1 SS Chemistry Classes SOLUTION SYNOPSIS

SOLUTIONS
A Solution is defined as homogeneous mixture of two or than two non reacting components whose
composition can be varied with certain fixed limits
Solution with Two components is called as ------------------ ---- ----------------------Binary Solution
Solution with Three components is called as ---------------------------------------- Ternary Solution
Solution with Water as Solvent is called as ------------------------------------------ Aqueous Solution
Solution with No Water is called as ------------------------------------------------ Non Aqueous Solution
TYPES OF SOLUTIONS
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------The Solution can be solid ,
liquid or gas depending upon the physical State of the components ---
SNO SOLUTE SOLVENT TYPES OF SOLUTION EXAMPLE
1 Solid Solid Solid in Solid ----- (S) Alloys
2 Solid Liquid Solid in Liquid ----- ( l) Salt in water
3 Solid Gas Solid in Gas ---------- ( g) I2 vapors in air
4 Liquid Solid Liquid in Solid ----- (S) Gels , Butter
5 Liquid Liquid Liquid in Liquid ----- (l) Alcohol in water
6 Liquid Gas Liquid in Gas ------- (g ) Humidity in air
7 Gas Solid Gas in Solid ---------- (s) Pumice stones
8 Gas Liquid Gas in Liquid ---------- (l) Soda water
9 Gas Gas Gas in Gas -------------- (g) Air
 Symbols used for the Conc Terms -----------------------------------------------------------
S.NO TERM SOLUTE SOLVENT SOLUTION

1 Weight WB WA W= WB + WA
2 Volume VB VA V = VA + VB
3 Moles nB nA n = nA + nB

4 Molar mass MB MA ----------------

5 Mole fraction XB XA X = X A + XB

METHODS TO EXPRESS CONC. OF A SOLUTION ------------------------------------------------------

A Solution whose Conc. is known is called as----------------------------------------- Standard solution
Conc. of Solution ----- Means amount of solute present in fixed amount of solvent or in solution
Different methods to express Conc. of solution are ------------------------------------------
1] Percentage ( %) – -------- It is amount of the solute ( in g or ml ) present in 100 g or 100 ml of
the solution
Weight – Weight Relation Weight - Volume Relation Volume – Volume Relation

WB WB VB
%= x 100 %= x 100 %= x 100
W V V

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2 SS Chemistry Classes SOLUTION SYNOPSIS

2] Patrs Per Million (ppm) – It is amount of the solute ( in g or ml ) present in 106 g or 106 ml
of the solution
Weight – Weight Relation Weight - Volume Relation Volume – Volume Relation

WB 6 WB 6 VB 6
ppm= x 10 ppm= x 10 ppm= x10
W V V

3] Strength –------ It is amount of the solute in g present in one liter of the solution
weight of the solute WB
Strength= OR Strength=
Volume of the solution ∈liters V (l)
UNIT OF STRENGTH IS ---------------------- g / liter
4] MOLARITY (M) – ----------It is moles of the solute present in one liter of the solution
Moles of the solute
Molarity=
Volume of the solution∈liters
nB WB
M= OR M=
V (l) M B x V (l)
UNIT OF MOLARITY IS ---------------------- Moles / liter or Molar
5] FORMALITY (F) – ---- In case of Ionic Compounds lika NaCl , KBr etc . Formality is
used in place of Molarity.
It is number of formula units of the solute present in one liter of the solution
Formula units of the solute
Formality=
Volume of the solution∈liters
UNIT OF FORMALITY IS ---------------------- Formal
6] MOLALITY (m) – ---------------- It is moles of the solute present in one Kg of the solvent
Moles of the solute
Molality=
Weight of the Solvent ∈Kg
nB WB
m= OR m=
W A ( Kg) M B x W A (Kg)
UNIT OF MOLALITY IS ---------------------- Moles / Kg or Molal
7] NORMALITY (N) – Number of Gram Equivalents of the solute present in one liter of the
gram Equivalentsof the solute
solution Normality=
Volume of the solution∈liters

geq B WB
N= OR N=
V (l) Eq wt B x V (l)
UNIT OF NORMALITY IS ------------ Gm Eq / liter or Normal

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3 SS Chemistry Classes SOLUTION SYNOPSIS

8] MOLE FRACTION (X) – Mole fraction of a component is defined as moles of the

component in total moles of the solution . It is expressed separately for solute & solvent
nA nB
X A= & X B= & X = XB + XA = 1
n A + nB n A + nB
WA WB
Where n A = & n B=
MA MB
If three components are present then X = XA + XB + XC [ No Unit for Mole fraction ]
Mole % = Mole fraction x 100
9] MASS FRACTION – Mass fraction of a component is defined as mass of the
component per unit mass of the solution . It is expressed separately for solute & solvent
WA WB
Mass fraction of solvent = & Mass fraction of Solute=
W A +W B W A +W B
[ No Unit for Mass fraction ] Mass % = Mass fraction x 100
 ROLE OF TEMPRATURE ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
Weight Dependent Conc. Terms Volume Dependent Conc. Terms

Molality , Mole fraction , Molarity , Formality , Strength , Normality ,

% ( W – W), ppm ( W – W ) % & ppm ( W- V ) , % & ppm (V–V)

As Molality & Mole fraction are based on 1

M & N are affected by Temp i.e. M ∝ , as with
weight of solvent so both are preferred to T
M & N & are Temp independent increase in Temp Volume of liquid expands where as
amt of solute remains same
1 M > 1 m for aqueous solution because 1 molal means 1 mole of solute in 1000 cc of water as density of
water is 1 g / cc , & 1 Molar means 1 mole of solute in 1000 cc of solution , which contain less than 1000 cc of
solvent because solute is present in the solution . For other solvents 1m may be less or grater than 1 M
depending upon density of the solvent
 RELATION BETWEEN DIFFERENT CONC. TERMS -----------------------------------------------
 1] % & PPM : ppm=% x 10 4
Strength
 2] M & Strength : M= Or : Strength ¿ M x M B
MB
Strength
 3] N & Strength : N= Or : Strength ¿ N x Ewt B
Ewt B
N
 4] N & M : M= Or : N ¿ M x X factor
x
% x x 10
 5] M & % ( w – w ) : M=
MB
% x 10
 6] M & % ( w – v ) : M=
MB

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4 SS Chemistry Classes SOLUTION SYNOPSIS

% x❑ B x 10
 7] M & % ( v – v ) : M=
MB
M x 1000 ❑ = 1 + MB
 8] M & m : m= OR
( x 1000 ) −( M x M B ) M m 1000
1000 x X B
 9] m & XB : m=
XA x MA
 10] Molality of any ion m ion = m solution x No of ions
 11] When solution is diluted Normality equation is applied --------------------
Conc Dilute Conc. Dilute
N1V1 = N2 V2 OR X1 M1V1 = X2 M2V2
 12] Molarity & Normality of a Mixture ------------------------------
M 1V 1+ M 2V 2 N 1 V 1+ N 2 V 2 W B1+W B2
M= similarly N= & %= x 100
V 1 +V 2 V 1+V 2 W 1+W 2
 13] Ionic strength of ions is a measure of electrical intensity due to presence of
ions in the solution ---

1
I = ⌈ m1 Z 21 +m 2 Z 22+−−⌉ m is molality & Z is valency of ion
2
 14] m = M [  = 1 ] , m>M [  <1] , m< M [>1]
N x 1000
 15] M =
N0xV
TYPES OF SOLUTIONS -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
A] SOLID IN SOLID SOLUTION --------------------------- Where solid & solvent both are in solid
state & is formed by mixing solid compounds , melting the mixture followed by crystallization . Example ----
Alloys , These solutions are further of two types --------------------------------------------
 Substitutional Solid solutions ----------------------- This type of solution is formed , If some
particles of one solid at a lattice sites are replaced by particles of other solid having similar size ,
Example ---- brass , Bronze , steel etc.
 Interstitial Solid solutions ---------------------- This type of solution is formed when in lattice of one
solid , called as host , the atoms of some other solid , having small size occupy voids of first solid ,
Example ----------- WC Tungsten carbide in which W atoms are in fcc arrangement & Carbon atoms
occupy octahedral voids of W lattice
B] SOLID IN LIQUID SOLUTION --------------------------- When solid solute is present in liquid &
solubility of a solid in liquid at any Temp is defined as ------- Amount of solid in grams which can dissolve
in 100 g of liquid to form saturated solution .
NOW FACTORS AFFECTING SOLUBILITY OF SOLID IN LIQUID --------------------------------
 1] Nature of Solute & Solvent --------------- Like dissolves in like --------

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5 SS Chemistry Classes SOLUTION SYNOPSIS

NaCl is more soluble in water as both are polar & I 2 is covalent non polar solid , so dissolves in
Non polar solvent like CS2 or benzene
 2] Temperature -------------- Temp has major role in deciding solubility of ionic compounds in
water Following Le- Chateliers principle --------
 If Solubility of Ionic compound in water is Endothermic -------- solubility∝ Temp For eg.
Solubility of NaNO3 , KNO3 , KCl etc. in water increases with increases in Temp
1
 If Solubility of Ionic compound in water is Exothermic --------- solubility ∝
Temp
For eg. Solubility of Na2CO3 in water decreases with increases in Temp
 There are certain substances whose solubility does not increase or decrease continusely .
These substances on heating at a particular Temp change form one polymeric form to other form
or change from one hydrated state to other hydrates state 32.4 0C
For eg --------- CaCl 2 . 6 H2O  CaCl2 . 4 H2O  CaCl2 . 2 H2O 
Similarly --------- Na2SO4 . 10 H2O  Na2SO4 anhydrous . Solubility
In Sodium sulphate solubility first increases upto 32.40 C & then began to decrease
The Temp at which one form changes into another is called as Transition Temperature Temp 
C] GAS IN LIQUID SOLUTION --------------------------- Gas in liquid is Soda water
Solubility Co-efficient ---- It is the volume of gas in cm3 which will dissolve in 1 cc of liquid to form
saturated solution [ Volume of gas is considered at the Temp & pressure at which the solubility is
made ]
NOW FACTORS AFFECTING SOLUBILITY OF GAS IN LIQUID --------------------------------------
 1] Nature of Gas & Solvent --------------- Like dissolves in like ----------------------------------
Gases like H2 , O2 , N2 etc . are soluble in water to only small extent while gases like CO 2 , HCl ,
NH3 etc. are highly soluble in water as these are polar gases .
 2] Effect of Temperature -------------- Gas + Liquid  Solution  H = -ve
So Solubility of Gas in water is Exothermic -----------
1
So ---- solubility of gas ∝
Temp
 The Conc. of gas in a solvent is proportional to Absorption Co-efficient & is expressed by

C2 −H 1 1
Clausis Clapeyron Equation ----------------- ln
C1
= −
R T1 T2 [ ]
 Exception ------ For certain Gases solubility of gas increases with increase in Temp in Non
aqueous solvents . These gases are H2 gas & inert gases [ solubility ∝ Temp ]

 2] Effect of Pressure -------------- The most important factor affecting solubility of gas in

any solvent at a particular Temp is pressure , which is explained by Henry’s law

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6 SS Chemistry Classes SOLUTION SYNOPSIS

Henry’s law --- Mass of the gas dissolved in a given volume of liquid at a constant Temp is
directly proportional to the pressure of the gas in Eqbm with Solvent .
m 1 P1
So ---- mgas ∝ P m gas =k P or =
m 2 P2
Now if we have more than one gas in solvent then in place of mass we can consider mole fraction of gas
So x gas ∝ P x gas =k P
Or we can write P∝x P=k H x B
[ KH is henrys constant & KH = 1 / k & units of KH are atm or pascals ]
Points About KH ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
 Units of KH are ---- K bar , atm , torr , Pascals

 Different Gases have different value of KH ie. Polar gases have less KH value
For eg. KH value of H2 = 71.18 , N2 = 86 , O2 = 44 , CH4 = 41 , CO2 = 1.67
 KH value of one gas is different in different solvents --------------------------------------------
[ For eg. H2 ( in water ) = 71.18 , H2 ( in benzene ) = 3.67
Similarly For CO2 ( in water ) = 1.67 , CO2 ( in benzene ) = 0.11
So value of KH also depends upon nature of the solvent in which gas is dissolved

 Value of KH depends upon Temp [ K H ∝Temp ]

1
 Value of KH changes with solubility ie. Xgas [ KH ∝
Solubility ]
 ¿ ¿ 
 Graph showing relation between P & XB Pressure
XB 
1 1
1] K H ∝ 2] K H ∝Temp 3] K H ∝ . So Value of KH depends
polrity of gas Solubility
upon ----- Nature of gas , Nature of Solvent & temp

Limitations of Henrys Law ---- 1] Pressure is not too high 2] Temp is not too low
3]Gas does react chemically with the solvent 4] Gas does not associate or dissociate in

 VAPOR PRESURE OF SOLVENT ----------------------------------------------------

RATE OD EVAPORATION OF A LIQUID ------------ Depends upon following factors -------
1
1] Nature of Liquid or Intermolecular forces --------- Rate of Evaporation ∝
intermolecular forces
2] Temperature of Liquid -------------------------------- Rate of Evaporation ∝Temp

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7 SS Chemistry Classes SOLUTION SYNOPSIS

3] Surface Area of Liquid ------------------------------Rate of Evaporation ∝ Surface Area

1
4] Humidity ---------------------------------------------- Rate of Evaporation ∝
Humidity
So Liquid  Vapor is reversible phenomenon & at the time of Eqbm , Maximum number of
vapors get collected in a closed container .
Now Pressure Exerted by these vapors on the surface of liquid at the time of Eqbm is
called as Vapor pressure
So -------- More Evaporation ------- More Vapors --------------- More Vapor pressure

 VAPOR PRESURE OF SOLUTION & RAOULTS LAW ---------------------------

NOW when Non volatile solute is added to the solvent , it covers surface area , so surface area
availability for the solvent decreases , rate of Evaporation decreases , No of vapors decreases & hence
vapor pressure decreases
So Vapor pressure of the solution is always less than pure solvent
Now more is the Conc. of solute particles in the solution , more is their chance to cover surface area ,
less will be evaporation & hence less will be vapor pressure [ More solute ----- Less vapor
pressure , More Solvent ---------- More Vapor pressure ] This concept is explained mathematically
by Raoult’s
RAOULTS LAW -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1] RAOULTS LAW FOR A SOLUTION CONTAINING NON VOLATILE SOLUTE ----------------
In this solution pressure is created only by solvent & is defined as -----------------------------------------
At a given Temp , vapor pressure of a solution containing Non volatile solute is directly proportional to
mole fraction of the solvent present in the solution
Mathematically Raoult’s law is written as PA0 --- Vapor pressure of Pure solvent
PA ∝ X A PA ------- Vapor pressure of solution
P❑ A= K x X A PA < PA0
PB = 0
if X A=1 , then K =P 0A
XA = Mole fraction of the solvent
nA
hence P A=P0A x X A X A=
n A + nB

1] RAOULTS LAW FOR A SOLUTION CONTAINING BOTH LIQUIDS ----------------------------------

In this solution pressure is created by both solvents & is defined as ---------------At a given Temp , vapor pressure of
a solution containing volatile liquids , the partial pressure of each component is equal to the product of vapor
pressure of pure component & its mole fraction in solution .

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8 SS Chemistry Classes SOLUTION SYNOPSIS

Mathematically Raoult’s law is written as PA0 --- Vapor pressure of Pure solvent

Now P A =P0A x X A PA --- Vapor pressure of solution PA < PA0

XA = Mole fraction of the solvent A
Now PB =P0B x X B
PB 0 --- Vapor pressure of Pure solvent
0 0
Now P=P X A + P X B
A B PB ---Vapor pressure of solution PB < PB 0
P is the vapor pressure of solution XB = Mole fraction of the solvent B

IDEAL & NON IDEAL SOLUITONS -----------------------------------------------------------------------

Actually when two components A & B are mixed , the average strength of intermolecular forces between
solute & solvent varies . So in Liquid in Liquid solutions are of 3 types depending upon their intermolecular
forces between A & B .

IDEAL SOLUTION NON IDEAL SOLUTION

A – B forces are almost similar Non Ideal with +Ve Deviation Non Ideal with -Ve Deviation
to A- A & B-B forces
A – B forces are weaker than A- A – B forces are stronger than
A & B-B forces A- A & B-B forces
Obey Raoult’s Law Does not obey Raoult’s Law Does not obey Raoult’s Law
P = PA0 XA + PB0 XB P > PA0 XA + PB0 XB P < PA0 XA + PB0 XB
Vmix = 0 , Vmix = +Ve Vmix = - Ve
Vmix = VP – VR As VP > VR , As VP < VR ,
VP = VR , as A-B forces are as A-B forces are weaker than as A-B forces are stronger than
similar to A-A & B-B forces A-A & B-B forces A-A & B-B forces
so  Hmix = 0 Hmix = +Ve Hmix = - Ve
Hmix = heat Absorbed – Heat Heat Absorbed > Heat released Heat released > Heat absorbed
Released , as A-B forces are weaker A-B forces are stronger than
& Heat absorbed = Heat than A-A & B-B forces A-A & B-B forces
Released , as A-B forces are
similar to A-A & B-B forces
so Smix = 0 so Smix = +Ve so Smix = +Ve
S = SP – SR & Sp = SR SP > SR S = SP > SR

Temperature of the solution Temperature of the solution Temperature of the solution

remains same as heat absorbed decreases as heat absorbed is increases as heat released is
is equal to heat released more than heat released more than heat absorbed

Examples --- Methanol & Eg --- Ethanol & Acetone , Eg --- CHCl3 & (CH3)2CO ,
Etahnol , Benzene & toluene Water & ethanol Cyclohexane CHCl3 & C6H6 , H2O & HCl ,
, hexane & Heptane & Etahnol Benzene & acetone
Chloroform & Diethyl ether
CCl4 & C6H6
Detail -- Hexane & Heptane cyclohexane & ethanol Chloroform & Acetone
C6H14 --Non polar , VW forces O- H --------- O-H { HB } CHCl3 ----- CHCl3
R R
C7H16 --Non polar , VW forces (CH3)2 CO -----(CH3)2
C6H12 ----- C6H12 --Non polar ,
C6H14 -- C 7H16 -- again VW forces CO[ Dipole- Dipole forces in
Vander Waal forces C6H14 -- -- OH C2H5 , Vander both
W all forces
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9 SS Chemistry Classes SOLUTION SYNOPSIS

CCl3 -H ----- OC ( CH3)2

Hydrogen Bonds [ A – B forces ]
Ideal solution Non Ideal -- + Ve deviation Non ideal ---- - Ve deviation

XA = 1
XB = 0 XB = 1 XB = 0 XB = 1 XB = 0 XB – 1

 AZEOTROPIC MIXTURE ------------------------------------------------------------------

Liquid Mixtures of definite composition , definite Boiling point , which distills at constant
Temperature , without any change in its composition is called as Azeotropic Mixture . It means
Vapors formed have same composition as in liquid state .
This Mixture cant be separated into their constituents by fractional distillation & are formed by
Non ideal solutions ----
Azeotropes are of 2 Types --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1] Minimum Boiling Azeotropes ----- i.e. Maxima in Vapor pressure & minima in boiling point --
In case of solutions showing positive deviation , there is a point at which vapor pressure of the
solution is highest & boiling point is lowest .
Example 95 % Ethanol & 5 % water by volume is an azeotrope with maxima in vapor pressure .
In this type of deviation , boiling point of Azeotrope is lower than any of its pure constituents .
E.g. Boiling point of water is 373 K while pure Ethanol is 351.3 K .
While boiling point of Azeotrope containing 95 % Ethanol & 5 % H2O is 351.1 K , lower than each
component . [ Other examples are ----
1] Maximum Boiling Azeotropes ----- i.e. Minima in Vapor pressure & maxima in boiling point --
In case of solutions showing negative deviation , there is a point at which vapor pressure of the
solution is lowest & boiling point is highest .
Example 68 % Nitric acid & 32 % water by volume is an azeotrope with minima in vapor
pressure . In this type of deviation , boiling point of Azeotrope is higher than any of its pure
constituents . E.g Boiling point of water is 373 K while pure HCl is 188 K .
While boiling point of Azeotrope containing 20.3 % HCl & % H2O is 383 K , which is higher
than each component . [ Other examples are ----

Formulas For calculating Vapor pressure liquid in liquid --------------------

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Liquid in liquid Liquid in liquid

Now P A =P0A x X A , PB =P0B x X B P=P 0A X A + P0B X B

So P=P 0A X A + P0B X B P=P 0A X A + P0B ¿ ¿ )

P 0A x X A P 0B x X B P=P 0A X A + P0B−P0B X A
Now Y A = & Y B=
P P
P=( P¿¿ A 0−P 0B ) X A + P0B ¿
[ XA & XB are Mole fractions of
Other form can be ----------------------
components A & B in Liquid state , Y A & YB
P=( P¿¿ B 0−P0A ) X B + P 0A ¿
are mole fraction of component A & B in
vapor phase

 Colligative Properties ------------------------------------------------------------------

Properties of the solutions containing Non volatile solute , which depends upon amount of the
solute present in solution & not upon nature of solute are called as Colligative properties .
These Properties are shown only by dilute solutions & are used to calculate Molar mass of
unknown solute . There are 4 Colligative properties -------------------------------------------
1] Relative Lowering in Vapor pressure 2] Elevation in Boiling point
3] Depression in Freezing point 4] Osmotic pressure
 1] Relative Lowering in Vapor pressure ----------------------------------------------
A] Definition ------- Relative lowering in Vapor pressure means – solution has less vapor

pressure as compared to pure solvent

B] Reason --------- A Non volatile solute covers surface area , so surface area availability for the solvent
decreases , rate of evaporation decreases hence vapor pressure decreases .
Now According to Raoult’s Law --------
P A =P0A x X A As XA + XB = 1
P A =P0A x (1−X ¿¿ B)¿ PA0 - - -- Vapor pressure of pure solvent
P A =P0A −P ❑0A X B PA ---- Vapor pressure of solution
P0A −P A =P 0A x X B P0A −P A Or P = Lowering in Vapor pressure

P 0A−P A P 0A−P A
0
=X B 0 = Relative lowering in vapor pressure As
PA PA
Relative lowering in Vapor pressure is equal to mole fraction of solute , so it is colligative property
Determination of Molar Mass of unknown Solute ------------
P 0A−P A B n
0
=X B & as X B= n + n , but since the law is applicable for dilute
PA A B

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11 SS Chemistry Classes SOLUTION SYNOPSIS

B n
solutions , so nB <<<< nA , so ignored in denominator , hence X B= n
A

P 0A−P A n B P 0A−P A W B x M A
So 0
=
nA
OR 0
=
MBx WA
PA PA

Knowing the value of P , PA0 & MA , we can calculate MB when WB & WA are known . This
Method is usually not preferred as other methods give accurate results & easy calculation of MB
Relation between Relative Lowering in Vapor Pressure & Molality of the solution
P 0A−P A W B x M A x 1000 P 0A−P A m x M A
= , =
P 0A M B x W A x 1000 P 0A 1000

 2] Elevation in Boiling Point ----------------------------------------------

Boiling Point of a liquid is defined as Temperature at which Vapor pressure of a liquid becomes

1
Equal to Air pressure . So BPt ∝ Vapor presure .

A] Definition ------- Elevation in Boiling point means – solution has more boiling point as

compared to pure solvent

B] Reason --------- A Non volatile solute covers surface area , so surface area availability for the solvent
decreases , rate of evaporation decreases hence vapor pressure decreases .

1
Now BPt ∝ , so with decrease in vapor pressure boiling point increases
Vapor presure
The effect of Non volatile solute on boiling point of solution can be shown in Graph which explains
that Elevation in boiling point of solution is directly proportional to Lowering in Vapor pressure

1 atm

Vapor Presure

Temp 

Now T b ∝ P , & P = PA0 x XA

so T b =K x P T 0b=Boiling point of solvent

T b=K x P0A x X B T b=Boiling point of solution

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nB
T b=K x P0A x
nA
Tb¿ Elevation∈Boiling point

0 WBxMA
T b=K x P A x
MB xW A
W x M A x 1000 K x M A x P 0A W B x 1000
T b=K x P x B
0
A
M B x W A x 1000
, Kb= ∧m=
1000 MB xW A

So T b=K b x m [ Kb is
called Molal Elevation constant or Ebullioscopic const
Determination of Molar Mass of unknown Solute ------------
K b x W B x 1000
T b=
MB x W A

Knowing Tb , Tb0 , WB , WA , Kb we can calculate MB .

Points About Kb [ Molal Elevation constant or Ebullisoscopic constant ------------
1] As value of Kb depends upon PA0 & MA hence depends upon the value of Solvent
2] Units of Kb ---- K molal -1 of K , Kg mole -1
3] If m = 1 , then Tb = Kb , so Kb is defined as Elevation in boiling point when molality of
solution is one i.e. when one mole solute is dissolved in one kg of the solvent , K b is equal
elevation in boiling point
4] For water Kb is 0.52 K Kg / mole which means when 1 mole of any solute is dissolved in
1 Kg of water , Tb = 0.52 K
5] Kb can be calculated form Molar Enthalpy of vaporization of liquid Hvap
M A x R x T 2b R x T 2b H vap
Kb= & Kb= [ lv= ]
H vap x 1000 l v x 1000 MA
Where lv latent heat of vaporization i.e. heat released during evaporation of 1 g of liquid

 3] Depression in Freezing Point ----------------------------------------------

Freezing Point of a liquid is defined as Temperature at which Vapor pressure of a liquid & solid
becomes equal i.e. where solid & liquid form co-exists . .
A] Definition ------- Depression in freezing point means – solution has less freezing point

as compared to pure solvent

B] Reason --------- A Non volatile solute covers surface area , so surface area availability for the solvent
decreases , rate of evaporation decreases hence vapor pressure decreases .
Now Fz Pt ∝Vapor presure ,

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so with decrease in vapor pressure freezing point increases . The effect of Non volatile solute
on freezing point of solution can be shown in Graph which explains that Depression in freezing
point of solution is directly proportional to Lowering in Vapor pressure


Vapor Presure

Temp 

Now T f ∝ P , & P = PA0 x XA

so T f =K x P T 0f =Freezing point of solvent

T f =K x P0A x X B T f =freezing point of solution

nB
T f =K x P0A x T f =Depression∈freezing point
nA

0 WB x M A
T f =K x P A x
MB xW A
W x M A x 1000 K x M A x P0A W B x 1000
T f =K x P x B
0
A
M B x W A x 1000
, Kf = ∧m=
1000 MB xW A

So T f =K f x m [ Kf is
called Molal Depression constant or Cryoscopic constant
Determination of Molar Mass of unknown Solute ------------
K f x W B x 1000
Tf=
MBx WA
, Knowing Tf , Tf0 , WB , WA , Kf we can calculate MB .

Points About Kf [ Molal Depression constant or Cryoscopic constant ------------

1] As value of Kf depends upon PA0 & MA hence depends upon the value of Solvent
2] Units of Kf ---- K molal -1 of K , Kg mole -1
3] If m = 1 , then Tf = Kf , so Kf is defined as Depresion in freezing point when molality of
solution is one i.e. when one mole solute is dissolved in one kg of the solvent , Kf is equal
depression in freezing point
4] For water Kf is 1.86 K Kg / mole which means when 1 mole of any solute is dissolved in
1 Kg of water , Tf = 1.86 K

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5] Kf can be calculated form Molar Enthalpy of fusion of liquid Hfusion

M A x R x T 2f R x T 2f H fus
Kf = & Kb= [ lf = ]
H fus x 1000 l f x 1000 MA
Where lv latent heat of fusion i.e. heat released during freezing of 1 g of liquid

ANTIFEEZING AGENTS ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Water is used in radiator of vehicles . If vehicle is to be used where Temperature is less than zero ,
then water can freeze in radiator , damaging engine as volume of ice is more as compared to
volume of water . So to avoid this problem , certain substances are used in Radiator so that water
cant freeze in radiator .
These substances are called Antifreezing agents , Ethylene Glycol is used as Antifreezing agent in
water in car radiator . Freezing point can be decreased to any extent by changing the conc. of
solution i.e. more is the conc. of solution , less is the freezing point .

 4 ] Osmotic Pressure -------------------------------------------------------------------

Osmosis ------- The process of flow of solvent molecules form higher Conc. of Solvent to lower
Conc. of Solvent through semipermeable membrane is called Osmosis
Or ---- The process of flow of solvent molecules form lower Conc. of Solution to higher Conc. of
Solution through semipermeable membrane is called Osmosis

Solvent Solution

A] Semipermeable Membrane --- ------- Membrane which allows only solvent particles & not solute
particles to move through it
1] Natural Semipermeable membrane -------- Vegetable & Animal Membranes . Pig Bladder
is the most common Animal membrane
2] Synthetic Semipermeable ----Parchment paper , Cu2 [ Fe (CN)6 ] Cupric ferrocyanide
B] Osmotic Pressure --------- The flow of solvent into solution can be stopped by applying pressure
with the help of piston . So the extra pressure which is more than hydrostatic pressure applied on solution
side to prevent osmosis is called osmotic pressure
Osmotic pressure as colligative property ------------------------------ Using Vant Hoff’s Equation ----

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Now 𝛑 ∝Conc . of solution ,

& 𝛑 ∝Temp of solution
So 𝛑 ∝C x T R=Gasconstant
−¿¿

¿ π=C x R x T R=0.082 atmliter mol e−¿K ¿

nB x R x T nB W B x 1000
π= C=M = =
V V (liter ) MB xV

WBx Rx T
π=
MBxV

T – K , R = atm liter mole- K- , V = liters , π= atm

Types of Solutions on the basis of Osmotic pressure ---------------------------------------
1] Hypertonic Solution ----- Solution having higher conc. & higher osmotic pressure is called as
hypertonic solution
2] Hypotonic Solution ----- Solution having lower conc. & lower osmotic pressure is called as
hypotonic solution
1] Isotonic Solution ----- Two Solutions have same conc. & same osmotic pressure are called
isotonic solutions [ Solvent travels from hypotonic to Hypertonic solution to get isotonic solutions ]
a] 0.91 % solution of NaCl is isotonic with RBC so cell will neither contract nor swell ]
b] NaCl solution with conc. less than 0.91 % is hypotonic & hence RBC swells when placed in this
solution
c] NaCl solution with conc. more than 0.91 % is hypertonic & hence RBC contract when placed in
this solution
Reverse Osmosis ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
When a pressure more than osmotic pressure is applied on solution side , the process of osmosis is
reversed , i.e. solvent particles move form solution side to solvent side . This is called Reverse
Osmosis . This process is used in removal of salt from solution & is made fit for drinking purpose
This process is called as Desalination -------------

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OSMOTIC PRESSURE --- is usually not preferred to determine molecular weight MB because
of Expt difficulties , but is the best method to calculate Molar mass of polymers like protiens
For polymers other methods based upon colligative properties cant be used because of
following reasons -----
1] The magnitude of other colligative properties is too less to be measured accurately . For eg
0.00001 K is Tb when molar mass of polymer is 106 g / mole whereas πin atm can be converted
into mm of Hg with large magnitude
2] Polymers decompose on heating , so boiling cant be used whereas osmotic pressure can be
calculate at room Temp .

Vant Hoff Factor ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Colligative property as depends upon number of solute particles & solute can be normal ,
associating or dissociating . To account for abnormal results , vant Hoff factor is introduced ---

Observed Number of solute particles

i=
Normal number of solute particles
Observed colligative property
i=
Normal colligative property
Normal Molar mass of solute
i=
Observed Molar mass of solute
Colligative property ∝ Number of solute particles
1
Colligative property ∝ So
MB
Value of Vant Hoff factor depends upon nature of Solute
Three types of solute -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1] Normal Solutes ------ [
 For normal solutes , i =1
 Observed Solute particles = Normal solute particles
 Observed Colligative property = Normal Colligative property
 Observed Molar mass = Normal Molar mass

Examples ---------[ Urea , Glucose , Sucrose , P4 , S8 , Naphthalene , Anthracene etc ]

1] Dissociating Solutes ------ [
 For dissociating solutes i >1
 Observed Solute particles > Normal solute particles
 Observed Colligative property > Normal Colligative property
 Observed Molar mass < Normal Molar mass
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Examples -------------[ Ionic compounds --- i.e. salts of Alkali metals , Alkaline earth
metals , Al salts etc , NaCl , MgCl2 , Al2(SO4)3 ,
K4 [ Fe (CN)6 ] Potassium ferrocyanide . K3 [ Fe (CN)6 ] Potassium ferricyanide
1] Associating Solutes ------ [
 For Associating solutes , i < 1
 Observed Solute particles < Normal solute particles
 Observed Colligative property < Normal Colligative property
 Observed Molar mass > Normal Molar mass

Eg [ Phenol C6H5OH , C6H5COOH - Benzoic acid , CH3COOH - Acetic acid form dimers ]

Important Point ---- Association generally takes place in non aqueous solvents & the
high dielectric constant of water helps in dissociation of molecules
Ex—Acetic acid & Benzoic acid ------ undergoes dissociation in water
Acetic acid & Benzoic acid --- undergoes association in organic solvent [ CS2 , CCl4 ]

Degree of Dissociation ---- ---------------------------------------------------------------

−¿¿

AB → A +¿+B ¿

1 0 0 [ Let ---- be degree of dissociation]

1-  
Now moles before dissociation ---- 1 ,
Moles after dissociation = 1-  +  +  = 1+  so i= 1 +  / 1
Ca ( N O 3 )2 →C a+2 +2 N O −1
3

1 0 0 [ Let ---- be degree of

dissociation]
1-  2
Now moles before dissociation ---- 1 ,
Moles after dissociation = 1-  +  + 2 = 1+ 2 so i= 1 + 2 

For Dissociation i= 1 + n  [n is one less than no of ions ]

Degree of Association ---- ---------------------------------------------------------------

nA → ( A )n

1 0 [ Let ---- be degree of association]

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1- / n
Now moles before dissociation ---- 1 ,
Moles after association = 1-  +  / n = 1+ 
(i−1 ) x n
so i=
1−n

Conclusion ---- ---------------------------------------------------------------

So all properties depends upon amount of solute if solute is normal , but if solute is abnormal ,
properties depends upon nature of solute also , which is concluded by Vant hoffs factor

P 0−P
=i x X B , T b=i x k b x m , T f =i x k f x m , π=i x M x R x T
P0

More is the conc. of solute in solution ------ ------------------------------------

Less ---- P More ---- P0 – P / P0

Less ---- Tf
More ----- Tb
More ---- Tb
More ---- Tf
More ----- π

Isotonic Solutions ------------------ -------------------------------------------------------------

π 1=π 2

M 1 R T 1=M 2 R T 2 [ R & T are same ]

M 1=M 2
W B1 x i 1 W B2 x i2
=
M B1 x V 1 M B2 x V 2

Examples of Osmosis--------------------------------------------------------------------------

 Doctors Advice Gargles during throat pain

As it is bacterial infection , so Gargles with salt water [ Hypertonic solution ] helps causing
dehydration of bacteria [ Hypotonic solution ] [ As water travels from hypotonic solution to
hypertonic solution through Semipermeable membrane ] .

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 Grapes layer is SPM , so when left in chill tray for long time , water moves form hypotonic
to hypertonic solution and grapes gets less sweet & can even burst due to more water &
more pressure
 When dried fruits & vegetables are placed in water ,they slowly swell & return to the
original form . This is due to osmosis i.e . due to endosmosis of water into the fruits &
vegetables
 Plant roots absorb water from soil due to osmosis . Conc . of cell sap inside the root hair
cells is higher than that of water present in soil . Water enters the root cells due to
endosmosis
 Use of salt & sugar in pickles & jams acts as preservatives . It prevents growth of bacteria
& fungi causing their dehydration due to exosmosis
 Cell in 0.91 % NaCl solution
A] 0.91 % solution of NaCl is isotonic with RBC so blood cell will neither contract nor swell
b] NaCl solution with conc. less than 0.91 % is hypotonic & . On placing red blood cells in this
solution endosmosis results in swelling of cell & hence burst , called as Deplasmolysis
c] NaCl solution with conc. more than 0.91 % is hypertonic & hence RBC contract when
placed in this solution i.e. exosmosis occurs called as Plasmolysis

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