Mahayana Buddhism

Mahayana Buddhism gained popularity among Asian countries because even an ordinary person can aspire to
achieve spiritual liberation.

The arrival of Mahayana Buddhism in Asian countries paved the way for the establishment and development
of a variety of Buddhist schools.

Believing itself as the more genuine version of Buddha’s teachings, Mahayana Buddhism has diverged into
numerous schools with each developing its own canon and rituals since its founding more than two thousand
years ago. Also known as the “Great Vehicle,” Mahayana Buddhism emerged out of monastic rule and
doctrinal differences within the original form of Buddhism. While the two major Buddhist schools of Mahayana
and Theravada both originated in the foundational teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, their methods and
search for liberation from the cycle of reincarnation can be very different. They may be viewed as two different
articulations of the original principles of the historical Buddha. For example, in contrast to the Theravada
school of thought, Mayahana Buddhism aims to extend religious authority to a larger number of people.

Not a single group but more of an assembly of Buddhist customs, Mahayana Buddhism is widespread in
China, Mongolia, Korea, Japan, and Tibet. With its openness to more traditional religious views, it has
developed a wide appeal to common people and gained tremendous ground in becoming one of the most
successful missionary religions in the world (Hopfe 1983).

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

During the third century B.C.E., a number of subtle variations began to take place in Buddhism at a time when
the Mauryan king Ashoka was propagating Buddhist gospels through missionary efforts (Hopfe 1983). The
Mahasamghika (“of the Great Sangha”), one of the early Buddhist schools, may have been the source for the
initial growth of Mahayana Buddhism, especially during the “Second Buddhist Council” that occurred a
hundred years after Buddha’s parinirvana. Considered a historical event, a religious schism between the
Mahasamghika and Sthavira nikaya (“Sect of the Elders”), another major Buddhist school, transpired during
the said council. These new ideas eventually concretized resulting in a new form of Buddhism quite different
from the original teachings taught by Siddhartha Gautama and to those accepted by Theravada Buddhists. In
short, Mahayana Buddhism practically became a new religion.

These new developments within the newfound Buddhist sect comprise a set of differing notions pertaining to
the original founder and great teacher Siddhartha Gautama himself. Firstly, Mahayana Buddhists believed that
Siddhartha secretly taught key principles to chosen people, to his most dedicated disciples, or to the most
faithful who could completely interpret these teachings in time (Hopfe 1983; Losch 2001). Simply put, any new
teaching can now be added to the emerging Buddhist faith. Secondly, Mahayana Buddhists forwarded the
concept that Siddhartha Gautama was actually a benevolent celestial being, not just a mere human being.
Because of his love for humankind and zeal to help the people, he came to our world in human form. Thirdly,
Mahayana Buddhists advanced the radical idea that Siddhartha Gautama was not the only Buddha. There
were other divine beings that came to our world even before Siddhartha, some of them came after him, and
still others will come in the future. Principally, these beings came to earth to help lessen people’s sufferings
and lead them to salvation. This unique concept impressed many followers because they can now revere
these beings, study their lives, construct temples, and develop an innovative belief system replete with rituals
and hymns, among others (Hopfe 1983).

In time, missionaries of Mahayana Buddhism were able to penetrate new places without fear of reprisal from
native religions since deities or local gods can be treated as manifestations or incarnations of Buddha. Other
religions could be absorbed by Mahayana Buddhism by way of this key principle in their proselytizing activities.
While Theravada was the first to enter China during the first century C.E., Buddhism did not gain much ground
here not until the arrival of Mahayana in the third century C.E. In time, Mahayana Buddhism took a major
foothold of China while local beliefs were relegated to lesser stature (Hopfe 1983). Korea was the next territory
to be influenced by Mahayana school around the fourth century C.E. and followed by Japan in the sixth
century C.E. Mahayana Buddhism existed alongside Japan’s native religion Shintoism. Mongolia and Tibet
likewise embraced Mahayana Buddhism. All these places developed their own versions of Mahayana
Buddhism that exist up until the present day.

Ironically, while Buddhism was being propagated and gaining support in other countries even to the remotest
places, it was steadily dying in India where it all started. A series of invasions destroyed numerous Buddhist
centers and temples. The rising tide of Islam in India resulted in the forcible conversion of Buddhists to the
Muslim faith. Meanwhile, Hinduism was able to gradually absorb challenging religions, such as Buddhism and
Jainism, due to its tolerance and openness to other belief systems. The Hindu belief that Siddhartha Gautama
was a manifestation of Vishnu contributed to the fading influence of Buddhism in India. Mahayana Buddhism
disappeared in India during the eleventh century. Quite expectedly, only a handful of Indians became truly
Buddhists leading to contemporary times. Nonetheless, Mahayana Buddhism is still the most popular branch
of Buddhism in the world today.

SACRED SCRIPTURES

While the Mahayana branch accepts the canonical texts of the Theravada school, such as the Tripitaka
(Sanskrit word for “Three Baskets”) which is the collection of Buddha’s teachings, it also has a wide array of
philosophical and devotional texts, especially since Mahayana Buddhism initially became more receptive to
change and to subsequent innovations even from indigenous culture. Mahayana Buddhism includes many
sacred writings which are nearly identical in content with the Pali Canon of the Theravada sect. The canon of
Mahayana Buddhism also consists of the Tripitaka, namely, Sutra Pitaka (Discourse), Vinaya Pitaka
(Discipline), and Abhidharma Pitaka (Ultimate Doctrine). Meanwhile, Mahayana Buddhists have teachings or
sutras not present in the Theravada school and the followers believed they have recovered the original
teachings of the Buddha. In fact, principal scriptures of the Mahayana sect have no parallels in the Pali Canon
(Jurji 1946).

From the many Asian countries and territories that embraced the Buddhist faith, there arose distinct and large
canon of sutras and religious expressions that Theravada school does not have or does not even recognize as
legitimate. As the original language of transmission, Mahayana Buddhism adopted the Sanskrit rather than the
Pali form of common terms strictly used in Theravada Buddhism, such as sutra (or sutta in Pali) and dharma
(or dhamma in Pali). Buddhist texts were also translated in the local vernacular. The Mahayana school
possesses innumerable figures often lacking in the Theravada literature, including the bodhisattvas, demons,
divinities, and other spirits.

One of the most popular and prominent Mahayana Buddhist texts (or sutra) is the Lotus Sutra, or the
Saddharmapundarika-sutra that literally means "correct dharma white lotus sutra" or “Sutra of the Lotus of the
Wonderful Law” in Sanskrit. A sutra pertains to one of the discourses of the historical Buddha that comprise
the basic text of Buddhist sacred writing. The teachings of Siddhartha Gautama are generally recorded in a
wide corpus of sutras and often taking the form of dialogues instead of analytically explicating a certain
viewpoint. Siddhartha sought to provide answers even to the most basic questions concerning human
existence. The Lotus Sutra is presented as a discourse conveyed by Siddhartha Gautama before his eventual
death. Mahayana tradition maintains that while the sutras were recorded during Siddhartha Gautama’s
lifetime, these sutras were kept for 500 years and reintroduced only during the “Fourth Buddhist Council” in
Kashmir in 78 C.E.

While these sutras were assembled years after the death of Siddhartha Gautama, the Lotus Sutra may have
been authored by more than one writer and compiled between the first and second century C.E. In fact, the
oldest portion of the Lotus Sutra may have been written between 100 B.C.E. and 100 C.E. A Chinese version
was translated from the original Sanskrit in 255 C.E. making it the earliest record of such existence in history.

The Lotus Sutra contains the most definitive teachings of the Buddha. Pervading most schools of Buddhism in
China, Korea, and Japan by way of the northern transmission, reciting the texts of the Lotus Sutra is
considered propitious. A key idea within the influential sutra is that all people equally and inherently possess
the so-called “Buddha nature” or “Buddha-hood” which is the condition of complete happiness and freedom
from fear and illusions. In short, the attainment of enlightenment is open to all people regardless of gender,
race, social status, and education.

BELIEFS AND DOCTRINES

The Buddha

Siddhartha Gautama, born in the fifth or sixth century C.E. in present-day Nepal, is considered the historical
Buddha in Mahayana Buddhism. After he attained enlightenment at the age of 35, he came to be known as
Gautama Buddha and spent the rest of his life preaching across India. He died at the age of 80. For
Theravada Buddhism, only the historical Buddha and past Buddhas are accepted. For Mahayana Buddhism,
there are other contemporary and popular Buddhas apart from the historical Buddha.

The concept of trikaya (“three bodies”) pertains to the teaching of Mahayana Buddhism about the nature of the
Buddha and reality. While Theravada Buddhism puts very limited emphasis on trikaya, this doctrine is very
well-mentioned in Mahayana Buddhism which states that each Buddha has three bodies, namely,
dharmakaya, sambhogakaya, and nirmanakaya. The table below summarizes the nature of the three bodies of
Buddha.

The Trikaya – the three bodies of Buddha

 The Body Nature or Aspect of “Buddha- Manifestation
hood”
Dharmakaya Body of absolute truth; absolute Buddha is transcendent
nature of all beings
Sambhagakaya Body that experiences bliss of Buddha’s body of bliss, or
enlightenment enjoyment body
Nirmanakaya Body that manifest the world Buddha’s earthly body, just like
embodiment of dharmakaya in any other human being’s body
human form

For Mahayana Buddhists, Buddhas are not individuals who actually lived in this world. In some ways, they are
simply expressions of the one Buddha reality, such as that of Siddhartha Gautama (Brown 1975). These great
Buddhas are to be found in various heavens enshrined together with other gods and saints. In China,
Amitabha is a very popular Buddha. In Japan, Vairocana is the great Buddha.

Bodhisattvas

One distinct feature of Mahayana Buddhism concerns its teaching about an enlightened being or bodhisattva
(“enlightened existence”) which is the ultimate way for any Buddhist to live in this world. A bodhisattva has
generated bodhicitta or the spontaneous desire to achieve the state of being enlightened. The concept of
bodhicitta greatly differs between the two main schools of Buddhism. The teachings of Theravada place a
great emphasis on self-liberation where there is a total reliance on one’s self to eradicate sufferings. On the
other hand, apart from self-liberation, it is also essential for Mahayana adherents to assist other sentient
beings in their quest for liberation. The attainment of nirvana is not confined to one’s self as an arhat
(“perfected one”) but must be shared to all striving beings (Bowker 1997).

A bodhisattva, who is already eligible to enter final enlightenment by perfecting himself through countless
incarnations, opts to forego the right to enter nirvana and decides to be born again into this evil world to assist
others in attaining the same state, even descending to the depths of lowest hells to rescue ill-fated victims
imprisoned there (Jurji 1946; Murphy 1949). Through skilful ways, a bodhisattva has the capacity to determine
the state of mind and emotion of each person thereby facilitating assistance based on the actual needs. The
concept of bodhisattva helped in explaining the life of Siddhartha Gautama before he died, as depicted in the
jataka tales or birth stories of the historical Buddha.

The path of the bodhisattva can also be taken by any ordinary person, which is a way of selflessness so that
one can also be liberated from all forms of suffering in the cycle of rebirth. Frequently depicted as celestial
beings who answer the prayers of those who need help, bodhisattvas are embodiment of great compassion.
Numerous devotions and meditational texts have been developed that revered these benevolent beings. As a
result, Mahayana Buddhism as a polytheistic belief continued to grow in time along with its pantheon of
bodhisattvas. Nevertheless, bodhisattvas from those countries that embraced Mahayana Buddhism differ
significantly from one another, such as those that were adopted in China and Japan.
While Maitreya (“Buddha of the Future”) is the only accepted bodhisattva in Theravada Buddhism, oriental
Mahayana Buddhism has four other principal bodhisattvas, namely, Avalokiteshvara, Manjushri, Ksitigarbha,
and Samanthabhadra. Avalokiteshvara is the most revered and most popular Buddhist deity among all
bodhisattvas, being the personification of perfect compassion, probably representing in Buddhism the sun-god
Vishnu of the older Hinduism (Murphy 1949). Manjushri is the embodiment of wisdom, intelligence, and
willpower. Ksitigarbha is the one who helps and liberates all sentient beings residing in hell. Samanthabhadra
is the representation of love, virtue, and diligence. Mayahana Buddhism encourages everyone to pursue the
path of a bodhisattva, assume their vows, and work for the absolute enlightenment of all living beings.

Bhumis and Paramitas

Based on the Mahayana tradition, a bodhisattva must pass 10 bhumis (“grounds” of “land”) before attaining the
so-called “Buddha-hood.” These are extensions of the “Eightfold Path” as discussed in the previous lesson on
Theravada Buddhism. The bhumis are frequently associated with the paramitas (“perfections”). Translated as
“to cross over the other shore,” paramitas imply crossing from the “sea of suffering” to the “shore of
happiness.” One is lifted from the cycle of rebirth to finally achieve liberation. While the first five paramitas are
principally concerned with the accumulation of merits, the sixth paramita involves the attainment of wisdom.

Several Mahayana texts identify 10 bhumis, but many schools list their own path to development. A
boddhisattva vow is stated as “May I attain Buddhahood for the benefit of all sentient beings.” The 10 bhumis
as lifted from Avatamsaka Sutra or “Flower Garland Sutra,” one of the most influential sutra of Mahayana
Buddhism in East Asia, are listed below:

BHUMI DESCRIPTION PARAMITA NATURE

Pramudita-bhumi The bodhisattva Dana Paramita Perfection of giving or
(Joyful Land) starts the journey joyful (Generosity) generosity
with the inspiration of
enlightenment
Vimala-bhumi The bodhisattva is Sila Paramita Perfection of morality
(Land of Purity) purified of immoral (Discipline)
conduct and dispositions
Prabhakari-bhumi The bodhisattva is Ksanti Paramita Perfection of patience or
(Luminous or Radiant purified of the “Three (Patience) forbearance
Land) Poisons,” namely, greed,
hate, and ignorance
Archismati-bhumi (The The bodhisattva burns Virya Paramita Perfection of energy
Brilliant or Blazing Land) away all false (Diligence)
conceptions

Sudurjaya-bhumi The bodhisattva goes Dhyana Paramita Perfection

(The Land That is deeper into meditation (Meditative of meditation
Difficult to Conquer) and understands the Concentration)
“Four Noble Truths” and
the “Two Truths” which
are the conventional and
 the ultimate truths
Abhimukhi-bhumi The bodhisattva sees Prajna Paramita Perfection
(The Land Looking that all phenomena are (Wisdom) of wisdom
Forward to Wisdom) without self-essence and
understands the nature
of dependent origination
Durangama-bhumi The bodhisattva
(The Far-Reaching acquires the power of
Land) skilful means (upaya) to
help others realize
enlightenment
Achala-bhumi The bodhisattva can no
(The Immovable Land) longer be disturbed
because “Buddha-hood”
is within sight
Sadhumati-bhumi (The The bodhisattva
Land of Good Thoughts) understands all dharmas
and is able to teach
others
Dharmamegha-bhumi The bodhisattva is
(The Land of Dharma confirmed of the
Clouds) “Buddha-hood” and
enters “Tushita Heaven”
or the heaven of
contented gods

WORSHIP AND OBSERVANCES

Buddhism integrates an assortment of religious practices and devotional rituals with the objective of aiding
worshippers in their journey toward enlightenment and in bringing blessings to each and every one. In
Buddhist temples, they pray and chant to pay their respect to the Buddhas and bodhisattvas, such as
Avalokiteshvara, Manjushri, and Amitabha. They also offer vegetarian food and light incense to pay homage to
these important divine beings.

Mahayana temples are sacred spaces. While only a simple temple layout can be seen in Theravada Buddhism
with an image of Siddhartha Gautama as the focal point of worship, Mahayana rituals can be quite elaborate
with the addition of other disciples of Siddhartha Gautama and important bodhisattvas.

Worshippers also recite chants and undertake pilgrimages to sites of Buddhist importance. Meditational
activities are fundamental in almost all popular forms of Buddhism. For Theravada Buddhism and Zen
Buddhism, the practice of meditation is the only means to attain liberation. With the introduction of Mahayana
Buddhism in other places, local culture influenced the development of Mahayana Buddhist practices. The lotus
that symbolizes purity, the eight-spoke wheels that represent the dharma, and the different hand gestures
(mudras) are important symbols for Mahayana Buddhism.
SUBDIVISIONS

Mahayana Buddhism consists of a variety of schools and family of religions. When the teachings of Mahayana
Buddhism spread in many Asian nations, it acquired new concepts from these localities that found articulation
in many ritualistic practices and divine figures.

The more philosophical side of Indian Mahayana Buddhism was developed within the context of the two major
schools, namely, the Madhyamika and the Yogachara (Adams 1965). The first school to emerge is the
Madhyamika (“Intermediate”) whose adherents stress the transformation of human perception to handle the
truth of that which is ultimately real beyond any duality. On the other hand, Yogachara (“Practice of Yoga”)
thinkers emphasize that the truth a human being perceives does not exist.

The Pure Land Sect

Pure Land Buddhism began in India around the second century B.C.E., spread to China by the second century
C.E., and reached Japan around sixth century C.E. When believers die, it is their objective to live in the “Pure
Land of the West” or Sukhavati. By simply reciting the name of the Amitabha with utmost attentiveness many
times during the day, they may be reborn in this paradise where they can work to achieve enlightenment much
easier. Amitabha, the god who supervises over a western paradise, is the focus of this sect. Once in
Sukhavati, people can experience the delight in hearing Amitabha teach the dharma in preparation for their
entry to nirvana. Aside from meditations, this Buddhist sect utilizes chants and recitations to focus on helpful
thoughts (Losch 2001).

In Japan, by simplifying sect practices, such as those done by the monk Honen in the twelfth century, this
attracted many followers to the sect Jodo Buddhism or Jodo-shu (“The Pure Land School”) founded in 1175.
Those people who are not able to carry out meditational intricacies and the long ritualistic practices can still
attain enlightenment by simply reciting the name of Amitabha with utmost and genuine faith. It was a form of
Buddhism made accessible to everyone.

An offshoot of Pure Land Buddhism is the Shin Buddhism or Jodo Shin-shu (“True Pure Land School”)
founded by another Japanese monk Shinran during the thirteenth century. A disciple of Honan, Shinran
preached the primacy of faith and considered the act of chanting having no value at all.

The Intuitive Sects

The establishment of intuitive sects of Buddhism can be traced around sixth century C.E. to the work of an
Indian monk named Bodhidharma whose life stories are shrouded with mysteries and numerous legends
(Murphy 1949). This concept entered China from India, and then carried onward to Korea and Japan. In China,
it came to be known as Ch’an. Ch’an Buddhism has close affinity with Taoist philosophy because both are
kinds of mysticism (Jurji 1946). In Japan, it reached its peak with the development of Zen which is a blend of
Indian Mahayana Buddhism and Daoism. Followers of this school are called meditative Buddhists. Focusing
on meditation as the path to liberation, Zen Buddhism is basically a monastic discipline (Losch 2001). The
word for “meditation” in India is dhyana, ch’an in China, and zen in Japan.
The intuitive sects emphasize that salvation is a personal matter and one cannot receive assistance from other
entities, such as another person or institution, to realize the inner truths of religion. In short, most elements of
religion—from scriptures, temples, statues, prayers, and rituals—are not essential to achieve enlightenment.
An individual may be spiritually enlightened by a sudden spark of insight, either through meditation or even by
accident, beyond words or thoughts. Modern European thinkers have been attracted to Zen Buddhism
because of its concept on simplicity and intuitive inspiration (Brown 1975).

The Rationalist Sect

A rationalist Buddhist school of thought called T’ien-t’ai emerged around the sixth century C.E. with its name
originating from a mountain in southeastern China where its founder Chih-I or Zhiyi lived. Apart from
meditational practices, this sect taught that one must utilize reason and study the scriptures and doctrines to
discover Buddhist truths (Hopfe 1983). Chih-I emphasized that acts of studying and contemplation were both
vital for spiritual enlightenment. Apart from instructions on the scriptures and silent meditation, other means to
reach this goal include mystical communion with the eternal, ascetic discipline, meritorious deeds, and simple
faith in the mercy of the Buddha (Jurji 1946).

There is a need to integrate Buddhist sacred writings to know the truth, with the Lotus Sutra being revered as
its ultimate writing. In 806 C.E., the teachings of Chih-I were introduced in Japan by the monk Saicho that
came to be known as Tendai. During the eleventh century, the Buddhist monk Uicheon established the
Cheontae Buddhist school in Korea.

The Socio-political Sect

A Japanese Buddhist monk by the name of Nichiren Daishonin who lived during the thirteenth century during
the Kamakura period began to teach that the path towards attaining enlightenment rested solely on the
devotion to the Lotus Sutra. Nichiren (“sun lotus”) Buddhism, which is purely a Japanese phenomenon,
perceives itself as the only rightful version of Buddhism.

Nichiren Buddhism teaches that individuals must take responsibility to enhance themselves, or what is called
“human revolution,” and, in turn, to improve the world’s lot. Enlightenment is accessible to every individual on
earth simply by opening one’s inherent Buddha-nature in this world. A scripture scholar and an activist,
Nichiren himself is considered a Buddha.

Nichiren taught that he alone understood Buddhist truths. He believed that other Buddhist sects in Japan were
corrupting the people towards hell. As he was living in a degraded stage, Japanese society was also in a state
of disarray. For his missionary work and excessive criticism of rival Buddhist sects in Japan, he made many
influential enemies. Nichiren also reproached Japanese authority because of its failure to promote the Lotus
Sutra and for allowing fraudulent Buddhist sects to flourish in the country. To him, religion and patriotism were
one (Jurji 1946). For his staunch belief and frequent government opposition, he was twice exiled and twice
condemned to death. Although some of his disciples were executed, he refused to renege in his principles. In
1274, he was given freedom and cleared of his wrongful acts. He died in 1282.
The Nichiren sect of Buddhism is an example of a religious group that came to have an effect in the socio-
political dimension of Japan (Hopfe 1983). Present-day schools of Nichiren Buddhism include Soka Gakkai,
Nichiren Shoshu, and Nichiren Shu.

Tibetan Buddhism

Buddhism was officially introduced into Tibet around the seventh century C.E. during the reign of Songtsan
Gampo, considered the founder of the Tibetan Empire. He was influenced by his Chinese and Indian wives
who were both Buddhist followers. Buddhism became a dominant force in the region toward the end of the
eight century C.E. when the king Trisong Detsen decreed it as the official state religion.

While the theological foundation of Tibetan Buddhism is similar to that of Mahayana Buddhism, the isolation of
the region allowed for the development of many features that were incorporated into the growing Buddhist
school in Tibetan land. Essentially Mahayana in nature, Tibetan Buddhism borrowed tantric and shamanic
attributes, as well as elements from Tibet’s native religion called Bon. A pre-Buddhistic religion, Bon was a
kind of shamanism where spirits and deities were revered (Parrinder 1971). Ancient Bon rituals were
concerned with the performance of magic, incantations, and spells, and in the protection of people from
unwanted demons prowling in the dark (Hopfe 1983). Because the people’s lives, innumerable spirits, and
fierce demons must be propitiated or controlled by magic spells and formulas out of fear (Jurji 1946). When
Buddhism entered Tibet, it adapted to the local belief system thereby producing rituals and practices that were
to some extent different from other Mahayana traditions. For example, the most distinct Buddhist symbol is the
pagoda or stupa which has a Tibetan form in the chorten (Parrinder 1971; Bowker 1997))

One major distinguishing feature of Tibetan Buddhism is the use of magic as a coping mechanism in the
Tibetan way of life (Hopfe 1983). The use of chants and yoga is also part of Tibetan Buddhism. For utilizing
manuals (tantra) for one’s magical instructions to handle the unknown, it is also known as Tantric Buddhism.
Buddhas and bodhisattvas are also present in the teachings of Tibetan Buddhism. Other special features of
Tibetan Buddhism include the preoccupation with the relationship between life and death, the important role of
rituals and initiations, the use of rich visual symbolisms, and the use of meditation practices. The four major
schools of Tibetan Buddhism include Nyingma, Kagyu, Sakya, and Gelug.

Tibetan Buddhism has its own set of clergy, the lamas, and they are commonly senior members of the
monastic community. In fact, of all the Buddhist sanghas, the Tibetan sect has developed the most elaborate
of clergy (Wach 1949). The term lama means “the superior one” and lamas are quite frequently the
reincarnations of previous lamas. The Dalai Lama is the most prominent face of Tibetan Buddhism who has
been living in exile in India since he fled Chinese occupation of Tibet in 1959. The term dalai means “ocean” in
Mongol referring to the vastness and depth of the person. The current and fourteenth Dalai Lama is Tenzin
Gyatso who is the leader of the Gelug school of Tibetan Buddhism and is believed to be a reincarnation of
Avalokisteshvara. Until 1959, the chief residence of the Dalai Lama was a thirteen-storey high structure called
the Potala Palace located at the Red Hill in Lhasa, Tibet. Now a UNESCO World Heritage Site, it has now
been transformed into a museum but remains a sacred place for many Tibetans.

SELECTED ISSUES
Tibet Invasion

For centuries, both China and India have been claiming Tibet as part of their territories. Tibet practically
enjoyed some degree of independence as none of the claimants pressed their claim. In 1950, however, China
annexed Tibet and negotiated the so-called “Seventeen Point Agreement” with the government of the
fourteenth Dalai Lama. Rejected repeatedly by the Dalai Lama, this document confirmed China’s authority
over Tibet, but the area was granted autonomy. In 1959, the Dalai Lama failed in his bid to oust China’s
puppet rule as the Tibetan uprising was defeated by the more powerful Chinese force. The Dalai Lama,
together with his followers escaped to India, and are now living there as refugees.

With the implementation of Mao Zedong’s “Great Leap Forward” from 1958 to 1961, or China’s socio-
economic campaign to transform the country into a socialist society, between 200,000 to 1,000,000 Tibetans
tragically met their death. During Mao Zedong’s “Cultural Revolution,” a socio-political movement from 1966 to
1976 aimed at eliminating capitalism and traditionalism from China, around 6,000 monasteries were
destroyed. Tragically, China’s occupation of Tibet has led to countless deaths of many Buddhist monks, nuns,
and laiety who wished to continue their religious practices in their native land (Douglas 2007).

From 1959 to 1977, almost all elements of Tibetan Buddhism were obliterated. While many hundred thousand
Tibetans were killed, others were driven to exile. Presently, the Dalai Lama has been continuously visiting
other countries preaching a message of hope and peace. He has been given numerous citations for various
international advocacies and teaching activities, such as the Ramon Magsaysay Award for Community
Leadership (1959), Nobel Peace Prize (1989), U.S. Congressional Gold Medal (2007), and Templeton Prize
(2012).

Engaged Activism

Ritual suicides led by Buddhist monks have transpired in the twentieth century as a form of protest to
governmental actions. For example, a crisis occurred between Buddhists and the South Vietnamese
government led by Ngo Dinh Diem in the 1960s that had tremendous effect in politics, militancy, and religious
tolerance (Braswell 1994). As a result of persecutions undertaken by the government against Buddhists,
monks began to lambast the regime that eventually resulted in the self-immolation of Thich Quang Duc, a
Vietnamese Mayahana Buddhist monk. He voluntarily burned himself to death in a busy Saigon road
intersection in 1963. Later on, several other monks followed his example. The regime tried in vain to suppress
Buddhist resistance through massive retaliation and nation-wide assaults in Buddhist pagodas. Temples were
defaced, monks were beaten, and Quanc Duc’s cremated remains were confiscated. Eventually, the regime
lost support from the US and an army coup brought down Diem. Amid religious protests and non-violent
struggle, Diem was assassinated in 1963.

In Japan, a militant and missionary form of Buddhism was founded in 1930 called the Soka Gakkai, a religious
movement based on the teachings of Nichiren Buddhism. During the Second World War, the group temporarily
disbanded only to emerge mightily after the war. After its hiatus, the members of this group grew rapidly while
employing hard-line and contentious recruitment methods, including coercion, fear, intimidation, and the use of
threats. A political party was even formed by Soka Gakkai, the Komeito, that became the third most powerful
in Japan.
Summary
• The Mahasamghika (“of the Great Sangha”), one of the early Buddhist schools, became the source for the
initial growth of Mahayana Buddhism.
• Mahayana Buddhists advanced the radical idea that Siddhartha Gautama was not the only Buddha. There
were other divine beings that came to our world even before Siddhartha, some of them came after him, and
still others in the future.
• The canon of Mahayana Buddhism consists of the Tripitaka, namely, Sutra Pitaka (Discourse), Vinaya Pitaka
(Discipline), and Abhidharma Pitaka (Ultimate Doctrine).
• Mahayana Buddhism adopted the Sanskrit usage rather than the Pali form of common terms strictly used in
Theravada Buddhism.
• One of the most popular and prominent Mahayana Buddhist texts (or sutra) is the Lotus Sutra containing the
most definitive teachings of the Buddha.
• The concept of trikaya (“three bodies”) pertains to the teaching of Mahayana Buddhism about the nature of
the Buddha and reality.
• One distinct feature of Mahayana Buddhism concerns its teaching about an enlightened being or bodhisattva
(“enlightened existence”) who is already eligible to enter nirvana but opts to forego this right to assist others
attain the same state.
• Buddhism integrates an assortment of religious practices and devotional rituals with the objective of aiding
worshippers in their journey toward enlightenment and in bringing blessings to each and every one.
• Mahayana Buddhism consists of a variety of schools and family of religions, including the Pure Land Sect,
the Intuitive Sects, Rationalist Sect, Socio-political Sect, and Tibetan Buddhism .

ACTIVITY: MAHAYANA BUDDHISM

I.Critical Thinking Essay.

Answer the following questions:

1.What aspects of Mahayana Buddhism could make it more appealing than Theravada Buddhism?

2.How did Mahayana Buddhism shape Asian history in terms of activism?

3.How do you think Mahayana Buddhism’s concept of bodhisattva contributed to it being one of the most
successful missionary religions in the world?

II.Match Column A with Column B. Write the letter of the correct answer on the blanks provided.

Column A

1.Believed that other Japanese sects corrupt people towards hell

2.Most prominent text in Mahayana Buddhism that includes discourses by Siddhartha Gautama before he died

3.Buddhist school which was the original source of the Mahayana

4.Vietnamese Mahayana Buddhist monk who voluntarily burned himself

5.Pertains to the teaching about the nature of the Buddha and reality

6.Popular Buddha in China

7.Spontaneous desire to achieve the state of being enlightened

8.Document that confirmed China’s authority over Tibet

9.Leader of the Gelug school of Tibetan Buddhism and is believed to be a reincarnation of Avalokisteshvara

10.When believers die, it is their objective to live in Sukhavati

Column B

a.Mahasamghika

b.Thich Quang Duc

c.Lotus Sutra

d.Pure Land Buddhism

e.Nichiren Daishonin

f.Bodhicitta

g.Seventeen Point Agreement

h.Tenzin Gyatso

i.Trikaya

j.Amitabha

C.Make a comparison of Mahayana Buddhism from Theravada Buddhism by completing the table below.
 MAHAYANA THERAVADA
View on Sidhartha
Gautama/Buddha
Concept of Bodhisattva
Sacred Scriptures
Worship and observance
Subdivisions/Sects
A.
1. e
2. c
3. a
4. b
5. i
6. j
7. f
8. g
9. h
10.d