
by 1/3, Kebede was removed and replaced by Haylu Belew, a hereditary ruler of Gojjam.
Later, Haylu‟s Shawan successor named Tsehayu Enqu-Selassie forced handouts to build
the emperor‟s statue in Debra Marqos. Besides, peasants were ordered to pay tax arrears
and register their arms with fees. Meanwhile, peasants were victimized by the ravages
committed by the nech lebash in the pretext of eradicating banditry. With all the above
unfolding, an attempt was made to introduce the new agricultural tax and this finally
sparked the 1968 uprising led by veterans of the resistance period, who had taken titles
for themselves such as leul and fitawrari. The government was forced to transfer
Tsehayu to Kafa, declare amnesty, abandon the new tax, and cancel all tax arrears of
taxation going back to 1950. Despite these concessions, the rebellion spread throughout
Gojjam except Agaw-Midir and Metekel which alarmed the government. Finally the

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rebellion was subdued by the combined forces of the army, police and nech lebash by the
end of 1968.

The Gedeo Peasant Uprising

As in many parts of rural Ethiopia, the major source of peasant discontent in Gedeo was
land alienation. The dispossession of land from the indigenous peasantry was unabated
particularly following the introduction of land measurement in the 1920s. In the 1960s,
the Gedeo witnessed an unprecedented level of land expropriation by members of the
northern nobility who were vying for coffee farms. The major contender in this regard
was the emperor‟s daughter Princess Tenagneworq. This coupled with the denigration of
their culture exacerbated Gedeo‟s resentment against the system. Petitions and appeals to
higher authorities to curb the continued land alienation proved futile. Then peasants
refused to pay erbo (1/4 of agricultural produce payable to landlords), armed
themselveswith traditional weapons like spears, swords and arrows and clashed with the
imperial army at Michille in 1960. Over a hundred peasants lost their lives in the fight
while much of their property was destroyed. Finally, Afe Nigus Eshete Geda, fined the
elders locally called the hayicha accused of supporting the rebellion.

The Bale Peasant Rebellion

The Bale peasant uprising, which lasted from 1963 to 1970, presented the most serious
challenge to the Ethiopian government. The causes of the uprising were multifaceted. The
indigenous peasants largely became tenants on their own land after the introduction of the
qalad that initiated land measurement in 1951. Peasants also suffered from high taxation,
religious and ethnic antagonism which reached to unprecedented level after the
appointment of Warqu Enquselassie as governor of the territory in 1963. The
predominantly Muslim population resented the imposition of alien rule from the northern
and central highlands parts of the empire and thus, political and cultural domination by
Christian settlers. Further, the Somali government extended material and moral support to
the rebels as part of its strategy of reestablishing a “Greater Somalia”.

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The revolt broke out in El Kerre led by people like Kahin Abdi. Initially, rebel groups
conducted hit-and-run raids against military garrisons and police stations separately.
Soon, however, they tried to coordinate their military activities under an umbrella
organization named the Liberation Front Western Somali, engaging in conventional wars
against government forces. Haile Selassie tried to win loyalty of the people by developing
alliances with notable Oromo leaders. Although this strategy enabled the emperor to
recruit some members of local ruling houses in the service of the imperial system, it
failed to contain the popular revolt. Instead, it quickly spread to Wabe, Dallo and Ganale
under the able leadership of Waqo Gutu and others. In Gola-Abbadi forest, rebels went to
the extent of attacking two government airplanes which campaigned against them with
support from the Americans and Israeli. Further, the rebels killed Girazmach Beqele
Haragu of Adaba and Fitawrari Wolde-Mika‟el Bu‟ii of Dodola in 1965 and 1966,
respectively. In December 1966, the government put Bale under the martial rule of
Wolde-Selassie Baraka, the head of the army‟s Fourth Division. In 1967, the army, police,
territorials (beherawi tor), settler militia (nech lebash) and volunteers (wedo zemach)
launched massive operations against the province. Meanwhile, the rebels lost Somali
support after Mahammad Siad Barre took over the Somali government in 1969 and found
it impossible to sustain their campaigns in southeastern Ethiopia. The rebellion ended in
1970s after some of its popular leaders including Waqo Gutu surrendered to government
forces due to the mediation role played by General Jagama Kello.

B. Movements of Nations and Nationalities

On January 24 1963, the Mecha-Tulama Welfare Association (MTWA) was formed with
the objective of improving the welfare of the Oromo through the expansion of
educational, communication and health facilities in Oromo land. Founding members of
the association included Colonels Alemu Qitessa and Colonel Qedida Guremessa,
Lieutenant Mamo Mezemir, Beqele Nedhi, and Haile Mariam Gemeda. In the next two
years, the association attracted large number of Oromo elites, including such high-
ranking military officers as Brigadier General Taddesse Birru.

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Although the Mecha-Tulama Association had its root in the will and commitment of a
few Oromo elites to mobilized support for the development Oromo inhabited territories,
it soon transformed into a pan-Oromo movement coordinating countrywide peaceful
resistance against the regime. This is evidenced by the successful rallies the association
organized in Arssi, Gindeberet, and Dandi, Dera etc. The association raised contentious
issues such as land and expressed its dissatisfaction with the condition of the Oromo in
the society during mass rallies as well as in private meetings. Furthermore, the
association styled as an umbrella organization of southern nationalities to end the regime
of Emperor Haile Selassie I. Representatives of oppressed ethnic groups of the south
attended the association‟s deliberations in Addis Ababa for liberation. The regime was
alarmed by the activities of the association and determined to curb the movement before
it crystalized into an organized liberation front.

Meanwhile, leaders of the association plotted to assassinate the emperor on the

anniversary of his coronation in November 1966, but the was plot foiled by the security
forces. This coupled with a bombing incident in one of the cinemas at the capital in
which the association was implicated led the government to move swiftly and violently to
ban the association‟s activities. Mecha-Tulama was dissolved in 1970 following the
imprisonment and killing of its prominent leaders such as Mamo Mezemir and
Hailemariam Gemmeda by the regime‟s forces. Brigadier General Taddasa Birru was
captured while retreating to the bush and eventually sentenced to death. Later the death
sentence was commuted to life imprisonment and he was exiled to Gelemso where he
stayed until the outbreak of the 1974 revolution. In 1975 the Derg executed Tadesse on
allegation of instigating armed struggle.

The brutal suppression of the Mecha-Tulama Association, however, did not end the
struggle of the Oromo for justice, equality and liberty. In 1971 an underground
movement called the Ethiopian National Liberation Front (ENLF) was formed by Oromo
elites, perhaps by former members of the association. The Front maintained contact with
student circles and other opposition figures in and outside Addis Ababa. The aim was to

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coordinate local resistance towards a common goal of liberation, although thwarted by
the regime‟s security forces.

The regime‟s unwillingness to accommodate the legitimate and peaceful demands of

various Oromo groups for equality within Ethiopia transformed Oromo nationalism into
militancy for self-determination. In 1973, some members of the ENLF together with
Oromo nationalists from Ethiopian Oppressed Peoples‟ Revolutionary Struggle
(ECH‟AT), Marxist Leninist Revolutionary Organization (MALERID) formed the
Oromo Liberation Front (OLF) with the aim of establishing an independent Democratic
Republic of Oromia. The following year, OLF launched an offensive against the imperial
regime in Hararghe. After the revolution, OLF increased its military activities because the
Derg would not allow the Oromo to elect their rulers and use their language in schools
and newspapers. Accordingly, the armed struggle which set off in the eastern part of
Ethiopia extended to other Oromo inhabited areas such as Arssi and Wollaga.

But the biggest military challenge to the imperial regime came from Eritrea. As we have
discussed above, Eritrea was integrated into the Ethiopian empire. The measure
consolidated internal and external opposition to the union and led to the formation of
liberation movements based in Eritrea and abroad. Although some liberation movements
had taken shape as far back as the late 1940s, they did not seem to have much of an
impact. In 1958, a number of Eritrean exiles had founded the Eritrean Liberation
Movement (ELM) in Cairo. This organization, however, soon was neutralized. In 1961,
Hamid Idris Awate established Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF) or Jabaha in Arabic. By
1966 the ELF challenged imperial forces throughout Eritrea. In June 1970 another
liberation movement named the Popular Liberation Forces (PLF) was formed in the Red
Sea area led by Osman Salah Sabbe. At the same time, Salfi Natsenet Eritrea (Front for
Eritrean Independence) emerged under the leadership of Isayas Afeworqi. In early 1972,
a new coalition of forces composed of Eritrean Liberation Front-Popular Liberation Front
(ELF-PLF) led to the founding of the Eritrean People‟s Liberation Front (EPLF) or
Sha'abiya in Arabic. After a long and bloody civil war, the EPLF was able to establish its

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hegemony over the independence movement. And it was the EPLF that succeeded in
achieving independence in 1991.

B. The Ethiopian Student Movement (ESM)

The regime was not only been challenged in the provinces. In fact, the Ethiopian student
movement was building up in the center as a strong opposition against the regime.
Although the movement started within the university, students had turned into a radical
opposition and were already marching on the streets from 1965 onwards and by 1968, it
was spreading to high schools. The parliament‟s rejection of tenancy reform bill in 1964
triggered student protest in the following year demanding “Land to the Tiller”.

Factors that contributed to sharpening the students‟ ideology include the 1960 coup,
students‟ increased awareness of the country‟s socio-economic and political conditions
vis a vis other African countries which they learned from scholarship students from
different parts of Africa, and the Ethiopian University Service (EUS). Launched in 1964,
the EUS required the students to teach and offer other services to the community usually
in the provinces. In 1964 the emergence of a radical group of students with Marxist-
Leninist leanings known as “the Crocodiles” marked the increased militancy of the
students.

Side by side with the radicalization of the movement, students formed the University
College Union (UCU) to coordinate their activities in 1962 and then the National Union
of Ethiopian University Students (NUEUS) 1963. In February 1965, the Main Campus
Student Union (MCSU), and the University Student Union of Addis Ababa (USUAA)
with its paper Tagel (Struggle) were established. Outside the country, students were
organized under the Ethiopian Students Union in North America (ESUNA) with its paper
called Challenge and the Ethiopian Students Union in Europe (ESUE) with its paper
Tateq (Gird yourself) in the USA and Europe. ESUNA and gave ideological support to
MCSU and USUAA.

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Throughout the 1960s a rallying cry of student demonstrations was “land to the tiller”,
but other local and global issues were also raised. For example, students protested against
the minority white regime in Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe) in 1968, while at other
times they expressed their solidarity with the people of Vietnam. In the national arena,
students protested against Shola Destitute Concentration Relief Camp and fashion show
and educational reform in 1966 and 1969 respectively. With the student‟s demands of
rights of nations and nationalities, the government was alarmed and started taking
measures against leaders of the movement ranging from press campaigns to detentions
and killings. Furthermore, the regime deported large number of students to the torrid
Gibe river valley in 1972. Meanwhile, students‟ opposition was aggravated to armed
hijacking of Dc-aircraft.

By early 1970s, the student movement coupled with other underrunning issues such as
rising inflation, growing discontent of urban residents, corruption and widespread and yet
covered-up famine especially in Wallo all prepared a fertile ground for a revolution.

7.2. The Derg Regime (1974-1991)

The mass uprising that finally put an end to the old regime came in February 1974. From
January 8 to 15 1974, soldiers and non-commissioned officers stationed at a frontier post
Negele-Borana mutinied protesting their bad living conditions. In the process, they
detained the commander of the ground forces who was sent to pacify the situation. The
soldiers made the commander eat their food and drink their water so that he could witness
the kind of life they were living. Also, soldiers of the Second Division in Asmara, the
Fourth Division in Addis Ababa and the Air Force in Debre-Zeyt mutinied demanding
salary increment and political and economic reforms. The various units then set up a
coordinating committee which became a precursor of the later Derg, in order to
coordinate their actions.

Teachers throughout the country protested against the implementation of an education

reform program known as Sector Review, which they deemed was disadvantageous for

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the poor and biased against them. Although the Ethiopian Teachers Association (ETA)
had coordinated demonstrations against the program already in December 1973, it called
for a general strike demanding a number of other social reforms on February 18, 1974.
On the same day, taxi drivers went on strike demanding increase in transport fees (50%)
due to rise of petrol prices that followed the Arab-Israeli Yom Kippur war of 1973.
Students, workers and the unemployed youth joined the protests and vehicles particularly
buses and luxury private automobiles were attacked.

The government responded by suspending the Sector Review, reducing petrol prices and
raising the salaries of soldiers. In spite of this, the uprisings continued and on February
28 the cabinet of Prime Minister Aklilu Habte-Wold resigned. He was replaced by
Endalkachew Mekonnin who was an Oxford-educated member of the aristocracy.
Although Endalkachew seemed to gain the support of a group of officers within the army,
promised to introduce reforms, including constitutional reform and included highly
educated and progressive ministers into his cabinet, the protests continued. On March 8
the Confederation of Ethiopian Labour Unions (CELU) staged a successful general strike.

It was only a matter of time before the strikes and demonstrations spread to the provinces.
A major popular demonstration was made on April 20 by about 100,000 Muslim
residents of the capital and their Christian sympathizers who came out demanding
religious equality.

In the meantime, the soldiers, through their various committees, were also taking their
own measures. The coordinating committee of soldiers and NCOs set up in February had
been joined by officers, such as Colonel Alem Zewd Tessema of the Airborne Brigade,
who then became its leader. In April, the Committee, perhaps with an involvement of
Endalkachew, arrested Aklilu and hundreds of other high-ranking officials of the regime.
The Minister of Defense, Lt. General Abiy Abebe, who had noticed the growing power of
the Committee as well as series of demonstrations and strikes, set up what was called the
National Security Commission to restore order and respect for the authority of the
government.

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The leading opposition against the Endalkachaw cabinet were the students. Not only did
they staged their own demonstrations against the cabinet but they also encouraged other
sectors of society to join in the revolutionary tide. But the students were less organized to
achieve their goals and eventually, the struggle was hijacked by the soldiers.

The Derg was officially formed on June 28 1974 when it held its first meeting at the
headquarters of the Fourth Division. “Derg” a Ge‟ez word for “Committee” was the
shorter name given to the Coordinating Committee of representatives from various
military units: the Armed Forces, the Police and the Territorial Army. However, officers
above the rank of major were suspected of supporting the old regime and therefore were
not included. Hence, Major Mengistu Haile-Mariam of the Third Division of Hararghe,
and the vice-chairman, Major Atnafu Abate of the Fourth Division, came to be key
figures.

For some time the Derg exercised power parallel with the Endalkachew‟s cabinet and the
emperor tied up in a dual state, trying to keep a balance between the two. However, on
August 1, Endalkachew was imprisoned and replaced by Lej Mikael Emiru as prime
minister. Meanwhile, the Derg continued arresting other members of the regime whom it
considered obstacles to the revolution. The Derg also tried to define its ideology and
declared the motto, “Yaleminim Dam” (“Without any bloodshed”) “Ethiopia Tiqdam”
(“Ethiopia First”).

The Derg continued systematically working to isolate the emperor and removing the
supports of his imperial power. A strong propaganda campaign was launched against the
regime and the widespread corruption of government functionaries. Two enterprises,
Anbessa Bus Company and the St. George Brewery in which the emperor and the
imperial family had more 50% stake were nationalized. Moreover, a British documentary
film disclosing the hidden horrors of the Wallo famine precisely served the awaited
interest of the Derg. Finally, on September 12, Emperor Haile-Selassie I was deposed
and detained at the Fourth Division headquarters.

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The Derg then proclaimed itself the Provisional Military Administrative Council
(PMAC) and assumed full powers. All strikes and demonstrations were immediately
banned. Very soon, civilian revolutionaries, who had started calling for the establishment
of a provisional people‟s government, started gathering around the Confederation of
Ethiopian Labor Unions (CELU), the University teachers‟ group known as Forum, and
the students. Sections of the military, the Army Engineers Corps, the First Division (the
former Bodyguard), and the Army Aviation, also opposed what was to become a military
government.

However, the Derg was not prepared to make compromise on any ground. Instead, it
imprisoned the leaders of CELU and a leader of the Forum group. On October7, the
militant Engineers were violently crushed in a tank assault which took the lives of five
soldiers and there was massive arrest afterwards. The motto of “Ethiopia First, without
any bloodshed” thus failed as early as then.

On November 23, an even more violent phase commenced. Lieutenant General Aman
Mikael Andom, chairman of the PMAC was shot dead after a disagreement within the
Derg over the Issue of Eritrea. Aman Mikael Andom who was of Eritrean origin
believed in peaceful approach against some radical members of the Derg particularly the
First Vice-Chairman Mengistu Haile-Mariam, who advocated for a military solution. The
killing continued and the Derg announced execution of some 52 prominent members of
the old regime who had been detained and half a dozen other leaders of the military units
who had opposed the Derg as a “political decision.”

7.2.2. Attempts at Socio-Economic Reform

The Derg took a series of measures that aimed at fundamentally transforming the country.
In December 1975, what was called the Development Through Co-operation Campaign
(Edget Behibiret Yetimihirt Ena Yesira Zemecha) was inaugurated. In this campaign, all
high school and university students and their teachers were to be sent to the countryside

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to help transform the life of peasants through programs such as literacy campaigns and
the implementation of the awaited land reform proclamation. However, the campaign was
opposed by most of the civilian left as a system that the Derg designed to remove its
main opponents from the center. To appease the oppositions, the Derg changed its slogan
of “Ethiopia First” to “Ethiopian Socialism”. It also adopted slogans like Ethiopian Unity
or Death, Revolutionary Motherland or Death, and later Every Thing to the War Front,
Produce while Fighting or Fight While Producing etc

In 1975 banks and insurance companies were nationalized following a series of

proclamations. Over seventy private commercial and industrial companies were then
nationalized. Finally, in March 1975 the Derg made a radical land reform proclamation
which abolished all private land ownership and set the upper limit on family holdings at
ten hectares. The proclamation also provided the establishment of peasant associations
which were to be implemented with the cooperation of the zemach. On July 26, 1975
another proclamation nationalized all urban lands and extra houses. In April 1976, PMAC
proclaimed National Democratic Revolution Program and set up the Provisional Office
for Mass Organization and Affairs (POMOA) with the objective of organizing and raising
the political consciousness of the masses.

The campaigns showed Derg‟s belief in mass mobilization to achieve a cause. There was
the “Green Campaign” of 1978 aimed at bringing about rapid economic development, the
literacy campaign aimed at irradiating illiteracy, and the “Red Star Campaign” of 1982
that aimed at solving the Eritrean problem. Of these campaigns, only the literacy
campaign registered some degree of success. The land reform proclamation did put an
end to landlord exploitation but it has failed to make the peasant master of his land
because now the state took over as ultimate owner, with the peasant associations serving
as its agents. The cooperatives only led to monopolistic government enterprises such as
Agricultural Marketing Corporation (Ersha Sebil Gebeya Dirijit), resettlements and
villagization.

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On the other hand, nationalization killed private initiative and introduced a highly
bureaucratized management of resources. The state, with its significant role and growing
proportion now gained tremendous capacity to reward or penalize. The Derg used
peasant associations to control the countryside and the urban dwellers‟ associations
(qebele) to control the towns. The qebele became battleground when the struggle between
the Derg and the Ethiopian People‟s Revolutionary Party (EPRP) reached its bloodiest
phase in 1976/7. The EPRP targeted qebele leaders and assassinated them while they in
turn led the government‟s campaign of terror against the EPRP called the “Red Terror”,
as opposed to the “White Terror” of the EPRP.

Initially, the leftist opposition to Derg came from two main underground political
organizations called the EPRP and the All-Ethiopian Socialist Movement (in Amharic
Meison) that was founded in Hamburg by Haile Fida, Dr. Nigist Adane, Dr. Kedir
Mohammed, Tesfaye Gebre-Tsadiq, Daniel Taddesse and others. In October 1976 the
Marxist Leninist Revolutionary Organization (OMLR) was formed with its first
Secretariat being Tesfaye Makonin. Later, it was merged to form the Ethiopian Marxist
Leninist Democratic Union (UMLO) but was purged by the military junta in June 1979.
After the land reform proclamation, Meison ceased its opposition to the Derg by adopting
what it called “critical support” and tactically formed an alliance with Derg which helped
it gain more organizational strength.

In the meantime the Derg pushed by the dominant leftist political culture systematically
abandoned “Ethiopian socialism” and embraced Marxism-Leninism. With the setting up
of the POMOA, Derg proclaimed the National Democratic Revolution Program which
was the Chinese model for socialist revolution and had identified feudalism, imperialism
and bureaucratic capitalism as the three main enemies of the people. In a few months,
Derg‟s leftist political organization known as Revolutionary Flame (Abyotawi Seded) was
launched.

In 1977 an alliance called the Union of Ethiopian Marxist–Leninist Organizations

(Emaledeh) was established as prelude to the formation of one vanguard party. The

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Emaledeh was composed of Meison, Revolutionary Flame (Abyotawi Seded), (Workers
League) Proletariat League (Wazlig) founded by a one-time president of the Ethiopian
Students‟ Union in North America, Dr. Senay Like, the Ethiopian Marxist–Leninist
organization (Malerid) and the Ethiopian Oppressed Masses Revolutionary Struggle
(EORS) founded by Baro Tumsa, and the Ethiopian Oppressed Masses Revolutionary
Struggle (Ech’at). That said, the Emaledeh was beset by power struggle from the outset
as each organization competed for supremacy instead of working together to realize the
original objective of the organiztion.

Meanwhile, the struggle between the EPRP and the Derg and its allies had caused a civil
war scenario since September 1976 when EPRP militants were arrested and executed by
the Derg and supporters of the Derg were assassinated by EPRP squads. EPRP had also
attempted to assassinate Mengistu himself in mid-September. In what followed, the Derg
attacked EPRP with large-scale arrests of its members and sympathizers and massive
search and destroy campaigns, particularly in Addis Ababa.

In late 1976, the Derg itself was ideologically divided and with the internal struggles,
Mengistu had eliminated two powerful members of the Derg and potential rivals of his
power and influence, Major Sisay Habte and Major Kiros Alemayehu. Many other key
members of the Derg were accused of being EPRP members or sympathizers. On their
parts, other members such as Lieutenant Alemayehu Hayle and Captain Moges Wolde-
Mikael resented the growing dictatorial power of Mengistu and his alliance with Meison
and other pro-Derg leftist organizations. With the help of the chairman, Brigadier General
Teferi Benti, they then successfully re-organized the structure of the Derg in such a way
that Mengistu was marginalized. On February 3 1977 though, Mengistu hit back with a
coup against Teferi. Eventually, Teferi and other anti-Mengistu Derg members were
executed. After the coup, Mengistu Haile-Mariam assumed the chairmanship of the Derg
and the post of commander-in-chief of the armed forces. He then filled the top positions
in the Derg with his loyal supporters. Within just a year, the only remaining outstanding
Derg member, Lt. Colonel Atnafu Abate, was charged of impeding the revolutionary
process was executed.

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Then Mengistu and his civilian left allies unleashed what they called the “Red Terror”
initially targeting the EPRP and later including other opposition organizations, including
EPLF and the TPLF (Tigray People‟s Liberation Front) and Meison after its break up
from the Derg. EPRP had to take its only option of turning to rural guerrilla warfare as
internal split within it hastened its collapse.

In the meantime, the Derg faced another challenge. In the summer of 1977, Somalian
government of Said Barre invaded Afder, Deghabour, Fiq, Gode, Kebridehar, Shinnille,
Warder etc from Mogadishu. Within a couple of months, the cities of Harar and Dire
Dawa were endangered. Yet, the government mobilized a force of about 100,000 peasant
militia and other forces that were trained at Angetu, Didessa, Hurso, Tateq and Tolay in a
short time with the help of USSR advisors and equipment. Finally, with 17, 000 Cuban
troop and the help from Southern Yemen Democratic Republic the invaders were
defeated at Kara Mara in Jijiga on March 4 1978. The Somali aggression had been
checked. Overall the Somali invasion in a way made it possible for the Derg to rally the
population to its side.

In early 1977 the Derg had severed relations with the USA as the American cultural and
military institutions ended their operation in the country. This was preceded by the
termination of the Ethio-USA 1953 mutual defense agreement. After a month, Mengistu
concluded agreements with Moscow for economic, cultural and military co-operation.
The relations between Ethiopia and the Soviet remained strong until the end of the
military regime.

In the north, Eritrean insurgents had encircled Asmara while a pro-monarchy

organization, the Ethiopian Democratic Union (EDU), was marching inroads from the
Sudan in the Satit-Humera region. Yet, by the end of 1978, the EPRP had been contained
in the towns. And the Eritrean insurgents had been pushed back. Ethiopian Democratic
Union (EDU) was crushed near the Ethio-Sudan borderland in places like Metema, Abder
Raffi and Satit-Humera.

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The Union of Ethiopian Marxist-Leninist Organizations fell apart once Meison defected
the Derg and its leaders were consequently either killed or arrested as they tried to retreat
to the countryside. The other three member organizations Ech’at, Wazlig, and Malerid
were successively expelled from Emaledeh and their leaders and members executed or
detained. It was only Mengistu‟s Seded that remained as the authentic Marxist-Leninist
organization in the country. The strategy of merging political organizations for party
formation was then replaced by recruitment of individuals loyal to Mengistu Haile-
Mariam. In December 1979, the Commission for Organizing the Party of the Working
People of Ethiopia (COPWE) was established with this motive. In September 1984, the
Workers‟ Party of Ethiopia was inaugurated during the celebration of the tenth
anniversary of the coming of the Derg to power. It was given that Mengistu became the
new party‟s secretary-general.

In order for the government to have a more direct societal control, there was the need for
re-structuring of mass organizations which took place after the formation of the party. It
started with workers who had challenged the Derg right from the start, and on January 6
1977, the CELU was replaced by a government-controlled All Ethiopia Trade Union
(AETU) which was later re-named Ethiopian Trade Union (ETU). This was followed by
the formation of the All Ethiopia Peasants‟ Association (AEPA) which ensured the
government‟s control over peasants. Later AETU was renamed Ethiopia Peasants‟
Association (EPA). Established in 1980, the Revolutionary Ethiopian Women‟s
Association (REWA) and Revolutionary Ethiopian Youth Association (REYA) played
similar role, rallying women and the youth behind the state.

It was when PMAC National Assembly (Shengo) proclaimed the People‟s Democratic
Republic of Ethiopia (PDRE) in 1987 that such elaborate organizational set-up designed
to ensure total control of society reached its peak. With the birth of the PDRE, the Derg
officially ceased to exist. A typically Communist constitution already on its way,
Comrade Mengistu had become President of PDRE, secretary general of WPE and
Commander in chief of the national armed forces with Fiseha Desta as Vice President

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while Fiqre-Sellassie Wegderes headed the Council of Ministers as Prime Minister with
five deputies.

Finally it turned out that Mengistu could not stay in power more than four years after he
was proclaimed president of PDRE. The dictator, who had maneuvered the urban left and
had gone ruthless in the process, fell under the attack of rural-based guerrilla movements.
Rural-based movements fighting for national self-determination thrived as liquidation of
the urban-based multi-national movements like the EPRP and Meison intensified in the
center. These included the Oromo Liberation Front (OLF), active mainly in the Wollaga
region, the Islamic Front for Liberation of Oromia, based in Hararghe, the Afar
Liberation Front, the Sidama Liberation Front, the Beni Shangul Liberation Front and the
Gambella Liberation Front. Some of these fronts appeared only in the last days of the
Derg. The two significant liberation fronts which could be considered to have jointly
brought about the downfall of the Derg were the EPLF and the TPLF.

In 1984/5 a more devastating famine than the one in 1973/4 indicated the failure of the
Derg‟s economic policies especially in agricultural production and marketing. In the late
20th century, Ethiopia had experienced two major famines that had rose up national and
international mobilization and created bad image on the country in international scene.
These were the 1972-1974 and 1984-1985 famine, the causes of which were shortage of
rain. The state responded to the latter by resettling the affected people in less affected
areas of western Ethiopia. The government responded to the famine by ignoring the
problem for some time and then only to introduce its controversial policy of massive
resettlement of the affected peasants, mostly of Tigray and Wallo provinces, in south-
western Ethiopia. The villagization program that followed the resettlement further
alienated the majority of peasants. It was in this context that the guerrilla forces scored
remarkable victories against the regime forces towards the end of the decade.

International politics too did not carry on serving Mengistu‟s interest as his ally, the
Soviet Union ceased to be the source of his external support. Mikhail Gorbachev‟s policy
of perestroika (restructuring) and glasnost, (openness) in 1985 aimed at making Soviet

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communism more efficient and humane was a failure and the Soviet Union collapsed as a
major world power. Even worse, the United States who the Derg had never been friendly
with, became the sole arbiter of international affairs. Although Mengistu now tried to
improve relations with the Americans, they were more directed towards to his opponents,
the EPLF and the TPLF, who they believed had fully abandoned Marxism Leninism. In
March 1990, the Derg proclaimed a mixed economy policy which seemed to come just
late.

The government‟s military failure came when after crushing the Somali invaders, the
Derg turned its forces to the north, with the rather too assured slogan that “The victory
scored in the east will be repeated in the north.” Initially the plan seemed to go well when
the EPLF forces pulled back under the massive assault launched by the Derg which
regained control over the rebel‟s major strongholds in 1976/7. However, the retreated
EPLF forces were not driven out of their fortress at Naqfa in northern Eritrea. EPLF
crushed its left wing, Menka’e, from its stronghold Naqfa-Raza and scored major victory
at Afabet, north of Asmara, in March 1988. When in 1990, EPLF forces captured the port
town of Massawa, it became only a matter of time before the capital, Asmara, also fell to
them.

The final decisive blow to Mengistu‟s regime came to be administered by the TPLF.
Tigray Peoples Liberation Front/TPLF, that had its origin in Mehibere Gesgest Bihere
Tigrai set up in 1970, was founded in 1975 by a group of university students, who
primarily intended to liberate their own region of Tigray. They enjoyed the support of the
EPLF for which they strategically gave guard against the assault of the Derg. Before it
turned to confront the Derg, the TPLF was engaged in a bloody struggle to drive the
Ethiopian People‟s Revolutionary Army, EPRA, the armed wing of the EPRP and the
EDU out of Tigray, where both had created bases for themselves. The Derg initially
thought that TPLF was a mere creation of the EPLF to be vanished once EPLF was
crushed and thus underestimated its potentials. This made it possible for TPLF to
strengthen its forces and when the Derg opened offensives against it in the early 1980s,
TPLF, which had built strong army was able to successfully fight back. In February 1989

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TPLF scored its most decisive victory at Enda-Selassie, Western Tigray, after a series of
other military successes. At the victory of Enda-Selassie, tens of thousands of
government troops were captured and their commanders were either killed or captured.
This resulted in the withdrawal of all government troops from Tigray. TPLF then took
control of the whole of Tigray and then started marching into the neighboring provinces.

Meanwhile, the prevalent accumulated dissatisfaction with Mengistu‟s regime and the
exhausting war in the north had been high especially in the higher echelons of the army.
In May 1989, commanders of almost all military units, coordinated and led a coup against
Mengistu when he left the country on a state visit to the German Democratic Republic,
East Germany. However, the coup was poorly organized that loyal palace troops
encircled the leaders before they could even announce their intentions to the public.
Mengistu returned triumphantly to take his revenge which he did. The coup leaders were
all imprisoned or executed.

TPLF, which after liberating Tigray, continued to move forward and made the necessary
organizational adjustments forming a bigger front known as the Ethiopian Peoples‟
Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF). The member organizations were TPLF, the
Ethiopian People‟s Democratic Movement (EPDM), a fragment group of the EPRP
which had begun to play a significant role in many of the military campaigns, the Oromo
People‟s Democratic Organization (OPDO) and the Ethiopian Democratic Officers‟
Revolutionary Movement (EDORM). Other Liberation Fronts including the Oromo
Liberation Front (OLF), Afar Liberation Front, Sidama Liberation Front, Gambella
Liberation Front and Beni Shangul Liberation Front also became active.

In 1990 and 1991 in consecutive and stunning campaigns, EPRDF forces drove the Derg
out of Gondar, Gojjam, and Wallo and parts of Wollaga and Shawa and approached the
capital from the north and west. In 1990 Oromo forces dismantled the Derg army of the
131st Brigade in battle that liberated Asosa and Bambasi in the then Wollaga province.
In the meantime, negotiations for a peaceful end to the conflict were underway between
the government and the EPLF and the TPLF in Atlanta, Nairobi, and Rome. In May 1991,

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while the last of these negotiations were going on in London, series of events put an end
to the regime.

On May 21, Mengistu fled the country first to Nairobi and then to Harare (Zimbabwe).
There remained no resistance left that the Derg troops could put. In London, the
government delegation could not bargain anymore after the flight of the president. EPLF
forces entered Asmara and Assab and announced the de facto independence of Eritrea.
The PDRE Vice President, Lt General Tesfaye Gebre-Kidan appealed for an end to the
civil war on May 23 1991. Prime Minister Tesfaye Dinqa left for the London peace
conference mediated by the U.S.A‟s Foreign Affair African Service head Mr. Herman
Cohen on May 27 1991. In the early hours of May 28 EPRDF forces triumphantly
entered Addis Ababa.

7.3. Historical Developments, 1991-4

In July 1991, a National Conference of political and ethnic groupings created Transitional
Government of Ethiopia (TGE) for two-and-one-half years. The government consisted a
president and a prime minister, a seventeen-member Council of Ministers, and an eighty-
seven-member Council of Representatives. The Council of Representatives elected Meles
Zenawi, former head of EPRDF, and Negasso Gidada (PhD) president and prime minister
respectively. In the same year, EPLF set up Provisional Government of Eritrea. This was
followed by a referendum to decide the future fate of Eritrea in which the majority of the
population voted for independence from Ethiopia. In May 1993, the Government of
Eritrea was formed with Isayas Afwerki becoming the first elected president of the
country after independence. In December 1994, the constitution of the Federal
Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE) was ratified, taking effect following federal
elections in mid-1995. The constitution formalized the division of the country into 9
federated states based on identity, language, settlement patterns and people‟s consent.
The federal arrangement was intended to rectify past injustices and imbalances
perpetuated by an unrepresentative state through the decentralization of power to the
federated states and by accommodating the country‟s various ethno-linguistic groups.

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After the election Meles Zenawi assumed the premiership while Negasso Gidada became
head of state.

Learning activities

 Explain the domestic challenges to the power of Emperor Haile Selassie I

immediately after the expulsion of the Italians.
 Describe the reasons behind the opposition of prominent patriot leaders such as
Dejazmach Belay Zeleqe against the emperor.
 What administrative and economic measures Emperor Haile Selassie took
immediately after his reinstatement to the throne and how did those measures help
to consolidate his power?
 Identify and discuss major socio-economic and political developments in post-
1941 Ethiopia.
 What do we mean by rist and how is it different from gult?
 Discuss important manifestations of British and Americans‟ dominance in
Ethiopia‟s domestic and foreign affairs in the 1940s and 1950s respectively.
 Assess the reactions of Eritreans regarding the future fate of their country in the
1940s and 1950s.
 What was the immediate context that led to the promulgation of the Revised 1955
Constitution of Ethiopia?
 Discuss the origin and development of the Ethiopian Student Movement.
 Explain the causes, course and consequences of the 1960 coup attempt.
 Discuss the causes for, and the consequences of, the Gojjam peasant uprising.
 Assess the causes, course and consequences of the Bale peasant uprising.
 Discuss the causes, course and consequences of the Woyane peasant rebellion.
 What commonalities did you observe among the peasant rebellions?
 Account for the causes, course and consequences of the 1974 Ethiopian revolution.
 Identify and discuss major socio-economic reforms of the Derg.
 Explain the main factors for the downfall of the Derg and the seizure of power by
EPRDF forces.

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 What similarities and differences did you observe between the EPLF and TPLF?
 Explain essential features of the EPRDF led government with reference to its
measures shortly after coming to power.

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