Amitava Chatterjee - History - UGC-NET - SET - JRF (Paper II and III) - Pearson India (2016)

HISTORY
UGC NET/SET/JRF
(Paper II and III)
Amitava Chatterjee
Delhi Chennai
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ISBN: 9789332520622
e-ISBN: 9789332537040
First Impression
Head Office: 7th Floor, Knowledge Boulevard, A-8(A) Sector 62, Noida 201 309, India.
Registered Office: 11 Community Centre, Panchsheel Park, New Delhi 110 017, India.
In fond memories of
Dada and Mamoni
About the Author
"NJUBWB$IBUUFSKFF faculty of history at Ramsaday College, Howrah
and guest faculty at Rabindra Bharati University, Kolkata is a Charles
Wallace Fellow (UK, 2012). He has teaching experience of over 12 years.
He has completed two UGC sponsored Minor Research Projects
titled ‘Sports History in Bengal: A microcosmic study’ and ‘Evolution of
Women’s Sporting Culture in Nineteenth and Twentieth Century Bengal.’
He has edited two books 1FPQMFBU-BSHF1PQVMBS$VMUVSFJO.PEFSO
#FOHBMand1FPQMFBU1MBZ4QPSU $VMUVSFBOE/BUJPOBMJTNandwritten
extensively in reputed national and international journals such as 4PDDFS
4PDJFUZ(Routledge), 4QPSUJO4PDJFUZ Routledge)*OUFSOBUJPOBM+PVS
OBMPG)JTUPSZPG4QPSU $BMDVUUB)JTUPSJDBM+PVSOBM+PVSOBMPG)JTUPSZ to name a few. He is also
a guest editor of 4QPSUJO4PDJFUZand referee of 4PDDFS4PDJFUZ(Routledge). Some of his books
include #IBSBU07JTIXBand *UJIBTFS"MPLF&VSPQFS3VQBOUBSpublished by Pearson Education.
His area of interest is sports history and his thrust research area is the evolution of sporting
culture in colonial Bengal.
Contents
1SFGBDF WJJ
"DLOPXMFEHFNFOUT WJJJ
Part I: Ancient
1. Pre-History 1.3
2. Indus Valley Civilization 1.21
3. The Vedic Age 1.34
4. Religious Movements 1.48
5. Mauryan and Post-Mauryan Empire 1.62
6. Gupta and Post-Gupta Empire 1.81
7. The Chola Dynasty 1.98
Part II: Medieval

8. The Delhi Sultanate 2.3
9. Vijayanagar and Bahamani Empire 2.32
10. Indo-Islamic Culture and Religion 2.65
11. The Mughal Empire 2.77
12. The Marathas 2.107
Part III: Modern

13. Establishment of British Rule in India 3.3
14. Uprising against the British Rule 3.24
15. Socio-Economic Impact of the British Rule in India 3.40
16. The Freedom Struggle 3.69
17. Post-Partition India 3.101
18. World Concepts 3.116
Part IV: Previous Years’ Solved Papers
1BQFS**
June 2008 4.3
December 2008 4.11
June 2009 4.19
December 2009 4.26
June 2010 4.32
December 2010 4.39
June 2011 4.46
December 2011 4.53
June 2012 4.61
December 2012 4.69
June 2013 4.77
September 2013 4.84
December 2013 4.90
1BQFS***
June 2013 4.97
September 2013 4.108
December 2013 4.119
Part V: Model Set Papers

Model Set I 5.3
Model Set II 5.10
Model Set III 5.17
Model Set IV 5.24
Model Set V 5.31
Model Set VI 5.37
Part VI: Appendix

Appendix 1 6.3
Appendix 2 6.9
Appendix 3 6.15
$ISPOPMPHZPG*OEJBO)JTUPSZ 6.19
Preface
This book is written for the benef t of NET/SET aspirants who desire to go into academics.
The book has been structured strictly in accordance with the prescribed syllabus of the Univer-
sity Grants Commission. It starts with the pre-history portion and has been divided into three
sections—Ancient Indian History, Medieval Indian History and Modern Indian History. As per the
latest syllabus, I have also included the section of ‘world concepts’ for the benef ts of the students.
Though the syllabus is extensive and tough, this book will try to quench the thirst of the students as
far as the microcosmic study is concerned. Each chapter does have a lucid outline of every aspect
of the particular topic along with multiple-choice questions covering every important areas of the
chapter.
Each chapter of this book has been a result of thorough and up-to-date research. I have compiled
some practice test set for the self-evaluation of aptitude after completion of reading. The book also
contains previous years’ question of NET examinations with solutions including the latest one.
Interestingly this book is a compilation of almost all probable MCQs which are paramount for
both Paper II and III in the forthcoming NET/SET examinations. The chronologies of different
dynasties in case of Ancient and Medieval Indian History have also been incorporated at the end
of this book. As far as the Modern Indian History is concerned, chronologies of different important
events, along with the list of Viceroys and Governor Generals of India, have been included in a
separate section which will be of immense help to the students.
Acknowledgements
I am indebted to all my teachers of the Department of History, Jadavpur University where I had
my orientation of history. I am thankful to my teachers—Prof. Ranjan Chakrabarti, Prof. Rup
Kumar Burman and Prof. Chittabrata Palit of Jadavpur University. I am indebted to Prof. Arabinda
Samanta, Prof Syed Tanveer Nasreen (Burdwan University), Prof. Gautam Chandra Roy and Prof.
Debjani Das (Vidyasagar University), Prof. Sabyasachi Chattopadhyay (Kalyani University), Prof.
Kausik Bandopadhyay and Prof. Sutapa Chatterjee (West Bengal State University), Prof. Sab-
yasachi Dasgupta and Prof. Bipasha Raha (Visva Bharati University).
I must express my sincere gratitude to Prof. Bhaskar Chakrabarti, my supervisor, for his kind
concern in almost all aspects of my academic endeavours. I also thank Prof. Nirban Basu, Prof.
Arun Bandopadhyay, Prof. Suparna Guptu (University of Calcutta) for their encouragement and
support. Prof. Sajal Nag of Assam University and Prof. Biswamoy Pati of the University of Delhi
indeed supported me in my toughest time. I am indebted to all the faculty members of Department
of History, Rabindra Bharati University viz., Prof. Hitendra Patel, Prof. Susnata Das, Prof. Sujata
Mukherjee, Prof. Ashis Das, Prof. Sahara Ahmed, Prof. Anuradha Kayal and Prof. Ajanta Biswas.
Last but not the least I thank Binayak Dutta of North Eastern Hill University, Maroona Murmu
of Jadavpur University, Monishankar Mishra of Tripura University and Anirban Bandopadhyay,
Scholar, CHS, JNU. I also would like to thank Amrita Mondal, Avipsu Halder and Souvik Naha of
JNU and my student Debanjan Mitra for their help.
Finally I could not produce a list of acknowledgments without addressing my Dada. I am truly
blessed to have such a supportive pillar right beside me in every step of my life even after his
sad demise. Mamoni, who left me alone couple of years back, would have been the happiest
person to witness the publication of this volume. The task of writing this book would not have
completed without the support of my family, especially my wife Aparna and my little daugh-
ter Anushka. My family’s sacrifices and belief in me have helped me immensely in completing
this book.
Part I: Ancient
This page is intentionally left blank
1
Pre-History
Periodization and Genesis of into Palaeolithic and Neolithic. The present
mode of chronological classification in prehis-
Prehistoric Studies tory was first proposed by Edouard Lartet in
In the first half of the nineteenth century, the his book 0GY4GUGCTEJGUQPVJG%QGZKUVGPEG
new findings from the excavations and their QH /CP CPF QH VJG )TGCV (QUUKN /COOKHGTU
systematic observation by C.J. Thomsen pro- EJCTCEVGTKUVKE QH VJG .CUV )GQNQIKECN 2GTKQF
vided strong empirical data to logically sup- (1861), where he classified prehistory into
port and prove the three-age model of history lower, middle and upper phases on the basis
as propounded earlier by Lucretius, the Dane of the association of different stone tool types
Vedel Simonsen, Montfaucon, and Mahudel. with different fauna found in the excavated
This was a landmark event in understanding stratigraphic sequence of the palaeolithic cave
the human past as it replaced the traditional site of Aurignac, France.
paths of intuition and upheld the significance
of empirics retrieved from the archaeological
findings. In this relative chronological system, What is Prehistory?
Thomsen classified the human history into The study of the Stone Age culture is com-
three ages: Stone Age, Bronze Age and Iron monly known as prehistoric studies. Prehis-
Age. This model provided a crude structure tory encompasses the largest segment of the
of classifying the different stages of human evolution of human life and culture. Etymo-
history and initiated a new dimension in the logically, the word ‘prehistory’ means events
research of the culture of the Stone Age. The or anything before ‘history’. History is basi-
chronology was established by 1825 and was cally an umbrella term that determines the pat-
published in an illustrated monograph named terns of cause and effect of any events in the
)WKFGVQ0QTVJGTP#PVKSWKV[ in 1826. The idea past through interconnected narratives, either
of three-age system was also advocated by tangible or intangible. Generally, history deals
another Danish scholar P.F. Suhm, who was with the events of the period post the invention
contemporary of Thomsen. Subsequently, the of a specialized skill of documenting the events
theory was refined and proved by other schol- through arranging some groups of characters
ars, mainly by Jacob Worsaae. A concept of in a syntactical order, which can be even picto-
two-age system was introduced by John Lub- grams or something close to modern-day writ-
bock in 1863 who categorized prehistoric time ing. So the entire trajectory of the evolution of
1.4 Chapter 1
human life and culture before the phase of syn- behavioural variations in different regions of
tactical documentation is basically categorized the world (Table 1).
under the domain of ‘prehistory’. The Pleistocene has been dated from 2.588
The trajectory of human evolution and its million (±5,000) to 11,700 years before pres-
culture has not occurred in a linear fashion. ent (BP), and including the Younger Dryas
The entire phenomenon is rather complex and cold spell (Table 2). In 2009, the International
at times stochastic. The two major elements Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS) has
that had fashioned the course of prehistory confirmed an alteration in the time period for
are climate change and speciation and extinc- the Pleistocene, changing the start date from
tion. The interplay of these two elements had 1.806 to 2.588 million years BP, and accepted
resulted into several prehistoric cultural and the base of the Gelasian as the base of the
technological complexes, whose timeline in Pleistocene. According to Mark Lynas, the
context to spatial distribution is an irregular Pleistocene’s overall climate could be char-
and complex phenomenon. acterized as a continuous El Niño with trade
winds in the south Pacific weakening or head-
ing east, warm air rising near Peru, warm
Climatic Change water spreading from the west Pacific and the
The entire episode of hominid evolution has Indian Ocean to the east Pacific and other El
been occurring during the quaternary period. Niño markers. One of the most crucial fac-
Quaternary period is the most recent of the tors behind the cyclical climatic changes is the
three periods of the Cenozoic Era and immedi- principle of Milankovitch cycle, after the name
ately followed by the Neogene period. The qua- of its propounder Milutin Milanković, which
ternary period spans from 2.588 ± 0.005 million states that variations in eccentricity, axial tilt
years ago (mya) to the present. According to and precession of the Earth’s orbit determined
the International Commission on Stratigraphy the climatic patterns on Earth through orbital
(ICS), the quaternary period has been classifie forcing. Another most important event in the
into two geological epochs—the Pleistocene Pleistocene epoch was the last major polarity
and Holocene. Ecologist Eugene F. Stoermer reversal of the Earth’s magnetic field, known
and atmospheric chemist Paul Crutzen have as the Matuyama–Brunhes polarity transition
been strongly advocating for Anthropocene, or reversal. The Matuyama–Brunhes bound-
supposedly the most recent epoch in the qua- ary (MBB) is dated at about 0.78 mya and
ternary period followed by the Holocene. In occurred during marine oxygen isotope stage
2008, a proposal for formally accepting this (MOIS) 19 and is also a key time marker for
geological nomenclature was presented to the the chronology of human evolution and migra-
Geological Society of London, which is yet to tion. The MBB is also used as one of the most
be accepted formally. crucial chronostratigraphic marker to define
The quaternary period is important pri- the Lower-Middle Pleistocene boundary.
marily because of two significant events: The transition from the Pleistocene to Holo-
(a) frequent phases of glaciations and inter- cene is marked by the Huelmo/Mascardi Cold
glaciations; (b) evolution of hominid and gen- Reversal, which has been specifically observed
esis of anatomically modern *QOQ UCRKGPU in South America between 11,400 and 10,200
(AMHS). There have been over 11 glacial/ 14
C years BP, i.e. 550 years (approximately)
interglacial cycles recorded in the quaternary before the Younger Dryas in the Northern
period based on the marine isotopic stages Hemisphere. During Holocene, the climate
(MISs). These phases had temporal and has been generally stable. On the basis of the
Table 1 Major Glacial Phases of the Quaternary Period
Backwards Names
Glacial
Index Alpine N. American N. European Great Britain S. American Interglacial Period (ka) MIS Epoch
Flandrian Interglacial Present–12 1 Holocene

Weichselian Glacial 2–4 and
1st Würm Wisconsin Devensian Llanquihue 12–110
or Vistulian period 5a–d
Riss- 5e
Sangamonian Eemian Ipswichian Valdivia[7] Interglacial 110–130
Würm (7, 9?)
Wolstonian Santa Glacial
2nd Riss Illinoian Saalian 130–200 6
or Gipping María period
Mindel-
Pre-Illinoian Holstein Hoxnian Interglacial(s) 200–300/380 11 Pleistocene
Riss
Glacial
3rd–5th Mindel Pre-Illinoian Elsterian Anglian Río Llico 300/380–455 12
period(s)
Günz-
Pre-Illinoian Cromerian Interglacial(s) 455–620 13–15
Mindel
Glacial
7th Günz Pre-Illinoian Menapian Beestonian Caracol 620–680 16
period
Pre-History
1.5
1.6 Chapter 1
Table 2 Subdivisions of the Quaternary System
System Series Stage Age (Ma)

Holocene 0–0.0117
Tarantian (Upper) 0.0117–0.126
Quaternary Ionian (Middle) 0.126–0.781
Pleistocene
Calabrian (Lower) 0.781–1.806
Gelasian (Lower) 1.806–2.588
Neogene Pliocene Piacenzian Older
marine isotope stages, the Holocene is identi- 5CJGNCPVJTQRWU VEJCFGPUKU (ca. 7 mya, discov-
fied as MIS 1 and is considered as intergla- ered in the Djurab Desert of Chad by Michel
cial phase. The Holocene can be divided into Brunet between July 2001 and March 2002)or
two major climatic phases—hypsithermal 1TTQTKP VWIGPGPUKU(ca. 6.1 to 5.7 mya, discov-
(11,500BP–5,500 BP) and neoglacial (5,500 ered in Tugen Hills, Kenya, by Martin Pickford
BP–present). Based on climatic fluctuations, and Brigitte Senut in 2000) and #TFKRKVJGEWU
the Holocene can be classified into five chro- MCFCDDC and #TFKRKVJGEWUTCOKFWU(ca. 5.6 my,
nozones: discovered in Afar Vally, Ethiopia). The genet-
ical cladogram between these earlier species
Preboreal (10 ka–9 ka),
and the later hominid species are still fuzzy
Boreal (9 ka–8 ka),
and need to be clarified.
Atlantic (8 ka–5 ka),
Subboreal (5 ka–2.5 ka) and
Subatlantic (2.5 ka–present) non-calibrated Australopithecines
14
C chronology The next most important genus that connects
the cladogram of human evolution is the aus-
tralopithecines who speciated around 4 mya
Speciation, Evolution and BP. The australopithecine species are generally
Dispersal classified into robustus or 2CTCPVJTQRWU and
gracile. The most important australopithecine
Earliest Evidences of Bipedalism species are #WUVTCNQRKVJGEWU CHCTGPUKU #WU
Phylogenetically speaking, the human prehis- VTCNQRKVJGEWUCPCOGPUKU and #WUVTCNQRKVJGEWU
tory had its roots from *QOKPKFK, which is the DQKUGK. The fossils of these species have been
tribe of *QOKPKFCG that comprises *QOQ, and discovered all over Africa, especially from
other members of the human clade after the Lake Turkana, Kenya; Kromdraai and Swart-
split from the tribe Panini. Palaeogenetic stud- krans, South Africa; Afar Basin, Ethiopia; and
ies have shown that the 2CP/Homo divergence other places. Recently in 1999, Justus Erus of
has occurred between 5.4 and 6.3 mya after Meave Leakey’s team has discovered a new
an unusual process of speciation ranging over species -GP[CPVJTQRWU RNCV[QRU (ca. 3.5 –
4 million years. As bipedalism is considered 3.2 mya) in lake Turkana, Kenya. The famous
as the basic adaptation of the *QOKPKF line, Laetoli footprints (3.7 mya) discovered by
the earliest evidence of bipedalism has been Mary Leakey in Tanzania (1976) shows earliest
found in the fossilized skeletal evidences of records of bipedalism by australopithecines.
Pre-History 1.7
Another famous australopithecine fossil is ranged between 850 cc and 1,150 cc, which is
AL 288–1, popularly known as Lucy. Lucy is 74% of an average AMHS cranial volume. The
a female skeleton of #WUVTCNQRKVJGEWUCHCTGP height of *QOQGTGEVWU ranges from 145 cm to
UKU, discovered by Maurice Taieb in 1974 at 185 cm and the weight ranges from 40 kg to
Hadar in the Awash Valley of Ethiopia’s Afar 68 kg. The sexual dimorphism in *QOQGTGE
Depression and later studied by Donald Johan- VWU was more than *UCRKGPU, and males were
son. Tuang Child is another famous fossilized anatomically 25% larger than females. The
skull of a young #WUVTCNQRKVJGEWU CHTKECPWWU complexity of the fossil record of * GTGEVWU
discovered by Raymond Dart in 1924 at Tuang, has produced to theories of evolutionary occur-
South Africa. rence of the species; either they are the same as
*QOQGTICUVGT of Africa or it may be a differ-
Origin of Genus Homo ent Asian species distinct from African *QOQ
GTICUVGT *QOQGTGEVWU is the first hominid spe-
A different speciation had occurred around
cies which habituated other parts of the world,
2.3 mya, which marked the genesis of the
beyond Africa. There are two contradictory
genus *QOQ. There have been different sub-
theories regarding the dispersal of * GTGEVWU
species of the genus *QOQ with some ana-
species over a vast geographic region. Accord-
tomical variations. The recent confi mation
ing to the Saharan Pump Theory, the species
of the researches by Dr. Daren Cunroe in May
migrated/dispersed from Africa via Levantine
2010 has confi med the fossils discovered by
land bridge in the Early Pleistocene in about
A.R. Hughes from Sterkfontein Caves in South
2 mya and populated other parts of the world.
Africa as *QOQ ICWVGPIGPUKU and declared it
But the fossil discoveries and the evidence of
as the earliest members of *QOQ genus. *QOQ
bifacial tools in South-east Asia, China and
JCDKNKU was a contemporary species and the
India provide so early dates that the earlier
first to manufacture stone tools (Oldowan/
theory cannot be accepted. The alternate the-
Mode 1). The other important species during
ory proposes that the species evolved in Asia
this period are *QOQ TWFQNHGPUKU and *QOQ
and then dispersed in other parts of the world.
IGQTIKEWU.
The earlier fossil records of Java Man, Zhouk-
oudian in China, Daminisi in Georgia and the
Homo erectus earlier stone tool dates from Attirampakkam in
During the end of the Pliocene epoch, India are strong evidences to support the latter
encephalization became a common attribute of theory.
hominid adaptation and was distinctly noticed The encephalization of the brain of *GTGE
in the *QOQ GTGEVWU. In 1891, *QOQ GTGEVWU VWU resulted in the increase in the volume of
fossil was first discovered by Eugene Dubois the different lobes of the brain, particularly
from Trinil, Java, which he initially named as temporal and prefrontal cortex, which gave
2KVJGECPVJTQRWU GTGEVWU popularly known as them an additional capacity to communicate
‘Java Man’.*QOQGTGEVWUlived between about and innovate for survival. *GTGEVWUare asso-
1.89 mya and 143,000 years ago. Skeletal and ciated with the manufacturing of bifacial tools
other evidences of their presence can be traced called Acheulian, after the name of the site
in Northern, Eastern and Southern Africa of the first discovery, St. Acheul in France.
and in West Asia, East Asia, South Asia and The bifacial handaxes show high degree of
South-Eastern Asia. The skeletal features indi- planning and organization and a significant
cate a transition from arboreal locomotion to development towards the evolution of tech-
bipedal locomotion. Their cranial capacity nology. One of the most significant events of
1.8 Chapter 1
the period was the control of fire by the spe- as Boxgrove Man. The other contemporary
cies. There are several archaeological sites species were *QOQ TJQFGUKGPUKU *QOQ
that indicate the controlled use of fire in the JGNOGKand *QOQEGRTCPGPUKU.
Lower Palaeolithic Period, such as Chesowanja
(1.42 mya) near Lake Baringo, Koobi Fora
(1.5 mya) and Olorgesailie in Kenya; Wonder- Neanderthals
werk Cave (1 mya) in South Africa; Yuanmou * PGCPFGTVJCNGPUKU are the extinct *QOQ
(1.7 mya BP) in Yunnan Province and Xihoudu species, which lived mainly during the Mid-
in Shanxi Province, China; Trinil (500,000 and dle Pleistocene period and extending to Late
830,000 BP) in Java; Bnot Ya’akov Bridge Pleistocene period from 600,000 to 25,000
(790,000 and 690,000 BP) in Israel, etc. BP. Neanderthal fossil evidence was first
One of the most famous fossils that argu- discovered from Engis Caves in Belgium in
ably belong to this species is the Turkana Boy 1829 by Philippe-Charles Schmerling. But
or Nariokotome Boy (KNM WT15000) dis- the discovery from Engis Caves was not rec-
covered in 1984 by Kamoya Kimeu and Rich- ognized as a new species, initially. The fossil
ard Leakey near Lake Turkana in Kenya. This discovered from Feldhofer Cave, a limestone
is the most complete hominid fossil ever dis- quarry of the Neander Valley in Erkrathnear
covered. According to palaeo-anthropologists, Düsseldorf in August 1856, was formulated
the skeleton has been dated 1.5–1.6 mya. On as a new species by Johann Karl Fuhlrott, and
the basis of recent researches, Walter Chip the discovered fossil is considered as the type
has classified Turkana Boy as *GTICUVGT, in specimen, popularly known as Neanderthal.
his book .CUV#RG 5VCPFKPI (2013). Another Neanderthals were more robust built com-
famous fossil is Peking Man or * GTGEVWU pared to modern humans. The average height
RGMKPGPUKUdiscovered from Zoukoudian exca- and weight of male and female Neanderthals
vations between 1923 and 1927 in China. were 166 cm and 65 kg and 155 cm and 54 kg,
In 2009, using a recent dating technique respectively. The cranial capacity of the Nean-
of 26Al/10Be, the fossils have been dated to derthals was 1,200–1,900 cc, which is similar
680,000 to 780,000 BP. to humans, and some fossils even have larger
encephalization quotient (EQ) than mod-
ern humans. Almost 400 Neanderthal fossils
Archaic Homo Species have been discovered so far, which are found
The phylogenetic history after * GTGEVWU mainly in Western Europe, north of the Alps
becomes quite complex and puzzling with the and Pyrenees (Salzgitter-Lebenstedt, Ehrings-
increasing number of diverse species under dorf in Germany; Arcy-sur-Cure, La Chapelle-
*QOQ genus. *QOQCPVGEGUUQT (discovered in aux-Saints, La Quina, Le Moustier in France;
1994 from Sierra de Atapuerca in Spain)and La Naulette, Spy-sur-l’Orneau in Belgium;
*QOQJGKFGNDGTIGPUKU (discovered in October Lynford Quarry in England); Apennine Penin-
21, 1907, from Mauer in Germany) are two sula (Saccopastore in Italy); Iberian Peninsula
very important species as they arguably are the (Banyoles, Zafarraya, Axlor in Spain; Figueira
common ancestor of *QOQ PGCPFGTVJCNGPUKU Brava in Portugal and Gibraltar); Balkan Pen-
and Archaic * UCRKGPU. In 1994, English insula (Vindija Caves); Central and Eastern
archaeologists discovered a significant collec- Europe (Divje Babe in Slovenia; Mezmaiskaya
tion of * JGKFGNDGTIGPUKU fossils along with Cave in Russia; Molodova I in Ukraine); Asia
some handaxes, which is popularly known (Shanidar in Iraq; Bisitun Cave in Iran; Galilea
Pre-History 1.9
in Israel; Ksar Akil in Lebanon; Teshik-Tash Triangle in 1997 by Tim White)*QOQHNQTG

in Uzbekistan). Till date, Neanderthal fossils UKGPUKU (discovered in 2003 on the island of
have not been discovered in Africa, but some Flores in Indonesia by Mike Morwood) and
fossils have been discovered quite near to &GPKUQXC JQOKPKF (discovered in 2008 at the
Africa in Gibraltar and Levant. Though there site of Denisova Cave in the Altai Mountains).
are many controversies regarding the ancestry All of the species are extinct at present.
and dispersal of this species, it is generally
considered that * JGKFGNDGTIGPUKU migrated
out of Africa prior to 600,000 BP and evolved Anatomically Modern Homo sapiens
as *PGCPFGTVJCNGPUKU in Europe and in Africa The AMHS are the subspecies of *QOQ genus,
the same ancestor evolved as * UCRKGPU. which has evolved to the present day as the
Recent researches by Jacqui Hayes have shown modern human. The earliest dated *UCRKGPU
that both the species had a common ancestor fossils have been discovered from the Omo
around 353,000 BP, and the complete sepa- Kibish sites near the Omo River, in Omo
ration occurred around 188,000 BP. Hence, National Park in south-western Ethiopia by a
cladistically *PGCPFGTVJCNGPUKU and *UCRK team of Kenya National Museum under the
GPU are very close relatives and share almost direction of Richard Leakey. The fossilized
99.5–99.99% of their DNA according to the collection (1967–1974) from this region is
researches by Edward Rubin. Their geneti- popularly known as Omo remains (Omo1 is the
cal similarities occurred because of probable name of the collection from Kamoya’s Homi-
interbreeding probably around 80,000–50,000 nid Site and Omo2 is that from Paul’s Homi-
BP; though this theory is not unanimously nid Site). In 2005, Ian Mcdougall has dated
accepted. This genome researches started in these remains as early as 195 ± 5 ka (ka = kilo
1997, when Matthias King for the first time years or thousand years BP). The * UCRKGPU
amplified the DNA sequence of Neander- are classified into two subspecies in general—
thal. The living human population of Asia Cro-Magnon or * UCRKGPU which survived
and Europe only has 1–4% of Neanderthal from 200 ka to 50 ka and *UCRKGPUUCRKGPU
genome. Neanderthals are associated with dif- which survived from around 50 ka till present.
ferent Stone Age cultures of Europe such as Cro-Magnon fossil was first discovered from
Mousterian, Châtelperronian, Aurignacian the Abri de Cro-Magnon, a rock shelter near
and Gravettian cultures. Levallois technique is Les Eyzies-de-Tayac-Sireuil in southwest-
considered as one of the most important con- ern France. They have migrated out of Africa
tribution of the Neanderthals in the develop- around 90 ka–75 ka for the first time, and there
ment of stone tool technology. They had com- have been several waves of migration out of
plex cognitive behaviours that are reflected Africa. Cro-Magnons are associated with the
from the evidence of funeral ceremonies with Middle Palaeolithic to Upper Palaeolithic tran-
fl wers from Shanidar cave in Iraq. The extinc- sition in Europe.
tion of the Neanderthal species is a controver- Allan Wilson, Mark Stoneking and Rebecca
sial concept, and the probable explanations are Cann have sampled a huge set of genetical
climatic and ecological changes and intraspe- data from different ethnicities to discover
cies conflicts Mitochondrial Eve. This means the matrilin-
The other contemporary species were eal most recent common ancestor (MRCA) of
* UCRKGPU KFCNVW (discovered at Herto Bouri all presently surviving AMH. This has been
near the Middle Awash site of Ethiopia’s Afar done by using mitochondrial DNA or mtDNA.
1.10 Chapter 1
The possible time of its origin is 234 ka–152 multiregional evolution hypothesis. Accord-
ka. The genetical studies show that Mitochon- ing to this hypothesis, the local populations
drial Eve first speciated in East Africa. Simi- in Europe, Asia and Africa continued their
larly, Y chromosome has been used to trace the indigenous evolutionary development from
Mitochondrial Adam. According to a recent *GTGEVWU to AMH.
study published in the #OGTKECP ,QWTPCN QH 6JG RCTVKCN TGRNCEGOGPV OQFGN This
*WOCP)GPGVKEU, the Mitochondrial Adam has hypothesis was first proposed by Gunter
possibly speciated between 581 ka and 237 Brauer. According to this theory, because
ka. Several Mitochondrial Haplogroups have of the shifting environmental conditions,
gradually populated the different parts of the *UCRKGPU dispersed out of South Africa and
worlds. Some of the important fossil discover- moved to Eurasia, where they hybridized with
ies of *UCRKGPU are from Jebel Irhoud (160 ka) local archaic groups and eventually replaced
in Morocco, Qafzeh-Skhul hominid fossils in them. This hypothesis is also known as Afro-
Israel, Mungo Man discovered from near Lake European sapiens hypothesis or hybridization
Mungo in Australia, Hofmeyr Skull from Vle- and replacement model.
kpoort River in South Africa, Cro-Magnon1
discovered from Les Eyzies in France, etc. Researches in Indian
Prehistory
Migration/Dispersal Theories The Palaeolithic research in India started with
There are several migration theories and dis- the discovery of bifacial stone implements in
courses regarding the dispersal of *UCRKGPU. a lateritic gravel pit in Pallavaram, near Chen-
Out of the number of theories and hypoth- nai by Sir Robert Bruce Foote in May 1863.
esises, only three theories are significant y Foote continued his geological and archaeo-
considered which have been discussed below. logical survey in Southern India for over three
%QORNGVG TGRNCEGOGPV OQFGN This the- decades and classified the findings under three
ory was first proposed by Louis Leakey and categories: Palaeolithic, Neolithic and Iron
W.W Howells in late 1960s and has been sin- Age. Foote published his survey works and
cerely advocated by Christopher Stringer and researches under the title 6JG (QQVG %QNNGE
Peter Andrews in 1988. This is also known VKQP QH +PFKCP 2TGJKUVQTKE CPF 2TQVQJKUVQTKE
as African replacement model, single origin #PVKSWKVKGU 0QVGU QP6JGKT#IGU CPF &KUVTK
theory and out of Africa hypothesis. Howells DWVKQP in 1916, which still remains one of the
has also referred this as Noah’s Ark hypoth- most valuable records on Indian antiquity. His
esis. According to this theory, AMH speci- monumental work on Indian archaeology, has
ated in Africa and the several haplogroups of earned him the honour of ‘Father of Indian
it dispersed out of Africa in different waves Prehistory’.
and replaced the presiding population of the This formative phase of Indian Prehistoric
other parts of the world. This theory is most research was followed by a phase of explora-
accepted at present, particularly after the new tions and excavations, which is often described
advances in the genome studies. as ‘stratigraphical-cum-cultural-cum-climatic
6JG TGIKQPCN EQPVKPWKV[ OQFGN This sequence paradigm’. This spanned roughly
theory was first suggested by Franz Weiden- between 1930s and 1970s. The main empha-
reich in 1940s and has been advocated by Mil- sis was to relate the archaeological find-
ford Wolpoff in 1990s. This is also known as ings with the stratigraphic sequence and to
Pre-History 1.11
corroborate a relative chronology of the Indian prehistoric time. Recent advances in earth
Stone Age. This phase witnessed several sciences and isotopic studies have helped the
significant research projects, particularly inter- palaeoclimatologists to reconstruct the past
national ventures and collaborations, notably environments. Oxygen isotopic studies done
of joint investigations of Yale and Cambridge on the ocean-core sediments have shown that
Universities in Potwar and Kashmir valleys by during the last 1 myr of the Pleistocene period,
H. de Terra and T.T. Paterson; archaeological Indian Subcontinent has experienced 9 or 10
works by M.C. Burkitt and L.A. Cammiade; glacial/interglacial cycles. One of the earliest
geo-archaeological work of F.E. Zeuner and convincing and detailed works for palaeocli-
extensive researches by H.D. Sankalia. During matic reconstruction was done by D.P. Agar-
this period, Sankalia published his famous work wal using pollen samples collected from Kash-
2TGJKUVQT[CPF2TQVQJKUVQT[QH+PFKCCPF2CMK mir valleys. On the basis of the pollen analysis,
UVCP in 1974, which changed the scenario of Agarwal has suggested that the subcontinent
academic approach towards Indian Prehistory. has experienced a warm temperate climate
The ideas of New Archaeology and Behav- prior to 3.8 myr followed by a cool temperate
ioural Archaeology started to influence the climate till 2.6 myr, and a cool climatic effect
discipline of Indian Prehistory since 1970s. continued till 2 myr. Formation of palaeosols
The work of Michael Schiffer ($GJCXKQWTCN indicates that the last 200 kyr has experienced
#TEJCGQNQI[) started to dominate the perspec- a drier climate indicated by the thick deposit
tives of the Indian archaeologists, and it gave of loess. Robert Denell’s research in Potwar
several new dimensions to the Indian Pre- plateau have changed the previous climatic
historic researches, for example, meticulous notions proposed by Terra and Paterson, as the
survey techniques, understanding formation former has correctly claimed that the river ter-
processes of archaeological sites, incorporation races in that region have nonglaciated origins.
of experimental and ethnographical techniques The work of Bridget Allchin in Thar Desert in
in archaeological investigations and applica- 1970s has revealed that the same region had
tion of geophysical and biological methods in experienced two major dry periods separated
the reconstruction of palaeo-environments and by wet climatic episodes in the Pleistocene.
dating. The implication of systems theory in In 1980s, a team led by V.N. Misra carried out
archaeology during this phase was an almost extensive research in Singi Talav and Didwana
paradigm shift. (16R) where they identified three quaternary
Since 1970s, the researches in Indian Pre- geological formations namely Jayal, Amarpura
history have taken a leap forward, with the and Didwana. The research has shown that in
discoveries of new sites in all over the subcon- the Pleistocene, the region was watered by the
tinent and more scientific applications. perennial streams running from the Himala-
yas, but later because of tectonic activities, the
shifting of the river channels has been the pri-
Climatic History of Indian mary cause of aridity of the region. In the Dec-
Subcontinent During the can region, the geo-archaeological work along
the Krishna and Godavari River valleys has
Quaternary Period helped identifying the important quaternary
The understanding of palaeoclimate and its geological formations—Bori, Godavari, Upper
gradual change is very crucial to understand Bhima and Chandrapuri that throw significant
the change in hominid behaviour during light on the palaeo-environment.
1.12 Chapter 1
Fossil Evidences of Terminology of the

Hominid Evolution in Indian Periodization of Indian
Subcontinent Prehistory
In the Indian Subcontinent, there is an extreme On the basis of the functional and typological
dearth of fossilized remains of hominids. This aspects, the material remains of the hominid
can be possibly due to two factors: first, the activities during the prehistoric period have been
soil chemistry and the climatic condition classified into several techno-cultural periods.
that hinders the process of fossilization and The classifications are on the basis of the transi-
its preservation and second, perhaps more tion and evolution of stone tool manufacturing
meticulous and extensive evidence explora- technology by several hominid species during
tions are necessary. In India, the first hominid the Pleistocene period till early Holocene. In
fossil evidence came from Hathnora village, general, the prehistoric period can be catego-
which is located about 40 km from Hosang- rized into several Palaeolithic phases (2CNCGQ
abad, near the banks of Narmada. The fossil CPEKGPVNKVJKEUVQPG: Lower Palaeolithic, Mid-
was discovered by Arun Sonakia in 1982. A dle Palaeolithic, Upper Palaeolithic, Mesolithic
fragment of the cranium, only the skull cap and Neolithic. Initially, the said European termi-
of the fossil has remained preserved and few nology was introduced in the Indian prehistoric
late Acheulian stone tools were also recovered research. The terminology was revised and rein-
from the same place. The cranial capacity of troduced by Prof. Sankalia in 1956, as Series I,
the fossil ranges from 1,155 cc to 1,421 cc, II and III for Lower and Middle Palaeolithic and
which led Sonakia to consider the fossil as Mesolithic, on the basis of his finds in Nevasa.
an advanced variety of *GTGEVWU and named Later Prof. Subbarao in 1958 coined the termi-
it * GTGEVWU PCTOCFGPUKU. However, there is nologies Early, Middle and Late Stone Ages. In
no unanimous view regarding the fossil’s tax- the International Conference on Asian Archae-
onomy. According to some palaeo-anthropol- ology in 1961, the terminologies proposed by
ogists, the fossil shall be classified as archaic Prof. Subbarao were accepted and strongly
*UCRKGPU. advocated by R.J. Braidwood. Subsequently
Later, in 1997, A.R. Sankhyan found a with the discoveries of Blade and Burin indus-
hominid clavicle from the same boulder try in Belan valley by Prof. G. R. Sharma in
conglomerate deposit at Hathnora from 1973, the terminology was reverted back to the
where Sonakia had found the earlier fos- traditional European terminology mentioned
sil, also along with some late/middle pal- above and has been accepted by Archaeological
aeolithic tools. No absolute dating has been Survey of Indian, henceforth. Still, there remain
done so far on this fossil remains, but it is some discrepancies and debates over the termi-
estimated that the fossil may date back to nology whose revision is strongly advocated by
0.5–0.2 mya. Sheila Mishra of Deccan College, Pune.
In 2001, P. Rajendra has found a complete
fossilized human baby cranium in Odai in the Palaeolithic Cultures of the
Villupuram district of Tamil Nadu. This is
popularly known as ‘Laterite baby’. But there Indian Subcontinent
are some uncertainties about this fossil as no In spite of the dearth of the hominid fossil
detailed physical study or dating has been remains in the Indian subcontinent, there is
done. substantial amount of hominid records available
Pre-History 1.13
in the Indian subcontinent, that is stone tools. shelters. They had no knowledge of agricul-
There are also other kinds of direct hominid ture, they could not make pottery, had no
behavioural evidences of advanced palaeolithic knowledge of making fire, could not make
cultures like bone tools, rock art, accessories houses and were ignorant of any metal.
and dwelling patterns. On the basis of the grad- Stone tools were meant for hunting and
ual complexity in the hominid behaviour in the were also used for cutting and boring. They
timescale of evolution, the palaeolithic cultures mainly used handaxes, cleavers, choppers,
are also categorized into several broad phases. blades, scrapers and burin. These tools were
usually made of hard rock called ‘quartz-
ite’. Only due to this fact, Paleolithic men
Lower Palaeolithic India in India are also called ‘quartzite Men’.
The Lower Palaeolithic culture in India is In the later Paleolithic phase, domestica-
comprised of two techno-cultural complexes: tion of animals was practised. The modern
(a) Sohanian Culture, (b) Acheulian Culture. human being (*UCRKGPU) first appeared in
the last of this phase.
Pre-Historic Phase It has been suggested that the Paleolithic
men belonged to the Negrito race. The Paleo-
The Stone Age lithic age in India has been divided into three
The whole span of time covered by the Stone phases according to the nature of change in
Age can be clearly divided into three parts: the climate—Early or Lower Paleolithic,
Middle Paleolithic and Upper Paleolithic.
1. The Old Stone Age (Paleolithic age)
Early Paleolithic phase is characterized by
2. The Late Stone Age (Mesolithic age)
the use of handaxes and cleaver, mainly
3. The New Stone Age (Neolithic age)
for chopping. Such tools have been found
The Old Stone Age (500,000–8,000 BC) in Soan and Sohan river valley (now
in Pakistan) and in the Belan valley in
It is very difficult to estimate the exact time Mirzapur district in UP.
of its beginning, but it seems that it is not Middle Paleolithic phase is characterized by
earlier than Middle Ice Age (Middle Pleis- the use of stone tools made of flakes, mainly
tocene), which began about 500,000 years scrappers, borers and blade-like tools. Middle
ago and came to an end with the end of the Old Stone Age sites are found in the valleys
Ice Age around 10,000 years ago. of Soan, Narmada and Tungabhadra rivers.
The Old Stone Age or the Paleolithic period Upper Paleolithic phase is characterized
in India developed in the Pleistocene period by the use of stone tools, mainly blades
or the Ice Age. and burins. Such tools have been found in
The earliest traces of human existence in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra,
India go back to 500,000 BC. Bhopal and Chotanagpur Plateau.
The Paleolithic sites are spread in practi-
cally all parts of India except the alluvial
plains of the Indus and the Ganga. The Late Stone Age (8,000–4,000 BC)
The people of this age were food gathering Around 8,000 BC, with the end of the Upper
people who lived on hunting and gathering Paleolithic age began an intermediate stage
wild fruits and vegetables. Man during this in stone age culture, which is called the
period used tools of unpolished, undressed, Mesolithic age or Late Stone Age. This age
rough stones and lived in caves and rock continued up to about 4,000 BC.
1.14 Chapter 1
The characteristic tools of the Late Stone The dolmens or megalithic tombs are char-
Age are known as ‘microliths’ and they acteristic features of the Neolithic age.
include cresconic blades, scraper, etc.—all Important sites of this phase are Burza-
made of stone. hom in J&K (famous for stone tools and
The last phase of this age saw the beginning graveyard in house); Maski, Brahmgiri and
of plant cultivation. Tokkalakota in Karnataka; Paiyampati in
Various Mesolithic sites are found in the Tamil Nadu and Piklihal and Unter in
Chotanagpur region, Central India, and also Andhra Pradesh.
South of the river Krishna.
On the northern spurs of the Vindhyas in the The Stone Copper Phase (Chalcolithic
Belan Valley, all the three phases of the Paleo- Phase)
lithic followed by the Mesolithic and then by It is not older than 1,800 BC and contin-
the Neolithic have been found in sequence. ued till 1,000 BC and in some places till
Important sites of Mesolithic phase are 800 BC.
Birbhanpur in West Bengal, Tinnevelly in This phase is characterized by the age of
Tamil Nadu and Belan valley in MP. the stone and copper. During this period,
people used small tools and weapons made
The New Stone Age (6,000–1,000 BC) of stone in which stone blades were impor-
In India, Neolithic age is not earlier than tant. At the same time, hard axes and other
600 BC, and at some places in South Indian objects made of copper were also used.
and Eastern India, it is as late as 1,000 BC. The chalcolithic people used different types
During this phase, people were again of pottery, of which black and red pottery
depending on stone implement. But now, was most popular. It was wheel made and
they used stones other than quartzite for painted with white line design. Channel-
making tool, which were more lethal, more spouted pots, dishes on stand and bowls on
finished and polished. stand are found in MP and Maharashtra.
Neolithic men were much more advanced Chalcolithic people of SE Rajasthan, west
than their predecessors. They cultivated Madhya Pradesh and West Maharashtra
land and grew fruits and corn like ragi domesticated cows, sheep, goats, pigs and
and horse gram (kulthi). They domesticated buffaloes. They ate beef but did not like
cattle, sheep and goats. pork. They produced wheat, rice (as staple
They knew about using fire and made pot- crop), lentil and black gram, green gram,
tery, at first by hand and then by the potter’s bajra and grass pea. In eastern India, people
wheel. They also painted and decorated of this part lived on rice and fish.
their pottery. Chalcolithics were not acquainted with
They knew about only one metal and that was burnt bricks. They generally lived in
gold. They lived in caves and decorated their thatched houses. It was a village economy.
walls by hunting scenes and dancing. They were expert copper smiths and also
They also knew the art of making boats. good workers in stone. They knew the art of
They could also spin cotton and wool and spinning and weaving.
weave cloth. Some evidence shows that they were reli-
In the later phase of Neolithic age, people gions people and venerated the mother god-
led a more settled life and lived in circu- dess and worshipped the bull.
lar or rectangular houses made of mud and This phase also witnessed the beginning of
reed. social inequalities.
Pre-History 1.15
The dead were generally buried. In Maha- or the art of writing, nor did they live in
rashtra, the dead were buried in the North– cities. Although they were younger than
South position, but in South India in the the Indus valley people, they did not
East–West position. In Maharashtra, it was adopt their advanced technological
complete burial, while in eastern India it knowledge.
was fractional burial. Important sites of this phase are Ahar
No doubt, chalcolithic people were in all and Gilund (Rajasthan); Jorwe, Nevasa,
respect many stages ahead of the Stone Daimabad, Inamgaon, Navdatoli, Songaon
Age people, but it was not so in compari- and Nasik (Maharashtra); Pandu Rajar
son to other civilization of its time. They Dhibi (West Bengal); Chirand (Bihar) and
lacked the knowledge of making bronze Kayath, Eran (MP).
Exercise
Till date, the best evidence of a distinct (c) Mesolithic age
Upper Palaeolithic age comes from which (d) Palaeolithic age
of the following sites? Match List I with List II and select the cor-
(a) Bhimbetka rect answer using the codes given below:
(b) Belan Valley
(c) Langhanaj .KUV+ .KUV++
(d) Renigunta
A. Palaeolithic 1. Hunters and
Which of the following is a site of Lower herders
Paleolithic age?
B. Mesolithic 2. Hunters and
(a) Jharkhand Plateau
food gatherers
(b) Tilwara
(c) Nevasa C. Neolithic 3. Village life
(d) Sohan D. Chalcolithic 4. Food producers
Appearance of man in India has been
dated around 1.4 mya by the artefacts %QFGU
found from A B C D
(a) Mirzapur (a) 2 1 4 3
(b) Kurnool (b) 3 2 4 1
(c) Bori (c) 2 4 3 1
(d) Patna (d) 2 4 1 3
The Neolithic phase in South India seems Who among the following worshipped
to have covered the period from about both ‘Mother Earth’ and ‘Sun-god’?
(a) 3,000 BC to 2,000 BC (a) People of Harappa
(b) 4,000 BC to 3,000 BC (b) People of Mohenjodaro
(c) 2,000 BC to 1,000 BC (c) People of Neolithic age
(d) 1,000 BC to 500 BC (d) People of Mesolithic age
Beginnings of community life can be The Neolithic people of Mehrgarh were
ascertained in the more advanced. They produced
(a) Chalcolithic age (a) Cotton and wheat
(b) Neolithic age (b) Sugarcane and jute
1.16 Chapter 1
(c) Rice and ground nuts (a) Rounded

(d) None of the above (b) Flat
Which of the following is the site of Chal- (c) Sharp
colithic period? (d) Grooved
(a) Ahar The foundations of the fortification
(b) Gilund wall and houses made of stone of Proto-
(c) Hasanpur Harappan culture were found in Punjab at
(d) All of the above (a) Kalibangan (b) Lothal
The names of the species of early man (c) Kot Diji (d) Amri
have been arranged in chronological order. The period covered by the ochre-coloured
Which one is wrongly numbered? pottery culture may roughly be placed
1. Australopithecus between
2. Neanderthal man (a) 3,000 BC and 2,500 BC
3. Peking man (b) 2,500 BC and 2,000 BC
4. Cro-Magnon man (c) 2,000 BC and 1,500 BC
Select the correct answer using the codes (d) 1,500 BC and 1,000 BC
given below: Which of the following statements is/are
(a) 3 (b) 4 correct?
(c) 1 (d) 2 (a) The Paleolithic people belonged to a
Which of the following statement/s is/are very primitive stage of civilization
correct? (b) In the Paleolithic period, the death
(a) Mesolithic age people used tools were neither buried nor burnt, but left
which were extremely small, about to the elements as they were
3 cm in length (c) They did not know the use of metals
(b) The characteristic tools of the Mesoli- and had no idea of cultivation
thic age are microliths. (d) All the above
(c) The microliths excavated at Langhnaj Chalcolithic people domesticated animals
in Gujarat like
(d) All the above 1. Cow 2. Dog
What are dolmens? 3. Goat 4. Pig
(a) Another name for microlithic tombs 5. Camel
(b) A tool used by Neolithic man Choose the correct answer using the codes
(c) Another name for megalithic tombs given below:
(d) The human race to which the (a) 3 and 4
Dravidians belonged (b) 1 and 2
In the north, the Stone Age was immedi- (c) 1, 2 and 3
ately followed by (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
(a) Iron Age The Indus Valley civilization belongs to
(b) Copper Age which of the following ages?
(c) Bronze Age (a) Neolithic age
(d) Gold Age (b) Chalcolithic age
The instruments used by the Neolithic (c) Paleolithic age
culture were (d) Mesolithic age
Pre-History 1.17
Match List I with List II and select the cor- Select answer to these items using the
rect answer using the codes given below: codes given below:
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the cor-
.KUV+ .KUV++ rect explanation of A

+PUETKRVKQPU
4WNGTU (b) Both A and R are true and R is the not
A. Junagadh Rock 1. Kharavela the correct explanation of A
Inscription (c) A is true, but R is false
B. Banskhera 2. Samudragupta (d) A is false, but R is true
Copper Plate Match List I with List II and select the cor-
Inscription rect answer using the codes given below:
C. Hathigumpha 3. Rudradaman .KUV+ .KUV++
Inscription
A. Ahar Culture 1. Maharashtra
D. Allahabad Pil- 4. Harsha
B. Savalda Culture 2. Madhya Pradesh
lar Inscription
C. Kayatha 3. Rajasthan
%QFGU Culture
A B C D
D. Narhan Culture 4. Uttar Pradesh
(a) 4 3 1 2
(b) 2 1 4 3 %QFGU
(c) 3 4 1 2 A B C D
(d) 1 2 3 4 (a) 1 2 3 4
(b) 4 3 2 1
The later Neolithic settlers lived in (c) 3 1 2 4
(a) circular houses (d) 4 2 1 3
(b) rectangular houses
The invention of clay pottery is a charac-
(c) Both (a) and (b)
teristic of
(d) None
(a) Neolithic culture
In India, the first human occupations, as (b) Chalcolithic culture
clearly suggested by stone tools, is not ear- (c) Iron Age
lier than the (d) Mesolithic culture
(a) Miocene
Which of the following statement/s is/are
(b) Oligocene
correct?
(c) Middle Holocene
(a) The Paleolithic age in India is divided
(d) Middle Pleistocene
into three phases according to the
The following question consists of nature of the stone tools used by the
two statements, one labelled the ‘Asser- people
tion A’ and the other labelled the (b) The Lower Paleolithic phase covers
‘Reason R’ the greater part of the Ice Age
#UUGTVKQP
#The Paleolithic man was a (c) The first phase is called Early or
savage who lived in the drifts of rivers of Lower Paleolithic
lakes and caves (d) All the above
4GCUQP
4 They were short statured. During Chalcolithic culture, domesticated
dark-skinned, woolly hair and a flat nose. animals were slaughtered for
1.18 Chapter 1
(a) Food (b) Sacrific (a) Caste

(c) Dairy products (d) Entertainment (b) Varna
Arrange the following races of man chron- (c) Division of labour
ologically: (d) Social inequalities
1. Proto-Australoid 2. Negrito The discovery of the tools and implements
3. Mediterranean 4. Mongoloid of the Neolithic age was made by
Choose the correct answer using the codes (a) Le Mesurier
given below: (b) Prof. Sankalia
(c) Miles Burkit
%QFGU (d) Sir John Lubbock
(a) 2, 4, 3 and 1 (b) 1, 2, 3 and 4
(c) 2, 1, 4 and 3 (d) 2, 1, 3 and 4 The term ‘prehistory’ was first employed
in 1833 by a French scholar named
In India, the earliest known Neolithic set- (a) Lewis Henry Morgon
tlement is (b) William Robertson
(a) Burzahom (b) Mehrgar (c) Tournal
(c) Nasik (d) Chirand (d) Henry Christy
Palaeolithic man in India knew the use of The Neolithic age economy was
fire. Traces of fire have been found in (a) Village economy
(a) Kurnul caves (b) Urban economy
(b) Ajanta caves (c) Both (a) and (b)
(c) Hathigumpha cave (d) None of these
(d) Belan valley Which of the following is wrongly
The following question consists of two matched?
statements, one labelled the ‘Assertion A’ (a) Handaxe-Palaeolithic age
and the other labelled the ‘Reason R’ (b) Trapeze-Mesolithic age
(c) Adzes-Neolithic age
#UUGTVKQP
# The main occupation of
(d) Chisels-Chalcolithic age
Paleolithic people was collecting fruit
roots and fruits Match List I with List II and select the cor-
rect answer using the codes given below:
4GCUQP
4Not knowing how to grow his
food, he ate fruits, birds, raw animal flesh .KUV+ .KUV++
etc. A. Lower Palaeoli- I. Birbhanpur
Select answer to these items using the thic age
codes given below: B. Middle Palaeoli- 2. Burzahom
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the cor- thic age
rect explanation of A
C. Upper Palaeoli- 3. Bhimbetka
(b) Both A and R are true and R is the not
thic age
a correct explanation of A
(c) A is true, but R is false D. Mesolithic age 4. Belan Valley
(d) A is false, but R is true E. Neolithic age 5. On the river
Both the settlement pattern and burial Narmada and
practices of Chalcolithic period suggest south of river
beginnings of Tungabhadra
Pre-History 1.19
%QFGU (c) Sir John Lubbock

A B C D E (d) None of the above
(a) 3 2 1 5 4
Which of the following races was/were
(b) 2 3 1 4 5
well-settled in India?
(c) 5 4 3 1 2
(a) Negrito
(d) 4 5 3 1 2
(b) Proto-Australoid
Mesolithic tools are characterized by par- (c) Mediterranean
allel-sided blades taken out from prepared (d) All of the above
cores of fined-materials such as
(a) Chert The practice of burial of domestic dogs,
(b) Crystal along with their dead master and pit dwell-
(c) Chalcedony ings was unique to the people of
(d) All the above (a) Maski
(b) Brahmagiri
Pygmy tools were used by the men of (c) Utnur
(a) Old Stone Age (d) Burzahorn
(b) New Stone Age
(c) Chalcolithic Age Which one of the following shows the
(d) Mesolithic Age characteristics of the human skeletons of
the people of the Mesolithic age?
Through pollen analysis, it is suggested
(a) Proto-Australoids
that agriculture was practised in Rajasthan
(b) Hamitic Negroids
and Kashmir around
(c) Mongoloids
(a) 20,000 BC–10,000 BC
(d) Alpines
(b) 9,000 BC–7,000 BC
(c) 7,000 BC–6,000 BC Palaeolithic men in India are also known as
(d) 5,000 BC–3,000 BC (a) Granite men
Match List I with List II and select the cor- (b) Ceramic men
rect answer using the codes given below: (c) Quartzite men
(d) Black-coloured rock men
.KUV+ .KUV++ The Neolithic age people decorate their
A. Piklihal 1. Tamil Nadu walls by painting
B. Bhimbetka 2. Andhra Pradesh (a) The scene of trees
(b) Rivers
C. Bagor 3. Rajasthan (c) Scenes of hunting and dancing
D. Paiyampalli 4. Madhya Pradesh (d) Gods
%QFGU In the late Stone Age, people used to bury
A B C D the dead in large stone-lined pits and cov-
(a) 1 2 3 4 ered them with still larger slabs, some-
(b) 4 3 2 1 times only one. They are called
(c) 3 2 1 4 (a) Megalithic (b) Microlithic
(d) 2 4 3 1 (c) Chalcolithic (d) Neolithic
The word ‘Neolithic’ was first coined by During the Microlithic age, painting was
(a) Miles Burkit popular; which of the following painting
(b) Robert Bruce Foote features are found in Microlithie age?
1.20 Chapter 1
(a) Depiction of human figures in rock Which of the following is/are are impor-
painting tant sites of Microlithic age?
(b) During this period various paintings (a) Bagor
were found, which include animals (b) Bhimbetka
and human scene (c) Lekhania
(c) Both (a) and (b) (d) All the above
(d) None
Answer Keys
1. (d) 2. (d) 3. (c) 4. (c) 29. (d) 30. (a) 31. (a) 32. (d)
5. (d) 6. (a) 7. (c) 8. (a) 33. (a) 34. (c) 35. (d) 36. (d)
9. (d) 10. (a) 11. (d) 12. (c) 37. (d) 38. (b) 39. (d) 40. (c)
13. (b) 14. (c) 15. (c) 16. (c) 41. (d) 42. (b) 43. (d) 44. (d)
17. (d) 18. (d) 19. (a) 20. (c) 45. (b) 46. (c) 47. (c) 48. (a)
21. (c) 22. (d) 23. (b) 24. (c) 49. (a) 50. (d)
25. (a) 26. (a) 27. (a) 28. (c)
2
Indus Valley Civilization
Discovery the finds made at these sites. Assembling the
materials from these sites and the painted pot-
Indian history begins, as suggested by the tery that was found in Baluchistan many years
researchers, with the advent of the Aryans. ago, he came to the conclusion that all these
The earliest recorded reference to the civili- belonged to a pre-historic civilization far ear-
zation is given by Charles Mason who visited lier than anyone known so far. Father H. Heras
the site at Harappa in 1826 and wrote about uses the term pre-history in connection with
a ruinous brick castle. Alexander Burnes vis- this civilization. After Banerji, further excava-
ited this site in 1831 and saw a ruined citadel tions were continued by K.N. Dikshit (1925–
on the river-side of the town. In 1875, General 1929) and N.G. Majumdar (1929 and later).
Alexander Cunningham, while engaged in the Still later, several foreign teams including the
work of exploration in west Punjab with the one headed by E. Mackay conducted further
data supplied by the Greek historians and Chi- excavations. R.E.M. Wheeler conducted large-
nese travellers, discovered strange and uniden- scale excavations in the Harappa site around
tified seals in the neighbourhood of Harappa. AD 1946. Borings conducted by archaeolo-
His was the first archaeological report on a set- gists like C.F. Dales reveal the occupation
tlement of the Harappa civilization. None of deposits at a depth of 11.70 m below the mod-
these men could guess the true antiquity of the ern level of the plain, suggesting the existence
city. Early in the twentieth century, Sir John of a pre-Harappa settlement at Mohenjo-daro
Marshall, the director-general of Archaeology, also. Excavations conducted in almost one
drew up a programme for further excavations thousand sites reveal the spread of this civili-
centring around the famous Buddhist sites. In zation over a wider area than the Indus valley.
AD 1922–1923, R.D. Banerji, while excavat- The salient features of the Indus Valley Civ-
ing the ruins of a Buddhist establishment in ilization may be studied under various heads:
Sind, came upon an inscribed seal with pic- 2QNKVKECN %QPFKVKQP, 'EQPQO[, 5QEKCN .KHG,
tographic characters that were till then known 4GNKIKQP and %WNVWTG.
only from Harappa. In his further diggings, he
found two more seals. About the same time,
Rai Bahadur Daya Ram Sahni while excavat- Political Condition
ing at Harappa had also discovered some seals, We have no clear idea about the government of
painted pottery, terracotta and other objects. the Harappa cities. It was suggested by some
Marshall perceived a close similarity between that the cities were oligarchic commercial
1.22 Chapter 2
republics. But the systematic planning of the rather than weapons. Specimens of bows and
streets and uniformity that is seen through- arrows found are comparatively few. Arrow
out the area of the Harappa culture in matters heads were thin. The absence of sword is sig-
like size of the bricks, layout of cities, weights nificant. Shields, helmets and other defen-
and measures suggest that there existed a sin- sive armour were absent. The inferior quality
gle centralized state rather than a number of of the weapons suggests that the Harappans
free republican communities. Certain evi- were unwarlike.
dence available to us suggest that there was
continuity of government throughout the life
of the civilization. This continuity is said to Economy
suggest the unchanging traditions of the tem- (K #ITKEWNVWTG
ple. A.L. Basham, therefore, ventures to say Agriculture must have been practised in
that the Harappa civilization was theocratic Harappa villages that were situated mostly
in character. In the absence of any evidence, near the flood plains. In Baluchistan and
to show that the food surplus was surrendered Afghanistan, dams were raised for storing
by primary producers by the use of armed water or for causing flood irrigation to deposit
force, he thinks that religion must have been silt on a wider expanse of land, but we have
the essential ideological force of the Harappa no evidence of the use of canals for irrigation
society. But the absence of temples and reli- purpose. Since no hoe or ploughshare has been
gious structures, except the Great Bath that discovered, we are not able to say whether the
might have been used for ablutions, shows land was tilled. However, at Kalibangan, the
that the government was not in the hands of furrows belonging to pre-Harappa phase were
priests but probably in the hands of merchants, discovered. This shows that the fields were
as the rulers were concerned with commerce, ploughed in Rajasthan in the Harappa period.
not conquests. The excellent drainage system Wooden ploughshares might have been prob-
suggests that the municipal administration ably used. We have no information regarding
should have been efficient. The existence of the use of men or oxen for drawing the plough.
street lighting, the prevalence of a watch and For harvesting the crops, stone sickles might
ward system for different quarters of which we have been used. Wheat, barley and peas were
have enough evidence and the presence of car- the principal crops cultivated by them. At
avanserais and public storehouses—all suggest Banawali, considerable quantity of barley was
that the Harappans enjoyed a highly organized found.
civic life. Besides barley, they produced sesame and
There is no evidence of a dynastic rule of mustard. At Lothal, people cultivated paddy.
divine warlords. No palace is identified. We The Harappans also produced cotton, and they
have no monuments to glorious conquerors. are regarded as the earliest people to produce
Though some British archaeologists refer to cotton. Crops were raised not only to meet
Harappa and Mohenjo-daro as capital cities the requirements of the people who produced
of an empire, we do not have any evidence them, but also to feed the artisans, merchants,
to suggest the existence of an empire of the etc., who lived in the cities. Special arrange-
Egyptian clan. This is further strengthened ments were made for storing grain in huge
by the fact that the weapons of war discov- granaries. It is quite probable that cereals were
ered were few and feeble. The spearheads received as taxes from the peasants and given
were thin and without the strengthening as wages to the labourers. It is an accepted fact
midrib. The daggers and knives were tools that only people, capable of producing food on
Indus Valley Civilization 1.23
a large scale, can help the rearing of an urban the art of making bronze by mixing tin
civilization. with copper. But, the bronze tools and
The Harappans domesticated different kinds weapons made by them were not prolific
of animals. The bull, being the most useful The bronze articles left behind by the
animal for agriculture, began to acquire sacred Harappans suggest that bronze-smithy
character in due course of time. Buffalo, ele- was an important feature of their industrial
phant, camel, dog, donkey, goat, cat, pig, and life and the bronze-smiths constituted an
monkey were known to the Harappans. A few important group of artisans in the Harappa
bones from Harappa testify to this. Though social order. The Harappans were not con-
bones of horse were found at Mohenjo-daro, it versant with the metallurgy of iron.
is generally held that the Harappans were not
G ,GYGNNGT[ Jewellery was another impor-
acquainted with it. Among the wild animals, tant industry of the Harappans. The gold-
mention may be made of tiger, rhinoceros, smiths made ornaments out of silver, gold
elephant and deer. Among the smaller animals and precious stones. Shell was extensively
and birds known to them were squirrel, hare, used for making ornaments and pieces of
turtle, parrot, domestic fowl and peacock. inlay. Manufacture of beads was another
important craft. Besides precious met-
(KK %TCHVUCPFKPFWUVTKGU
als, various stones like carnelian, steatite,

C 6GZVKNG+PFWUVT[ The discovery of spin- agate, chalcedony and jasper were used for
dles and spindle whorls and a piece of making beads.
woven cotton suggests that spinning and
(H 6Q[ /CPWHCEVWTG Making toys was
weaving were known to the Harappa peo-
another important industry. Usually toys
ple. Both the rich and the poor engaged
were clay models of men, women and ani-
themselves in spinning. Cotton and wool
mals, whistles, raffles and wheeled-carts.
were used in this industry. The art of dye-

I +XQT[9QTM Ivory work must have been
ing was known to the people.
another important craft though ivory
(D 2QVVGT[ Pottery seems to have been an
objects were not found in plenty. It is prob-
important industry. The Harappa pottery
able that in those times elephants roamed
consists of very fine wheel-made ware.
in Sind and the Punjab.
Hand-made pottery was rare. Pottery was
of different kinds—plain or painted or
J %CTRGPVT[ The wooden bedsteads made
ware with designs. We have also examples by the Harappans bear testimony to their
of perforated pottery with a large hole at skill in this craft.
the bottom and small holes all over the
KKK6TCFGCPF%QPVCEVU
wall. It was probably used for straining Being a city civilization, trade formed an
liquor or as incense burners. The house- important element of the Harappa civilization.
hold pottery was made in different shapes This is proved by the weights and measures
and sizes. that have been found extensively among the

E $TKEM +PFWUVT[ The huge brick struc- ruins. Cubical weights seem to be very com-
tures indicate that brick-laying was an mon. Sometimes ordinary pebbles were used
important craft. Brick-kilns have been disas weights. A strict control was exercised over
covered at Mohenjo-daro. the maintenance of proper standards in weight.

F /GVCN +PFWUVT[ The Harappans used Certain specimens of scales were discovered.
stone, copper and bronze to make weap- Historians suggest that the decimal system
ons, tools and utensils. They had known was known to the Harappans.
1.24 Chapter 2
The Harappans traded not only with other (KKK&TGUU

parts of India but also with Crete, Egypt, and Their dress consisted of two garments—the
many countries of Asia. Among the articles upper and the lower. Ordinary people probably
imported were timber, copper, gold and did not wear anything above the waist. Women
ivory. wore a short skirt held round the hip with a
The Harappans were a sea-faring people clasp or band. Occasionally, a loose garment
with wide-ranging contacts. We have one seal like a shawl was used. The garments were
showing a ship with sail, oars and steering made of cotton. Wool was also probably used.
sweep, suggesting maritime activity. The art of embroidery must have also been
The trade with Mesopotamia must have known to the Harappans.
been handled by the trade outposts scattered The Harappans adopted different fashions
from the Gulf of Cambay to Sutkagendor on for dressing their hair. Men grew short beards
the Makran coast. The route of communication or trimmed their beards. They shaved their
was both by land and by sea. moustache. Razors made of bronze were used
The presence of the Indus river facilitated for shaving. We do not have much knowledge
inland trade. Bullock carts with solid wheels of female hairstyles.
were the chief means of transport. Men and women, rich and poor, decorated
Trade was most probably carried on a barter themselves with ornaments from head to foot.
system. We do not have evidence of the use of We are not sure whether any nose ornaments
metallic money. were used. Different kinds of necklaces were
used. The poorer people must have used ter-
Social Life racotta bangles.
The Harappan women attached much

K 5QEKCN&KXKUKQPU
importance to beauty and toilet culture. The
Excavations at Mohenjo-daro prove the exist-
Vanity case found at Harappa contained a
ence of different sections of people—the
piercer, an ear-scoop and tweezers. Mirrors
learned class, including the priests, physi-
made of bronze and combs made of ivory were
cians, officials, traders, artisans, cultivators,
discovered.
fishe men, boatmen and manual labourers.
According to archaeologists, there is no ves-
KX#OWUGOGPVU
tige of a fighting class. The commercial class Dicing was a common amusement. Several
appears to have been dominant. Among the kinds of dice have been discovered. The game
artisans, the potters formed one of the impor- of chess was known to the Harappans.
tant classes. One of the quarters found in Hunting appears to have been one of the
Mohenjo-daro is said to have been occupied recreations of the city dwellers. Another pas-
by potters. time of the people was bull fighting. In a seal,
two jungle cocks were depicted as engaged in
KK (QQF a fight. Toys must have been used to amuse the

Wheat, barley and rice were important items of children.
food. Milk must have been included in the diet
because we know that domestic cattle were
abundant. Vegetables and fruit must have been Religion
other items of food. Animal food was eaten. It The most important of the religious ideas of
included beef mutton, pork, poultry, fresh fish the Harappans is the cult of the Mother God-
from the river, dry fish, shell fish and the flesh dess, the goddess of fertility and crops. A
of crocodile and tortoise. human or animal sacrifice was offered to the
Goddess of Earth. Oil or incense was burnt in Culture

order to please the deity.
The most important among the male
K #TV
gods is a three-faced deity. This god is con- Though the Harappans were not, on the whole,
sidered to be the prototype of Siva. Numer- artistic people, they excelled in producing
ous conical and cylindrical stones found in works of art of small compass. Their most
the remains suggest that the productive and notable artistic achievement was in their seal
fertilizing powers of nature were symbol- engravings, particularly those of animals.
ized in phallic representations. If this is so, Specimens of art are to be sought also in
the worship of the prototype of Siva was not figurines. All figurines were well baked. Some
merely iconic but also phallic. In a house at of them were painted in red. The majority of
Mohenjo-daro, a number of small ring stones the human figurines depict female figures.
were found. Some scholars have taken these The most striking of the figurines is probably
ring stones to be the female symbol of gen- the bronze dancing girl which was cast in one
eration and say that yoni worship was preva- piece.
lent. Animal worship (zoolatry) formed part Statuary is rare. Only a few specimens
of the religious beliefs of the people. Among were found. Statues were cut generally from
the animals, one that frequently occurs is the soft stones, grey and yellow limestone, alabas-
unicorn accompanied with a manger or an ter and steatite. The bust of a male figure in
incense burner. This is treated as the tutelary steatite found at Mohenjo-daro looks like an
deity of the city. attempt at portraiture.
The worship of tree, fire and water also Two statuettes have been found at Harappa.
seems to have been prevalent. Certain trees, One of them—the red sandstone torso of a
notably the pipal tree, were regarded as sacred. man—is very impressive. The other statuette
Rectangular aisles, separated from each other represents a dancer. The most striking feature
by long walls, are identified with the Vedic of the statuettes is the anatomical faithfulness
sacrificial altar in which offerings were made with which they were executed. The Harap-
to fire and other gods. If it is so, it may prove pans seem to have excelled in the art of lapi-
that fire worship was in vogue. There is no dary work.
direct evidence to suggest the prevalence of
KK (KPG#TVU
river worship among the Harappans. Water had Both dancing and music appear to have been
certainly played an important part in the daily cultivated by the Indus people. It is prob-
life of the Harappans. able that the earliest stringed instruments and
Some of the seals carry representations of drums are to be traced to the Harappa civili-
the svastika and the wheel, the symbols of zation. The bronze female figurine found at
the Sun. They suggest that the Sun was wor- Mohenjo-daro as well as the statuette repre-
shipped and that it was not represented anthro- senting a dancer found at Harappa suggest that
pomorphically but symbolically. dancing was also probably cultivated.
Burial was the usual custom. Three forms
of burial were found at Mohenjo-daro—com-
KKK6JG9TKVKPIQHVJG*CTCRRCPU
plete, fractional and post-cremation. At Lothal, The most fascinating feature of the Harappa
each grave shows a pair of skeletons, one male civilization is their writing. By far, the largest
and one female. This had led some to speculate amount of material on which the writing of the
whether the people had a custom of the type Harappans has been passed on to us comprises
of sati. stamped seals, made of steatite, generally
1.26 Chapter 2
coated with a glaze. These seals are generally Alamgirpur, Ropar, Bhagatrav, Dholavira,
square or rectangular in shape. Inscriptions Dabarkot and Kot Diji.
have also been found on pottery, drinking
cups, terracotta bangles, gold ornaments and
ivory pencils.
Causes of Decline
The Harappa writing is described as pic- As the Harappa settlements were spread over a
tographic. A notable feature of the Harappa vast area, no single explanation for the decline
writing is its clarity and straight rectilinear and collapse of the Harappa civilization seems
characters. The direction of the writing is from realistic. Scholars believe that it would be more
right to left, though sometimes it is seen to realistic to say that any weakness or deteriora-
be from left to right. In legends covering two tion in any one factor had its repercussions on
or more lines, the direction is boustrophedon others so that all or many factors combined to
(alternately from right to left and left to right). create what they call the ‘domino effect’, lead-
There are great variations in the form of the ing to the decline of the Harappa civilization.
letters of the characters numbering about 400. One of the natural factors leading to the
The commonest Harappa sign is a U-shaped collapse of the Harappa civilization was heavy
sign with two strokes on either side at the upper flooding. The evacuation of Mohenjo-daro is
ends. There are over 20 human signs. Among ascribed to the growing danger of floods. Exca-
the zoomorphic signs, the commonest is the vations reveal that Mohenjo-daro was flooded
fish sign. The Harappa script is considered more than once. Traces of at least three main
by some scholars like S. Langdon and G.R. phases of deep floods can be detected here.
Hunter as the parent of the historical Brahmi. Chanhudaro was also destroyed by massive
As the key to the study of the language of inundations.
the script has not yet been found, it is not pos- Catastrophic alterations in the course of the
sible to determine the language of the script. Indus and Ravi rivers leading to desiccation of
Some scholars like A.L. Waddel, T.N. Ram- surrounding countryside was another impor-
achandran, S.R. Rao and M.V. Krishna Rao tant natural factor for the disappearance of the
take it to be Sanskrit, as they appear to have Harappa civilization. The maintenance of food
found Sanskrit formulae in the writing on the supply was made difficult on account of the
seals. changing of the course of the rivers. On the
other hand, it was the drying up of the Ghag-
Places from Where Relics ger river that brought about the downfall of the
settlement at Kalibangan. But these reasons
Have Been Found cannot hold good for the desertion of every
Relics of the Indus Valley civilization have other settlement dotting the surface of Sind
been recovered from a vast area extending and Punjab.
from Jammu in the north to the Narmada estu- Another natural factor is climatic fluctua-
ary in the south and from the Makran coast tion. Decrease of rainfall in the earlier part of
of Baluchistan in the west to Meerut in the the second millennium BC affected agricul-
northeast. More than 1000 Indus Valley sites ture and stock-breeding. Decreasing fertility
have been excavated in this area. Of these, caused by increasing the salinity of the soil due
Harappa in Punjab and Mohenjo-daro in Sind to the expansion of neighbouring desert led to
are very important. Among the other cities are the disappearance of the Harappa culture. Epi-
Chanhudaro, Lothal, Kalibangan, Banawali, demics also cannot be ruled out as a cause for
Sutkagendor, Surkotada, Rangpur, Rojdi, the decline of the Harappa civilization.
The collapse of the Harappa civilization of any of the Harappa settlements. Second,
might have been due to the disturbance of the the number of distorted skeletons found in
balance between the production and provision of Mohenjo-daro by Wheeler was only 30 out of
goods and services. Any city culture thrives on a population of over 40,000. Third, Mohenjo-
a delicate balance between the production and daro was abandoned by about 1800–1750 BC,
provision of goods and services. Over a period of whereas the date of the Rig Veda was placed
time, this balance gets disturbed, affecting other at about 1500–1200 BC, and no convincing
features of city life. Signs of such deterioration explanation was given for the large gap.
are evident in Mohenjo-daro and other places.
Thus, at the higher strata of the excavations that
indicate the later stages of the life of the city, we Important Harappan Sites
find the houses spilling onto the streets and the *CTCRRC: It is situated in the Montgom-
drainage system no more meticulously laid out ery district of the Punjab in Pakistan on the
as before. All these make us believe that there banks of river Ravi. It had a citadel and as
was a definite and steady decline in the quality many as six granaries within it.
of the civil life till such time that the settlements /QJGPLQFCTQ It is situated in the Lar-
were finally abandoned. kana district of Sind in Pakistan on the
Yet another factor for its disappearance banks of the Indus. It was first discovered in
might have been invasions from the neighbour- 1922. Apart from citadel, the most impor-
ing regions. The Harappans were probably not tant public place here seems to be the Great
in a position to cope with invaders. One reason Bath. It is suggested that the Great Bath
was that they were more intent on carrying on served ritual bathing. The largest building
their trade and commerce rather than pursue an at Mohenjo-daro is a granary. We find here
adventurous career of fighting and conquest. evidence of horse from superficial level.
As a result, they found themselves to be infe- -CNKDCPICP It is situated in Ganganagar
rior in military prowess to the invaders. This is district in Rajasthan on the Ghaggar. Here
further strengthened by the marked paucity of we find traces of furrows in the pre-Harap-
means of defence both in respect of structural pan phase which show that the fields were
defences such as walls, forts, etc. and also in ploughed in Rajasthan in Harappan period.
regard to weapons. 4QRCT It is situated in the district of the
R.E.M. Wheeler has come out with the the- same name in Punjab on the banks of river
ory that there must have been a general mas- Sutlej. Here we find traces of both Harap-
sacre of the city population by the invaders. pan and post-Harappan cultures.
This theory appears to be confirmed by cer- .QVJCN It is situated on the Bhogava (Lim-
tain passages in the Rig Veda where God Indra rikobhogawo) in Ahmedabad district of
is exhorted to destroy the forts (puras) of the Gujarat. The most striking feature is the
enemy. Further, Indra is referred to as purandar discovery of an ancient dockyard here, con-
or the destroyer of forts. Wheeler suggests that nected through the Bhogava river with the
the forts referred to in the Rig Veda were the Gulf of Cambay. The devolution of Harap-
citadels found in Mohenjo-daro and Harappa pan culture at Lothal lends support to the
and that, the Rig Veda thus referred to the view that the civilization as a whole did not
attack of the Aryans on the inhabitants of the meet with a sudden and violent end. We
towns of the Harappa civilization. find a doubtful terracotta figuring of horse.
This theory was not found to be tenable. 4CPIRWTIt is situated on the Bhadar in Jhal-
First, there were no signs of large-scale invasion war district of Gujarat. Traces of pre-Harappa
1.28 Chapter 2
culture have been noticed. Here we find no %JCPJWFCTQ It is situated 80 miles south of
seal or the image of the mother goddess. Mohenjo-daro in the Sind province of Paki-
5WTMQVCFC It is situated in the Kutch dis- stan. Here we find traces of both pre-Harappan
trict of Gujarat. The remains of the horse cultures. It was a great centre of seal-making,
have been reported from here and belong to bead-making and bone-working.
around 2000 BC. -QV&KLK It is also situated in Sind in Paki-
#NCOIKTRWT It is situated on the Hindon stan. Here we find pre-Harappan culture
in Meerut district of Uttar Pradesh. It is the predominantly using stone tools.
eastern-most known limit of the Harappan #NK /WTCF It is also situated in Sind. A
culture. The site represents the last phase of massive stone fort has been found here.
this culture. 5WVMCIGPFQT It is the western-most known
$CPYCNKIt is situated in the Hissar district limit of this culture and is situated in south-
of Haryana. Here we find traces of both ern Baluchistan.
Harappan and pre-Harappan cultures. A &JQNCXKTC A new site ‘Dholavira’ has
good quantity of barley has been discovered been excavated near the Rann of Kutch in
here. Gujarat.
Important Facts to Remember

Harappan civilization covered an area of lower layer and Harappan civilization at
12,99,600 sq. metre. The area is triangu- upper layer.
lar in shape. No other ancient culture had Mohenjo-daro was spread in area of
such an extensive area. approximately one square mile. The great
Charles Merson was the first man to have public bath, a bronze statuette, a bounded
found Harappa-bricks in 1826. Alexander head in stone are the important finds from
Cunningham was the first man to excavate this urban centre.
ruins of Harappa in 1875. The towns of Harappan civilization were
Harappa was excavated in 1921 under the planned ones. They were surrounded
supervision of D.R. Sahni. R.D. Banerji by wall and have citadel. The town of
led the team which excavated Mohanjo- Dhaulvira is divided into three parts
daro in 1922. instead of two (which is common feature
Seven layers of Mohenjo-daro prove that of civilization).
city was destroyed and re-built at least Decorated bricks are used in flooring only
seven times. at Kalibangan.
R.S. Vishta is associated with excavations Harappa is known for cemetry (Kabristan)
of Banawali (1973–74) and Dhaulvira (in H, big halls and two male torsos in stone.
1990s). Fire pits (Agni Kunda) are found in Lothal
Credit for finding and excavating as well as in Kalibangan.
Rakhigarh goes to pro-Surajbhan. A dockyard-like structure is found in Lothal.
Lothal was excavated in 1957 under the The Harappan people cultivated nine
leadership of S.R. Rao. crops—rice (in Gujarat and Rajasthan),
Kalibangan was discovered by A.N. Ghosh six-row barley, cotton, wheat, peas, mel-
in 1953. ons, sesame and Brassica juncea
Excavation of Kalibangan provided evi- Humped bull was the most venerated ani-
dence of pre-Harappan civilization at the mal in Harappan civilization. Horse-bones
found from Surkotada prove that Gujarat Harappan civilization was chalcolithic and
domesticated them. people did not know about iron.
The Kalibangan people ploughed the agri- A copper mirror is an important find from
cultural land. city of Harappa.
No evidence of religious centre such as Unicorn animals were very popular and
temple has been found. figured on many seals.
The people of Harappa worshiped mother A toy chariot of copper was found from
goddesses. Their male deity was a proto- Harappa.
type of Lord Siva. Terracottas are mostly female figures.
The people worshiped ‘Pipal’ tree, humped Seals were made mostly of steatite.
bull, snake and other animals. Bead-making was an important craft.
The worship of female sex organ (Yoni) Bead-making shops are found in
and male phallus was in vogue. Chanhudaro and Lothal.
Harappan seals have been found in Kish, Textile manufacturing was known to
Susa and Nippur, the famous cities of Harappan people is proved by the fact that
Mesopotamian civilization. a piece of cloth is found in Mohanjo-daro.
A Persian seal was found in Lothal and a Harappan civilization was followed by
Mesopotamian seal in Kalibangan. Jhooker culture in Sind, yellow colour pot-
Harappan people knew the art of writing, tery culture in East Punjab, Western UP
but their script has not been deciphered as and Haryana and bright red colour pottery
yet. culture in Gujarat.
Exercise
Which is the first Harappan site to be The city of Mohenjo-daro covered an area
excavated? of
(a) Harappa (b) Mohan-jo-daro (a) 12 sq. km. (b) 14 sq. km.
(c) Chanhudaro (d) Sutkagendor (c) 7 sq. km. (d) 5 sq. km.
Which Harappan site is not found in Dhaulvira site was discovered in
Gujarat? (a) 1961–62 (b) 1971–72
(a) Dhaulvira (b) Lothal (c) 1981–82 (d) 1991–92
(c) Sotkakoh (d) Sutkagendor
Which of the following statements is not
Harappan site of Banwali is situated in correct?
(a) Western UP (b) Eastern UP (a) Harappan people worshiped
(c) Rajasthan (d) Haryana mother-Goddess
Harappa is situated on the bank of which (b) Harappan people worshiped
river? proto-Shiva
(a) Sindhu (b) Ghagger (c) Harappan people worshiped ‘Peepul’
(c) Ravi (d) Bias tree
(d) Harappan people did not worship
Which Harappan site is in Punjab?
animal
(a) Ropar
(b) Banawali Who is of the opinion that decline of
(c) Alimurad Harappan civilisation was caused by
(d) Manda natural calamities?
1.30 Chapter 2
(a) Wheeler The animal picturised on most seals is—

(b) K.U.R. Kennedy (a) Unicom
(c) S. Pigot (b) Humped bull
(d) None of the above (c) Jebu
Which of the following statements is (d) Buffalo
correct? Which metal was not known to Harappan
(a) Harappan civilisation was rural one people?
(b) Harappan civilisation was of iron-age (a) Gold and silver
(c) Harappan civilisation was calolithic (b) Tin
(d) Harappan civilisation belonged to (c) Iron
stone age (d) Copper
The great public bath at Mohanjo-daro has Match List-I of imports with the List-II of
dimensions of— the places from where they were imported
(a) 39′ × 23′ × 9′ by the Indus people. Choose the correct
(b) 38′ × 23′ × 8′ answer from those given—
(c) 39′ × 23′ × 8 .KUV+ .KUV++
(d) 38′ × 23′ × 9′
A. Silver 1. Rajasthan
Match the List-I with List-II and choose
the correct answer from those given— B. Tin 2. Iran
C. Lapis lazuli 3. Central Asia
.KUV+ .KUV++
D. Turquoisie 4. Afghanistan
A. Rangpur 1. Ravi
%QFGU
B. Kalibangan 2. Meedar
A B C D
C. Harappa 3. Ghagghar (a) 4 1 3 2
D. Kotdiji 4. Sindhu (b) 1 3 2 4
%QFGU (c) 4 2 3 1
A B C D (d) 2 1 4 3
(a) 2 3 1 4 A graduated scale on shell is found from
(b) 3 1 4 2 (a) Harappa
(c) 2 4 1 3 (b) Dhaulvira
(c) Lothal
(d) 4 2 3 1 (d) Mohan-jo-daro
The Indus people did not have trade rela- An ivory scale is found from
tions with— (a) Harappa
(a) Iraq (b) Central Asia (b) Mohanjo-daro
(c) Afghanistan (d) China (c) Lothal
Button size seals of Harappan civilisation (d) Kalibangan
have the symbols of Which of the following statement is not
(a) Fish correct?
(b) Swastik (a) The Indus people used faience to
(c) Srivatsa make beads, bangles, buttons, seals
(d) None of the above and amulets
(b) The Indus people made small orna- (a) Tin and Silver
ments of gold and used it in bead also (b) Bronze and Copper
(c) The Indus people were expert in (c) Iron
glass-making (d) Iron and Copper
(d) The Indus people made small vessels Small clay plastered pits known as ‘fire
of silver altars’ are found at
The Indus people obtained copper from (a) Harappa, Mohanjo-daro, Chanhudaro
(a) Baluchistan (b) Rangpur, Ropar, Rakhigarhi
(b) Baluchistan and South India (c) Kalibangan, Lothal, Banwali
(c) Baluchistan, South India and Arabia (d) Lothal, Rozdi, Sotkakoh
(d) None of the above places Harappan seals were made mostly of
In which position the deads were buried by (a) Steatite
the Harappan’s? (b) Red sandstone
(a) North-South position (c) Terracotta
(b) East-West position (d) Ivory
(c) Any position The male deity picturised on seal is sur-
(d) Did not bury rounded by
The decline of urban phase of civilization (a) Lion. Deer, Elephant, Buffalo
is evident from (b) Deer, Water-Buffalo, Tiger, Lion
(a) Disappearance of Harappa script (c) Tiger, Elephant, Rhinoceros. Buffalo
(b) Disappearance of Bronze tools (d) Deer, Rhinoceros, Tiger, Buffalo
(c) No more red ware pottery with black The common features of an urban site are
designs (a) Citadel, Granary’, Public bath,
(d) All of the above Houses
Cemetry H is situated in (b) Temple, Public bath, roads, drainage
(a) Mohanjo-daro system
(b) Harappa (c) Citadel, Granary. Drainage system,
(c) Lothal Residential place
(d) Rangpur (d) Citadel, Temple, Palace, Public bath
What are the dimensions of Harappan Evidence of more than one dead being
citadel? buried together is found from
(a) 420 m N/S × 196 m E/W (a) Harappa
(b) 424 m N/S × 200 E/W (b) Mohanjo-daro
(c) 420 m W/E × 196 m N/S (c) Lothal
(d) 424 m E/W × 200 N/S (d) Ropar
Which site was used as sea port for Which of the following Harappan sites has
trading? yielded the evidence of rice?
(a) Lothal (a) Chanhudaro
(b) Dhaulavira (b) Lothal
(c) Sutkagendor (c) Mohenjo-daro
(d) Rangpur (d) Mundigak
The Indus people made spearheads and With reference to the Harappan civiliza-
arrowheads of tion consider the following statements:
1.32 Chapter 2
(1) The city of Dhaulavira was in the The evidence of Indus people using
form of parallelogram guarded by a ‘shield’ and ‘Armour’ is found from
fortificatio (a) Harappa
(2) A ploughed-ficl , showing a grid of (b) Mohan-jo-daro
furrows, located outside the town-wall (c) Kalibangan
has been discovered at Kalibangan (d) None of the above
Which of the statement given above is/are Harappan people did not produce
correct? (a) Wheat
(a) 1 only (b) Barley
(b) 2 only (c) Pulse
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Cotton
(d) Neither 1 nor 2 The Harappan people had knowledge of
The camel whose bones have been found (a) Mixing tin with copper
in Indus region was— (b) Using spindle whorls to spin cloth
(a) Animal without hump (c) Using potter’s wheel
(b) One-humped animal (d) All the above mentioned techniques
(c) Two-humped animal
Which Harappan site is situated in
(d) None of these are correct
Rajasthan?
Which of the following was found at (a) Rangpur
Chanhudaro? (b) Rakhigarhi
(a) Bronze model of cart (c) Kalibangan
(b) Clay model of four wheeler (d) Banwali
(c) Bronze model of roofed chariot
Harappan script is similar to which script?
(d) All of the above
(a) Kharosthi
‘Stoneware’ bangles made of clay and grey (b) Brahmi
to black in colour are found from— (c) Dravid
(a) Lothal and Harappa (d) Devnagari
(b) Kalibangan and Harappa
(c) Lothal and Mohan-jo-daro Bead-making workshops are found in
(d) Mohan-jo-daro and Harappa (a) Lothal and Rangpur
(b) Lothal and Chanhudaro
The evidence of sea-shell working is found
(c) Chanhudaro and Harappa
at—
(d) Harappa and Kalibangan
(a) Dhaulavira, Balakot, Lothal,
Nageshwar The main Indus civilisation crops did not
(b) Balakot, Banawali include
(c) Dhaulavira, Nageshwar, Rangpur (a) Cotton (b) Wheat
(d) Harappa, Kalibangan (c) Barley (d) Sugarcane
Which system of counting was followed What are the heaviest and lightest weight
by Indus people? known to Indus people?
(a) Binary (a) 20 kg and 5 kg
(b) Decimal (b) 12.5 kg and 6.5 kg
(c) Binary and Decimal (c) 10.9 kg and 85.l cg
(d) None of the above (d) 9 kg and 90 cg
A citadel is not found in (c) Mohanjo-daro

(a) Chanhudaro (d) None of the above
(b) Harappa Radio-Carbon dating fixes the period of
(c) Mohenjo-daro Harappan civilisation from
(d) Sutkagendor (a) 3250–2750 BC
The evidence of ship or big boat has been (b) 2900/2800–2000 BC
found from (c) 2300–1700 BC
(a) Chanhudaro (d) 2000–1500 BC
(b) Lothal
Answer Keys
1. (a) 2. (d) 3. (d) 4. (c) 29. (a) 30. (c) 31. (c) 32. (c)
5. (a) 6. (d) 7. (d) 8. (d) 33. (b) 34. (c) 35. (c) 36. (d)
9. (b) 10. (c) 11. (c) 12. (a) 37. (d) 38. (a) 39. (c) 40. (d)
13. (d) 14. (b) 15. (a) 16. (c) 41. (c) 42. (d) 43. (c) 44. (c)
17. (a) 18. (d) 19. (c) 20. (c) 45. (b) 46. (d) 47. (c) 48. (a)
21. (c) 22. (a) 23. (d) 24. (b) 49. (c) 50. (b)
25. (a) 26. (c) 27. (b) 28. (c)
3
The Vedic Age
Origin were the Dravidians, who occupied the rest of
India. The language used the Indo-Aryans, i.e
The Vedic Aryans were not the first northern Vedic Sanskrit, is the oldest language of the
people to descend on India. Round-skulled world which has any written form available. It
skeletons of a Celtic type have been found belongs to the same linguistic family as Greek,
which pre-date them. The Aryan tribes were Latin, Breton, Lithuanian, Persian, and the
nomadic tribes of large blue-eyed men, doli- Germanic languages. As a result of successive
chocephalous, related to the Iranians, the invasions, this group of languages gradually
Achaeans, Celts, Ligurians, and other Ger- replaced the Dravidian basis of the Indo-Med-
manic peoples who gradually invaded west- iterranean languages, to which ancient Tamil,
ern Asia and Europe. The Indo-Aryan racial Sumerian, Georgian, Cretan, Etruscan, Egyp-
type exists in Kashmir, in Punjab between the tian, Tuareg, Basque, Albanian, Peuhl and oth-
Indus and the latitude of Ambala (76°46’ E), ers all belong.
and in Rajasthan. The men are usually tall, Climatic changes were probably respon-
fair-skinned, dark-eyed, long-headed, and sible for driving the Aryan pastoralists from
mostly comprise straight and prominent but their original homeland in Russia and central
not particularly long nose. The region, now Asia. According to The Cambridge History
occupied by people of this type, forms the of India, over large tracts of Asia, the cli-
eastern part of the vast territory colonized by mate has changed within the historical period.
the Aryans in the earliest historical period, that The rainfall has diminished or ceased and once
of the Rig Veda. These regions have since been fruitful lands have been converted into impass-
greatly re-Aryanized by Scythian and Parthian able deserts. Both Iran and Turkestan, the two
invasions. reservoirs from which the streams of migra-
According to the Puranas, the land was tion flowed into the Indus valley, have been
originally occupied by five races (vamsha), affected by this desiccation of the land. (Turke-
all descended from a common ancestor called stan), a region which once formed a means of
Yayati. According to Pargiter, the Vedic Indians communication not only between China and
called the Aryan race ‘Aila’. Arya, meaning India, but also between China and Europe, has
‘noble’, is only an adjective. The people speak- now become an almost insuperable barrier.
ing the Munda language were called ‘Sau- The same causes have tended to separate India
dyumna’. The ones who were called ‘Manva’ from Iran.
The Vedic Age 1.35
The separation of the Vedic Aryans and the era (fifth-centu y BCH). As presented in the
Iranians took place prior to 2800 BCE. Start- hymns of the Rig Veda, the Aryan occupants
ing from this period, the former began emi- were intellectually and materially rather unde-
grating progressively to modern Afghanistan veloped nomads. Their language, religion and
and the northwest of the Indian subcontinent social institutions were of the Indo-European
(modern Pakistan). According to Hindu chro- type, like those of the ancient Persians of the
nology, the separation between the Iranians Avesta and the Greeks of Homer’s poems.
and the Vedic Aryans took place almost one They were unskilled in the arcs and metal-
thousand years earlier. The Indo-Aryans came working. At the start, Aryan colonization was,
from Bactria, over the passes of the Hindu from many points of view, similar to the Inca
Kush into S. Afghanistan, and thence by Empire which was colonized by the illiterate
the valleys of the Kabul river, the Kurram and and fanatical Spanish adventurers. The whole
the Gumal rivers—all of them well known population was reduced to slavery (dasa),
to the poets of the Rig Veda—into the N.W. without any sort of civil rights.
Frontier Province and the Punjab. In the age In the Purusha-sukta—belonging to the
of the Rig Veda, they formed five peoples, later hymns of the Rig Veda—we find the first
each consisting of a number of tribes in which mention of a status being granted to slaves and
the women were of the same race as their hus- the employment of the term Shudra, as applied
bands. It may be certain, therefore, that the to slaves, considered to be a fourth caste in the
invasions were no mere incursions of armies, hierarchy of the Aryan state. The term, Shudra,
but gradual progressive movements of whole probably comes from the name of a non-Aryan
tribes, such as would have been impossible at people reduced to slavery that the Aryans had
a later date, when climatic causes had trans- started to recognize as having human status.
formed the physical conditions of the country. They could no longer be killed at will, but
The Aryans’ descent upon India was pro- were not allowed to better their condition on
gressive and very probably similar to the Mon- pain of the severest punishments. This state of
gol and Muslim invasions that, centuries later, affairs has lasted practically down to our own
transformed Indian civilization in exactly the times.
same way, destroying the great cultural centres Classical Sanskrit—as well as all the lan-
and monuments and imposing the language of guages of northern India, formerly known as
a rather primitive invader on people who were the Prakrits—derives from Vedic, the language
more culturally developed. The Aryan con- of the Aryan tribes. The main Prakrits spoken
quest was not always smooth. According to the today are Hindi, Bengali, Gujarati, Marathi,
Rig Veda (VII, 18, 33 and 83), the sage Vish- Punjabi and Sindhi, all of which are related to
vamitra himself led the Bharatas on an expedi- Sanskrit, but with different contributions and
tion against the enemy, but was defeated. admixtures from the previous languages of
India.
Establishment of Aryan The enslavement of the vanquished but
culturally more developed Munda and Dravid-
Domination ian peoples could not but influence the Aryan
The disaster represented by the Aryan con- language itself. Besides the introduction of
quest can easily be imagined by taking stock writing and the set of ‘cerebral’ letters, San-
of the fact that there is in India no monu- skrit and all the languages of India contain a
ment built dating from the period between great number of words and forms that bear
the end of Mohenjo-daro and the Buddhist no relation to the vocabulary and structure
1.36 Chapter 3
of Indo-European languages. The extraor- by performing the Asvamedha sacrifice. This

dinary development of Sanskrit as a literary story of the Rig Veda reflects the actual politi-
language, as well as the Aryans’ political and cal condition of the time.
cultural domination, led to the abandoning and The Rigvedic Aryans were fighting among
loss of almost all the works written in other themselves and against the original inhabitants
languages. Some ancient poetical and literary of the country. They needed leaders or chiefs.
works have survived, but only in the Tamil lan- In the Rigvedic period, monarchy was not the
guage, and they are unfortunately very few in only form of political organization; there were
number and of uncertain date. also republican institutions like Gana with
Ganapati at its head. But, undoubtedly these
tribal states were small in area and population.
Rigvedic Polity Possibly some kingdoms were large enough
The story of wars the gods fought against the to give considerable powers and resources to
Asuras bore the germs of worldly kings. The the reigning king. The king occupied a posi-
Rig Veda has reference to the word Rajan tion of high dignity and supremacy, which was
which means king. There was no formal state emphasized by a formal consecration and lau-
in the Rig Veda period which means these datory hymns. He wore a gorgeous dress and
kings were chiefs of their tribes. The strong- had a palace to live in. With king originated an
est among the chiefs was chosen to lead the administrative system in a nebulous form. The
tribe in war. The victorious chief consolidated king was the head of the administration. The
his position in the tribal polity, got a share of tribal kingdom was divided into several units
the spoils of war and loot, apart from the cattle like Jan, Vish and Gram. The village elders,
and property of the defeated tribe. The priests purohita and commander-in-chief helped the
helped them in times of war and emphasized king in running the administration. The other
their divine origin. The priestly class got dis- royal functionaries were spies, collector of
tinct status in society and was associated with information and ambassador. In later times,
royal administration. The Rig Veda tells the the royal bureaucracy was more expanded with
story of the battle of 10 kings. Possibly, it is the inclusion of charioteer, treasurer, supervi-
based on actual historical incident. In this bat- sor of royal household and the king’s adviser
tle, the Bharata chief Sudas, grandson of Divo- in chess.
das, fought against a confederacy of 10 tribes. The Rig Veda gives the impression that
The mention of the Purus, their former allies, kingship was hereditary. But there is clear evi-
as part of this confederacy indicates that polit- dence that when the situation demanded it the
ical alliances were temporary and shifting. members of settlements could select a worthy
Vishvamitra, the Bharata purohito, seems to monarch of their own choice from among the
have been replaced by Vasistha. In reply, Vish- members of the royal family or of the nobil-
wamitra joined the confederacy and fought ity. Geldner, however, believes that the selec-
against the Bharata chief. The great battle took tion by the members of the settlements merely
place on the banks of the river Parushni (Ravi). indicates formal sanction of a fait accompli.
The Bharatas won by breaking a natural dam But it cannot be denied that the people had a
on the river. Marching on to the Jamuna, they say in the selection of the king. The assemblies
defeated a local ruler. Sudas eventually settled called Sabha and Samiti formed an essential
down along the Saraswati and celebrated his part of the government. The Sabha seems to
victory and position of political paramountcy be an assembly of the elect, i.e. Brahmanas
The Vedic Age 1.37
and rich persons. The Samiti was an assem- were heading towards statehood. Larger polit-
bly of the people. It was an august body of ical units were formed through the coalesc-
the people to transact tribal business and was ing of tribes. The 2WTWU and $JCTCVCU came
presided over by the king. The exact powers together to form the mighty -WTWU 6WTXC
and functions of these two bodies cannot be UJCU and -TKXKU formed the 2CPEJCNU In the
defined. But it is probable that they exercised later vedic texts, we notice a transition from a
considerable authority and must have acted as tribal polity to a territorial state. Despite some
healthy checks on the power of the king. Great arguments to the contrary, it may be assumed
importance was attached to concord between that the territorial states emerged in the later
the king and the assembly and to the harmony vedic period. Witzel has argued that the earli-
among the members of the assembly. It may est state in India emerged under the leader-
have played an important role in the distribu- ship of Parikshit, the head of the Kurus. It was
tion of resources. The hymn of the Rig Veda he who initiated and codified the Vedic corpus
invokes such unity (assemble, speak together, into a canon.
let your minds be all of one accord). The vida- The emergence of the monarchy was
tha has been interpreted as a tribal assembly closely associated with speculations about its
with diverse functions. But actually, it seems origin and ideology. Its origin was attributed
to have been a tribal congregation to perform either to god or to humans. The gods real-
socioreligious rituals and ceremonies for the ized that they were defeated by the demons
well-being of the settlement. because they had no kings. So they elected
The king got bali, a tax, from the people a king who led them to victory. The later
and the defeated tribes. The common word for vedic texts give this impression that the gods
law was dharma. The king administered justice likewise elected Indra as their king who led
with the assistance of legal advisers including them to victory. A close connection between
the purohita. Possibly, crime was determined gods and kings was established. The kings
by ordeals. The king was not the owner of performed 8CLRG[C and 4CLUW[C sacrifices to
land, it was owned by individuals and families. propitiate the gods. There was no attempt to
Usury was not unknown. The Rig Veda refers trace the divine origin of kings but to exalt
to it with disapproval. their status only. The exaltation of the status
of the king resulted in distancing him from
his kinsmen. In chariot race, vajpeya sacri-
Vedic Polity fice and dice game, the king was always the
The Rigvedic period extended from 1500 victorious. The king had greater control over
BCE to 1000 BCE. From 1000 BCE to 500 the productive resources of the society. $CNK a
BCE is the later vedic period. The polity and voluntary offering, became compulsory later
society underwent tremendous change during on. The Vaishya had to pay bali because he
the later vedic period. The dominant politi- was under the protection of the TCLCP. The
cal feature of this period was the formation king lived off the produce of the people. But
of states. In the sixth century BCE, different it should be mentioned here that there was
political systems prevailed in north India. no organized and regular system of taxation.
Some were monarchical states, some were As earlier, the two popular bodies UCDJC and
oligarchic states ICPCU or UCPIJCU and some UCOKVK continued to function. 5CVCRCVJC$TCJ
were tribal principalities. While some com- OCPC tells us that the king solicited help from
munities retained their tribal character, others the sabha and samiti. But with the growth of
1.38 Chapter 3
royal power, the power of popular assemblies borrowed from the ancient Shaivite and Jain
must have declined. Dravidians. Even today, the idea that virtuous
The later vedic texts indicate that there was living is connected to vegetarianism (an idea
close relation between the king and his RWTQ that comes from Jainism) and respect for life
JKVC The royal administration had not yet fully (the life of the cow in particular—an idea that
developed. In the 4CLUW[C sacrifice, it was the comes from Shaivism) is so deeply anchored
purohita who introduced the king to the assem- in the popular concept of good and evil, that
bled monarchs. Kumkum Roy tells us that there even Christians or Muslims who wish to influ-
was a close connection between the emergence ence the Indian masses are obliged to practice,
of monarchical system and the social system. or pretend to practice, these ‘virtues’.
Just as the ITKJCRCVK presided over the entire The intoxicating drink of the Vedic Aryans
household so the king presided over his people was called soma. It is rather difficult nowa-
with full authority and power. The Brahmani- days to determine its nature, because the same
cal texts recognized that the king was the pro- name has probably been attached to differ-
tector of the entire social order. ent beverages at different periods. It is diffi-
cult to resist the impression that Soma was at
first a popular drink in India when the Vedic
Social Life Aryans first entered in this country; however
The Vedic Indians were carnivorous. They since they didn’t found the source to produce
cooked meat in earthen-ware or metal pots or Soma, they were compelled to find its substi-
spit-roasted it. As with the Homeric Greeks, the tutes. The popular drink was evidently sura,
slaughter of oxen was always in some degree a which seems to have been distilled from grain.
sacrificial act, and one specially appropriate It was extremely intoxicating and the priests
for the entertainment of guests, as the second regarded it with disapproval. Wine made from
name of the heroic Divodasa Acithigva, ‘the wild grapes was a drink utilized by Dionysian
slayer of oxen for guests’, and as the practice Shaivites. According to the descriptions of its
of slaying oxen at the wedding festival abun- preparation given in the Vedas, the soma used
dantly show. The Cambridge History of India in India was an unfermented drink, made of
goes on to say that there was no inconsistency Indian hemp or hashish. This drink is still
between this eating of flesh and the growing today a ritual and sacred drink called bhang.
sanctity of the cow, which was already in the It is the most important of the ancient bever-
Rig Veda, the epithet aghnya—not to be killed. ages sacred to Shiva. These drinks were, of
If this interpretation of the term is correct, it course, adopted by the Aryans, who no lon-
is merely a proof of the high value attached ger had access to the plants needed for their
to that useful animal, the source of the milk ancestral beverage. Bhang has a very special
which meant so much both for secular and for effect. It makes one’s perceptions more intense
sacred use to the Vedic Indians. and facilitates mental concentration. For this
In actual fact, however, the sacredness of reason, it is employed by Yogis. When the
the bull—Shiva’s vehicle—and later on of Greeks speak of the ‘wine’ used by the Indian
the cow, are of Dravidian origin. The sacred followers of Dionysus-Shiva, they are most
bull is represented many times on seals from probably alluding not only to grape wine, but
Mohenjo-daro. The sacred nature of the cow also to bhang, of which tasty drinks are made
and vegetarianism were notions that were that cause a very strange state of harmless
completely foreign to the Aryans; they were intoxication.
The Vedic Age 1.39
The music of the nomadic Aryans does not times, and in a cold environment, the loss
appear to have been very developed, but they of fire in the hearth could clearly have seri-
rapidly adopted autochthonous instruments. ous consequences for family safety and unity.
The Vedas mention percussion instruments, In most Indo-European languages, the term
stringed instruments and flutes. In the king- hearth has thus remained the symbol of the
dom of the dead where the god Yama reigns, family home.
the sound of the flute is heard. Drums were The destiny of the dead in the ancient
used to frighten the enemy in battle. Hymns Vedic religion is unclear. We know that they
were chanted. dwelled in a dark place where they conversed
with Yama, king of the infernal world. We
also know that they were buried; the current
Vedic Religion custom of burning the dead is perhaps due
The Vedic religion, brought by the Aryans to the Indian climate. Human sacrifice does
from Turkestan and the plains of Russia, is not appear to have been practiced in the early
related to the Persian religion, as well as to period of Vedic religion. However, the concept
the religions of Greece and northern Europe. that life after death must reflect the world of
The Vedic gods personified the forces of the living gave rise to the custom of burying—
nature—the Sky (Dyaus), the Sun (Surya), and later on burning—of widows together with
the Moon (Chandra), Fire (Agni), the Wind their husbands.
(Vayu), and so on—as well as knightly vir- The Aryans, sacred texts are called the
tues such as Friendship (Mitra), Honor Vedas—a word formed from the root word XKF,
(Aryamana), Justice (Shakra), and Knowl- meaning ‘to know’. Initially, they were trans-
edge (Vishnu). One of the features of Vedic mitted orally and were probably not written
mythology is that of grouping the gods in down until the Aryans had learned the use of
pairs, in particular Mitra and Varuna, and writing from contact with the earlier popula-
the twin gods, the Ashvins. There are also tions of India. There are four Vedas—the Rig,
groups of divine beings, such as the Maruts the Yajur, the Sama and the Atharva. They
(a troupe of young delinquent and tempera- are collections of hymns used during rites,
mental gods), Adityas (sovereign principals), addressed to various divinities. The names of
and Vasus (universal laws). The male ele- the authors of many of these hymns are known,
ment predominates in the Vedic pantheon, as but the texts themselves are considered to be
in Aryan society, and goddesses are but pale of divine inspiration and are deemed to be a
reflections of their husbands, except Aurora summary of all the knowledge revealed by the
(Ushas) and the Earth (Prithivi). gods to human beings. The first three Vedas
The centre of the Vedic rule is the hearth— are manuals of hymns used by the three main
the altar in the centre of the family dwell- classes of priests present at the sacrificial rites,
ing—where the fire is fed with offerings. This the yajnas.
fire must never go out. This feature of Vedic The most ancient of the Vedas is the Rig
religion must be a survivor from a remote era, Veda. The hymns it contains were primarily
in a northern environment, in which fire was composed shortly after the arrival of the Ary-
captured and domesticated by an ancient race, ans in northwest India, although some of these
the Ribhu, who thus transformed human life. If hymns may have already existed when the
the sacred fire went out, it was deemed a bad Aryans were still living in central Asia. In any
omen: the god has left the house. In ancient case, they retain a memory of their northern
1.40 Chapter 3
environment and its long winter nights. Many customs and ideas of the conquered peoples.
of the hymns make allusion to kings, and espe- At a religious and philosophical level, the
cially to the Indian people’s fierce resistance to Aryans adopted the gods, and more especially
the invaders. The ancient inhabitants of India the ideas, cosmology and metaphysics of the
are mentioned as dark-skinned demons, living ancient Indians. The Vedic religion absorbed,
in marvellous cities. incorporated and preserved the forms and rites
The Yajur Veda is divided into two parts, the of other cults. Instead of destroying them, it
white Yajur and the black Yajur. It was com- adapted them to its own needs. It borrowed so
posed after the Rig Veda and contains many much from the Dravidians and other indige-
pre-Aryan elements. The Sama Veda, a collec- nous population of India that it is very difficult
tion of chanted hymns, contains very few that to unravel the ancient Aryan elements from
are proper to it, most being chanted versions of the others. The very institution of priesthood,
the hymns of the Rig Veda and the Yajur Veda. the figure of the Brahman himself, was not,
Musical notation for these hymns existed according to Pargiter, an Aryan institution. The
from a very early date. Since the hymns are conception of the ‘priest’ was borrowed from
taught by complex oral methods, effecting any the Daityas, Danavas and Asuras—various
change in the text or intonation was almost names given to non-Aryans—who had been
impossible. This the reason why tradition of represented as having a demonic character.
Vedic chant has been preserved till date with- The indigenous influence also gave rise to the
out any major alterations or modernization of philosophical texts known as the Upanishads
the original. The Atharva Veda is very differ- that demonstrate an almost complete fusion of
ent from the other three. It deals mainly with Aryan and pre-Aryan thought. In the later texts
ritual elements borrowed from the indigenous of the Vedas and in the Upanishads, many of
religions and is characteristic of the Aryans’ the sages mentioned are ancient prophets of
assimilation of ancient Indian culture. philosophers of the indigenous Asuras, ‘the
The Atharva Veda is a heterogeneous collec- black men’ earlier represented as demons, to
tion of the most popular spells current among whom the same status was now given as to the
the masses, and its most salient teaching is sor- Aryan prophets.
cery. These features indicate that these songs Born from a fusion of Vedism and pre-
began with and embody the ancient beliefs and Aryan religions, Brahmanism spread rapidly
practices of the peoples whom the Ailas [Ary- as a formalist religion centred on increasingly
ans] subjugated, so that naturally the spirit that complex rites. The great sacrifices became a
breathes therein is that of a pre-historic age. very important part of Indian life, an expres-
Here we find a phenomenon that is character- sion of which can be found in the texts called
istic of Indian history. The texts that in their Brahmanas. The ashvamedha or horse sacri-
current version appear to be the latest are often fice—a rite that kings had to perform—devel-
the most ancient from the point of view of their oped into a series of ceremonies employing
content. thousands of priests for months and swallow-
When the Aryans invaded northern India, ing the greater part of state revenues. Sacri-
they encountered a highly developed urban fices sometimes became hecatombs. Priestly
civilization that astounded them. After cen- power dominated the whole of social life. By
turies of combat, during which the institu- the end of the pre-historical Aryan era, life
tions and beliefs of the ancient populations became an interminable ritual enterprise and
of India were held to be diabolical, magical prohibitions of all kinds of paralyzed human
and evil, the Aryans gradually absorbed the relations.
The Vedic Age 1.41
Exercise
The Rigvedic Aryans had no knowledge of %QFGU
(a) Gold A B C D
(b) Silver (a) 1 2 3 4
(c) Copper (b) 2 3 1 4
(d) Iron (c) 2 3 4 1
The three most popular gods of Rigvedic (d) 1 4 2 3
period were Which of the following is/are correct about
(a) Indra, Varun, Rudra the dasyus mentioned in the Rig Veda?
(b) Indra, Agni, Soma (a) They did not keep cattle for dairy
(c) Indra, Agni, Varun products
(d) Indra, Soma, Vayu (b) Possibly worshipped the Phallus
(A) is the statement of fact, (R) is the (c) The Aryan chief was soft towards
explanation or cause of it. Choose the cor- them
rect answer with the help of codes given. (d) Both (a) and (b)
(A) Cow is described in Rig Veda as ‘not Which of the following statement is not
to be killed’ correct?
(R) Cow was the backbone of Rigvedic (a) Niyoga was an accepted practice in
pastoral economy Rigvedic age
(a) (A) and (R) both are correct and (R) is (b) Women could attend ‘Vidath’ meetings
a correct explanation of (A) (c) Sati Pratha was prevalent in Rigvedic
(b) (A) and (R) both are correct but (R) is period
not a correct explanation of (A) (d) Indra was the most prominent God of
(c) (A) is correct but (R) is not correct Rigvedic period
(d) (A) is not correct but (R) is correct Match List I with List II and choose the cor-
The hymns of the Rig Veda were com- rect answer using the codes given below:
posed in .KUV+ .KUV++
(a) Bihar (b) Bengal
8GFCU
2WTRQUGU
(c) Punjab (d) Rajasthan
A. Rig Veda 1. Mantras having
Match List I with List II and select the cor- direct bearing on
rect answer using the codes given below: charms and spells
.KUV+ .KUV++ to be followed at the

6JGQTKGU
2TQRQWPFGTU time of Yajnas
A. Sapt-Sindhu 1. Dr. P. Giles B. Sama Veda 2. Hymns, aiming

at the occasion of
B. The North Pole 2. Shri K.N. ‘Soma’ sacrifice by
or Arctic Region Munshi a special class of
C. The Central 3. Bal Gangadhar priests
Asian Theory Tilak C. Yajur Veda 3. Hymns, giving
D. Austro- 4. Prof Max tribute to the differ-
Hungarian Muller ent objects of nature
1.42 Chapter 3
D. Atharva 4. Hymns relating to Match List I with List II and select the
Veda Veda popular beliefs answer using the codes given below the
and superstitions, lists:
guidelines to healing .KUV+ .KUV++
diseases, etc.
.CVGT8GFKE
4WNGTU
%QFGU -KPIFQOU
A B C D I. Gandhara A. Asvapati
(a) 3 2 1 4 II. Kekaya B. Aupanianyava
(b) 2 1 4 3 III. Kamboja C. Bhima
(c) 1 2 3 4 IV. Vidarbha D. Nagnajit
(d) 4 3 2 1 V. Nishada E. Nala
Which one of the following early Vedic lit-
%QFGU
eratures shows a strong disapproval on rit-
(a) 1-A, II-B, Ill-C, IV-D, V-E
uals and sacrifices and pay greater stress
(b) I-C, II-E, III-A, IV-D, V-B
on moral virtues and higher values of life?
(c) I-B, II-D, III-C, IV-E, V-A
(a) The Brahmanas (b) The Aranyakas
(d) I-D, II-A, III-B, IV-C, V-E
(c) The Upanishads (d) The Samhitas
Match List I with List II and select the cor- Which of the following assemblies was
rect answer using the codes given below: attended by women in the Rig Vedic
society?
.KUV+ .KUV++ (a) Sabha

8GFCPICU
/GCPKPIU (b) Samiti
A. Kalpa 1. Etymology (c) Vidatha
(d) Both (a) and (c)
B. Siksha 2. Phonetics
The XCLCRG[C was a rite meant for
C. Vyakarana 3. Religious practices
(a) The daily fi e sacrifices prescribed for
D. Nirukta 4. Astronomy the male householder
E. Chhandas 5. Grammar (b) Legitimization of the action of the
ruler’s position
F. Jyotisha 6. Metrices
(c) Asserting the strength of the ruler
%QFGU (d) Ensuring the prosperity of the realm
A B C D E F and the ruler
(a) 1 2 3 4 5 6 Which one of the following social groups
appeared towards the end of the Rig Vedic
(b) 3 2 4 5 1 6
period?
(c) 3 2 5 4 6 1 (a) Warriors (b) Priests’
(d) 3 2 5 1 6 4 (c) Slaves (d) Shudras
Who among the following was a highly The country Bharatavarsha was eventu-
honoured member of the Rig Vedic com- ally named after the tribe Bharata, which
munity? appears first in the
(a) Dasas (b) Carpenter (a) Rig Veda
(c) Metal-Workers (d) Weaver (b) Soma Veda
The Vedic Age 1.43
(c) Yajur Veda %QFGU

(d) Atharva Veda
A B C D
The term, rashtra, which indicates terri-
tory, first appears in (a) 1 2 3 4
(a) The Vedic Period (b) 2 3 4 1
(b) The Later Vedic Period (c) 3 4 1 2
(c) Mauryan Period
(d) Gupta Period (d) 4 j 2 1
Who among the following sections of arti- The idea of advaita is most clearly evident in
sans was entitled to the sacred thread cer- (a) The Brahmanas
emony even during the later Vedic times? (b) The Upanishads
(a) Potters (c) The Samhitas
(b) Weavers (d) The Aranyakos
(c) Chariot-makers Which one of the following means chief
(d) Carpenters queen in Later Vedic times?
Which one of the following animals was (a) Vavata (b) Mahishi
domesticated by the later Vedic people? (c) Parivrikti (d) Maya
(a) Camel Which of the following pairs is incorrectly
(b) Elephant matched?
(c) Lion (a) Sira–plough
(d) Tiger (b) Sita–furrow
Which of the following were the tribute- (c) Datra–sickle
payers in later Vedic times? (d) Surpa–axe
(a) Brahmana Match List I with List II and select the
(b) Kshatriyas answer using the codes given below the
(c) Vaishyas lists:
(d) Shudras
.KUV+ .KUV++
Which of the following are units of value

8CTPCU
)QFU
used in later Vedic Period?
(a) Niskha I. Brahmins A. Indra, Varuna.
(b) Satamana Soma and Yama
(c) Krishnala II. Kshatriyas B. Rudra, Manns and
(d) All of the above Vasus
Match List I with List II and select the cor- III. Vaishyas C. Agni and Brihaspati
rect answer using the codes given below: IV. Shudras D. Aditi, Savitri and
.KUV+ .KUV++ Ushas

1HHKEKCNU
9QTMU E. Pushan
A. Samgrahitri 1. Collector of Taxes %QFGU
B. Kshattri 2. Courier (a) I-C, II-A, III-B, IV-E
C. Dhagadugha 3. Treasurer (b) I-B. II-C, III-D, IV-A
(c) I-D, 1I-E, III-A, IV-B
D. Paiagala 4. Chamberlain (d) I-E. II-D. 1II-C, IV-A
1.44 Chapter 3
Which one of the following Vedic god- (R) The form of government in Rigvedic
desses personified decay, destruction and period was republican.
death? (a) (A) and (R) both are correct and (R) is
(a) Aditi (b) Nirtti a correct explanation of (A)
(c) Savitri (d) Aranyaxu (b) (A) and (R) both are correct but (R) is
Which of the following statement is not a correct explanation of (A)
correct? (c) (A) is correct but (R) is not correct
(a) Rigvedic religion was dominated by (d) (A) is not correct but (R) is correct
Goddess Which of the following Vedas was for
(b) Rigvedic Aryas worshipped in temple liturgical purposes?
(c) Yagya was not practiced in Rigvedic (a) Rig Veda (b) Sama Veda
period (c) Yajur Veda (d) Atharva Veda
(d) Gayatri mantra was addressed to
Savita The name of which of the Rig Vedic rivers
implies ‘fair dwellings’??
The word Kusidin used in the Satapatha (a) Suvastu (b) Sarasvati
Brahmana was a designation for the (c) Krumu (d) Kubha
(a) Usurer
(b) Bard #UUGTVKQP
# During the early Vedic
(c) Perfume-maker Age, cattle seem to have been tended by
(d) Outcaste common herdsman.
4GCUQP
4 Probably they were under the
Which one of the following vedic texts
common ownership of the members of the
makes the first and nearest attempt at the
tribe.
classification of the types of governments
of the later Vedic period? In the context of the above two statements,
(a) Aitareya Brahmana which of the following is correct?
(b) Satapatha Brahmana (a) Both (A) and (R) are true and
(c) Bnhadaranyaka Upanishad (R) explains (A)
(d) Kaushitaki Upanishad (b) Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) does
not explain (A)
The Rig Vedic samanas were probably (c) (A) is true but (R) is false
(a) Religious gatherings discussing vari- (d) (A) is false but (R) is true
ous metaphysical aspects The Vedic Sages said to have been born of
(b) Popular institutions conducting differ- jar were
ent types of tournaments I. Vashistha
(c) Ascetics renouncing worldly pursuits II. Kanva
and highlighting other worldliness III. Angiras
(d) Skirmishes taking places among the IV. Agastya
various Aryan tribes
Select the answer from the codes given
(A) is the statementof fact, (R) is the below:
explanation or cause of it. Choose the cor- (a) I and II (b) II and III
rect answer with the help of codes given: (c) III and IV (d) IV and I
(A) ‘Vidath’, ‘Sabha’ and ‘Samiti’, ‘Vaishya’ word is mentioned in Rig Veda—
assemblies representing or consisting of (a) Once (b) Twice
the people existed in Rigvedic period. (c) Thrice (d) Never
The Vedic Age 1.45
Who of the following represented the non- Vaisesika or the second school of philoso-
Aryan influence on Vedic religion? phy was interested in physics rather than
(a) Rudra and Dyaus in theology. Its legendary founder was
(b) Dyaus and Tvashtri Kanada. Its basic tenet is that nature is
(c) Tvashtri and Vishnu (a) timeless
(d) Rudra and Twashtri (b) finit
Who captured 10,000 women slaves from (c) atomic
various countries and gave them to his (d) nothingness
brahmana priest? Which of the following was the most com-
(a) Balbutha (b) Taruksha mon mode of carrying on trade?
(c) Purukutsa (d) Anga (a) Barter system
Which of the Vedic ornaments was worn (b) Cow was the unit of value in large-
exclusively by women? scale transactions
(a) Nishka (b) Rukma (c) Use of gold coin nishka as a measure
(c) Kurma (d) Khadi of value was also known
The only grain referred in Rig Veda is (d) It is not known
(a) Sugarcane (b) Barley During the later Vedic period, the eastern
(c) Wheat (d) Rice kings were known as
‘Black bronze’ is referred to in the (a) Samrats (b) Bhojas
(a) Rig Veda (b) Yajur Veda (c) Virats (d) Svarats
(c) Sama Veda (d) Atharva Veda Which among the following was not the
Which of the following were the different reason for the increase in king’s power in
tribal groups performing military func- later Vedic period?
tions during the Rig Vedic period? (a) Successful leadership of the kings in
I. Vrata war
II. Gana (b) Development of better military
III. Jana warheads
IV. Grama (c) Increase in the size of kingdoms
V. Sardha (d) Emergence of the idea of divinity in
kingship
Select the answer from the codes given
below: (A) is the statement of fact (R) is the
(a) I, II, III, IV and V explanation or cause of it. Choose the cor-
(b) I, II, III and IV rect answer with the help of codes given:
(c) I. II, IV and V (A) Rig Veda mentioned of Goddess
(d) II, III, IV and V ‘Usha’
According to one ritual of the later vedic (R) Rigvedic religion was influenced by
times, the king had to cat along with his religion of Harappa culture
people (vis) from the same place. This (a) (A) and (R) both are correct and (R) is
ritual was performed to ensure a correct explanation of (A)
(a) good harvest (b) (A) and (R) both are correct but (R) is
(b) growth of cattle-wealth not a correct explanation of (A)
(c) success in war (c) (A) is correct but (R) is not correct
(d) long life of the ruling king (d) (A) is not correct but (R) is correct
1.46 Chapter 3
Which of the following group of metals (a) Writings mention the Arabian Sea and
was known to Vedic people? the Indian Ocean
(a) Silver, iron, gold, copper, tin (b) Several Himalayan peaks are
(b) Silver and gold only mentioned
(c) Silver, iron and copper (c) Specific reference to the Bay of
(d) Gold and iron only Bengal
The governors in the later Vedic period (d) The Vindhyas are indirectly referred
were as to
(a) Adhyakshas (b) Akshavapas The two epics Ramayana and Mahab-
(c) Gramyavadin (d) Sthapatis harata mention a large number of impor-
Which one of the following state- tant kingdoms. Which one of these is not
ments about the agricultural practices of mentioned in them?
Rigvedic Aryans is not correct? (a) Kuru-Panchala
(a) They used fire to burn forests and (b) Videha
make land fit for cult vation (c) Kausambi
(b) Canals were dug and the use of manure (d) Magadha
was known Which of the following was not the subject
(c) The agricultural profession was not to study during Vedic period?
regarded as respectable (a) Arithmetic
(d) Knowledge of seasons promoted (b) Grammar
agriculture (c) Philosophy
Which one of the following was not known (d) Prosody
by the Vedic Aryans? Which was not the outcome of the sacrifi-
(a) Bricks cial rites:
(b) Painted grey ware (a) Kings were deprived of their wealth
(c) Agriculture which was given to priests as gifts
(d) Burnt bricks (b) It increased the power of the priest
Panchajana in Rig Veda referred to without whom the sacrifice could not
(a) Five tribes of Aryans take place
(b) Five tribes of non-Aryans (c) It resulted in some interesting by-
(c) Five heads of a village products such as mathematical knowl-
(d) Heads of fi e villages edge grew
Which of the following did not change in (d) Knowledge of animal anatomy also
the later Vedic Age from the Rig Vedic increased due to frequent sacrifice of
Age? animals
(a) Nature of worship Which one of the following abstract dei-
(b) Food habits, dress and amusements ties of the Vedic religion has been admired
(c) Agriculture was the prime occupation most in the Rig Veda?
of the populace (a) Apsaras (water nymphs)
(d) Both (b) and (c) (b) Sraddha (faith)
Which statement is false with regard to the (c) Ushas (goddess of dawn)
later Vedic period? (d) Gandharvas (aerial spirits)
The Vedic Age 1.47
Answer Keys
1. (d) 2. (c) 3. (c) 4. (c) 31. (b) 32. (d) 33. (b) 34. (a)
5. (c) 6. (d) 7. (c) 8. (a) 35. (a) 36. (d) 37. (a) 38. (d)
9. (b) 10. (d) 11. (b) 12. (d) 39. (d) 40. (c) 41. (b) 42. (b)
13. (d) 14. (d) 15. (d) 16. (a) 43. (c) 44. (c) 45. (a) 46. (a)
17. (b) 18. (c) 19. (b) 20. (c) 47. (a) 48. (d) 49. (a) 50. (a)
21. (d) 22. (c) 23. (b) 24. (b) 51. (d) 52. (c) 53. (d) 54. (a)
25. (d) 26. (a) 27. (b) 28. (d) 55. (d) 56. (a) 57. (c) 58. (c)
29. (a) 30. (a) 59. (a) 60. (c)
4
Religious Movements
Numerous religious sects arose in the middle the causes of the origin of new religions.
Gangetic plains in the sixth century BC. Many Vardhamana Mahavira who founded Jainism
of these sects were based on regional customs and Gautama Buddha who founded Buddhism
and rituals practised by different peoples liv- belonged to the kshatriya clan, and both dis-
ing in north-east India. Of these sects, Jain- puted the authority of the brahmanas.
ism and Buddhism were the most important, The Vedic philosophy had lost its original
and they emerged as the most potent religious purity and was reduced to a bundle of cumber-
reform movements. They protested against the some rituals. The rites and ceremonies were
tyranny of the priests, the ritualistic form of painfully elaborate and awfully expensive. The
religion, the brutality of caste, the dominance common man developed a great dislike, and
of Brahmins, etc. They advocated social equal- Buddhism preferred simple, puritan, ascetic
ity, justice and freedom for both men and living.
women; rejected the Vedas and the Vedic ritu- All the religious treaties were written in
als; denounced sacrifices and propagated the Sanskrit, which was the language of the elite
doctrines of non-violence, non-accumulation and not the masses. Mahavira and the Bud-
and love. Both these religions were only a new dha, on the contrary, explained to the people in
reformed form of Hinduism. simple intelligible spoken Pali or Prakrit, the
language of the common man at that time.
Causes of Origin Jainism and Buddhism initially did not
attach any importance to the existing varna
The varna divided society seems to have gen- system. They preached the gospel of non-
erated tensions. The supremacy of the Brah- violence, which would put an end to wars
manas created unrest. They had lost the old between different kingdoms and consequently
ideals and were no longer leading pure and promote trade and commerce. Hence, these
holy lives. The kshatriyas who acted as rulers, religions were supported by Vaishyas who
however, reacted strongly against the ritualistic were generally merchants.
domination of the brahmanas and seem to have
led a kind of protest movement against the
importance attached to birth in the varna sys- Jainism
tem. The kshatriya reaction against the domi- Vardhamana Mahavira was born in 540 BC
nation of the priestly class called brahmanas in a village near Vaishali, which is identical
who claimed various privileges was one of with Basarh in the district of Vaishali, in north
Religious Movements 1.49
Bihar. His father Siddhartha was the head Vardhamana. The earliest important teachings
of a famous kshatriya clan, and his mother of Jainism are attributed to Parshvanatha, the
was named Trishala, sister of the Lichchhavi twenty-third Tirthankara. Parshvantha was a
chief Chetaka, whose daughter was wedded prince who abandoned the throne and led the
to Bimbisara. Thus Mahavira’s family was life of a hermit.
connected with the royal family of Magadha.
High connections made it easy for Mahavira
to approach princes and nobles in the course Doctrines of Jainism
of his mission. Jainism taught fi e doctrines: (1) do not com-
In the beginning, Mahavira led the life of mit violence, (2) do not speak a lie, (3) do
a householder, but in the search for truth he not steal, (4) do not acquire property and
abandoned the world at the age of 30 and (5) observe continence (brahmacharya). It is
became an ascetic. He kept on wandering for said that only the fifth doctrine was added by
12 years from place to place. During the course Mahavira, the other four being taken over by
of his long journey, it is said, he never changed him from previous teachers. Although Parshva,
his clothes for 12 years and abandoned them the predecessor of Mahavira, had asked his
altogether when he attained omniscience (kai- followers to cover the upper and lower portions
valya) at the age of 42. Through kaivalya, he of their body, Mahavira asked them to discard
conquered misery and happiness. Because of clothes completely. This implies that Mahavira
this conquest, he is known as Mahavira or the asked his followers to lead a more austere life.
great hero of jina, i.e. the conqueror, and his On account of this in later times, Jainism was
followers are known as Jainas. He propagated divided into two sects—Svetambaras or those
his religion for 30 years, and his mission took who put on white dress and Digambaras or
him to Koshala, Magadha, Mithila, Champa, those who keep themselves naked.
etc. He passed away at the age of 72 in Jain doctrines have certain similarities with
468 BC at a place called Pavapuri near modern Samkhya and Buddhism. Reality, according
Rajgir. to Jainism, is uncreated, eternal and is char-
Jainism has great antiquity. The Jainas acterized by Jiva (souls) and ajiva (non-souls).
believed that their most important religious Jainas do not, therefore, believe in the exis-
teacher, Mahavira, had 23 predecessors who tence of a creator. Instead, they believe in
were called Tirthankaras. The names of two the existence of perfected souls. Jainism rec-
Jain Tirthankaras, Rishabha and Anshtanemi, ognized the existence of the gods but placed
are found in the Rig Veda. The Vishnu Purana them lower than the jina. It did not condemn
and the Bhagavat Purana describe Rishabha the varna system, as Buddhism did. Accord-
as an incarnation of Narayana. Thus, Jainism ing to Mahavira, a person is born in a higher
nearly is as old as the Vedic religion, if not or in a lower varna in consequence of the sins
older, though few of the scholars believe that or the virtues acquired by him in the previous
the male nude torso discovered from the Indus birth. Mahavira looks for human values even
Valley culture has something to do with the in a chandala. In his opinion, through pure and
Tirthankaras. meritorious life, members of the lower castes
There were 24 Tirthankaras (prophets can attain liberation. Jainism mainly aims at
or gurus), all Kshatriyas and belonging to the attainment of freedom from worldly bonds.
the royal family, though not strictly related It is not necessary to use any ritual for acquir-
to one another. The first was Rishabhanath ing such liberation. It can be obtained through
and the last (twenty-fourth) was Mahavira full knowledge and action. Pull knowledge,
1.50 Chapter 4
action and liberation are considered to be Mahavira. The Jain religion flourished by
the three gems or ratnas of Jainism. Jainism leaps and bounds.
attached the utmost importance to ahimsa or Udayin, the successor of Ajatashatru of
non-injury to living beings. Jainism prohibited Magadha, was a devout Jain and so were the
the practice of war and even agriculture for Nanda rulers. Ujjain was a great Jain centre
its followers because both involve the killing where saints like Kalkacharya and Gardb-
of living beings. Jainism advocated a life of hilla lived. The Jain order in the days of the
severe asceticism and extreme penance for the late Nanda kings was administered by two
attainment of nirvana or the highest spiritual Theras namely Sambhutavijaya and Bhadra-
state. bahu. Bhadrabahu, the greatest ever exponent
of Jain philosophy, composed Kalpasutra, the
Five Vows of Jainism most authentic treatise on the rise and devel-
The fi e vows of Jainism are: opment of Jainism from its birth to his time.
The earliest important teachings of facinism
(a) Ahimsa (non-violence)—violence should are attributed to Parshvanath, the twenty-third
not be caused by words, thoughts and Tirthankara. According to the Jain canons,
actions; Bhadrabahu spread Jainism in South India.
(b) Satya—one should speak the truth and The 14 Purvas (the textbooks of old Jain
only the truth; scriptures) which Mahavira himself had taught
(c) Asateya (non-stealing)—stealing (includ- to his Ganadharas were perfected by Samb-
ing weighing less or adulterating, etc.) in hutavijaya and Bhadrabahu. By the end of the
any form is bad; fourth century BC, there was a serious famine
(d) Aparigraha (non-possession)—wealth and in the Ganges valley, leading to great exodus
property in any form should not be accu- of many Jain monks to the Deccan and south
mulated; and India under the leadership of Bhadrabahu, but
(e) Brahmacharya (chastity)—all kinds of the rest of them stayed under the leadership of
passions, emotions and desires must be Sthulabhadra (the disciple of Sambhutavijaya).
put under control. The emigrant Jainas spread Jainism in south
In Jainism, the devotees (siddhas) have India. About 300 BC, Sthulabhadra called the
been classified into five categories, in the first Jain council in which the Jain canons were
descending order: compiled. Later in the first century AD, 10 com-
mentaries of these Angus were prepared and
(a) Tirthankara who has attained salvation, named Niryuktis. When Bhadrabahu returned
(b) Arhat, who is about to attain nirvana, to Magadha, he refused to acknowledge the
(c) Acharya, the head of the ascetic group, leadership of Stulabhadra. The Jain church
(d) Upadhyaya, teacher or saint and was then divided into two parts—Digambara
(e) Sadhu, class that includes the rest. and Shvetambara; the former are followers of
Bhadrabahu and remained nude, while the lat-
Sects of Jainism ter had adopted white garments. The second
Mahavira founded the Jain church. He had council was held at Valabhi in the fifth century
11 ardent disciples called Ganadharas, 10 AD by the Svetambaras under the leadership
of whom died in Mahavira’s lifetime. Only of Devaradhi Kshamasramana, and it led to the
one, Arya Sudharaman, survived and became final compilation of 12 Angas and 12 Upangas
the first Thera (pontiff) after the death of (minor sections) in Ardha-Magadhi language.
Contribution of Jainism Tower in the fort of Chittor is another speci-

men of architectural engineering. Innumerable
Jainism made the first serious attempt to miti-
manuscripts in palm leaves were written down,
gate the evils of the varna order and the ritual-
and some of them were painted with gold dust.
istic Vedic religion. The early Jainas discarded
These have given rise to a new school of paint-
Sanskrit language mainly patronized by the
ing known as the ‘Western Indian School’.
brahmanas. They adopted Prakrit, the lan-
Thus, Jainism has played a very significant
guage of the common people to preach their
role in the development of language, philoso-
doctrines. Their religious literature was writ-
phy, architecture, sculpture and painting in
ten in Ardhamagadhi, and the texts were final y
India. It never became a dominant religion,
compiled in the fifth century AD in Gujarat at
nor was it embraced by a large number of peo-
a place called Valabhi, a great centre of edu-
ple, and it never crossed the frontiers of India;
cation. The adoption of Prakrit by the Jainas
but its presence in Indian art and culture was
helped the growth of this language and its lit-
always felt and admired. The same is true to
erature. Many regional languages developed
this day.
out of Prakrit languages, particularly Saura-
seni, out of which grew the Marathi language. Royal Patrons of Jainism
The Jainas composed the earliest important
works in Apabhramsha and prepared its first Ashoka’s grandson Samprati had accepted
grammar. The Jaina literature contains epics, Jainism. In the second century BC, King Khar-
Puranas, novels and drama. avela of Orissa professed Jainism and became
In the early centuries of the Christian era, its illustrious patron. He set up several Jain
the Jains (like their Buddhist counterparts) images and his chief queen dedicated a rock
constructed stupas adorned with railings, cut cave to the Jain monks. In the first century
gateways with carved figures and pillars. The AD, Mathura became the centre of Jain art and
image of a Tirthankara from Lohanipur (Patna) culture.
dating back to the Mauryan period is one of From the fifth century AD onwards, many
the earliest Jain figures. The Hathigumpha royal dynasties of South India, such as the
cave of Kharavela (with its famous inscrip- Gangas, the Kadambas, the Chalukyas and the
tion) and the Khandagiri and Udaigiri caves of Rashtrakutas, patronized Jainism. It was dur-
Orissa contain early Jain relics. ing this period that the immortal poets Jinasena
During the Kushana period, Mathura was and Gunabhadra composed their Mahapurana.
a great centre of Jain art. Several votive tab- King Amoghavarsha of the Rashtrakuta family
lets (ayagpatta) with the Tirthankara in the became a Jain monk and wrote Ratnamalika, a
centre were produced. The practice contin- very popular book.
ued throughout, and a number of Jain images
were made during the Gupta period and after- Decline of Jainism
wards. The gigantic statues of Bahubali (called With the passage of time, many evils entered
Gomateshvara) at Shravanabelagola and the Jain faith. It was no longer a pure and
Karkala, both in Karnataka, are real wonders. pious religion. First, most of its enthusias-
The Jain temples were constructed at tic workers withered away. Second, the royal
all places of pilgrimage. The temples at patronage was not forthcoming. Third, the Jain
Ranakpur, near Jodhpur in Rajasthan, and the church was split again and again. Fourth, the
Dilwara temples at Mount Abu (Rajasthan) are caste system was revived with all its ills. Fifth,
the products of superb craftsmanship. The Jain the foreign invaders, first the Shakas and the
1.52 Chapter 4
Hunas and later the Muslims, gave it a serious Gautama Buddha passed away at the age of 80
setback. Last, the revival of Hinduism sounded in 483 BC at a place called Kusinagar, identi-
the death knell of Jainism. cal with the village called Kasia in the district
of Deoria in eastern Uttar Pradesh.
Buddhism Doctrines of Buddhism
Buddhism was the movement that gave the The Buddha proved to be a practical reformer
greatest challenge to brahmanism. It was who took note of the realities of the day. He did
started by Gautama Buddha. Gautama Buddha not involve himself in fruitless controversies
or Siddhartha was a contemporary of Mahavira. regarding the soul (atman) and the Brahma,
He was born in 563 BC in a Shakya kshatriya which raged strongly in his time; he addressed
family at Lumbini, Kapilavastu, which is himself to the worldly problems. He said that
situated in the foothills of Nepal. Gautama’s the world is full of sorrows, and people suffer
father seems to have been the elected ruler of on account of desires. If desires are conquered,
Kapilavastu and headed the republican clan of nirvana will be attained, i.e. man will be free
the Shakyas. His mother was a princess from from the cycle of birth and death.
the Koshalan dynasty. Thus, like Mahavira, The essence of Buddhism lies in the Four
Gautama also belonged to a noble family. Born Noble Truths (sanketas)—i.e. suffering, its
in a republic, he also inherited some egalitar- cause, its cessation and the path leading to
ian sentiments. the cessation of suffering. The way to nirvana
From his early childhood, Gautama showed (emancipation), in Buddhism, or the path that
a meditative bent of mind. He was married leads to cessation of suffering, higher wisdom
early, but married life did not interest him. and peace of mind, is known as the Noble
He was moved by the misery that people suf- Eightfold Path or the Middle Path (Ashtangika
fered in the world and looked for solution. At marga). This path is:
the age of 29, like Mahavira, he left home. He
kept on wandering for about seven years and 1. Right Understanding, free from supersti-
then attained knowledge at the age of 35 at tion and delusion (samma-ditthi).
Bodh Gaya under a pipal tree. From this time 2. Right Thoughts, high and worthy of the
onwards, he began to be called the Buddha or intelligent earnest man (samma-sankappa).
the enlightened. 3. Right Speech, kindly, open, truthful
Gautama Buddha delivered his first ser- (samma-vaka).
mons at Sarnath in Banaras. He undertook 4. Right Action, peaceful, honest, pure
long journeys and took his message far and (samma-kammanta).
wide. He had a very strong physique that 5. Right Livelihood, bringing hurt or danger
enabled him to walk 20 to 30 km a day. He kept to no living thing (samma-ajiva).
on wandering, preaching and meditating con- 6. Right Effort, in self-training and in self-
tinuously for 40 years, resting only in the rainy control (samma-vayamma).
season every year. During this long period, he 7. Right Mindfulness, the active, watchful
encountered many staunch supporters of rival mind (samma-sati).
sects including the brahmanas, but defeated 8. Right Concentration, earnest thought on the
them in debates. His missionary activities did deep mysteries of life (samma-samadhi).
not discriminate between the rich and the poor, The Buddha also laid down a code of con-
the high and the low and man and woman. duct for his followers on the same lines as was
He preached most of his sermons at Sravasti. done by the Jaina teachers. The main items in
this social conduct are: (1) do not covet the irrespective of caste and sex. The only condi-
property of others, (2) do not commit violence, tion required of the monks was that they would
(3) do not use intoxicants, (4) do not speak lie faithfully observe the rules and regulations of
and (5) do not indulge in corrupt practices. the sangha. Once they were enrolled as mem-
These teachings are common to the social con- bers of the Buddhist Church, they had to take
duct ordained by almost all religions. the vow of continence, poverty and faith. So
there are three main elements in Buddhism—
Special Features of Buddhism and Buddha, sangha and dhamma. As a result of
organized preaching under the auspices of the
the Causes of its Spread sangha, Buddhism made rapid strides even in
Buddhism does not recognize the existence of the lifetime of the Buddha. The monarchies of
god and soul (atman). This can be taken as a Magadha, Koshala and Kausambi and several
kind of revolution in the history of Indian reli- republican states and their people adopted this
gions. Since early Buddhism was not enmeshed religion.
in the clap-trap of philosophical discussion, it Two hundred years after the death of the
appealed to the common people. It particu- Buddha, the famous Maurya king Ashoka
larly won the support of the lower orders as it embraced Buddhism. This was an epoch-mak-
attacked the varna system. People were taken ing event. Through his agents, Ashoka spread
into the Buddhist order without any considera- Buddhism into Central Asia, West Asia and Sri
tion of caste. Women also were admitted to the Lanka, and thus transformed it into a world
sangha and thus brought on par with men. In religion. Even today, Sri Lanka, Burma, Tibet
comparison with brahmanism, Buddhism was and parts of China and Japan profess Bud-
liberal and democratic. dhism. Although Buddhism disappeared from
Buddhism made a special appeal to the peo- the land of its birth, it continues to hold ground
ple of the non-Vedic areas where it found a vir- in the countries of South Asia, South-East Asia
gin soil for conversion. The people of Magadha and East Asia.
responded readily to Buddhism because they
were looked down upon by the orthodox brah-
manas. Magadha was placed outside the pale Buddhist Councils
of the holy Aryavarata, the land of the Aryas, Buddhism made an important impact on soci-
covering modern Uttar Pradesh. ety by keeping its doors open to women and
The personality of the Buddha and the shudras. Since both women and shudras were
method adopted by him to preach his religion placed in the same category by brahmanism,
helped the spread of Buddhism. He tried to they were neither given sacred thread nor
fight evil by goodness and hatred by love. He allowed to read the Vedas. Their conversion
refused to be provoked by slander and abuse. to Buddhism freed them from such marks of
He maintained poise and calm under difficult inferiority.
conditions and tackled his opponents with wit Buddhism created and developed a new
and presence of mind. awareness in the field of intellect and cul-
The use of Pali, the language of the people, ture. It taught the people not to take things for
also contributed to the spread of Buddhism. granted but to argue and judge them on merits.
It facilitated the spread of Buddhist doctrines To a certain extent, the place of superstition
among the common people. Gautama Buddha was taken by logic. This promoted rationalism
also organized the sangha or the religious order, among people. In order to preach the doctrines
whose doors were kept open to everybody, of the new religion, the Buddhists compiled
1.54 Chapter 4
a new type of literature. They enormously India were probably those of the Buddha. The
enriched Pali by their writings. The early Pali faithful devotees portrayed the various events
literature can be divided into three categories. in the life of the Buddha in stone. The panels
The first contains the sayings and teachings of found at Gaya in Bihar and at Sanchi and Bhar-
the Buddha, the second deals with the rules to hut in Madhya Pradesh are illuminating exam-
be observed by members of the sangha and the ples of artistic activity. From the first century
third presents the philosophical exposition of AD onwards, the panel images of Gautama
the dhamma. Buddha began to be made. The Greek and the
The literary activities of the Buddhist Indian sculptors worked together to create a
monks continued even in the Middle Ages, new kind of art on the north-west frontier of
and some famous Apabhramsa writings in India, which is known as the Gandhara art.
east India were composed by them. The Bud- The images made in this region betray Indian
dhist monasteries developed as great centres as well as foreign influence. For the residence
of learning and can be called residential uni- of the monks, rooms were hewn out of the
versities. Mention may be made of Nalanda rocks, and thus began the cave architecture in
and Vikramashila in Bihar and Valabhi in the Barabar hills in Gaya and in western India
Gujarat. around Nasik. Buddhist art flourished in the
Buddhism left its mark on the art of ancient Krishna delta in south and in Mathura in the
India. The first human statues worshipped in north.
Exercise
Which is not a category of knowledge (a) (i), (ii), (iii), (iv)
according to Jainism? (b) (i), (ii), (iii)
(a) Shruti (b) Mati (c) (ii), (iii), (iv)
(c) Avadhi (d) Tantra (d) (i), (ii)
Who among the following unearthed the The Jains migrated to Mysore in fourth
ashes of the Buddha from their original century BC. Who led them?
resting place? (a) Sthoolbhadra (b) Harisena
(a) Ajatashatru (b) Kanishaka (c) Bhadrabahu (d) Sumati
(c) Kalasoka (d) Asoka
Match List I (Personalities) with List II
Jainism taught five doctrines. The fifth (Relationship with Mahavira) and select
doctrine of observing continence was the answer from the codes given bellow
added by the lists:
(a) Rishabhadeva
(b) Parshvanatha .KUV+ .KUV++
(c) Mahavira I. Chetaka, the A. Father ruler
(d) Both (b) and (c) Lichchhavi of Vaisali
From which of the following a Buddhist II. Siddhartha, B. Mother
monk had to refrain himself? the head of the
(i) Meraya and Majja Jnatrika clan
(ii) Taking solid food after midday
(iii) Use of garlands III. Cheliana, the C. Wife
(iv) Use of high or broad bed. Codes: Lichchavi princess
IV. Trishala, another D. Maternal (c) Sanchi

Lichchavi princess uncle (d) Amaravati
E. Niece Match List I with List II and select the cor-
%QFGU
.KUV+ .KUV++
(a) I-A, II-D, III-B, IV-E
(b) I-D, II-A, III-B, IV-C A. Birth of Buddha 1. Lotus and Bull
(c) I-E, II-A, III-C, IV-B B. Mahabhiniskraman 2. Stupa
(d) I-D, II-A, III-E, IV-B C. The first se mon 3. Asva
Kaivalya means D. Mahaparinirvana 4. Chakra
(a) Omniscience
%QFGU
(b) Omnipresent
A B C D
(c) Followers of Jainism
(a) 1 2 3 4
(d) Followers of Buddhism
(b) 2 3 1 4
Assertion (A): According to Jainism, full (c) 2 3 4 1
salvation is not possible to the layman. (d) 1 4 2 3
Reason (R): Hence monastic life is not Match the following:
essential for salvation.
(a) If ‘A’ and ‘R’ both are true and R justi- A. Nagarjuna 1. First century AD
fies A’. B. Asanga 2. Fourth to fifth
(b) If ‘A’ and ‘R’ both are true but does century AD
not justify ‘A’ C. Nagasena 3. First to second
(c) If ‘A’ is true and ‘R’ is false century AD
(d) If ‘A’ is false and ‘R’ is true
D. Vasubandhu 4. Fourth to fifth
Mahavir advocated as path of salvation— century AD
(a) Gyan %QFGU
(b) Bhakti A B C D
(c) Tap (a) 1 2 3 4
(d) All of three (b) 1 2 4 3
Which one of the following was not asso- (c) 1 3 2 4
ciated with Buddhism? (d) 4 3 2 1
(a) Buddhism does not recognize the Which of the following was/were not
existence of god and soul prohibited or condemned by Jainism?
(b) It particularly won the support of the (a) The practice of war
higher orders (b) The practice of varna system
(c) It used Pali, the language of the people (c) Belief in gods
for preaching (d) Both (b) and (c)
(d) It allowed women to join the sangha Women were admitted in Samgha for the
Among the following sites, sculptural evi- first time at?
dence regarding the first representation of (a) Veluvan
the Buddha in human form has come from (b) Jetavan
(a) Bharhut (c) Kutagrashala
(b) Mathura (d) Amravatika
1.56 Chapter 4
Which of the following languages was Jain literature has how many Angas?
adopted by Jainas to preach their doctrines (a) Seven (b) Twelve
to the common people? (c) Five (d) Fourteen
(a) Pali Mathura became the hub of Jain religion
(b) Prakrit during the reign of the
(c) Sanskrit (a) Mauryas
(d) Apbransha (b) Guptas
Pali Canon of the Sthavairavadin School (c) Kushanas
was committed to writing in Ceylon, in the (d) Parthians
reign of king. Which one of the following is incorrect
(a) Vattagammi about the teachings of Jainism?
(b) Kandy (a) They believed in Ahimsa
(c) Devanampiya Tissa (b) They did not believe in Karma and
(d) None of these transmigration of the soul
Mahavir’s Tapascharya is described in (c) They believed in attainment of
(a) Kalpsutra salvation
(b) Acharang Sutra (d) No faith in yajna, sacrifice and
(c) Kalpsutra-Acharang Sutra ritualism
(d) None of the two According to a late tradition, the spread of
Who was the author of the Jaina Kalpasu- Jainism in Karnataka is attributed to
tra, an invariable source for the early his- (a) Parshvanatha
tory of Jainism? (b) Mahavira
(a) Sthulabahu (c) Ashoka
(b) Bhadrabahu (d) Chandragupta Maurya
(c) Sambhutavijaya The Buddhist doctrine of Patichcha
(d) Devardhi Kshamasramana Samuppoda or dependent origination
In which ‘Anga’ are described the rules to is contained in which of the four Noble
be followed by monks? Truths?
(a) Sutra Kridanga (a) First
(b) Samavavanga (b) Second
(c) Sthananga (c) Third
(d) Ayarang (d) Fourth
The religious literature of Jainas was writ- The great famine of Magadha compelled
ten in many Jainas to go to the southern part of
(a) Devanagari India to protect themselves under the lead-
(b) Magadhi ership of
(c) Ardhnagri (a) Bhadrabahu
(d) Ardhmagadhi (b) Sthalbahu
The religious text of Jainas was finally (c) Parshava
compiled in sixth century AD at a place (d) Both (b) and (c)
called #UUGTVKQP The third precept of Buddhism
(a) Vaishali (b) Valabhi asks to refrain from perpetrating evil
(c) Baroda (d) Dara behaviour in passion.
4GCUQP Buddhist layman had to maintain Which of the following is chronologically
absolute celibacy. arranged?
(a) If ‘A’ and ‘R’ both are true and R justi- (a) Milinda Panha, Dipavamsa, Mahav
fies A’. amsa, Chulavamsa
(b) If ‘A’ and ‘R’ both are true but does (b) Milinda Panha, Mahavamsa, Dipava
not justify ‘A’ masa, Chulavamsa
(c) If ‘A’ is true and ‘R’ is false (c) Dipavamsa, Mahavamsa, Milinda
(d) If ‘A’ is false and ‘R’ is true Panha, Chulavamsa
Due to the great famine of Magadha many (d) Dipavamsa, Mahavamsa, Chulavamsa,
a Jaina moved to the South but the rest of Milinda Panha
them stayed back in Magadha under the At which place did Buddha practise the
leadership of most rigid austerities only to find that they
(a) Bhadrabahu were of no help to him in reaching his
(b) Sthalabahu goal?
(c) Parshava (a) Uruvilva
(d) Both (a) and (b) (b) Rajagriha
Match the following: (c) Kapilavastu
(d) Sarnath
A. Padmapani 1. Special attribute Who was the first thera, i.e. head of the
compassion Jaina Church after the death of Mahavira?
B. Manjusri 2. Stimulates (a) Jambu
understanding (b) Sambhutavijaya
C. Vajrapani 3. Foe of sin and evil (c) Sthulabahu
(d) Sudharman
D. Maitreya 4. Future Buddha
Jatak belongs to which Nikay?
%QFGU (a) Deegh
A B C D (b) Majjhim
(a) 1 2 3 4 (c) Samyukta
(d) Khuddak
(b) 1 3 2 4
#UUGTVKQP Yogachara school maintained a
(c) 1 2 4 3
thorough-going idealism.
(d) 1 4 3 2
4GCUQP Yogacharas rejected the realism
In order to sort out the differences and to of the lesser vehicle and also qualified
compile the main teachings of Jainism, a realism of Madhyamikas.
council was convened in (a) If ‘A’ and ‘R’ both are true and R justi-
(a) Vaishali fies A’.
(b) Pataliputra (b) If ‘A’ and ‘R’ both are true but does
(c) Gaya not justify ‘A’
(d) Karnataka (c) If ‘A’ is true and ‘R’ is false
Which one of the following words does (d) If ‘A’ is false and ‘R’ is true
mean ‘free from fetters’? Which one of the following was not
(a) Kevalin (b) Jina included in the ‘Noble Eightfold Path’ of
(c) Mahavira (d) Nirgranthas Buddhism?
1.58 Chapter 4
(a) Right exercise (d) Nigha Nikaya—Life story of Lord

(b) Right memory Buddha
(c) Right education One taking entry in Bauddha Samgha was
(d) Right meditation called
Match List 1 with List II and choose the cor- (a) Upasampada (b) Bhikkshu
rect answer using the codes given below: (c) Shraman (d) Anusavan
.KUV+ .KUV++ #UUGTVKQP
# The constitution of the

9QTFU
/GCPKPIU Buddhist monastery had elements of
democracy about it.
A. Silas 1. Transmigration 4GCUQP
4 The chief monk was
B. Sangha 2. Enlightenment appointed from above or nominated by
C. Sambodhi 3. Moralities predecessor.
(a) If ‘A’ and ‘R’ both are true and ‘R’ jus-
D. Samsara 4. Order of monks tifies A’
%QFGU (b) If ‘A’ and ‘R’ both are true but does
A B C D not justify ‘A’
(a) 1 2 3 4 (c) If ‘A’ is true and ‘R’ is false
(d) If ‘A’ is false and ‘R’ is true
(b) 3 3 1 4
‘Patimonkha’ deals with
(c) 1 3 4 2
(a) Education
(d) 3 4 2 1 (b) Propaganda
The first sermon of Gautam Buddha is (c) Discipline
called (d) None of these
(a) Mahabhiniskrama Certain sects of the Jainas renounced idol
(b) Dharma Chakra Pravartan worship altogether and devoted them-
(c) DhammaGhos selves to the worship of the scriptures
(d) Mahaparinirvana only. Identify them:
Arrange the following theras (heads) of (i) Teraphanthis
Jainism in chronological order: (i) Parsva- (ii) Verapanthis
natha (ii) Jainbu (iii) Mahavira (iv) Sud- (iii) Samaiyas
harman (iv) Ganadharas
Select the answer using the codes given Choose the answer from the codes given
below: below:
(a) iii, ii, i, iv (a) i, ii, iii
(b) i, iii, iv, ii (b) i, ii, iv
(c) i, iii, ii, iv (c) i, iv
(d) i, ii, iii, iv (d) ii, iv
Which one of the following pairs is not Which is not a source of knowledge
correctly matched? according to Jainism?
(a) Vinaya Pitaka—The book of discipline (a) Pratyaksha
(b) Sutta Pitaka—The book of discourses (b) Anuman
(c) Abhidhamma Pitaka—The collection (c) Sayings of Tirthankar
of books on abstruse philosophy (d) Vedas
According to the Svetambara Jainas, the %QFGU

original text of doctrine taught by Maha- A B C D
vira was (a) 1 2 3 4
(a) Angas (b) Mula (b) 4 3 2 1
(c) Sutra (d) Purvas (c) 2 4 1 3
Which sect represents the developed form (d) 4 2 3 1
of Tantrik Buddhism? The first disciples of Gautam Buddha was
(a) Hinayan (a) Kaundinya (b) Rahul
(b) Mahayan (c) Anand (d) Devabrat
(c) Vajrayan Which one of the following languages was
(d) None of these adopted by Hinayanism for preaching?
‘Abhyanter’ tap means in Jainism (a) Pali
(a) Giving up juice (b) Prakrit
(b) Meditation (c) Sanskrit
(c) Routine of a monk (d) Apabhransha
(d) Fast
#UUGTVKQP Jainism is associated with
Which one of the following is a commen- spread of urban culture.
tary on the Digha Nikaya? 4GCUQPThey imposed base on accumula-
(a) Dipavamasa tion of private property.
(b) Lalitavistara (a) If ‘A’ and ‘R’ both are true and ‘R’ jus-
(c) Netti Prakaran tifies A’
(d) Sumangal Vilasini (b) If ‘A’ and ‘R’ both are true but does
Which Buddhist sect believed in Tantra not justify ‘A’
and Hathayoga? (c) If ‘A’ is true and ‘R’ is false.
(a) Hinayana (d) If ‘A’ is false and ‘R’ is true
(b) Mahayan The first human statues worshipped in
(c) Vajrayan India were probably those of the
(d) None of these (a) Mahavira
Match List I with List II and select the cor- (b) Buddha
rect answer using the codes given below: (c) Shiva
(d) Vishnu
.KUV+ .KUV++ The chief virtues developed by Bodhisat-

%QWPEKNU
*GCFGFD[ tvas were known as
A. First Bud- 1. Asvaghosha and (a) Avichi
dhist Council Vasumitra (b) Paramitas
B. Second Bud- 2. Moggaliputta Tissa (c) Pranidhana
dhist Council (d) None of the above
C. Third Bud- 3. Division of Buddhist Followers of Buddha who lived a family
dhist Council church as Sthaviras life were called
and Mahasamghikas (a) Upasaka
(b) Anusavan
D. Fourth Bud- 4. Mahakassapa sapa (c) Upsampada
dhist Council (d) Gahapati
1.60 Chapter 4
Which of the following is correct about the In the first council at Rajagriha, who
code of conduct prescribed for Buddhist among the following recited vinya pataka
monks? and suttapitaka, respectively?
(a) They cannot accept gold and silver and (a) Upali and Asanga
they cannot take to sale and purchase (b) Upali and Ananda
(b) The debtors were permitted to be (c) Asanga and Ananda
members of the sangha (d) None of them.
(c) The slaves could join the Sangha Which school of painting is famous for
(d) Shudras were not allowed to be mem- Jain paintings?
ber of Sangha (a) Pahari (b) Apbhramsh
Who persuaded Gautam to admit women (c) Rajput (d) None of these
in Samgha?
(a) Anand and Yasodhara The Buddhist concept of the universe has
(b) Yashodhara and Gautami Prajapati commonality with teaching of
(c) Anand and Gautami (a) Heraclitus
(d) Gautami and Devbrat (b) Heracitus
(c) Heraslitus
Gahapatis of which of the following places
(d) None of them
were said to have paid 16,000 coins to
Jivaka? Who presided over second Jain Sangeeti?
(a) Saketa, Banaras (a) Sthoolbhadra
(b) Banaras, Sharavasti (b) Haribhadra
(c) Saketa, Champa (c) Jamali
(d) None of these (d) Devaridhikshama sarman
No Bauddha Sangeeti was held at which ‘Vikramsila’ was a monastery of
place? (a) Mahayana (b) Hinayana
(a) Rajgriha (b) Vaishali (c) Vijrayana (d) None of these
(c) Sarnath (d) Pataliputra
In Jain philosophy, Pudgal refers to
Who among the following did not patron- (a) Divine element
ize the cause of Buddhism? (b) Physical element
(a) Chandragupta Maurya (c) Spiritual element
(b) Ashoka (d) None of these
(c) Kaniska
(d) Marsha The clear division of Buddhism in Hinayan
and Mahayan took place during the regime
The Pipal tree under which Gautam
of
received ‘Buddhatva’ was cut by the order
(a) Mauryas (b) Shungas
of which king?
(c) Kushans (d) Guptas
(a) Mihirkula
(b) Toraman Match List I with List II and select the cor-
(c) Pushyamitra Sunga rect answer using the codes given below:
(d) Shashanka
.KUV+ .KUV++
Which place is not famous for Buddhist
architecture? A. Birth of Buddha 1. Sarnath
(a) Bharhut B. Buddhatva 2. Budh Gaya
(b) Saranath C. The first Se mon 3. Kusinagar
(c) Mathura
(d) Sanchi D. Death of Buddha 4. Lumbinivan
%QFGU Match the following using codes:

A B C D
A. Vajrachedika1. Metaphysical
(a) 1 2 3 4
Writing
(b) 4 2 1 3
(c) 4 3 2 1 B. Sukhavativyuha 2. Describing glo-
(d) 3 2 4 1 ries of Amitabha
C. Karandavyuha 3. Glorifies
Madhyamika Karika, the basic text of Avalokitesvara
Madhyamika School, was compiled by D. Astasahasrika 4. Spiritual
(a) Nagarjuna Prajnaparamita perfections of
(b) Nagasena Bodhisattva
(c) Nagananda %QFGU
(d) None of them A B C
Deegh Nikay deals with (a) 1 2 3
(a) Dialogues of Gautam Buddha (b) 1 2 4
(b) Rules and regulations of Buddhism (c) 1 4 2
(c) Life story of Gautam Buddha (d) 1 3 2
(d) Lives of Bodhi Satvas Which two of the four kings listed below
#UUGTVKQP
# Jainism failed to attract the were on friendly terms equally with Vard-
masses. haman Mahavira and Gautam Buddha?
4GCUQP
4 It could not clearly mark I. Bimbisara of Magadha
itself out from the Brahmanical religion. II. Prasenajit of Kosala
(a) If ‘A’ and ‘R’ both are true and ‘R’ jus- III. Pradyota of Avanti
tifies A’. IV. Ajatashatru of Magadha
(b) If ‘A’ and ‘R’ both are true but does Choose the correct answer from the codes
not justify ‘A’ given below:
(c) If ‘A’ is true and ‘R’ is false (a) I and III (b) I and IV
(d) If ‘A’ is false and ‘R’ is true (c) II and III (d) III and I
Answer Keys
1. (d) 2. (d) 3. (c) 4. (a) 41. (b) 42. (b) 43. (d) 44. (a)
5. (c) 6. (d) 7. (a) 8. (c) 45. (c) 46. (c) 47. (c) 48. (d)
9. (c) 10. (b) 11. (b) 12. (a) 49. (d) 50. (c) 51. (b) 52. (d)
13. (a) 14. (b) 15. (d) 16. (b) 53. (c) 54. (b) 55. (a) 56. (a)
17. (a) 18. (c) 19. (b) 20. (d) 57. (a) 58. (b) 59. (b) 60. (a)
21. (d) 22. (b) 23. (b) 24. (c) 61. (a) 62. (c) 63. (a) 64. (c)
25. (b) 26. (d) 27. (b) 28. (a) 65. (a) 66. (d) 67. (c) 68. (b)
29. (c) 30. (b) 31. (a) 32. (b) 69. (a) 70. (a) 71. (d) 72. (c)
33. (d) 34. (a) 35. (a) 36. (d) 73. (b) 74. (c) 75. (b) 76. (a)
37. (d) 38. (a) 39. (c) 40. (d) 77. (a) 78. (a) 79. (a) 80. (c)
5
Mauryan and
Post-Mauryan Empire
The Mauryan Period and ethical system. These edicts cover a very
large scope, defining the nature and broader
Sources of Mauryan History application of Dhamma. They were located at

C 'RKITCRJKECN'XKFGPEG Kalsi (Dehradun), Girnar (Gujarat), Yerragudi
(Andhra Pradesh), Mansehra (Pakistan),
James Princep deciphered the Brahmi Sopara (Bombay), Dhauli and Jaugada (both
Script of Ashokan rock edicts in 1837. in Odisha) and Shahbazgarhi (Pakistan in
The edicts were mainly inscribed on rocks Kharosthi). Two separate Kalinga rock edicts
and pillars, hence they are known as rock are located in Dhauli and Jaugada (Orissa).
edicts and pillar edicts. Sometimes called Edicts XV and XVI, they
These inscriptions were installed in promi- substitute for three Edicts, i.e. XI on char-
nent places. The pillar edicts were installed to ity and kinship of mankind, XII on religious
commemorate events of some significance. tolerance and XIII on the Kalinga war and
The rock edicts are generally found in the change of heart. Girnar seems to be an
prominent places such as major travel important site for edification as inscriptions of
routes, near towns and religious sites so as Skandagupta and Rudradaman have also been
to catch the attention of people at large. found here. The inscriptions at Mansehra and
The Buddhist Ceylonese chronicles, Dipa- Shahbazgarhi are in Kharosthi script. Separate
vamsa and Mahavamsa, helped in identify- edict describes Ashoka’s paternal concept of
ing Piyadassi as King Ashoka. monarchy.
Firuz Shah Tughlaq apparently shifted the
Topra and Meerut pillars to Delhi. The Minor Rock Edicts
Allahabad pillar was originally located at
Minor rock edicts are concentrated in the
Kausambi. The Bhabra/Bairat pillar was
South and Central parts of the Empire. They
moved to Calcutta by Cunningham.
highlight Ashoka’s activity as Buddhist lay dis-
ciple, i.e. personal history of Ashoka, and also
Fourteen Major Rock Edicts represent the summary of Dhamma. The edict
Inscribed on large boulders, they represent an found at Kandahar is bilingual, being inscribed
exposition of Ashoka’s principle of government in Greek and Aramaic. Minor Rock Edict III
Mauryan and Post-Mauryan Empire 1.63
(Bairat) is addressed to the Buddhist clergy. these caves by Ashoka to the sect of the
The title most commonly adopted by Asoka in Ajivikas.
his edicts is Devanampiya Piyadasi (beloved The latest discovery of three more Ashokan
of the Gods). minor rock edicts was made from Sannati
village in Gulbarga district of Karnataka.
Seven Pillar Edicts

D .KVGTCT[5QWTEGU
The pillar edicts are found at Delhi-Topra,
Delhi-Meerut, Ram-purva, Lauriya-Araraj, The Arthashastra: This work, in Sanskrit, is
Lauriya-Nandangarh and Allahabad-Kosam. a comprehensive treatise on statecraft and
The Ashokan Pillar at Allahabad contains public administration. The work is attrib-
two later inscriptions (one of the Gupta ruler uted to Kautilya, the Prime Minister of
Samudragupta—Prayaga Prasasti written by Chandragupta. It is the most important lit-
poet Harisena describing his conquests and erary source for the Mauryas as it provides
another of the Mughal Emperor Jahangir). The clear and methodological analysis of eco-
complete set of seven edicts is found at only nomic and political conditions of the Mau-
one place—Topra. All the pillars were carved ryas. It deals with the kingship, govern-
out of Chunar Hills, and from here they were ment, state, war and peace and diplomacy.
dispatched to the different parts in the empire. It is divided into 15 Adhikaranas or books,
The pillar edict VII is the last edict to be issued 150 chapters, 180 Prakaranas (chapters)
by Asoka. and 6000 verses in all.
The Jataka stories of the Buddha’s previous
lives tell us about the prevalent social and
Other Edicts and Inscriptions economic order.
Queens Edict on the Allahabad Pillar there The Ashokavadana and Divyavadana con-
is reference regarding Karuvaki, mother of tain information about Bindusara, about
Tivala/Tivara, the second Queen. Ashoka’s expeditions to Taxila to suppress a
Bhabra Edict found at Bairat in Rajasthan; rebellion and about his conversion to Bud-
it reflects Ashoka’s reverence for Buddhism dhism.
and his faith in Buddha, Dhamma and The Dipavamsa (compiled between third
Sangha. century BC and AD fourth century) and
Nigalisagar Pillar is an important refer- Mahavamsa (written in the AD fifth
ence that the Stupa of Buddha Konakamana century) are Sri Lankan chronicles that
(Kanakamuni) was enlarged. describe in detail the role played by Ashoka
Rummindei Pillar depicts that Ashoka vis- in spreading Buddhism in Sri Lanka.
ited Lumbini (the birthplace of Buddha) A commentary on Mahavamsa, known
and reduced the land tribute to one-eighth as Mahavamsatika, or Vamsatthapakasini
of the produce. composed in about the AD tenth century
Schism Edict at Kausambhi (the Allahabad contains information about the origin of the
Pillar), Sanchi and Sarnath refers that all Mauryas.
dissenting monks and nuns were expelled. The Jaina work Sthaviravali Charita or
The cave inscriptions of Ashoka have Parisisthaparvan of Hemachandra (a
been found in the Barabar hills (known as biography of Chanakya) provides very
Khalatika hill during the time of Asoka) interesting information on Chandragupta
near Gaya. They tell about the donation of Maurya, such as his early life, conquest of
1.64 Chapter 5
Magadha, famine in Magadha and conver- Megasthenes stated that famine never
sion to Jainism. occurred in India and that there has never
Mudrarakshasa of Visakhadatta (AD fourth been a general scarcity in the supply of
century), a drama in Sanskrit, gives an nourishing food. However, the absence of
account of the prevailing socioeconomic famine cannot be taken as true.
conditions. It also mentions Chandragupta The king remained in the place under the
Sabha (Council). It says that Chandragupta protection of armed female guards. Hunt-
was ‘the king all over Jambudvipa’. ing was the principal royal amusement.
Rajatarangini of Kalhana, Kathasaritasagar
of Somadeva and Brihatkathamanjari of The Dynastic History of Mauryas
Kshemondra also provide information
about the Mauryas. Emperor Reign Starts Reign Ends
Chandragupta 321 BC 298 BC
Information by Megasthenes Maurya
Megasthenes compiled his account about Bindusara 298 BC 273 BC
Mauryan India in Indica. Megasthenes had Ashoka, The 268 BC 232 BC
two great difficulties, which he failed to over- Great
come. First, he lacked in critical judgment and Dasaratha 232 BC 223 BC
second being ignorant of Indian language, he
Samprati 224 BC 215 BC
failed to grasp the true meaning of certain San-
skrit words and fell into confusion. Salisuka 215 BC 202 BC
Some important information provided by Devavarman 202 BC 195 BC
Megasthenes are: Satadhanvan 195 BC 193 BC
King was the pivot of the administrative Brihadratha 193 BC 187 BC
superstructure.
Megasthenes represents the king as hard- Chandragupta Maurya
working person. In 305 BC, Chandragupta again moved towards
The king was assisted by councillors and northwest for a campaign against Seleucus
assessors who were small in number but Nikator, which ended with the treaty of 303
very influential. BC in favour of the Mauryas. Chandragupta
The king employed a large body of spies. gave 500 elephants to Seleucus, and in return
Criminal law was severe. One of the recog- Seleucus gave him eastern Afghanistan, Balu-
nized punishments was mutilation. chistan and the area west of the Indus. Accord-
Death was awarded for injuring the royal ing to Appain, there was a matrimonial alli-
artisans. ance between Chandragupta and Seleucus.
Megasthenes is wrong in saying that Indi- Seleucus sent an ambassador called Megas-
ans had no written law. thenes, according to Athenacus.
Apart from regular pay, the state supplied The Girnar record refers to Chandragupta
its soldiers with arms and equipments. viceroy or governor, Pushyagupta (brother-in-
Four horses usually drew the chariots. law of Chandragupta) who is said to have con-
Broadsword was the principal weapon. structed the famous Sudarsana Lake. There are
Javelins, bows and arrows were additional some epigraphic evidences about Chandragupta
arms. control over the parts of Karnataka.
According to the Jaina tradition (Parisist- Ashoka

haparvan of Hemachandra), Chandragupta
In the Puranas, he is referred to as Ashokavard-
embraced Jainism towards the end of his life
hana. According to V Smith, ‘Ashokavardhana’
and stepped down from the throne in favour of
was the personal name of Ashoka and Piyadasi
his son, Bindusara.
his title. In the Girnar inscription of Rudrada-
Chandragupta went to South India with
man (AD 150), he is mentioned as Ashoka,
Bhadrabahu, the Jaina saint. At Sravana Bel-
the Maurya. In the Calcutta-Bhabra inscrip-
agola, he spent the rest of his life and died
tion, Ashoka refers to himself as Piyadasi Raja
in the orthodox Jain way by slow starvation
Magadha, i.e. Piyadasi, the king of Magadha.
(Sallekhana). According to the chronology of
In this edict, he states his acceptance of the
the Mauryas given in the Puranas, Chandra-
Buddhist creed, the faith in the Buddha, the
gupta ruled for 24 years and his rule ended in
Dhamma and the Sangha.
either BC 301–300 or 298–297.
In Rock Edict V, Ashoka mentions offi-
cers’ superintending the welfare of the fami-
Bindusara lies of his brothers, sisters and other relatives.
According to the Buddhist sources like Asho-
Chandragupta Maurya was succeeded by his
kavadana, Ashoka’s mother was Subhadrangi.
son Bindusara. In a Chinese text, he is men-
Sri Lankan chronicles mention Ashoka’s
tioned as Bindupala. Bindusara was known to
mother as Dharma. According to Mahavamsa,
the Greeks as Amitrochates (derived from the
Ashoka’s chief queen for most of his region was
Sanskrit word Amitraghata or slayer of foes) or
Asandhimitta. After the death of Asandhimitta,
Amitrakhada (Devourer of foes). Strabo calls
Tissarakkha\Karuvaki (responsible for injuring
him Amitrochates.
the Bodhi tree) was raised to the rank of chief
According to Romila Thapar, Bindusara
queen. Padmavati (mother of Kunala) is referred
extended Mauryan control in the peninsular
to in the Divyavadana as the Queen of Ashoka.
region of India as far south as Mysore. Accord-
Sanghamitra and Charumati are mentioned as
ing to Taranatha, the Tibetan Buddhist monk
the daughters of Ashoka. Charumati is said to
who visited India in the sixteenth century, Bin-
have married Devapala (a Kshatriya of Nepal).
dusara conquered 16 states, comprising the
Samprati (son of Kunala) and Dasaratha finds
land between the two seas: (presumably the
mention as the grandsons of Ashoka.
Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal). The descrip-
After ascending the throne, Ashoka spent
tion of early Tamil poets of the Mauryan chari-
several years in extreme pleasure and came to
ots thundering across the land probably refer
be called ‘Kamasoka’. This was followed by a
to his reign. The far south, however, only rec-
period of extreme wickedness, which earned
ognized the Mauryan suzerainty and did not
the name of ‘Chandasoka’. Finally, his con-
actually form its part. Bindusara had contacts
version to Buddhism earned him the name
with Antiochus I, the Seleucid king of Syria,
‘Dhammasoka’.
whose ambassador Deimachus was said to
have been at his court.
Buddhist sources suggest the death of Bin- Successors of Ashoka or Later Mauryas
dusara around 273–272 BC. After his death, Jaluka, son of Ashoka, is famous in Kashmir
there was a struggle for succession among history as a propagator of Shaivism and per-
his sons for about 4 years. Ultimately, around secutor of Buddhists. Puranas mention that the
269–268 BC, Ashoka was crowned Bindusara’s Mauryan Empire lasted 137 years (90 years
successor. for first three Mauryas). The division of the
1.66 Chapter 5
Mauryan Empire followed Ashoka’s death. five members. The head of city administration
Kunala (son of Ashoka), according to Bud- was Nagrika. Rakshi looked after the people’s
dhist legends, was rendered blind. Dasaratha, security. He also mentions about ‘Agronomi’,–
like Ashoka, is said to have adopted the title the officers who looked after irrigation and
of Devanama-Priya. Samprati (grandson of roads. War administration was also looked
Ashoka) mentioned in Matsya Purana was after by six committees of five members each,
converted to Jainism by Suhastin. Samprati which looked after Infantry, Cavalry. Chariot,
had managed to unite the empire in 223 BC Elephants, Navy and Supplies. There were two
and ruled from Ujjain and Pataliputra. assemblies:
According to Puranas, Salisuka suc- Paura—representing the capital
ceeded Samprati. Gargi Samhita states that Janapada—representing villages
his rule was very oppressive. The successor
of Salisuka, mentioned as Somavarman or The state also helped its citizen during natural
Devavarman, ruled for 7 years. The last two calamities like floods, famines, etc. Medicine
kings of the Mauryan dynasty were Satad- and medical help were also made available
hanvan and Brihadratha. Bana’s Harsha- by the state. The Arthashastra mentions that
Charita and Vishnu Purana both mention the the king should look after orphans, old unat-
treacherous assassination of Brihadratha (the tended persons, etc. An important aspect of
last Mauryan ruler who ruled for 7 years) by public works was the laying down and repair
Pushyamitra Sunga. This marked the end of of road and opening inns. The Ashokan edicts
Mauryan Empire in 185–184 BC. state that the king ordered the planting of trees
to provide shade, digging of wells to quench
thirst, building of rest houses to offer shelter
The Administration of Mauryas
and such other welfare activities.
The state, according to Kautilya, is consti-
tuted of the Saptanga or the seven elements
Officers in the Mauryan
viz Svamin (king), Amatya (minister or high
officials), Janapada (territory or population), Administration
Durga (fort), Kosa (treasury), Bala (army) and Mahamatyas—Prime Minister, the most
Mitra (friend or Ally). important officer.
The Mauryan administration was highly Amatyas—the highest administrative and
centralized. For the sake of administrative judicial officials.
convenience, the empire was divided into five Sitadhyaksha—supervised agriculture.
provinces: Uttarpatha–capital at Taxila, Avanti– Panyadhyaksha—superintendent of
Ujjain, Dakshinpatha–Suvarnagiri, Kalinga– commerce.
Tosali and Prachi–Patliputra. The governors Navadhvaksha—superintendent of ships.
of these provinces were called ‘Kumaras’. Akaradhyakshas—superintendent of mining.
Provinces were divided into districts. Head of Lakshandhyaksha—superintendent of mint
districts were known as Pradesika. The below Samaharta—chief revenue collector.
districts were blocks of five villages called Sannidhata—chief treasury officers.
Gopa with Sthanika as head. The smallest unit Guddhapurushas—secret agents.
of administration was village. The head of the Rajukas—looked after the administration
village was known as Gramin. According to of justice (appointed by Ashoka).
Megasthanese, the administration of Patliputra Espionage system—women bodyguards
was carried out by six committees, each having were appointed by the king.
Revenue Administration was Kumara. Mahamattas and a council of

ministers in turn assisted the Kumara. Prov-
Kautilya has listed different resources from
inces were divided into ‘divisions’ headed by
where revenue fl wed into the state treasury and
‘Pradestris’ or Pradesikas who had no advisory
about 21 types of taxes. Samaharta supervised
councils. Divisions were divided into ‘districts’
revenue collection for the entire kingdom. The
under officials called Rajukas. He was assisted
revenue collected was mostly spent on the main-
by Yuktas in accounting and secretary works.
tenance of the army, war, public works, religious
Districts were in turn divided into group of fi e
donations and gifts, official s salary, kings per-
or ten villages headed by Sthanikas who were
sonal expenses, etc. Gamblers had to part with 5
assisted by Gopas. The lowest administrative
per cent of their winnings to the state. Merchants
unit was the village headed by Gramani. Their
had to pay when their weights were tested and
functions included demarcating village bound-
certified by state officials. Revenue also came
aries and maintaining records of land used for
from Armament industry and salt trade (both
various purposes. The Junagarh inscription
were monopoly of state). The state was also
mentions Tusaspa, a yavana as a governor of
empowered to impose taxes in case of emer-
Junagarh area during the time of Ashoka. The
gency. Sanidhatta was in charge of the treasury.
council of ministers at the provincial level
According to Rummindei pillar inscription, the
acted as check on the local governor.
Village of Lumbini was exempted from Bali and
was to pay only 378th of the Bhaga. Provinces Capital
Uttarapath Taxila
Different Types of Taxes
Avanti Rashtra Ujjain
Bhaga Land revenue (one-sixth) Kalinga Pranta (eastern Toshali
Bali Additional tax province)
Chorarajju Tax collected for the search Dakshinapath Suvarngiri
of thief Central province Pataliputra
Pranaya Emergency tax
Pindakara Collected annually from the Classification of Villages According
entire village to their Status
Praveshya Import duty 2CTKJCTCMC Village, free from taxes
Nishkramya Export duty #[WFJKC Which provided army corps
Senabhaktam Tax for army, from the region *KTCP[C Which provided taxes in the form of
through which it passed grains, animals and gold
Sulka Custom duty -WR[CU Which provided raw material
8KUJVK Which provided forced labour
Vishti Forced labour
Hiranya Probably a tax paid in gold The Economic Pattern of the
Udaybhagakal Irrigation tax Mauryas
There were multiple forms of land ownership
Provincial and Local Administration in the Mauryan slate. Stale land was called Sila
The empire was divided into fi e provinces. kept under Sitadhyaksha. The Bhaga (land tax
The head of the provincial administration one-sixth) was the main source of income for
1.68 Chapter 5
the state. It was collected directly by the King’s commodity. Punched marked coins mainly of
officials, without intermediaries. Arthashastra silver and copper were used. Pana was the sil-
suggests increase in during the time of emer- ver coin. Masika and Kakini were the coins of
gency. Custom and ferry charges were levied. copper. Gold coins were absent. Arthashastra
The land of the village was divided into cat- used the term ‘roop’ for coins and ‘Roopsutra’
egories of high, middle and low quality for for the text on coinage. The most common
the purpose of assessment. State made seri- symbols were the elephant, mountain and
ous efforts to establish new agricultural set- the tree. A toll tax of one-fifth of the value of
tlements. State provided facilities of irrigation commodity was levied. Important cities were
by constructing and maintaining reservoirs, Ujjain, Pataliputra, Kapilavastu, Rajagriha and
tanks, canals and wells. Sravasti. Important ports were Bhirukachchha
(in Gujara), Tamralipti, Sopara, etc. The main
Terms Related to Land exports were spices, pearls, diamonds, cotton
textiles, ivory works, etc. The main imports
Kshetraka Owner of land consisted of horse, gold, and glass. Balance of
Upawas Tiller of land trade was in favour of India.
Important internal trade routes were:
Adevamatrika Land that can produce 5QWVJŌ9GUVTQWVG Sravasti to Pratisthana
without rain
'CUVŌ9GUV TQWVG Taxila to Pataliputra, most
Warta Term used for agricul- important also referred to as Royal Highway
ture, trade and animal 5QWVJŌ'CUVTQWVG Sravasti to Rajagriha
husbandry
Aratani Instrument used for
measurement
The Social Structure Under Mauryas
Krishta Cultivated land The gap between the Vaishyas and Sudras
became narrower during this period. Megas-
Akrishta Uncultivated waste land thenes testifies to the growing practice of
Kedara Fields having crops polygamy; employment of women as palace
Vata Plantations of sugar cane guards, bodyguards of the kings, spies, etc.
Shanda Plantation of fruit
and permission of widow remarriage and
divorce. Ashoka appointed a special group of
Vivita Pasture land for catties Mahamattas who would be concerned mainly
Mula-Vapa Fields used for growing roots with the welfare of women. These officer
like ginger, turmeric, etc. were called Ithijhakha Mahamattas. Bud-
Drovya Forest factories dhist text as well as Arthashastra confi ms the
Vanakarmanth existence of slaves. Slavery was legally rec-
ognized, and law defined the rights and duties
of slaves and their masters. The outcastes
Trade and Commerce or Hinajah, who were considered impure
External trade was carried on with many coun- because of their nature of occupation, are also
tries particularly with the Hellenic world and mentioned. ‘Arsha’ form of marriages were
Burma (Suvarnabhumi). External trade routes popular in Mauryan society. ‘Madhu’ (sweet)
were mainly along the coasts and land routes. and ‘Asava’ (dry) were the two types of wine
Trade tax was one-fifth of the total value of the in common use.
According to Megasthenes, there were Terms of Ashoka’s Dhamma

seven classes in India:
Apichiti Respect towards
(i) The Philosopher, comprising Brah- teachers
manas and Buddhist Sramanas con- Avihimsa Bhutanam Non-injury to living
stituted first class. creatures
(ii) The second class was constituted by Anarambho Non-killing of living
the agriculturist peasants who formed Prananam beings
the majority.
Apavyayata apab- Non-accumulation of
(iii) The third class was of herdsmen, handata cha wealth
hunter and shepherds.
Bhava-Suddhi Purity of heart
(iv) The fourth class was of artisans and
traders. Susrusa Obedience to par-
ents, teachers
(v) The fifth class was of soldiers and
warriors. Sampratipati Proper treatment
(vi) The sixth class included the magis- towards ascetics and
friends
trates or superintendents.
(vii) The seventh class formed the council- Mardavam Mildness
lors and assessors. Dhammarali Morality
Satyam Truthfulness
Types of Slaves Mentioned in Danam Charity
Arthashastra
Dandapranita
The Mauryan Art
Dhvajahuta In the Mauryan period, stone culture emerged
Dayagat as the principal medium of Indian arts—e.g.
Vdardasa Ashoka’s monolothic pillars. The artistic
remains of the Mauryan period come under the
Grihajata
following heads:
Lubdh
Krita (a) Stone pillars: made of two types of
Atmavikrayi stones—red and white sandstone from
Ahitak Mathura and buff-coloured hard sand-
stone from Chunar (near Banaras). Most
important pillar is at Sarnath (four lions
Terms Related to Women standing together and stately figures of
Chandvasini: Widow who chose to lead a four animals—lion, elephant, horse and
secluded life without getting remarried. bull) in relief on the abacus the inverted
Adhyavidha: Prosperous women who lived lotus and the sacred Dharma Chakra (with
independently after being widow. 24 spokes)—all indicate a highly advanced
form of art. Ashoka pillar at Rampurva
Kirtskara: Women ascetics (referred in has the Bull Capital.
Arthashastras) (b) Stupas: The main purpose of building
Roopajiva: Prostitutes a Stupa was to enshrine some relics of
1.70 Chapter 5
Buddha or the Bodhisattvas, the great (iv) Milind Panho

Buddhist monk. The best example of the (v) Gargi Samhita
Stupa is the Stupa at Sanchi. Ashoka built (vi) Malvika-Agnimitram of Kalidas
more that 84,000 stupas all over India and (vii) Mahabhasya of Patanjali
Afghanistan. He enlarged the stupa of (viii) Periplus of the Erythrean-sea
Kanakamana, a ‘former Buddha’. (ix) Geography of Strabo
(c) Caves: Earliest evidence of cave archi- (x) Natural History of Pliny and
tecture in India comes from the Mauryan (xi) History of Tibet by Lama Taranath.
period. The caves primarily served as
residence for monks of churches and The Indigenous Ruling Dynasties
assembly halls. Caves in Barabar hills Sungas
are the finest examples of cave architec-
Their capital were Patliputra and Vidisha.
ture belonging to Ashoka and Nagarjuni
Information about the Sunga dynasty is
caves (three in number) to his grandson
found in Gargi Samhita, The Mahabhasya of
Dasaratha. Lomas Rishi and Sudama Cave
Patanjali, Divyavadana, Malavikagnimitra of
were denoted by Ashoka to Ajivikas.
Kalidasa and the Harshacharita of Bana.
(d) Palaces: Excavations have revealed a Royal
Palace in a ruined condition near Kumrahar. Pushyamitra Sunga
Fa-Hi en, the Chinese traveller (during
Chandragupta Vikrarnaditya’s time), men- He was the founder of Sunga dynasty
tions the beauty of Ashoka’s palace. who assassinated the last Mauryan king
Brihadratha in 180 BC. This is corroborated
by Bana. Pushyamitra Sunga’s family had held
Post-Mauryan Period the Viceroyship at Ujjain or the neighbour-
ing province of Vidisa under the Mauryas.
Sources Pushyamitra also faced an invasion of Khar-

C #TEJCGQNQIKECN5QWTEGU vela, the king of Kalinga as well. The Sunga
For the first time during this period, kingdom at the beginning comprised of the
coins were associated with the kings entire Ganga valley, parts of Northern India
and Indo-Greeks were the first Indian and Vidisha. The Sungas are usually regarded
Kings who issued coins in their names. as Brahmin belonging to the Bharadvaja
Some inscriptions are: (i) Junagarh clan. The Ayodhya inscription of Dhanadeva
inscription of Rudradaman which was credits Pushyamitra with the performance of
the first big inscription in Sanskrit, (ii) the Asvamedha sacrifices. Buddhist sources
Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela, claim that he persecuted the Buddhists. The
(iii) Ayodhya inscription of Dhanadeva, Buddhist tradition as preserved in the Divya-
(iv) Nasik inscription of Gautami vadana depicts Pushyamitra as a destroyer of
Balashri, (v) Kanheri inscription of Buddhist monasteries and places of worship.
Vasishtaputra Puluamayi and (vi) Land However, Sanchi Stupa was repaired and
Grants issued by Satavahana kings. Bharhut Stupa was constructed fully in the
time of the Sungas.

D .KVGTCT[5QWTEGU
(i) Divyavadana Successors of Pushyamitra
(ii) Lalitavistara #IPKOKVTC The Puranas assigned a reign of
(iii) Arya Manju Shri Mool Kalpa 36 years to Pushyamitra who was succeeded
by his son Agnimitra, the hero of Kalidasa’s Alexander’s generals. Yavanas, as known in the
Malavika Agnimitram. Indian literature, were the first invading people
5WL[GUVJC Agnimitra was succeeded by in the post-Mauryan period.
Sujyeshtha, identical with Jethamitra of the Greek expansion in India was definitely
coins. the work of Demetrius I. He was perhaps the
8CUWOKVTC Sujyeshtha was succeeded by first foreign king after Alexander who carried
Agnimitra’s son Vasumitra who was soon mur- Greek arms into the interior of India. He made
dered by Muladeva (ruler of Kosala). Sakala his capital and renamed it Euthydemia
in memory of his father. The title Aniketus is
Chetas (Chedis) inscribed on his coin. Demetrius I advanced
The first known king of this dynasty was towards India along with his second son
Mahameghavarmana. The greatest and the Demetrius II and his general Menander. He
most powerful king of the dynasty was Khar- left Bactria-Sogdiana under the control of his
vela, the descendent of the Mahameghavar- eldest son Euthydemus II. Demetrius I soon
mana. His capital was Kalinganagara. The took control of Gandhara and Taxila. He made
only source of information about the king Taxila his advance base. Demetrius II was put
Kharvela is the Hathigumpha inscription writ- in charge of territories between the Hindu-
ten in Prakrit language and Brahmi script. The kush and the Indus. Demetrius I sent two sec-
inscription has 17 lines out of which only four tions of his armies for further conquest. One
are legible that records the first 13 years of section was sent to Pataliputra and the other
the reign of Kharvela. In the fifth year of his section southward down to Indus. The Mahab-
reign, Kharvela extended the old canal con- hashya of Patanjali and the Yuga Purana of
structed by the Nandas from Tanasuli to Kalin- Gargi Samhita mention that the Greek overran
ganagar. Kharvela is said to have defeated the Panchala country, besieged Madhyamika
Bahasapatimitra, captured the fortress of (Nagari Chittor) and Saketa (Ayodhya) and
Garathgiri and recovered an image of a Jaina even threatened Pataliputra. Menander was
saint from Magadha that had been previously placed in Pataliputra and Apollodotus at Ujj-
carried away from Kalinga by Mahapadma ain. In 171 BC, Eucratides rebelled in Bactria
Nanda. He is also credited with the construc- and Demetrius lost his life in an unsuccess-
tion of a magnificent temple at Bhuvaneshwar. ful bid to overthrow the usurper. Amongst all
In the ninth year of his reign, Kharvela built the Indo-Greek kings Menander was the most
‘Mahavijaya Prasad’ (place of Great Victory) famous.
on both the banks of the river Prachi, in order
to commemorate his victories in the North. Menander
In the thirteenth year of his reign, Kharvela
He had his capital at Sakala, and during the
undertook many welfare schemes like building
period of his rule, the Indo-Greek power
caves for the Jaina monks in the Udaigiri hills,
extended from the Swat Valley to Punjab as far
i.e. Hathigumpha and Ranigumpha caves.
as the Ravi River. His coins have been located
as far as Kabul in the North and Mathura near
The Foreign Ruling Dynasties Delhi. His coins represent him in all stages of
Indo-Greeks his life, from youth to the old age. However,
After the fall of the Acliaemenid rule in Iran Menander is best known from the Pali work
and the death of Alexander, Iran and the Milinda Panho (question of Milinda), which
neighbouring areas passed under the rule of is in the form of a dialogue between Milinda,
1.72 Chapter 5
the king of Sakalo (Sialkot), and Nagasena. a Saiva. On his later coins, he calls himself
Kshemendra (AD eleventh century) makes Maharajadhiraja.
a respectful mention of Menander in his Wima Kadphises, also known as Yen Kao
work Avadanakalpalata. Menander died in Chan, succeeded his father. He adopted the
an attempt to recover Bactria. When he died, title Maheshwar and ruled from AD 64 to 78.
many cities desired to get a share of his ashes, During his reign, India had brisk trade with
as they had done at the death of the Buddha. China and Roman Empire.
There was another Indo-Greek king called
Apollodotus, whom classical writers men- Coins by Wima Kadphises
tion in association with Menander. His son, Kadphises II became an ardent follower
Strabo I, was a minor at the time of his death, of Saivism (The Pasupata creed) and pro-
so the kingdom was governed by Menander’s claimed himself as Mahishvara on his
wife Agathocleia, as a regent. coins. He was probably the first king to
introduce coins of gold in India.
Antialicdas All his coins show unmistakable signs of
He was the next king who immediately fol- his Shiva affiliation. The reverse side of his
lowed Heliocles. He ruled from Pushkalavati coins depicts Shiva with his long trident,
to Takshila (headquarter) till 25 BC when the sometimes accompanied by his bull.
Pallavas displaced them. A Brahmi inscription The obverse of his coins represent him on
engraved on a Garuda pillar found at Besna- a couch or standing at sacrificing altar, or
gar near Bhilsa records that Antialcidas sent even riding a chariot drawn by two horses.
an ambassador named Heliodorous, to the Abundance of coins issued by him indi-
court of Kasiputra Bhagabhadra, identified cated large extent of his empire and eco-
with the Sunga king Bhagvata. Heliodorous nomic prosperity.
is described as a Bhagavata (worshipper of The abundance of gold and copper coins
Krishna or Vasudeva) in this inscription. issued by Wima Kadphises represents the
Monarch riding a chariot drawn by two
Kushans horses.
In the beginning of the first century BC, the
Yuehchis gave up their nomadic habits and Kanishka
divided themselves into fi e groups or prin- Kanishka is usually regarded as the succes-
cipalities. Kujula Kadphises I (king of one sor of Wima Kadphises. Kanishka is regarded
of the fi e principalities) organized the other as the greatest king of his dynasty. He took
four groups under his leadership. Kadphises the titles Devputra and Kaiser. He is cred-
I ruled from AD 15 to 64. He overthrew the ited for starting the Saka era. This era begin-
Parthian rule from the Kabul and Kandahar ning AD 78 also came to be described as the
and added Gandhara and Taxila to his empire. ‘Sakakala’ or ‘Saka-Nripa-Kala’. At the time
Some scholars are of the opinion that Gand- of his consecration, Kushanas kingdom con-
hara and Taxila were won for Kadphises I by sisted of Afghanistan, a part of Sind, Bactria
his son Wima Kadphises. Kadphises I only and the regions of Parthia. He incorporated
issued copper coins that show Roman infl - Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan, Malwa and
ence. The two epithets Dhramathida (Dhar- Saurashtra into his kingdom. From the refer-
masthita) and Sachadhra-mathida (Satyadhar- ences in Rajatarangini, it is clear that Kashmir
masthita) meaning ‘steadfast in the true faith; was also a part of his kingdom. A tradition
suggest that Kujula was either a Buddhist or recorded by Alberuni points to Kanishka’s
rule over Afghanistan and the adjoining parts Impact of Central Asian Contact
of central Asia. The Chinese and Tibetan writ-
The foreign invaders introduced the use of
ers recorded the tradition of his conflict with
burnt bricks for flooring and that of tiles
the rulers of Saketa and Pataliputra in Eastern
for both flooring and roofing. Their pottery
India, from where he carried off the celebrated
was red ware.
Buddhist monk Asvaghosha. His Sarnath
They introduced better cavalry and the use
inscription suggests that his rule was based on
of reins and saddles while riding horses and
Satrapa system.
used some kind of a toe stirrup made of
Kanishka ruled from his capital Purusha-
rope which facilitated their movements.
pura or Peshawar. This has been testified by
The Shakas and Kushans introduced tur-
Hiuen Tsang. His most famous battle was
ban, tunic, trousers and heavy long coats.
with the king of China. He was defeated the
They also brought in cap, helmet and boots
first time by Pan-Chao, the famous general of
that were used by warriors.
the Chinese king Ho-Ti. The second time he
Contacts were established between Central
emerged victorious. He secured the Chinese
Asia and India. As a result, India received a
royal princes as hostage. Kanishka established
good deal of gold from the Altai Mountains
a city named Kanishkapura in Kashmir. Kan-
in Central Asia. The Kushana kings were
ishka also attained fame due to his association
the first to issue gold coins in India on a
with the Buddhist religion. On the advice of
wide scale.
Parsva, he convened the fourth council of the
The Central Asian conquerors imposed
Buddhists at Kundalavana in Kashmir whose
their rule on numerous petty native princes;
president was Vasumitra and Vice-President
this led to the development of a feudatory
was Asvaghosha. The council prepared an
organization.
encyclopaedia of Buddhist philosophy called
The Shakas and the Kushans strengthened
Mahavibhasa. Kanishka got a Stupa, a Matha
the idea of the divine origin of kingship.
and a town constructed at Peshawar, in which
Manu asks the people to respect the king
relics of Buddha were kept.
even if he is a child.
Some curious practices like hereditary
Art and Literature dual rule were introduced, implying less of
Kanishka was a great patron of art and let- centralization. The Greeks also introduced
ters. The reign of Kanishka witnessed the the practice of military governorship, called
execution of the best work in Gandhara style. strategos.
The great tower at Peshawar (400 feet high) In no other period of ancient Indian his-
was chiefly made of wood and constructed tory were foreigners assimilated into Indian
under the supervision of a Greek engi- society on such a large scale as they were in
neer Agesilaos. Kanishka built a tower near the post-Maurya times.
Taxila also. During his reign, the images of Buddhist monks now received gold and
Bodhisattvas began to be erected in Gandhara silver, non-vegetarian food and elaborate
style. At Mathura, we have a headless image robes. Discipline became so slack that
of Kanishka, in which he is represented in the some even left the Sangha and resumed
uniform of a warrior. The Buddhist writers, the householder’s life. By the beginning
Nagarjuna, Asvaghosha, Parsva and Vasumi- of the Christian era, images of the Buddha
tra, lived at his court. Charaka, the exponent began to be worshipped. This inspired even
of Ayurveda, was his court physician and the Brahmanical religion to adopt image
Mathara was his minister. worship.
1.74 Chapter 5
Development of Art organs of body, i.e. the representation

was proto-type of human body
The period witnessed the development of a
(ii) In realistic representation, the anatomi-
sophisticated kind of sculpture, which came to
cal accuracy was emphasized.
be associated with three different regions, i.e.
Gandhara, Mathura and Amravati. Sculptural
art was never shown in this form and this qual- Mathura School of Art
ity before. Even after this phase, the Sarnath The origin of Mathura art form is traced
School of sculpture during the Gupta period is back to second century BC.
the only sculpture art form, which parallels the The influence on this art form was a mixed
sculpture art of this period. Religion played a one. All the three main religions of the
great role in the development of this art. The time, i.e. Buddhism, Jainism and Brahman-
subject matter and content was provided by ism, influenced this art form in one way or
religion. the other. This influence provided the sub-
ject matter and content to this school. The
Gandhara School of Art influence here is not only from Buddhism
The influence on this art was mainly Hel- as we find in the case of Gandhara School.
lenistic in context of style and Buddhist in In the initial stage, we find influence from
context of religion. Jainism and latter on Brahmanism, and
The main centres were Peshawar, Jallalabad, Buddhism also influenced this art form.
Taxila, Bamran, Begram and Shah-Ji- The Hellenistic or Greek influence on this
ki-Dheri; here we find the remains of this style was absent to a great extent.
art form. The main patrons of this art form Here, the theme was not only religious as
were the Kushanas and Shaka. we find in the case of Gandhara. We also
Development of this art is found in two find a secular tinge. Various patterns of life
phases: (i) early school and (ii) latter school. were portrayed, e.g. we have scenes from
In the early school, Blue Grey Stones were forests where men and women are collect-
used as main material. In the latter school, ing flowers, women playing with cranes and
mud, lime, stucco and pilasters were offering fruits to birds, women playing in
used. the garden and water tanks, etc.
Certain distinctive features of this art Aristocratic elements to some extent were
were: present in the Mathura art. This art form was
(i) Realistic representation of human fig- also associated with the ruling groups, and
ure (it is the hallmark of this art form) here we find the images of kings and promi-
clearly indicating limbs and other nent persons, associated with ruling class.
Exercise
After Bindusara’s death, Ashoka captured The Buddhist Council which took place
the throne with the help of ministers during the period of Ashoka was
headed by (a) I Buddhist Council
(a) Vishnugupta
(b) II Buddhist Council
(b) Prabhakargupta
(c) Tivara (c) III Buddhist Council
(d) Radhagupta (d) IV Buddhist Council
Which one of the following refers to the The coins of the Mauryan era had the
Mauryas as mainly shudras and unrigh- marks hill and crescent and
teous? (a) Lion (b) Bull
(a) The Brahmanas (c) Peacock (d) Elephant
(b) The Puranas
Name the Persian who was appointed
(c) The Buddhist literature
by Ashoka to administer the western
(d) The Jaina literature
province?
Who ruled whole of North India before (a) Plinv (b) Tusapa
Chandragupta Maurya? (c) Jaluka (d) Plutarch
(a) Nandas (b) Guptas
(c) Harsha (d) Satavahanas The major Rock Edict of Ashoka which
forbids the animal sacrifice is
The red and white sandstone used for (a) I
Mauryan pillars were obtained from the (b) II
region around (c) III
(a) Agra (b) Mathura (d) IV
(c) Varanasi (d) Amravati
Which one of the following literary works
Which of the following statements is
refers to a famine in Magadha lasting for
incorrect ?
12 years?
(a) Chandragupta was succeeded by his
(a) Parisista Parvan
son Bindusara
(b) Mahavamsa
(b) Kautilya was Chandragupta’s mentor
(c) Divyavadana
and guide
(d) Vamsatti Pakasini
(c) Chandragupta died in South India
(d) Chandragupta was known to the Chandragupta Maurya abdicated the
Greeks as ‘Amitrochates’ thrown and went to Sravanabelagola along
During the period of Bindusara, Ashoka with Jaina saint
served has the Viceroy of (a) Badrabahu
(a) Suvarnagiri (b) Stulabahu
(b) Tosali (c) Parswanatha
(c) Taxila and Ujjain (d) Rushabhanatha
(d) Ujjain Which one of the following ports was used
Pillar Edict IV of Ashoka is entirely from where ships sailed for Burma, Sri
addressed to the Lanka as well as for South India?
(a) Nagarkaras (a) Broach
(b) Rajukas (b) Tamralipti
(c) Gopas (c) Sopara
(d) Dhamma-mahamattas (d) Both (a) and (c)
Charumati, one of the daughter’s of Which of the following assembly consists
emperor Ashoka, married at Kshatriya of representatives of the capital during the
Nepal named Mauryan period?
(a) Anandapala (a) Sabha
(b) Suryapala (b) Paura
(c) Devapala (c) Samitii
(d) Mahipala (d) Janapadha
1.76 Chapter 5
Which form of Prakrit was uniformly used (a) Dipavamsa

by Ashoka in all his inscriptions? (b) Mahavamsa
(a) Suraseni (b) Magadhi (c) Asokavadan
(c) Ardha-Magadhi (d) Marathi (d) Mahaparibbanasutta
The famous Queen’s Edict (Allahabad Pil- The only edict that mentions the name
lar Inscription) of Ashoka was probably Ashoka is
shifted to Allahabad from Kausambhi by (a) Yerragudi
(a) Samudragupta (b) Harsha (b) Maski
(c) Yasovarman (d) Akbar (c) Sanchi
The most famous learning centre during (d) Rajulamandagiri
the Mauryan period was Who was the envoy of the Egyptian king
(a) Ujjain (b) Taxila Ptolemy Philadelphos in the Mauryan
(c) Nalanda (d) Vikramsila Court?
The metals, mainly used for minting coins (a) Megasthenes (b) Dionysius
during the Mauryan period, were (c) Diodorus (d) Deimachos
(a) Gold and silver Name the Jain Text which describes that
(b) Silver and copper Chandragupta embraced Jainism towards
(c) Copper and bronze the end of his life.
(d) Lead and bronze (a) Jayadhavala
The currency that was in circulation dur- (b) Ratnamalika
ing the period of Mauryas was (c) Parisistaparvana
(a) Dam (b) Rupee (d) Dravya-Samghra
(c) Tanka (d) Pana Which Mauryan emperor is also known as
Prince Susima was Simhasena?
(a) The eldest son of Ashoka (a) Ashoka
(b) The eldest son of Bindusara (b) Bindusara
(c) The youngest brother of Ashoka (c) Chandragupta Maurya
(d) The youngest son of Ashoka (d) Brihadratha
Buddhist tradition considers Chandragupta Which one of the following pairs is incor-
to have belonged to a Moriya tribe of rectly matched?
(a) Brahamanas (b) Kshatriya (a) Samaharta—the highest officer in
(c) Vaishyas (d) Shudras charge of assessment of revenue
(b) Adhyakshas—superintendents mostly
Who issued first gold coins in India?
to regulate the economic activities of
(a) Kujula Kadphises
the state
(b) Huvishka
(c) Sannidhata—the in charge of the for-
(c) Vima kadphises
eigners and strangers
(d) Kanishka
(d) Senapatiōcommander-in-chief
In which of the following sects was Bindu- Which of the following are important causes
sara interested? for the decline of the Mauryan empire?
(a) Jainism (b) Buddhism (i) Weak successors of Ashoka
(c) Ajivikas (d) Lingayat (ii) Ashoka’s pacifist poli y
Which of the following Buddhist literary (iii) Brahmanical reactions to Ashoka’s
source does not provide information about pro-Buddhist policies
the Mauryas? (iv) Foreign aggressions
(a) i and iv Match the following:

(b) i and iii
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(c) I and ii

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5RGEKHKEHKGNF
(d) i only
Who among the following seven classes of (i) Sushrata (a) Mathematics
Mauryan society (Megasthenes division) (ii) Aryabhatta (b) Medicine
were exempted from fighting and other (iii) Brahmagupta (c) Astronomy
public services?
(a) Military (b) Philosophers (iv) Kautilya (d) Polity
(c) Artisans (d) Husbandmen %QFGU
The officer in charge of 10 villages was (a) i-b, ii-c, iii-a, iv-d
called (b) i-c, ii-d, iii-a, iv-b
(a) Gopa (b) Mahanta (c) i-a, ii-b, iii-c, iv-d
(c) Sena (d) Amin (d) i-d, ii-b, iii-c, iv-a
Which one of the following was not a part Who among the following Hellenistic rul-
of the empire during the period of Chan- ers was/were contemporaries of Ashoka?
dragupta and Bindusara? (a) Antiochos
(a) Afghanistan (b) Baluchistan (b) Magas
(c) Madurai (d) Kalinga (c) Alexander
Put in the chronological order:
(i) Sisunaga dynasty The Mauryan dynasty was overthrown by
(ii) Alexander’s invasion (a) Harsha
(iii) Kalinga war (b) Samudragupta
(iv) Megasthenes visit to India (c) Pushyamitra Sunga
(a) i, ii, iii, iv (d) Kanishka
(b) i, ii, iv, iii Which one of the statements on Cheras is
(c) ii, iii, iv, i false?
(d) iv, iii, ii, i (a) Their greatest ruler was Senguttuvan
Which of the following was contributed by or the Red Chera
Kushans? (b) They fought a continuous battle with
(a) Amaravati Art (b) AjantaArt the Cholas all through
(c) Vesara style (d) Gandhara Art (c) They were in alliance with Pandyas
(d) They used a modified version of Tamil
Which of the following is an example of
Mauryan art? Chandragupta Maurya was born to a Sudra
(a) Image of Nara-Narayana in the temple women called
at Deogarh (a) Ammangadevi
(b) Terracotta figures found at Ter (b) Mahamaya
(c) The panel showing Mahakapi Jataka (c) Mura
at Bharhut (d) Subadhra
(d) Bull capital, Rampurva .KUV+ .KUV++
Kushans belongs to the tribe of A. Ashokan Pillar 1. Barabar Hills
(a) Yuchi (b) Tnatrika
(c) Ikswaku (d) Terai B. Bull Capital 2. Ropar
1.78 Chapter 5
C. Lomarishi caves 3. Lauriya- Name the Chera king who was known as
Nandangarh ‘Imayavaramban’?
(a) Kuttvan
D. Ringed 4. Rampurva (b) Undiyanjeral
Soakwells (c) Nedunjeral Adam
%QFGU (d) Senguttuvan
A B C D What were the two popular assemblies of
(a) 1 2 3 4 the Mauryan period?
(b) 2 3 1 4 (a) Sabha and Samiti
(c) 3 4 1 2 (b) Paura and Janapada
(d) 4 3 1 2 (c) Sabha and Paura
Which of the following was not conveyed (d) Paura and Samiti
by the author of the Indika? The Kushan empire
(a) Indian ants were as big as foxes and (a) Originated from nomadic conquerors
could mine gold from the earth. from central Asia.
(b) Large Indian armies used elephants as (b) Pacified large areas of present-day
war animals. Pakistan, Afghanistan and north India.
(c) The Indians were suffering from pov- (c) Played a crucial role in the Silk Road
erty and all kinds of miseries. trading network.
(d) The capital of Patalputra had 570 (d) All of the above.
towers.
The greatest work of Tamil grammar was
The ruler of Takshasila in Sindh region
(a) Manimekalai
who surrendered to Alexander without
(b) Isa-Nunukkam
fight
(c) Silappadikaram
(a) Ambi (b) Dahir
(d) Tolkappiyam
(c) Maues (d) Kalashoka
Who was the ambassador of Selucus Nika-
Consider the following statements and
tor in the court of Chandragupta Maurya?
mark the option which is true.
(a) Megasthenes (b) Itsing
(i) Hathigumpha inscription of Kharvela
(c) Fahien (d) Barbosa
of Kalinga is also a source of Sangam
Age. The most commonly used coin, during the
(ii) Wima Kadphises, inspired by his Mauryan period, was
teacher Parva, convened a Buddhist (a) Nishka (b) Karashapana
convict at Kandalvana in Kashmir. (c) Suvarna (d) Kakini
(iii) Greeks introduced Hellinistic Art Which of the following is not discussed in
into India, the impact of which can be Kautilya’s Arthashastra ?
seen in the Gandhara Art. (a) Satrins (b) Pataliputra
(a) ii (c) Matsyanyaya (d) Panas
(b) None of the above #UUGTVKQP
# India was first invaded by
(c) i and iii Greeks 4GCUQP
4 Pushed by the Scyth-
(d) All of the above ian tribes, the Bactrin Greeks were forced
Who was the last ruler of Mauryas? to invade India
(a) Susarma (b) Brihadratha (a) Both A and R are individually true and
(c) Pushyamitra (d) Agnimitra R is the correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are individually true but The Shungas were officials under the
R is not the the correct explanation of A Mauryas of the region of
(c) A is true but R is false (a) Taxila
(d) A is false but R is true (b) Ujjain
Who dug Sudarsana tank in Gujarat? (c) The North-West province
(a) Samudragupta (d) The Southern province
(b) Skandagupta Who patronized Mathura Art and built a
(c) Chandragupta Maurya stupa at Purushpur?
(d) Kumaragupta (a) Kijula Kadiphises
What was the title of Kanishka? (b) Rudradaman
(a) Pridassi (b) Devaoutra (c) Wima Kadiphises
(c) Devanapriya (d) Simhaghata (d) Moga
Which Greek King issued bilingual coins? #UUGTVKQP
# During the post-Mau-
(a) Allexander (b) Demetrivs ryan period, foreigners were assimilated
(c) Manander (d) Antaaliokus into Indian society on a large scale.
Who received a Greek Ambassador 4GCUQP
4 The law-giver Manu stated
Daimachos from Antiochus I? that the Sakas and Parthians were the
(a) Chandragupta Maurya kshatriyas who had deviated from their
(b) Bindusara duties and fallen in status.
(c) Budhagupta (a) Both (A) and (R) are individually true
(d) Brihadradha and R is the correct explanation of (A)
(b) Both (A) and (R) are individually true but

(R) is not the correct explanation of (A)
.KUV+ .KUV++ (c) (A) is true but (R) is false

#WVJQTU
$QQMU (d) (A) is false but (R) is true
A. Kautilya 1. Vajasaneyi
Which of the following is not correct about
Pratisakkya
the plight of women in the post-Mauryan
B. Bhadrabahu 2. Mahabhashwa times?
C. Katyayana 3. Kalpa Sutra (a) The practice of divorce prevailed
D. Patanjali 4. Arthashastra (b) Women had no right to second
%QFGU marriage
A B C D (c) The practice of Niyog was not
(a) 1 2 3 4 prevalent
(b) 3 2 1 4 (d) None of the above
(c) 4 3 1 2 Which is supposed to be the fifth Veda ?
(d) 4 2 1 3 (a) Tiruttodar-puranam
Where did Kalinga war take place? (b) Tirukural
(a) Mandu (b) Trivendam (c) Jivachintamani
(c) Ujjaini (d) Dhauli (d) Naladiyar
To the classical Greek writers, Lord Who among the following gods was the
Krisnna was known as most superior god in post-Mauryan times?
(a) Heracles (b) Sauraseni (a) Brahma
(c) Androkottas (d) Sandrokottas (b) Vishnu
1.80 Chapter 5
(c) Siva The successors of Ashoka adopted

(d) Both (a) and (b) (a) Pro-Jaina policies
Which of the following parallel names in (b) Pro-Brahmin policies
Tamil and Sanskrit for the same gods have (c) Pro-Buddhist policies
been correctly matched? (d) Bhagavatism policies
(a) Murugan–Subramanya In the post-Mauryan times, the Hindu
(b) Tirumal–Vishnu law-givers conferred on them the status of
(c) Sivan–Rudra ‘fallen kshatriyas’. Who were they?
(d) All of the above (a) Non-Buddhist
(b) Khastrians who did not take part in the
Which of the following rock edict says that
real fightin
missionaries were sent to Ceylon, Egypt
(c) Yavanas
and Syria to propagate Buddhism? (d) The ousted Mauryan kings
(a) Rock Edict X
(b) Rock Edict XI Which one of the following was not a
feature of the society of post-Mauryan
(c) Rock Edict XII
times?
(d) Rock Edict XIII
(a) People could change their professions
The Sunga and Kanva rulers were ardent to suit their needs.
followers of (b) A large number of foreigners entered
(a) Buddhism and settled in India.
(b) Jainism (c) Inter-caste marriages were known.
(c) Brahmanism (d) Inter-caste marriages between differ-
(d) Both (a) and (b) ent groups did not take place
Answer Keys
1. (d) 2. (c) 3. (b) 4. (a) 41. (d) 42. (c) 43. (c) 44. (c)
5. (b) 6. (d) 7. (c) 8. (b) 45. (c) 46. (c) 47. (a) 48. (d)
9. (c) 10. (c) 11. (b) 12. (a) 49. (b) 50. (b) 51. (b) 52. (d)
13. (a) 14. (a) 15. (b) 16. (b) 53. (b) 54. (b) 55. (b) 56. (b)
17. (c) 18. (d) 19. (b) 20. (b) 57. (a) 58. (c) 59. (b) 60. (b)
21. (d) 22. (b) 23. (b) 24. (c) 61. (b) 62. (c) 63. (d) 64. (a)
25. (c) 26. (c) 27. (b) 28. (b) 65. (b) 66. (c) 67. (b) 68. (c)
29. (c) 30. (b) 31. (c) 32. (a) 69. (b) 70. (b) 71. (d) 72. (d)
33. (d) 34. (a) 35. (d) 36. (b) 73. (c) 74. (a) 75. (d)
37. (d) 38. (d) 39. (a) 40. (a)
6
GUPTA AND POST-GUPTA
PERIOD
Main Sources of Information Samudragupta (AD 335–380)
about Gupta Empire Referred as the Napoleon of India by some
historians.
The Allahabad Pillar Inscription and Eran
Information about him is given in the Asho-
Prasasti.
kan pillar of Allahabad. His achievements
Writings of Fa-Hien and I-Tsing.
are mentioned by his court poet Harisena in
A Sanskrit drama -WOWFKOQJQVUCXC writ-
the inscription.
ten by Kisorika in Vajjika.
Performed an asvamedha, adopted title of
The Mehrauli inscription (near Delhi).
Parakramanka.
Stupas of Gupta age found at Samath, Rat-
Pillar of his victory at Kausliambi.
nagiri (Orissa) and Mirpur Khan (Sindh).
King Meghavarman of Sri Lanka sent an
embassy to Samudragupta for granting per-
Rulers of Gupta Empire mission to build a monastery in Bodh Gaya.
Srigupta is the founder of Gupta empire. He Wrote many poems and earned the title
was succeeded by Ghatotkacha. ‘Kaviraja’.
Was a Vaishnava and a patron of the great
Buddhist scholar Vashubandhu.
Chandragupta I On some of his coins, he is portrayed play-
(AD 319–335) ing the ‘veena’ and on others like an archer.
Took the title of ‘Maharajadhiraja’.

Founded the Gupta Era in AD 319/320. Chandragupta II (AD 380–412)
Married a Lichchhavi princess named
Kumaradevi. Adopted the titles Narendrachandra, Sim-
He struck coins in the joint, names of him- hachandra, Vikramaditya and Sakari (after
self, Kumaradevi and the Lichchhavis. defeating the Sakas).
1.82 Chapter 6
The book that mentions his conquest over Purugupta ascended to the throne after
the Sakas, Devichandraguptam, written by Skandagupta. Vishnugupta was the last
Vishakhadatta. king.
The inscription engraved on the Iron Pillar Narsimha Gupta defeated Mihirkula.
at Mehrauli (near Delhi) gives account of Mihirkula—the Huna invader—ruled
his conquest. from Sagala, Euthydemia.
Married Kubarnaga, a Naga princess. Persecuted the Buddhists.
Married his daughter to Rudrasena II, the Oxus valley was the home of the Hunas.
Vakataka king. Gupta Empire was divided into:
He made Ujjain his second capital. Provinces (Desha or Bhukti)—Mahama-
First Gupta ruler to have issued silver coins. tras—Provincial Viceroys
Had direct contacts with Europe and Egypt. Uparika—Governors of provinces
The famous poets Kalidas, Amarsimha, Districts (Pradesha or Vishaya)—under
Vishakhadatta and the physician Dhanvan- Ayukta or Vishayapati
tari adored his court. Towns—governed by Purapala
Fa-Hien visited India during his time Villages—headman called Gramayeka
(AD 399–414). He came by land and went
by sea from the Tamralipti port (eastern Gupta Administration
coast).
Efficient administration system. Monarchy
was the prevailing system, but special atten-
Kumaragupta (AD 418–455) tion was paid to the welfare of the people.
Adopted the title of Mahendraditya. Traditional laws; Dhannashastras were con-
Ruled for more than 40 years. ceived supreme.
Performed an asvamedha, like The king was assisted by a Mantriparishad/
Samudragupta. Mantrimandalam.
Introduced the concept of worshipping god Land tax increased in number. Bhagakara
Kartikeya. and Udranga—principal sources of rev-
The Hunas started attacking towards the enue—varied from one-fourth to one-sixth
end of his reign (mentioned in the Bhitari of the produce.
inscription, near Gorakhpur). Land was classified into cultivable
Founded the Nalanda University. (Kshetra), wasteland (Khila), forest (Apa-
Mandsaur Edict is related to him. harta), habitable land (Vasti) and pasture
(Gapatha sarah).
Skandagupta (AD 455–467) Paharpur inscription tells us that the state
was the exclusive owner of land.
He was the last great Gupta ruler. He I-Tsing (AD 672–675)—the Chinese trav-
assumed the title of Vikramaditya. eller—refers to be the donation of some
The Bhitari inscription records the career villages to Chinese Buddhists at Nalanda
of Skandagupta. The Junagarh inscription monastery by the first Gupta Srigupta.
mentions the restoration of the embank-
ment of the Sudarshan lake.
He erected a pillar of victory surmounted Gupta Society
by the statue of the God Vishnu. High material prosperity.
Successfully resisted Huna invasion. Remarkable impact of ahimsa and vegetari-
Issued lion type coin. anism on society.
GUPTA AND POST-GUPTA PERIOD 1.83
Existence of a number of charitable institu- Konark temple (Orissa, built by Narsimha

tions, free hospitals etc. Varman).
Land grants to religious priests in lieu of their Durga, Ganesha and Kartikeya were also
services. This strengthened the positions of worshipped.
the Brahmins, and the term ‘dvija’ came to
be restricted normally to them. Trade and Commerce
Increase in the worship of Mother Goddess Both internal and external trade reached its
and family cults. peak.
The position of the Sudras improved, and During this period, North India traded
they became traders, artisans and agricul- with South-East Asia from the ports of
turists. However, untouchability existed in Ghantashala, Kadara and Tamralipti.
society. Main articles of import—gold, silver, cop-
Fa-Hien gives account of a class called per, tin, silk, camphor etc.
Chandalas, leading a segregated life. Main articles of export—pearls, precious
Slavery system existed during the Gupta stones, clothes, perfumes, spices.
Empire. Important trade centres:
Inter-caste and inter-racial marriage was Mathura—cotton.
common among the people. Varanasi—silk.
Rise of a new caste—Kayastha (mentioned Salt—from salt range in Punjab.
in Yajnavalkya Smriti). They use to keep The goddess Lakshmi is represented invari-
records of lands. ably on the Gupta coins.
Women were subordinate to men. Polygamy The Guptas issued the largest number of
was widely prevalent. Their education was gold coins that were called Dinars. But the
discouraged. However, women of higher gold contents of these coins are not as those
class participated in administration. of the Kushanas.
Sati system was in existence and widow Guild system continued to play a very
marriage was becoming unpopular. important role in trade and commerce.
Religion Gupta Art and Architecture

Vaishnavism/Bhagwatism became impor- The Gupta Age witnessed an unprecedented
tant, and the most important aspect of it was artistic activity all over India. The Gupta
Bhakti (which was open for all). Age is sometimes referred to as the Golden
Important god—Vasudeva Krishna. Age of ancient India.
Shaivism too was important. Many of The Greek influence resulting into Gand-
shoots of Shaivism like: hara art and later influencing Mathura and
Lingayat/Maheswar was founded by Samath schools of Art was fully Indianized.
Ramaiya. Dravida and Nagara styles of architecture
Basava developed another sect in evolved.
Karnataka. Dravida style—a second storey
In Kashmir, Shaivism was influenced by (vimana)—characteristic feature. In
Tantrikism. South India.
Surya worship became important. Surya Nagara style—shikhara—main feature.
temples found at Multan (in Pakistan), Mod- In North India.
hera (Gujarat), Osian (Rajasthan), Martand Besara style—mixed north and south
temple (Kashmir, built by Lalitaditya), Indian style.
1.84 Chapter 6
The immortal Ajanta murals were the most Arya Deva and Arya Asanga. The first regu-
important achievement of this period. A lar Buddhist work on logic was written by
large number of viharas, chaityas and stu- Vasubandhu.
pas were constructed during this period. Panini’s Astadhyayi and Patanjali’s Maliab-
The frescoes of Ellora caves, the Bagh hasya were written during this time.
caves, the Sittanvasal temple in Tamil Nadu The legal textbooks based on the work of
and rock cut chambers at Sigiriva in Sri Manu were written by Yajnavalkya, Narada,
Lanka are examples of Gupta paintings. Brihaspati and Katyayana.
The period also produced magnificent Vajika wrote Kaumudimahotsava, Somadeva
Brahminical temples. Some of the temples wrote Kathasaritsagar and Bhasa wrote Swa-
surviving Muslim invasions are Dasavatara panvasavadatta.
temple of Devgarh (Jhansi), Vishnu tem- Sanskrit became the official language.
ple of Tigawa (Jabalpur), Shiva temples at The great epics—Ramayana and Mahab-
Bhumarah and Khoh and the two Buddhist harata—got their final touches in this
shrines at Sanchi and Bodh Gaya. period.
The Bhitargaon temple is made entirely of The Puranas were compiled during the
brick. The Shikhars made their appearance Gupta age.
from here. Jayadeva wrote ‘Gita Govinda’ (adopted by
Chaitanya).
Growth of Literature Kamandaka’s Nitisara is considered to be
the Guptan equivalent of Mauryan ‘Artha-
High prosperity in the different fields of
shastra’.
education, such as mathematics, astronomy,
Mrichchhakatika by Shudraka is a social
astrology, medical sciences etc.
play.
Aryabhatta wrote Aryabhattiyam and Surya
Siddhanta, which deals with epicyclic revo-
lution of earth, nature of eclipse, reckoning Harsha and his times
of time etc. Prabhakarvardhana was the first impor-
Aryabhatta also invented zero, decimal sys- tant king of Pusyabhuti dynasty, capital at
tem, value of pie etc. Thanesar.
Varahamihira’s Brihat Samhita is an ency- Harsha (AD 606–647):
clopaedia of astronomy, physical geogra- Assumed the title of Siladitya after defeat-
phy, botany and natural history. His other ing the Shaivite king Sasanka of Gaud.
works are Panchasiddhantika, Brihat He shifted his capital to Kannauj.
Jataka etc. His southward march was stopped on Nar-
Brahmgupta—physician and mathemati- mada river by the Chalukyan king of Bad-
cian—wrote Brahasputa Siddhanta and ami Pulakeshin II.
Khanda Khadyaka. He was a Shaiva in the beginning but
Susruta—physician—wrote Susruta Sam- embraced Buddhism gradually.
hita. He held two grand assemblies, one in the
Palakpiya wrote Hastayurveda. city of Kannauj and the other in Prayag,
Siddhasena Diwakara led the foundation of known as the ‘Mahamoksha Parishad’.
logic among the Jains. Vimala had produced Harsha maintained diplomatic relations
the Jaina version of Ramayana. with China. His contemporary the Tsang
The great Buddhist authors of this period are emperor, Tai Tsung, sent Hiuen Tsang to his
Buddhaghosa, Buddhadatta and Vasubandhu, kingdom (AD 643 and again in 647).
Harsha wrote Ratnavali, Nagananda and Hiuen Tsang (also called Yuan Chwang)
Priyadarshika. visited his court.
Bana was his court poet. He wrote Harsa- Defeated Marsha at Narmada (and
charita. Kadambari and Parvati Parinay. assumed the title of Parmeshwara) and
Both Bana and Hiuen Tsang talk about the Pallava king Mahendravarman I.
Varnsamkaras. Was defeated and killed by the Pallava
Other scholars of his time were Matanga, ruler Narasimhavarman I.
Divakar, Jayasena and Bhartihari.
Harsha’s administration became more feu- Kubja Vishnuvardhana—the brother of
dal and decentralized. Pulakeshin II—founded the kingdom of
Jaimani system—self-sufficient village Chalukya of Vengi.
economy. Vijayaditya II—the longest and the most
Grant of land to the officers in lieu of salary prosperous and peaceful reign.
was probably begun by Harsha. Built the Papanatha temple and the
The position of women seems to have Virupaksha temple.
further declined during Harsha’s period.
Remarriage of widows were not permitted. Kirtivarman II—the last Chalukyan ruler.
The system of dowry, according to Bana, Defeated by Dantidurga who founded the
was quite common. Rastrakuta dynasty.
The Chalukyan developed the Deccan or
Yashovarman (AD 730–770) Vesara style in the building of structural
temples. They perfected the art of stone
Defeated Gaudas in Bengal. building, i.e. stones finely joined without
Nalanda inscription describes him as mortar.
guardian of the world.
He authored a drama ‘Ramabhyudaya’ Pallavas (AD 590–903)
and patronized Bhavbhuti.
Simhavishnu—founder. Capital at Kanchi.
Bana mentions different types of textiles:
Kshauma—linen. His court poet was Bharavi, who wrote
Chitrapatta—figure textile. Kiratarjunya.
Jatipattika—woven silk. Mahendravarman I wrote Matavilasapra-
Pulakbanda—gaily coloured. hasan.
Puspapatta—flowered silk.
Also known as ‘Vichitrachitta’.
Chalukyas of Vatapi (AD 543–755) Assumed the title ‘Chitrakarapuli’ (tiger
among painters).
The Chalukyas claimed their descent from Rock cut temples at Bhairavkond
Brahma, Manu or Moon. (N. Arcot) and Ananteshvara temple
Pulakeshin I—founder. Capital at Badami built by him.
(Vatapi) in Bijapur district (Karnataka).
Pulakeshin II—most important ruler. His Nasimhavarman I—the greatest Pallava
court poet was Ravikirti. ruler.
Aihole inscription tells us about him. Took the title of 8CVCRKMQPFC after
Sent an embassy to the Persian king he occupied the Chalukyan capital of
Khusrau II. Vatapi.
1.86 GUPTA AND POST-GUPTA PERIOD
Also defeated the Cholas, Cheras and Shifted capital to Monghyr.

Pandyas. Mahipala I revived the Pala power.
Sent two naval expeditions to Ceylon.
Hiuen Tsang visited his court. During his reign, Rajendra Chola
Founded the city of Mamallapuram. attacked Eastern Bengal.
Ratha or monolithic temples at Was overthrown by Vijayasena.
Mamallapuram built by him. In the court of king Rampala, the famous
Narasimhavarman II—also known as poet Sandhyakar Nandi lived, who wrote
Rajsimha. Rampala Charita.
Atisha Dipankar, noted scholar of Tantric
His rule marked with peace and prosper- Buddhism, existed in the time of the Pala
ity, literary activity and construction of kings. He translated many books of Tantric
large and beautiful temples. Buddhism in Tibetan.
His court poet was Dandin, who wrote
Dasakumarcharita.
Shore temple, Isvara temple and Mukunda
Pratiharas (Gujarat and Southern
temple at Mahabalipuram and Kailashnatha Rajasthan)
temple at Kanchi built by him. Nagabhatta I—founder (AD 725).
Maritime trade flourished during him. Bhoja or Mihir Bhoja—real founder and
Also sent an embassy to China. the greatest ruler.
Arab merchant, Suleiman, visited his
Nandivarman II was appointed as Pallava
empire.
king by a college of priests.
Adopted the title of Adivaraha (Gwalior
He built temples of Muktesvara and inscription).
Matangesvara at Kanchi.
Mahendrapala I extended his empire over
The last Pallava king was defeated by Magadha and North Bengal.
Aditya Chola by the end of ninth century.
His court poet was Rajashekhara, who
Sanskrit was the official language of the
wrote -CX[COKOKPUC, -CTRWTCOCPLCTK
Pallavas.
(a drama in Prakrit), Harvilas and
Prabandhakosha.
Palas Al Masudi, a native of Baghdad, visited
Gopala—the founder—founded the Odant- his kingdom.
puri vihara. Mahipala, during his reign Rastrakuta Indra
Capital at Patliputra. III, attacked Kannauj and devastated it.
Osian temple (near Jodhpur) belongs to
Dharmapala founded the Somapura vihara. Pratihara dynasty.
Founded the Vikramshila university and
revived the Nalanda university. Rastrakutas
Struggle for control over Kannauj started
in his reign. Dantidurga founded the kingdom by over-
throwing the last Chalukya ruler of Badami,
Devapala permitted the Sailendra ruler of
Kirtivarman II.
Sri Vijaya (Indonesia), Balaputradeva, to
construct a vihara at Nalanda. Built the Dasavatara caves at Ellora.
Krishna I conquered the Gangas of Mysore 5QNCPMKU known as Chalukyas of Gujarat.

and Easteni Chalukyas of Vengi.
Founded by Mularaja I.
Built the Kailash temple at Ellora. Centred in the region of Kathiawar, with
Amoghvarsha transferred the capital from Anahilapataka as their capital.
Ellora to Manyakheta (Malkhed). During the reign of Bhima I, Mahmud
of Gazni plundered the Somnath temple
Wrote -CXKTCLCOCTIC and 4CVPCOCNKMC (1025).
(a work on Jainism). His general Vimala built the Jaina temples
Harisena, Jinasena and Gunabhadra Vimal Vasahi and Adinath at Mt. Abu.
lived at his court. Two officers of Viradhvala Vaghela,
He offered his finger to goddess to namely Vastnpala and Tejpala (grand-
please her. sons of Vimala), built shrines at Girnar,
Mahaviracharya wrote )CPKVC 5CTC Satrunjaya and Abu.
5COCITCJC. Jayasimha Siddharaja, the greatest king.
Defeated the Parmaras, Chauhans,
The Arab traveller, Al Masudi, visited the
Chandelas and the Chalukyas of Kalyani.
court of Indra III.
The famous Rudra Mahakal temple at
Krishna III defeated the Chola Parantaka I
Siddhapura was built during his time.
in the Battle of Takkolam.
Kumarapala was a famous patron of
Built the Krishneswara temple at
Jainism. Hemchandra was his preceptor.
Rameswaram and erected a pillar there.
Hemchandra wrote Siddha Hemchandra.
Karka is the last ruler overthrown by Taila, Rudra Mahakal temple at Siddhapura.
who founded the kingdom of Later (or Muhammad Ghouri attacked during the
Western) Chalukya at Kalyani. reign of Mularaja II.
Karnadeva, the last Hindu ruler of
Rajput Kingdoms Gujarat, was defeated by Alauddin Khilji.
Prithviraj Raso by Chandbardai (first book
2CTOCTCU—in the Malwa region with capi-
written in Devanagari) mentions about the Fire
tal at Dhara.
Pit origin of the four Agnikula clans.
2CTKJCTCU2TCVKJCTCU—Southern Rajasthan. Founder was Upendra.
%JCWJCPU—Eastern Rajasthan ruled over Bhojadeva was the most famous king.
Ajmer and Delhi. Defeated the Turks.
Wrote Samrangana Sutradhar (on art
Ajayraja II founded the city of Ajaymeru and architecture), Yuktikalpataru (a
(Ajmer). commentary on Pataujail’s Yogasutra)
Vigraharaja III (Bisaldeo) captured and Shringar Prakash (erotics).
Delhi from Tomars and also authorized Built Saraswati temple at Dhara.
a famous play Harikeli Nataka. Vagdevi, the insignia of Jnanpith Award,
Prithviraja III—the greatest Chauhan ruler. is associated with him.
Conquered Chandelas, Chalukyas and The last king was Mahlakdeva who lost
Gahadvalas. his kingdom to Alauddin Khilji.
Defeated Mohammad Gauri in the First %JCPFGNCU–of Bundelkhand.
Battle of Tarain (1191) but was defeated Capital at Khajuraho.
in the Second Battle of Tarain (1192). Yasovarman built Chaturbhuja (Vishnu)
Prithviraja Vijaya written by Jayanaka. temple at Khajuraho.
1.88 Chapter 6
Dhanga built the temple of Viswanatha, attracted Indian powers because of its suit-
Jinanatha and Dinanatha at Khajuraho. able geographical location at the heart of
Temples of Khajuraho pertain to Jainism the prosperous Ganga plains. After the death
and Shaivism. of Harshavardhan, there was no political
)CJCFXCNCUōof Kannauj unity in northern India for about hundred
years. The king of Kashmir and Kamrup
Govindehandra was the greatest king. He
made annexations in the neighbouring ter-
defeated the Chandelas and the Kalchuris.
ritories. The Malava king Yasovarman ruled
His minister Laxmidhara was the over Kanauj for a short period, but the city
author of several legal works including lost its former glory and prestige. Despite
Krityakalpataru and Kalpadruma. all this, the Indian kings in the eighth cen-
Jayachandra patronized Srihara, who wrote tury thought of Kanauj as the emblem
Nishadacharita. of imperial sovereignty. The power that
would capture it would be recognized as
He was defeated by Muhammad Ghouri the sovereign. The eighth century had wit-
in the Battle of Chandawar, 1193. nessed the rise of three powers in three areas
of India. In the eighth century, the Rashtra-
Tomars kuta king Dantidurga destroyed the Chalukya
power and captured the whole of the Dec-
He controlled Haryana region.
can. Under him, the Rashtrakutas became
Anangpal Tomar founded the capital city of
very powerful. The successors of Dantidurga
Dhillika (later Delhi).
Dhruva, Govinda III and Indra III planned
He was defeated by Vigraharaja III of
to capture Kanauj and set up an all-India
Chauhan dynasty.
empire. Romila Thapar argues that because
of their central position between the north
Gangas and south they planned to set up an empire
Anantvarman Choda Ganga founded the comprising areas both in the north and in the
dynasty. south. During their rule, the communication
between the north and south became easier.
Built the Jagannatha temple at Puri, The second power involved in the tripar-
eleventh century AD. tite struggle was the Palas of Bengal. In the
Narasimhavarman I built the Sun Temple at eighth century, Bengal and Bihar were eco-
Konark, AD 1250. nomically prosperous as they had flouris -
During the reign of Rajamalla IV, the image ing trade with the south-east Asian countries.
of Gomateswara at Sravana Belagola was Dharmapala, the son of Gopal, the founder of
erected. Chamunda Rai, a minister of the the Pala dynasty of Bengal, was powerful and
king, built the 56.5 m high Gomateswara ambitious. He had taken Bengal to the centre
statue. of political stage in northern India. He also
planned to set up a northern empire center-
ing Kanauj. The third power involved in this
Tripartite Struggle tripartite conflict was the Pratiharas of Rajpu-
In the reign of Harshavardhan Kanauj on tana. Possibly, they belonged to the Gurjara
the middle Ganga basin became the centre ethnic community, and hence they came to
of gravity in Indian politics. Devagupta of be known as the Gurjara-Pratihara. The rival
Malava and Sasanka of Bengal made seri- Rashtrakutas called them lowly doorkeep-
ous efforts to capture it but failed. Kanauj ers (Pratiharas). It is possible their ancestors
acted as the doorkeepers of royal families and Dharmapala did not last long. Pratihara king
later they became kings. In medieval Europe, Nagabhatta II attacked Kanauj and captured it.
the mayor of the palace became king. It may The Jodhpur inscription indicates that Nagab-
so happen in the case of the Pratiharas. hatta was supported by his feudatory chiefs.
These three rising powers of India in three Nagabhatta possibly entered into the domain
corners made strenuous efforts to capture of the Pala kings. During this phase of Pala-
Kanauj and found an empire in the Ganga val- Pratihara conflict, the Rashtrakuta Govinda
ley. For about two hundred years (750–950), III intervened in the politics of the north. The
these three powers fought among themselves Rashtrakutas had two possible causes for inter-
and none could come out victorious. In the vention. One was that the queen of Dharma-
first phase of the conflict, the Pratiharas got pala was a Rashtrakuta princess. The second
some success, but continuous warfare with the cause was that the victory of the Pratiharas was
Arabs, Palas and Rashtrakutas exhausted them. likely to disturb the balance of power in north-
They never made any attempt to conquer ern India. The Rashtrakuta king Govinda III
the south. Their feudatories asserted indepen- defeated the Pratihara king Nagabhatta II in the
dence and their success finally ended in failure. battle of Bundelkhand. At the same time, the
The Turks captured Kanauj at the beginning Rashtrakuta king turned against Dharmapala
of the eleventh century and destroyed it. This and his Kanauj representative Chakrayudh.
tripartite struggle had several salient features. It was a temporary setback for Dharmapala.
None of the contestants was a power of the After the return of Govinda to the Deccan, he
middle kingdom; they came from the neigh- once more occupied Kanauj. The brave son of
bouring areas. The powers of the north, east Dharmapala, the Pala king Devapala, contin-
and the Deccan made a bid for Kanauj (Maho- ued the tripartite struggle. The successor of
daya) situated in the Ganga plains. All these Nagabhatta Rambhadra was defeated by him.
three powers considered Kanauj the symbol of The Rashtrakuta king Amoghavarsha claimed
imperial power and sovereignty. in an inscription that he had conquered Ben-
The Khalimpur copper plate (Malda) states gal. It is not substantiated by evidence. Deva-
that Dharmapala convened a great assembly pala was not defeated by any Rashtrakuta king.
at Kanauj in which Bhoja, Matsa, Madra, Rather, he defeated the Pratihara king Bhoja.
Kutu, Yadu, Yavan, Avanti, Gandhara and Keer Bhoja was also defeated by the Rashtrakutas.
chiefs participated. Dharmapala extended The Pala power declined after Devapala. The
his supremacy in the Punjab, east Rajpu- Pratihara king Bhoja took advantage of the
tana, Malava and Berar. But this success of situation and captured Kanauj.
Exercise
Consider the following statements and (iii) Niyoga was the practice of allowing a
mark the option that is true. widow to cohabit with her husband’s
(i) Devdana is a single plot of land of younger brother till the birth of a
village to an individual Brahmin or male child.
group of Brahmins. (a) (ii) (b) (i) and (iii)
(ii) Apad Dharma implies what a man (c) All of the above (d) (ii) and (iii)
may legitimately do when he cannot Match the following:
earn a living by the normal deeds (i) Sadbhaga (a) Customs and tolls
performed by his class. (ii) Bali (b) Land revenue
1.90 Chapter 6
(iii) Shulka (c) A Petty cess besides the (a) Vishyapati (b) Amatya
king’s normal share (c) Gopa (d) Mahattara
A B C
What was the period of rule of Samudra
(b) (iii) (i) (ii)
Gupta?
(c) (i) (ii) (iii)
(a) AD 375–396 (b) AD 370–380
(d) (ii) (i) (iii)
(c) AD 380–398 (d) AD 330–375
(e) (i) (iii) (ii)
The Vengi king who was defeated by
Samudra Gupta was
mark the option that is true.
(a) Hastivarma
(i) Nandeshi was a guild of teachers
(b) Danamava
having membership from different
(c) Vimaladitya
regions and castes.
(d) Gunaga Vijayaditya
(ii) Dvija refers to three upper classes:
Brahmans, Kshatriyas and Vaishyas. The Gupta king who destroyed Sakas was
(iii) Uparika came into vogue during the (a) Samudra Gupta
Guptas. (b) Chandra Gupta I
(a) None of the above (c) Kumara Gupta
(b) (iii) (d) Chandra Gupta II
(c) (i) and (ii) The gold coins during Gupta Period were
(d) All of the above called
(a) Rupaka (b) Niska
(c) Tanka (d) Pana
mark the option that is true.
(i) Vishwarup wrote a commentary known Who among the following became the first
as Balasera on Yavjnavalkyas Smriti. to be credited with the title of Maharajad-
(ii) Pratipada Panchika, a commentary hiraja in the Gupta dynasty?
on Kautilya’s Arthashastra, was writ- (a) Srigupta (b) Chandragupta
ten by Bhattaswami. (c) Samudragupta (d) Ghatotkacha
(iii) Vijananeshwar wrote a commentary The Gupta king who has the title of
on Manu Smriti. ‘Mahendraditya’ was
(a) (i) and (iii) (a) Vishnu Gupta (b) Rama Gupta
(b) All of the above (c) Budha Gupta (d) Kumara Gupta
(c) (i) and (ii) The Gupta ruler who repaired Sudarsana
(d) None of the above Lake for the second time was
Which of the following was an important (a) Skanda Gupta (b) Rama Gupta
port of the eastern coast during the Gupta (c) Samudra Gupta (d) Vishnu Gupta
period ? How many inscriptions are available for
(a) Kalyan Guptas period?
(b) Sopara (a) 40 (b) 38
(c) Tamralipti (c) 42 (d) 48
(d) Broach Which of the following was the inscription
During the Gupta period of Indian history, of Guptas about sati?
the village affairs were managed by the (a) Junagarh inscription
village headman with the assistance of (b) Allahabad inscription
(c) Bhitari inscription (c) Matsya and Vayu Puranas

(d) Eran inscription (d) All the above
The language patronized by Guptas was Which of the following tells about the suc-
(a) Sanskrit (b) Prakrit cession of Chandra Gupta I to the throne?
(c) Arabic (d) Hindi (a) Dasakumaracharita
The officers of the village during the Gup- (b) Mruchakatika
tas period were (c) Kiratharjuniam
(a) Uparika (d) Kaumudi Mahotsava
(b) Gramika and Bhojak Military camps during the period of Gup-
(c) Kotwal tas were called as
(d) Vishaypati (a) Karagars (b) Skandavaras
Who called Samudra Gupta as Indian (c) Bandagaras (d) Ghatikas
Napoleon? King’s share of one-sixth of the produce to
(a) Dayanand (b) Marshal be paid by all cultivations was called
(c) VA Smith (d) DN Acharya (a) Kara
What was the normal rate of interest on (b) Bhaga
loans during the Guptas period? (c) Pali
(a) 20% (b) 25% (d) Hiranyaka
(c) 10% (d) 15% Who wrote Hastayurveda on animal dis-
During the Gupta period, a number of new eases during the period of Guptas?
castes made their appearance due to (a) Vishakadatta
(i) Assimilation of foreigners (b) Palakava
(ii) Absorption of tribals (c) Kamandaka
(iii) Rise of rich commercial and trading (d) Brahmagupta
classes Vishayas of Gupta empire were under the
(a) (i) and (ii) control of
(b) (ii) and (iii) (a) Amatyas
(c) (i) only (b) Vishayapati
(d) (i), (ii) and (iii) (c) Kotwal
Cultivatable land during the Gupta period (d) Amirs
was called
Provinces or Bhuktis of Guptas period
(a) Vasti (b) Kshetra
were again divided into
(c) Aprahate (d) Khila
(a) Vishayas (b) Nadus
Kaumudi Mahotsava was written by (c) Valanadus (d) Aharas
(a) Vajjika
Meghavarman, a Ceylonese king, ap-
(b) Sudraka
proached Samudra Gupta for permission
(c) Kamandaka
to build a monastery at Gaya. This is
(d) Vishaka Dutta
informed by
What were the Puranas that tells about the (a) Chinese historian, Wang Hiuen Tse
Gupta dynasty? (b) Ceylonese historian, Mogah Tissa
(a) Vishnu and Bhagavata puranas (c) Kashmir historian, Kalhana
(b) Skanda and Brahma Puranas (d) Marsha’s court poet, Bana
1.92 Chapter 6
Which amongst the following was not a (c) Chandra Gupta II
vassal state of Samudra Gupta in North- (d) Kumara Gupta I
Eastern and Eastern India? Who amongst the following scholars ven-
(a) Samatata tilated the view that Kalidasa was a con-
(b) Davaka temporary of Chandra Gupta II?
(c) Kamarupa (i) Malinatha
(d) Kartiputra (ii) Dignaga Charya
Match the following: (iii) Katyayana
(iv) Brihaspati
.KUV+ .KUV++
Choose the answer from the codes given
A. Chandra Gupta I 1. Sahasanka below:
B. Samudra Gupta 2. Vikramaditya (a) (i), (ii)
(b) (ii), (iii)
C. Chandra Gupta II 3. Kaviraja
(c) (iii), (iv)
D. Skanda Gupta 4. Maharajadhiraja (d) (i), (iv)
Select the answer from the codes given Which of the following is false?
below: (a) Skand Gupta won against the
%QFGU Pushyamitra.
A B C D (b) Kumaradeh was the spouse of Chandra
(a) 1 2 3 4 Gupta I.
(b) 4 3 1 2 (c) Kumaradeh was a Lichchhavi princess.
(c) 4 3 2 1 (d) Ujjain was the second capital of
(d) 3 4 1 2 Samudra Gupta.
#UUGTVKQP
# It-sing was the first Chinese Arrange the following in chronological
Buddhist pilgrim to visit India during the order:
Gupta period. (i) Puru Gupta
(ii) Narasimha Gupta
4GCUQP
4 It-sing refers to the donation (iii) Kumara Gutpa II
of some villages to Chinese Buddhists at (iv) Vishnu Gupta
Nalanda monastery by Sri Gupta. In the (v) Buddha Gupta
context of the above two statements, Choose the answer from the codes given
which of the following is correct? below:
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the cor- %QFGU
rect explanation of A. (a) (i), (v), (ii), (iii), (iv)
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not the (b) (i), (ii), (iii), (v), (iv)
correct explanation of A. (c) (ii), (i), (iii), (v), (iv)
(c) Only A is true. (d) (iii), (i), (ii), (v), (iv)
(d) Only R is true. #UUGTVKQP
#An overwhelming majority
Who amongst the following was men- of Gupta emperors were great patrons of
tioned as ‘the lord of the city of Ujjain as Vaishnavism.
well as Pataliputra’? 4GCUQP
4 Most of the rivals of the Gup-
(a) Chandra Gutpa I tas, including the Nagas and the Vakata-
(b) Samudra Gupta II kas, were staunch Shaivites.
In the context of the above two statements, (iii) Possession of administrative rights
which of the following is correct? (iv) Erosion of the rights of peasantry to
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the cor- the land.
rect explanation of A. Choose the answer from the codes
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not the given below:
correct explanation of A. (a) (i) and (ii)
(c) A is true but R is false. (b) (i), (ii) and (iv)
(d) A is false but R is true. (c) (i), (iii) and (iv)
Which of the following statements is (d) (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv)
incorrect about the Gupta age? Which of the following have the earliest
(a) There is evidence of rise of local units reference to the partition of the landed
of production. property?
(b) The law books of Gupta times lay down (i) Manu Sntriti
detailed rules regarding partnership in (ii) Yajnavalkya Smriti
business and functioning of guilds. (iii) Narada Smriti
(c) Corporate bodies did not perform any (iv) Brihaspati Smriti
judicial and executive functions. Select the answer from the codes below:
(d) Guilds maintained their own militia, (a) (i) and (ii)
called shrenibala. (b) (i) and (iii)
#UUGTVKQP
# The nomination of Rama (c) (ii) and (iv)
Gupta as the successor of successor of (d) (iii) and (iv)
Samudra Gupta is said to have been forced
Which one of the following was not fixed
by the Sabha, a representative organiza-
by the guilds?
tion of the Gupta period?
(a) Distribution
4GCUQP
4 In the Gupta period, the issue (b) Quality
of succession to the throne was unilater- (c) Social conduct
ally decided by the Sabha. (d) Price
In the context of the above two statements, #UUGTVKQP
# Some land grants of the
which of the following is correct? Gupta period were made to secular parties
(a) Both A and R arc true and R justifies who administered them for religious pur-
or explains A. poses.
(b) Both A and R arc true, but R does not
4GCUQP
4 The feudal chiefs of
justify or explain A.
Uccakalpa made most of their land grants
(c) Only (A) is true.
in favour of various classes of people, such
(d) Only (R) is true.
as writers, merchants, etc. for the purpose
Which of the following helped Brahmins of repair and maintenance of temples.
to become very powerful in the Gupta In the context of the above two statements,
age? which of the following is correct?
(i) Their control over spiritual and ideo- (a) Both A and R are true and R explain-
logical mechanism sor justifies A.
(ii) Acquisition of fiscal and economic (b) Both A and R arc true but R does not
rights justify A.
1.94 Chapter 6
(c) Only A is true. The last Gupta ruler to mint silver coins in
(d) Only R is true. western India was
The Gupta army included (a) Kumara Gupta I
(i) Hereditary forces (b) Chandra Gupta II
(ii) Local militia (c) Skanda Gupta
(iii) Feudal levies (d) Puru Gupta
(iv) Hired mercenaries Which of the Gupta temples was a Dravida
Choose the answer from the codes given style construction?
below: (a) Bhumara temple
(a) (i), (ii) (b) Deogarh temple
(b) (iii), (iv) (c) Bhitargaon temple
(c) (i), (ii), (iii) (d) Maniyar Mutt
(d) (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) Consider the following statements:
(i) The village headman continued to be
Mallakara was a tax imposed
important in Gupta times.
(a) In the time of famine
(ii) Village headman managed the village
(b) On the lower castes only
affairs with the assistance of elders.
(c) To fight a ainst the marauding tribes
(iii) No land transactions could be
(d) To recover the cost of granting lands
effected without his consent.
to religious institutions
(iv) In the urban administration, organ-
The structure of Government of the Gup- ized professional bodies were given
tas was considerable share.
(a) Feudal Of these:
(b) Semi-feudal (a) (i) and (ii) are true
(c) Imperial-cum-feudal (b) (ii), (iii) and (iv) are true
(d) Imperial (c) (i), (ii) and (iv) are true
Which of the following items became less (d) All are true
important market commodity in the Gupta Which of the following correctly explain the
period? magnificent donations made by guilds to the
(a) Silk (b) Textiles religious institutions and charitable causes
(c) Ivory (d) Pearls during pre-Gupta and Gupta periods?
‘All things fall to the earth by law of nature, (i) Religions convictions
for it is the nature of the earth to attract (ii) Social welfare
and keep things’. This was suggested by (iii) Self-advertisement
(a) Varahamihira (iv) Pleasing the kings
(b) Aryabhatta Select the answer from the codes given
(c) Brahmagupta below:
(d) Chandragomia (a) (i), (ii) and iii
The third Hun invasion under Torainan (b) (i) and (iii)
occurred during the reign of (c) (i), (iii) and (iv)
(a) Buddha Gupta (d) (i), (ii), (iv) and (iv)
(b) Narasimha Gupta Which one of the following is the major
(c) Skanda Gupta factor for the decline of silk trade with the
(d) Puru Gupta western world?
(a) Indian artisans became lethargic in interest from the creditor on paying
manufacturing luxury silk cloth. back the amount he has taken.
(b) India could not compete with the other (iii) According to Brihaspati when a field
silk exporting countries. is mortgaged for use and the period
(c) Roman conflict with Parthians pre- fi ed for such use does not expire, the
vented trade on land route. debtor cannot recover his property
(d) Pryzantine people learnt the art of nor can the creditor recover his loan.
rearing silk worms from the Chinese (iv) The practice of mortgaging land for
through the Persians. interest began towards the beginning
Match the following: of the Gupta period and continued for
another three or four centuries.
(i) Araknta (A) A variety of brass
Choose the answer from the codes
(ii) Aprahata (B) Forest land below:
(iii) Gavyuti (C) Measure of distance (a) (i) and (ii)
(iv) Kusida (D) Interest (b) (i), (iii) and (iv)
Select the correct answer from the codes (c) (ii), (iii) and (iv)
given below: (d) All the above
%QFGU The term bhumichchhidranayaya denotes
(a) i-A, ii-B, iii-C, iv-D (a) Ownership of the king over the soil
(b) i-B, ii-C, iii-D, iv-A (b) Ownership of the feudal chief over the
(c) i-A, ii-C, iii-B, iv-D soil
(d) i-D, ii-C, iii-B, iv-A (c) Ownership of the person who brought
Chandra Gupta II was the first Gupta king virgin soil under cultivation
to issue silver coins that were modelled on (d) Justice in transactions of the land
the coins of: Arrange the following administrative units
(a) Indo Greek kings of Harsha’s empire in the descending
(b) King Vikrama of Ujjain order:
(c) Roman king Augustus (i) Bhukti
(d) Shakas of Western and Central India. (ii) Mandala
Which of the following was not a leading (iii) Vithi
guild of Gupta period? (v) Rashtra
(a) Pottcre Select the answer from the codes below:
(b) Metal-workers (a) (iv), (i), (ii), (iii)
(c) Carpenters (b) (i), (ii), (iv), (iii)
(d) Stone-cutters. (c) (iv), (ii), (i), (iii)
Which of the following statements are cor- (d) (iv), (i), (iii), (ii)
rect about the land laws in Gupta and post- The term kshauma refers to
Gupta periods? (a) A type of cloth
(i) Brihaspati ordains that one field mort- (b) A kind of punishment
gaged to two creditors at the same time (c) A religious tax
shall belong to that mortgagee who (d) An administrative post
was the first to obtain possession of it Which of the following statements is not
(ii) Katyayana says that the debtor can get correct about agrarian structure in Gupta
back his fields given for enjoyment as and post-Gupta periods?
1.96 Chapter 6
(a) The feudal tendencies made their (iv) One important element in the land
appearance towards the closing years donation records is the list of offi -
of the Gupta rule. ers, either with both proper names
(b) References to land grants to officers, and functional designations or only
Brahmins and temples are available in with designations.
the reign of Harsha. Select the answer from the codes below:
(c) We find numerous revenue terms in (a) (i) and (iii)
inscriptions, some of which were paid (b) (i), (iii) and (iv)
to the vassals or officers and others to (c) (i), (ii) and (iv)
the state or the overlord. (d) All the above
(d) The tax collection rights of the kings
Which one of the following is not the out-
and their subordinate chiefs were
come of vesting the donees with magiste-
mutually exclusive and the peasants
rial and police powers along with fiscal
did not need to pay taxes to both.
rights?
Which of the following statements is not (a) Weakening of king’s authority
correct? (b) Increase in productivity
(a) Economy tended to become increas- (c) Easy administration over large area
ingly agrarian as trade and commerce (d) Oppression of the tenants
declined in the post-Gupta period.
(b) A fairly large section of peasantry Which one of the following can be inferred
emerged due to transformation of from the paucity of coins in the later Gupta
Sudras into peasants. period?
(c) The mode of paying interest on mort- (a) Decline of trade
gaged land in the form of labour ser- (b) Decline of monetary economy
vices had become fairly common. (c) Non-availability of gold
(d) The flourishing agrarian economy (d) Self-sufficient village econo y
raised the living standards of peasants. #UUGTVKQP
# The Chalukyas of Badami
The ultimate ownership of land during the exercised paternalistic control over village
post-Gupta period lay with administration.
(a) The cultivator 4GCUQP
4 In the village affairs, the royal
(b) The village community officers of the Chalukyas actively inter-
(c) The king vened instead of being mere observers.
(d) The joint family (a) Only Assertion (A) is true.
Which of the following statements is/are (b) Only Reason (R) is true.
true about the land charters of post-Gupta (c) Both ‘A’ and ‘R’ are true and ‘R’ is the
period? correct explanation for ‘A’.
(i) In some land grants, taxes and powers (d) Both ‘A’ and ‘R’ are true, but ‘R’ is not
of administration are explicitly del- the correct explanation for ‘R’.
egated in a positive manner. Match the following:
(ii) Some charters specifical y transfer
peasants and artisans living in a vil- .KUV+ .KUV++
lage and also cultivators occupying a
2QUV)WRVC
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piece of land. F[PCUVKGU
(iii) Some charters give the beneficia y A. Maitras 1. Rajputana and Gujarat
the right to evict the existing peasants
and induce new ones. B. Vannans 2. Gujarat
C. Gujaras 3. Bengal (a) Dandin—Nandivarman II

(b) Bharavi—Nandivarman II
D. Assam 4. Karnataka
(c) Appar—Dantivarman
%QFGU (d) Andal—Mahendravarman I
A B C D Match the following:
(a) 1 4 2 5
(b) 2 4 1 3 .KUV+ .KUV++
(c) 1 3 4 2
2CNNCXC
'ZCORNGU
(d) 2 1 3 5 VGORNGU
#UUGTVKQP
# Pallavas, accordingly (i) Mahendra (A) Kailasanatha
to some scholars, were a branch of the group temple at Kanchi
Vakataka dynasty. (ii) Narasimha (B) Muktesvara tem-
4GCUQP
4 Pallava inscriptions give us group ple at Kanchi
clear evidence about their connection with (iii) Rajasimha (C) Rock-cut temples
Vakatakas. group at Bhairavakonda
(a) Only Assertion (A) is true.
(iv) Nandi (D) Monolithic
(b) Only Reason (R) is true.
group temples at
(c) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is
Mahabalipuram
the correct explanation for (A).
(d) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is (a) i-C, ii-D, iii-A, iv-B
not the correct explanation for (R). (b) i-D. ii-A, iii-B, iv-C
What were ghatikas? (c) i-A. ii-B, iii-D, iv-C
(a) Jaina educational institutions (d) i-8, ii-C, iii-D, iv-A
(b) Buddhist cultural centres What was considered at varna samkara?
(c) Brahmanical institutions for higher (a) Illegitimate birth
studies (b) Revolt against the varna system
(d) Village assemblies in the Pallava period (c) Transgression of varna boundaries for
Who was the author of Dasakumarachari- marriage
tam and at whose court did he live? (d) Championing the varnasraina dharma
Answer Keys
1. (d) 2. (a) 3. (d) 4. (c) 41. (d) 42. (d) 43. (a) 44. (a)
5. (c) 6. (a) 7. (d) 8. (a) 45. (c) 46. (c) 47. (c) 48. (a)
9. (d) 10. (a) 11. (b) 12. (d) 49. (c) 50. (a) 51. (c) 52. (a)
13. (a) 14. (c) 15. (d) 16. (a) 53. (d) 54. (d) 55. (d) 56. (a)
17. (b) 18. (c) 19. (d) 20. (d) 57. (d) 58. (d) 59. (d) 60. (c)
21. (b) 22. (a) 23. (d) 24. (d) 61. (a) 62. (a) 63. (d) 64. (d)
25. (b) 26. (b) 27. (b) 28. (b) 65. (c) 66. (d) 67. (b) 68. (c)
29. (a) 30. (a) 31. (d) 32. (b) 69. (c) 70. (c) 71. (a) 72. (c)
33. (d) 34. (c) 35. (a) 36. (d) 73. (a) 74. (a) 75. (a)
37. (a) 38. (b) 39. (c) 40. (c)
7
The Chola Dynasty
Chola is one of the oldest and well-known Aditya-I
dynasty in the Tamil region of South India—
Aditya-I was soon succeeded by his son Par-
Chera, Chola and Pandya. It spanned across
antaka-I and ruled between AD 907 and 955.
many centuries with many ups and downs.
Cholas power reached supremacy under his
The Chola rule saw remarkable progress in
reign. He annexed the territory of Pandya
almost all spheres of life such as polity, cul-
King and soon conquered the Vadumbas.
ture and economy. During the ninth century,
He swept away all the traces of Pallavas
the Cholas gained control and overthrew the
power, but received a setback at the hands of
Pallavas. They went on to rule the south of
Rashtrakutas.
India from the ninth to the thirteenth cen-
tury. The Indian Chola empire conquered
not just the south of India but also extended Raja Raja Chola
their empire over the sea and ruled parts of
Raja Raja—the Great was a powerful ruler of
the Maldives and Sri Lanka. The founder of the
the Chola kingdom. He ruled from AD 985 to
kingdom of Cholas was known by the name
1014. His army conquered Venginadu, Ganga-
of Vijayalaya who conquered the kingdom
padi, Tadigaipadi, Nolambavadi, Kudamalai-
of Tanjore during mid-eighth century. The
nadu, Kollam, Kalingam and Ilamandalam of
Chola dynasty is an important landmark in
the Singalas. His first triumph was achieved
the history of India.
early in his reign by destroying the Navy of
Cheras at Trivandrum. He annexed the north
Chola Rulers part of Ceylon to his kingdom and sacked Anu-
radhapuram. Polonnaruwa was made the capi-
Vijayalaya tal of the Chola province of Ceylon. Political
In around AD 850, Vijayalaya founded the divisions of the Western Ganga’s Gangavadi,
dynasty probably by starting off as a vassal Tadigaivadi and Nolambavadi were conquered
of the Pallava King. With the conflict between in AD 991, and it remained under them for
Pallavas and Pandyas, Vijayalaya occupied the next century. Union of Eastern and West-
Tanjore and made his capital. He was suc- ern Chalukyas was stopped by helping East-
ceeded by his son Aditya-I. Aditya-I defeated ern Chalukya ruler. Towards the end of the
Pallava King Aparajita and also Parantaka reign, the Cholas were attacked by the Western
Viranarayana, the Kongu ruler. Chalukyas, but Raja Raja won the war.
The Chola Dynasty 1.99
Rajendra-I Chola and thus succeeded in separating the

Cholas from the Eastern Chalukyas. Ganga-
Rajendra-I founded his new capital at Gangai-
vadi and Nolambavadi were lost to Hoysala’s
kondacholapuram. He set up Vaishnava centre
Vishnuvardhana.
and the Vedic college for teaching Vedas. He
had a friendly relationship with the then Chi-
nese emperor and had a peaceful reign of 32
Vikrama Chola (AD 1120–1135)
years. He extended the territory inherited from The next successor, the son of Kulottunga-I,
his father and subdued the power of Pandyas restored the Chola power by reconquering
and Keralas. He performed Asvamedha sacri- Vengi and by taking control of part of Ganga-
fice too. He was very successful in the begin- vadi. His reign was somewhat peaceful to his
ning but later on he lost his life in the famous subjects though there were floods and famines
battle of Koppam on the Tungabhadra. The next in the South Arcot. The Hoysala expansion
ruler Rajendra-II (AD 1052–1064) just man- took control of Chola power slowly and subse-
aged to maintain the Chola empire, though he quently. The last rulers, namely, Kulottunga-II,
had to struggle with the troubling Chalukyas. Raja Raja-II and Rajadhiraja-III could not stop
the Hoysalas annexation of the Chola King-
Vira Rajendra dom. Cholas hold on Pandyan kingdom had
already weakened. In about 1243, the Pallava
Vira Rajendra (AD 1064–1070) was the
chief declared independence. The Kakatiyas
elder brother of Rajendra-II. He succeeded
and Hoysalas partitioned among themselves
his brother to reign for the next seven years.
the territory of the Chola empire, and Chola
He met the invasion of Chalukya King and
empire ceased to exist forever.
defeated the Chalukya ruler. He reconquered
Vengi and foiled the efforts of Vijayabahu of
Ceylon who was trying to drive the Cholas out
Chola Administration
of Ceylon. When Someswara-II succeeded the Of all the South Indian dynasties, the Cholas
Chalukyas throne, Rajendra made some incur- have left most detailed information on the
sions but later on built friendly ties by giving working of the administration set up by them.
his daughter to Vikramaditya. Soon after the The Cholas had an excellent system of admin-
death of Vira Rajendra in AD 1070, there was istration. The emperor or king was at the top
a contest for the throne and Adhi-Rajendra, of the administration. The extent and resources
wherein the heir, apparently, took the throne. of the Chola empire increased the power and
He had a short uneventful reign and Vijaya- prestige of monarchy. The big capital cities
bahu got Ceylon independent. like Tanjore and Gangaikondacholapuram, the
large royal courts and extensive grants to the
temples reveal the authority of the king. They
Kulottunga-I undertook royal tours to increase the efficien y
Rajendra-II succeeded Adhirajendra under the of the administration. There was elaborate
title Kulottunga Chola. In about 1073, Kala- administrative machinery comprising various
churi King Yasahkarana invaded Vengi but officials called pe undanam and sirudanam.
did not gain anything. Pandyas’ and Chera’s The Chola kings ruled their kingdom with
attack were put down by Kulottunga. The the help of council of ministers and officers
southern Kalinga revolt was put down too. who were in charge of various branches of
In about AD 1118, the viceroy of Vengi—the administration. Local self-government was a
Vikramaditya VI—took control of Vengi from remarkable feature of Chola administration.
1.100 Chapter 7
The village was the basic unit of adminis- land was therefore required for the purpose of
tration. Chola officials participated more as registering land rights and for fixing land tax.
advisors and observers. The villages had a vil- As far as the technicalities of measurements
lage assembly or council known as the 7TQT from Tamil evidence are concerned, the best
5CDJC. Villagers who owned land or belonged available studies on the subject to date are
to the upper castes were chosen by lot to the those by K.A. Nilakanta Sastri and T.V. Mahal-
councils. ingam. Both these works, however, suffer from
The council was often divided into a num- random sampling of the data without reference
ber of small committees, and each commit- to its temporal or spatial contexts.
tee would look after an aspect of the village The units of land measurements met with
administration. The revenue of the Chola in Tamil inscriptions are kuli, ma, veli, patti
kingdom came from two sources—taxes on and patakam. Of these, patti is found only in
land and taxes on trade. Land tax was gener- the northern districts of Chengalpattu, North
ally assessed at one-third of the produce. The Arcot and South Arcot, and the adjoining dis-
actual collection of revenue was done by the tricts in Andhra. This unit seems to have gone
village assembly. The intermediary or some- out of use from the beginning of the eleventh
times a government officer collected the taxes century. At times, it was equated (in Sanskrit
and passed on the government’s share. Often a passages) with the unit nivartana, which was in
part of revenue was assigned to a temple. use in northern India. But this does not help
much since this seems to be just verbal equa-
Military Administration tion, and the unit nivartana had different areas
at different places. The unitpatakam is found
The Cholas maintained a regular standing
only in a few brahmadeya villages in differ-
army consisting of elephants, cavalry, infan-
ent parts of the study area. While patakam in
try and navy. About seventy regiments were
northern India of the Gupta times was a big
mentioned in the inscriptions. The royal troops
unit comprising an area of 24–32 hectares
were called Kaikkolaperumpadai. Within this,
(60–80 acres), it was here a small unit. Kuli and
there was a personal troop to defend the king
veli were the most popular land units. Usually
known as Velaikkarar. Attention was given to
kuli was the smallest basic unit of measure-
the training of the army, and military canton-
ment, and the other units like veli, patakam and
ments called kadagams existed. The Cholas
patti were expressed in multiples of this unit.
paid special attention to their navy. The naval
The largest standard unit, veli, was in use
achievements of the Tamils reached its climax
from early times; it is attested to in the early
under the Cholas. They controlled the Mala-
Tamil literature (first to third centuries CE),
bar and Coromandel coasts. In fact, the Bay
and it is found mentioned before the Chola
of Bengal became a Chola lake for some time.
period, in early Pandya inscriptions of eighth
to ninth centuries. Hence, the observation of
Land under Chola Rule Nilakanta Sastri that ‘the system of measure-
The pivotal role of land in early agricultural ment by veli was an ancient one in the Chola
societies is too obvious to be emphasized. country spread over the other pans of southern
Early medieval Tamil Nadu was not an excep- India with the Chola empire and apparently
tion to this as its economy was mainly depend- disappeared with it’ is not accurate. In some
ent on land. The bulk of governmental revenue form or other, the unit lingered onto the days
came from land tax. Some form of measuring of the British.
Chola Revenue System for one and the same tax), a few more may be
added to these widespread taxes. Some taxes
The revenue system of the Chola state is bet- that were in vogue in the earlier half fell into
ter understood now than it was when K.A. disuse later, and many more came into use in
Nilakanta Sastri wrote his magnum opus on the later half of the period. Anyhow, in the case
the Chola history, thanks to the ‘Concordance of about 8 per cent of the tax terms, they are
of the Chola period taxes’ prepared by Noboru referred to only once or twice. They must obvi-
Karashima and B. Sitaraman, which offers a ously be occasional and local levies. Actually
major breakthrough in the study of the subject many of them are found to be collected in Peri-
and a subsequent elaboration of the same by ods 3 and 4 in the localities under the control
P. Shanmugam. Nilakanta Sastri who first gave of the subordinate chiefs.
a succinct account of the subject found it dif- But a rational classification of the signifi-
ficult to give a basic classification of the major cant tax terms bristles with difficulties due to
taxes of Chola period. An inventory of the tax various reasons. Sometimes, it is even difficult
terms gives us an impression that the taxes of the to ascertain the correct form of a term. For
Chola state were incomprehensibly numerous, instance, the combined form al–amanji always
running to 400 and odd. However, the above- occurs in a seemingly compound form and
mentioned Concordance making a systematic therefore recognized as a single tax. Actually,
analysis of all the available terms has shown it is possible to consider them as two different
that only a few of them were widely prevalent but related items, al and amanji, but the evi-
and others were mostly local and occasional in dence is equivocal. Similarly, there are many
nature. Nilakanta Sastri was also quite aware conventional phrases in inscriptions that can
of this fact and emphasizes the distinction be interpreted properly only if we remember
between the general and the occasional taxes. In that euphony rather than logical sequence has
the Concordance given at the end of the book, played a greater role in their construction. In
for the convenience of the students, the Chola some cases, one and the same term has been
period is divided into four subperiods, namely, used in both the generic and special senses.
Period 1: 850–985 CE, Period 2: 986–1070 CE, With these problems in mind, the Chola period
Period 3: 1071–1178 CE, Period 4: 1179–1279 tax terms may be classified into four major
CE. The first two periods are taken as the earlier categories. This grouping is done taking into
half and the last two as the later half. account both the frequency of the terms and
The widely distributed taxes were seven the levels of the taxpayers.
in number, namely kadamai or irai, kudimai,
antarayam, vetti, muttaiyal and tattarpattam. 1. Primary land tax called variously irai, kad-
There were some other terms that were also amai and opati (Tamil variant of the San-
frequently referred to in inscriptions, but they skrit term WRCFDK) levied on landowners or
were confined either to Chola-mandalam (cen- landlords, so to say.
tral part of the Chola territory) or Tondai-man- 2. Labour or service denoted by the term
dalam (northern parts) and also temporally kudimai and levied from the cultivators of
restricted, either to the earlier half or to the lat- land, that is, the actual producers.
ter one. That is, only about 5 per cent of them 3. Taxes on various non-agricultural profes-
were significant if we consider the frequency sions denoted by the general term pattam
of their occurrence area-wise and period-wise. and ayam.
If the synonyms are taken into account (as 4. Miscellaneous taxes including presents,
different terms are used in different localities tolls on merchandise and judicial fines.
1.102 Chapter 7
Society and Culture that were crafted during this time. The crafts-
men used to beautifully decorate the statues
More important than the kings and their con- with garlands and jewellery while carving the
quests is the cultural and artistic record of statue itself. Famous examples of bronze stat-
those times. The temple was the cultural and ues are the Nataraja and Lord Shiva as Ard-
social centre, where people used to gather. The hanarishvara.
courtyard of the temple was often used as a The Chola temples were miniature cities
school. Society was divided into Brahmans or palaces and received revenue-free grants of
and non-Brahmans. Many of the temples in lands for their upkeep. For the common person,
the south, even now, seem to resemble cita- the temple was not merely a place of worship,
dels where people can defend themselves, if but the hub or social and cultural life as well.
attacked. Life revolved around the temple. As
Brahmanism came into contact with fi mly
entrenched beliefs in the power of fertility, the Education and Literature
Bhakti cult emerged. Shiva was worshipped in Education was also given importance. Besides
the form of a lingam (phallic) emblem. Dur- the temples and mathas as educational centres,
ing this period, several regional languages several educational institutions also flourished
branched off from Sanskrit. Marathi evolved The inscription at Ennayiram, Thirumukkudal
from the local Prakrit, while Tamil, Telugu and and Thirubhuvanai provide details of the colleges
Kannada stemmed from a Dravidian root, but existed in these places. Apart from the Vedas and
owed much to Sanskrit. Epics, subjects like mathematics and medicine
were taught in these institutions. Endowment of
lands was made to run these institutions.
Art and Architecture The development of Tamil literature
South Indian Temple architecture reached its reached its peak during the Chola period. Siv-
climax under the Cholas. The main feature of akasintamani written by Thiruthakkadevar and
the Chola or Dravida style is the building of Kundalakesi belonged to tenth century. The
storey upon storey above the chief deity room. Ramayana composed by Kamban and the Peri-
Raja Raja and Rajendra marked their victo- yapuranam or Tiruttondarpuranam by Sekkilar
ries by erecting a number of Shiva and Vishnu are the two masterpieces of this age. Jayankon-
temples at various places. The most prominent dar’s Kalingattupparani describes the Kalinga
one is the famous Rajarajeshwara temple at Tan- war fought by Kulotunga I. The Moovarula
jore, complete in 1010 CE. One unique feature written by Ottakuthar depicts the life of the
is the long inscriptions of historical narrations three Chola kings. The Nalavenba was written
and calligraphy inscribed in these temple walls. by Pugalendi. The works on Tamil grammar
Architecture developed rapidly under the like Kalladam by Kalladanar, Yapperungalam
Chola empire. The temples that were con- by Amirthasagarar, a Jain, Nannul by Pavanan-
structed were magnificent to look at. A famous dhi and Virasoliyam by Buddhamitra were the
one is the Brihadeeswara temple at Tanjore. products of the Chola age.
They formed the cult of Dravidian style of
temple architecture. These splendid temples
can be still seen at Tanjore and are a living tes- Fall of the Cholas
timony to the intricate style of architecture of The Chalukya Chola clan had some promi-
the craftsmen of the Chola dynasty. Another nent kings like Kulothunga Chola I and
famous form of art was the bronze figurines Vikrama Chola, but the decline of the
extensive empire commenced soon after. of the thirteenth century. Rajendra III was
With the growth of Hoysalas in the North and the last, unfortunate ruler to witness the fall
the Southern Pandyas sprouting, the fall of of his empire and the starting of the new
the empire was imminent by the beginning Pandyan era.
Exercise
Who was responsible for the upkeep of vil- Who was the Rashtrakut ruler to have sac-
lage roads during the Chola period? rificed his fingers to Mahalakshmi?
(a) Garden Committee (a) Krishna I
(b) Annual Committee (b) Dhruva
(c) Gold Committee (c) Amoghvarsha
(d) All of the above (d) Govind III
Who was the son and successor of the What was the means of rural exchange
Chola king Aditya? during the Chola period ?
(a) Parantaka I (b) Parantaka II (a) Wheat
(c) Raja Raja (d) Rajendra (b) Rice
The reign of Rajadhiraja was (c) Cow
(a) AD 1044–1052 (d) Gold
(b) AD 1034–1054 The members of the Executive Committee
(c) AD 1035–1065 were called
(d) AD 1045–1076 (a) Kadagam
Whose feudal lord was the Chola ruler (b) Kudavolai
Vijayaditya in the beginning? (c) Nagarika
(a) Of Chalukyas (d) Variapperumakkul
(b) Of Pallavas Which of the following statements about
(c) Of Pandyas the Chola system of legislation and admin-
(d) Of Rashtrakuts istration of justice is not correct?
The Chola king who built Brihadeeswara (a) Legislation was in the form of decla-
temple at Tanjore? rations by local associations.
(a) Rajadhiraja (b) Adhirajendra (b) These declarations had to be approved
(c) Raja Raja (d) Vimaladitya by the king.
Higher officers during the Cholas period (c) Disputes were settled without the help
were called of officials
(a) Udankuttam (d) Reference to the king’s court was
(b) Kudavolai made as a last resort.
(c) Kottam Who was the Chola king who defeated the
(d) Kudumbam last Pallava ruler Aparajita Varma?
The Chola king who defeated the Pandyas (a) Vinayaditya
and occupied Madurai was (b) Vijayaditya
(a) Parantaka I (c) Aditya
(b) Parantaka II (d) Parameswaravarma
(c) Aditya Match List I with List II and choose the
(d) Rajadhiraja answer from the codes given below the lists:
1.104 Chapter 7
.KUV+ .KUV++ (a) Both ‘A’ and ‘R’ are true and ‘R’ is the
correct explanation of ‘A’.
A. Veli-Chenu 1. Dry land (b) Both ‘A’ and ‘R’ are true but ‘R’ is not
B. Niru-rela 2. Wet land the correct explanation of ‘A’.
C. Tomta-bhumi, 3. Garden land (c) ‘A’ is true but ‘R’ is false
(d) ‘A’ is false but ‘R’ is true
D. Racha-doddi 4. Crown land
What was the period of rule of Chola king
%QFGU Parantaka I?
A B C D (a) 907–953 A.D
(a) 1 2 3 4 (b) 834–854 A.D
(b) 1 2 4 3 (c) 900–909 A.D
(c) 2 1 3 4 (d) 923–943 A.D
(d) 4 3 2 1
Which of the following pairs of dynasties
To whose period, the Uttra Merur inscrip- and cognomens used by them is/are cor-
tion belonged? rectly matched?
(a) Aditya (b) Parantaka I (i) Cholas: Rajakesari and Parakesari
(c) Rajendra I (d) Raja Raja (ii) Pandyas: Satyavakya and Nitimarga
What was the main feature of the Cholas (iii) Western: Maravarman and Gangas
administration? Chadaiyavarman
(a) Military Organization Select the answer from the code given
(b) Town Administration below:
(c) Rural Administration (a) (i) only
(d) Art and Architecture (b) (ii) only
(c) (i) and (iii)
Who was the Chola king who destructed
(d) (ii) and (iii)
the Chera navy?
(a) Raja Raja I What was Kalam in Chola administration?
(b) Rajendra (a) Weight of grains
(c) Parantaka I (b) Land unit
(d) Aditya (c) Adhiwas land
(d) None of the above
Villages during the Cholas period were
divided into wards known as Village assemblies during the Cholas period
(a) Kudumbam were functioned through the committees
(b) Kudavolai called
(c) Kurram (a) Variams (b) Kottams
(d) Kottam (c) Kurrams (d) Kadagams
(A): Among the many south Indian dynas- We know a great deal more about the Cho-
ties, the Cholas alone are able to ignore las than their predecessors because
their feudatories to a significant extent (a) They appointed court chroniclers
(R): The Chola kings granted autonomous (b) Many books were written during that
powers to village assemblies with a view period
to completely eliminating the feudatory In (c) Of long inscriptions on the walls of
the context of the above two statements, temples
which of the following is correct? (d) Of the abundance of coins
The army of Cholas was divided into regi- Which of the following were paid workers
ments called of Gram Sabha:
(a) Kudavolai (a) Kandachar
(b) Kottams (b) Ayagar
(c) Kadagams (c) Madhyasth
(d) Udankutams (d) Sist
With what objective the Chola rulers sur- Which was the smallest trade Shreni in the
veyed the land widely ? Chola period?
(a) To settle their masterful rights (a) NanaDesi
(b) To fix the quantity of crop (b) Manigram
(c) To fix the government’s share in (c) Valanjiar
production (d) Nagaram
What are the qualifications of executive
How many times one could be the member committees during the Cholas period?
of Variyam? (a) The candidate should have the age of
(a) Once 35 to 70 years and must be the resi-
(b) Twice dent of the village
(c) Thrice (b) He must be well versed in vedas and
(d) Four times must have his own property
Which of the following statements on the (c) He must have not committed the crim-
Chola trading activities is incorrect? inal offences
(a) Trade existed between Chola empire (d) All the above
and China and ambassadors were
The Chola king Parantaka I was defeated
exchanged.
by the
(b) Cholas exported textiles, spices,
(a) Krishna II
drugs, jewels, ivory and ebony, both
(b) Krishna III
to China and to the west.
(c) Govinda II
(c) Chola rulers closely supervised the
(d) Govinda III
activities of merchant guilds.
(d) Spices were brought from South-East Constructed in the Chola period, the cop-
Asia and the Arabs in turn took them per idols of Natraj, the Devakriti, is often
to the west. (a) Octagonal
The Chola king Rajadhiraja was killed by (b) Hexagonal
the Chalukya ruler in the battle of (c) Quadrilateral
(a) Manimangalam (d) Two sided
(b) Takkolam Which of the following is not true with
(c) Koppam regard to Raja Raja, the Great?
(d) Tallakota (a) He conquered the Maldives Island
The Chola king who had the title Madh- (b) He invaded Ceylon and annexed the
uraikonda is whole island to his empire
(a) Parantaka I (c) He conquered the north-western part
(b) Vijayaditya of the Ganga country
(c) Vinayaditya (d) He interfered in the affairs of the
(d) Rajadhiraja Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi
1.106 Chapter 7
What were the titles of Rajendra Chola? Who was the son and successor of Raja
(a) Gangaikonda Raja Chola?
(b) Kadaramkonda (a) Rajendra (b) Aditya
(c) Mudikonda and Panditha Chola (c) Vijayalaya (d) Vimaladitya
(d) All the above Which of the following is correct analysis
With what aims the Chola rulers sent of Sabha?
ambassadors to China? (a) It was composed of people who paid
(a) To prepare a joint front against Sri taxes in an ordinary village
Vijay empire (b) Brahmans were kept away from it or it
(b) To establish cultural relations was built by Agrahar
(c) To promote trade (c) It was a traders’ organization
(d) To give honour to powerful Chinese (d) It was a committee of land owners
ruler Which of the statements on Rajendra
A group of villages during the Cholas Chola is not correct?
period were called (a) He overran the territories of the Pala
(a) Tan Kurram in Bengal and Bihar
(b) Kudavolai (b) In commemoration of his victories
(c) Kottam against the Gangetic delta, he adopted
(d) Variam the title of Gangaikonda and founded
Which of the following is not an important the city of Gangaikondacholapuram
feature of the Chola temples? (c) With the help of his fleet, he con-
(a) Mandapam or pavillion quered Pegu and the Andaman and
(b) Sikhara or curvilinear tower Nicobar Islands
(c) Vimana or storey (d) It was during his time that the crip-
(d) Gopuram or gateway pling conflict between the Chalukyas
of Vengi and the Cholas began
What were the popular assemblies of
The Variyam members were
Cholas period?
(a) Paid
(a) Ur
(b) Honorary
(b) Sabha
(c) Half paid
(c) Samiti
(d) Receivers of land grants
(d) a and b
An inscription of the ninth century AD
What was the mode of exchange in rural found at Takuapa on the Isthmus of Siam
regions of the Chola state? mentions
(a) Cash (a) Manigraman
(b) Cow (b) Ayyavole
(c) Paddy (c) a trader from Malabar
(d) Gold ornaments (d) a Chola ruler
What was Tribhuvani Swaram in the Chola What was the proportion of production
period ? charged as land revenue?
(a) College (a) 1/2
(b) Secondary college (b) 1/3
(c) Middle school (c) 1/4
(d) Temple (d) 1/6
The candidate names for election during Which of the following merit was not
the Cholas period were written on the required for the election as member of
palm leaves called Variyam?
(a) Kudavolai (b) Kottam (a) One must be the owner of 1/4 land on
(c) Kurram (d) Kudumbam which tax was paid
Raja Raja Chola was the son of (b) One must have own house on his own
(a) Parantaka II land
(b) Rajendra (c) One must be Dwij
(c) Aditya (d) One must be of age between 35 and 70
(d) Vijayalaya Groups of Kurrams during the Cholas
Which of the following committee was period were called
constituted for the benefit of trade? (a) Nadu (b) Valanadu
(a) Kury (c) Vishaya (d) Udankuttam
(b) Alugam Which of the Chola rulers did not send
(c) Perun Guri ambassador to China?
(d) Nagaram (a) Parantaka I
Battle of Takkolam was fought between: (b) Rajendra I
(a) Krishna Ill and Parantaka I (c) Kulotunga I
(b) Anantavarman Chola Ganga and (d) All of the above
Kulottunga I What was the single most important item
(c) Vishnuvardhana and Somesvara III of imports of the Chola empire?
(d) Raja Raja I and Vikramaditya IV (a) Horses
How did Raja Raja I and Rajendra I cele- (b) Precious stones
brate their victory and its commemoration? (c) Spices
(a) By building temples (d) Dye-stuff
(b) By issuing currency
Who was the greatest among the Chola
(c) By writing inscriptions
kings?
(d) By constructing pillars
(a) Rajendra
Who was the last ruler of Chola dynasty? (b) Parantaka I
(a) Adhirajendra (c) Parantaka II
(b) Aditaya (d) Raja Raja
(c) Vinayaditya
(d) Vijayaditya Where were the meetings of Common
Sabha held?
What was the importance of Siraf on the
(a) In temples
Persian Gulf in Chola trade with Persia
(b) Under a tree
and Arabia?
(c) By the side of tank
(a) It was a meeting point of the sailors and
(d) In a special building
merchants of the entire Indian ocean.
(b) It had the maximum demand for The Chola empire was divided into prov-
Indian goods. inces called
(c) It was the first halt for ships going to (a) Vishayas
Persia and Arabia. (b) Aharas
(d) It was a great producer of black (c) Bhukties
pepper. (d) Mandalams
1.108 Chapter 7
Which was got a Upsamiti of Variyam? (c) Charge land revenue
(a) Varshik Samiti (d) Animal rearing
(b) Gold Samiti
What was the qualification necessary for
(c) Bag Samiti
Variyam members?
(d) Tank Samiti
(i) Age between 35 and 70 years
The Chola administration was primarily (ii) If expert in Vedas, concession of land
based on (iii) High character
(a) Central government (iv) Correct account of income and
(b) Provincial administration expenditure
(c) Local self-government (a) Only (iii)
(d) Military power (b) Only (i), (ii) and (iii)
What did the Cholas importmainly? (c) Only (i), (ii) and (iv)
(a) Die stuff (b) Horses (d) All (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv)
(c) Precious stones (d) Wool Who was the Chola king who annexed the
During the Cholas period, Yuvarajas were Northern portion of Ceylon?
appointed to (a) Rajendra
(a) Aharas (b) Mandalams (b) Adirajendra
(c) Vishays (d) Nadus (c) Raja Raja
Who established Mamallapuram? (d) Raja Raja Narenra
(a) Narsingh Varman The Bay of Bengal has been called Choi
(b) Dharmardhi Vannan lake, why?
(c) Mahendra Vannan (a) Cholas were ever ready to go to sea
(d) Kirti Varman (b) No foreign ship could enter these dur-
With which ports, the naval trade of the ing Chola reign
Cholas was conducted? (c) Chola Army had its possession over it
1. Mahabalipuram (d) Chola empire spread from Indian
2. Masulipattanam ocean to Bay of Bengal
3. Kaveripattanam What was the name of the Chola king who
4. Korakai adopted the titles of ‘Mummadi Chola’,
(a) Only 1 and 2 ‘Cholamartanda’, ‘Rajakesari Aromoli’?
(b) Only 2 and 3 (a) Rajendra I
(c) Only 1, 2 and 3 (b) Raja Raja
(d) Only 1, 3 and 4 (c) Parantaka 1
What was the period of Raja Raja Chola? (d) Vijayalaya
(a) AD 800–832 #UUGTVKQP
# Among the many South
(b) AD 985–1014 Indian dynasties, the Cholas alone were
(c) AD 890–910 able to ignore their feudatories to a signif-
(d) AD 900–920 icant extent. 4GCUQP
4 The Chola kings
The Kusseed mentality means— granted autonomous powers to village
(a) To lend money on interest assemblies with a view to completely
(b) Trade eliminating the feudatories. In the context
of the above two statements, which of the (b) Both ‘A’ and ‘‘R’ are true but ‘R’ is not
following is correct? the correct explanation of ‘A’.
(a) Both ‘A’ and ‘R’ are true and ‘R’ is the (c) ‘A’ is true but ‘R’ is false
correct explanation of ‘A’. (d) ‘A’ is false but ‘R’ is true
Answer Keys
1. (a) 2. (a) 3. (a) 4. (b) 41. (d) 42. (a) 43. (b) 44. (d)
5. (c) 6. (a) 7. (a) 8. (c) 45. (b) 46. (a) 47. (b) 48. (a)
9. (b) 10. (d) 11. (b) 12. (c) 49. (a) 50. (d) 51. (a) 52. (a)
13. (a) 14. (b) 15. (c) 16. (a) 53. (a) 54. (c) 55. (b) 56. (a)
17. (a) 18. (c) 19. (a) 20. (a) 57. (a) 58. (d) 59. (a) 60. (d)
21. (a) 22. (a) 23. (a) 24. (c) 61. (b) 62. (c) 63. (b) 64. (b)
25. (c) 26. (c) 27. (c) 28. (a) 65. (a) 66. (d) 67. (b) 68. (a)
29. (b) 30. (d) 31. (d) 32. (b) 69. (d) 70. (c) 71. (c) 72. (b)
33. (c) 34. (b) 35. (d) 36. (c) 73. (c) 74. (c) 75. (d)
37. (c) 38. (b) 39. (d) 40. (c)
Part II: Medieval
8
Delhi Sultanate
Foundation of Delhi Sultanate of Delhi, Prithvi Raj Chauhan. Till 1191 AD,
he had defeated all his Muslim opponents.
Shihabuddin Muhammad Ghori was the It became necessary to fight with Rajputs to
younger brother of Ghiyasuddin and the establish his supremacy over India. He was
ruler of Ghor, a small state in Afghanistan. well prepared for the ensuing war. In 1191, he
Ghiyasuddin occupied the throne of Ghor in marched towards Delhi with a huge army. On
AD 1163. By nature, he was an imperialist. the way, he captured Sirhind. In the historical
So he followed the policy of war and conquest field of Tarain, both the armies fought. Tarain
as he ascended the throne. In AD 1173, he is 14 miles from Thaneshwar and 10 miles
conquered Ghazni. He entrusted the task of from Karnal. The Gahadwal ruler of Kannauj
ruling Ghazni to his younger brother Moham- Jai Chandra kept himself away from this war.
mad Ghori. He was also an ambitious ruler. He considered Prithvi Raj Chauhan as his
As he was not satisfied with his small state enemy. In this war, the Rajput soldiers fought
of Ghazni, he strengthened his position and bravely. They made the cavalry of Mohammad
turned his attention towards India. He invaded Ghori quite inactive.
India several times between AD 1175 and Mohammad Ghori himself was wounded
1206. He was eventually successful in estab- by the arrow of Govind Raj. Had his
lishing Muslim rule in India. loyal Khalji soldiers not taken him away
After defeating his Muslim enemies, he from the battlefield, he would have died.
first invaded India in AD 1175. He defeated Ishwari Prasad writes, ‘Before this,
the Muslim ruler of Multan and diplomatically the Muslim army never experienced such a
subjugated Uchch. Then he invaded Anhilwara crushing defeat like this’. Rajputs followed
but king Bhimdev defeated him. Even after them till some distance and Taking it for
this defeat, he did not leave his Indian expe- granted that Muslims would not attack again,
dition and attacked Peshawar in 1179 and in they returned.
1186. He defeated the ruler Khusrau Malik Instead of being disheartened, Moham-
and captured his estate. He imprisoned Malik mad Ghori decided to avenge his defeat. The
Khusrau and his son. Thus ended the rule of next year, i.e. in 1192, he invaded Prithvi Raj
Ghaznavides in India. Till 1186, Mohammad Chauhan. Leaving Jai Chandra, almost all the
Ghori became the ruler of Punjab and Sindh. kings of Indian states supported Prithvi Raj
After capturing Punjab and Sindh, Moham- Chauhan. A serious fight took place in the field
mad Ghori planned to attack upon the ruler of Tarain. In the beginning, the Rajput army
2.4 Chapter 8
was overpowered the Muslim army, and the invaded Bengal that was ruled by Lakshman
cavalry of Ghori could not terrorize them. Sen of the Sen dynasty. His capital was Nadia.
But ultimately, the Rajput army was defeated. Bakhtiyar Khalji entered Nadia in the guise of a
Majority of them were killed. The brother of trader. When he reached the gate of the palace,
Prithvi Raj i.e. Govind Raj was killed in the the king was having his lunch. The invaders
battle - field. Prithvi Raj attempted to run away killed the watchmen and entered into the pal-
from the battle field, but he was caught near ace. It was all fear and cry in the palace and it
Sirsuti. He was later killed by Mohammad resulted in the King’s fleeing away. After a few
Ghori. days, the remaining army of the Turks reached
After being victorious over Prithvi Raj Nadia. They looted the enormous wealth of the
Chauhan, Mohammad Ghori entrusted the city and plundered it. Lakshman Sen went to
conquered territories of India to his loyal slave Lakhnauti and made it as his capital.
Qutubuddin Aibak and returned to Ghazni. Thus, the foundation of Muslim rule was
After getting instruction from his master laid in India, which was further strength-
Qutubuddin followed the policy of war and ened by Aibak and Iltutmish. The empire of
conquest in India. In a short time, he captured Mohammad Ghori was divided into many
Meerut and Koil. Mohammad Ghori knew states after 1206. His nephew, Nasiruddin
well that the subjugation of Delhi and Ajmer Qubacha, Tajuddin Yelduzand and Qutubuddin
only would not make him the master of India. Aibak became his successors in Ghor, Sindh,
Another powerful state of north India was Ghazni and India, respectively. In all these per-
Kannauj, and it was imperative to capture it. sons, the most successful one was Qutubuddin
Jai Chandra ruled over Kannauj. In the sec- Aibak. He established in India a new dynasty
ond battle of Tarain, he did not cooperate with that came to be known as slave dynasty. He
the Rajputs. He remained aloof. To invade Jai made Lahore his capital. Qutubuddin was the
Chandra, Mohammad Ghori himself marched Turk of the Aibek tribe. He was taken as pris-
ahead from Ghazni. He defeated Jai Chan- oner and was first purchased by a kind-hearted
dra in the battle of Chandawar on the banks Qazi of Nishapur. He received education in
of Yamuna near Agra. After defeating Jai Islamic theory and swordsmanship along with
Chandra, Mohammad Ghori captured Kannauj the song of his master. He impressed Moham-
and moved towards Banaras. He destroyed the mad Ghori by his courage and other merits,
temples of Banaras and constructed mosques. who ultimately purchased him. Due to his
After defeating Jai Chandra, he became the extraordinary abilities, he rose to the post of
ruler of Banaras and Kannauj—the two reli- ‘amir-akhur’ (the master of the royal stable).
gious cities of India. Later Mohammad Ghori manumitted him and
When Qutubuddin was busy in occupying Aibak crushed the rebellion at Ajmer in 1195.
Gujarat and Bundelkhand, another commander In 1196, he conquered Gwalior and extracted
of Mohammad Ghori, named Mohammad-bin- heavy booty from its king. In 1197, he defeated
Bakhtiyar Khalji, was trying to conquer two the ruler of Gujarat—Bheemdev—and looted
eastern states of Bihar and Bengal in 1197 with enormous wealth from there.
an army of only 200 cavalrymen, he invaded
Bihar, which was under the reign of the Bud-
dhist ruler of Pala dynasty named Induman and Iltutmish
easily defeated him. Thousands of Buddhist Iltutmish was a slave of Qutubuddin Aibek.
monks were cut by swords. The monasteries His father was an influential noble of the Uburi
and vihars were destroyed. After few years, he tribe. He was purchased by Qutubuddin in
Delhi Sultanate 2.5
Delhi at an exorbitant price of one lakh jitals. Gwalior. The ruler Mangaldev boldly faced
During Aibek’s reign, he hold the pasts of Iltutmish. The struggle lasted for 11 months.
‘amir-i-shikar’ and governor of Gwalior, Baran Iltutmish succeeded in conquering Gwalior. In
and Badaun respectively. He was manumitted 1235, he conquered Malwa, Ujjain, Bhilsa and
in 1205–1206 at the instance of Mohammad Ranthambhor and Mandu. The foundation of
Ghori because of his heroic deeds against Muslim rule took roots in India. He breathed
Khokhars. his last in 1236 and was buried in the magnifi-
When he ascended the throne in 1211, cent tomb in Delhi.
he was surrounded with difficulties. He had
no hereditary rights over the throne. Many
were not ready to recognize him as a ruler. Razia Sultana
There were many other nobles, who could Iltutmish knew the weaknesses of his sons, and
not bear his progress. The nobles of the fam- hence he nominated his daughter Razia Begum
ily of Ghori—Qutubis and Muizzis—were as his successor. He used to say, ‘My sons are
not ready to acknowledge him. They were fond of women and pleasure and none of them
making preparations to fight with him. deserve to be the Sultan. They are incapable
The ruler of Sindh and Multan, Nasiruddin of running the administration. No one is more
Qubacha, and the ruler of ‘Ghazni, Sultan capable to rule than Razia’. Majority of the
Tajuddin Yaidoz, did not recognize him as nobles did not like to be ruled by a woman.
a successor, and they attempted to capture They enthroned prince Rukunnuddin Feroz as
Lahore. Taking the advantage of the instability Sultan instead of Razia. However he proved to
after Qutubuddin’s death, the Muslim Sube- be a drunkard and didn’t perform his role well.
dars declared their independence. The ruler of Lanepool writes, ‘The first ruler Feroz Shah
Bengal and Bihar Ali Mardan severed his rela- was a handsome generous, soft-hearted con-
tions with Delhi and became a free ruler. The vivial (fond of feasts), young fool who spent
Hindu kings too began taking advantage of the his money upon singers and buffoons and
situation and denied the suzerainty of Sultan. swaying drunk upon his elephant through the
Iltutmish faced all these problems suc- bazars showered real gold upon the admiring
cessfully and gave example of his courage and crowd’. As he was lost in pleasures, his mother
discretion. He saved the empire from disrup- Shah Turkan shouldered the administrative
tion. First, he crushed the rebellious Subedars. responsibilities. He kept himself busy in pun-
Then he paid attention towards the Qutubi and ishing his opponents by deposing or killing
Muizzi nobles who were unhappy to see him them. He killed Qutubuddin, the newly born
as a Sultan as they thought themselves to be son of Iltutmish and made an unsuccessful
the rightful owners of the throne. They were attempt to murder Razia. Razia succeeded in
defeated by Iltutmish in a battle near Delhi and saving her life. But all this created anarchy and
were crushed so severely that they could not uncertainty in the empire. Rukunuddin and
raise their head again. Shah Turkan were imprisoned and Rukunud-
Iltutmish had to fight with the Rajputs. din died in Jail. Razia was made the Sultan.
After Aibak’s death, the rulers of Gwalior and After seven months of her brother’s rule, Razia
Ranthambhor declared their independence. ascended the throne. She was the first female
Many other Rajput states followed their exam- Muslim ruler of India.
ple. To establish the Tuskish prestige in western Razia came to be known as a great admin-
India, it was imperative upon Iltutmish to fight istrator. She quickly crushed the rebellions
with these states. In 1232, he invaded upon in Multan, Lahore and Hansi. She defeated
2.6 Chapter 8
his main opponent and Wazir Mohammad in these words, ‘She was endowed with all
Junaidi in a battle and he fled away to save qualities befitting a king-beneficent, the patron
his life. Razia’s diplomatic policies and con- of the learned, a dispenser of justice etc. But
spiring activities affected the nobility and she was not born of right sex and so in the esti-
many joined her. She conducted the military mation of men all these virtues were useless’.
operations and administration like a man. She Thus, being a woman was an important cause
left feminine dress and ornaments and wore of her failure.
the dress of a king. Her contemporary Min- Second, Razia’s becoming Sultana was
hazus Siraj writes about her that she was a against the traditions of Islam. This made many
great ruler, wise, just kind, well wisher of the Turkish Chiefs against her as they considered
empire, saviour of her people and a great com- it a great humiliation to work under a woman.
mander. Perhaps, it was the first case in the Islamic his-
Though Razia was an able ruler and a great tory under a monarchical form of government.
commander, but as she was a woman, it proved Lane-poole states that nothing would convince
to be her demerit. The Turki nobles never the Turkish chiefs that they should be led by a
desired to live under a lady ruler. She had woman. In fact, this practice was far ahead of
soft relations with an Abyssinian named Jam- the times.
aluddin Yakut who was promoted to the post Third, in place of winning favour of her
of Amir-e-Akhur. He was the most favoured opponent chiefs, she adopted retaliatory mea-
noble from among the ‘forty slaves’. Ibn Bat- sures that annoyed them all the more.
uta writes that she was accused of having illicit Fourth, Razia began to shower several
connection with Yakut. It created jealousy favours to an Abyssinian slave Yakut. This pro-
among other nobles. vided a good deal of ammunition to the Turk-
ish chiefs who were already against her.
Qualities of Razia Fifth, Razia’s brothers considered her usurper
of the throne. So they were able to gather round
To give a befitting reply to a section of people them several disgruntled elements.
who thought that she was not suitable to be a Sixth, the situation was further worsened by
ruler, she took the following measures: the orthodox Muslim clergies.
1. She gave up her ‘Purdah’ and started
appearing in the court in male attire wear- Nasir-ud-din Mahmud
ing a ‘Kuva’ (coat) and a ‘Kulah’ (cap). (1246–1266)
2. She started horse riding, hunting and com-
manding the army. Nasir-ud-din Mahmud’s accession to the throne
3. She took a keen interest in all the adminis- after Razia’s death and as a matter of fact while
trative activities of the state. she was away from Delhi in connection with
4. She herself appointed several Iqtadars, checking revolts, the ‘Corps of forty’ had
commanders and other officers.. made Bahram Shah (1240–1242) the son of
5. She conducted the affairs of the state in an Iltutmish as the Sultan of Delhi. The ‘Corps of
open ‘durbar’. Forty’ pressurized the Sultan to work accord-
ing to their dictates. The Sultan, however, tried
to exert himself, which cost him his life. After
Razia’s Failure Bahram Shah, the ‘Corps of Forty’ managed
Minhaj-us-siraj, a contemporary historian, to make Masood Shah (1242–1246) the Sultan
has aptly described the causes of her failure of Delhi. The Sultan was forced to delegate all
Delhi Sultanate 2.7
his power to the ‘Corps of Forty’. A conspir- considered himself the representative of
acy was hatched against the Sultan and he was God on the earth to look after the welfare
murdered. of the people—people created by God.
Accordingly, he emphasized that treasury
Main Principles of Balban’s Theory of should be used for the benefit of his sub-
Kingship jects. Likewise, the king should be impar-
tial in dispensing justice.
Main principles of the theory of Kingship were Balban’s theory of Kingship coupled with
as follows: his policy of blood and iron paid him good
1. &KXKPG TKIJV QH -KPIU Balban said that dividends. He enhanced the prestige of
the king was the representative of God on the Sultan. He crushed the powers of his
the earth and Kingship was a divine insti- opponents. He brought about peace and
tution. He declared this to make the nobles he saved the country from the invasions of
believe that he got the crown or the King- the Mongols.
ship not through their mercy but by the
mercy of God.
2. 4Q[CNFGUEGPV Balban realized that peo- Khalji Dynasty and its Founding
ple at that time believed that it was only The Khaljis have been mentioned variously—
the prerogative of the ancient royal fami- sometimes Turks, sometimes Afghans and
lies to rule and exercise power; he there- sometimes as Indian Muslims. Achievements
fore declared that he was the descendant of Balban were of a personal nature. The Turk-
of the legendary Turkish warrior Afrasiyab ish Sultanate depended upon the personality
and that circumstances only had made him of the Sultan. Balban, though himself a suc-
a slave. cessful ruler, did not establish a well-organ-
3. -KPI CU C FGURQV He said to his son ized administrative machinery. All powers
Bughra Khan that ‘Kingship is the embodi- were centralized in him. He did not provide
ment of despotism’. He believed that it is adequate opportunity to his sons in the art of
the King’s super-human awe and status government. No wonder, therefore, that the
which can ensure people’s obedience. moment his controlling hand disappeared,
4. 9QTF QH FKHHGTGPEG DGVYGGP FGUEGP there occurred a scramble to snatch power.
FCPVUQHPQDNGNKPGCIGCPFEQOOQPGTU After the death of Balban, power game started.
Historian Zia-ud-din Barni has gone to Jalal-ud-din Khalji, the leader of the Khalji
the extent of remarking that whenever group, who was holding the position of the
Balban saw a man of low birth, his eyes commander of the army under Kaiquhad, the
started burning with rage and anger and grandson of Balban, took the best advantage of
his hands reached his sword to murder the situation. Kaiqubad had lost all his physical
him. This view seems to be on the extreme ability because of excessive luxury. The Turk-
side. However, this much is believable ish chiefs made Kaiqubad’s son as the Sultan.
that because of this outlook of Balban, Jalal-ud-din proved himself cleverer. He him-
he dismissed all officials not born of noble self sat on the throne of Delhi by murdering
families, from all important posts. Kaiqubad as well as his son and assumed the
5. 4GEQIPKVKQP QH VTKRCTVKVG TGNCVKQPUJKR title of Jalal-ud-din Firoz Shah. Jalal-ud-din
Balban emphasized the relationship was 70 years old when he ascended the throne
between God and the Sultan, Sultan and of Delhi. His rule lasted for about 6 years
the people and the God and the people. He (1290–1296).
2.8 Chapter 8
Policies and Temperament of 3. )GPGTQUKV[ VQ VJGŎVJWIUŏ CPF TQDDGTU

Several thugs and robbers operating
Jalal-ud-din
around Delhi were captured and presented
In the words of Prof. S.R. Sharma, ‘He was before the king. However, in place of pun-
too lenient to be a king in an age when blood ishing them, the king let them off with
and iron alone would matter. He was soon a mild warning and sent them to far off
overtaken by a whirlwind of troubles that places including Bengal.
ended, not only by removing the crown from 4. #VVCEM QP 4CPVJCODJQT The Rajputs
his head but also the head from his shoulders’. offered a stiff resistance when attacked by
Although Jalal-ud-din had become the Sultan the king. He returned without capturing
of Delhi after shedding a lot of blood, but after it because he thought the conquest would
becoming the Sultan, he followed a policy of cause huge bloodshed. He did not think
peace—peace with the robbers, peace with the conquest ‘worth the hair of even one
the nobles, peace with the Mongols and peace Musalman’. So he ordered his soldiers to
with all others. His policy of peace led to his retreat.
downfall. By following the principle of peace, 5. )GPGTQUKV[ VQ GTTKPI PQDNGU When
he sacrificed even the routine principles of Sultan has been campaigning against
governing a state. His policy of ‘pardon’ in the Ranthambhor, some nobles in a state of
name of peace proved disastrous to him. drunkenness at a party spoke that they
would kill the Sultan. This news reached
Main Events of the Reign of the ears of the Sultan. He called them to
Jalal-ud-din a private audience and instead of punish-
ing them, challenged them for a duel. But
1. #RRQKPVOGPV RQNKE[ His policy of when pacified, he became satisfied just by
appointments to higher posts had two turning them out of the court for 1 year.
main features—he allowed most of the 6. -KPFPGUUVQVJG/QPIQNUThe Mongols
Turkish nobles to hold their previous posts launched a large-scale attack on India dur-
and he assigned high ranks to his own sons ing the reign of Jalal-ud-din. There are two
and loyal officers to keep control over the versions regarding the invasion. Accord-
administration. ing to one version, the Sultan himself
2. 4GXQNV QH /CNKM %JCLLW Malik Chajju, went to fight against them in Punjab and
Balban’s nephew and feudal lord of Kara defeated them. They were pardoned, and
in the district of Allahabad revolted. Arkali some of them were allowed to settle near
Khan, the eldest son of Jalal-ud-din, Delhi. The Mongols became Muslims and
defeated him near Badaun, arrested him came to be known as ‘Neo Muslims’.
and presented him before the Sultan/king.
The king treated him well. His support- Ala-ud-din’s Theory of
ers were released. When his son and the
nobles protested against the behaviour of Kingship
the king, they were silenced by him saying Ala-ud-din believed in the Divine Right of the
that he was not prepared to shed the blood king, i.e. the king was God’s representative on
of the Muslims for the sake of throne. earth and was there to rule. Others were there
What a contrast in his attitude! He himself to obey him. He used to say, ‘I do not know
had ascended the throne by shedding the whether this is lawful or unlawful, Whatever I
blood of several Muslims. think to be for the good of the state or suitable
Delhi Sultanate 2.9
for the emergency, I do’. He did not allow any- $%QPSWGUVUQH&GEECPCPF5QWVJ+PFKC

one to interfere in his work. He was an auto- There were two important objectives of the
crat, despot, expansionist and an imperialist. conquests of the Deccan and South India:
Conquests of Ala-ud-din 1. To possess the wealth of the prosperous

southern states whom Ala-ud-din regarded
Ala-ud-din’s conquests may be categorized as milch cow for gold.
under the following two heads: 2. To get the credit of conquering southern
A. Conquests of North India kingdoms.
B. Conquests of South India
It is important to remember that he did not
#%QPSWGUVUQH0QTVJ+PFKC annex these states. He accepted the kingdoms
1. %QPSWGUV QH )WLCTCV
Chief cit- as tributary states. He felt contended when
ies of Gujarat, namely Anhilwara and they accepted his suzerainty and agreed to pay
Somnath, were plundered and sacked. annual tributes and to act in all manners as his
An enormous booty was collected. The subordinates.
Sultan’s army also captured a promising The credit for making these states sub-
Hindu young man who later on came to ordinate to Ala-ud-din goes to Malik Kafur
be known as Malik Kafur. Malik Kafur who attacked south four times and brought
played an important role in extending the with him enormous wealth that included
Kingdom of Ala-ud-din. about 300 elephants, 20,000 horses, 2,700
2. %QPSWGUVQH4CPVJCODJQT
Ō pounds of gold/equal in value to 10 crores of
The Sultan had to wage a fierce and pro- Tankas and chests of jewels. It is said, ‘No
longed battle to capture the strong fort of such booty had ever before been brought to
Ranthambhor. Delhi’.
3. %QPSWGUV QH %JKVVQT
The popu-
lar episode of Rani Padmini, the beauti- Suppression of Revolts:
ful queen of Raja Ratan Singh, saving Administrative Reforms
from the captivity of Ala-ud-din through
On analysis of revolts of the nobles, Ala-ud-
not adequately authenticated by historical
din found the following causes:
records, is often cited in the conquest of
Chittor. The Rajputs offered stiff resistance (i) Ineffective spy system
but were finally defeated. Padmini with (ii) Drinking parties among the nobles
other Rajput women performed ‘Johar’. (iii) Intermarriages among the nobles
(Immolation of Rajput women to preserve (iv) Social intercourse among the nobles
their purity and to protect themselves from (v) Excess of wealth with the nobles that gave
captivity or pollution by the enemy.) them both leisure and power for indulging
4. %QPSWGUV QH /CNYC
Ala-ud-din in devilish thoughts and rebellions
conquered all the territories of Malwa,
Having analysed the causes, the Sultan took
including Ujjain, Dhar, Chanderi and
the following measures to curb the power of
Mandu.
the nobles:
5. 1VJGT EQPSWGUVU KP 0QTVJ +PFKC
Ala-ud-din conquered Siwana, Jalor, (a) Organization of an efficient spy system to
Bundi, Mandor, Tonk and probably Jodh- acquaint himself with the activities of the
pur. Thus, the whole of Rajasthan came officers, governors and nobles, etc.
under his domination. (b) Restriction on social gatherings
2.10 Chapter 8
(c) Prohibition policy that prohibited the sale age should control market for the benefit of
and use of wine the people. If the price level is not stable, the
(d) Setting an example by the Sultan him- army as well as the people cannot be happy
self to refrain from his wine and breaking and contented. Barani in his two books has
down all his wine vessels in public given two reasons for Ala-ud-din’s market con-
(e) Confiscation of property and stoppage of trol to maintain army at low cost and make the
grants on various pre-texts people happy. Hamid Kalandar, a contempo-
rary writer, has referred to Ala-ud-din’s discus-
Market Control Measures of sion with Hamiduddin on economic matters.
It gives sufficient hints of Ala-ud-din’s think-
Ala-ud-din Khalji ing on welfare measures. Ala-ud-din wanted
A striking feature of Ala-ud-din Khalji’s to give economic relief to the subject people.
administration (1296–1316) was his eco- Amir Khusru, a contemporary poet and his-
nomic reform. His market control measures at torian, has referred to Ala-ud-din’s economic
the beginning of the fourteenth century gave and administrative measures in his Khazainul
him the reputation of a daring political econo- Futuh. Amir Khusru asserts that not only for
mist. The Sultan was an ambitious imperialist. the army but also for the people at large the
He moved away from Balban’s policy of con- Sultan initiated his economic measures.
solidation and initiated the policy of expan- The most important question associated
sion. He conquered Gujarat, Ranthambhor, with his market control measures is its basis
Chitor and Malwa and founded a vast empire or policy that shaped it. Barani has been very
in northern India. In the first decade of the candid in answering it. The cost of produc-
fourteenth century, he sent daring expeditions tion of a commodity was determined before
into the south. During Ala-ud-din’s rule, the its price was settled. Fatwa-i-Jahandari has
Mongols were a serious menace to the Sul- given details of the method of price determi-
tanat. To save the Sultanat, Ala-ud-din built a nation. Scholars believe that it was very near
new army, reformed and renovated the forts the Marxist theory of surplus value. Ala-ud-
from Delhi to the North-west and deployed din first settled the price of good grains. While
his troops. For these defensive measures, settling the price of commodities, he took into
Delhi became safe and secure but Ala-ud- account the wages of skilled and unskilled
din’s army was about 5 lakhs in strength. This workers and profits on invested capital. The
large army was a drain on the state budget. capitalist big merchants of his times were
Ala-ud-din found solution not in increasing profit mongers. He controlled their profiteer-
the state income but keeping the army satis- ing tendency. Ala-ud-din did not control the
fied with controlled mar et. market by applying force because he knew that
Ziauddin Barani has given details of no economic system could be built up on the
Ala-ud-din’s market control system in his book basis of force. No economic system can sur-
Tarikh-i-Firuzshahi. He has also discussed the vive if its law is broken. His market control sys-
aims of market control measures. He states tem survived even after his death. This shows
that Ala-ud-din did this to build up a big army that basic law of economics was not violated.
against the Mongols. According to Barani, it He wanted to set up a natural market system.
was part of his army organization. In his sec- In his times, there were two powerful Hindu
ond book, Fatwa-i-Jahandari Barani called merchant communities—Nayaks were grain
his market control measures beneficial for merchants while Multanis were cloth mer-
the people. He suggested that rulers of every chants. Ala-ud-din brought these two groups
Delhi Sultanate 2.11
under state control. His measures transformed other necessaries were sold in this market.
merchant monopoly into a state monopoly. Barani has mentioned the prices of all com-
Ala-ud-din set up four markets, first of modities sold in this market. Fine-quality
which was a grain market called Mandi. He silk cloths were sold in this market. One
issued elaborate orders to control this market. rupee could buy 40 yards of coarse cloth or
The Sultan first settled the cost of production 20 yards of fine cloth. One fine silk cloth cost
of all grains and then fixed their market price. 16 rupees, one seer of sugar cost 1.5 jitals, jag-
Barani and Amir Khusru tell us that once gery 2.5 jitals and ghee sold at the rate of 1.5
corn price was fixed, it was not allowed to be seers per jital. Fuel was available at the rate
increased. The government fixed the prices of of three seers a jital and salt five seers a jital.
grains: Wheat per maund was sold at 7.5 jitals, The merchants who traded in this market were
barley at 4 jitals, rice and cereals at 5 jitals. At registered with Diwan-i-Riyasat (Department
this time, a citizen of Delhi could purchase 88 of commerce). These merchants were known
seers of wheat or 98 seers of rice or cereal by as Sadagar-i-Mizani, i.e. controlled merchants.
spending a single rupee. To control corn mar- They were to bring a certain amount of com-
ket, Ala-ud-din appointed Malik Kabul Ulugh- modities to the Serai Adl and sell it at govern-
khani Sahana or superintendent of the market ment-approved price. This market remained
with barids (spies) under him. The Sultan set full of articles all the year round because of
up several granaries in different localities government control. The Multani merchants
of Delhi. He collected grains from the Doab brought valuable dresses to this market from
(the Khalisa) in lieu of revenue. Besides, he outside the empire and the aristocrats of Delhi
took measures to control the grain merchants. purchased it at fixed price. For this, the Sultan
They were organized into a separate merchants gave them subsidy of 20 lakhs of rupees. They
group who lived in Delhi with their families. were also given the right to control Serai Adl.
In normal times, they brought so much grains Nobody was allowed to make profit; it was
in Delhi that government’s reserve grains were strictly controlled by the permit officer (Par-
not disturbed. He strictly controlled profiteer- wana officer).
ing in the grain market. He rigorously collected The third controlled market of Ala-ud-din
revenue at the time of harvest, which reduced dealt with horses, slaves and cattle. The Sultan
the price level in the market. Sahana-i-Mandi, controlled price of this market, merchants and
barids and others maintained strict vigil over brokers and maintained strict vigil over it. A
the grain market. Market regulation and strict large part of the army consisted of cavalry-
supervision were part of his system. For fam- men and the Turks gave great importance to
ine, the Sultan made provision for the sup- cavalry. The state purchased a large number of
ply of grains through rationing as emergency horses every year. Common people also pur-
measure. Every locality had sufficient reserve chased horses for various purposes. Brokers
grain for supply. Barani asserts that fixed price and profiteers operated in this horse market.
in the grain market was a wonder of the age. Ala-ud-din strictly controlled them. Price of
Serai Adl was the second market established horses was fixed according to quality. First-
by Ala-ud-din. It was a special subsidized class horse cost 100–120 rupees, second class
market for industrial goods. This market was 80–90 rupees and third class 60–70 rupees.
situated at the Badaun gate of Delhi. Com- The pony horses that could not be drafted
modities were imported from outside the in the army was the cheapest, 20–25 rupees.
empire and sold in this market. Cloth, sugar, Sultan’s measures stabilized the mar-
medicine, dried fruits, butter, fuel, oil and ket, the merchants and brokers were now
2.12 Chapter 8
much restrained. The Sultan did the same barids all worked sincerely and efficiently.
in respect of slaves and cattle. A common If an employee neglected his duty, the Sultan
slave sold at 5–12 rupees, a young slave sold came to know of it through his spies and
at 20–30 rupees. An unskilled slave could severely punished him. Barani states that the
be purchased at 7–8 rupees, a female slave Sultan succeeded by creating terror. Some of
5–12 rupees, a concubine at 20–40 rupees. A the modern historians hold the opinion that
drought ox or a buffalo could be purchased at his system survived even after his death. If the
4–5 rupees. A common ox sold at 3 rupees, terror was the cause of his success, it would
milk cow 3–4 rupees, milk buffalo 10–12 have come to an end with his death. Ala-ud-din
rupees. A goat or a sheep sold at 10–12 jitals, a succeeded because he did not violate the laws
cow for meat sold at 1.5–2 rupees, buffalo for of economics. All men could freely participate
5–6 rupees. in economic activities. Everybody knew his
The fourth market was organized under income and planned his life accordingly. His
the Diwan-i-Riyasat (commerce depart- market control system gave economic security
ment). With the help of the officials of this to his people.
department, Ala-ud-din fixed the price of all There is a controversy regarding the area
commodities sold in this market. The market of his market control system. Some people
comprised the whole area of the capital. This assert that it was limited to the capital area.
was the common market in which all neces- Fatwa-i-Jahandari claims that it was extended
saries of life were available. Fish, meat, veg- beyond the capital to the provinces. The Cam-
etables, bread, furniture, hat, comb, sorts and bridge Economic History (vol. I) has sup-
needles all were sold here. All this could be ported this view; it was coterminous to the
procured at fixed price. Ala-ud-din appointed Sultan’s revenue area. From Lahore in the
Yakub Nazir his commerce minister who was north-west to Chhain in Rajasthan, and to
an efficient and honest officer. He controlled Katehr (Rohilkhand) in the east, was its
this common market. This minister appointed operative area. The Multan merchants were
a Sahana or inspector for every local market. so deeply involved in the markets of Delhi
Their duty was to maintain fixed price, weights that they exported commodities of northern
and measures and stop adulteration. For the India to their areas. So it was not confined to
supervision of this department, shopkeepers of the area of the capital. Abul Kashem Firishta
the common market were compelled to sell at asserts that Ala-ud-din’s market control was
fixed price with just measure and weight and extended to the vast areas of the empire. If it
pure goods. is taken for granted that Ala-ud-din primarily
The market control system of Ala-ud-din, intended it to satisfy his army men, it may be
Barani asserts, was the wonder of the age. He said it was extended to all parts of the empire
not only reduced the prices of goods, he sta- as families of the army men lived everywhere.
bilized the price level at a fixed rate. Ration- By controlling price in the entire country,
ing was an integral part of his system. There Ala-ud-din could keep them satisfied. By
was no famine in his reign. When people fixing horse price at the capital, he could not
thought famine was inevitable because of force the merchants to buy horses cheaply at
drought or bad harvest Ala-ud-din stopped it. the provinces. He had to control the price of
His market control measures were eminently horse in the provinces.
successful. He controlled the four markets in Firishta has highly praised his market con-
such a way that his subjects remained happy trol measure. According to him, this system
and contented. Diwan-i-Riyasat, Sahana and was unique; neither his predecessor nor his
successor could claim credit for it. The people who marched against it and brought it under
were happy, no beggar on the street was without Delhi’s control. When the Sultan returned to
dress and there was peace and prosperity in the Delhi, his son Ulugh Khan hastily built a tem-
country. But Professor P. Saran and K.S. Lal porary wooden pavilion near Tughluqabad for
have strongly criticized the Sultan’s market his welcome. After lunch, the Sultan ordered
control measures. They firmly believe that that the elephants he had captured be paraded
these measures were operative only in Delhi. there. The wooden pavilion, however, was not
His measures were destructive of agriculture, strong enough and collapsed. Both the Sultan
trade and industry. He levied revenue at the rate and his younger son were crushed to death.
of 50% on the peasants of Doab. Besides, they The story is described in detail by Isami and
were required to sell their grains at the gov- Ibn Battutah. Both accuse Ulugh Khan of par-
ernment-approved rate. These were taken to ricide, but some later writers consider Ulugh
Delhi to supply in the market. The agriculture Khan to have been innocent.
and peasantry of the Doab were disturbed very
much. They stood to lose. The merchants were Muhammad (1325–1351)
put under severe state control, and they were
given no incentives. The registered merchants Ulugh Khan succeeded his father under the
of Delhi had to keep their families as hostage title of Muhammad bin Tughluq. Contempo-
for good conduct. The measures of Ala-ud- rary historians were unable to assess his per-
din benefited only the army and citizens of sonality and left their readers confused. In fact,
Delhi, all others were losers. The army was neither Barani nor Ibn Battutah took pains to
kept satisfied, but his measures were opposed examine all aspects of the Sultan’s personality
to economic principles. For this, it broke down in the correct perspective. It is a fact that
immediately after his death. Despite this criti- Muhammad bin Tughluq was the only Delhi
cism, it may be said that Ala-ud-din’s mea- Sultan who had received a comprehensive lit-
sures were beneficial not only to the army but erary, religious and philosophical education as
people at large. The stability in the price level well as military training.
is always helpful to common people, peasants, Immediately after coming to the throne,
labourers and all others. Ala-ud-din, during his Muhammad faced a Mongol invasion. But it
reign, gave economic security to his people by was repulsed, and there were no more Mongol
his market control measures. invasions during his reign. In 1326–1327, his
cousin, Gurshasp, governor of Sagar (near
Gulbarga), rebelled. He was captured and mer-
Tughlaq Dynasty cilessly executed.
Ghiyas-ud-din (1320–1325) (a) Transfer of Capital—Muhammad wanted
Jauna Khan, who was given the title of Ulugh to make the centrally located Devagiri
Khan, was sent to Deccan in 1321 to reassert his second capital. In 1327, he made
Delhi’s authority over the rebellious Pratapa- extensive preparations for the transfer of
rudra Deva of Warangal. But the campaign the royal household and the ulema and
failed in its mission and the heir apparent Sufis from Delhi to Devagiri, which he
returned to Devagiri. In 1323, the prince renamed Daulatabad. In 1328–1329, the
marched out again against Warangal and suc- Muslim upper classes and the ulema and
ceeded in annexing it. Bengal, which was torn Sufis were ordered to move to Daula-
by civil war between the various contenders for tabad. When they resisted, the Sultan
the throne, attracted the attention of the Sultan, enforced his orders relentlessly, causing
2.14 Chapter 8
great hardship to the Delhi populace. the land revenue demand to 50 per cent
The cultural and social life of the capital’s of the gross produce on the Doab farm-
elite received a setback, but no mass exo- ers. According to Barani, the farmers set
dus ever took place. In fact, the two capi- fire to their grain barns and abandoned
tals flourished simultaneously. their fields. Baran (Bulandshahr), Barani’s
(b) Qarachil Expedition—On being informed home town, along with other towns wit-
that the Chinese were making incursions nessed open revolt. Though the rebellion
into the Himalayan kingdoms, Muhammad was ruthlessly crushed, the Sultan real-
dispatched an army to the Kangra region ized that adequate relief measures and
in order to annex it to his empire and thus the promotion of agricultural production
secure his northern frontiers. The contem- were the only solution to the problem.
porary historians refer to it as the Qarachil Consequently, huge sums were advanced
expedition. It seems to have taken place as takkavi loans to enable the cultivators
during 1329–1330. After some initial to buy seed, to sink wells and to extend
victories in Kangra, the imperial army cultivation.
pressed on to Tibet, where the local hill- (e) Agricultural Reforms—During his stay
men annihilated it. This was a major catas- in Delhi (1338–1344), the Sultan intro-
trophe, for which the commander who had duced new regulations to improve farm-
exceeded the Sultan’s orders to confine the ing. An agriculture ministry called the
invasion to Kangra was responsible. diwan-i-kohi was established to bring bar-
(c) Introduction of Token Currency—In 1329– ren land under cultivation. Opportunists
1330, Muhammad introduced a token cur- and adventurers signed written bonds
rency, which remained in circulation until promising to cultivate barren land, but
1331–1332. Imitating the chao (paper they spent the money on personal needs.
money) of Kublai Khan of China and Gai (f) Outbreak of Rebellions—When Sayyid
Khatu of Iran (Mongol rulers), the Sultan Ahsan Shah, the governor of Mabar,
issued bronze (or copper) coins at par with rebelled, the Sultan marched against him.
the value of the silver tanka coins. The But at Bidar, many of his officers died of
scheme was designed to fill the gap in the bubonic plague, and the Sultan himself fell
gold and silver reserves. The goldsmiths seriously ill and was taken back to Daula-
began to forge the token coins on a large tabad. The rebellious Ahsan Shah, who
scale. Land tax was paid in the token cur- remained undefeated, succeeded in found-
rency, and other commercial transactions ing the independent Madurai sultanate.
also utilized it. Foreign merchants naturally The foundation of the Vijayanagara king-
stopped all business dealings with India. dom in 1336 and the subsequent indepen-
In order to combat the mounting economic dence of Warangal and Kampili were the
chaos, the Sultan stopped the circulation of most severe blows to the Sultan’s prestige.
the token currency and was forced to pay After his return to Delhi, the Sultan stayed
genuine gold coins in exchange, even for at Svargadvari near Kanauj. Four different
the forged ones. According to Barani, the governors broke into revolt in succession
heaps of bronze coins rose like mountains during this period. The most serious upris-
near Tughluqabad. ing (in 1340) was that of Ain-ul-Mulk
(d) Enhancement of Land Revenue—In Multani, the governor of Avadh, but he
1328–1329, in order to overcome finan- was finally defeated. However, eastern and
cial difficulties, Muhammad increased western Bengal had become independent
by then. In 1347, Hasail Gangu estab- items of urban trade and commerce deemed
lished the Bahmani kingdom. un-Islamic was abolished. The karkhanas
(factories) were developed rapidly by the
Muhammad’s health declined rapidly, and all
army of slaves recruited and maintained by
his efforts at keeping the sultanate together
Firoz through the newly created diwan-i-
ended in failure. For 3 years, the Sultan con-
bandagan (department of slaves).
centrated on chasing the elusive Taghi (a rebel
(b) Military Campaigns—Firoz led several
officer), and reorganizing the provincial admin-
feeble military expeditions to Bengal,
istration of Gujarat Taghi took shelter with the
Kangra and Sind but only to assert the
Sumras of Thatta. The Sultan therefore moved
tottering central authority. Between 1353
towards Thatta, but in 1351 he died on the way.
and 1358, he made efforts to recover Ben-
According to Badauni, death liberated the Sul-
gal, but succeeded only in negotiating a
tan from his people and freed them from him.
peace settlement and persuading its ruler
Sikandar to accept his suzerainty. The
Firoz Tughluq (1351–1388) Sultan, however, did better in his Orissa
campaign, whose ruler Raja Gajpati of
The long reign of Firoz (37 years) can be seen
Jajnagar in Orissa had allied himself with
in two phases. The first phase of about 20 years
the rebellious Bengal Sultans. Firoz seized
is marked by the reversal of the centralizing
Cuttack and destroyed the Jagannatha
policies of the previous regime and restoration
temple at Puri. He then attacked Nagarkot
of peace and prosperity. It also saw the return
in the Kangra region. The Raja submitted
of the sharia laws, which were in fact inscribed
and offered to pay tribute. The Sultan col-
by the Sultan on an octagonal tower near the
lected 1300 Sanskrit manuscripts from the
Firozabad Jami mosque. Wazir Khan-i-Jahan
Jwalamukhi and other temples. Firoz next
Maqbul, an Islamicised Telangani Hindu, suc-
marched to Thatta in lower Sind. After ini-
cessfully maintained the prestige of the Sultan
tial failures, he succeeded in establishing
during this period. The second phase of 17
his authority over its rulers.
years witnessed inanition and evident decline
in the strength and prosperity of the Sultanate.
(a) Administrative Reforms—The loans Later Tughlaqs (1388–1414)
advanced by the previous administration After Firoz’s death, the sultanate disintegrated
for agricultural purposes were written off. further. The Sharqi kingdom of Jaunpur came
Compensation was paid to the heirs of all into existence in 1394. Mai wa and Gujarat
those whom Muhammad had executed, also broke away. When Timur arrived on the
and the letters of gratitude obtained from scene in 1398–1399, the fate of the Tughluq
them were deposited in a box at the head of dynasty was sealed. After crossing the Indus,
the deceased Sultan’s cenotaph. Painstak- Timur met no serious opposition in the Pun-
ing reforms were made in the assessment jab. Though Delhi submitted without much
and collection of land taxes. The Sultan of a fight, Timur’s army sacked it for 3 days
instituted a 6-year survey of crop produc- and indiscriminately massacred both Hindus
tion, enabling him to fix permanently the and Muslims. Travelling through Haridvar,
estimated revenue (jama) of the Sultanate Nagarkot and Jammu, he withdrew from India
at six crore seventyfive lakh tankas. Newly in March, 1399. His invasion, though merely a
dug wells and irrigation canals improved plundering raid, delivered the death blow to the
cultivation. The special tax on some 28 Tughluq dynasty.
2.16 Chapter 8
Lodi Dynasty the Sultanat in the Punjab, Doab, Rohilkhand

and parts of Rajputana. The odds against him
Three Lodi Sultans were Bahlul Lodi, were so great that he could not achieve any-
Sikandar Shah and Ibrahim Lodi. Babur thing substantial.
defeated this last king of the Lodis at the Khizr Khan was succeeded by his son and
first battle of Panipat (1526) and founded the successor Mubarak Shah who ruled from 1421
Mughal Empire. Yahya Sirhindi, the author of to 1434. He adopted the title of Shah and
Tarikh-i-Mubarak Shahi, is the main author- read Khutba in his name. The newly founded
ity for this period of medieval Indian history. Sayyid kingdom was threatened with danger
According to Sirhindi, Khizr Khan was the from all sides. The Khokkars, Turks, Mughals,
founder of the Sayyid dynasty, and he is said Malwa and Jaunpur created an alarming situ-
to have descended from the prophet of Islam. ation. Mubarak Shah was equal to the occa-
Khizr Khan who was governor of Multan cast sion, fought against his enemies and preserved
his lot with Timur who appointed him his vice- his kingdom intact. Mughal incursions into
roy of Delhi. After the departure of Timur, Indian territory during the latter part of
Khizr Khan was able to re-establish himself Mubarak’s reign was the most vital danger
only in Multan, Dipalpur and pans of Sindh. to the Sultanat. Mubarak planned to be fully
In June 1414, he captured Delhi after defeat- independent, which was not liked by the suc-
ing Daulat Khan Lodi. He took proper meas- cessors of Timur. The Mughal forces entered
ures for the resettlement of Delhi. Khizr Khan the Indian territory and plundered different
was very loyal to the Timurid family and sent areas in the Punjab and Multan. They were
gifts and tribute to Timur’s son and successor finally defeated by the Delhi forces. Mubarak
Shah Rukh. He did never assume the title of was able to save India from Mughal occupa-
Shah or Sultan. He read Khutba in Shah Rukh’s tion for about a century. Mubarak Shah was
name and coins were struck in the name of his murdered by his chief minister Sarvar-ul-Mulk
suzerain. This was deliberately done to avoid in 1434. He was the ablest king of the house
the hostility of Turkish and Afghan nobles. of Khizr Khan. He was a brave warrior and
The Turkish elements were hostile to Khizr tried his best to preserve his patrimony. He was
Khan’s rule, and they organized risings and wise and resourceful and deployed his loyal
plots that caused him considerable embarrass- forces in the north-west. But this king was
ment. The royal armies suppressed the revolts, not a good judge of men. He was just and kind
but the Turks joined with the Khokkars to towards all of his subjects. He founded the
create further trouble. Having suppressed the new city of Mubarakbad on the Jamuna.
risings of his nobles, Khizr Khan led a cam- The historian Yahya Sirhindi received his
paign against Nagaur, and Nagaur temporar- patronage.
ily submitted to him. He then raided Mewat After Mubarak Shah’s death, his nephew
and destroyed the fortress of Kotla. He died Muhammad Shah (1434–1445) ascended the
in 1421. Khizr Khan possessed laudable traits throne. He first put down the revolt of regicide
of character, which won the affection of the Sarvar-ul-Mulk and appointed Kamal-ul-Mulk
people. He was wise, just and benevolent and his chief minister. But Muhammad Shah was
free from the vices common in those days. His pleasure loving and neglected the affairs of the
conquest of Delhi was a considerable achieve- state. The result was disorder all round. Dur-
ment, but he proved incapable of resettling ing his reign, Bahlul Lodi, the chief of Sirhind,
the country after the invasion of Timur. In his became very powerful in the Punjab region
7 years’ rule, he tried to restore the prestige of and even made an attempt to capture Delhi but
failed. His reign witnessed the rapid decline of but the Brahmans, females, children and poor
the Sultanate. were exempted from it. Some rulers taxed
Bahlul Lodi (1451–1489) was the founder the Brahmans too. Though it was not a big
of the Lodi dynasty of Delhi, which ruled the amount, the collectors of this tax often humili-
Sultanat up to 1526. He was a member of the ated the Hindus. In the beginning, the Turks
Lodi clam of the Afghans and acted as the had special privileges; later, these rights were
governor of Sirhind. He became very power- obtained by the Iranians, Afghans and a small
ful in the reign of Muhammad Shah and made neo Muslim group. On the general public, it
two abortive attempts to capture Delhi had no special effect because the majority was
before he finally succeeded. After capturing earlier deprived of rights.
the throne of Delhi, he assumed the title of The Islamic nature of Sultanate was only
Bahlul Shah Ghazi. Bahlul had to recreate in words. In reality, it was a military and
the Sultanat and consolidate it by recover- feudal state. The strength of the state lied in
ing neighbouring territories and suppressing army and feudal lords. The Sultan considered
recalcitrant chiefs. the army as the basis of his sovereignty. The
Maulwis and Qazis had prominent place in the
Nature of State: Political state. Often, the Sultan ignored them. Many
temples were demolished in Sultanate period.
Thought and Institutions Mosques were built in their places. The idols
The administration of Delhi Sultanate was of Gods were removed from some temples,
based on Military System and feudalism. In and they were changed into mosques. Their
the beginning, the Turkish feudal lords tried anti-temple policy was based on Shariat, but in
to maintain their superiority and monopoly the far off villages there was no check on tem-
on high posts. Later, they began giving high ple building. They did not hesitate to demolish
posts to Afghans and Indian Muslims. Gener- the temples in war time.
ally, these posts were not given to commoners. The Hindu rulers who accepted the Muslim
Those born in a feudal family were deemed suzerainty openly pursued Hinduism. Some
suitable for these posts. As a result, able men historians believe that in the capitals of the
of common public was deprived of the high provinces, open idol-worship was in vogue.
posts. In the army, there were mostly Muslims. It appears that only during war time the anti-
In the field of trade and commerce, the Hindus Hindu policies were executed. Islam was
dominated. The Hindu feudal lords were the accepted in hope of political and economic
main basis of the administration. Their coop- benefit. If any Hindu ruler accepted Islam, his
eration was inevitable for the state. It may be subjects too followed him.
said that there was a contract of power division
between the rural Hindu feudals and urban
administrators. Often, they clashed for land, Administration
which took a communal shape. The Muslims The sultans of Delhi styled themselves as the
fought among themselves for selfish ains. khalifahs deputy, owing ceremonial allegiance
Though the nature of Sultanate was funda- to the khalifahs of Baghdad and Egypt. This
mentally Islamic, the Sultan did not permit his was because of the Islamic theory of sover-
officers to fix the state policies. The Sultan eignty that there is only one king for all the
framed laws to supplement the Muslim law Muslims, i.e. the khalifah. More important than
The Muslim rulers called the Hindus as Zim- this was that it helped to prevent opposition to
mis. They charged the Jazia from the Hindus, the sultan. Any opposition to the khalifah was
2.18 Chapter 8
contrary to the Holy Law. Though the name of Fifth, popular assemblies interested in preserv-
the khalifah was retained in the khutba (ser- ing constitutional liberty were absent. Last,
mon) and inscribed on the coins, the sultans there was no strong public opinion powerful
were, to all intents and purposes, independent enough to oppose autocracy. Even the ulema
of the khalifah. They formed the mainspring did not have courage to openly oppose the
of the administrative system. They transacted sultans.
the affairs of the state with the assistance of The sultan was the chief executive. He not
those ministers and officers they chose without only enforced the Holy Law but also inter-
any reference whatsoever to the khalifah. They preted it. Whenever there was a difference
were the supreme commanders of the armed of opinion about the interpretation of law,
forces, they were the chief law-givers and they he sought the opinion of the learned divines.
formed the high court of appeal. They paid no Some of the sultans like Ala-ud-din defied the
tribute to the khalifah. Nor did they owe their Quranic law when their personal interests were
power to him. One of the sultans, Mubarak in conflict with it. Though such rulers could
Khalji, went to the extent of dispensing with not continue to rule the country, there was no
even this fiction of nominal suzerainty of the constitutional method to remove them. Only
khalifah. a successful rebellion could terminate their
Some scholars regard the sultan of Delhi as authority and that was thought of only when
a perfect autocrat. It is pointed out that though the sultan was not militarily powerful. He
his authority was limited by the Holy Law of was also the highest judicial authority and the
the Quran, he was practically unchecked by supreme commander of the army.
any restrictions. His word was law. Though However absolute a ruler may be, the king
the Islamic theory of sovereignty was con- cannot administer his kingdom single-handed.
stitutional and democratic, the real source of So was the case with the sultans of Delhi.
his power was not the people but his military An elaborate administrative machinery was
strength. The autocracy of the Delhi sultans devised by them, with a hierarchy of regular
was attributed to many factors. First, they had officials who were put in charge of various
to face always the hostility of the Hindu oppo- departments. These officials carried out their
nents who formed the majority in the land over respective duties in accordance with the sul-
which they ruled. Second, there was the recur- tan’s orders, without in any way checking the
rence of the Mongol invasions almost at regular royal authority. During the rule of the early
intervals. Third, there was no hereditary Mus- Turkish sultans, there were four ministers—the
lim aristocracy, which, being conscious of its wazir, the ariz-i-mamalik, the diwan-i-insha
rights and privileges, would be in a position to and the diwan-i-risalat. These were called the
assert itself against the sultan’s despotic rule. four pillars of the state. Later, the number of
Fourth, the Muslim nobility was a heteroge- important offices rose to six. Sometimes, the
neous group. Naturally, there was neither unity sultan appointed a deputy called naib or naib-
of purpose nor unity of action. The nobles i-mamalik who occupied a status next to the
were generally divided by mutual jealousies. sultan himself. The deputy sultan wielded con-
They were extremely selfish in their aims and siderable influence when the sultan was weak
outlook. It is true that the voice of the nobles and had no power on other occasions.
was decisive in the choice of the ruler. But The wazir was the prime minister. He
unfortunately, it proved to be ineffective and exercised great authority and enjoyed many
disastrous as the nobles usually preferred per- privileges. He appointed important officers in
sonal convenience to the interests of the state. the name of the sultan and heard complaints
against all officials. Though every depart- and funds were maintained by a separate
ment came under his purview, finance was his treasury that received all collections from zakat.
special sphere of activity. The department The qazi-ul-qazat headed the judicial
of the wazir was called the diwan-i-wizarat. department. Very often, the two posts of the
Among the officials of his department were sadr-us-sudur and the qazi-ul-qazat were com-
the naib wazir, the mushrif-i-mamalik (accoun- bined in one person.
tant general) and the mustauf-i-mamalik In addition to the four first-grade min-
(auditor general). During the reign of Firuz, isters and the two second-grade minis-
the mushrif-i-mamalik dealt with the income ters (chief sadr and chief qazi), there were
and the mustauf-i-mamalik with the expen- many other important heads of departments
diture. The Tughluq period was the heyday discharging great responsibilities. They were
of the wizarat in Muslim India. It was dur- the barid-i-mamalik, the head of the infor-
ing the later Tughluq period that the powers of mation and intelligence department, the
the wazir increased enormously. The next diwan-i-amir kohi (department of agricul-
important minister was the ariz (or arz)- ture) which was created by Muhammad bin
i-mamalik, the army minister, who was in Tughluq, the diwan-i-mustakhraj (depart-
charge of recruitment of soldiers and main- ment looking after arrears of revenue) which
tenance of descriptive rolls of men and was established by Ala-ud-din, the diwan-
horses (huliya). His department was called the i-khairat (the department of charity) estab-
diwan-i-ariz. lished by Firuz Tughluq, the diwan-i-istihqaq
The diwani-i-insha (diwan-i-ashraf) looked (department of pensions) and the diwan-i-
after royal correspondence. Important royal bandagan (department of slaves).
orders were drafted in this department. The Besides the high officers mentioned
drafts were then forwarded to the sultan. After above, there were subordinate officers too.
they were approved, they were copied, regis- The majumdar preserved the records of loan
tered and despatched to the concerned people. advanced by government. The khazin was the
The sadr-ul-mulk was the head of this depart- treasurer. The amir-i-behr controlled inland
ment. The dabir-i-khas was the confidential shipping and waterways. The bakshi-i-fauz
clerk. His duty was to accompany the king, was the paymaster of the forces and others.
besides taking charge of his correspondence. The administration of justice is one of the
The diwan-i-risalat or rasalat, according sultan’s primary functions. At the top was the
to some, dealt with religious matters, pious sultan who was responsible for maintaining
foundations, stipends to deserving scholars, the Holy Law. He held a court twice a week
etc. But others think that it dealt with for- and decided cases in person. There was a
eign affairs. The latter view is acceptable as department of justice headed by the qazi-ul-
we come across another high officer by name qazat (chief qazi) who held his court in the
sadr-us-sudur, who was in charge of religious capital. The chief qazi was assisted by a mufti
affairs, charity, etc. There could not have been who expounded the law. He supervised the
two officers discharging similar duties. provincial judges and heard appeals from their
The sadr-us-sudur was also responsible for decisions. The amir-i-dad was the magistrate
enforcing conformity to Islam. He made grants in big cities. He apprehended criminals and
for construction and maintenance of mosques, tried cases with the help of the qazi of the city.
tombs, madarasas, etc. He granted mainte- The villages had their own panchayats that
nance allowances to the learned, orphans, decided local disputes. The judicial procedure
etc. All these were meant only for the Muslims, was neither regular nor uniform throughout
2.20 Chapter 8
the sultanate. No enquiry preceded the trial. Raya, Rayan and Rawats. In the Punjab region,
Summary trial was the order of the day. The revenue was collected in accordance with the
proceedings of the courts were not recorded. Muslim revenue law. Ala-ud-din Khalji was the
Torture was used to extort confession from the first Sultan who measured land and levied taxes
accused. No Hindu was appointed as judge. and revenue was collected regularly. Fifty per
The penal law was very severe. Mutilation and cent of the produce was demanded as revenue.
death punishments were quite common. The Ala-ud-din collected revenue rigorously for
law of debt was severe. Prison rules were lax. which the peasants were forced to sell off their
The old castles and forts served as prisons. produce cheaply at the time of harvest. Barani
has asserted that Ala-ud-din’s revenue system
Peasantry under the extended to vast areas of India, from the Punjab
to Uttar Pradesh and from there to Rajasthan.
Sultanate Sultan Ghiyasuddin Tughluq relieved the
The twelfth century Jaina writer Hemchandra pressure on wealthy peasantry by withdrawing
has divided the peasants of the age into four several restrictions. They lost their right to tax,
categories. First, there was the bargadar peasant but they were not to pay for their land and graz-
who was called Karshak or ardhik. They were ing right. Ghiyasuddin also abolished several
share croppers, they received half of the total taxes on land. Muhammad bin Tughluq was in
produce. The second category was the agricul- favour of increasing the land tax. Barani and
tural labour who was known as halbahak or kis- Yahya tell us that this Sultan levied additional
han. These two categories stood at the lowest taxes on the peasants. Ala-ud-din’s three taxes
level of peasantry and dependent on well-off Kharaj (land tax), Ghari (house tax) and Gharai
peasants. In number, they were the majority. (grazing tax) were retained. There was another
To the third category belonged free peasants; problem in the revenue system of Muhammad
for some they were malik-i-jamin or owners of bin Tughluq. Yahya has asserted that the calcu-
land. They enjoyed their property on hereditary lation of production that the government offi-
basis, and they had their own homestead land. cials made did not tally with actual production
They were permanent peasants, later known as and market price. In his relations with the peas-
Khudkast. They had the right to grazing land ants, Firuz Tughluq was liberal, even more than
of the village. They were mostly men from dif- his great predecessor. He excavated a number
ferent varnas or castes. The fourth category of canals in the Haryana region that supplied
comprised the artisan peasants. They included water to agricultural fields. He abolished
leatherman, blacksmith, washerman, potter, Abwabs, Ghari and Charai levied by Muham-
etc. They were associated with cultivation. mad bin Tughluq. He levied additional tax of
In the earlier part of Turkish conquest, no only four per cent on Kharaj. He levied Jijiya
new revenue system could be developed. The on non-Muslims and collected 10% irrigation
Turkish ruling class collected lump sum of tax from the irrigated areas. Sultan Ibrahim
money by force from the feudatories such as Lodi directed the collection of taxes in kind.
Important Terminology
Samanta System: Indian feudalism Maya: resources
Cinamsuka: Chinese silk Kirpas: calico
Muzari: peasant Abresham: raw silk
Araghatta: ancient Indian noria that used Wafa: yield

to carry a string of pots fixed closed to its Wafa-i-biswa: yield per biswa
rim
Masahat: measurement
Dandadaya: direct payment for services
Uslubs: regulations laid for extending
in kind
cultivation
Mohurs: coins current at the time of Sul-
Karoh is equivalent to 1½ miles or 2 ½
tanate
km roughly
Kharaks: cattle-pens Akhal: wasteland
Tasar, eri, muga: silk varieties Muhaddisat: agrarian cess
Haqq: right Haqq-i-shurb: water tax from villages
Burr asl: free men by birth served by canals
Arz-i-Kharaji: land on which the tax was Buhluli: billon coin equivalent to 1.6 jital
levied in value
Maujdarya: damascened sword Ziya: cultivated lands
Farman: paper document Wilayats: Iqtas
Mawasat: rebellious territories Fawazil: excess amounts collected by the
iqtadar, i.e. estimated tax income of the
Rawats: cavalry commanders or knights
iqta minus the expenditure on the troops
of the rais
Wajh: revenues of villages assigned to
Chaurasis: villages in groups of 84
soldiers in lieu of salaries
Mafrozis: to whom government gave
Hashm: Sultan’s own cavalry troops
control over land in place of the earlier
dominant elements; charge given in lieu Mawajib: pay
of obligation to pay Barat, Itlaq: drafts on the iqta’s of the
Maliks: persons with superior right over nobles
land Khitta: district
Milk and amlak: refer to revenue grants Kargah: weaver’s loom
Exercise
Which of the following states was not (i) Muhammad bin Tughlaq formulated
included in Ala-ud-din’s empire ? the famine code to provide relief to
(a) Punjab (b) Kashmir famine affected people.
(c) Sindh (d) Malwa (ii) Firoz Shah Tughlaq made ‘Iqta
Who was the minister to conduct the System’ Hereditary.
royal correspondence? (iii) Muhammad bin Tughlaq was on bad
(a) Quazi (b) Mir-i-Bakshi terms with the famous Sufi saint
(c) Diwn-i-kohi (d) Diwan-i-Insha Nizamuddin Auliya.
Consider the following statements and (a) i and iii
mark the option which is true. (b) All of the above
2.22 Chapter 8
(c) None of the above (a) Iltutmish

(d) (iii) (b) Ala-ud-din Khalji
The historian who termed the economic (c) Mubarak Khalji
changes in the Delhi Sultanate as an (d) Muhammad Tughluq
‘urban’ and ‘rural’ revolution is Which one of the following Sultans had
(a) D.D. Kosambi the largest standing army?
(b) Muhammad Habib (a) Ala-ud-din Khalji
(c) M.G. Ranade (b) Muhammad bin Tughluq
(d) R.S. Sharma (c) Firuz Tughluq
To which Sultan, Amir Khurau’s Khajan- (d) Ibrahim Lodi
ul-Futuh is related ? Who was the only Amir to rebel in Feroz
(a) Mubaraq Khalji Tughlaq’s time ?
(b) Ala-ud-din Khalji (a) Malik Kafur
(c) Iitutmish (b) Malik Shamsuddin
(d) Balban (c) Khan-i-Jahan Maqbool
The Sultanate made one of the following (d) Ulugh Khan
classes to pay the highest jizyah. Which Match the following:
was it?
(a) Money-changers, cloth dealers, land- .KUV+ .KUV++
owners, merchants and physicians
$QQMU
#WVJQT
(b) Tailors, dyers, artisans and
A. Qamus Nizami 1. Hasan
shoe-makers
(c) Women, children and slaves B. Futuh-vs-Salatin 2. Bukhari
(d) Brahmanas
C. Labab-Ul-Alab 3. Isami
Who was the officer related with market?
D. Taj-ul-Mathir 4. Firozabodi
(i) Malik Qabool
(ii) Ain-ul Multani %QFGU
(iii) Alaul Mulq A B C D
(iv) Yakub (a) 4 3 1 2
(a) (i) and (ii) (b) 3 4 2 1
(b) Only (ii) (c) 3 4 1 2
(c) (ii) and (iv) (d) 4 3 2 1
(d) Only (iv)
What was w f land?
Delhi Sultanate got Kalifa recognition (a) Personal land
during the period of (b) Land given for religious work
(a) Balban (c) Payment for military service
(b) Aibak (d) None of the above
(c) Iltutmish
(d) Razia Who among the following Sultans of
Delhi first recruited foreigners as his
‘When he attained kingship, he was quite officers but later threw open all high-
independent of the rules and orders of the est offices to all classes of Indians, the
shariat’. Ziauddin Barani made the above only qualifications being the merit of the
statement regarding person?
(a) Balban (a) Muhammad of Ghur

(b) Muhammad-bin-Tughluq (b) Muhammad bin Tughlaq
(c) Ala-ud-din Khalji (c) Firur Tughlaq
(d) Firuz Tughluq (d) Ala-ud-din Khalji
Who was the authority to collect land Which is not a correct pair?
revenue from Khalisa? (a) khanqah a house of mystics
(a) Shahana (b) khutba sermon
(b) Amir (c) madad-i-mash grant of land or pen-
(c) Shiqdar sion to scholars and saints by the
(d) Amil Sultans
The Arabic dictionary ‘The Qamus’ was (d) majlis meeting place or council
produced under the patronage of What is Haq-e-Sherb?
(a) Iltutmish (a) Religious tax
(b) Aurangzeb (b) Irrigation tax
(c) Akbar (c) Prostitution tax
(d) Firuz Shah Tughlaq (d) Haj tax
Who was the ruler not to accept the sov- Who was the invader from Tans Oxiana
ereignty of Ala-ud-din Khalzi? in Mohammad-bin- Tughlaq’s time to
(a) Devgiri (b) Hoyasal invade India?
(c) Telangana (d) Pandya (a) Tamra Shirin Khan
(b) Saldi
Which point regarding the khalisa land or
(c) Khwaja Taash
the crown land of the Sultan is incorrect?
(d) Qutulagh Beg
(a) The revenues of this land were totally
The market regulations of Ala-ud-din
taken over by the Sultan
Khalji were primarily aimed
(b) This land was of one contiguous
(a) to maintain the efficien y of his army
entity
(b) to keep an eye on the peasants and
(c) A large part of the khalisa land was
baniyas
around Delhi and primarily in the
(c) to assure the peasant as well as the
Doab region
merchant of fair price
(d) The Sultans never claimed property
(d) to strengthen his army as well as his
rights to it
hold over the intermediaries
Who destroyed Chihalgani? The currency of which of the following
(a) Aibak rulers bore a Persian inscription for the
(b) Balban first time?
(c) Iltutmish (a) Iltutmish
(d) Mubarakshah (b) Ala-ud-din Khalji
The main source of Sultanate’s income (c) Muhammad Tughluq
was (d) Firuz Tughluq
(a) Agricultural revenue Under whose reign did Timur invade
(b) Tax on trade and commerce India?
(c) Looted property and cash (a) Balban
(d) Money from subordinate rulers (b) Razia
The Muslim ruler who was called the (c) Mahmud Shah
‘Prince of moneyers’ was (d) Ala-ud-din
2.24 Chapter 8
Who made army services as hereditary? (c) 2 1 3

(a) Ala-ud-din Khalji (d) 2 3 1
(b) Razia
Who were ‘Munhiyans’ during the reign
(c) Feroz Shah Tughluq
of Ala-ud-din Khalji?
(d) Balban
(a) They were revenue officer
#UUGTVKQP
# Ala-ud-din reimposed (b) They were bodyguards of the king
Jaziya on the non-muslims. (c) They were head of the market control
4GCUQP
4 He was a devout Muslim. organization
(d) They were secret police service who
Select the answer by using the codes
used to give reports about the rates
given below:
and working of markets
(a) Both A and R are individually true
and R is the correct explanation of A. To which period belongs the first epi-
(b) Both A and R arc individually true but graphical proof of providing debt for
R is not the correct explanation of A. developmental work?
(c) A is true but R is false. (a) Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq
(d) A is false but R is true (b) Mohammad Tughlaq
(c) Feroz Tughlaq
The Hazara temple built by Krishnadeva- (d) Sher Shah Suri
raya is
(a) Sun temple Who was appointed as Governor of Mul-
(b) Shiva temple tan by Timur after he conquered it?
(c) Ram temple (a) Bakhtiyar Khalji
(d) Vishnu temple (b) Qutb-ud-din Khalji
(c) Khijir Khan
Amir Khusrau composed his Nuhsiphir (d) Adil Shah
in praise of
(a) Ala-ud-din Khalji Match the following:
(b) India .KUV+ .KUV++
(c) Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti
#NCWFFKP
%QPVGPVU
(d) Prophet of Islam -JCNLKŏUOCTMGV
Match the following: TGIWNCVKQPU
A. Regulation I 1. Forcing peasants
A. Ghaisuddin 1. created Tukan-
to sell the gram
Balban ichanhalgani a
to the gram
selected body of
merchants
Turkish Nobles,
B. Regulation IV 2. Fixing the
B. Shamsuddin 2. inscribed-zillah price of all
Iltutmish or coins commodities by
C. Qutubuddin 3. was founder of the Sultan
Aibek the slave Dynasty C. Regulation V 3. Prohibition of
%QFGU ihtikar (regrating)
A B C D. Regulation VI 4. Placing gram
(a) 1 2 3 merchants under
(b) 3 2 1 shahw-i-mandi
%QFGU (c) Ala-ud-din Khalji

A B C D (d) Muhammad bin Tughluq
(a) 3 4 2 1 Which among the following historian did
(b) 2 4 3 1 not believe in the story of Padmini?
(c) 3 1 2 4 (a) Amir Khusrau (b) Barni
(d) 2 1 3 4 (c) A.L. Srivastva (d) K.S. Lal
Ala-ud-din Khalji’s greatest contribution Who was the founder of Pratiharas
to the agrarian condition was that (a) Prithviraj
(a) he brought the peasant in direct rela- (b) Vatsaraja
tion with the State (c) Jayachandra
(b) he tried to curb and check the (d) Yasovarman
intermediaries Which one of the following agrarian
(c) the records of the village accountant measures was not taken by Ghiyas-ud-
were audited din Tughluq?
(d) he was the first to introduce the sys- (a) The chiefs and headmen of villages
tem of measurement of land for the were given back their perquisites
assessment of revenue (b) The governors were to hold their
Match List I with List II and answer with posts on farming terms, the surplus
the help of the following: revenue to be remitted to the treasury
(c) He made a large reduction in the scale
.KUV+ .KUV++ of revenue fi ed by Ala-ud-din
A. Malik Raza Farooqi 1. Jaunpur (d) The basis of the demand by the gov-
B. Malik Sarwar 2. Gujarat ernment was to be ‘basic’ (actual
turnover) with enough provision for
C. Dilawar Khan 3. Khandesh
crop failures
D. Malik Zafar Khan 4. Malwa In whose period, the revolt of Tughnl
%QFGU Khan occurred in Bengal?
A B C D (a) Balban
(a) 3 4 1 2 (b) Ala-ud-din
(b) 3 1 4 2 (c) Mohammad Tughlaq
(c) 1 2 4 3 (d) Khijra Khan
(d) 4 1 2 3 The Turks brought with them musical
A province in the Delhi Sultanate was instruments
first divided into (a) Rabab and Sarangi
(a) shiqs (b) Sitar and Flute
(b) parganas (c) Veena and Tabla
(c) wilayats (d) Tanpura and Mridanga
(d) iqlims Identify the statement relating to the
The most serious sectarian conflict administration of justice in the Sultanate
between the Sunnis and the Shias which is not correct
occurred during the reign of (a) The penal law was excessively severe
(a) Raziya (b) The judicial procedure does not seem
(b) Balban to have been very regular
2.26 Chapter 8
(c) The Sultans did not attach any impor- (a) Diwan-i-Kairat
tance to dispensation of justice (b) Diwan-i-Bandagani
(d) The prison regulations were less (c) Diwan-i-Ariz
severe and corruption prevailed (d) Diwan-i-Mustakraj
among the officer
Match the works with their authors
What etiquette did Balban introduce in
.KUV+ .KUV++
the court?
(a) Turkish A. Fatawh-us- 1. Isahmi
(b) Iranian Salatini
(c) Persian B. Zafar Nama 2. Sarifuddin Yazdi
(d) Arabic
C. Rehla 3. Minhaj-us-Siraj
The sultan who allowed the Ulemas to
interfare in administration was D. Tabaqat-i-Nasiri 4. lbn Batuta
(a) Feroz shah Tughluq %QFGU
(b) Ala-ud-din Khalji A B C D
(c) Muhammad bin Tughluq (a) 1 3 4 2
(d) Aibak (b) 3 1 2 4
Which one of the following was not one of (c) 1 2 3 4
the agrarian measures of Firuz Tughluq? (d) 1 3 2 4
(a) He abolished many taxes and unjust Who was the Sultan whom Hammir Dev
cesses did not allow to conquer Ranthambhor?
(b) He undertook revaluation of land to (a) Kaikubad
ascertain its assessment (b) Ghiyasuddin Balban
(c) He allowed the imposition of only (c) Jalal-ud-din Feroz Khalzi
four kinds of taxes (kharaj, zakat, (d) Ala-ud-din Khalzi
Jaztya and khums) Of the designations assigned to the nobles
(d) He was generous in granting land of Firuz Tughlaq’s time, which one stood
to civil and military officers and in for a commander?
farming out land (a) Khan
The number of dynasties which ruled (b) Malik
India during the Sultanate period was: (c) Amir
(a) four (d) Chhatri
(b) fi e The department of slaves under Delhi
(c) six Sultanate is
(d) None of these (a) Diwan-i-Bandagan
To whom goes the credit of issuing the (b) Diwan-i-Istinaq
two currencies of Addha and Bhikh? (c) Diwan-i-Amir-Kohi
(a) Qutubuddin Aibak (d) Diwan-i-Mustakhraj
(b) Iltutmish Consider the following statements and
(c) Feroz Tughlaq mark the option which is correct.
(d) Ibrahim Lodhi (i) Qutubaddin Aibek was the founder
The department established by the Feroz of Delhi Sultanate and was the first
Shah Tughluq for public welfare is independent ruler.
(ii) Qutubuddin Aibek built two The tax that was levied by the Ala-ud-din
mosques—Quwanul-Islam Mosque Khalji on Cattle fodder
at Delhi and Dhai Din Ka Jonpara (a) Ghari (b) Jakat
at Amer. (c) Chari (d) Khams
(iii) Qutubuddin Aibek laid the founda- #UUGTVKQP
# The post of Naib Sultan
tion of Qutub Minar after the name was generally filled only when a ruler
of a Sufi Saint Khwaja Qutubuddin was weak or a minor
Bakhtiyar Kaki. 4GCUQP
4 Ala-ud-din Khalji gave this
(a) i & iii high post to Malik Kafur as a mark of
(b) ii special favour
(c) All of the above Select the answer by using the codes
(d) None of the above. given below:
What was the Inam land? (a) Both (A) and (R) are individually true
(a) Pension land and (R) is the correct explanation of (A).
(b) Land given to Sadhus (b) Both (A) and (R) arc individually true
(c) Land given in lieu of salary but (R) is not the correct explanation
(d) Land given for religious purpose of (A).
(c) (A) is true but (R) is false.
Which Bijapur ruler was known as ‘Jag-
(d) (A) is false but (R) is true.
adguru’ by his subjects for patronizing
the Hindus in his state? During the thirteenth century, the term
(a) Mahmud Gawan fawazil denoted
(b) Ibrahim Adil Shah II (a) the surplus revenue remitted to the
(c) Yusuf Adil Shah state
(d) Mahmud Ali Shah (b) a headman of a pargana
(c) a military rank
Which one of the following was a major
(d) the crown land
seaport of the Sultanate period in Sindh?
(a) Lahari Who was sent to conquer Mabar in the
(b) Bandar time of Mubarak Shah Khalzi ?
(c) Daibul (a) Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq
(d) Gwadar (b) Nasiruddin Khusrau Khan
(c) Fakhruddin Juna Khan
The Delhi Sultan who introduced the Per- (d) Jafar Khan
sian traditions called sijda and Paibos in
his court is Who established Sayyid dynasty?
(a) Muhammad bin Tughluq (a) Taimur
(b) Ala-ud-in Khalji (b) Sikander Lodi
(c) Balban (c) Khajir Khan
(d) Feroz Tughluq (d) Mubarak Shah
To which dynasty was Lalitaditya Mukt- Who among the following established
apid, the ruler of Kashmir, related? kingship on the Afghan pattern?
(a) Utpal dynasty (a) Mahmud Ghaznavi
(b) Lohar dynasty (b) Bahlol Lodhi
(c) Karkot dynasty (c) Razia
(d) None of the above (d) Ala-ud-din Khalzi
2.28 Chapter 8
Who was the author of Tabaqat-i-Nasiri? (a) Cosmology

(a) Minhaj-ud-din Siraj (b) Technical terms
(b) Zia-ud-din Barani (c) Calculations of latitude and longitude
(c) Shams-i-Siraj Afi (d) Some items of the calendar (Zich)
(d) Nasiruddin Mahmud Rajabwah and Ulughkarni are
Who introduced a 32-digit measurement (a) types of cropping in the Sultanate
for measuring cultivated khalisa lands? period
(a) Ala-ud-din Khalji. (b) irrigation canals the in Sultanate
(b) Muhammad bin Tughlaq period
(c) Sikandar Lodi (c) minor dams of the Sultanate period
(d) Firuz Tughlaq (d) types of agricultural loans in the
Sultanate period
The Bengal Governor who rebelled
mark the option which is correct.
against Balban is
(i) Qutubaddin Aibek was the founder
(a) Nasrath Shah
of Delhi Sultanate and was the first
(b) Tughril Khan
independent ruler.
(c) Bakhtiyar Khalji
(ii) Qutubuddin Aibek built two
(d) Ahmad Khan
Mosques—Quwanul-Islam Mosque
at Delhi and Dhai Din Ka Jonpara Consider the following statements and
at Amer. mark the option which is true.
(iii) Qutubuddin Aibek laid foundation (i) Muhammad bin Tughlaq formulated
of Qutub Minar after the name of the famine code to provide relief to
a Sufi Saint Khwaja Qutubuddin famine affected people.
Bakhtiyar Kaki. (ii) Firoz Shah Tughlaq made ‘Iqta
(a) i & iii System’ Hereditary.
(b) ii (iii) Muhammad bin Tughlaq was on bad
(c) All of the above terms with the famous Sufi saint
(d) None of the above. Nizamuddin Auliya.
(a) i & iii
Kissing the sultan feet is called (b) All of the above
(a) Paibos (c) None of the above
(b) Sijdaz (d) iii
(c) Chalisa
Which of the following created a separate
(d) Darul
ministry for slaves?
Who built the ‘Alai Darwaja’ and Siri (a) Iltutmish
Fort? (b) Ala-ud-din Khalji
(a) Ghiasuddin Tughlaq (c) Balban
(b) Firoz Shah Tughlaq (d) Firoz Shah
(c) Ala-ud-din Khalji
The introduction of yikat in the list of
(d) Muhammad bin Tughlaq
regular demands of the Delhi Sultanate
Which one of the following was not bor- was made by
rowed by Hindu astronomers from the (a) Balban
Muslims? (b) Muhammad bin Tughlaq
(c) Ala-ud-din Khalji (c) (A) is true but (R) is false.

(d) Firuz Tughlaq (d) (A) is false but (R) is true.
The lowest unit of the army was com- Which one of the following statements
manded by the regarding Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq’s conces-
(a) Sipah Salar sion to the rural intermediaries is cor-
(b) Sar-i-Khail rect?
(c) Amir (a) He allowed thorn to impose taxes on
(d) Malik peasants
Who built the ‘Alai Darwaja’ and Siri (b) He gave them revenue assignments
Fort? (c) He enrolled them into the Delhi
(a) Ghiasuddin Tughlaq Sultanate army
(b) Firoz Shah Tughlaq (d) He exempted their lands from tax
(c) Ala-ud-din Khalji Sutlez and Jamuna canals were dug dur-
(d) Muhammad bin Tughlaq ing the period of
The Iqta under the Delhi Sultans was a (a) Feroz shah Tughluq
territorial assignment and its holder was (b) Muhammad bin Tughluq
designated Muqti who (c) Ala-ud-din Khalji
(a) Had no claims on the peasant other (d) Iltutmish
than the due land tax. What formed the basis of the develop-
(b) Was the owner of the Iqta Land. ment of Muslim castes in the beginning?
(c) Was entitled to claim forced labour (a) Occupational distinction
from the cultivators. (b) Ethnic distinction
(d) Had claim on the person and property (c) Religious distinction
of the peasants.
(d) Existing social distinction among the
The Delhi Sultan who introduced the Per- Hindus
sian traditions called sijda and Paibos in
The Sultan who has the title of Zilli Illahi
his court?
(a) Aibak
(a) Muhammad bin Tughluq
(b) Muhammad Shah
(b) Ala-ud-din Khalji
(c) Mubarak Shah
(c) Balban
(d) Balban
(d) Feroz Tughluq
#UUGTVKQP
# Muhammad-bin-Tughluq What was the defect in the agrarian pol-
introducedtoken currency. icy of Firuz Tughluq?
(a) He permitted the sale, purchase and
4GCUQP
4 He wanted to devalue the
mortgage of the iqtas
coins to safeguard the economy.
(b) Extension of the operation of Jaziya
Select the answer by using the codes
(c) He was lavish in paying his officials
given below:
in the shape of jagirs; the assignees
(a) Both (A) and (R) are individually true
sold their assignments to the bankers
and (R) is the correct explanation of (A).
(d) Further extension of farming system
(b) Both (A) and (R) arc individually true
but (R) is not the correct explanation The main feature that distinguished
of (A). the saqiya (Persian-wheel) from other
2.30 Chapter 8
water-lifting devices during the Delhi (b) He allowed the imposition of only
Sultanate was the use of four kinds of taxes sanctioned by the
(a) lever-principle Quran (Kharaj, Zakat, Jizyah and
(b) pulleys Khams)
(c) gear mechanism (c) He undertook revaluation of land to
(d) leather bucket ascertain its assessment
(d) Religious endowments which had
The Jaina saint who participated in nego-
reverted to the state under previous
tiations with Muhammad bin Tughluq is
rulers were return to the earlier hold-
(a) Jinaprabha Suri
ers or their descendants
(b) Madhvacharya
(c) Sankaracharya The Sultan who brought to Delhi the
(d) Ramanujacharya Ashoka’s Topra and Meerut inscriptions
was
The work Man Kautuhal in which an all (a) Feroz Shah Tughluq
new musical modes introduced by the (b) Muhammad bin Tughluq
Muslims were included was prepared (c) Ala-ud-din Khalji
under the aegis of (d) Jalal-ud-din Khalji
(a) Nusrat Shah
(b) Firoz Shah Tughluq Who destroyed Jwalamukhi temple at
(c) Ala-ud-din Khalji Nagarkot?
(d) Man Singh (a) Ghiyasuddin Tughluq
(b) Muhammad bin Tughluq
The Gujarat ruler who was defeated by (c) Ala-ud-din Khalji
the Ala-ud-din Khalji was (d) Feroz shah Tughluq
(a) Mahadeva Who introduced the Silver Tanka & Jital
(b) Karnadeva two principal coins.
(c) Ganapatideva (a) Ghaisuddin Balban
(d) Hamviradeva (b) Qutubuddin Aibek
The Sultan who occupied most of the ter- (c) Shamsuddin Iltutmish
ritory in South India was (d) Ala-ud-din Khalji
(a) Ala-ud-din Khalji Which one of the following statements
(b) Muhammad bin Tughluq regarding the impact of Islam on the
(c) Feroz Shah Tughluq Indian society is not true ?
(d) Balban (a) In the later stages, the institution of
caste became suspect in the eyes of
The troops directly under the royal
many a Hindu
service in the Delhi Sultanate were
(b) The idol worship now lost some of
known as
its former popularity
(a) sashkar (b) hashm qaib
(c) The lower classes among the Hindus
(c) Sipahi (d) muqta
were now treated better and the
Indicate which one of the following could path to salvation was thrown open to
not be considered one of Firuz Tughluq’s them
measures? (d) Since the privileges to the Brahmans
(a) He abolished many taxes and unjust were withdrawn their social status
cesses was badly undermined.
Answer Keys
1. b) 2. (d) 3. (a) 4. (b) 53. (c) 54. (c) 55. (c) 56. (a)
5. (b) 6. (a) 7. (c) 8. (c) 57. (c) 58. (a) 59. (b) 60. (c)
9. (b) 10. (c) 11. (b) 12. (d) 61. (c) 62. (c) 63. (d) 64. (a)
13. (b) 14. (b) 15. (d) 16. (d) 65. (b) 66. (c) 67. (b) 68. (a)
17. (d) 18. (b) 19. (b) 20. (a) 69. (c) 70. (c) 71. (a) 72. (c)
21. (b) 22. (c) 23. (b) 24. (a) 73. (a) 74. (b) 75. (b) 76. (a)
25. (d) 26. (c) 27. (c) 28. (c) 77. (d) 78. (d) 79. (b) 80. (c)
29. (a) 30. (c) 31. (b) 32. (c) 81. (b) 82. (c) 83. (c) 84. (d)
33. (d) 34. (b) 35. (c) 36. (b) 85. (a) 86. (b) 87. (d) 88. (a)
37. (d) 38. (b) 39. (a) 40. (a) 89. (c) 90. (a) 91. (d) 92. (b)
41. (d) 42. (b) 43. (c) 44. (a) 93. (b) 94. (b) 95. (d) 96. (a)
45. (a) 46. (b) 47. (b) 48. (a) 97. (d) 98. (c) 99. (d) 100. (d)
49. (c) 50. (b) 51. (c) 52. (a)
9
Vijaynagara and Bahmani
Kingdom
Sources of Study of Gangadasa Pralapa Vilasam of
Ganagadhar (siege of Vijaynagara by
Vijaynagara Kingdom the Bahmanis)
The various sources of the study of Vijayna- Maduravijayam of Gangadevi (conquest
gara Kingdom are as follows: of Madurai by Bukka I)
Saluvabhyudayam of Rajanattha
1. Archaeological: Dindima (history of the Saluva dynasty)
Ruins of the Vijaynagara Empire, Foreign Travellers’ Account
which includes palaces and temples, The Moroccan traveller, Ibn Battutah
monuments and many secular buildings (Harihara I), also visited Muhammad
such as elephant stables and the Lotus bin Tughluq
Mahal. Nicolo de Conti, Venetian or Italian
Inscriptions providing information Traveller (Deva Raya I)
about the political, social and economic Abdur Razzak, Persian Traveller (Deva
history of the empire (in Tamil, Telgu Raya II)
and Kannada). Domingo Paes, Portuguese Traveller
Coins (numismatics) issued by (Krishna Deva Raya)
Vijaynagara rulers, such as the Varaha Edwardo Barbosa, Portuguese Traveller
or the gold coins, which have the names (Krishna Deva Raya)
of the Vijaynagara rulers stamped on Nuniz, Portuguese Traveller (Achyuta
one side and the figures of Hindu dei- Deva Raya)
ties of even of animals on the reverse.
2. Literary: Foundation of Vijaynagara
Amuktanialyada (in Telgu) of Krishna
Deva Raya
Empire
Jambavati Kalyanam (in Sanskrit) of The Vijaynagara kingdom was founded in
Krishna Deva Raya 1346 as a direct response to the challenge
Manucharitam of Peddana posed by the Delhi Sultanate. However, it is
Vijaynagara and Bahmani Kingdom 2.33
said that Vijaynagara emerged as an expres- of the Krishna had to be administered jointly.
sion of Hindu resistance to Islam. To them, the However, the Doab remained a contested site
religion became symptomatic of the invasion in the years to come. Richard Eaton also points
of their country by the Delhi and the Bahmani out that there was a fierce interstate competi-
Sultans. Richard M. Eaton has described it as tion over control of one of the wealthiest strips
‘the Maginot Line’ of Deccan historiography. of land in the entire peninsula, the Raichur
But neither the Vijaynagara nor the Bahmani Doab, which lay directly between Vijaynag-
kingdom arose out of opposition to each other. ara and Bahmani domain. By the time Bukka
The two kingdoms emerged at about the same died in 1377, Vijaynagara became the largest
time for more or less the same reasons, and regional kingdom of south India.
it was this that was understood as resistance Throughout the fifteenth century, there
to the Sultanate of Delhi. Richard M. Eaton were innumerable clashes between the rulers
says that both states were established as ‘revo- of Vijaynagara and Bahmani over the annexa-
lutionary regimes’ that evolved out of armed tion of the Doab. Vijaynagara’s defeat exposed
resistance to a common imperial power, the the weaknesses of its armed forces. Repeated
Delhi Sultanate. The Telugu chieftains desired defeats forced the Vijaynagara rulers to reorga-
only to throw off the northern rule. nize the army by recruiting Muslim archers and
The Vijaynagara kingdom was founded by purchasing better and more able-bodied horses.
two brothers, Harihara and Bukka. They were Raichur Doab again became the bone of conten-
the sons of Sangama, the last Yadava king, and tion for a number of turbulent decades begin-
had been in the service of the Kakatiyas of ning in 1465 or so and extending into 1509. In
Warangal. Legend has it that the two brothers the beginning, Vijaynagara had to surrender
fled from Warangal in Andhra Pradesh after the western ports like Goa, Chaul and Dabhol
its capture by the Muslims; they then settled to the Bahmanis. But, around 1490, when the
at Kampili, a small realm close to what was Bahmani kingdom began to disintegrate and
to become the city of Vijaynagara, where they Bijapur was established under Yusuf Adil Khan,
were taken captive by the Sultan’s army in fortune eventually smiled upon Vijaynagara and
1327. They were taken to Delhi and were made it succeeded in capturing Tungabhadra region.
to convert to Islam, whereupon the Sultan The loss of western ports had completely dislo-
put them in charge on his behalf. They then cated the horse trade, on which the Vijaynagara
came under the influence of the Hindu monk army hugely depended for its cavalry. However,
Vidyaranya, who took them back into the fold the occupation of Donavar, Bhatkal, Bakanur
of Hinduism. They founded a new monarchy and Mangalore led to the revival of the horse
with a capital at a strategic place south of trade, ensuring the regular supply of horses.
the Tungabhadra River, where Harihara was T.V. Muhulingum has also described the
crowned king in 1336. Vijaynagara state as essentially feudal in struc-
Harihara I was succeeded by his younger ture and has compared it to European feudal-
brother, Bukka I, in 1357. Bukka began the ism; he has also highlighted the differences
rapid expansion of the empire. He fought between the western and the Vijaynagara mod-
against Muhammad Shah Bahmani to gain els of feudalism. Mahalingam’s opinion was
control over the Raichur Doab, the land between mainly based on his study of the Nayankara
the rivers Tungabhadra and Krishna. In a peace system. In the Vijaynagara polity, land was
treaty of 1365, Doab was ceded to Bukka, with conceived of as belonging to the king. Hence,
the river Krishna intervening between the two he could distribute it to his dependants. Those
kingdoms. Some revenue districts to the south who held land granted by the king were called
2.34 Chapter 9
Nayakas. These Nayakas had great autonomy proximity to the Amarnayakam system with
over the territory that had thus been granted such a structure. However, Burton Stein is of
to them. In return, the Nayakas had two key the view that this system cannot be called a
obligations: feudal one on account of the fact that some
of the more salient features of feudalism such
(i) to remit an annual financial contribution
as homage and vassalage are practically non-
to the imperial treasury and
existent in the Vijaynagara system. Further,
(ii) to maintain and provide the kings with an
there is 110 evidence of the tributary rela-
army backup
tionship either. Stein says that the Portuguese
The Nayakas often leased out land to their writings on feudalism should be studied with
tenants on terms similar to those on which they caution in this respect because their use of the
held their lands from the king. This can well be term feudalism must be understood in the con-
described as sub-inleudation, which was also a text of their own experience and their desire
feature of European feudalism. However, there to explain Indian affairs to European readers
were essential differences between the two in the terms that were familiar to them. Stein
systems. In Europe, the process of fealty was described the system as segmentary in which
very much in existence, according to which the the king enjoyed a ritual sovereignty which is
individual small land holder paid homage to in contradiction with actual sovereignty. The
the lord and received land from him as a fief in segmentary model introduced by Stein was
return for services rendered to him in return for challenged by Herman Kulke and others show-
protection offered. This feature is practically ing that in many parts of India kings enjoyed
non-existent in the Vijaynagara Nayak system. actual sovereignty over their territory, giving
The Nayankara system was an administrative examples of the Suryavanshi kings of Orissa.
policy of the kings to assign territories to the More recently, Karashima, after studying the
Nayakas in return for military service and a Tamil epigraphical sources of the Vijaynagara
fixed financial contribution. The element of kingdom, has argued that ‘the strength of the
subservience to a politically superior lord, pre- State control over nayakas seems to have made
dominant in European feudalism, was lacking ‘Vijaynagara feudalism’ rather similar to the
in the Nayankara system according to Mahal- Tokugawa feudalism of Japan’. He argues that
ingam. Nayakas held land as amaram tenure. if one does not accept the feudal interpretation,
Vijaynagara kings assigned heavy responsibil- we need to find some other logical explanation
ities and duties to Nayaks and withdrew pro- for the difference between the Chola and the
tection if they failed to perform their duties. Vijaynagara regimes.
Nuniz has stated that punitive measures could
well be taken against them and property could Kings of the Vijaynagara
be confiscated if the king’s displeasure was
incurred in any way. In European feudalism, Dynasty
the society as a whole was chained together by There were four dynasties ruled over
the link of land tenure, whereas the Nayankara Vijaynagara—Sangama Dynasty, Saluva
system linked together only a section of the Dynasty, Tuluva Dynasty and Aravidu Dynasty.
population. Likewise sub-infeudation was not Sangama dynasty (1334–1646 CE) was the
practiced on as large a scale in Vijaynagara as first to rule over Vijaynagara kingdom. Hari-
in Europe. haran I and Bukka established Vijaynagara king-
Hermann Kulke and Dietmar Rothermund dom when Tughlaqs lost his power in Deccan.
have also described the Vijaynagara polity as But its power declined after a major military
a ‘military feudalism’. They postulated a close defeat in 1565 by the Deccan Sultanates.
Sangama Kings written by his wife Gangambika. By 1374, he

had gained an upper hand over the Bahmanis
Harihara I (1336–1356 CE)
for control of the Tungabhadra–Krishna doab
He is known as *CMMC and 8KTC*CTKJCTC+. He and also took control of Goa; the kingdom of
was the founder of Vijaynagara Empire, which Orissa (Orya) was also captured and Bukka
was based in the South Deccan Plateau. He was forced the Jaffna Kingdom of Ceylon and
Bhavana Sangama’s eldest son, belonged to the Malabar to pay tributes to him.
Kuruba (or Kurumas are Dhangaras in South- During his reign, Bukka would also have
ern states of India) and was the founder of the clashes with the Bahmani Sultans. The first
Sangama dynasty. (Some people believe that was during the time of /QJCOOGF5JCJ+ and
he was from Yadava clan.) When he came to the other during the time of /WLCJKF. It is said
power, he immediately built a fort at Barkuru, that Bukka also sent a mission to China during
which is at the west coast of present day of Kar- his reign.
nataka. It is concluded from the inscriptions Bukka died in about 1380 and was succeeded
that he was administering the northern parts of by *CTKJCTC ++. It is also notable that under
Karnataka at Gutti, Ananthpur district, from his Bukka Raya’s reign, the capital of the Vijaynag-
seat during 1339 period of time. ara Empire established itself at Vijaynagara,
Harihara was controlling the northern por- on the south side of the river, which was more
tion of the Hoysala kingdom. After the death secure and defensive than their previous capitol
of Hoysala Veera Ballala III, he took full at Anegondi. Even with the wars and internal
control over its entire range during 1343. He conflicts, Bukka still managed to help support
was famous by the names Karnataka Vidya internal improvements for the city. Important
Vilas (master of great knowledge and skills), works of literature were also written during his
Bhashegetappuvarayaraganda (punisher of rule. Dozens of scholars lived under the guid-
those feudatories who do not keep their prom- ance of Vidyaranya and Sayana. Sayana’s com-
ise) and Arirayavibhada (fire to enemy kings). mentary on the Vedas, Brahmanas and Aran-
Kampana governed Nellur region, Muddppa yakas was written under the petronage of Bukka.
administered Mulabagalu region, Marappa
oversaw Chandragutti and Bukka Raya was his
second in command. So, overall his kingdom Harihara Raya II (1377–1404 CE)
was well organized. During his reign, Harihara II continued to
extend the kingdom’s territory through figh -
Bukka Raya I/Bukka (1356–1377 CE) ing against the Reddis of Kondavidu for con-
Bukka Raya ruled the kingdom for about 21 trol of the coastal Andhra between 0GNNQTG
years. The kingdom prospered and continued and -CNKPIC. From the Reddis of Kondavidu,
to expand as Bukka Raya conquered most of Harihara II conquered the #FFCPMK and 5TK
the kingdoms of southern India, continually UCKNCO areas as well as most of the territory
expanding the territory of the empire. He between the peninsula to the south of the river
defeated the Shambuvaraya Kingdom of Arcot Krishna, which would eventually lead to fights
and the Reddis of Kondavidu by 1360, and the in Telangana with the Velamas of Rachakonda.
region around Penukonda was annexed. He Harihara II took advantage of the death of
defeated the Sultanate of Madurai in 1371 and Mujahid Bahmani in 1378 and extended his
extended his territory into the south all the way control into the northwest, controlling such
to Rameswaram. His son, Kumara Kamapna, ports as Goa, Chaul and Dabhol.
campaigned with him and their efforts were Harihara ruled from the capital Vijaynagara
recorded in the Sanskrit work Madhuravijayam now more popularly known as Hampi. What is
2.36 Chapter 9
believed to be the ruins of Harihara’s palace is and the Reddis of Kondavidu and the Gajaptis
located among the Hampi ruins. He patronized of Kalinga. Even so, Deva Raya was capable
Kannada poet Madhura, a Jaina. An impor- of managing the vast amount of territory that
tant work on Vedas was completed during his he controlled. After his death, Deva Raya was
time. He earned the titles Vaidikamarga Sthap- succeeded by his sons Ramachandra Raya and
anacharya and Vedamarga Pravartaka. Vijaya Raya.
Virupaksha Raya (1404–1405 CE) Ramachandra Raya (1422 CE)

With the death of Harihara II, the throne for Ramachandra Raya was the son of Deva Raya
the Vijaynagara Empire was disputed among I who became king of the Vijaynagara Empire
his sons, including Deva Raya I, Bukka Raya after his father’s death in 1422. Throughout
II and Virupaksha Raya. Virupaksha Raya his reign, there were no recorded significant
ruled for a few months before being murdered changes in territory or major events. After-
by his sons and then was succeeded by Bukka wards, he was succeeded by his brother Vijara-
Raya II who ruled for 2 years before he him- raya in the same year who was noted for doing
self was succeeded by &GXC4C[C+. As his rule anything significant
was only for a few months, Virupaksha’s reign
was not marked with any significant events or Vira Vijaya Bukka Raya (1422–1424 CE)
changes, though it is noted by the traveler (GT Veera Vijaya Bukka Raya was the son of
PCQ 0WPK\ that Virupaksha Raya lost a lot of Deva Raya I and succeeded his brother,
the kingdom’s land to the Muhammadans such Ramachandra Raya, in 1422 as the king of the
as Goa, Chaul and Dabhol and that 8KTWRCMUJC Vijaynagara Empire. Similar to Ramachandra
himself was cruel and as Fernao Nuniz wrote, Raya, Vijaya Raya was known for not doing
‘caring for nothing but women and to fuddle anything significant and his short reign ended
himself with drink’ in 1424 when he was succeeded by his son
Deva Raya II.
Bukka Raya II (1405–1406 CE)
After the death of Harihara II, the succession Deva Raya II (1424–1446 CE)
of the thrown was disputed among Harihara Deva Raya II succeeded his father Veera Vijaya
II’s sons. Virupaksha Raya managed to rule Bukka Raya after his short uneventful 2-year
for a few months before he was murdered reign as a monarch of the Vijaynagara Empire.
by his own sons. After Virupaksha’s death, Unlike his father, Deva Raya II was an effec-
$WMMC 4C[C ++ succeeded him as emperor of tive and successful monarch. During his reign,
the Vijaynagara Empire. However, similar to Deva Raya II prevailed over his conquest of
his brother before him, Bukka Raya II only Kondavidu in 1432, repelled the invasions of
reigned for a short time period before he too Ahmad Shah I of the Bahmanis and retained
was overthrown by his brother, Deva Raya I. the Mudgal fort in 1436 but lost some areas in
the Raichur doab in 1443, defeated the Gajapati
Deva Raya I (1406–1422 CE) of Orissa three times in 1427, 1436 and 1441,
After Harihara II died, there was a dispute restored the Reddi Kingdom of Rajamahen-
between his sons for the throne of the Vijayna- dri to its former position, fought against the
gara Empire in which Deva Raya I eventually Sultan Ala-Ud-Din and continued onwards to
come out as victor. Throughout his reign, Deva Kerala where he defeated the ruler of Quilon
Raya continually fought against the Velamas as well as other chieftains. He invaded Lanka
of Telangana, the Bahmani Sultan of Gulbarga and collected rich tributes there. The ruler of
Calicut and even the kings of Burma ruling at death in the hands of his own son, Praudharaya
Pegu and Tanasserim paid tributes. in 1485. Praudharaya himself was not able to
salvage the kingdom, but fortunately, an able
Mallikarjuna Raya (1446–1465 CE) general Saluva Narasimha took control of
Mallikarjuna Raya succeeded his father Deva the empire in 1485 and helped to prevent its
Raya II, who had brought prosperity through- demise, though this change of power would
out the Vijaynagara Empire and also started mark the end of the Sangama Dynasty and the
golden age for the Sangama Dynasty. How- beginning of the Saluva Dynasty.
ever, Mallikarjuna Raya was unlike his father
and was generally a weak and corrupt ruler. Praudha Raya (1485 CE)
At the beginning of his reign, he defended He was an unpopular king of Vijaynagara
the kingdom from the attacks of the Bahmani Empire who ruled for a very short period of
Sultan and the Raja of the Hindu kingdom of time, being driven out of the capital by his able
Orissa, but thereafter it was marked by a string commander Saluva Narasimha Deva Raya in
of defeats: the Gajapatis conquered Rajama- 1485. He wrote Ratiratnapradipika, a book on
hendri in 1454, Udayagiri and Chandragiri in erotics.
1463 and the Bahmani kingdoms took over
much of the Vijaynagara Empire by 1450 and Saluva Dynasty (1485–1505 CE)
grew closer to the capital, while at the same One of the ruling dynasty from Vijaynagara
time the Portuguese arrived in southern India, Empire of Southern India, Saluva Dynasty had
seizing many of the ports on the western given three kings during their period.
coast that the Vijaynagara Empire had once The Saluva Dynasty was created by the
controlled. Saluvas who by historical tradition were natives
These events eventually led to the decline of the Kalyani region of northern Karnataka.
of the Sangama Dynasty; Mallikarjuna Raya’s The Gorantla inscription traces their origins to
cousin Virupaksha Raya II took the opportu- this region from the time of the Western Cha-
nity to seize the throne, though he failed to lukyas and Kalachuris of Karnataka. The term
prove to be a better ruler. ‘Saluva’ is known to lexicographers as ‘hawk’
used in hunting. They later spread into the east
Virupaksha Raya II (1465–1485 CE) coast of modern Andhra Pradesh, perhaps by
Virupaksha Raya II succeeded his uncle, Mal- migration or during the Vijaynagara conquests
likarjuna Raya, a corrupt and weak ruler who during the fourteenth century.
continually lost against the empire’s enemies. The earliest known Saluva from inscrip-
Throughout his reign, Virupaksha was faced tional evidence in the Vijaynagara era was
with rebellious nobles and officers as well Mangaldeva, the great grandfather of Saluva
as multiple enemies who began to invade the Narasimha Deva Raya. Mangaldeva played an
weakened kingdom. It was during this time important role in the victories of King Bukka
that Virupaksha Raya II lost the Konkan coast Raya I against the Sultanate of Madurai. His
(including Goa, Chaul and Dabul) by 1470 descendents founded the Saluva Dynasty and
to Prime Minister Mahamud Gawan from were one of the ruling lines of the Vijaynagara
the Bahmani kingdom who was sent to con- Empire of Southern India. Three kings ruled
quer the area by Sultan Muhammad Shah III. from 1485 to 1505 after which the Tuluva
Virupaksha became increasingly unpopular Dynasty claimed the throne. They ruled almost
and ignited many of the empire’s provinces to the entire South India with Vijaynagara as their
rebel, eventually leading up to Virupaksha’s capital.
2.38 Chapter 9
Saluva Kings an army commander during a period of politi-

cal unrest in Vijaynagara. He was succeeded
Saluva Narasimha Deva Raya by his younger brother Narasimha Raya II.
(1485–1491 CE)
After the death of Virupaksha Raya II and Narasimha Raya II (1491–1505 CE)
arrival of Prauda Deva Raya as the new mon- Narasimha 4C[C ++ or Immadi Narasimha or
arch of Vijaynagara, the empire plunged into Dhamma Tammaraya was the second son of
neglect and anarchy. Seeing that a military King Saluva Narasimha Deva Raya. Narasimha
coup was the only hope to save the king- Raya II was succeeded by his elder brother
dom, he despatched the son of Tuluva Isvara, Thimma Bhupala. Though he was a crowned
Tuluva Narasa Nayaka, to the imperial capital king of Vijaynagara Empire, the real power lay
of Vijaynagara. The incumbent king Prauda in the hands of the empire’s able commander
Raya fle , thus starting the rule of Saluva Nar- Tuluva Narasa Nayaka till his death in 1503.
asimha. Narasa Nayaka, under the pretence of his
As king, Saluva Narashima tried to expand safety, kept him in confinement at Penukonda.
the empire, though he continually faced dif- In 1503, after the death of Narasa Nayaka, his
ficulties caused from rebelling chieftains. By eldest son Viranarasimha Raya became the
1491, he lost Udayagiri to Gajapati Kapilendra regent of the empire. In 1505, Narasimha Raya
while the Chiefs of Ummattur in the Mysore II was murdered in Penukonda and Virana-
region, Saluvas of Hadavalli and Santharas of rasimha Raya proclaimed himself king.
Karkala from coastal Karnataka region, Sri-
rangapatna and Sambetas of Peranipadu in Tuluva Dynasty (1491–1570 CE)
Cuddapah still remained threats to the empire.
This is known as a third dynasty that ruled the
Saluva Narashima’s war with the Gajapatis
Vijaynagara Empire. The dynasty was named
over Udayagiri in 1489 proved disastrous when
‘Tuluva’ because they belonged to the Tulu-
he was taken prisoner and released later after
speaking region called ‘Tulunad’ and their
giving up the fort and surrounding areas. How-
mother tounge was ‘Tulu’ language. They were
ever, he was successful at conquering the west-
originally from Karnartaka. Tuluva Dynasty
ern ports of Kannada country of Mangalore,
was one of the ruling lines of the Vijaynagara
Bhatkal, Honnavar and Bakanur. This success
Empire of Southern India. It had given fi e
enabled him to trade for swift horses with the
emperors for the Vijaynagara kingdom and
Arabs. He took more efforts in the upkeep of
was ruled with Vijaynagara capital. Krishna
his cavalry and army in general.
Deva Raya was the most famous ruler of their
Saluva Narashima eventually died in 1491.
period. The empire attained the greatest glory
At the time, his sons were too young to ascend
during his time.
to the throne. Because of this, the sons were left
to the care of Narasa Nayaka, a loyal general
Tuluva Kings
and minister from the Tuluva family.
Tuluva Narasa Nayaka (1491–1503 CE)
Thimma Bhupala (1491CE) He belonged to the Bunt community (Tulu-
He was the elder son of Saluva Narasimha Deva speaking forward class Matrilineal Hindu com-
Raya, the king of Vijaynagara Empire. Dur- munity beloning to the Nagavanshi Kshatriya,
ing the reign of his father, he was holding the order found mainly in southern coastal Kar-
office of Yuvaraja. Prince Thimma succeeded nataka) and was the able commander of the
his father in 1491 but was soon murdered by Vijaynagara army under the rule of Saluva
Narasimha Deva Raya and the de-facto Krishna Deva Raya (1509–1529 CE)
sovereign during the nominal rule of the sons
Sri Krishna Deva Raya was the most famous
of Saluva Narasimha.
king of Vijaynagara Empire. He belonged to
After the death of King Saluva Narasimha,
the tuluva bunt community. Presiding over the
crown prince Thimma Bhupala was murdered
empire at its zenith, he is regarded as a hero
by an army commander. The faithful Narasa
by Tuluvas, Kannadigas and Telugus, and one
Nayaka then crowned the other prince Nara-
of the great kings of India. Emperor Krishna
simha Raya II but retained all administrative
Deva Raya also earned the titles Kannada
powers in order to bring stability to the king-
Rajya Rama Ramana, Mooru Rayara Ganda
dom. He was called the rakshakarta (protector)
(meaning King of three kings) and Andhra
and svami (Lord). He held the offices of the
Bhoja. Krishna Deva Raya was assisted in
senadhipati (commander-in-chief), the mahap-
administration by the very able Prime Minis-
radhana (Prime Minister) and the karyakarta
ter Timmarusu, who was revered by the king
(agent) of the king. He successfully kept the
as a father figure and was responsible for his
Bahmani Sultans and the Gajapatis away from
corronation. Krishna Deva Raya was the son
the kingdom and quelled many rebellions by
of Nagala Devi and Tuluva Narasa Nayaka an
unfaithfull chieftains, trying to exert their
army commander under Saluva Narasimha
independence.
Deva Raya, who later took control of the
reign of the empire to prevent it from disin-
Viranarasimha Raya (1503–1509 CE) tegration. The king’s coronation took place on
He belonged to the Bunt community and the birthday of Lord Krishna, and his earliest
became the king of Vijaynagara Empire after inscription is from July 26, 1509 CE. He built
the death of Tuluva Narasa Nayaka. The a beautiful suburb near Vijaynagara called
younger Krishnadevaraya was the king’s half Nagalapura in memory of his mother.
brother.
The death of their capable father Tuluva Achyuta Raya (1529–1542 CE)
Narasa Nayaka resulted in feudatories rising in He belonged to the Bunt community and was a
rebellion everywhere. At first, Immadi Narasa ruler of a Vijaynagara Empire of South India.
Nayaka, the eldest son of Tuluva Narasa Nay- He was the younger brother of Krishna Deva
aka, became the king and lasted at the throne Raya, whom he succeeded in 1529. Upon
for 2 years before being assassinated. Viranar- his death, the succession was disputed. His
asimha Raya was next crowned in 1505 and nephew, Sadashiva, final y became king while
spent all his years fighting rebel warlords. yet a child, under the regency of Aliya Rama
When on his death bed, legend has it that Raya, a son-in-law of Krishnadevaraya.
Viranarasimha Raya requested his minis- The time when Achyuta Raya became the
ter Saluva Thimma (Thimmarasa) to blind king was by no means a favorable one. The peace
Krishnadevaraya so that his own 8-year-old and prosperity of the halcyon days under Krish-
son could become the king of Vijaynagara. nadevaraya were coming to an end. Feudatories
Thimmarasa however brought a pair of she- and enemies were waiting for an opportunity
goat eyes to the king and informed him that to bring down the empire. In addition, Achyuta
he had Krishnadevaraya killed. However, there Raya had to contend with the powerful Aliya
is no record to prove anything but a friendly Rama Raya, who was competing for the throne.
relationship between the two half brothers and While the works of Nuniz speak very low
that the coronation of Krishnadevaraya was of Achyuta Raya as being a king given to vices
easily done. and cruelty, there is enough evidence to prove
2.40 Chapter 9
that the king was indeed noteworthy in his own ruler Achyuta Raya died in AD 1541, his son,
right and fought hard to keep the prosperity of Venkatadri, succeeded him. He was a weak
the kingdom alive. He had been handpicked by ruler and 6 months later his cousin, Sadasiva,
Krishnadevaraya himself as an able successor. became the king. Sadasiva Raya was controlled
Ismail Adil Shah of Bijapur invaded and by his minister Rama Raya, the de-facto king,
captured the Raichur doab. However, the who restored the Vijaynagara Empire’s power
Gajapati’s of Orissa and Quli Qutub Shah of that had diminished after the rule of Krishna
Golconda were defeated and pushed back. Deva Raya. Rama Raya’s strategy was to play
Now Achyuta Raya along with his general the Deccan Sultanates against each other by
Salakaraju Tirumala went on a southern cam- first al ying with one and then another.
paign to bring the chiefs of Travancore and
Ummatur under control. This they did suc- Aravidu Dynasty (1542–1586 CE)
cessfully. Then they invaded the doab north This was the fourth and last Hindu dynasty that
of Tungabhadra and recaptured the forts of ruled Vijaynagara Kingdom in South India.
Raichur and Mudgal. Rama Raya was the regent of Tuluva kingdom’s
The two Sanskrit works Achyutabhyu- last king. Tirumala was the founder of Aravidu
dayam and Varadambikaparinayam describe kingdom. The attack of combined Muslim forces
the king’s life and rule in detail. from Bijapur led the Ram Raya to be dead at the
Throughout his rule, Achyuta Raya had to battle of Rakasa at Tangadi or Taikota in 1565
contend with the manipulations of Rama Raya and destructed the Vijaynagara kingdom.
who in his powerful capacity had replaced
many of the faithfull servants of the King- The Main Rulers of the Aravidu
dom in high-ranking positions with men of his
own favour. On more than one occasion, the Dynasty
Bahmani Sultans were brought in to play the The Aravidu Dynasty was the fourth and last
role of mediator between the king and Ailya Hindu dynasty that ruled Vijaynagara Empire
Rama Raya in the game of power sharing. This in South India. Its founder was Tirumala,
would further weaken the kingdom. In 1542, whose brother Rama Raya had been the mas-
Aliya Rama Raya imprisoned Achyuta Raya terful regent of the last ruler of the previous
in a coup and made Sadasiva Raya the new dynasty. Rama Raya’s death at the Battle
regent. Aliya Rama Raya became the de-facto of Rakasa-Tangadi (also known as the Bat-
king and let very little governance in the hands tle of Talikota) in 1565 led to the subsequent
of Sadasiva Raya. destruction of Vijaynagara by the combined
The Tiruvengalanatha Temple was built at forces of the Muslim states of Bijapur.
Vijaynagara during his reign. It has become
popularly known by his name as Achyutaraya Aliya Rama Raya or Rama Raya
Temple, rather than by the name of the deity (1542–1565 CE)
Lord Venkateshwara to whom the temple was He was popularly known as ‘#NK[Cŏ Rama
dedicated. Raya and was the progenitor of the ‘Aravidu’
dynasty of Vijaynagara Empire. This dynasty,
Sadashiva Raya (1542–1570) the fourth and last to hold sway over the
He belonged to the Bunt community and was Vijaynagara Empire, is often not counted as
a ruler of the Vijaynagara Empire, a powerful a ruling dynasty of that empire, for reasons
South Indian empire based in the Deccan in delineated below. Rama Raya patronized the
sixteenth-century India. When the Vijaynagara Sanskrit scholar Rama Amatya.
Tirumala Deva Raya (1565–1572 CE) In 1576, Ali Adil Shah laid siege to his
fort in Penukonda for 3 months, but at the end
He was the first crowned king of the Vijayna-
Sriranga I bought out the Adil Shah’s Hindu
gara Empire from the Aravidu Dynasty. He
lieutenants which helped his commanders
was the brother of the Aliya Rama Raya and
defeat the Sultan’s army.
son-in-law of Krishna Deva Raya.
In 1579, Sultan’s new commander Murari
When Rama Raya was killed in the
Rao, a Maratha Brahmin, launched a sudden
Talikonda battle in 1565, he immediately
plundering operation heading a large Muslim
emptied the treasury and fled the capital. He
army. His hordes began systematically ravag-
took with him the Royal family and the minor
ing the territory south of the River Krishna
crown prince Sadasiva Raya.
with great ferocity.
He, after a few years of hardships, reestab-
Chennappa Nayaka, a general of Recherla
lished the Vijaynagara rule in Penukonda, in
Velama dynasty, was sent to defeat the Gol-
present-day Andhra Pradesh. During this time,
konda raiders, but the magnitude of atrocities
the Southern Nayakas of Madurai and Gingee
committed by the invaders alerted Sriranga I
declared partial independence, while some oth-
who also hurried to parry the attack. Murari
ers rebelled over Tirumala Deva Raya’s authority.
Rao and his Golkonda raiders were defeated,
In 1567, he encountered another attack by
Murari Rao was pursued by Chennappa who
the Bijapur Sultan; this time the Sultan was
captured and imprisoned him in a cage. By
defeated, but also lost some territories. Tirumala
1580, Sriranga I turned the tide and started
Deva Raya later tactfully approved the new sta-
chasing the Golkonda army northwards recov-
tus of Southern Nayaks, who still paid some trib-
ering the territory they had seized. Sriranga
utes and held him as their emperor. Tanjore and
I generously spared the life of Murari Rao
Mysore rulers still paid the annual tributes while
because of his brahminical origins.
Madurai and Gingee rulers grudgingly followed.
Ibrahim Qutb Shah, the new Sultan, was
Tirumala Deva Raya also retained most of
furious and decided to settle the matters himself
the Vijaynagara territories and assumed the title
and invaded Kondavidu with the rest of his army
‘Reviver of the Decadent Karnataka Empire’.
and took the Udayagiri fort. Then, he launched
In 1570, he split the Viceroyalty among his
a massive raid on Udayagiri and slaughtered
three sons: Sriranga I in Penukonda in charge
the locals, but Sriranga I kept the fight on and
of Telugu country, Rama (father of Sriranga
repulsed Sultan’s army from Udayagiri after
II) in Sritrangapatna in charge of the Kannada
an initial retreat. Unfazed, Qutb Shah struck at
country and Venkatapathi (a.k.a. Venkata II) in
Vinukonda and seized the fort. Sriranga I, along
Chandragiri in charge of Tamil country. Penu-
with Chennappa and Kasturiranga, rushed to
konda was the capital of the empire. The king
Vinukonda, and after a fierce battle the Sultan’s
retired in 1572 after feeling too old to rule and
army was defeated and sent back. Later, Sri-
retired to a religious life of living till 1578.
ranga I’s troops, under Chennappa, stormed the
fort of Kondavidu while the later died fighting
Sriranga I/Sriranga Deva Raya
even as he forced the Sultans army to retreat.
(1572–1586 CE) Despite the loss of territories, which was
He was the king of Vijaynagara Empire from higher this time, Sriranga I also had a difficult
1572 to 1586. He carried the restoration of the time with his uncooperative brothers and
Vijaynagara Empire, but his reign was marred noble men and continued to resist with lim-
with repeated attacks and loss of territories ited resources as the Nayaks of Madurai and
from his Muslim neighbours. Gingee evaded on paying annual tributes.
2.42 Chapter 9
Sriranga I died in 1586, without a heir, and Sriranga III (1642–1646 CE)
was succeeded by his youngest brother Ven- He was the last ruler of the Vijaynagara
katapathi Raya (Venkata II). Empire, who came to power in 1642 following
the death of his uncle Venkata III. He was also
Venkata II/Venkatapati Deva Raya (1586– a great grandson of Aliya Rama Raya.
1614 CE)
He was the younger brother of Srirangal and Vijaynagara Empire
became the King of Vijaynagara Empire from
1586 to 1614. His reign of three decades saw He was the last ruler of the Vijaynagara
a revival of strength and prosperity of the Empire, who came to power in 1642 following
empire. He dealt successfully with the Deccan the death of his uncle Venkata III. He was also
sultans of Bijapur and Golkonda, the internal a great grandson of Aliya Rama Raya.
disorders, promoting economic revival in the
country. He brought rebelling Nayaks of Tamil Kings and Administration
Nadu and parts of present-day Andhra Pradesh
under control. In Vijaynagara, the king was the ultimate
authority and he was assisted by a cabinet
Sriranga II/Sriranga Chika Raya of pradhanas headed by a Mahapradhana.
(1614–1617 CE) The palace administration was divided into
72 departments, each of them having sev-
He was nominated in 1614 by King Venkata II to
eral female attendants who were trained to
succeed him as king of the Vijaynagara Empire
handle minor administrative matters. The
in Southern India. Sriranga was supported by
whole empire was divided into fi e main
a faction headed by Yachamanedu of Recherla
rajyas, each of which was further divided
Velama dynasty, one of the Venkata II’s loyal
into regions. The regions were divided into
viceroys and commanders, but was not favored
counties with the subdivision of munici-
by a set of nobles headed by Gobburi Jagga
palities. The capital city of this empire was
Raya, brother (or father) of Venkata II’s queen.
totally dependent upon the water supply sys-
Ramadeva/Vira Rama Deva Raya tem. Contemporary inscription of that time
brought the fact that huge tanks were con-
(1617–1632 CE) structed by the labours.
He ascended the throne after a gruesome war The administration under the Vijaynagara
in 1617 as the king of Vijaynagara Empire. Empire was well organized. The king enjoyed
In 1614, his father, Sriranga II, the preceding absolute authority in executive, judicial and
king, and his family were gruesomely mur- legislative matters. He was the highest court
dered by rival factions headed by Jagga Raya, of appeal. The succession to the throne was
who was one of their kins. Rama Deva him- on the principle of hereditary. Sometimes,
self was smuggled out of the prison by Yacha- usurpation to the throne took place as Saluva
manedu, a faithful commander and the viceroy Narasimha came to power by ending the
of earlier king Venkata II. Sangama dynasty. The king was assisted
by a council of ministers in his day-to-day
Venkata III/Peda Venkata Raya administration.
(1632–1642 CE) The empire was divided into different
He was the grandson of Aliya Rama Raya and administrative units called Mandalams, Nadus,
became the King of Vijaynagara Empire. sthalas and finally into gramas. The governor of
Sangama Dynasty Saluva Dynasty Tuluva Dynasty Aravidu Dynasty

Harihara Raya I 1336–1356 Saluva Tuluva Narasa Nayaka Aliya Rama Raya
Bukka Raya I 1356–1377 Narasimha 1491–1503 1542–1565
Harihara Raya II 1377–1404 Deva Raya Viranarasimha Raya Tirumala Deva Raya
Virupaksha Raya 1404–1405 1485–1491 1503–1509 1565–1572
Bukka Raya II 1405–1406 Thimma Krishna Deva Raya Sriranga I 1572–1586
Deva Raya I 1406–1422 Bhupala 1491 1509–1529 Venkata II 1586–1614
Ramachandra Raya 1422 Narasimha Achyuta Deva Raya Sriranga II
Vira Vijaya Bukka Raya Raya II 1529–1542 1614–1617
1422–1424 1491–1505 Sadashiva Raya Ramadeva
Deva Raya II 1424–1446 1542–1570 1617–1632
Mallikarjuna Raya Venkata III
1446–1465 1632–1642
Virupaksha Raya II Sriranga III
1465–1485 1642–1646
Praudha Raya 1485
Mandalam was called Mandaleswara or Nayak. devoted to military purposes. The organization
Vijaynagara rulers gave full powers to the local of this war-state was dominated by its military
authorities in the administration. Besides land needs. The nayakas i.e. warriors, great and
revenue, tributes and gifts from vassals and small, served as the key political figures in the
feudal chiefs, customs collected at the portsand Vijaynagara state. The nayankara system con-
taxes on various professions were other sources stitutes an important feature of the Vijaynagara
of income to the government. Land revenue was provincial organization. According to this sys-
fixed generally one-sixth of the produce. The tem, the king was considered to be the owner
expenditure of the government includes per- of the soil and he distributed the lands to his
sonal expenses of king and the charities given dependents. Those who held land from the
by him and military expenditure. In the matter king were called the nayakas. In return for the
of justice, harsh punishments such as mutila- land they received from the king, the nayakas
tion and throwing to elephants were followed. paid a fi ed annual financial contribution to
The Vijaynagara army was well-organized the imperial exchequer which was generally
and efficient. It consisted of the cavalry, infan- half of their revenue and maintained for the
try, artillery and elephants. High-breed horses king a sufficient number of troops and served
were procured from foreign traders. The top- him in his wars. The king fi ed the number of
grade officers of the army were known as Nay- troops and the amount of money each of these
aks or Poligars. They were granted land in lieu nayakas was to keep and pay. But indigenous
of their services. These lands were called ama- sources are not clear on tribute payments by
ram. Soldiers were usually paid in cash. the nayakas to the emperor. The nayakas were
also the guardians of the peace within their
Nayankara and Ayagar jurisdiction. They were held responsible for the
detection of crimes as well. They were bound
Systems to incur loss in their respective domains. They
The Vijaynagara Empire was the nearest were expected to give presents in the form of
approach to a war-state ever made by a Hindu money or jewels to the king on certain cere-
kingdom. The resources of the empire were monial occasions such as the birth of a child
2.44 Chapter 9
to the king, his birthday, etc., and on the new state as feudal, because the nayakas held lands
year’s day. According to Nuniz, the nobles sent on condition of offering military service. Yet
food to him every day to his house, namely, their relation to the king was not strictly feu-
rice, wheat, meat and fowls with all other nec- dal. The fiefs were not necessarily hereditary.
essary things. Failure to fulfil these obligations Sub-infeudation was very limited. Moreover,
led to confiscation of the estates and severe the nayakas paid a tribute to their superior and
punishments. Whatever it is, there is no doubt made occasional presents to him. But the more
that the nayakas, together with the system of prudent reading of the term nayaka is that of a
Vijaynagara fortifications, about which we generalized designation of a powerful warrior
shall study later, formed the means of control who at times was associated with the military
over the empire. The antecedents of the nayaka enterprises of the Vijaynagara kings, but who,
system may be found in the earlier politico- at all times, was a territorial magnate in his
military arrangements of the Hoysala kingdom own right. This is best borne out by Nilakanta
of the Karnataka and the Kakatiya kingdom of Sastri when he writes that the empire is best
Andhra. The nayakas enjoyed much freedom looked upon as a military confederation of
in their territority. The nayakaship, which was many chiefs.
in the initial stages personal, became heredi- The nayankara system helped to carry the
tary in course of time. The nayakas maintained torch of civilization into land covered with
two sets of officers at the imperial headquar- thick forests and rocky hills. Enterprising
ters. One of them appears to have been an nayakas occupied such regions and founded
officer in charge of the military of his lord sta- there cities and villages. They improved cul-
tioned at the capital. The other officer was the tivation by providing irrigation facilities. They
sthanapati or civil agent who represented the fostered everything good in Hindu culture and
interests of his master at the capital. civilization.
The tenure of the nayakas was more in the But the system had certain defects. The
nature of a military fief and it was known as independence the nayakas enjoyed within their
the amaram tenure. The term amaranayaka territories gave them opportunities for engag-
encapsulates the rights of the nayakas, for it ing themselves in local wars and mutual feuds.
signifies an office (kara) possessed by a mili- At times, they even defied the central authority
tary chief (nayaka) in command (amara) of a when it became weak. Further the chief nay-
body of troops. akas often distributed their lands among their
According to Fernao Nuniz, a Portuguese tenants in the same way as they themselves
horse trader who stayed in Vijaynagara for received them from the king and exacted trib-
several years during the 1530s, there were utes and military service from them to their
some 200 nayakas in the empire, and each own advantage. These petty chiefs were called
held land rights from the emperor who, palaiyagars in Tamil and Telugu areas. These
according to Nuniz, owned all land. The chiefs tended to be more loyal to their imme-
captains made them over to the husbandmen diate overlord than to the king. In spite of its
who paid nine-tenth to their lords. Scholars weakness, the nayankara system served its
estimated that, setting aside lands granted to purpose tolerably well.
Brahmanas and temples, lands were generally Besides the nayakas, the war-state of
reserved for royal purposes. About 71% of Vijaynagara produced another politico-mil-
the villages of the empire were under amaram itary change over its territory; its forts and
tenure. Basing largely on the strength of ama- Brahmana commanders. Amuktamalyada
ram tenure, some scholars regard Vijaynagara dwells much upon the relationship of forts,
Brahmanas and dispersed tribal groups. These from agricultural production, which were
three elements were given the highest state exempt from the customary dues on agricul-
attention, for through them Vijaynagara mili- tural income in lieu of direct payments for ser-
tary supremacy as well as its ability to draw vices. In rare cases, there were direct payments
fighting-men for its wars was maintained. for services; it used to be either payments in
Finally Brahmana-commanded fortresses were kind which were called danyadayawhile moni-
intended as an insurance against the creation of tory payments were known as swarnadaya or
anti-Vijaynagara coalitions of warriors within kasu kadamai. The ayagars were generally
the empire. The Brahmanas became the instru- appointed by the government. Once granted
ments for enhancing imperial control through to them, these ayagars had a hereditary right
the direct political function of Brahmanas as over their offices. The ayagars had the right to
durgadhipatis. sell or mortgage their offices. They had oner-
An important feature of the village orga- ous responsibilities within their locality. They
nization was the ayagar system. According were the guardians of the peace within their
to it, every village was a separate community jurisdiction. No transfer of property could be
or republic, and its affairs were conducted effected or grant made without their knowl-
by a body of 12 functionaries who were col- edge and consent. The ayagars were supervised
lectively called the ayagars. Col. Wilks’s list by a king’s officer called mahanayakacharya.
includes the goud or potail who was the judge
and magistrate; the karanam or shanbhog who
was the registrar; the taliary or sthulwar and
Economic Conditions
the toti who were generally the watchmen of According to Vijaynagara historians, three
the village and the crops; the neergrantee who major tenurial categories existed in Vijayna-
distributed the water of the streams or reser- gara times. These were amara, ghandaravada
voirs in just proportion to the several fields; the and manya. They refer to the manner in which
jotishee (astrologer) who performed the essen- the shares of income from villages were distrib-
tial service of announcing the seasons of seed uted. The smallest category was bhandaravada
time and harvest, and the imaginary benefit of or crown villages. A portion of income from
unfolding the lucky and unlucky days and hours these villages went to support Vijaynagara
for all the operations of farming; the smith and forts in various parts of the empire. A larger
carpenter who framed the instruments of hus- number of villages contributed a portion of
bandry and dwelling of the farmer; the potter their output to the support of Brahmanas, tem-
who fabricated the utensils of the village; the ples, mathas or manya villages. Special tenures
washerman who kept clean the garments; the for individual Brahmanas (ekabhogam) and
barber who contributed to the cleanliness and groups of Brahmanas continued to be granted
assisted in the toilet of the village and the gold- and protected as were grants to mathas, includ-
smith who manufactured ornaments. ing those to non-Brahmana Saiva Siddhanta
The ayagars received compensation of and Virasaiva gurus. There was one signif -
their labour either in allotments of land from cant change in the pattern of beneficial land
the corporate stock or in fees consisting of rights. This was the great increase in devadana
fixed proportions of crop of every farmer in grants. During the Vijaynagara period, temples
the village. The lands thus given were tax free. became major landholding and land-managing
Hence, they were called manyams. The rights institutions and larger temples held hundreds
to income shares were known as umbali, kod- of villages that had been granted to the gods
age and strotriya. They refer to rights of income they sheltered. This is to say that temples
2.46 Chapter 9
enjoyed a major portion (melvaram in Tamil guilds played a vital role in the economic life
portion) of the income of these villages. Spe- of the people.
cial officers of the temples oversaw the man- According to Razzaq, there were 300
agement of devadana villages to assure that ports in the country of Vijaynagara. Calicut
the income endowed by the grant of rights in (Kozhikode) was an important port on the west
a village was applied to its specific purpose. coast. From this port, merchant ships fanned
The largest portion of villages falls within the out to Burma, Malaya, China, Persia, Abys-
category of amara villages. The amaram tenu- sinia, Arabia, South Africa and Portugal. Con-
rial category is treated as a residual category, siderable number of Muslims were permanent
referring to how the income of some villages residents there and had built two mosques.
was distributed after specific reductions for Barbosa says that natives of diverse lands such
other purposes (e.g. support of forts) had been as Arabs, Persians, Khorasanians, etc., settled
made. The claim upon village income by those there and that the Moors had a governor of
with local political authority was a limited their own who ruled and punished them with-
claim. This is evident from the term amarama- out reference to the king, except that he was
kani, a term that is interpreted by most histo- obliged to account for certain matters to the
rians to mean an estate or a fief. But literally it king. Abdur Razzaq mentions that officers of
means one-sixteenth share (makani) to those the custom house looked after the merchandise
with local political authority (amara). and levy of duty of one-fortieth on sales, no
An increasingly important category of charge being made on unsold articles. At Can-
income share in the land was that which was nanore, horses from Persia disembarked. Cae-
produced by an investment in irrigation. In sar Frederick found much silk imported into
Tamil portion and in Andhra, the tenurial form Cochin from China and sugar from Bengal.
from such investment was called dasavanda and The chief exports of the kingdom were
in Karnataka the term was kattu-kodage. These cloth, rice, iron, saltpetre, sugar, tamarind,
terms refer to special, private rights, in the form precious stones, seed-pearls, musk, myroba-
of income share, derived from the increased pro- lan, ambergris, aloes, porcelain and spices and
ductivity yielded by an investment in existing the imports which were loaded at Juda were
agricultural villages. This form of development horses, copper, coral, mercury, China-silk, ver-
investment was undertaken by individuals of milion, saffron, coloured velvets, rose-water,
means and local prominence such as amaranay- knives, coloured camlets, gold and silver.
akas in return for which they secured income Temples’’records of the Vijaynagara period
rights to a portion of the enhanced productivity register the growing wealth and prestige of
as personal and transferable property. Under merchant and artisan groups. The usual mode
these arrangements, it was usually stipulated of commercial transport continued to be by
that a share of increased product from the con- pack-oxen. Carts are infrequently mentioned.
struction of a tank or channel was to go to the Riverine shipping is also mentioned, especially
cultivators of the village in which the construc- the backwater system on the west coast. Long-
tion was carried out and a smaller share was distance transport by pack animals in some
to be granted to the persons who financed or places continued to require armed convoys.
otherwise executed the construction. The major However, the conditions of trade—both local
industries that flourished were textiles, mining and long distance—had obviously improved
and metallurgy. Among the minor industries, over those of earlier times. This improvement
the most important was perfumery. As in the reflected the appreciation for the need of and
past, the craftsmen’s guilds and the merchants’ the benefits from trade by the Vijaynagara
rulers themselves as well as by the local mag- a new governor’s country meant new coins,
nates. There could not have been vigorous ‘so that the monev we took this day would not
town-based trade and periodic fairs without serve the next’. Prices of articles were low.
the active participation of the local magnates. From the accounts of the foreigners, we under-
Inscriptions show that fairs augmented urban stand that the standard of living was very high
trade. Regular and periodic fairs were estab- among the rich but the common people suf-
lished on the main road to great temples during fered on account of heavy taxation.
festival times. Regular fairs were managed by The vigour of town life was one of the strik-
trade associations of nearby towns and under ing things about Vijaynagara society. Towns
the direction of the leader of the association, and cities became more fully integrated within
often called pattanaswami. Fairs were also con- the context of South Indian life than they had
vened on orders from local magnates such as ever before been. Changes in the bases of local
a gaunda or a chief of a nadu or a mahaman- chieftainship from that of spokesman (nattar),
dalesvara. then leader of the dominant landed group of
There were several varieties of coins in use. a locality, to the relatively more independant
The coins bore on them the figures of gods and nayaka led to the centralization of administra-
animals. Coinage was once again a monopoly tive functions in fortified urban places. Towns
of the central power in Vijaynagara times. became the primary focus of learning, ritual
Abdur Razzak writes about the royal mint. He and the arts.
says: ‘In this country they have three kinds
of money: made of gold, mixed with alloys;
one called varaha weighs about one mithkal, Social Life
equivalent to two dinars, kopeki; the second, Allasani Peddanna in his Manucharitam
which is called pertab, is half of the first; the refers to the existence of four castes—Brah-
third called fanom, is equivalent in value to mins, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and Sudras—in
the tenth part of the last mentioned coin. Of the Vijaynagara society. Foreign travelers left
these different coins, the fanom is the most vivid accounts on the splendour of buildings
useful. They cast in pure silver a coin which and luxurious social life in the city of Vijayna-
is the sixth of the fanom which they call tar. gara. Silk and cotton clothes were mainly used
The latter is very useful coin in currency. A for dress. Perfumes, fl wers and ornaments
copper coin worth the third of a tar is called were used by the people. Paes mentions of the
djitel. According to the practice adopted in this beautiful houses of the rich and the large num-
empire, all the provinces, at a fixed period, ber of their household servants. Nicolo Conti
bring their gold to the mint’. Varthema writes refers to the prevalence of slavery. Dancing,
about other relations among smaller currency music, wrestling, gambling and cock-fighting
units. He says that 16 tars went to the fanom were some of the amusements.
and 16 cas to the tar, though he counted 20 The Sangama rulers were chiefly Saivaites
fanoms to the pagoda (pardao, varaha) all and Virupaksha was their family deity. But
right. Duarte Barbosa pays high compliment to other dynasties were Vaishnavites. Srivaish-
the integrity of Vijaynagara currency and goes navism of Ramanuja was very popular. But
on record that ‘coins of this place arc perfectly all kings were tolerant towards other reli-
genuine, not one of them has ever been found gions. Borbosa referred to the religious free-
false, nor is now so found’. But the multiplic- dom enjoyed by everyone. Muslims were
ity of currencies which caused inconvenience employed in the administration, and they were
persisted, making Caesar Frederick write that freely allowed to build mosques and worship.
2.48 Chapter 9
A large number of temples were built during The Vijayaanagara rulers were patrons of
this period and numerous festivals were cel- literature. Sayana wrote his famous commen-
ebrated. The Epics and the Puranas were popu- taries on the Vedas. Bhoganatha compiled a
lar among the masses. list of great grammatical rules. The reign of
The position of women had not improved. Krishnadeva Raya marked ‘the dawn of the
However, some of them were learned. new era in the literary history of the Telugu
Gangadevi, wife of Kumarakampana, authored Literature’ and is usually designated as the
the famous work Maduravijayam. Hannamma Golden or Augustan Age of Telugu Literature.
and Thirumalamma were famous poets of this Krishnadeva Raya himself was the author of
period. According to Nuniz, a large number three noted works—Amuktamalyada (or Vish-
of women were employed in royal palaces nuchittiya) in Telugu and Jambavatikalyana
as dancers, domestic servants and palanquin and Ushaparinayam in Sanskrit. It is commonly
bearers. The attachment of dancing girls to believed that his court was adorned by eight
temples was in practice. Paes refers to the great poets called the ashtadiggajas. Allasani
flourishing devadasi system. Polygamy was Peddana was the chief court poet. His mas-
prevalent among the royal families. Sati was terpiece, Manucarita, has inspired hundreds
honoured and Nuniz gives a description of it. of Telugu poets and has become ‘the touch-
stone of all poetry since his time’ and hence
he is referred to as Andhrakavitapitamaha or
Architecture and Literature ‘Grandfather of Telugu Poetry’. Krishnadeva
The Vijaynagara rulers produced a new Raya was deeply attached to the poet to whom
style of architecture called Provida style. a nayankara (fief) was given, besides the high-
The large number and prominence of pillars est academic honours and rewards.
and piers are some of their distinct features. Vyasaraya wrote Nvayamrita. His famous
Horse was the most common animal on the disciples were Purandara Dasa, who shaped the
pillars. Another important feature was the tradition of Carnatic music by his composition,
Mandapa or open pavilion with a raised plat- and the poet, Vadiraja. Lolla Lakshmidhara
form, meant for seating deities. The entire site was the author of Sarasvativilasa, a legal work
during the Vijaynagara period was designed of great standing. Bhimkavi, a Virasaiva, com-
on the basis of Town Planning principles of posed the Basavapurana in Kannada in which
spatial hierarchy. The Royal center, Noble- the founder of Virasaivam or Lingayatism is
men quarters, sacred center, ceremonial areas regarded as an incarnation of Nandi, Siva’s
like Mahanavami Dibba, Central avenues and Bull. He used Somanatha’s Basava-purana in
Bazaars gave different identity to various Telugu for this purpose. The Tamil authors,
spatial zones. Arunagirinathar and Kalamegham, were
Important temples were Vithalswami and patronised by Devaraya II and Saluva Thirum-
Hazara temples at Hampi, Tadapatri and Par- alairaja, a provincial governor, respectively.
vati temples at Chidambaram and Varadraja
and Ekambarnatha temples at Kanchipuram.
The Vijaynagara rulers inscribed the stories Bahmani Kingdom
of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata on the The political developments of the Bahmani
walls of the various temples. Hazara temple kingdom can be divided into two phases:
and Vithalswami temples are examples of this In the first phase (1347–1422), the centre of
type of wall inscription. activities was Gulbarga while in the second
phase (1422–1538) the capital shifted to Bidar, enormous wealth of the nobility and the grind-
which was more centrally located and was ing poverty of the rural population.
more fecund in terms of land productivity. The The most important personality of this
phase was replete with conflicts between the Bidar period of the Bahmani Sultanate was
Afaqis and the Dakhnis. Mahmud Gawan, who served several sultans as
The rulers of Vijaynagara had established prime minister and then as General from 1461
their empire at almost the same time as Bah- to 1481. It is mainly under Alauddin Huma-
man Shah had founded his sultanate; they now yun Shah’s reign (1458–1461) that Mahmud
emerged as his most formidable enemies. The Gawan rose to prominence and power. He
Bahmani sultans were as cruel and as unscru- reconquered Goa, which had been captured
pulous as the Delhi Sultans were, at least by the rulers of Vijaynagara. The Sultanate
according to what contemporary chronicles then extended from coast to coast. Gawan also
say. Bahman Shah’s successor, Muhammad introduced remarkable administrative reforms
Shah (1358–1373), killed about half a million and controlled many districts directly. State
people in his incessant campaigns until he and finance was thus much improved. But all of
his adversaries came to some agreement to this ended with his execution on false charges
spare prisoners-of-war as well as the civilian of court intrigue. After realizing his mistake,
population. Despite their many wars, Sultan the sultan drank himself to death within a year,
Muhammad Shah and his successors could thus marking the beginning of the end of the
not expand the sultanate very much: they just Bahmani Sultanate.
about managed to maintain the status quo. The reforms of Mahmud Gawan were aimed
Around 1400, the rulers of Vijaynagara, in a at curbing the power of the tarafdars. They were
bid to check the Sultan’s expansionist policy in in charge of the military administration of the
good old Rajamandala style, even established province and were entrusted with the task of
an alliance with the sultans of Gujarat and mobilizing troops and appointing able com-
Malwa. But in 1425, the Bahmani Sultan laid manders who were placed in charge of garri-
seige to Warangal and thus reached the east sons and forts. Mahmud Gawan attempted to
coast. However, only a few years later, the new restrict their authority by bringing most of the
Suryavamsha dynasty of Orissa challenged the forts and their commanders under his direct
sultanate and contributed to its downfall. control. The jurisdiction of the tarafdars was
In the fifteenth century, the capital of the now restricted to only one fort in the prov-
Bahmani sultanate was moved from Gulbarga ince. These were also meant to bring the rev-
to Bidar. The new capital, Bidar, was located enue resources assigned to commanders under
at a much higher level than Gulbarga was and the direct scrutiny of the central government.
had much better weather conditions. How- Mahmud Gawan was also responsible for
ever, it was also nearly 100 miles further to adopting revenue assignment on the basis of
the north-east and thus much closer to Waran- measurement of land. The policy of accommo-
gal. Bidar soon was as impressive a capital as dation and equilibrium is reflected in Mahmud
Gulbarga had been. Nikitin, a Russian traveller Gawan’s efforts to induct an equal number of
who spent 4 years in the sultanate, from 1470 old comer Abyssinians and Dakhnis. The new-
to about 1474, has left us a with a report that is comers (Afaqis) included Iranian, Circasian
now considered to be one of the most important and Central Asian immigrants. Sarlashkar
European accounts of life in medieval India. was appointed from amongst both the groups,
He highlighted the great contrast between the i.e. Dakhnis and Afaqis. He made Fathullah
2.50 Chapter 9
Imdaulmulk and Malik Hasan Nizamulmulk of the army), Barbek (king’s private secretary)
(Dakhnis) the sarlashkars of Mahur and and Hajib-i-Khas (Lord chamberlain). In due
Gulbarga respectively. Yusuf Adil Khan cafaqi course of time, many other offices were cre-
was made the sarlashkar of Daulatabad and ated, and an elaborate administrative system
Prince Alam Khan was made the sarlashkar of came into existence. Muhammad I is credited
Warrangal and Fakhrul-mulk Gilani (Dakhni) with organizing the administrative and insti-
was made the Sarlashkar of Junnar. Mahmud tutional structures of the time. Under him,
Gawan’s reforms did not find favour with the the kingdom was partitioned into four tarafs
nobility, and after his death conflicts amongst or provinces which had their headquarters at
nobles acquired a new dimension and were Daulatabad, Berar, Bidar and Gulbarga. Each
no longer based on racial considerations. The was placed under the charge of a governor. The
conflict was now purely based on the desire nomenclature for governors varied for differ-
to seize power by whatever means came to ent provinces. For example, he was known as
hand. The various factions at the Sultan’s court Musnad-i-Ali in Daulatabad, Majlis-i-Ali in
started a struggle for power that was to end Berar, Azam-i-Humayun in Bidar and Malik
only with the dynasty itself. Indigenous Mus- Naib in Gulbarga.
lim courtiers and Generals were ranged against Under Shihabuddin Ahmad I (1422–1436),
the ‘alien’ Arabs, and the Turks and Persians. the capital of the Bahmani kingdom was
Mahmud Shah, the last Sultan (1482–1518), shifted from Gulbarga to Bidar. The Bidar
could do little to save this once powerful but period of Bahmani rule witnessed the weak-
now tottering Sultanate. ening influence of the Tughluqs and the com-
ing into being of the law of primogenture. His
predecessor Firuz is credited with promoting
Administration the cause of the Afaqis, who, in effect, were
The Bahmanis seem to have imitated the the nobles who had come to India from Persia,
administrative structure of the Delhi Sultans. Iraq and Arabia. The reign of Tajudding Firuz
The king stood at the apex of the administra- (1397–1422) is particularly important for the
tive system. He was assisted by a number of induction of Brahmins into the administra-
officials for discharging his duties, e.g. Wakil tive system. He also entered into matrimonial
(Prime Minister), Wazir (Minister), Dabir alliances with Hindu women. The rest of the
(Secretary), Sarhaddar (Warden of Marches), nobility, which came from north India, was
Qiladar (Commander of Fortresses), Bakshi called the Dakhnis. The influence of newcom-
(paymaster), Qazi (Judge), Mufti (interpreter ers increased in the administration of the Bah-
of law), Kotwal (police), Muhtasib (censor mani kingdom. During the reign of Ahmad I
of public morals) etc. These offices bear a (1422–1436), Khalaf Hasan Basri was made
remarkable resemblance to the administrative Wahi-i-Sultanate Mutlaq (Prime Minister)
structure of the Delhi Sultanate. Several other and was bestowed the title of Malik-ut-Tui-
officers are also mentioned in this period viz. jar (Prince of Merchants). He also inducted
Barhak (king’s private secretary), Hcijib-i- archers into Bahmani army. These archers
khas (Lord Chamberlain), Sarpardar (Master came from Iraq, Khurasan, Transoxiana, Tur-
of Ceremonies) etc. The new ministers and key and Arabia. The Dakhanis were rather
officials in the period of Alauddin Hasan Bah- envious of the importance accorded to the
man Shah were Wakil-i-Mutlaq (Prime Min- Afaqis, and this discontent and resentment led
ister), Amir-ul- Umara (Commander in Chief to eventual factionalism and instability.
Economy and Society August AD 1347, he was acclaimed by his col-

leagues as their king and took the title of Abul
In the Bahmani kingdom, trade and commerce Muzaffar Alau’ddin Bahman Shah. Thus was
was in a flourishing state. Nikitin, the Russian founded the Bahmani dynasty that ruled the
traveller, who was in Deccan during 1469– Deccan with varying fortunes till AD 1538.
1474, provides us with ample information Sometime after his coronation, Alau’ddin
regarding the commercial activities of Bidar. Bahman Shah selected Gulbarga as his capital.
He says that horses, cloth, silk and pepper The city enjoyed that dignity till about AD 1424,
were the chief merchandise. Nikitin mentions when Ahmad Shah Wali (AD 1422–1436)
the Bahmani seaport Mustafabad-Dabul as a shifted the capital to Bidar which was geo-
centre of commercial activity. Dabul was well- graphically more suited to the needs of an
connected with Indian as well as with African expanding dominion and climatically a far
ports. Horses were imported from Arabia, more agreeable place than Gulbarga.
Khurasan and Turkestaan. Trade and commerce Bahman Shah’s new kingdom had two Hindu
was mostly controlled by Hindu merchants. neighbours which, like itself, had emerged on
The social structure of the Bahmanis was the break-up of the Tughlaq Empire. One was
cosmopolitan in character. There were Mus- Warangal under Kapaya Nayaka, a member
lims, Hindus, Iranians, Transoxonians, Iraqis of the Kakatiya aristocracy, on the south and
and Abyssinians. The Portuguese came during south-east; and the other Vijaynagara, on the
the early sixteenth century. Further evidence of south and south-west. The Bahmani king was
heterogeneity can be observed in the linguistic determined to extend in the south, upto Madura,
pattern. the limit of the Tughlaq empire, and the Hindu
kings were determined to prevent this advance.
Moreover, to the south of the Tungabhadra lay
Independent Kings the diamond mines in Vijaynagara territory.
The first king of independent Deccan was This explains the chronic warfare so charac-
a senior Amir of Devagiri, Ismail Mukh by teristic of the relations between these states.
name, who was proclaimed as Abul Fath Warangal was finally annexed to the Bahmani
Nasiruddin Ismail Shah. Hasan Gangu, the kingdom in AD 1425 by Ahmad Shah Wali
ablest of the new Sultan’s followers, was Bahmani. The kingdom of Orissa now ordered
given the title of Zafar Khan, and it was he the Bahmani territory in the east, and in the
who final y negated the strenuous attempts clashes that ensued, the Bahmanis succeeded
made by Muhammad Tughlaq to reconquer in pushing their frontiers up to Rajahmundry
the Deccan. Nasiru’ddin Ismail Shah, seeing and the Bay of Bengal. But the Bahmani Sul-
the rising prestige of Hasan and feeling that tans were unable to vanquish Vijaynagara, a
the kingship of the Deccan would be more task that was completed at last in AD 1565 by
worthily held by him, assembled together all the combined action of the Muslim states of the
the Amirs at Daulatabad and proposed that Deccan that arose on the decline of the Bah-
he would relinquish the throne in favour of mani kingdom.
Zafar Khan. It was Zafar Khan who had suc- In the north, Bahmani boundaries ran along
ceeded in defeating the imperial troops more those of Gujarat and Khandesh, touched Malwa
than once and in forcing their ultimate with- north of Ellichpur and Gawilgarh and met the
drawal from the Deccan. Further, his claim of Hindu principality of Kherla on the north-
descent from the hero Bahman, son of Isfandi- east. Relations between these northern neigh-
yar, surrounded him with a halo of royalty. In bours and the Bahmani kingdom were mainly
2.52 Chapter 9
peaceful, though a few skirmishes took place, into four divisions called tarafs, each under
with each of them during the fifteenth cen- the charge of a governor called Tarafdar. He
tury. The most serious encounter with Malwa also made it a practice to tour one taraf every
occurred in AD 1462 when Mahmud Khalji, year accompanied by its Tarafdar. This showed
in alliance with Kapilendra of Orissa, marched good results in maintaining law and order.
to Bidar, the Bahmani capital, and occupied it
for a short time. Mahmud Begara of Gujarat, Muhammad Shah II (AD 1378–1397)
however, came to help Nizamu’d-din Ahmad
After the brief reigns of Mujahid Shah (AD
(AD 1461–1463), the Bahmani Sultan, and the
1375–1378) and Daud I (AD 1378), Muham-
intruders were driven out.
mad Shah II (AD 1378–1397), a nephew of
Muhammad Shah I, ascended the throne.
Ala-ud-Din-Hasan (AD 1347–1358) The next ruler was Muhammad Shah II. He
Ala-ud-Din Bahman Shah’s main task was was a man of peace. He spent all his time in
to consolidate his kingdom by imposing his the pursuit of literature and science. He built
sovereignty over the many dissident ele- mosques. He set up monasteries and public
ments that had grown up in the Deccan dur- schools. Many learned men came to his court
ing the upheaval preceding his elevation to the from all parts of Asia. In his time, a famine
throne. The chieftains of Kandahar and Kota- broke out, and he employed 10,000 bullocks to
gir, of Akalkot and Jamkhandi, Kalyana and bring grains from Malwa and Gujarat to meet
Malkhed, Sagar and Mudhol were subdued, the situation. He died in April 1397.
and the ports of Northern Konkan like Dab-
hol and Chaul and the passes leading to them Firuz Shah (AD 1397–1422)
were securely brought under Bahmani control.
Muhammad II died in April AD 1397, and the
Southern Konkan remained under Vijaynagara
next six months witnessed the reigns of the two
occupation for a long time, and many small
kings Ghiyasud-din Tahmtan and Shamsu’d-
chieftains flourished in the hilly parts of the
din Daud, both of whom fell victims to pal-
coastal region owing at times only a nominal
ace intrigue. But the accession of Firuz Shah
allegiance to the Bahmani throne. This region,
in November, AD 1397, put a timely check on
including Goa, was final y annexed to the
the dissident elements and secured internal
Bahmani kingdom by the famous Wazir Mah-
order and peace. The long reign of Firuz Shah
mud Gawan in about 1472 AD.
Bahmani (AD 1397–1422) brought prosperity
The Bahmani dominion was divided into
to the kingdom. Firuz Shah gave encourage-
four Tarafs or provinces namely Gulbarga,
ment to astronomy and was also an accom-
Daulatabad, Berar and Bihar. The Bahmani
plished linguist and a good calligrapher. Firuz
administration in the initial stages functioned
went to war against Vijaynagara on three occa-
very much on Tughlaq lines. Bahman Shah cre-
sions and lost the Raichur Doab to the Hindus
ated a new aristocracy by bestowing titles and
in AD 1419. The last years of his reign were
jagirs on his followers, and he also created offi-
marred by a quarrel with Gesu Daraz, the saint
cers or ministers as circumstances demanded.
of Gulbarga. This resulted in the Sultan los-
ing his hold over the army and some members
Muhammad Shah I (AD 1358–1375) of his aristocracy, and he very wisely abdi-
Muhammad Shah I, the son and successor of cated on September 22, AD 1422, in favour
the first Bahmani Sultan, carried out many of his brother, Ahmad, who is famous in Dec-
administrative reforms. He split the kingdom can history as Ahmad Shah Wali. Soon after
relinquishing the throne, Firuz Shah Bahmani Nizam Shah (AD 1461–1463)
passed away on October 2, AD 1422.
Humayun was succeeded by his son Nizam
Shah. As he was a minor, the work of the
Ahmad Shah Wali (AD 1422–1436) administration was carried on by his mother
Ahmad Shah Wali ruled from 1422 to 1436. Makhdumah Jahan with the help of Khwaja
He shifted the Bahmani capital from Gulbarga Jahan and Mahmud Gawan. The rulers of
to Bidar sometime about AD 1424. A fine and Orissa and Telingana attacked the Bahmani
great city with many majestic buildings, pal- Empire, but they were defeated. Mahmud
aces and mosques grew up here in course of Shah Khalji of Malwa attacked the Bahmani
time. kingdom and besieged Bidar. The armies of the
Ahmad Shah waged a successful war Bahmani kingdom were defeated. However, a
against Vijaynagara. Ultimately Deva Raya, request was made to the ruler of Gujarat for
king of Vijaynagara, was forced to make peace. help, and when that came the ruler of Malwa
In 1425, the Sultan declared war upon had to retire. Another attempt was made by
Warangal. The Hindus were defeated and their the ruler of Malwa in 1462 but that also failed.
chief was killed. The independence of Waran- Nizam Shah was succeeded by his brother who
gal was extinguished. Ahmad Shah also fought took up the title of Muhammad Shah III.
against Malwa and the neighbouring states. He
also fought against Konkan. The last expedition Muhammad Shah III (AD 1463–1482)
was against Telingana. He died in AD 1436.
Ahmad Shah was a tyrant. He was a fanati- At the time of his accession, Muhammad
cal Muslim. He forgot the sufferings of the was only 9. As Khwaja Jahan, the Wazir, of
Hindus in the zeal for Islam. Muhammad was murdered by one of the nobles
of the court, the place of Khwaja Jahan was
Ala-ud-Din II (AD 1436–1458) taken by Mahmud Gawan who was also given
the title of Khwaja Jahan. Gawan extended the
Ahmad Shah was succeeded by his son Ala-ud- territory of the Bahmani kingdom to an extent
din II who ruled from AD 1436 to 1458. He had never reached before.
to suppress a rebellion headed by his brother In 1478, Muhammad Shah III invaded and
Muhammad who was pardoned and given the devasted Orissa. In 1481, Kanchi or Conjee-
government of the Raichur Doab. He remained varam was attacked. The fort was captured by
faithful to Ala-ud-Din for the rest of his life. a determined assault, and immense booty fell
He reduced to submission the Hindu chiefs into the hands of the victors who levelled the
of Konkan. About the year AD 1442, there city and its temples with the ground and over-
was an attack by Deva Raya on the Bahmani threw all the symbols of infidelity.
kingdom. There was no decisive battle, and While the military record of Muhammad
sometimes the Hindus were successful and Shah III is one of triumph, the Sultan himself
sometimes the Muslims. Ultimately, peace was became mentally unbalanced on account of his
concluded and Deva Raya agreed to pay the habit of drinking hard. In 1481, he committed a
stipulated tribute. blunder by getting Mahmud Gawan murdered.
Humayun (AD 1458–1461)
Ala-ud-Din II was succeeded by his son Hum- Mahmud Gawan
ayun who ruled from 1458 to 1461. He was so Mahmud Gawan was, by common consent, the
cruel that he got the title of Zalim or the tyrant. greatest of the Mohammadan administrators
2.54 Chapter 9
of the Deccan. He was a native of Qawan or The activities of the sultans were in accord-
Gawan in Iran. His ancestors were the Wazir of ance with the spirit of the times when Persian
Shah Gilan. At the age of 45, Mahmud Gawan culture was being transported into the Deccan
went to the Deccan for trade. AJa-ud-Din II transforming the identity of the region; but
made him an Amir of his court. His son Hum- this does not mean that there were no reli-
ayun conferred upon him the title of Malik- gious, ethnic or regional conflicts. There were
ul-Tujjar. After the murder of Khwaja Jahan, struggles between the Afaqis and the Dakh-
Muhammad Shah III made Mahmud Gawan nis to gain an upper hand over each other and
the chief authority in the State. acquire good positions at the court. There were
Mahmud Gawan was a great administrator. also rulers of one faith sitting in the seats of
He reorganized the military department of the power and getting a hold over a whole range
State and gave the entire control into the hands of areas of public life. But in spite of all this,
of the Sultan in order to weaken the position the one overriding factor was that Deccani
of the nobles. society in Bahmani and post-Bahmani times
Mahmud Gawan so completely enjoyed sustained beyond the Hindu–Muslim, northern
the confidence of the Sultan that he was able India-Deccan and Shia-Sunni divides, leading
to carry out his reforms with success without to the integration and acceptance of the native
joining one party or the other. However, his Hindus, northern Indian Muslims and Afaqis
success aroused jealousy of the Deccanis, and into the plural society of the Deccan.
through a conspiracy they succeeded in hav- The Bahmani kingdom was officially a
ing Mahmud Gawan executed by the Sultan. Sunni state, but Shiism and Sufism were
Muhammad Shah also died within a year of practiced abundantly. Firuz Shah and Ahmad
the murder of Gawan. The murder of Gawan Shah I showed inclination towards Shiism, and
at the age of 78 was a calamity and that accel- Mahmud Gawan being a Persian was himself
erated the downfall of the Bahmani kingdom. a Shia. The reaction that set in after Gawans
Mahmud Gawan carried out many internal murder fanned the progress of Shiism in the
reforms also. He subdivided each of the four Deccan at the hands of Yusuf Adil Shah (the
divisions (taraf) of the kingdom into two and governor of Bijapur who was almost like the
formed regulations that curtailed the power adopted son of Mahmud Gawan). Yusuf Adil
of the Tarafdars. Efforts were made to mea- Shah declared Shiism as his faith in the June
sure land and to fix the amount to be paid by of 1503 CE. Even Shihab-uddin Mahmud is
the cultivator to the state. He was also a great said to have cried out for help, to none other
patron of arts, and he built a magnificent than Hazrat Ali, the fourth Caliph, when he
madarasa or college in the Bidar. was overwhelmed by defeat and hopelessness.
During Firuz Shah Bahmanis time, a num-
ber of high offices were given to the Hindus,
Religion and Culture many of whom were brahmans. It was Firuz’s
Islam existed in all forms together with Hin- piety that had made Hazrat Gesu Daraz settle
duism in Bahmani society. The atmosphere in the Bahmani capital. Sufism as a movement
created was such that it led to the evolution had taken root by now in many parts of India.
of a liberal and open-minded approach based Some Sufi saints had even settled in the Dec-
on sharing and adoption of mutual traditions can long before the first Khilji incursion. The
and customs. In such a liberal atmosphere, beginning of the fourteenth century witnessed
the rigorous and efficient administration did the popularity of a large number of such saints
not allow inter-religious conflicts to escalate. and holy men who were mystics of various Sufi
orders. Their dargahs had become religious dynasty, and he ruled from 1579 to 1625.
centres attracting large followings. The tomb Bijapur was annexed to the Mughal empire
of Sirajuddin Junaidi who had died at Gulbarga by Aurangzeb in 1686.
in 1379 CE had become a centre of urs soon (b) 0K\COUJCJK MKPIFQO QH#JOCFPCICT
after his death. Similarly, the dargah of Makh- It was founded by Malik Ahmad. Malik
doom Shaikh Alauddin Ansari at Aland near Ahmed declared himself independent in
Gulbarga had grown into a sacred shrine soon 1490. He founded the city of Ahmadnagar
after the Shaikhs death, and the annual urs held and made it his capital. In 1499, he cap-
around it attracted large number of devotees. tured Daulatabad. He was succeeded by
his son Burhan-i-Nizam Shah in 1508.
Husain Shah was the third ruler of the
Disintegration of Bahmani dynasty. In 1565, he joined the Muslim
Kingdom confederacy against Vijaynagara. The
other rulers of this kingdom were weak.
Muhammad Shah III (AD 1482–1518) was
In 1600, Ahmadnagar was defeated by
succeeded by his son Mahmud Shah. He was a
Akbar. However, it was annexed to the
minor when he became king. He was imbecile
Mughal Empire in 1636.
after becoming an adult. He spend all his time
(c) +OCFUJCJK MKPIFQO QH $GTCT It was
in the company of buffoons and fiddlers who
founded by Fateh Ullah Imad Shah. He
floc ed to his court from all quarters. He and
became independent in 1490. It was con-
his four successors were mere puppets in the
quered and annexed by Ahmadnagar in 1574.
hands of Qasim Barid-ul-Mamalik, and after
(d) 3WVWDUJCJK MKPIFQO QH )QNEWPFC It
his death, in those of his son Amir Ali Barid,
was founded by Qutub Shah who was a
‘the fox of the Deccan’. The last ruler of the
Turkish officer of the Bahmani kingdom.
Bahmani kingdom was Kalim Ullah Shah, and
He declared himself independent in 1512
he came to the throne in 1524. He died in 1527,
or 1518. He ruled up to 1543. Qutub Shah
and with him came the end of the Bahmani
was succeeded by his son Jamshid. The
kingdom after its existence of about 180 years.
name of the third ruler was Ibrahim. It was
After the breakup of the Bahmani kingdom,
during his reign that Golcunda came into
the following five separate states of Muslims
conflict with Vijaynagara. It was annexed
came into existence:
to the Mughal Empire by Aurangzeb in
(a) #FKNUJCJK MKPIFQO QH $KLCRWT It was 1687.
founded by Yusuf Adil Shah. He made (e) $CTKFUJCJK MKPIFQO QH $KFCT It was
himself an independent king of Bijapur in founded by Amir Ali Barid in 1526 or
1489–1490. Ibrahim Adil Shah II was the 1527. In 1618–1619, Bidar was annexed
greatest of all the kings of the Adilshahi by Bijapur.
Exercise
Who established Vijaynagara empire? Like Harihar and Bukka, another ruler of
(a) Hari Hara and Bukka Vijaynagara jointly ruled with other ruler.
(b) Krishnadevaraya Who was he?
(c) Saluva Narasimha (a) Vijay Raya
(d) Sadasivaraya (b) Devraya III
2.56 Chapter 9
(c) Krishnadev Raya A B C D

(d) Narsingh (a) 2 4 2 1
Vijaynagara Empire was established in (b) 3 2 4 1
(a) 1307 (b) 1318 (c) 1 2 3 4
(c) 1336 (d) 1348 (d) 4 3 2 1
The date of Harihara’s coronation is Hari Hara and Bukka belong to the
(a) 1335 (b) 1336 dynasty of
(c) 1337 (d) 1338 (a) Saluva
(b) Tuluva
Who was the first king of Aravidu
(c) Araviti
dynasty?
(d) Sangama
(a) Achuta Raya
(b) Devaraya II Nicolo Conti, an Italian traveller, and
(c) Sri Krishnadevaraya Abdur Razzaq, an envoy from Persia,
(d) Tirumala Raya visited Vijaynagara in _____ and ____
respectively.
Who was the Delhi Sultan at the time of (a) 1420, 1443
establishment of Vijaynagara Empire? (b) 1422, 1424
(a) Feroz Shah Tughluq (c) 1424, 1426
(b) Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq (d) 1419, 1422
(c) Alla-ud-din-khilji
The Bijapur Sultan who was defeated by
(d) Muhammad Bin Tughluq
Sri Krishnadevaraya at Raichur was
Who were the commanders whom (a) Muhammad Shah I
Mohammad Tughlaq sent to crush the (b) Ismail Adil Shah
revolts of south India ? (c) Feroz Shah
(a) Harihar and Bukka (d) Ahmad Shah
(b) Ahmad and Feroz Which of the following temples is an
(c) Murtaza and Sultan example of wall inscriptions on which
(d) All of them stories of Ramayana and the Mahab-
What was Amir Ali Barid called ? harata are inscribed?
(a) Lion of Deccan (a) Tadapatri
(b) Fox of Deccan (b) Varadraja
(c) SherKhan (c) Parvati
(d) King of Deccan (d) Vithalswami
Match the following Vijaynagara and Bahmani Sultans fought
(i) Harihar II (a) won Orissa for frequently for control over
Vijayaagara (a) Raichur Doab
(ii) Devraya II (b) was defeated by (b) Bijapur
Firoz Shah Bahmani (c) Golkonda
also built dam on (d) Gulbarga
Tungabhadra. In order to save the Vijaynagara empire,
(iii) Krishna (c) inducted a large Narasimha deposed Virupaksha II in I486
Deva Raya number of Muslims and himself captured the throne. This is
in his Army known as the
(iv) Dev Ray I (d) sent an expedition to (a) First Usurpation
Sri Lanka (b) Second Usurpation
(c) Third Usurpation (a) Krishna deva Singh

(d) Fourth Usurpation (b) Rama Raja
Who was the most famous ruler of Tuluva (c) Harihar II
dynasty? (d) Devraya I
(a) Sri Krishnadevaraya Deva Raya I was defeated by which one
(b) Hari Hara I of the Bahmani rulers?
(c) Tirumala Raya (a) Firuz Shah
(d) Sadasiva Raya (b) Mahmud Gawan
The Persian ambassador who visited (c) Nizam Shah
Vijaynagara empire in 1443 was (d) Muhammad Shah III
(a) Marco Polo (b) Abdul Razak Which of the following dynasties ruled
(c) Barbosa (d) Nikolo Conti Vijaynagara Empire?
What was the period of rule of Sri Krish- (a) Sangama
nadevaraya? (b) Saluva and Tuluva
(a) 1500–1520 (b) 1504–1518 (c) Aravidu
(c) 1509–1529 (d) 1512–1530 (d) All the above
What was Veswag tradition in Vijaynag- What was the period of rule of Sangama
ara state? dynasty?
(a) Death punishment (a) 1336–1485 (b) 1320–1435
(b) Sale and purchase of slaves (c) 1340–1480 (d) 1360–1490
(c) Prostitution
Tallikota war between Vijaynagara and
(d) Child marriages
Deccan Sultans took place in
Amuktamalyada was written by (a) 1550 (b) 1560
(a) Sri Krishnadevaraya (c) 1565 (d) 1570
(b) Ramaraya
Which is not true with reference to
(c) Devaraya II
Vijaynagara administration?
(d) Tirumala Raya
(a) Though all power lay in the hands of
Who among the following assumed the king, yet a cabinet to advise him was
title of Abhinav Bhoj? in existence
(a) Harihar II (b) Provincial rulers were free to a limit.
(b) Rama Raja They had their court, army and coins
(c) Devraya II (c) There was no region in the entire
(d) Krishna deva Singh empire where the subordinate rulers
Ashtadiggajas were flourished in the ruled
court of (d) The rulers of Vijaynagara main-
(a) Devaraya II tained the traditions of village
(b) Sadasivaraya administration
(c) Saluva Narasimha Who was the successor of Harihara I?
(d) Sri Krishnadevaraya (a) Bukka I (b) Bukka II
Who was responsible for the defeat of (c) Harihara II (d) Devaraya I
Vijaynagara in the Battle of Talikotta in Which statement is true about Krishna
1565? Dev Raya?
2.58 Chapter 9
(a) He abolished the marriage tax (a) Sangama and Saluva dynasties
(b) He abolished tax on widow (b) Saluva and Aravidu dynasties
remarriage (c) Saluva and Tuluva dynasties
(c) The husband was made to pay the tax (d) Sangama and Aravidu dynasties
compulsorily Which was the most common animal
(d) He fi ed marriage tax found in the pillars of the architecture of
What was the period of rule of Saluva Vijaynagara Empire?
dynasty? (a) Bull (b) Unicorn
(a) 1460–1510 (c) Horse (d) Elephant
(b) 1486–1505 When did Krishnadevaraya make alli-
(c) 1490–1520 ance with Portuguese?
(d) 1498–1540 (a) 1507 (b) 1504
Who was the successor of Saluva Nara- (c) 1502 (d) 1510
simha? Saluva Narasimha ascended the throne in
(a) Immadi Narasimha (a) 1460 (b) 1470
(b) Hari Hara II (c) 1486 (d) 1496
(c) Devaraya I
Which of the following was written by
(d) Virupaksha II
Nandi Timmana?
The rulers of the Vijaynagara empire (a) Amuktamalyada
were the followers of (b) Parijatapaharana
(a) Brahma (b) Vishnu (c) Usha Parinayam
(c) Shiva (d) Kali (d) Manu Charithra
Who was the successor of Sri Krishnade-
Which of the following was written by
varaya?
Sri Krishnadevaraya in Sanskrit?
(a) Tirumala Raya (b) Virupaksha II
(a) Usha Parinayam
(c) Achuta Raya (d) Deva Raya I
(b) Manu Charithra
Which one of the following was not the (c) Amuktamalyada
province of the Vijaynagara kingdom? (d) Parijatapaharanam
(a) Sthala (b) Rojya
(c) Mandala (d) Chavadi What was Ayangar system in Vijaynagara
administration?
Who was the founder of Tuluva dynasty?
(a) The total right of village adminis-
(a) Sadasiva Raya
tration was given as vriti to army
(b) Virupaksha II
official
(c) Tuluva Narasanayaka
(b) The village was organized into an
(d) Tirumala Raya
independent unit and to rule it twelve
Devaraya II was also known as people were organized in a group.
(a) Mahadevaraya This group was called Ayangar
(b) Maharaja (c) An officer of central Secretariate was
(c) Rajadhiraja appointed for village administration
(d) Proudha Devaraya in Ayangar system
Which two dynasties came to the throne (d) The main responsibility of Ayangar
after the ‘First Usurpation’ and ‘Second officer was to deposit the income of
Usurpation’ respectively? the village in the royal treasury
What was class of ‘Virapanchal’ in (c) Mudrakarta—Inspector of toyal

Vijaynagara state? currency
(a) Handicraft workers (d) Dand Nayak—Judicial office
(b) Kshatriya class Who was the famous king in Aravidu
(c) Brahman class dynasty?
(d) Vaishya class (a) Narasanayaka
Which social class supported the making (b) Venkatapati Raya II
of law against dowry? (c) Sri Krishnadevaraya
(a) Brahmans (b) Shudras (d) Devaraya II
(c) Artisans (d) Peasants In the Tamil regions of Vijaynagara
Who wrote Manu Charithra? Empire, which administrative order
(a) Nanditimmana existed?
(b) Pingali Surana (a) Kottam, Parr, Nadu, Gram
(c) Allasani Peddana (b) Sthal, Parr, Nadu, Gram
(d) Tenali Ramakrishna (c) Parr, Nadu, Gram, Kottam
(d) Nadu, Kottam, Parr, Gram
Who wrote Kalahastiswara Shatakam?
What were the Bhandarvad gram in
(a) Dhurjati
Vijaynagara state?
(b) Allasani Peddana
(a) The villages under direct control of
(c) Nandi Timmana
state who paid tax direct to the royal
(d) Pingali Surana
treasury
Which Bahmani ruler was a scholar of (b) The villages given to Brahmans for
many languages? livelihood in lieu of state services
(a) Ferozshah (c) Villages of Brahmans
(b) Mohammad shah (d) Villages of kshatriyas
(c) Ibrahim Adil shah
The most important minor industry of
(d) Adil shah
Vijaynagara was
The empire was divided into provinces (a) Textiles
and the provinces were subdivided into (b) Mining and metallurgy
(a) Bukktis (b) Nadus (c) Leather work
(c) Aharas (d) Vishayas (d) Perfumery
The vast land divided into big fields was Who was called class of Kudi in Vijaynag-
called ara state?
(a) Sthal (b) Sime (a) Land owner
(c) Kottahi (d) Parr (b) Pattedar
What was the title of Sri Krishnadeva- (c) Money lender
raya? (d) Agricultural labour
(a) Andhra Bhoja Who was the Italian travellar who visited
(b) Kannada Bhoja Vijaynagaram during the period of Deva-
(c) Andhra Raja raya II?
(d) Kannada Raja (a) Barbsa
Which pair is matched incorrectly? (b) Abdul Razak
(a) Raysam—Sachiv (c) Nikolo Kanti
(b) Karpikam—Sanganak office (d) Marco Polo
2.60 Chapter 9
Who was the first to declare his freedom Who built Hazara Ramaswami temple?
in Khandesh? (a) Sri Krishnadevaraya
(a) Afzal Khan (b) Ramaraya
(b) MirzaBeg (c) Sadasiva Raya
(c) Malik Raza Farooqi (d) Immadi Narasimha
(d) Mubarak Khan Who had the title of Andhra kavita pita-
The Vijaynagara ruler who made treaty maha?
with Protuguese (a) Nandi Timmana
(a) Alia Ramaraya (b) Pingali Surana
(b) Bukkaraya (c) Allasani Peddana
(c) Saluva Narasimha (d) Tenali Rama Krishna
(d) Sri Krishnadevaraya Krishnadeva Raya maintained friendly
Who was the last king of Aravidu dynasty? relations with the
(a) Sri Ranga Raya II (a) Portuguese (b) French
(b) Venkatapati Raya II (c) Dutch (d) Chinese
(c) Sadasiva Raya Who built vittala swami temple in Hampi?
(d) Sri Ranga Raya III (a) Sadasivaraya
The most important port on the Malabar (b) Devaraya II
coast of the Vijaynagara empire was (c) Alia Ramaraya
(a) Cuttack (d) Saluva Narasimha
(b) Calicut The Vijaynagara ruler Kirshnadev Raya’s
(c) Vishakhapattanam work #OWMVCOCN[CFC was in
(d) Mangalore (a) Telugu (b) Sanskrit
The eight poets called Ashtadiggajas (c) Tamil (d) Kannada
were in the court of What was the Nayankar system?
(a) Sri Krishnadevaraya (a) In it, king appointed high officials
(b) Devaraya II from the class of Jagirdars
(c) Hari Hara I (b) King gave some regions for use to
(d) Bukka Raya I commanders for keeping a definite
What was the basic difference between army
Chola administration and Vijaynagara (c) King kept control on Nayaks through
administration? the Nayankars
(a) Nayankar system (d) All of them
(b) Aayangar system What was the land given to ‘Nayaks
(c) Cooperative system called?
(d) Village administration (a) Amaram
(b) Poliagar
The Ayukta was appointed to check the
(c) Sist
powers of Nayaks. He was called
(a) DandNayak
(b) Mahamandaleshwar To compete with the Bahmanis, who
(c) Poligar among the following were appointed by
(d) ManeyPradhan Deva Raya II into army?
(a) Mussalmans (b) Marathas Who adopted the title of Dand Nayak?
(c) Rajputs (d) Huns (a) Commander in chief
Who wrote Madhura Vijayam? (b) Chief justice
(a) Ammanga Devi (c) Chief secretary
(b) Parvati Devi (d) Prime minister
(c) Maha Devi Who played key role in the Vijaynagara
(d) Ganga Devi politics during the period of Sadasiva
Besides land revenue, which was a source Raya?
of income for the Vijaynagara empire? (a) Immadi Narasimha
1. Property tax (b) Aliya Rama Raya
2. Marriage tax (c) Bukkaraya I
3. Army tax (d) Devaraya I
4. Birth tax The Kalinga king Prataparudra Gajapati
(a) Only 1 and 2 was defeated by
(b) Only 2 and 3 (a) Sri Krishnadevaraya
(c) Only 1, 2 and 3 (b) Tirumalaraya
(d) All 1, 2, 3 and 4 (c) Hari Hara Raya I
(d) Achuta Raya
Who appointed the Parupataygar offi-
cers? Who was the first ruler of Vijaynagara to
(a) King send an ambassador to China?
(b) Village institutions (a) Bukka I (b) Harihar I
(c) Cabinet (c) DevRayal (d) Harihar II
(d) Nayak Who was the last king of Tuluva dynasty?
(a) Sri Krishnadevaraya
Who among the following gives a glow-
(b) Sadasiva Raya
ing account of the country saying: ‘This
(c) Immadi Narasimha
latter prince has in his dominions three
(d) Narasanayaka
hundred ports, each of which is equal
to Calicut, and on terra firma his terri- Who shifted the capital from Penugonda
tories comprise a space of three months to Chandra Giri?
journey’? (a) Venkatapati Raya II
(a) NicoloConti (b) Ferishta (b) Sri Rangaraya II
(c) Abdur Razzaq (d) Marco Polo (c) Achuta Raya
(d) Sadasiva Raya
Who wrote Panduranga Mahatyam?
(a) Rajasekara Who was the first Vijaynagara ruler?
(b) Tenali Ramakrishna (a) Bukkaraya
(c) Ayyala Raju Ramabhadrudu (b) Hari Hara Raya I
(d) Allasani Peddana (c) Devaraya I
Who was the Vijaynagara king at the time (d) Alia Ramaraya
Tallikota war? On which marriage, there was no tax?
(a) Sri Ranagaraya (a) Child ttietffiag
(b) Venkatapari Raya II (b) Widow marriage
(c) Virupaksha II (c) Second marriage
(d) Sadasiva Raya (d) Pratiloma marriage
2.62 Chapter 9
Which pair is matched incorrectly? (c) The encouragement and military sup-
(a) Fateh ullah—Bad Shahi port received from the Sultanate of
(b) Yusuf Adil Khan—Kutub Shahi Delhi
(c) Malik Ahmad—Nizam Shahi (d) The rebellion of the Amiran-i-Sadahs
(d) Amir All—Barid Shahi who took advantage of the widespread
The Hoyasala kingdom was annexed to rebellions and mounting discontent
Vijaynagara Empire during the period of against Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq
(a) Sri Krishnadevaraya Bahman Shah or Alauddin Hasan selected
(b) Virupaksha II Gulbarga as his capital and renamed it
(c) Immadi Narasimha (a) Bidar (b) Ahsanabad
(d) Hari Hara Raya I (c) Hasanpur (d) Bahmanabad
The gold coins of Vijaynagara kingdom Which Bahmani king is said to have
were called as taken interest in developing the points of
(a) Varahas (b) Panas Chaul and Dabhol?
(c) Nishka (d) Kakini (a) Muhammad Shah
Through which one of the following, the (b) Taj-ud-din Firuz Shah
king exercised his control over villages in (c) Ahmad Shah
the Vijaynagara Empire? (d) Ala-ud-din II
(a) Dannayaka The Bahmani Sultan who shifted the cap-
(b) Sumanta ital from Gulbarga to Bidar was
(c) Nayaka (a) Nizam Shah
(d) Mahanayakacharya (b) Ahmad Shah
‘Mahanayakacharya’ was an officer of (c) Muhammad Shah
Vijaynagara kingdom through which the (d) Mahmud Shah
king had his control over Ahmad Shah built the capital city of
(a) Rajya (b) Nadu Ahmadabad on the site of the old town of
(c) Villages (d) Mandala (a) Asawal
Nadus of Vijaynagara kingdom were (b) Sidhpur
divided into (c) Sabarmati
(a) Valanadus (b) Vishayas (d) None of the above
(c) Sthalas (d) Villages The Bahmanis were traditional enemies
Aliya Rama raya was killed by of the rulers of Vijaynagara. What was the
(a) Muhammad Shah main bone of contention between the two?
(b) Feroz Shah (a) Telengana
(c) Hussien Nizam Shah I (b) Goa
(d) Kuli Qutb Shah (c) The fort of Mudgal
Which of the following factors was (d) Raichur Doab
responsible for the foundation of the Nikitin, a Russian traveler, who visited
Bahmani kingdom? the Bahmani kingdom describes
(a) The breakup of the kingdom of the (A) That the country was overpopulated
Chalukyas of Kalyani (B) Misery of the people
(b) The chain of rebellions against the (C) Life of luxury of the nobles
Tughlaq authority in the Deccan (D) Overgrowth of military
establishment system
(E) Armies being maintained by the (b) Afghans in the military department
nobles (c) Muslims at the lower level of
(a) A, B and C administration
(b) A, B and D (d) Both (b) and (c)
(c) A, B, C and E Mahmud Gawan, a pardesi, was sen-
(d) All of the above tenced to death as a result of a conspiracy
The Bahmani Sultan who got the epithet of the Deccanis. The Sultan responsible
of Zalim or The Tyrant on account of his for Mahmud Gawan’s execution was
alleged cruelties was (a) Akbar
(a) Mahmud Shah (b) Nizam Shah
(b) Humayun (c) Muhammad Shah II
(c) Mujahid Shah (d) Mahmud Shah
(d) Tajuddin Firuz Shah A foreign traveller who visited the
To which kingdom did Chand Bibi Bahmani Kingdom during the reign of
belong? Muhammad Shah III and observed that
(a) Berar (b) Bijapur the lot of the common people was miser-
(c) Golkunda (d) Ahmadnagar able while the nobles lived in luxury was
Chand Bibi. the princess of Ahmadnagar, (a) Nuniz
was the widow of (b) Athanasius Nikitin
(a) Quli Qutb Shah of Golkunda (c) Nicolo conti
(b) Ali Barid of Bidar (d) Abdur Razak
(c) Ali Adil Shah of Bijapur The kingdom of Berar was absorbed by
(d) Fathullah Khan Imaddulmulk of (a) Ahmadnagar
Berar (b) Bidar
(c) Bijapur
The provinces of the Bahmani kingdom
(d) Golkunda
known as
(a) Subah (b) Tara for ataraf Who founded the Imad Shahi dynasty of
(c) Subah-i-laskar (d) Mahamandala Berar?
The afaqis in the Bahmani kingdom were (a) Ali barid Shah
(a) The Muslim immigrants from (b) Fathullah Imad Shah
Iran, Iraq, Turkey, Arabia, Persia, (c) Yusuf Adil Khan
Afghanistan etc. (d) Qasim Barid
(b) Foreign merchants settled in the The Deccan Muslim state which declared
Bahmani Kingdom ‘Hindvi’ or Dakhini Urdu as the official
(c) South Indian Muslim converts language of the state instead of persian was
(d) Shia nobles of the Bahmani court (a) Bijapur (b) Golkunda
The bahmani Wazir Mahmud Gawan (c) Berar (d) Ahmadnagar
founded a famous college at In 1419, the Bahmani kingdom received a
(a) Bidar (b) Gulbarga setback, because Firuz Shah was defeated
(c) Golkunda (d) Daulatabad by
The most remarkable step taken by Firuz (a) Krishnadevaraya
Shah Bahmani was the induction of (b) Deva Raya I
(a) Hindus in the administration on a (c) Deva Raya II
large scale (d) Achyuta Raya
2.64 Chapter 9
What was the main reason for the col- (d) Commanders of fi e Bahmani
lapse of the Bahmani kingdom? regiments
(a) Increased power of its traditional Ahmad Shah I is called a saint (wali)
enemy Kingdom of Vijaynagara on account of his association with the
(b) The strife between the two leading famous sufi
groups of nobles—the Deccanis and (a) Gesu Daraz
afaqis (b) Nizam-ud-din Auliya
(c) A serious famine which led to popu- (c) Data Ganj Baksh
lar revolt and consequent confusion (d) Abu Hamid-al-Ghazali
(d) The powerful position of the pro- Muslim kingdom of Golkunda grew up
vincial governors and their conse- on the ruins of the old Hindu kingdom of
quent rebellions after the murder of (a) Deogiri
Malunud Gawan (b) Dwara Samudra
The five Sultans of the Bahmani suc- (c) Warangal
cession states after the decline of the (d) Kanchi
Bahmani Kingdom were originally The last Deccani State annexed to the
(a) Five afaqi leaders Mughal empire by Aurangzeb was
(b) Ministers in the bahmani government (a) Berar (b) Bijapur
(c) Governors of the Bahmani provinces (c) Ahmadnagar (d) Golkund
Answer Keys
1. (a) 2. (a) 3. (c) 4. (b) 61. (d) 62. (b) 63. (a) 64. (d)
5. (d) 6. (d) 7. (a) 8. (b) 65. (b) 66. (a) 67. (c) 68. (a)
9. (1) 10. (d) 11. (a) 12. (b) 69. (b) 70. (a) 71. (b) 72. (a)
13. (d) 14. (a) 15. (a) 16. (a) 73. (a) 74. (d) 75. (c) 76. (a)
17. (b) 18. (c) 19. (b) 20. (a) 77. (a) 78. (c) 79. (b) 80. (d)
21. (c) 22. (d) 23. (b) 24. (a) 81. (a) 82. (b) 83. (a) 84. (b)
25. (d) 26. (a) 27. (c) 28. (c) 85. (b) 86. (b) 87. (d) 88. (a)
29. (a) 30. (b) 31. (b) 32. (a) 89. (d) 90. (c) 91. (c) 92. (c)
33. (b) 34. (c) 35. (a) 36. (c) 93. (d) 94. (b) 95. (b) 96. (b)
37. (d) 38. (c) 39. (c) 40. (d) 97. (a) 98. (d) 99. (d) 100. (b)
41. (c) 42. (b) 43. (a) 44. (b) 101. (d) 102. (c) 103. (b) 104. (a)
45. (a) 46. (a) 47. (c) 48. (a) 105. (a) 106. (a) 107. (c) 108. (b)
49. (a) 50. (b) 51. (a) 52. (a) 109. (a) 110. (b) 111. (a) 112. (b)
53. (d) 54. (b) 55. (a) 56. (a) 113. (b) 114. (c) 115. (a) 116. (c)
57. (d) 58. (d) 59. (c) 60. (c) 117. (d) 118. (a) 119. (d) 120. (a)
10
Socio-Religious Reform
Movements in Medieval India
Bhakti Movement in India religions in India. Hinduism lost its simplic-

ity and many philosophical schools appeared.
Bhakti as a religious concept means devotional Two different sects, that is, Vaishnavism and
surrender to a supreme God for attaining sal- Saivism also appeared within Hinduism. In
vation. This doctrine has been traced to various course of time Shakti worship also came into
scriptures such as the Gita and both the Brah- existence. Common people were confused
manical and Buddhist traditions of ancient about the way of worshipping God. When
India. The Bhakti movement in India took Islam came to India, the Hindus were observ-
place as an effort to inculcate the loving devo- ing many ceremonies and worshipping many
tion and belief in God and aimed at the princi- Gods and Goddesses. There were all sorts of
ple of monotheism—existence of one God. It superstitious beliefs among them. Their reli-
started in the south of India and slowly spread gion had become complex in nature. Added
to the north of India. This happened during the to these, the caste system, untouchability,
later half of the medieval period in the history blind worshipping and inequality in the soci-
of India (AD 800–1700). Although the seeds ety caused dissensions among different sec-
of Bhakti can be found in the Vedas, it was not tions of the people. On the other hand, Islam
emphasized during the early medieval period. preached unity of God and brotherhood of
The Vedic scriptures also talk about the con- man. It emphasized monotheism, attacked idol
cept of pure devotion to God. It reached its cli- worship and preached equality of man before
max in the tenth century after which it began God. The oppressed common people and the
to decline. However, it was revived as a philo- people stigmatized as low castes were natu-
sophical and ideological movement by a series rally attracted towards Islam. It only increased
of scholars or acharyas. The Bhakti saints used the rivalry among religions. Fanaticism, big-
images of daily life and always tried to iden- otry and religious intolerance began to raise
tify themselves in one way or another with the their heads. The religious leaders appeared
sufferings of the common people. in different parts of India to remove such
Before the arrival of Islam, Hinduism, evils. They preached pure devotion called
Jainism and Buddhism were the dominant ‘bhakti’ to attain God. The Bhakti move-
2.66 Chapter 10
ments started then have left an indelible mark could only be gained through a teacher
in human beliefs and faiths. The Bhakti move- or guru, the Bhakti movement greatly
ment started the trend of elaborate rituals in emphasized securing true knowledge from
worship places such as chanting devotional a guru.
hymns in temples, Qawwali in mosques, Gur- 6. The Bhakti movement was an egalitarian
bani in gurudwaras and so on. Chanting or tak- movement, which completely discarded
ing the name of God was considered essential the discriminations based on caste or
by many saints including the great Adi Shan- creed.
karacharya. The significance of the Bhakti The saints of the Bhakti movement were
movement was that it could be accessed by staunch supporters of social unity and
anyone, since all it needed was to remember purity of mind, character and soul. The
God with full devotion and love. doors of Bhakti were opened for the lowest
classes and even the untouchables. Many
Features of Bhakti Movement of the saints of the Bhakti movement were
1. The concept of bhakti means single- from the lower classes.
minded devotion to one God. The object 7. The Bhakti movement also discarded the
of the devotee’s adoration is to secure the priestly domination as well as rituals.
grace of God for the sake of salvation. According to the Bhakti saints, the indi-
2. The Bhakti cult discarded the rituals vidual could realize God through devotion
and sacrifices as modes of worship, and and personal effort. Therefore, there was
instead emphasized the purity of heart and no place for sacrifices and daily rituals in
mind, humanism and devotion as simple the Bhakti movement.
ways to the realization of God. 8. The Bhakti saints preached in the simple
3. The Bhakti movement was essentially language of the masses and, therefore,
monotheistic and the devotees worshipped immensely contributed to the develop-
one personal God, who could either have ment of modern Indian languages, such as
form (Saguna) or be formless (Nirguna). Hindi, Marathi, Bengali and Gujarati.
The followers of the former, known as
Vaishnavas, were further subdivided into Bhakti Movement in South India
Krishnamargis and Ramamargis, who The real development of Bhakti took place in
regarded Ram or Krishna—both incarna- South India between the seventh and twelfth
tions of Vishnu—as their personal God, centuries. The Shiva Nayanar saints and Vaish-
respectively. The followers of Nirguna nava Alvar saints of South India spread the doc-
Bhakti discarded idol worship. They said trine of Bhakti among different sections of the
that God is omnipresent and resides within society irrespective of caste and sex during this
the heart of man. period between seventeenth and the tenth cen-
4. One of the philosophical sides, the tury. Some of these saints came from the lower
Saguna and Nirguna, both believed in the castes and some were women. They preached
Upanishadic philosophy of Advaita, with bhakti in an intensely emotional manner
minor variations suggested by various and promoted religious egalitarianism. They
Bhakti saints. spread the doctrine with rituals and travelled
5. The Bhakti saints of North as well as across regions, several times singing, dancing
South India regarded knowledge (jnana) and advocating bhakti. The Alvar and Nayanar
as a constituent of Bhakti. As knowledge saints used the Tamil language for preaching
Socio-Religious Reform Movements in Medieval India 2.67
and composing devotional songs. All these fea- Northern India. He considered God as an
tures gave the movement a popular character. ocean of love and beauty. His teachings were
based on the Upanishads and Bhagavad Gita.
Bhakti Movement in North India Whatever he taught, he taught in the language
of the common man. Soon a large number of
In North India, during the Sultanate period people became his followers. Ramananda was
(thirteenth to fifteenth century), many popu- his disciple. He took his message to Northern
lar socio-religious movements arose in North parts of India.
and East India and Maharashtra. Almost all the
bhakti movements of the Sultanate period have 4COCPCPFC: Ramananda was the first refor-
been related to South Indian Vaishnava achar- mer to preach in Hindi, the main language
yas. For these reasons, many scholars believe spoken by the people of the North. He was
that the Bhakti movements of the sultanate educated at Benaras. He preached that there
period were continuation of the earlier bhakti is nothing high or low, and that all men are
movements. They argued that philosophical equal in the eyes of God. He was an ardent
and ideological links existed between the two. worshipper of Rama. He welcomed people of
There are similarities between the older all castes and status to follow his teachings. He
bhakti tradition of South India and vari- had twelve chief disciples. One of them was a
ous bhakti movements in the Sultanate and barber, another was a weaver, the third one was
Mughal periods. The popular monotheistic a cobbler and the other was the famous saint
movement of Kabir, Nanak and other saints Kabir and the fifth one was a woman named
from lower castes showed that both of them Padmavathi. He considered God as a loving
have possessed many common features. For father. He lived in the 14th century AD.
example, like the south Indian Bhakti move-
-CDKT: Among those who were most critical of
ment, the Vaishnava Bhakti movements of the
the existing social order and made a strong plea
North, Eastern India and Maharashtra never
for Hindu–Muslim unity, the name of Kabir is
condemned the caste system, the authority of
noteworthy. Kabir was an ardent disciple of
Brahmanical scriptures and privileges as such.
Ramananda. It is said that he was the son of a
Consequently, like the South Indian Bhakti
Brahmin widow who had left him near a tank
movements, most of the Vaishnava move-
at Varanasi. A Muslim couple Niru and his
ments of the later period were assimilated into
wife who were weavers brought up the child.
the Brahmanical religion and thus underwent
Later, he became a weaver but he was attracted
many changes and gradually differed from
by the teachings of Swami Ramananda. He
South Indian Bhakti movements. The Bhakti
wanted unity between the Hindus and the
movements of the medieval India differed in
Muslims and preached that both the Hindus
many significant aspects not only from the
and the Muslims are the children of a single
older South Indian Bhakti but also among
God. He had no faith in idol worship, religious
themselves. Each of them had its own regional
rituals and ceremonies. He taught that Allah
identity and socio-historical cultural contexts.
and Eswar, Ram and Rahim are one and the
same and that they are present everywhere.
Some Important Bhakti Reformers The devotees of Kabir were known as Kabir
4COCPWLC: Ramanuja was one of the earliest Panthis. What Kabir said about God? I am
reformers. Born in the South, he made a neither in temple nor in Mosque, neither in
pilgrimage to some of the holy places in Kaaba nor in Kailash; I am not in any ritual or
2.68 Chapter 10
rite nor in yoga or in renunciation; if thou be travelled all over the Deccan, Bihar, Bengal
a true seeker, thou shall find me in a moment. and Odisha. His followers regarded him as an
Dr. Tarachand says, ‘The mission of Kabir was incarnation of Lord Vishnu. He helped the old
to preach a religion of love which would unite and the needy. He opposed the inequalities of
all caste and creeds. He rejected those features the caste system. He emphasized the need for
of Hinduism and Islam which were against this tolerance, humanity and love. He spread the
spirit and which were of no importance for the message of Bhakti in Bengal. He popularized
real spiritual welfare of the individual.’ ‘Sankritan’ or public singing of God’s name.
)WTW0CPCM
#&ŌGuru Nanak His songs are still very popular in Bengal. He
was the founder of the Sikh religion. From was addressed ‘Mahaprabhu’ by his followers.
his childhood, he did not show any interest in 6WNUKFCU: Goswamy Tulsidas was a devotee
worldly affairs. At the age of 29, he left his of Rama. His work gives the story of Rama
home and became a Sadhu. He went to Mecca in Hindi. He was the foremost in popularizing
and Medina. He had travelled far and wide to Rama cult. His other works in Hindi are Janaki
spread his teachings. Guru Nanak had final y Mangal and Parvathi Mangal. In his writings,
settled at Karthpur. He laid emphasis on pure he insists the duty of a son to his parent, the
and simple living. He preached the unity of duty of a student to his teacher and the duty of
God, condemned idolatry and was against a king to his people. Rama was a dear son to
the caste system. Guru Nanak’s followers are his parents, devoted student to his teacher and
called the Sikhs. He started the Langer or the a desirable king to his subjects.
common kitchen, where people belonging to
/GGTCDCK Meerabai was a Rajput princess.
all castes or religions could have their meals
She married the Rana of Mewar. She was a
together. Nanak’s teachings were in the form
pious devotee of Lord Krishna and has written
of verses. They were collected in a book called
many songs in praise of Krishna, her favourite
the Adi Granth. Later, Adi Granth was written
God, in Rajastani. Even today, her songs or
in a script called Gurmukhi. The holy book of
hymns are sung throughout India. Her palace
the Sikhs is popularly known as the ‘Granth
was kept open to people of all castes to join
Sahib’, which contains verses from Kabir,
her Bhajans of Lord Krishna. She had visited
Namdeva and other Bhakti and Sufi saints
all places connected with the life of Lord
Nanak laid greatemphasis on the purity of
Krishna. She had lived for the most part of
character and conduct as the first condition of
her life in Mathura, the birth place of Krishna,
approaching God and the need of a guru for
and Vrindaban. There is a temple dedicated to
guidance. However, Nanak had no intention of
Meerabai in Chittor, the capital of Mewar.
founding a new religion. His catholic approach
aimed at bridging distinctions between Hindus )WTW 4COFCU Ramdas was a famous
and Muslims to create an atmosphere of peace, teacher. He was born in AD 1608. Chatrapati
goodwill and mutual give and take. Shivaji, the great Maratha ruler, was a follower
of Ramdas. He stressed upon the equality of
%JCKVCP[C
#& Ō Chaitanya, a
all men before God. He said that anyone could
great devotee of Lord Krishna, was a saint
attain God’s favour by means of bhakti. Guru
from Bengal. From his very childhood, he had
Ramdas was not merely a religious preacher
showed great interest in education and studied
but a nation builder.
Sanskrit. He married the daughter of a saintly
person. Later at the age of 24, he renounced 6WMCTCO Tukaram was a saint who lived in
the worldly life and became a sanyasin. He Maharashtra. He composed a large number of
verses called ‘abhangas’ or devotional songs in and the Muslims, turning both more tolerant
praise of Panduranga or Krishna. He believed in towards each other. This kind of harmony and
one God who was kind, merciful and protective. Hindu–Muslim unity prepared ground for a
He wrote all his abhangas in Marathi. liberal political era under the great Mughals.
Second, the Bhaktas exposed the hollow-
,PCPGUJYCT He is one of the greatest saints of
ness of empty rituals and ceremonies and
Maharashtra. He worshipped Vishnu in the form
taught the people to give up evils such as
of Vithoba or Krishna. At the age of fourteen,
belief in superstitions. The movement supplied
he translated the Bhagavad Gita into Marathi
incentive of social reforms in the Hindu soci-
language. This book is called Jnaneshwari.
ety. The caste system became less rigid. Social
0C[CPCTU In South India, the Nayanars and differences got reduced. This movement gave
Alwars were the noted saints of the Bhakti a blow to the superiority of the Brahmins, for
movement. The Nayanars, the devotees of Siva, it propagated the equality of all men. This also
were sixty three in number. The most famous helped in checking conversions.
among them were Appar, Sundarar, Thirugnana Finally, the Bhakti movement resulted in
Sambandar and Manickavachakar. These saints a great literary wave. The preachers did not
composed many verses in the praise of Lord Siva. preach in Sanskrit, but in the common lan-
A saint named Nambiandar Nambi collected the guage of the people, which led to the develop-
devotional songs of Nayanars. Appar, Sundarar ment of vernacular languages such as Bengali
and Thirugnana Sambandar composed the in the east, Gujarati and Marathi in the west
Thevaram hymns. Manickvachakar’s songs and Punjabi in the north. Therefore, there was
are known as Tiruvachakam. Periyapuranam, a remarkable growth of literature in all the lan-
written by Sekhizhar, tells us the life stories of guages. A new language Urdu, a mixture of
the Nayanars. Persian and Hindi, was developed.
#NYCTU The Alwars were the worshippers The Bhakti movement was not a movement
of Lord Vishnu who were twelve in number. of the few wise, but of the wider mass. It is said
Among them Nammalwar, Tirumangai Alwar, that after Buddhism, the Bhakti cult saw the
Andal and Perialwar were famous. The songs next most popular religious awakening. Since
of the Alwars were compiled in a book called it touched the people of all sections, its effect
Nalayira Divya Prabandham by Nadamuni. was lasting. It emphasized the value of a pure
The collection of devotional songs of Andal life of charity and devotion and improved the
is called Thiruppavai. Thiruppavai songs moral and spiritual ways of life of the medieval
are famous in Tamil Nadu and are even now society.
sung during the Tamil month of Margazhi
(December–January). Sufi Movement in India
$CUCXC Basava lived in Karnataka. He founded Sufism was a liberal reform movement within
the Virasaiva or Lingayat sect. According to Islam. It had its origin in Persia and spread into
Basava, Siva was the supreme God. Basava India in the eleventh century. Sufi movement
opposed child marriage and idol worship. emerged in India with the interaction of the
Islamic culture with the Hindu culture. There
Effects of the Bhakti Movement were different trends of the Sufi movement—
The Bhakti movement had far-reaching effects some were religious and social, while some
on the people. First, it helped a lot in remov- were linked to the rulers and more engaged in
ing the existing bitterness between the Hindus promotion of Islam. The philosopher’s objective
2.70 Chapter 10
was to rationalize the nature of necessary being, was very celebrated. He settled in Ajodhan and
while the ‘Kalam’ scholars were principally built his Jamaat Khana. Baba’s successor was
concerned to defend divine transcendence. On Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya (AD 1238–1325),
the other hand, Sufism strove to achieve the who came from Badaun but had settled in
inner realization of divine unity by arousing Delhi. Under Khwaja Nizamuddin, Chisti-
intuitive and spiritual faculties. The Sufis reject yya order became the dominant Sufi silsilah
rational argument and plunge into contempla- in India. The collection of his conversation is
tion and meditation. Some of them were over- known as ‘Fawaid al-Fuad’ compiled by his
powered by ecstasy and frenzy, but sobriety was disciple, Amir Hasan. Nizamuddin stressed on
generally considered essential to Sufism the motive of love, which leads to the realiza-
The Sufi orders are broadly divided into tion of God. He extended his love of God to
two: Ba-shara, that is, those which followed the the love of humanity without which the former
Islamic law (shara) and DGUJCTC, that is, those would be incomplete.
which were not bound by it. Both orders pre- Another well-known Sufi saint was
vailed in India, the latter being followed more Bahauddin Zakariya who came under the
by wandering saints. Although these saints did influence of another famous mystic Shihabud-
not establish an order, some of them became din Suhrawardi. His branch of Sufi saints
figures of popular veneration, often for the was known as the Sufis of the Suhrawardi
Muslims and Hindus alike. Of the ba-shara Order. People would be attracted to them for
movements, only two acquired significant their simplicity and holiness. Their khanquas
influence and were followed in north India (place of residence) became centres of pil-
during the Thirteenth and Fourteenth centuries. grimage for adherents of different religions.
These were Chisti and Suharwardi Silsilahs. Their practices also helped movement towards
After the conquest of northern India by the cultural-synthesis by adoption of cross-cul-
Muslims, various Sufi orders were established, tural means of propagation of the message of
in particular, the Chisti and Suharwardi orders. peace and equality.
The orders of Qadiri, Naqshabandi, Shuttari, Sufism stressed the elements of love and
Madari and so on also represented and func- devotion as effective means of the realiza-
tioned on more or less the same lines. The tion of God. Love of God meant love of
order of the Chistis, founded by Khwaja Abdal humanity and so the Sufis believed service to
Chisti (d. AD 966), was introduced into India humanity was tantamount to service to God.
by Khwaja Moinuddin Chisti. He was born In Sufism, self-discipline was considered an
in Sistan in AD 1143. He travelled widely essential condition to gain knowledge of God
in Islamic countries and came to Harun, a by sense of perception. While orthodox Mus-
town in Nishapur, and became the disciple lims emphasize external conduct, the Sufis
of Khwaja Usman Haruni, a famous saint of lay stress on inner purity. While the orthodox
the Chisti order, who directed him to settle believe in blind observance of rituals, the Sufis
in India. Khwaja Moinuddin arrived in India consider love and devotion as the only means
in AD 1190, and first proceeded to Lahore, of attaining salvation. According to them, one
where he spent sometime in meditation at the must have the guidance of a pir or guru, with-
tomb of Ali Hujwiri. The surviving sayings of out which spiritual development is impossible.
the Khwaja show that his life’s mission was to Sufism also inculcated a spirit of tolerance
inculcate piety, humility and devotion to God. among its followers. Other ideas emphasized
Of the Khwaja Moinuddin’s disciples, by Sufism are meditation, good actions, repen-
Shaikh Fariduddin Ganjshakar or Baba Farid tance for sins, performance of prayers and
pilgrimages, fasting, charity and suppression These liberal and unorthodox features of
of passions by ascetic practices. Sufism had a profound influence on medieval
The Sufi saints made themselves popular Bhakti saints. In the later period, Akbar, the
by adopting musical recitations called UCOC, Mughal emperor, appreciated Sufi doctrines,
to create a mood of nearness to God. More- which shaped his religious outlook and reli-
over, they often chose Hindi verses for the pur- gious policies. When the Sufi movement was
pose, since they could make a greater impact becoming popular in India, about the same time
on their listeners. Nizamuddin Auliya adopted the Bhakti cult was gaining strength among the
yogic breathing exercises to an extent that the Hindus. The two parallel movements based
yogis called him a UKFJ or perfect. The humane on the doctrines of love and selfless devotion
spirit of Sufism is well expressed in Sanai, a contributed a great deal to bringing the two
leading Persian poet of the time: communities closer together. Thus, the Sufi
movement played some significant role in pro-
Faith and infidelity, both are galloping on moting harmony and bringing the people of the
the way towards Him; two communities closer to each other, and also
and are exclaiming(together): He is one helped towards the better understanding of the
and none share His Kingdom. two cultural streams at the people’s level.
Exercise
The earliest seeds of the Bhakti movement The most famous and the earliest biogra-
in India are found in pher of Chaitanya, who wrote Chaitanya
(a) the Vedas Charitamrita, was
(b) Jain philosophy (a) Madhavacharya
(c) Buddhist philosophy (b) Krishnadas Kaviraj
(d) Sufi philosop y (c) Sunderdas
The Bhakti movement was first organized by (d) Kritivasa
(a) Ramananda Sankara was a ……….. saint.
(b) Nanak (a) Bhakti
(c) Ramanuja (b) Buddhist
(d) Kabir (c) Jaina
In which book by Dara Shikoh, it is said (d) Suf
that Islamic Sufism and Hindu teachings Shankaracharya, during Vikramaditya’s
are similar? period, was a very famous personality.
(a) Sakintul Awalia Which of the following statements is not
(b) Hasnat-ul-Arifi true of Shankaracharya?
(c) Majma-ul-Bahrain (a) He propounded Vishistadvaitya.
(d) Munkijamin (b) He established four religious centres
Which of the following was a saint of the in different parts of India.
Bhakti movement in Bengal? (c) He countered the spread of Buddhism
(a) Kabir and Jainism.
(b) Vivekananda (d) He defined Vedanta.
(c) Tulsidas Consider the following statements and
(d) Chaitanya mark the correct option.
2.72 Chapter 10
(i) Dadu Dayal was a devotee of Nirankar What was the term used by the Sufis for
Brahma, and Staumeh supporter of the successor nominated by the teacher of
Nirguna school of Bhakti cult. a particular order or silsilah?
(ii) Guru Nanak started Langar and his (a) Pir (b) Murid
work was compiled in the Adi Granth. (c) Wali (d) Khanqah
(iii) Chaitanya was the most radical disci- Who among the following is also known
ple of Ramananda. as ‘Kabir of the Deccan’
(a) Only (i) (a) Basava
(b) Only (ii) (b) Nimbarkacharya
(c) Both (i) and (ii) (c) Madhavacharya
(d) None of these (d) Tukaram
In him within whose heart is truth doth The author of Sri Bhashya is
God Himself abide, said (a) Kabir (b) Vallabha
(a) Kabir (b) Vallabha (c) Sankara (d) Ramanuja
(c) Chaitanya (d) Madhya
Shuddhadvaita is the philosophy of
Who was the Adi Purush (First) of the (a) Kabir (b) Chaitanya
Bhakti movement? (c) Ramanuja (d) Vallabha
(a) Shankaracharya (b) Chaitanya
Who was the Bhakti saint with 12 disciples
(c) Ramanuja (d) Ramananda
including barbers, weavers and butchers?
Who amongst the following Acharyas is (a) Vallabhacharya (b) Ramananda
regarded as having combated the absolute (c) Rahim (d) Namdev
monoism of Sankara in the twelfth century? Who among the following was the founder
(a) Ramanuja (b) None of these of Vaishnava school?
(c) Hemachandra (d) Udyotaka (a) Ramanuja
Which among the following is not an (b) Shankaracharya
influence of the Bhakti movement? (c) Kabir
(a) It promoted the Hindu–Muslim unity. (d) Ramakrishna Paramahamsa
(b) Hindu religion and culture could be To which Sufi did the famous saint of
saved. Bihar, Makhdoom Sharafuddin Maneri,
(c) The path of political progress of belong?
Indians was opened. (a) Suhrawardi (b) Firdausi
(d) National feelings rose and people (c) Chisti (d) Kubrawi
loved their religion and culture.
What is ‘Dalailul Arfin’? mark the correct option.
(a) A collection of the conversation of (i) Shankar Dev is also famous as
Amir Khusrou and Nizamuddin Aulia Chaitanya of Asom.
(b) A collection of the statements of (ii) Tulsidas depicted Rama as the incar-
Bakhtiar Kaki nation of Vishnu.
(c) A collection of the statements of Baba (iii) Nimbarkacharya published the
Farid Theory of Dwaith Advaitvad
(d) A collection of the statements of (Dualism/Non-dualism).
Sheikh Moinuddin Chisti (a) Both (i) and (ii)
Sufi sect developed in the religion (b) Both (ii) and (iii)
(a) Sikhism (b) Jainism (c) All of these
(c) Islam (d) Hinduism (d) None of these
According to Nanak which was the best (a) Tukaram (b) Ramananda
path to attain God? (c) Dadu (d) Raghunandan
(a) Devotion and faith In which part of India were the Firdausi
(b) A life free of selfishness and lie Sufis popular?
(c) Purity of character (a) Bihar (b) Sind
(d) Tolerance (c) Delhi (d) Deccan
The pioneer in preaching Nirguna Bhakti The Vaishnava Bhakti saints in South India
in medieval India was were called
(a) Sri Chaitanya (b) Ramananda (a) Alwars (b) Nayanars
(c) Namdev (d) Vallabhacharya (c) Bhagavad (d) Virasaiva
Ramanuja preached Who among the following was not an
(a) Bhakti (b) Gnana marga exponent of the Bhakti movement?
(c) Dvaita (d) Ahimsa (a) Ramananda
‘Bijak’ was written by (b) Nanak
(a) Dadu (b) Guru Nanak (c) Kabir
(c) Chaitanya (d) Kabir (d) Shankaracharya
Who among the following is also known Which of the following is incorrect?
as crypto-Buddhist? (a) Shankaracharya—Bihar
(a) Ramanuja (b) Ramananda (b) Chaitanya—Bengal
(c) Shankaracharya (d) Chaitanya (c) Meerabai—Rajasthan
(d) Dadu—Gujarat
Which of the following Bhakti saints used
the medium of dance and songs (Kirtans) Who among the following said, ‘God is the
to make one feel the personal presence of breath of all breaths’?
God near him? (a) Shankaracharya (b) Kabir
(a) Chandidasa (c) Guru Nanak (d) Chaitanya
(b) Jnanadeva Of the following, who visited the court of
(c) Chaitanya Mahaprabhu Krishnadeva Raya?
(d) Shankaradeva (a) Kabir (b) Ramanuja
(c) Vallabha (d) Ramananda
Nanak believed in
Who attempted to tie Islam with Lord
(a) blind faith in the sanctity of religious
Krishna?
texts
(a) Malik Mohammad Jayasi
(b) the principles of transmigration of
(b) Mir Abdul Wahid
soul and karma
(c) Sheikh Nasiruddin Chiragi Dehalvi
(d) Idol worship
(d) Baba Farid
(d) None of these
Banis were the hymns and poems
What was the main social contribution of composed by
the Bhakti movement? (a) Dadu (b) Guru Nanak
(a) Hindus gained courage. (c) Kabir (d) Raskhan
(b) It removed the narrowness and class
Which of the following does not belong to
consciousness.
Nirgun cult?
(c) Liberalism grew.
(a) Meerabai
(d) Communal unity and toleration grew.
(b) Ravidas
The saint from Gujarat, who preached (c) Kabir
non-sectarianism in medieval times was (d) Nanak
2.74 Chapter 10
Who amongst the following was a blind (a) Madhavacharya

poet who worshipped Krishna and spread (b) Shankaracharya
Krishna Bhakti cult? (c) Bhaskaracharya
(a) Kabir (b) Raskhan (d) Ramanujacharya
(c) Bihari (d) Surdas Who propounded the principles of Shud-
‘Nirguna’ is associated with— dhadvaita?
(a) Mahaveera (a) Vallabhacharya
(b) Jaina (b) Madhavacharya
(c) Chaitanya (c) Ramanujacharya
(d) Shankaracharya (d) Narsi Mehta
Who was the founder of Qadiri sect in In which region of India was the Suhar-
India? awadi order of Sufism popular?
(a) Sheikh Qadir (a) Delhi and Bihar
(b) Abdul Qadir Gilani (b) Around Ajmer
(c) Saiyyad Makhdoom (c) Delhi and Doab region
(d) All of these (d) Punjab and Sind
The novelty which Kabir added to the During his pilgrimage, Chaitanya received
Bhakti movement was— enlightenment at
(a) emphasis on Bhakti to Rama (a) Rameswaram
(b) tradition of family saints (b) Allahabad
(c) neglect of Sanskrit language (c) Gaya
(d) efforts to bring about unity among the (d) Kanchipuram
Hindus and the Muslims
Which of the following is the chronologi-
Sufi saints and the saints of Hindu Bhakti cal order?
movements differed in (i) Vallabhacharya
(a) unity of God (ii) Ramananda
(b) devotion to God (iii) Madhavacharya
(c) need of a Guru or Pir to attain God (iv) Ramanujacharya
(d) family saint (a) (iii), (ii), (i), (iv)
Who were the most popular Sufis? (b) (iv), (iii), (ii), (i)
(a) Hallaj (c) (ii), (iv), (i), (iii)
(b) None of these (d) (iv), (i), (iii), (ii)
(c) Ghazali Who among the following was the author
(d) Rabin of Ramcharitmanas?
Name the Bhakti saint who did not wor- (a) Ramanuja
ship Ram. (b) Ramananda
(a) Vallabhacharya (c) Valmiki
(b) Meerabai (d) Tulsidas
(c) Surdas Which of the following first accepted
(d) Ramananda Sufism and later left it?
Who established four math in the four (a) Nanak (b) Narsi Mehta
corners of India? (c) Kabir (d) Tuka Ram
The birthplace of Swami Vivekananda is (a) Chicago

in which of the following cities? (b) Berlin
(a) Kushinagar (c) Paris
(b) Kolkata (d) London
(c) Cuttack Devotion to Lord Krishna was preached by
(d) Balasore (a) Kabir
Kabir was the disciple of (b) Ramananda
(a) Chaitanya (c) Madhava
(b) Vallabhacharya (d) Vallabha
(c) Shankaracharya Who was the Bhakti saint influenced by
(d) Ramananda Islam?
Which is not a contribution of the Bhakti (a) Ramanuja (b) Namdev
movement ? (c) Chaitanya (d) Ramananda
(a) Establishment of Sikh regime in Live well, as long as you live. Live well
Punjab and Maratha regime in south even by borrowing, for once cremated,
(b) Establishment of Mughal rule and there is no return This rejection of after-
acuteness of religious tortures life is an aphorism of the
(c) Protection of Hindu religion and culture (a) Kapalika Sect
(d) Development of indigenous literature (b) Charvakas
The Bhakti literature by the Nayanmars (c) Sunyavada of Nagarjuna
and Alwars (d) Ajivikas
(a) advocated the austerities preached by Who amongst the following was an expo-
the Buddhist and Jains nent of Virasaiva?
(b) preached personal devotion of God as (a) None of these
a means of salvation (b) Basavaraja
(c) stressed the rigidities of traditional (c) Shankaracharya
rituals (d) Ramanuja
(d) opposed the practice of image worship Ajivika sect was founded by
Why were the Sufis cut-off from the society? (a) Anand
(a) The common people hated them. (b) Makkhli Gosala
(b) They preferred solitude for meditation. (c) Raghulabhadra
(c) Because of their mystic principles, (d) Upali
they feared Muslim attacks. Who said Ram and Rahim are the two dif-
(d) Sufis ere escapists. ferent names of the same God?
The system of philosophy with which the (a) Chaitanya
name of Kapila is prominently associated is (b) Ramanuja
(a) Nyaya (c) Kabir
(b) Purva Mimamsa (d) Ramdas
(c) Samkhya Sri Perumbudur, a temple town in south, is
(d) Uttara Mimamsa the birthplace of
Swami Vivekananda was well known in (a) Madhavacharya
the religious conference held at (b) Ramanuja
2.76 Chapter 10
(c) Adi Shankaracharya (c) It is a synthesis of Hindi and Persian.

(d) Vidyaranya (d) Hindi sentences with Persian and
Arabic words.
The philosophy of Vishishtadvaita was
preached by ‘Let no man ask a man’s sect or caste’,
(a) Shankaracharya (b) Ramanuja whose dictum was this?
(c) Kapila (d) Madhava (a) Chaitanya (b) Ramananda
(c) Kabir (d) Ramanuja
To whom was the dedicated ‘Shahid-e-
Sadiq’ prepared during g Shahjahan’s In which region of India was the Firdausi
time? order of Sufism popular?
(a) Akbar (a) In and around Delhi
(b) Sadiq Khan (b) Deccan
(c) Shahshuja (c) Bihar and eastern UP
(d) None (d) Sind
In the systems of philosophy created by
The sage who is said to have Aryanized
Indians, we find elements of materialis-
South India was
tic philosophy in which of the following
(a) Yagyavalkya (b) Agastya
systems?
(c) Vasishtha (d) Vishwamitra
(a) Samkhya
Urdu language developed— (b) Vaisesika
(a) from Persian language (c) Karma Mimamsa
(b) Akbar developed it (d) Yoga
Answer Keys
1. (d) 2. (c) 3. (c) 4. (d) 41. (d) 42. (c) 43. (a) 44. (d)
5. (d) 6. (a) 7. (c) 8. (c) 45. (c) 46. (d) 47. (d) 48. (b)
9. (a) 10. (a) 11. (a) 12. (c) 49. (a) 50. (d) 51. (c) 52. (b)
13. (d) 14. (c) 15. (c) 16. (d) 53. (d) 54. (a) 55. (b) 56. (d)
17. (d) 18. (d) 19. (b) 20. (a) 57. (b) 58. (b) 59. (b) 60. (c)
21. (b) 22. (c) 23. (c) 24. (b) 61. (a) 62. (d) 63. (b) 64. (c)
25. (a) 26. (d) 27. (c) 28. (c) 65. (b) 66. (b) 67. (c) 68. (b)
29. (b) 30. (d) 31. (c) 32. (a) 69. (b) 70. (c) 71. (b) 72. (d)
33. (a) 34. (d) 35. (a) 36. (b) 73. (b) 74. (c) 75. (a)
37. (c) 38. (b) 39. (a) 40. (a)
11
The Mughal Empire
Introduction Bhira and Sialkot, the twin gateways to Hindu-

stan. It was from 1525 to 1526 CE that Babur
After the disintegration of the Tughlaq in the made most of his opportunity to advance to the
early fifteenth century, north India faced politi- heart of Hindustan with Delhi Sultanate on the
cal instability as both Sayyids and the Lodis point of disruption under Ibrahim Lodi.
failed to cope with disruptive forces. The The battle of Panipath is regarded as one of
political situation in the Indian subcontinent the most decisive battles of Indian history. It
on the eve of Babur’s invasion was thus com- brought under Babur’s control the entire area
plex. Analysing these political complexities, up to Delhi and Agra. The battle of Khandwa
Rushbrook Williams proposed an interesting (1527) secured Babur’s position in the Delhi–
line of thought. Awarding the power of the Agra region. He strengthened his position fur-
Rajput confederacy with utmost importance, ther by conquering the chain of forts Gwalior,
he proposes that had Babur not entered India Dholpur, etc. east of Agra.
when he did, the Rajputs—led by their illus-
trious leader Rana Sangha—would have cap- Humayun
tured power in northern India. However, this
theory becomes unacceptable when the history He ascended the throne after Babur’s death
is considered objectively. in 1530. He was born in 1508 at Kabul. He
was the Subedar of Badakshan before he
ascended the throne. He had helped Babur in
Babur the wars that he fought in India. As a ruler, he
Like countless other invaders from Central faced many problems. Anarchy prevailed in
Asia, Babur was drawn into India by the lure the newly formed kingdom. Mahmud Lodhi,
of its fabulous wealth. He was more inspired Nusrat Shah and Sher Shah were trying to
by his ancestor Timur. Another reason why establish their supremacy and had become
Babur coveted the Punjab Parganas was the very strong. Rajputs were not final y crushed.
income from Kabul. The political situation in Bahadurshah was very strong in Gujarat.
the north-west India was suitable for Babur’s Besides, even the administration was disor-
entry into India. ganized. The empire was divided into many
In 1518–1519, Babur conquered the power- Jagirs, and the Jagirdars were not loyal to the
ful fort of Bhira. In 1520–1521, Babur once king. The royal treasury had become vacant.
again crossed the Indus and easily captured Humayun’s brothers had revolted. The Mughal
2.78 Chapter 11
army was not fully organized. As Humayun Sher Shah

put on the crown, he was surrounded with
difficulties from all sides. In 1531, he firs The original name of Sher Shah was Farid.
invaded upon Kalinjar as its ruler favoured He was the founder of Sur Empire. He began
the Afghans. He laid the siege of Kalinjar for his career with the administration of his father
some months but later concluded peace with Hasan’s Iqta at Sahasram in South Bihar. Later,
its ruler. It was his mistake not to defeat the he moved to the court of the Afghan ruler of
king of Kalinjar. Bihar, Bahar Khan Lohani, who gave him the
In 1533, he fought with the Afghans who title ‘Sher Khan’ for his bravery.
fought under the leadership of Mahmud Lodhi.
Humayun defeated them in the battle of Deo- The Sur Administration
rah in 1532. After this, he laid the siege of
Chunar Garh against Sher Shah who pretended Although he was a great conquerer Sher Shah
as if he surrendered. Humayun lift the siege. It was a greater ruler. His short rule was marked
was the second blunder of Humayun. He gave by many beneficent reforms in every branch
Sher Shah an opportunity to prepare himself of administration. For administrative conveni-
and become stronger. ence, Sher Shah divided his whole empire into
Sher Shah had conquered Bengal and had 47 divisions called Sarkars, and these were
besieged Gaur. Humayun besieged Chunar again subdivided into smaller administrative
Garh and after 6 months conquered it. He also units called Parganas.
captured Bengal without fighting. Sher Shah
took resort in the fort of Rohtas with his fam- Central Administration
ily and treasury. Humayun wasted time even
in Bengal. In the rainy season, the Mughal It was based on autocratic monarchy. No
soldiers suffered from malaria and died. Tak- actual powers were given to the ministers.
ing advantage of the situation, Sher Shah con- Constant supervision and control was made
quered Kannauj and obstructed the way from by the Sultan. Its main defect was excessive
Bengal to Agra. The anxious Humayun left for centralization. Four main central depart-
Agra. Sher Shah let him march to Chausa, and ments were as follows:
there he began the preparations for a battle. (i) Diwan-i-Wizarat: The department was
The armies from both sides remained face to related with financial matters such
face for 3 months. as collecting taxes and maintaining
Humayun did not get any help from his accounts of the state exchequer.
brothers. Sher Shah strengthened his posi- (ii) Diwan-i-Arz: Headed by Arz-i-
tion. When it rained, there was waterlogging in Mamalik, it was a military department.
Humayun’s camp. On June 26 1539, Sher Shah (iii) Diwan-i-Insha: Working as a secre-
crossed the Ganga river and attacked upon tariat, it issued royal orders. The head
Humayun. Humayun saved his life with the of this department was called dabir.
help of a waterman named Nizam and reached (iv) Diwan-i-Risalat: Headed by Sadr, this
Agra. Sher Shah, after his victory at Chausa, department dealt with the religious
became the master of Bihar and Bengal. He and foreign affair matters. Diwan-
now looked towards the Mughal throne. On i-Kaza, headed by qazi, worked under
May 17, 1540, he defeated Humayun in the this department. The qazi looked after
battle of Bilgram. judicial administration.
The Mughal Empire 2.79
Local Administration features of Sher Shah land revenue arrange-

ment were
Division of the provinces into Sarkars, which
(i) Assessment of land revenue on the
were under Shiqdar-i-Shiqdaran (in charge
basis of measurement of land. For
of law and order, general administration and
measurement of the land, ‘Sikandari
criminal justice) and munsif-i-mansifan (in
gaja’ (32 inches) was made the base.
charge of local revenue and civil justice).
(ii) Drawing up of schedules of crop rates
Division of the Sarkars into Paraganas,
on the basis of the quality of land.
which were under shiqdars (law and order,
(iii) Classification of land into three cat-
criminal justice, etc.), and munsif or amin
egories on the basis of their yield
(land revenue and civil justice).
(good, bad and middling).
Division of the Parganas into villages,
(iv) Computation of the produce of three
under headmen. By appointing two persons
kinds of land and fixing one-third of
of equal rank at Pargana and sarkar levels,
their average as the land revenue, pay-
Sher Shah divided the executive functions,
able either in cash or in kind.
thus ensuring balance of power.
(v) The rights and liabilities of the tenants
By assuming the power of appointment
were clearly defined in documents
and dismissal of even Pargana and Sarkar
known as patlas (title deeds) and
officials, Sher Shah effected greater cen-
qabuliyats (deed of agreement). Each
tralization.
peasant thus knew what he had to pay.
(vi) Collection of a cess of two and half
Revenue Administration seers per bigha (unit of land) from the
peasants for famine relief fund.
Sher Shah’s land revenue policy is an
important landmark in the history of Indian
agrarian system.
Military Administration
After a survey of the lands (under the super- The salient features of military administration
vision of Ahmad Khan), according to a uni- of Sher Shah were:
form system, Sher Shah settled the land Dispensation of tribal levies, and beginning
revenue directly with the tillers of the soil. of direct recruitment of soldiers.
He abolished the system of landlords and Payment of salaries to the soldiers in cash.
middlemen in his revenue administration. Maintenance of chehra or descriptive rolls
His revenue management is compared with of soldiers and dagh or the branding of
the modern Ryotwari settlement. Todar Mai horses.
contributed greatly in the development of Setting up of cantonments in different places
the revenue policy of Sher Shah. and posting a garrison in each of them.
During the rule of Sher Shah, peasants had
also to pay Jaribana (survey charge) and
Muhasilana (tax collection charge). The Problems before Akbar
rates of these charges were 2.5% and 5% The throne Akbar ascended was not a throne
respectively. studded with rose fl wers. Many political
Sher Shah’s land revenue system, with problems were present before him and Smith
some modifications, was adopted by the writes, ‘He could not be said to possess any
Mughals under Akbar and some important kingdom’. The small army under the command
2.80 Chapter 11
of Bairam Khan merely held a precarious hold Victory Expeditions with the
by force on certain districts of the Punjab and
that army itself was not to be trusted implicitly. Help of Bairam Khan
Before Akbar could become Badshah in real-
Gwalior and Jaunpur
ity as well as in name, he had to prove himself
better than the rival claimants to the throne. Suhel was the governor of Gwalior when Akbar
The commander of Mahmud Adil Shah named ascended the throne. He sent commanders like
Hemu was the biggest danger to him. In Ben- Habib Ali sultan, Maksood Ali and Zia Khan
gal, there were Afghans and in Rajputana were to conquer Gwalior. Finding it impossible to
the Rajputs who had turned rebels. Malwa and save the fort, Suhel sold the fort of Gwalior to
Gujarat were independent. The states of Dec- Ram Shah. In the battle between Zia Khan and
can were involved in mutual quarrels. After a Ram Shah, the latter was defeated and he took
few months of the accession of Akbar, Shah shelter with the Rana of Udaipur. In the third
Abul Mali rebelled. Bairam Khan imprisoned year of his reign, Akbar subjugated Gwalior.
him, but Akbar pardoned him and imprisoned In 1559, a year after, Khan Zaman was sent to
him at Bayana. Sikandar Sur also created a conquer Jaunpur and he won it easily.
lot of trouble. He was suppressed and he died
after 3 years. Conquest of Ranthambhor
After Humayun’s death, Mirza Suleiman Akbar had tried to conquer Ranthambhor but had
conducted the siege of Kabul. He made Munim failed. He again sent Habib Ali Khan to invade
Khan agreeable to include his name in Khutba. it. The ruler of Ranthambhor was Rai Surjan.
Mirza Suleiman also turned enemy of Akbar. Habib Ali Khan plundered and looted the entire
Tardi Beg rebelled and established his control region and forced Rai Surjan to surrender. The
over Mewat, Delhi, and a few other Paraganas. brother of Zaman Khan named Bahadur Khan
Akbar as such was surrounded with problems was sent to conquer Malwa, but he was recalled
that he successfully solved. to the capital due to the revolt of Bairam Khan.
Second Battle of Panipat Downfall of Bairam Khan

The biggest problem before Akbar was to face
Akbar had grown in age and wisdom. He found
Hemu. Hemu had adopted the title of Vikram-
that Bairam Khan was turning obstinate and
jeet and captured Delhi. His army consisted
aggressive. Akbar desired to shoulder on the
of one lakh soldiers. On 5 November 1556,
responsibilities of the kingdom himself and to
he stationed his army in the field of Panipat.
become free from the protection of Bairam Khan.
Hemu faced him boldly, but an arrow struck
Abul Fazal writes that Bairam Khan fell a prey
in Hemu’s eye and he fell on his seat and was
to a conspiracy. The opponents of Bairam Khan
caught and killed. After getting victory in the
put into the ears of Akbar many things against
II battle of Panipat, Akbar’s feet were fi mly
him: The ladies of the Harem also incited him to
planted at Delhi and Agra. After a month, he
be free of the influence of Bairam Khan. Bairam
sent the army against Mewat and Sikandar Sur.
Khan appointed Sheikh Gadai—a Shia to the
Akbar had three main objectives before him.
post of Sadar-i-Sudur. The Sunni Muslims of the
1. To reconquer the lost Mughal territories. court joined together against Bairam Khan and
2. To control his courtiers. complained to Akbar. Akbar went to Delhi on
3. To establish internal administration and the plea of hunting and wrote to Bairam Khan
calm down the revolts. that he had decided to take into his own hands
the reign of the government. Bairam Khan sur- Mewar on Jaimal and Patta. Seven thousand
rendered to Akbar. His opponents wanted to men too left with him, and he founded the city
humiliate him and so he rebelled. His rebellion of Udaipur. But ultimately, Jaimal and Patta
was crushed, and looking to his past services to both were killed. The Rajputs performed the
the state, Akbar pardoned him. Bairam Khan ‘Jauhar’ ceremony and fell upon the Mughals.
decided to go to Mecca. On the way, an Afghan About 8000 Rajput warriors perished. Chittor
whose father was killed at Machchiwara, killed fell into the hands of Akbar in February 1568.
him. Akbar married the widow of Bairam Khan
and provided shelter and protection to his son Ranthambhor
Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khana. He was one of the On 22 February 1569, Akbar proceeded to
nine jewels of Akbar’s court. conquer Ranathambhor. The king of Ranth-
ambhor sent as envoy his two sons to conduct
Petticoat Government an alliance with Akbar. His sons Dudh and
Akbar could be relieved of Bairam Khan’s con- Bhoj were treated well by Akbar. He sent Hus-
trol, but the ladies of the Harem tried to control sain Quli Khan inside the fort and Akbar kept
him and from 1560 to 1564, he was under the Rai Surjan in his service.
influence of Maham Anga. In this period, in
spite of the Harem’s influence, he conquered Battle of Haldighati
Malwa and Gondwana. Just as Udai Singh did not surrender to Akbar,
his son Rana Pratap Singh did not accept Akbar’s
Conquest of Malwa control and continued his struggle against
In 1560, Baz Bahadur was the ruler of Malwa Akbar. Akbar tried a lot but could not succeed
who was renowned for the love of music. in bending down Rana Pratap. In 1576, Akbar
Akbar sent Adham Khan, the son of Maham sent Raja Man Singh to fight with Rana Pratap.
Anga and Peer Mohammad, to attack upon The Haldighati battle was fought between them
Malwa. In 1561, Baz Bahadur faced Adham in which Maha Rana Pratap was defeated. He
Khan but was defeated. When his wife, Rani fled away and founded Gogunda where he lived.
Rupmati, was brought before Adham Khan, He captured some places near Chittor.
she poisoned herself. Adham Khan looted
enormous wealth from Malwa and sent a little Surrender of Kabul
of it to the Mughal emperor. Akbar got very Mirza Mohammad Hakim died in 1585 with-
angry, but Maham Anga calmed him down. out any successor. His sons were minors. The
In 1564 at Mandu, Akbar married the daugh- nobles asked Akbar to interfere. Akbar sent
ter of the ruler of Khandesh, Meer Mubarak Man Singh to capture Kabul. He was accorded
Shah. He appointed Bahadur Khan as Subedar a warm welcome and he left his two sons with
of Mandu. He came back to Agra via Marwar Shamsuddin, and later Akbar appointed Man
and Gwalior. Akbar punished Khan Zaman for Singh as Subedar of Kabul.
indiscipline and seized his Jagir.
Political Unity
Fall of Chittorgarh At the time of Akbar’s death, the Bhakti and
Akbar started from Gagroon to conquer Chit- Sufi movements were at their heights in India.
tor in 1568. Hearing about it, Udai Singh fled Many Hindi and Sanskrit texts were translated
away to the forest, leaving the responsibility of in Arabic and Persian, and he adopted a policy
2.82 Chapter 11
of religious toleration. Akbar inherited all the checks and balances. While the post of wakil
liberal tendencies of his age, and his thoughts was not abolished, it was stripped of all power
became liberal. He tried to give unity to his and became largely decorative. The post was
empire. He provided a centralized authority given to important nobles from time to time,
and organized the country’s administration. He but they played little part in administration.
promoted religious unity in the empire. The head of the revenue department continued
As soon as he occupied the reins of adminis- to be the wazir. He was not generally a person
tration, he abolished the Jazia tax and attempted who held a high position in the nobility. Many
to remove the distinction of Hindus and Mus- nobles held mansabs that were higher than his.
lims. It was not a heavy tax but as it differenti- Thus, he was no longer the principal adviser
ated between the people, the Hindus disliked it. to the ruler, but an expert in revenue affairs.
After a year, he abolished the pilgrimage tax. To emphasize this point, Akbar generally used
He put a ban on converting the war-prisoners the title of diwan or diwan-i-ala in preference
to Islam. His efforts led to the establishment of to the word wazir. Sometimes, several persons
brotherhood. He patronized his subjects with- were asked to discharge the duties of diwan
out any distinction of caste, colour or creed. jointly. The diwan was responsible for all
He made the Hindus to join the nobility and income and expenditure and held control over
strengthened the liberal principles. Majority khalisa, jagir and inam lands.
of them were the Rajput kings who had con- The head of the military department was
ducted matrimonial alliances with the Mughal called the mir bakhshi. It was the mir bakh-
families. He granted Mansabs to men of abil- shi and not the diwan who was considered the
ity. Among those who enjoyed high posts on head of the nobility. Therefore, only the lead-
merit were Todarmal and Birbal. Both of them ing grandees were appointed to this post. Rec-
were men of king’s confidence. Hindus, there- ommendations for appointment to mansabs or
fore, nurtured faith in the king. for promotions, etc., were made to the emperor
through the mir bakhshi. Once the emperor
had accepted a recommendation, it was sent to
Akbar’s Administration the diwan for confirmation and for assigning a
Hardly any changes were made by Akbar in the jagir to the appointee. The same procedure was
organization of local government. The Pargana followed in case of promotions.
and the Sarkar continued as before. The chief The third important officer was the mir
officers of the Sarkar were the faujdar and the saman. He was in charge of the imperial
amalguzar, the former being in charge of law household, including the supply of all the pro-
and order, and the latter responsible for the visions and articles for the use of the inmates
assessment and collection of the land revenue. of the harem or the female apartments. Many
The territories of the empire were divided into of these articles were manufactured under
jagir, khalisa and inam. Income from khalisa supervision in royal workshops called harkha-
villages went directly to the royal exchequer. nas. Only nobles who enjoyed the complete
The inam lands were those that were allotted confidence of the emperor were appointed to
to learned and religious men. Jagirs were allot- this office. The maintenance of etiquette at the
ted to nobles and members of the royal family court, the control of the royal bodyguard, etc.,
including the queens. were all under the overall supervision of this
Akbar reorganized the central machinery officer.
of administration on the basis of the division The fourth important department was the
of power between various departments, and of judicial department headed by the chief qazi.
This post was sometimes combined with that of September 1579, he declared the Mazhar. The
the chief saclr who was responsible for all chari- Ulemas gave him in writing that they would
table and religious endowments. Thus, it was a accept all his decisions, taken in the interest of
post that carried considerable power and patron- his people. It meant that with political author-
age; it fell into bad odour due to the corruption ity, Akbar assumed the religious authority.
and venality of Akbar’s chief qazi, Abdun Nabi. Akbar believed that the division of power
After instituting a careful scrutiny of the weakens the authority. He tried to convince the
grants held by various persons, Akbar separated common people that he was their real ruler. He
the inam lands from the jagir and khalisa lands introduced common membership to Muslims
and divided the empire into six circles for pur- and the non-Muslims both. He left the policy
poses of grant of inam lands and their adminis- of discrimination on the basis of religion. He
tration. Two features of the inam grants are note- included the Hindus in administration. He had
worthy. First, Akbar made it a deliberate part of to face the opposition of Muslim courtiers and
his policy to grant inam lands to all persons, ulemas as they had their monopoly over adminis-
irrespective of their religious faith and beliefs. tration in the early period. They rebelled against
Sanads of grant to various Hindu maths made Akbar. Akbar suppressed them with the help of
by Akbar are still preserved. Second, Akbar Rajputs, Iranians and some Sunni Muslims. He
made it a rule that half of the inam land should began to think that the Islamic theory of kingship
consist of cultivable wasteland. Thus, the inam should be left because it is against the Indian cir-
holders were encouraged to extend cultivation. cumstances and humanism. Abul Fazal writes,
In order to make himself accessible to the ‘Kingship is the gift of God, The person who
people as well as to the ministers, Akbar care- had done good deeds for the welfare of others,
fully divided his time. The day started with the gets this gift of God’. Akbar received the title of
emperor’s appearance at the jharoka of the pal- Zille Ilahi by dint of his own personality. Akbar
ace. Large number of people assembled daily believed that a king should be a well-wisher of
to have a glimpse of the ruler and to present the people. He must be a lover of Justice, dispas-
petitions to him, if necessary. These petitions sionate and kind. The people would only wor-
were attended to immediately, or in the open ship the king when his style of functioning and
darbar (diwan-i-am) which followed, and administration is good. It is not a merit of the
lasted till midday. The emperor then retired to king to be cruel. People depend on the kindness
his apartments for meals and rest. and justice of the king. He expressed these ideas
in a letter to the Shah of Iran.
Majority of the people accepted the divine
New Kingship of Akbar right theory of kingship as enunciated by
In the beginning, Akbar behaved like an ortho- Akbar. Hindus accepted it as it was prevalent
dox Sunni Muslim ruler. He was considered to in India since ancient times. Badayuni rejected
be Amirul Mummin whose task was to protect it along with other orthodox Muslims and told
and spread Islam. He was bound to spread the that it was against the rules of Quran.
teachings of Quran. He was responsible only to
God. In principle, he ruled like other Muslim
rulers for the /KNNCV, the Muslim population, Secular Outlook of Akbar
and he worked under the influence of the Ule- Akbar proved successful in his empire build-
mas. But he disliked the interference of Ulemas ing not merely because of his military prowess
in official matters. He stopped their influence but also because of his enlightened religious
and himself became the highest sovereignty. In policy and his attitude towards the Rajputs.
2.84 Chapter 11
One of the neatest humanitarian measures of After the battle of Haldighati, Akbar
Akbar was abolition of slavery and the practice resumed the theological debates with repre-
of converting prisoners of war to Islam, in AD sentatives of all religious groups such as Shias,
1562. He abolished pilgrimage tax in AD 1563 Hindus, Christians and Zoroastrians. He grew
and Jaziya in AD 1564. convinced that all religions contained some
truth and that this was not the prerogative of
Rajput Policy Islam.
Akbar made the Rajputs not only his friends
but also took many Rajput princesses as his Special Invitees to Ibadat Khana
bride. He established matrimonial alliances Hinduism: Purushottam and Devi
with the royal families of the Rajput states Zoroastrianism: Maharji Rana
such as Amber, Bikaner and Jaisalmer. Christianity: Aqaviva and Monserrate (both
Raja Bharamal Kachchhwaha of Amber mar- Portuguese)
ried his eldest daughter to Akbar. Raja Bhaga- Jainism: Hira Vijaya Suri
wan Das (Raja Bharamal’s heir) and Man Singh Father Monserrate, a member of the first
(his nephew and adopted son) were subsequently Jesuit mission at Akbar’s court AD 1580–
given senior positions in the imperial hierarchy. 1583, who accompanied the emperor in the
He granted the Rajputs equal rights with Kabul campaign AD 1581 against his half-
the Muslims and appointed them on high and brother Mirza Hakim, has left a lively account
elevated positions. However, he also fought of the religious debates during the journey.
wars against those Rajput rulers who did not Mahzar Shaikh Mubarak advised the
accept his authority. He fought continuous emperor to obtain the written verdict of Ulema
battles against Rajput states like Gondwana as to whether the ruler was empowered to
Ranthambhor, Kalinjar and Mewar. decide in accordance with expediency on con-
When a conquest was completed, he treated troversial legal questions. A document dated
the subdued Raiput ruler with utmost polite- August–September 1579 known as the Mahzar
ness and due honour. One by one, all the Rajput was consequently signed by threading Ulema
states were subjugated and they submitted to under the guidance of Shaikh Mubarak.
Akbar. Actually, the essence of Akbar’s Rajput This made Akbar the final interpreter of
policy was that at first they should be brought Islamic law (Mujtahid-Imam-i-Adil) in case
under his control, and thereafter they should of any controversies. It made him Amir-
be treated with due regards and friendless. ul-Momin (leader of the faithful) and Amir-
i-Adil (a just ruler). However, it was not an
‘infallibility decree’ as claimed by VA Smith.
Ibadat Khana (House of
Worship) Din-i-llahi (Divine Faith)
In AD 1575, Akbar ordered the construction Father Daniel Bartoli, a later Jesuit author,
of the Ibadat Khana (House of Worship) near claims that after his return from Kabul, Akbar
the Jami Masjid in his newly built town of made himself the founder and head of a new
Fatehpur Sikri. Only the Sunnis were initially religion. This religion, Bartoli continues, was
allowed to participate in religious discussions. discussed by a council of learned men and
Abdul Qadir Badayuni and Abul Fazl were the commanders. This council is regarded by
principal debaters. Both had been trained by modem scholars as the inauguration of Akbar’s
Abul Fazl’s father, Shaikh Mubarak. new faith, the Din Ilahi (Divine Monotheism).
The letters and reports of three Jesuit mis- Akbar issued the currency of silver named
sions which visited Akbar, however, indicate Rupaya. Jalali (equal to rupee but square),
that no new religion was ever promulgated. The Darb (half the rupee), Cham (1/4 of rupee),
examination of contemporary sources does not Ashth (1/8 of rupee), Kala (1/16 of rupee)
lead us to the conclusion that Akbar invented and Suki (1/20 of rupee) were other coins
a new religion. Badayuni believed that Akbar of Akbar.
was creating a new religion, but contemporary The copper coin of Akbar was known as
historians believe that he was only trying to Dam. About 1/25 of the Dam was known
attain the status of Insaan-i-Kamil. as Jeetal.
Some important tenets of Tauhid-i-Ilahi or In the fortieth regnal year of Akbar, he
Din-i-Ilahi were: inscribed poetic stories on some of his
coins.
(i) It could be adopted on Sunday by per-
Akbar issued a gold coin on the occasion of
forming Paibos (the emperor placed his
the conquest of Asirgarh fort.
feet on the head of the initiated), follow-
Akbar struck such coins as were having the
ing which Akbar gave Shat (Formula).
portrait of Ram Sita inscribed on it. Siya
(ii) The initiated had to express greeting in the
Ram was also inscribed on it.
form of Allah-o-Akbar and Jalle-Jalalhu.
The responsibility of maintaining purity of
(iii) He had to abstain from meat and give
the coins was of Daroga and Sarafs.
alms.
The Daroga-i-Taksal was responsible for
(iv) There were no scriptures and priests.
purity and uniformity of coins struck in dif-
(v) Taubid-i-llahi had four grades of devotion
ferent mints.
in the ascending order—sacrifice of prop-
erty, life, honour and religion to promote
the interest of the imperial master. Jahangir
(vi) Birbal, Abul Fazl and Faizi joined in order. Prince Salim assumed the title of Jahangir
In the Ain-i-Akbari, Abul Fazl deals with a (world conqueror) and adhered to Akbar’s
number of laws made by Akbar for secularizing ideals of the coexistence of all religious
the state, which were, however, termed as ‘ille- communities. He remitted some local taxes
gal’ by the orthodox Badayuni. on trade and the manufacturing of goods. He
also forbade the killing of animals for food on
For instance, Akbar prohibited polygamy Thursdays and Sundays. Besides, he sought to
and allowed a second wife only in excep- enhance the importance of the mazolim court.
tional circumstances. In AD 1611, Jahangir married Mihr-un-nisa,
He also prohibited child marriages, the cir- the widow of Sher Afghan, who was killed
cumcision of boys below the age of twelve fighting the G vernor of Bengal.
and the slaughter of animals on certain After her marriage, Mihr-un-nisa was
days, totalling about half the year. given the title Nur Mahal (Light of the Pal-
ace) and, later, Nur Jahan (Light of World).
Coins of Akbar’s time Nur Jahan was an accomplished lady. She
is said to have been the real power behind
Akbar struck the coins of gold, silver the throne. She conferred high titles on her
and copper. He appointed Khwaja Abdus relatives, and her father (Mirza Ghiyas Beg)
Samad, the painter as the chairman of was given the title of ‘Itimad-ud-daula’ and
Currency. was appointed as Wazir. Nur Jahan’s elder
2.86 Chapter 11
brother, Mirza Abul Hasan, was given the his guerrilla tactics with greater vigour and
title Asaf Khan and was appointed Khan- Mughal invasions were repeatedly beaten
i-Saman. In AD 1612, Asaf Khan’s daugh- back.
ter Arjumand Banu Begum (later entitled
Mumtaz Mahal) married Jahangir’s third son
prince Khurram.
Kandhar
At the end of Jahangir’s reign, his son Shah In AD 1622, the Mughals lost Kandhar to the
Jahan rebelled against him. Another crucial Iranian king, Shah Abbas. Khurram was given
event of his reign was that when he fell ill (AD the command to repel the Iranis, but Khurram
1622), his queen, Nur Jahan, took active inter- procrastinated. Shahryar was then commis-
est in the matters of state, and Jahangir was sioned to lead the campaign against Kandhar.
reduced to a figure-head. Even the coins were Nur Jahan’s preference for prince Shahryar to
issued jointly in the names of Jahangir and Nur succeed Jahangir forced Shah Jahan to revolt
Jahan. A skilled connoisseur of Persian art and against his father. Khurram marched towards
painting, Jahangir patronized the best painters Agra. Asaf Khan supported Khurram in the
of the period like Abul Hasan and Mansur who civil war (AD 1622–1624) which lasted for
laid unprecedented emphasis on scenic beauty, more than 3 years. Khurram ultimately surren-
birds and beasts. dered and was pardoned.
In AD 1627, the emperor died at Bhimbar
in Kashmir. The emperor’s dead body was
Conquests sent from Bhimbar to Lahore for burial in the
Rajputs of Mewar Dilkhusha garden of Shahdra. In his Tuzuk-
i-Jahangiri (autobiography), he described
Most noteworthy, military success of Jahangir
his drinking bouts without inhibition. It is
was his triumph over the Rajputs of Mewar.
informative and reflects the author’s deep
Jahangir used both military force and diplo-
appreciation of nature as well as his inherent
macy in trying to secure the surrender of
inquisitiveness.
Maharana Pratap’s successor, Amar Singh. In
Jahangir’s death made the struggle for the
AD 1613, Jahangir personally proceeded to
throne imminent. Nur Jahan alerted Shahryar
Ajmer to guide the expedition, the supreme
to prepare for war. Asaf Khan sent messen-
command of which was given to Prince Khur-
gers to Khurram, who was in Deccan, urging
ram. After a long war, final y both rulers
him to come to Agra. Meanwhile, Asaf placed
concluded peace (AD 1615). Treaty that the
Khusrau’s son Dawar Baksh on the throne
suzerainty of Mughals.
as a stop gap sovereign. Shahryar, who was
supported by Nur Jahan, proclaimed himself
Deccan-Ahmednagar king but Asaf Khan defeated him, and impris-
Jahangir followed the policy of his father with oned him along with Daniyal’s two sons.
regard to the Deccan. Ahmednagar, which had Before Khurram reached Agra, Dawar Baksh,
been partly conquered by Akbar declared its his brother Shahryar and Daniyal’s two sons
independence in 1611 under Malik Ambar were beheaded. Parvez had already died. The
(a habshi or abyssinian slave). Jahangir sent his cold-blooded murder of all possible contend-
son Khurram against him. In 1617, Ahmedna- ers for the throne had removed any threat
gar fell and Khurram was rewarded with the from the imperial family to Shah Jahan’s rule.
title Shah Jahan. But the Mughals could not Thus, Shah Jahan proclaimed himself as an
establish their rule. Malik Amber pursued emperor.
Shah Jahan Central Asia: Kandhar and Transoxiana

Shah Jahan’s policy towards Central Asia was
Nobility during Shah Jahan to secure a possession of Kandhar which the
In the first year of his reign, Shah Jahan had Persians had re-occupied during the Jahangir’s
to overcome the revolts of the Bundelas at reign. He had recovered Kandhar in AD 1638
Bundelkhand and the Afghan noble named only to lose it in AD 1649. But his three expe-
Khan Jahan Lodi, an ex-viceroy of Deccan. ditions to regain it were without success. Thus,
During Jahangir’s reign, Bir Singh Bundela Kandhar was forever lost to the Mughal empire.
had become the emperor’s favourite by assas- Shah Jahan, wanting to conquer Badakshan and
sinating Abul Fazl. After his death, his son Balkh, sent his forces there in AD 1646, but the
Jujhar Singh succeeded him. Jujhar and his campaign proved a failure. The Mughal inability
son, Vikramajit, rebelled against the Mughals, to fight prolonged wars in mountains frustrated
but the imperialist forces pursued them relent- Shah Jahan’s ambitions to conquer Transoxiana,
lessly and eventually murdered them. his ancestral lands. The Mughals lost more than
5000 lives during their successive invasions
Conquests between AD 1638 and AD 1647. Shah Jahan
became more realistic and stopped dreaming of
Ahmednagar, AD 1633
ruling over his former ancestral lands.
Shah Jahan pursued the Mughal designs of Shah Jahan’s sudden illness in 1657 plunged
the complete conquest of the Deccan. How- the empire into a civil war (AD 1657–1659)
ever, it could not be completed during Shah among his four sons—Dara Sikoh (crown-
Jahan. After the death of Malik Amber, his prince), Shah Shuja (governor of Bengal),
son, Fath Khan, failed to get the cooperation Aurangzeb (governor of Deccan) and Murad
of the Nizam Shahi nobles, and consequently Baksh (governor of Malwa and Gujarat). Of their
he surrendered to Mughals. Ahmednagar was sisters, Jahanara Begum called Begum Sahiba
annexed to the empire in AD 1633. supported Dara Roshanara supported Aurang-
zeb and Gauharara acted as a spy for Murad.
Other Deccan States Shah Shuja and Aurangzeb had made a
Next, Shah Jahan forced the kingdoms of friendly alliance. Murad also became friendly
Bijapur and Golconda to accept his overlord- with Aurangzeb. Though Shah Jahan had
ship. Both Bijapur and Golconda signed a recovered by November 1657, the princess
treaty with the emperor. Khandesh, Rerar, Tel- refused to believe the news and raised the issue
engana and Daulatabad were made into four of liberating Shah Jahan from Dara’s control.
Mughal provinces. This brought 20 years of Murad declared himself king, and Shah Shuja
peace to the Deccan, till war broke out again proclaimed his independence in Bengal. When
in AD 1656. Shah Shuja reached Banaras, Dara’s son,
Sulaiman Shikoh, defeated him. Aurangzeb
Marathas, Portuguese and Kamrupa moved cautiously.
Shah Jahan enticed some Maratha leaders into Battle of Dharmat: Early in AD 1558, he set
his service. The most eminent among them was off from Aurangabad and met Murad at Dipal-
Shahji Bhonsle. Shah Jahan also expelled the pur near Ujjain, and the two armies camped
Portuguese from Hooghly, as they were abusing at Dharmat. The imperial forces under Maha-
their trading privileges and indulging in piracy raja Jaswant Singh had already arrived at Ujj-
and slave-trade. Kamarup was also annexed. ain to prevent the princess from proceeding
2.88 Chapter 11
to Agra. In the battle that followed, the forces But it can be said that his religious policy was
of Jaswant Singh were defeated. apparently against Hinduism. He hated the lib-
Battle of Samugarh: Next, Aurangzeb eral policy of Dara. He declared Jehad against
defeated Dara in the battle at Samugarh, non-Muslims and desired to change the Darul
near Agra. Harb in Darul Islam. It made him very tradi-
After besieging Agra, Aurangzeb rejected tional. He re-imposed Jazia on non-Muslims.
all Shah Jahan’s invitations to visit him. During Aurangzeb’s reign, the expansion
The emperor was confined within the ladies of empire reached its zenith. It was spread
palace along with Jahanara, and Aurangzeb from Kashmir in the north to Jingi in south,
refused to see his father until he had killed from Hindukush in the west to Chittgaon in
Dara, whom he declared an infidel. the east. His administration was very strict. He
Aurangzeb and Murad marched together punished his son when he revolted and impris-
from Agra towards Delhi in pursuit of Dara. oned him for 12 years. His son Muazzam who
But on the way, Aurangzeb treacherously was the governor of Kabul, trembled when he
took Murad captive and later sentenced him received the letters of his father during the last
to death. years of his reign. Aurangzeb was not a king to
Aurangzeb then moved to Delhi, forcing enjoy pleasure like his ancestors. He believed
Dara to flee the Punjab. At Delhi, Aurangzeb in simple life. He staunchly believed in God
formally crowned himself king with the title and he had total faith in him. He is therefore
Alamgir (conqueror of the Universe)! He considered to be the true Muslim. It is said
was also called as Zinda Pir, the living saint. that he copied the Quran to earn his own liveli-
Next in the Battle of Khajwa (AD 1658), hood. He was called Zinda Peer.
Shuja’s army was defeated. Finally, in AD It is true that he totally changed the religious
1660, Shuja left Bengal and sailed for Ara- policy of Akbar which made the Hindus almost
kan with his family. fully opposed to him. Many revolts broke out
Meanwhile, Dara was taken captive by his due to his changed policies. The Mughal empire
treacherous Afghan chief, Malik Jiwan, weakened, and he became responsible for the
who handed him over to Jai Singh. downfall of the Mughal empire. Some histo-
Dara was brought to Delhi and was sen- rians believe that his religious policy was not
tenced to death for committing apostasy unjust. He had to adopt this policy as his earlier
(Ridda or iritidad) by stating in his Majma- rulers pursued wrong policy and the Hindus
ul-Bahrain that Islam and Hinduism were lost faith in them. To control them, hard mea-
twin brothers (AD 1659). sures were necessary, and there was no other
Shah Jahan spent 8 years in confinement option. He could get the Muslim support only
in the Agra Fort. In AD 1666, Shah Jahan if he opposed the Hindus. The new researches
died, having been tended throughout his about Aurangzeb reveal that though he was
captivity by Jahanara an orthodox Muslim, he had no interest in the
philosophical discussions. He did not check
Aurangzeb his sons to adopt Sufism. It has also come to
light that though he was a strict believer in the
Religious Policy Hanafi thought of Islamic law, which was long
Historians think that Aurangzeb was an ortho- been pursued in India, still he continued ‘Jaba-
dox Sunni Muslim. His religious policy was vit’, secular laws. These laws are compiled
based on Islam and not on any worldly benefit. in ‘Jabavit-i-AIamgiri’. The Jabavits were
supplement of Shariyat. But the Shariyat was would be then to kill them’. This shows that he
not suitable for Indian circumstances. So in the was godfearing and not unjust. His policies had
light of Indian circumstances, the Shariyat was political bearing. He did not change the nature
changed and it was called Jabavit. of state, yet he emphasized upon Islamic ele-
He stopped the custom of Jharokha Dar- ments. It would not be proper to say that his reli-
shan. He also stopped the weighing of the king gious faith was the basis of his politics. Though
on his birthday with gold, silver and other valu- he was an orthodox Sunni Muslim and had full
able things. It affected the economy and it was trust in Quran and Shariyat, but as a ruler, he
burdensome to smaller Zamindars. Aurangzeb just desired to expand his empire and he desired
had to continue it again on the request of his to give it a permanence. So his religious policy
sons. He prohibited the system of astrology was based upon politics. He was not in favour of
and the making of Panchang, but he could not losing the support of the Hindus. On many occa-
stop it in the royal families. sions, he had to adopt contradictory policies that
He reserved the posts of Peshkar and Karo- ultimately proved harmful for the empire.
ris for Muslims. The Hindu chiefs protested
against this rule and he had to take back the
order. Another reason for taking it back was the Deccan Policy
scarcity of capable Muslims to hold these posts. Aurangzeb left for the Deccan in Septem-
Aurangzeb took recourse to religion and did ber 1681 never to return to the North. In the
much work inspired by religion. He re-imposed Deccan, Shivaji had carved out an independ-
Jazia upon Hindus in 1679. He destroyed many ent Maratha state in the territories North and
temples and built mosques on it. He destroyed South of Konkan.
the Keshavdev temple of Mathura, built by $KLCRWT To contain the Marathas, Aurang-
Veer Singh Dev, and Vishwanath temple of zeb decided to invade Bijapur, which at that
Banaras. Mosques and Madarsas were built time was being ruled by Sikandar Adil Shah.
on them. It had religious and political motives: Bijapur was annexed in AD 1686 and the Adil
Mustaid Khan refers to the instance of dilapi- Shahi dynasty came to an end.
dation of Keshavdev temple of Mathura in his )QNEQPFC Then it was the turn of Abul Hasan
book Maasir-i-Alamgiri. Qutub Shah of Golconda. Aurangzeb ordered
It is definite that he encouraged Islam. But prince Muazzam to march against Golconda.
no proofs are available to show that he indulged Madanna and his brother Akkanna were killed
in mass conversions. His policy of changing by the leading Qutub Shahi nobles, who
India to Darul Islam is not proved. He gave high accused them of causing Aurangzeb’s inva-
regards to Hindu chiefs. Among the high posted sion. However, Muazzam himself was con-
officials, the Hindus were one-third whereas demned as a traitor by Aurangzeb and was
during Shah Jahan’s time it was one-fourth only. imprisoned with his entire family. In AD 1687,
An incident about Aurangzeb’s secularism is a treacherous Afghan opened one of the gates
often quoted. Once a Muslim applied for job on of the fort to the Mughal army and Golconda
the basis of religion, Aurangzeb replied, ‘What was annexed.
is the place of religion in worldly matters? There /CTCVJCU Sambhaji was taken captive and
is no place for fanaticism in religious matters. executed at Sangamesvar and his family,
Your religion is for yourself and my religion is including his son Sahu, was captured. Aurang-
for me. If I agree with you, I must destroy all zeb gave Sahu the mansab of 7000 and treated
Hindus, their Kings and their followers. My duty him well. But he misjudged the strength of the
2.90 Chapter 11
Maratha guerrillas and the situation deterio- Later, the big Mansabs valued up to 10,000 or
rated. The Marathas never allowed Aurangzeb 12,000. The number of Mansabdars was not
to rest in peace. For about 25 years (AD 1682– fixed in the Mughal period, and it went on
1707), he made desperate efforts to crush the increasing from Akbar to Aurangzeb. In princi-
Marathas, exhausting himself and his empire ple, the appointment of Mansabdars was made
in the process. Aurangzeb’s death in AD 1707 by the king, and their promotion depended on
at the ripe age of 89 final y ended the age of their bravery and merit. Those who had less
the Great Mughals. He was buried near Daula- Zat than 500 were called Mansabdars. Those
tabad near the grave of Shaikh Jail-ul-Haq. who received a Mansab of more than 500 to
2500 were called Amirs. Those who had more
the 2500 or more as Zat were called Amir-i-
Mansabdari System Umda, Amir-i-Azam or Umrah. Those who got
The meaning of the word ‘Mansab’ is posi- cash salary were called Naqdis and those who
tion or office. The officers in the Mughal got Jagir in place of salary were called Jag-
age were called Mansabdars. It was a speci- irdars. They were usually transferable. Some
ality of Mughal administration. This system Jagirdars had hereditary rights over the Jagir.
originated in central Asia. Akbar institutional- They were called the Watanis. Those who had
ized it for the sake of military administration the Jagirs before the advent of Mughals were
and to strengthen the general administration. acknowledged by the Mughals. The Mansab-
The Mansabdars became an integral part of dars were not hereditary. After the death of a
Mughal administration. Almost all nobles, Mansabdar, his Mansab was discontinued and
bureaucrats and army officers were provided the Jagir too was taken back. But it was not
Mansabs. They received their salaries in cash so with the Watni Jagirdars. It was transferred
or the Jagirs were granted to them in lieu of to his successors. The Mansabdars knew that
salary from which they collected the land tax after their death, the Jagir would be taken
and other taxes. They could not levy taxes out back, so they did not exploit the Kasthkars.
of their will. They collected only such taxes as Any Amir or Amir-i-Umda could employ any
fi ed by the king. Thus Mansabdari became a Mansabdar under him. But a Mansabdar could
very important part of Jagirdari and agricul- not employ any other Mansabdar. The Amir-i-
tural system. Umda of 5000 Zat could employ a Mansabdar
The Mansabdars belonged to both mili- of 400 Zat. The king appointed and promoted
tary and civil administration both. They were them. Sometimes, they were demoted by the
transferred from civil to military and vice king. Any individual could attain the post of
versa. The Mansabdars were divided into two Amir or Amir-i-Umda.
sections—Zat and Sawar. Zat signified the The first-class Mansabdars had the right of
individual status. Sawar signified the cavalry, keeping the Sawars in proportion of his Zat.
the Mansabdars had to keep under them. Zat If the number of Sawars was half of his Zat or
could reflect the position of Mansabdars and more than it, he came under the second class.
symbolized the official hierarchy and salary. If the number of Sawars was half the Zat, he
In Akbar’s time, Mansabdars ranged from 10 came under the third class. These were the
to 5000 troops. The mansab of 5000 was given three classes of the Mansabs.
to the members of royal family or to individu- The Zats ‘who had Sawars in large num-
als of prominent dynasties. In the later year bers’ got two rupees per Sawar as their salary.
of Akbar, the Mansab of 7000 Zat was given. But no Mansabdar could keep more Sawars
than his Zat. Sawar indicated that how many to keep 20 horses. As long as these rules were
cavalrymen the Mansabdars could keep for the followed, the Mughal army remained very
service of the state. In the beginning, the Man- strong.
sabdar received Rs. 240 per Sawar every year The Mansabdars came from all castes such
as salary. Later, this amount was reduced to Rs. as Mughal, Pathans, Rajputs and Hindustanis.
200 per Sawar. The Mughal Sawars received The Mughal and Rajputs had the right to keep
more salary than others. The Mansabdars were the soldiers of their castes.
given the concessions to save for himself 5% From the time of Akbar to seventeenth cen-
of the amount. Besides the salary of Zat, he tury, the original form of Mansabdari remained
had increment of Rs. 2 per Sawar in salary. the same. Jahangir started the system of Du-
From his salary, the Mansabdar had to Aspa and Sih Aspa. According to it, the Man-
arrange for elephants, camels and Khachchars sabdar of 3000 Zat and 3000 were Du-Aspa.
required for communication of army. The The Sih Aspa Mansabdars had to keep 6000
Mughal Mansabdars received good salary. soldiers. Shah Jahan gave the Mansabdars the
Many foreigners like Irani, Turani, Afghani new pay scale, decided monthly ration and
and Arabians came to the Mughal court to framed new rules to assign the Jagirs. He pre-
try their luck. The 5000 Zat Mansabdars got pared the registers that contained the details of
Rs. 30,000 as salary. Though the Mansabdars Jagirs. The Jagirs were not estimated in rupees
spent more than half of their income in keep- but in Dams. It was therefore called Jamadami.
ing the army and managing the Jagir, they As the costs increased during Shah Jahan’s
led a life of grandeur. For one Sawar, they time, the cost of Jamadami increased. During
paid Rs. 20 and for infantry he paid Rs. 3 Aurangzeb’s time, the high-class Mansabdars
per soldier. increased in number, and there was lack of
It was specially needed that soldiers should Jagirs to be given to them. The kings and his
be capable and worthy. A record of every ministers put a check on the recruitment of
Sawar was kept and the horses were branded. new Mansabdars. Yet due to changed circum-
They invited the king to inspect their soldiers. stances, the recruitment could not be stopped.
The Arabian and Iraqi horses were recruited The result was that the system cracked after
and for 10 cavalrymen every Mansabdar had Aurangzeb and came to an end.
Famous Historians and their works during the Mughal Period

Time Historian Text Patron
1483–1530 Zahiruddin Mohd. Babur Babur Nama Babur
1500–1551 Mirza Haider Duglat Tarikh-i-Rashidi Humayun
1532–1560 Gulbadan Begum Humayn Nama (1550) Humayun
1551–1602 Abul Fazal Akbarnama, Ain-i-Akbari Akbar
Sixteenth century Hindu Beg Tarikh-i-Ferishta Akbar
Sixteenth century Nizamuddin Ahmad Tabkat-i-Akbari Akbar
Sixteenth century Badayuni Muntakhabut-Tawarikh Akbar
Sixteenth century Abbas Khan Sherwani Tarikh-i-Sher Shahi (1579) Akbar
2.92 Chapter 11
Sixteenth century Ahmad Yadgar Tarikh-i-Salatine Afghana Akbar

Sixteenth century Jauhar Aftabehi Tajkiratul Waquat (1587) Akbar
Sixteenth century Mir Mohammad Masoom Tarikh-i-Sindh Akbar
Sixteenth century Rizqullah Mushtaqui Waqayat-i-Mushtaq Akbar
Sixteenth century Bayazid Bay at Tazkirat-e-Humayun Akbar
Sixteenth century Mir Alauddaula Qazimi Nafais-ul-Maasir Akbar
Sixteenth century Arif Kandhari Tarikh-i-Akbari (1585) Akbar
1569–1627 Nasiniddin Mohd. Jahangir Tujuk-i-Jahangir Jahangir
Seventeenth century Niyamatullah Makhjan-e-Afghana Jahangir
Seventeenth century Abdullah Tarikh-i-Dandi Jahangir
Seventeenth century Mutmaid Khan Iqbala Nama-i-Jahangir Jahangir
Seventeenth century Gharat Khan Maasir-i-Iahangir Jahangir
Seventeenth century Mohd. Sadiq Khan Shah Jahan Nama Shah Jahan
Seventeenth century Mohd. Amir Qazurni Shah Jahan Nama Shah Jahan
(Padshah Nama)
Seventeenth century Abdul Hamid Lahori Padshah Nama Shah Jahan
Seventeenth century Mohammad Saleh Amal-i-Saleh Shah Jahan
Seventeenth century Mohammad Waris Padshah Nama Shah Jahan
Seventeenth century Mohd. Qazim Shirazi Alamgirnama Aurangzeb
Seventeenth century Mohd. Saqi Mustaid Khan Masir-i-AIamgiri Aurangzeb
Seventeenth century Aqil Khan Razi Zafar Nama Aurangzeb
Seventeenth century Khafi Khan Muntakhab-ul-Lubab Aurangzeb
Seventeenth century Ishwar Das Nagar Futuhat-i-Alamgiri Aurangzeb
Seventeenth century Bhimsen Saxena Nuskha-i-Dilkusha Aurangzeb
Seventeenth century Surjan Rai Khatri Khulasat-u-Tawarikh Aurangzeb
Seventeenth century Ghulam Hussain Sijarul Mutkharin Aurangzeb
Seventeenth century Ghulam Naqvi Imadus Sadat Aurangzeb
Mughal Art, Architecture and Jagan, Mahesh, Tara, Khemkaran, Sanwla,

Harivansh, etc.
Culture Akbar made a separate department of
Deewan was the collection of Babur’s painting and its head was Khwaja Abdus-
poems in Turki language. samad. He was awarded the title ‘Zarin
Out of the 17 painters of Akbar’s court, Qalam’.
13 were Hindus. They were Daswant, Tansen and Ramdas were two famous
Basawan, Keshu, Lai, Mukund, Madhu, musicians.
Akbar stopped the punishment of cutting Babur has mentioned the painter Bihzad in
nose and ears. his autobiography. Bihzad gave a new dimen-
Shah Jahan built the ‘Rair Canal’ which sion to style of painting which is a synthesis
was 98 miles long and repaired Nahar-i- of Persian, Chinese and Buddhist art.
Sahib and renamed it as Nahar-i-Shah. Humayun brought the two painters Khwaja
Bernier, Tavernier and Mannucci have Abdussamad and Mir. Saiyyad Ali with
described the reign of Shah Jahan. him.
Shah Burj was the secret apartment of Shah They painted Dastan-i-Amir Hamza.
Jahan. It was built in Agra Fort. The prominent painters of Humayun’s reign
In Barga (Royal Camp), more than 10,000 were Meer Saiyyad Ali, Shiraj, Khwaja
people could be accommodated. Abdussamad and Saiyyad Tabrezi.
During the time of Babur and Humayun; The art of painting reached its zenith during
there is no reference to Diwan-i-Khas and the time of Jahangir.
Diwan-i-Aam. Jahangir gave the title of Nadir-ul-Jamat to
In the Tomb of Etmaduddaula, for the first Abul Hasan and the title of Nadir Ud-Asar
time Pietra Dura was used. to Ustad Mansur. Bishan Das was a very
The Tomb of Jahangir was built under Nur expert painter of Jahangir’s court.
Jahan’s care and is situated at Lahore. Among the prominent painters of Shah Jah-
The Tomb of Khan-i-Khana belongs to an’s court, Fakirulla enjoyed the first rank.
the period of Jahangir which is similar to Hashim, Anup and Chitramani were other
Humayun’s tomb. painters.
Shah Jahan built three temples in Agra Fort. Aurangzeb destroyed the paintings of Bija-
Jama mosque was built by Jahan Ara, the pur and Golkunda.
daughter of Shah Jahan. Farrukhsiyar patronized painting.
Ustad Isa khan was the main architect of Taj Bhagwati and Hunar were the two paint-
Mahal. ers famous for paintings of human portrait.
It is known through Dewan-i-Mahdisa that Bhagwati painted in Persian style. Hunar’s
the map of Taj Mahal was made by Ustad paintings were full of Indian expression.
Ahmad Lahori. Shah Jahan adorned him The famous musicians in Jahangir’s court
with the title of ‘Nadir-ul-Asar’. were Parvez Dad, Khurram Dad and Hamza.
Taj Mahal was built in 22 years, in 1653, The famous musicians of Shah Jahan’s
with an investment of 9 crore rupees. reign were Jagannath, Ramdas, Lai Khan,
The Red Fort of Delhi was built under the Mirza Julkarne, Sursen, Durga Khan and
supervision of Hamid and Ahmad, the two Sukhsen.
artisans. Its investment was Rs. 1 crore and The Arambagh of Agra was called Nur-a-
it was completed in 1648. Afshan.
The construction of the Badshahi mosque Shah Jahan’s period is called the golden age
of Lahore was completed under the super- of Mughal rule.
vision of Fidai Khan. Fidai Khan was the Dara Shikoh laid out the Wazir Bagh of
Darogah of Aurangzeb’s artillery. Kashmir.
Among the buildings of Bijapur, Golgum- Aurangzeb’s daughter Zebunnisa built
bad and Ibrahim Rauza are the main. Bahar Burji in Lahore.
Shah Jahan’s Takht-e-Taus was prepared In 1430, Ibrahim Shah Sharqi built Jhanjhari
under the supervision of Bebadal Khan. mosque.
2.94 Chapter 11
Jahangir got constructed the idols of Rana ammunition from the state; second were
Udai Singh and his son Karan. silendars who arranged the horse and arms
In Akbar’s time, there used to be an Art gal- themselves.
lery under the supervision of Maktoob Khan. Shamsheervan was the soldier who fought
The tomb of Adam Khan at Delhi is octag- with sword.
onal. Daag Mahali was a separate department
The tomb of Nasiruddin Mahmud (Iitut- which branded the horses.
mish’s son) is called Sultangarhi. There were two sources of the income of
The tomb of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq is built state—central taxes and local taxes.
with five corners, and it is of red sandstone.
Jandan-i-Timuria is a painting. Later Mughals
The Later Mughals
Mughal Administration
Muazzam/Bahadur Shah I/ Shah Alam I
In 1562, Akbar abolished slavery system. (1707–1712)
In 1563, Akbar abolished pilgrimage tax Jahandar Shah (1712–1713)
and the next year he abolished the Jazia tax.
Farrukhsiyar (1713–1719)
In 1564, Akbar punished his maternal uncle
Khwaja Muazzam. Rafi-ud-Darajat (1719)
In 1561, Akbar appointed Shamsuddin Rafi-ud-Daulah/Shah Jahan II (1719)
Atiqa as his Prime Minister. Muhammad Shah (1719–1748)
In Mughal age, the prime minister was
Ahmad Shah (1748–1754)
called Wakil Mutlaq. Mujaffar Khan was
the first Deewan of Akbar. He had five sub- Alamgir II (1754–1759)
ordinates—Deewan-i-Khalsa, Deewan-i- Shah Alam II (1759–1806)
Jagir, Deewan-i- Mustaufi, Waqya-i-Nawis Akbar II (1806–1837)
and Mushrij-i-Deewan.
Bahadur Shah II (1037–1058)
Meer Bakshi was the chief of military
department.
Muhatasib was appointed to look after the Muazzam
moral character of people. He killed his two brothers, defeated Kam
There was no post of Khan-i-Saman during Bakhs in the Battle of Jajau (1707) and
Akbar’s time. ascended the throne in l707 under the title
Bitikchi is a word of Turki language, which Bahadur Shah and is also sometimes referred
means writer. to as Shah Alam I. He is considered as the first
Shiqdar was the chief officer of Pargana. and the last of the Later Mughals to have exer-
The main duty of the Amil was fixation of cised some real authority. He released Sahu,
land revenue and its realization. the son of Sambhaji, and recognized the inde-
The cashier of the paragana was Fotedar. pendence of Mewar and Marwar. Khafi Khan
Abul Fazl called the Qanungo as the well- has called him as Shah-i-Bekhabar since he
wisher of peasants. liked to appease all the parties by grants of
Dakhili and Ahadi were soldiers. titles and rewards.
Cavalry was the main section of Mughal He was too weak to prevent the decline of
army. They were of two types. The first the Empire—the Maratha power increased and
were Tabinan who got horses, arms and they became the unchallenged rulers of the
Deccan; in the province of Punjab, the Sikhs the emperor by deposing and executing him in
under Guru Gobind Singh became a formi- a horrible way, in April 1719.
dable force. He granted the Marathas the right Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath visited the
to collect Sardesh Mukhi of the Deccan but emperor’s court asking for the right to collect
not Chauth. He led an unsuccessful campaign Chauth and Sardesh Mukhi on Maratha land.
against Banda Bahadur (Laxman Das). After Farrukhsiyar, Sayyid brothers raised two
He died during the course of this campaign. young princes to the throne—Rafi-ud Darajat
Thus, Banda Bahadur was able to create the and Rafi-ud Daula.
first Sikh capital at Lohgarh Fort. His death in
AD 1712 was followed by a fresh war of suc- Bahadur Shah II
cession among his four sons—Jahandar Shah,
He was the last Mughal emperor, son of
Azim-us Shah, Rafi-us-Shah and Jahan Shah.
Akbar II and Rajput Princess Lal Bai. He was
deported to Rangoon in AD 1858 after the
Jahandar Shah revolt of 1857. He died in AD 1862. He was
He captured the throne, after liquidating his an Urdu Poet and having pen name Zafar. He
three brothers, with the help of Zulfikar Khan also patronized Mirza Ghalib (Mirza Asadul-
(the leader of Irani party in the Mughal court). lah Khan Beg).
Zulfikar Khan acted as the de facto ruler.
This was in fact the beginning of the practice Causes for the decline of Mughal
of nobles acting as the king makers. He was
dominated by his mistress Lal Kunwar, who is Empire
said to have imitated the style of Nur Jahan. The decline of the Mughal empire was nei-
He gave the title or ‘Mirza Raja’ to Jai Singh ther sudden nor surprising. Several defects
of Malwa and ‘Maharaja’ to Ajit Singh of were inherent in the very organization of the
Marwar. Mughal empire which led to its disintegration
and decline. There was no single casual fac-
Farrukhsiyar tor in its decline. These may be summarized
as under:
He was the son of Azim-us-Shah also known
as Sahid-i-Mazlum. He owed his kingship Aurangzeb by his religious fanaticism had
to the two Sayyid brothers—Abdulla Khan, not only alienated but also antagonized
deputy Governor of Allahabad, and Hussain the vast majority of the Hindu population
Ali, deputy governor of Bihar (king makers). and roused the Jats, Sikhs, Rajputs and the
The Sayyid brothers are also known as barha Marathas against the empire.
because of the bara or 12 villages that they The Mughal empire under Aurangzeb had
held. over-expanded, and its effective control was
He appointed Abdulla Khan as Wazir and physically impossible under his weak suc-
Hussain Ali as Mir Bakshi. He appointed cessors. On the other hand, the vastness of
Chin Quilch Khan, better known as Nizam- ul the empire also weakened the centre.
Mulk, as the provincial governor of Deccan. From Akbar to Aurangzeb, four Great
Khan latter laid the foundation of an indepen- Mughals ruled for 151 years (AD 1507–
dent state of Hyderabad in October 1724. The 1707), but their weak successors from
ascendancy of the Saiyyad brothers excited the Bahadur Shah I to Shah Alam II, numbering
jealousy of Farrukhsiyar who attempted to get 11, were dismissed in the most disgraceful
rid of them. But the Saiyyad brothers punished manner within a century (AD 1707–1806).
2.96 Chapter 11
The later Mughals had become ease loving These groups often fought with each other
and they lacked commitment and motiva- so as to gain the ascendancy in the Mughal
tion to rule the empire strongly. Absence court.
of one accepted rule of succession was This factionalism among the nobility kept
another problem. the country in a state of perpetual politi-
The army under the Mughals increased in cal unrest and also destabilized the central
number. Composed of diverse rural ele- administrative machinery.
ments and religious groups such as the The economic and financial conditions
Turks, Afghans, Rajputs and Hindustanis, of the empire, which worsened during the
it was a mercenary fighting force devoid closing years of Aurangzeb, proved to be
of any natural cohesion. The troops owed the most crucial factors responsible for the
allegiance not to the imperial throne but to decline of the Mughal empire.
persons in immediate command. Along with these factors, the rise of the
The Mansabdari system reached a crisis Marathas, foreign invasions of Nadir Shah
as a result of the enormous increase in the (AD 1739) and Ahmed Shah Abdali (AD
number of the Mansabdars but scarcity of 1748–1767), the rise of autonomous states
Jagirs. Even when Jagirs were available in and the advent of the Europeans also played
the Deccan, it was at risk due to sudden their role in the decline and finally the dis-
occupation by Marathas. In this context, the appearance of the Mughal empire.
Mansabdar’s uncertainty about their income Nadir Shah entered Punjab through Pesha-
from their Jagirs weakened the strength and war. He met the royal Mughal army at Kar-
efficiency of the army. nal on 13 February in 1739.
The Mughal court politics further degener- During his invasion, Nadir Shah entered
ated the nobility, which divided the empire Delhi on 20 March and ordered a general
into different pressure groups—the Turanis massacre, in which about 20,000 citizens
or Central Asian, the Iranis or Persian, the were killed. The property was ransacked,
Afghans and the Hindustani (Muslims of and every part of the city was looted. Nadir
foreign origin who were born in India or Shah remained in Delhi up to May 15.
domiciled for a long period in this coun- When he returned to Persia, he had col-
try and with whom were associated Hindu lected huge booty including the famous
princes and nobles). Peacock Throne and Kohinoor Diamond.
Exercise
Which of the following does not match (c) Medini Rai
correctly? (d) Medini Rai and Mahmud Lodhi
(a) Coronation of Aurangzeb—1659 Which section of the army was given the
(b) Revolt of Khusroe—1606 credit of victory at Panipat by Babur?
(c) Battle of Haldighati—1556 (a) Artillery
(d) Declaration of Din-e-Ilahi—1582 (b) Infantry
Whom did Babur defeated in the battle of (c) Experts in Bow and arrow
Ghaghra? (d) Elephentary
(a) Nusrat Shah The system of land revenue improved upon
(b) Mahmud Lodhi and Nusrat Shah by Akbar was called the Zabti system and
was prevalent in large parts of the country (b) All Mansabdars were directly subordi-
excluding nate to the emperor
(a) Agra (c) It laid down the efficient system of
(b) Lahore recruitment
(c) Malwa (d) It helped the Mughals to keep a large
(d) Sindh standing army
Zamindar could be removed due to differ- What is true of Mansabdari from among
ent circumstances. Choose the incorrect the following?
circumstance. 1. Promotion depended on merit and loy-
(a) If he did not perform his sea-ices well alty.
(b) If he did not pay the revenue due to the
2. The number of horses were fixed with
state
Mansabdars.
(c) If he rebelled
(d) If he harassed the peasantry 3. Mansabdars were punished but not
demoted.
The basic difference between the zamind- (a) Only 1 and 2
ari and the ryotwari villages was (b) Only 2 and 3
(a) There were no zamindars in ryotwari (c) Only 3
villages (d) All 1, 2 and 3
(b) In ryotwari villages, the actual culti-
vator was responsible for payment Jagirs were not normally assigned to
of revenue to the state, whereas in (a) Royal princes
zamindari villages the zamindar acted (b) Queens
as an agency for collection of revenue (c) Nobles
(c) The ryotwari villages consisted of (d) Religious divines
khalisa lands, whereas zamindari What is meant by the term Sardeshmukhi?
villages formed part of a jagir (a) A Maratha fort
(d) There was no basic difference between (b) A famous temple
the two in so far as in ryotwari villages (c) A tax
also there was an intermediary called (d) A high official under the Maratha
the muqaddam (head-man) who exer-
In which region the Jabti system was not
cised traditional zamindari rights in
levied ?
his village
(a) Allahabad
The outstanding feature of Akbar’s rev- (b) Ahmadnagar
enue system was (c) Malwa
(a) Classification of lan (d) Delhi and Agra
(b) Fixation of rates
The Mughal administration collected rev-
(c) Accurate measurement
enue from two sources—the land and the
(d) Scientific assessment (based on
trade. The revenue from trade was
averages)
(a) Equal to the revenue from the land
What was the greatest merit of the Man- (b) Not so much as the revenue from the
sabdari system? land
(a) It gave a good system of organization (c) More than the revenue from the land
to the army (d) None of the above
2.98 Chapter 11
In spite of expansion of the total area (c) Both (a) and (b) above
under cultivation during the Mughal (d) None of the above
period, agricultural production stagnated. Match List I with List II:
Which of the following was not one of the
reasons for this agrarian crisis? .KUV+ .KUV++
(a) No new methods of production A. First battle of Panipat 1. 1527
were available to counter the decline
B. Second battle of Panipat 2. 1529
in productivity of the soil
(b) The land revenue demand was extor- C. Battle of Ghaghra 3. 1526
tionate, driving the peasantry away D. Battle of Khanua 4. 1556
from land
(c) In spite of availability of plenty of %QFGU
surplus cultivable land, the landless A B C D
labourers belonging to the category (a) 1 2 3 4
of untouchables were riot encouraged (b) 3 4 2 1
to settle in new villages by vested (c) 3 4 1 2
interests (d) 2 3 1 4
(d) None of the above The exclusive prerogative of the Mughal
What were the features of Kankut? emperor did not include
(a) It was comparatively less (a) Jharokha-i-darshan
(b) It required little time (b) Taslim-i-chauki
(c) The revenue officers were not required (c) Naqqara or beating of a kettledrum
(d) There was no need to look after the when the emperor held court or went
crops in fiel out
(d) The privilege of weighment against
The revenue assessment known as batai,
gold and jewels
ghalla bakshi or bhaoli was a method of
crop-sharing on the basis of It is stated that the promulgation of Din-i-
(a) Actual production llahi started among the Ulemas, a cry of
(b) Rough estimate of crop Islam in danger and there was also a rebel-
(c) Past production trend lion in
(d) Mutual agreement (qabuliat) (a) Punjab
(b) Sind
What was the percentage of the production
(c) Bengal
which Muqaddam received for the duty of
(d) Kabul
realization of revenue tax?
(a) 2½% Which one of the following is correct
(b) 5% about the position of women in the Mughal
(c) 5½% period?
(d) 7% (a) It deteriorates to unenviable levels
The so-called battle of Haldighat is called (b) The birth of a daughter was not con-
a barren victory for the Mughals because sidered auspicious
(a) Mewar was not completely subjugated (c) Both (a) and (b)
(b) Rana Pratap continued to rule (d) None of the above
over Mewar, except Chittor and Choose the incorrect statement about the
Mandalgarh Mughal government.
(a) It was essentially military in nature (c) Appointment of Rajput chiefs as

(b) It was necessarily a centralized Mansabdars and governors
autocracy (d) All of the above
(c) The emperor had to obey the Islamic Which institution was accepted as highest
traditions in the Mughal theory of kingship ?
(d) The ministers had no claim to be con- (a) Khalija
sulted as a matter of right (b) Quran
Match List I with List II (c) Jabawit
(d) None
.KUV+ .KUV++
Aurangzeb attempted to establish an
A. Hemu 1. Ruler of Bikaner Islamic state (dai-ul-lslam) in India and
this was because of the great influence
B. Bairam Khan 2. Afghan ruler
exerted upon his mind by
Mohammad
(a) Mujaddid Ahmad
Adil Shah’s
(b) Muhammad Masum
Commander
(c) Muhammad Saituddin
C. Baaz Bahadur 3. Guardian of (d) Shayista Khan
Akbars
Choose the incorrect statement.
D. Rao Ram Singh 4. Ruler of Malwa (a) Akbar’s Rajput policy created har-
mony between the Hindus and the
%QFGU Muslims
A B C D (b) Akbar’s Rajput policy led to the foun-
(a) 2 3 4 1 dation of the Mughal empire on fi m
(b) 2 4 3 1 ground
(c) 3 4 2 1 (c) Akbar’s Rajput policy helped to sub-
(d) 3 2 1 4 merge Hinduism in Islam
Why did Mewar refuse to accept the (d) Akbar’s Rajput policy paved the way
friendship of the Mughals? for creation of one nation in India
(a) Mewar had hostility with the Mughals During the Mughal period, some of the
since the days of Rana Sanga women were actively involved in which
(b) There were hostile relations between one of the following political process?
Mewar and Amber which has entered (a) Nur Jahan
into matrimonial alliance with the (b) Rani Durgawati
Mughals (c) Chand Bibi
(c) Mewar considered it dishonourable to (d) All the above
accept friendship of the Rajputs
The Nizam was the head of provincial
administration and had all the powers
The main elements of Akbar’s Rajput excluding only
policy were (a) He was the supreme head of civil and
(a) Establishment of matrimonial alli- military administration
ances with the Rajputs (b) He held his own court
(b) Grant of full autonomy and protection (c) He sat in Jharokha Darshan
to the Rajput states (d) None of the above
2.100 Chapter 11
The head of the provincial government %QFGU

was officially designated as A B C D
(a) Subedar (b) Nizam (a) 4 2 1 3
(c) Diwan (d) Sadr (b) 3 1 2 4
Who were not the employees of Deewan- (c) 2 3 4 1
e-Ala ? (d) 1 4 3 2
(a) Deewan-e-Khalsa Which one does not match?
(b) Deewan-e-Bayootat (a) Malwa–Adham Khan
(c) Mir Badra (b) Yusufzai–Birbal
(d) Mustadi (c) Ahmad Nagar–Murad
The most prominent industry that flour- (d) Kashmir–Asaf Khan
ished during the Mughal period was What does Sulah-e-Kul mean?
(a) Metal (b) Silk (a) Unity in diversity
(c) Textiles (d) Dyeing (b) Tolerance and Patience
Which region was the cause of conflict (c) Importance of Islam
between the Mughals and the Safavids of (d) Hatred for Islam
Iran? Which administrative reform was not done
(a) Kabul (b) Kandahar by Akbar ?
(c) Herat (d) Baluchistan (a) Appointment of Hindus and Muslims
in administration dispassionately
Match List I with List II and answer cor-
(b) To fix the number of officials and
rectly—
soldiers
.KUV+ .KUV++ (c) Prevalence of Mansabdari and classi-
A. Kabul 1. 1585 fication of cou t services
(d) Separation of military and administra-
B. Sindh 2. 1595 tive services
C. Kashmir 3. 1591 In 1579, Akbar issued the document of
D. Kandhar 4. 1586 Mazhar. What was its effect?
%QFGU 1. Akbar was recognized as Paigambar.
A B C D 2. Akbar was declared the spokesman of
(a) 1 3 4 2 Muslim.
(b) 3 1 4 2 3. Akbar got the authority to issue judge-
(c) 4 1 3 2 ment in controversial matter.
(d) 2 1 3 4 4. It led to the establishment of Hindu–
Match List I with List II Muslim unity.
(a) Only 1,2, 3
.KUV+ .KUV++ (b) Only 2, 3, 4
%QPSWGTGFRNCEGU %QOOCPFGTU (c) Only 2 and 3
A. Chittor 1. Munim Khan (d) Only 2 and 4
B. Sindh 2. Abdul Rahim What was Talluk?
Khana (a) The right of Jamindars to control the
C. Bengal 3. Asaf Khan provincial administration
(b) Jamindar’s right of realizing
D. Garhkatang 4. Man Singh land tax of some villages
(c) Land revenue officer (c) The officer of argana

(d) Officers who realized provincial (d) The finance officer of argana
revenue
Who was the leader of the Roshanai sect to
Dispassionate and equal judicial system support the peasant against Mughals and
existed during Sher Shah’s rule. Justice their feudal Lords?
was done on the basis of Islamic law. Pun- (a) Ahmad Roshani (b) Yezdi
ishment was cruel and hard. (c) Ahdad (d) None
(a) It punished the criminal according to
his crime Who used the Tulughma pattern for the
(b) It checked the criminal to indulge in first time in India?
crime (a) Alauddin Khilzi
(c) It established a model before people to (b) Mohammad Tughlaq
check crime in future (c) Aurangzeb
(d) It attempted to improve the criminal (d) Babur
What was the reason of a battle between
On the fixation of taxes, Sher Shah Suri
Akbar and Rana Pratap?
was based on
(a) Rana Pratap did not like to be subordi-
(a) Production of crops
nate to Akbar
(b) Survey of crops
(c) Measurement of land (b) Rana Pratap was not in favour of mat-
(d) None of these rimonial alliances with Akbar
(c) Rana Pratap was not ready to be phys-
Who re-settled Mughal Shah Alam at ically present in Akbar’s court
Delhi? (d) All of the above
(a) Narayan Rao
(b) Baji Rao II ‘Pietra Dura’ means:
(c) Madhav Rao (a) Decorating walls with miniature
(d) Madhav Rao II paintings.
(b) Decorating walls with floral designs
Which is a wrong statement?
made of semiprecious stones.
(a) In the battle of Chausa, the Mughals
(c) Construction of buildings with glazed
were defeated
tiles.
(b) After conquering the Chausa war,
(d) Indo-Muslim architecture
Sher Khan adopted the title of Sher
Shah Which one of the following buildings built
(c) The battle of Ghaghra of 1528 is by Akbar is wholly Hindu in design and
called Battle of Bilgram workmanship?
(d) Humayun died in 1555 (a) Humayun’s Mausoleum in Delhi
Administrative units of Mughals in (b) Jahangiri Mahal in the fort of Agra
descending order were (c) Buland Darwaza at Fatehpur Sikri
(a) Pargana, Suba, Sarkar (d) Tomb of Shaikh Salim Chishti
(b) Suba, Sarkar, Pargana
Which one is considered as the beginning
(c) Sarkar, Suba, Pargana
of Mughal architecture in India?
(d) Pargana, Sarkar, Suba
(a) Kabuli Bagh mosque
What was chakla? (b) Humayun’s tomb
(a) A big unit of some collected Paraganas (c) Diwan-i-Aim
(b) A group of some villages (d) Diwan-i-Khas
2.102 Chapter 11
Shah Jahan constructed magnificent edi- (c) Kangra style

fices, and the chief objective behind the (d) Golkunda style
edifice was Who was called the ‘Raphael of the East’?
(a) Exhibition of his wealth (a) Bih-zad of Herat
(b) Augmentation of the grandeur of his (b) Khwaja Abdus Samad
empire (c) Sayyad Ali
(c) Creation of employment opportunities (d) Farrukh Beg
(d) The satisfaction of his aesthetic senses
Which statement on paintings during the
Where is the poem written by Abul Fazl, time of Jahangir is not correct?
inscribed? (a) Persian influencewas still predominant
(a) Fatehpur Sikri (b) Paintings of incidents in daily life
(b) On a temple in Kashmir (c) The principal figure stands out more
(c) On the tomb of Salim Chishti prominently for the first tim
(d) On the Ibadat Khana (d) Linear aspects were weak
Which statement on Shah Jahan’s architec- Dastan-i-Amir Hamza. in 12 volumes con-
ture is not correct? taining 1200 paintings was produced dur-
(a) White marble used on a great scale. ing the times of
(b) There was change of building mate- (a) Jahangir
rials, but surface decoration did not (b) Akbar
change (c) Humayun
(c) The dome assumed a bulbous shape (d) Aurangzeb
placed on a high drum
Which one of the following schools of
(d) The pillars have foliated bases
painting was the product of the union of
What was the architectural feature that Mughal art and the hilly folk art of the
was the buildings of Shah Jahan? Himalayas?
(a) Makarana Marble (a) Tehri-Garhwal school
(b) Bulbous dome (b) Basholi school
(c) Large structures (c) Pahari school
(d) Tapering pillars (d) Rajputana school
Haji Begam was responsible for the con- Which of the following was patronized by
struction of Aurangzeb?
(a) Humayun tomb (Delhi) (a) Music
(b) Akbar tomb (Sikandara) (b) Calligraphy
(c) Jahangir tomb (Lahore) (c) Painting
(d) Aurangzeb tomb (Daulatabad) (d) Sculpture
The only monument of Aurangzeb’s reign During the Mughal period, the artisans
constructed in Delhi is were classified broadly into two catego-
(a) Moti Mahal (b) Moti Masjid ries. They were
(c) Rang Mahal (d) Diwan-i-Khas (a) Rural artisans and professional
Which, among the following schools of artisans
painting, developed independently during (b) Rural artisans and urban artisans
the Mughal period? (c) Professional artisans and urban
(a) Bijapur style artisans
(b) Rajput style (d) None of the above
Under Akbar, European painting was Which well-known scholar has translated
introduced at the court by the Portuguese ‘Memoirs of Babur’ from its original text
priests. What was their contribution to the Turki into English?
Indian art of the period? (a) Mrs A.S. Beveridge
(a) Fresco paintings (b) Leyden and Erskine
(b) Murals (c) V.A. Smith
(c) Principle of foreshortening (d) Morti Wheeler
(d) Three-dimensional effect
Who, among the following daughters of
The chief characteristics of the architec- Shah Jahan, has been regarded as a good
ture of Akbar’s period did riot include poetess?
(a) Extensive use of red sandstone (a) Jahan Ara
(b) Increased use of marble (b) Roshan Ara
(c) Use of pietra dura (c) Gauhar Ara
(d) Placing of tombs in garden-setting (d) None of the above
What is the central theme of Raso Farhangi-i-Jahangiri, edited by Jamalu-
literature? ddin Hussain, is a
(a) War-hero (a) Historical work
(b) Religious-hero (b) Dictionary of Persian works
(c) Charity-hero (c) Drama
(d) Kind-hero (d) Literary work in an epic poem
Which book is regarded as the greatest Match List I with List II
digest of Muslim law made in India ?
(a) Masir-i-Alamgiri .KUV+ .KUV++
(b) Muntakhah-ul-Lubab %QPSWGTGFRNCEGU %QOOCPFGTU
(c) Khulasat-ul-Tawarikh A. Isami 1. Futuhat-al-
(d) Fatwa-i-Alamgir Salatin
Abul Fazal and Faizi Sarhindi gave the B. Amir Khusrau 2. Laila Majnu
same title to one of their works. It was C. Ibn Batuta 3. Kitabul Rehla
(a) Akbarnama
(b) Ain-i-Akbari D. Firdausi 4. Shahnama
(c) Tabaqat-i-Akbari %QFGU
(d) Tofah-i-Akbar A B C D
Who was the author of Tuzuk-i-Khana? (a) 1 2 3 4
(a) Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Jahangiri (b) 2 1 4 3
(b) Badauni (c) 2 4 1 3
(c) Kamgar Khan (d) 1 3 2 4
(d) Emperor Jahangir
Who, among the following Muslim schol-
Which of the following is matched incor- ars, made a valuable contribution towards
rectly? Hindi literature?
(a) Abul Fazl–Ain-i-Akbari (a) Khafi Kha
(b) Firdausi–Shahnama (b) Abul Fazl
(c) Gul Badan Begum–Huma yunama (c) Faizi
(d) Abdul Latif–Padshah-e-Alamgiri (d) Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khana
2.104 Chapter 11
Who, among the following scholars, trans- (c) Sanskrit languages were neglected
lated Ramayana into Persian? (d) All the above
(a) Badauni Sundar was a court poet of
(b) Abul Fazl (a) Aurangzeb
(c) Faizi (b) Shah Jahan
(d) Khafi Kha (c) Jahangir
Which of the following pairs does not (d) Akbar
match? To illustrate which of the following books
(a) Muntakhab-ul-Lubab–Khafi Kha were Mir Sayyid Ali and Khwaja Abdus
(b) Tarikh-i-Alfi–Qazwin Samad, two famous Persian painters,
(c) Muntakhab-ul-Tawarikh–Badayuni invited to the Mughal court?
(d) Nuskha-i-Dilkhush–Bhimsen (a) Ain-i-Akbarf
What was the Mughal court language? (b) Baburnama
(a) Turki (c) Dastan-i-Amir Hamza
(b) Persian (d) MuntakhabutTawarikh
(c) Urdu Gulbadan Begum, daughter of Babur,
(d) Hindi wrote the
Who was given the title Zarrinqalam (Gold (a) Akbar Namah
pen) by Akbar ? (b) Humayun Namah
(a) Birbal (c) Diwan-i-Makhf
(b) Tulsidas (d) Dohas
(c) Muhammad Hussain Who was the foreign traveller to describe
(d) Kasiramdas the history of the period in later Aurang-
Who among the following started zeb’s period?
sabak-i-Hindi, in the new Iranian style? (a) Dr. Gamilee Kareri
(a) Amir Khusrau (b) Frankois Bernier
(b) Alberuni (c) Tavernier
(c) Amir Hasan Dehalvi (d) Niccolo Manucci
(d) None of these The infallibility decree assured to Akbar
During the Mughal period, many writers so far as any written instrument could have
contributed towards the growth of Hindi such effect, the utmost power that any man
literature. Which of the following was/ could claim to exercise within the limits of
were the books of Hindi literature? Islam’.
(a) Dohas The historian who expressed the above
(b) Padmavat view about the infallibility decree was
(c) Both (a) and (b) (a) Stanley-Lanepoole
(d) None of the above (b) Edwards and Garret
During the Mughal period, regional lan- (c) V.A. Smith
guages such as Bengali, Tamil, Marathi, (d) Shri Ram Sharma
Punjabi, etc. made good progress. The Which Sikh Guru was put to death by
main reasons was/were Aurangzeb?
(a) The Mughal ruler’s language policy (a) Arjun Dev
(b) The effort of the Bhakti cult saints (b) Tegh Bahadur
(c) Har Gobind In recruitment of Hindus, to the public

(d) Har Kishan services, Shah Jahan was liberal and
During the reign of Jahangir, all the impe- firm, with the result that the percent-
rial farmans were issued with age of the Hindu Mansabdars during the
(a) Exclusive approval of Nur Jahan tenth year of his reign was
(b) With the approval of the emperor only (a) Ten per cent
(c) In the joint name of the emperor and (b) Four per cent
the queen, Nur Jahan (c) Sixteen per cent
(d) With the approval of Nur Jahan’s (d) Twenty-fi e per cent
father or brother Who among the following translated Geeta
Among the Mughal princes, the highest with the help of the Pandits of Kashi?
mansab ever held was that of (a) Aurangzeb (b) Shah Jahan
(a) Salim (b) Dara (c) Dara Shikoh (d) Murad
(c) Khurram (d) Azam What was the main reason for the down-
Immediately after Jahangir’s death, the fall of Mughal empire according to Dr.
prince who assumed the royal title at Satish Chandra ?
Lahore was (a) Religious policy of Aurangzeb
(a) Tahmurs (b) Daniyal (b) Weak successors
(c) Shahr-Yar (d) Dawar Bakhsh (c) Southern Policy of Aurangzeb
(d) Structure of Jagirdari
The greatest crisis that Akbar faced in
1580–1581 was when Among the four symbolic concepts,
(a) The disgrunted nobles and officers which won the war of succession?’
declared Akbar’s half-brother Mirza (a) Liberalism
Hakim as their ruler (b) Orthodoxy
(b) Salim revolted (c) Indulgence
(c) Yusufzais revolted in the North-west (d) Recklessness
frontier As the war of succession started, Dara’s
(d) Rana Pratap escaped from the battle of son Sulaiman Shukoh defeated near
Haidighat Banaras the army of
The first revolt of Shah Jahan’s reign was (a) Murad
that of (b) Shuja
(a) Jujhar Singh (b) Bhim Narain (c) Aurangzeb
(c) Bikramajit (d) Champat Raj (d) Murad and Aurangzeb
Answer Keys
1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (c) 4. (d) 21. (b) 22. (c) 23. (c) 24. (a)
5. (d) 6. (b) 7. (d) 8. (d) 25. (d) 26. (d) 27. (d) 28. (b)
9. (a) 10. (d) 11. (c) 12. (b) 29. (c) 30. (d) 31. (c) 32. (b)
13. (b) 14. (b) 15. (d) 16. (a) 33. (c) 34. (c) 35. (b) 36. (a)
17. (a) 18. (c) 19. (a) 20. (c) 37. (a) 38. (d) 39. (b) 40. (d)
2.106 Chapter 11
41. (c) 42. (b) 43. (a) 44. (c) 73. (d) 74. (d) 75. (a) 76. (a)
45. (c) 46. (c) 47. (b) 48. (a) 77. (b) 78. (a) 79. (d) 80. (a)
49. (c) 50. (d) 51. (d) 52. (b) 81. (b) 82. (b) 83. (c) 84. (b)
53. (c) 54. (b) 55. (b) 56. (c) 85. (c) 86. (b) 87. (b) 88. (c)
57. (b) 58. (b) 59. (a) 60. (b) 89. (b) 90. (a) 91. (c) 92. (b)
61. (c) 62. (a) 63. (a) 64. (c) 93. (c) 94. (b) 95. (c) 96. (a)
65. (b) 66. (b) 67. (a) 68. (c) 97. (a) 98. (c) 99. (c) 100. (d)
69. (c) 70. (a) 71. (d) 72. (a) 101. (b) 102. (b)
12
The Marathas
Rise of the Marathas personality that was responsible for his phe-
nomenal achievement. Shivaji was born in
The rise of the Marathas as a solitary power 1627 in the Fort of Shivneri to Jijabai, wife
was due to the following factors: of Shahji Bhosale, an important officer in the
1. A common language, Marathi, and a com- state of Bijapur. Shivaji was brought up under
mon religion, Hinduism, and a common the elite guidance of Dadaji Konddeo.
homeland then created a feeling of nation- From the scratch, Shivaji built a strong
alism among the Maratha people. empire amidst the opposition of the mighty
2. The geo-political factors greatly helped Mughals. His kingdom included Maharashtra,
in making the Marathas very strong and Konkan and a large part of Karnataka. It com-
daring soldiers. The scarcity of rains in prised Ramnagar in the north to Karwar in the
Maharashtra and the difficulties in finding south. In the east, it included Baglana, half of
livelihood developed among the Marathas Nasik and Poona districts, Satara and a larger
a spirit of self reliance and hard work. part of Kolhapur district. It also included a major
part of Mysore, parts of the districts of Bellary,
Also, the social and religious awakening Chittor and Arcot. He also had a large area in the
created by the Bhakti saints greatly contributed Deccan under his influence from where he col-
to the awakening among Marathas and pro- lected EJCWVJ which yielded substantial income.
moted a feeling of nationalism among them. Shivaji’s empire had the following four prov-
The Deccan Policy of Aurangzeb greatly inces according to his administrative set up:
contributed to the rise of Maratha power.
Besides, the balance of power between the 1. Northern provinces under Peshwa Maro
Hindus and the Muslims in the territories Trimbak Pingle
inhabited by the Marathas also contributed to 2. Southern provinces under Annaji Pant
the rise of Marathas. Datto
3. South eastern provinces in charge of
Shivaji’s Empire Sarkarkun Dattaji Trimbak
4. Far southern province under esteemed
Although several circumstances are said to
military officials
be responsible for the rise of Shivaji and
his building of a strong nation and empire, Shivaji has been called the father of the
the false remains that it was his charismatic Maratha nation. Dr. R.C. Majumdar wrote that
2.108 Chapter 12
he was not merely a daring soldier and a suc- Shivaji’s army was a well-organized and dis-
cessful military conqueror but also an enlight- ciplined force and at the time of his death con-
ened ruler of his people. Shivaji was readily sisted of 45,000 paga, 60,000 silahdar, and one
accessible to his subjects. He was a popular lakh of mavale infantry. The most important part
man, and the subjects considered him as a of the army was the famous paga or state cavalry.
greater benefactor. A total of 25 troopers (Bargis) for a unit were
placed under one JCXCNFCT. There was one ,WO
Features of Shivaji’s Administration NCFCT over every five havaldars and one *C\CTK
over every ten jumladars, that is 1250 men. The
Shivaji employed members of all castes and infantry was the next important branch of the
tribes to maintain balance among them. He army. In this, nine soldiers or 2CKMU formed a unit
assigned separate responsibilities to the min- and were placed under one corporal or 0C[CM.
ister and each of them was made responsible The Maratha revenue settlement under
for their work. The system of hereditary office Shivaji was based on the measurement of land
was abolished. In general, he did not assign by a fixed system. The area of each village
jagirs to his civil and military officers. There was ascertained in detail and an estimate was
was special administration of the fort. He made of the expected produce of each buyer
established the Ryotwari system in revenue of the land. The revenue policy of Shivaji was
administration. The state keeps direct contact Ryotwari and he was against revenue farmers
with the farmers. and zamindars. He did not permit the zamind-
He had a council of ministers (Ashta Prad- ars, Deshmukhs and Desais to exercise politi-
han) to advise him on the matters of the state cal authority over peasantry. An important
but he was not bound by it. He could appraise source of Shivaji’s income was chauth. One-
or dismiss them. The 2GUJYC was the first fourth of the standard revenue of the country,
among ministers. The word Peshwa stands for which belonged to the neighbouring states,
‘senior one’. He was also known as mukhya was raided by Shivaji to pay them under con-
pradhan. The auditor or COCV[C was sup- tribution. Another important source of income
ported to check all the accounts of income was 5CTFGUJOWMJK or one-tenth of the standard
and expenditure and countersign the state- revenue from these states.
ments of accounts, whether of the kingdom as
a whole or of the particular districts. /CPVTK
was in charge of compiling a daily record of Peshwas
the king’s activities. 5CEJKX was assigned the The Prime Asta Minister of Shivaji was called
duty to see that all royal letters and dispatches the Peshwa. The office of the Peshwa was first
were drafted in proper style. One of his impor- created by him when he set up the Ashta Prad-
tant duty was to check the accounts of the han or Council of Ministers in his adminis-
parganas. The duty of FCDKT or UWOCPVJ was trative set up. The Peshwa was the first of the
to advise the king on matters relating to for- ministers and the head of the executive gov-
eign states and on questions of war and peace. ernment of the country. The practice of hav-
The commander-in-chief or 5CTK0CWDCV or ing the Peshwa continued during the reign
5GPCRCVK was in charge of the army. The eccle- of Raja Ram and Tarabai, the successors of
siastical head was 2CPFKV4CQ or &CPFCMUJ[C. Shivaji. However, the post of Peshwa was not
His main duties were to fix dates for religious hereditary either under Shivaji or his immedi-
ceremonies. The chief justice or 0[C[CFKUJ ate successors. In the reign of Shahu, this post
was the highest judge of the kingdom. became hereditary with the appointments of
The Marathas 2.109
the seventh Peshwa, Balaji Vishwanath, after us, Hindus, to turn out the Muslims from our
him his son, Baji Rao I, and then his grandson, Holy Land. We have to strike the tottering tree,
Balaji Baji Rao. With the passage of time, the that is, the Mughal Empire, and the branches
Peshwa became the sole power in the Mara- (the Deccan and Bengal provinces) will them-
tha state and the Chatrapati became a mere selves fall down.’ He wanted that Shahu should
figurehead. The government of the country turn the whole of the Maratha power against the
fell entirely into their hands and they ruled the centre of the Mughal Empire. He told Shahu,
country from 1714 to 1818, after the death of ‘Strike, strike at the trunk and the branches will
Shahu in 1749, with Poona as their capital. fall off themselves. Listen but to my counsel
and I shall plant the Maratha banner on the
The First Peshwa, Balaji Vishwanath walls of Attock.’ Rhetoric succeeded where
arguments might have failed. Shahu, com-
(1714–1720) pletely carried away, cried with blazing eyes
He was the founder of the Peshwa dynasty. The ‘By heaven! You shall plant it on the throne
founder of the hereditary family of the Peshwa of the Almighty.’ Thus, according to this pol-
was Balaji Vishwanath, a Chitpavan Brahman icy, the young Peshwa, Baji Rao, first turned
born on the western coast of the Janjira dis- towards the expansion of the Maratha power
trict. He was born in an obscure village named towards the north and thus established a strong
Shrivardhan. He started his career as a clerk of Maratha Empire on the ruins of the Mughal
Sabhasad. It was in the year 1699 that he was Empire. This was the policy of Baji Rao I.
appointed as Sar-Suba of Poona and Daula- However, the Peshwa’s task was not easy as
tabad. When Shahu came to acquire the gov- it appeared to be. There were many difficulties.
ernment of the Maharashtra in 1708, Balaji He had many enemies in Maharashtra. He also
Vishwanath was the first man who supported his had to face the open hostility of Chin Qilich
cause. Within a few months, he was able to re- Khan, the Nizam-ul-Mulk of Hyderabad,
organize Shahu’s army by virtue of which ser- who was the leader of the Turani party at the
vice Shahu gave him the title of ‘Sena Karte’. In Mughal Court. Chin Qilich Khan decided from
the capacity of Sena-Karte, Balaji Vishwanath the very beginning that he would not imple-
was able to crush Tarabai’s power and defeated ment the treaty of the year 1719 according
individually and collectively all those Maratha to which the Marathas had got the legal right
Sardars who were espousing her cause. Having from the Mughal Emperor of collecting chauth
been impressed with the meritorious services and Sardeshmukhi of the six Mughal Subahs
of Balaji Vishwanath to his cause as well as of the Deccan. On the other hand, the young
to the Maratha State, Shahu appointed Balaji and energetic Maratha Peshwa, Baji Rao I,
Vishwanath in the post of the Peshwa. was also determined to establish the Maratha
Empire not only in the Deccan, but also in the
Baji Rao I (1720–1740) north. Thus, in view of the diametrically oppo-
When Balaji Vishwanath died in 1720, Shahu site interests of the Nizam and Baji Rao I, a
appointed Balaji’s eldest son, Baji Rao, as the clash between the two had become inevitable.
Peshwa. He was an enterprising young man
of 20 years and was having a very high ideal Balaji Baji Rao (1740–1761)
before him. Grant Duff writes, immediately After Baji Rao’s death, his 18-year-old son
after the assumption of power in his hands, Baji Balaji Baji Rao was appointed as the Peshwa.
Rao spoke to Shahu, ‘This is the right time for He was an able leader like his father and soon
2.110 Chapter 12
devoted himself to the task of consolidation of to settle accounts with the Marathas. Ahmad
the Maratha hold on Malwa and Bundelkhand. Shah Abdali inflicted a number of defeats on
Although Baji Rao had defeated the chiefs of rulers including Dattayi Scindhia, Holkar, and
Bundelkhand, they continued to resist the Mar- others, which gave a serious setback to the
atha authority. He not only subjugated these power and prestige of the Marathas.
chiefs but also defeated the Bundela chief of
Orchha and captured Jhansi. He strengthened
The Third Battle of Panipat, 14 January
the hold of Maratha over the region and used
it as a base for further Maratha onslaughts 1761
against northern India. As regards Malwa, In 1752, the Peshwa signed a treaty with the
he succeeded in securing a farman from the Mughal emperor. By its terms, the Marathas
Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah in July got the right of collecting chauth from all
1741, whereby the Peshwa was made Deputy over India and, in return, promised to help
of Shahzada Ahmed, the Subahdar of Malwa. the Emperor when needed. The Marathas got
As a result of this arrangement, the entire involved in the politics of Delhi directly. At
administration of Malwa came into the hands that time, the Mughal Court was divided into
of the Marathas. two rival groups of nobles: one consisted of
Balaji Baji Rao also tried to extend Maratha the foreign Muslim nobles while the other one
control over Bengal, Odisha and Bihar. In was that of the Indian Muslims. The Marathas
1743, he undertook an expedition against put their weight on the side of Indian Mus-
Alivardi Khan of Bengal and forced him to lims. The foreign Muslim nobles then sought
accept the right of Marathas to collect chauth the support of Ahmad Shah Abdali, the ruler
in Bengal and Bihar. Alivardi Khan also of Afghanistan. Abdali agreed to help them as
agreed to pay to the Peshwa Rs. 22 lakhs as he was interested in grabbing the territories of
expenses for his expedition. He was also com- Kashmir, Punjab and Multan. Therefore, the
pelled to surrender Odisha to the Marathas. Marathas and Ahmad Shah Abdali came in
Balaji Baji Rao also made a bid to acquire conflict with each other which resulted in the
certain territories in Rajasthan but could not third battle of Panipat.
achieve much success due to the internal bick- Historians have differed regarding the
ering and jealousies of the Maratha leaders. In results of the battle of Panipat. Sardesai has
1760, he defeated the Nizam of Hyderabad at maintained that, of course, the Marathas lost
Udgir and compelled him to cede vast terri- their manpower but neither the Maratha power
tories, which yielded revenues to the tune of were destroyed nor the Marathas changed their
Rs. 62 lakhs. In course of time, the Marathas ideal of capturing the entire India. In contrast
also came to exercise considerable influence to the view, Dr J.N. Sarkar says that it was
in the Mughal Court and played a vital role a very serious defeat of the Marathas. The
in the appointment of Imad-ul-Mulk as wazir. Marathas lost their best leaders in this battle,
In fact, the new wazir merely acted as a pup- which permitted weak leaders such as Rag-
pet in the hands of the Marathas. From Delhi, hunath Rao to come up in politics. It reduced
the Marathas proceeded to bring Punjab under the power and prestige of the Peshwa which,
their control and expelled the agent of Ahmad ultimately, resulted in the disruption of the
Shah Abdali from there. This involved them in unity of the Marathas and led to the creation
conflict with Ahmad Shah Abdali, the warrior of the confederacy of the rival Maratha chiefs.
king of Afghanistan, who marched into India The Marathas lost their hold on the politics of
The Marathas 2.111
the North. The Marathas took time to recover Madho Rao Narayan (1774–1796)
from the reverses of this battle, which made
In 1774, the council named Madho Rao
way for the capture of Bengal and Mysore by
Narayan, the posthumously born son of
the English and Hyder Ali, respectively. There-
Narayan Rao, as the new Peshwa. A Council of
fore, it is generally accepted that though the
Regency was set up under Nana Phadnavis to
Maratha power was not destroyed by this bat-
carry on the administration. In the meantime,
tle, it was certainly weakened.
Raghoba who had got Narayan Rao murdered
reached an understanding with the British in
Madhav Rao (1761–1772) securing Peshwaship in return for the prom-
At the time of succession, Madhav Rao ise of handing over Salsette and Bassein to
was only 17 years of age, and was therefore the English. This paved the way for the First
placed under the regency of his uncle Rag- Maratha War, which was brought to an end by
hunath Rao or Raghoba. He was a talented the Treaty of Salbai in 1782. As a result of this
soldier and statesman and decided to free treaty, Raghoba (Raghunath Rao) gave up all
himself from the control of Raghoba. How- claims to Peshwaship and accepted a pension.
ever, his uncle could see through his game During his time, the Marathas established their
and joined hands with the opponents of Mad- hold over Delhi politics and fought the Mughal
hav Rao. To deal with the situation Madhav Emperor, who promised a monthly pension of
Rao sent Scindhia, Holkar and Gopal Rao Rs. 65,000 for his maintenance by the Mar-
who defeated Raghoba and took him pris- athas. The Marathas also crushed the Rajputs
oner. He was taken to Poona and given a suit- and over ran the Rohillas. As a result of their
able pension. Within a short period of eleven victories, they once again established their
years Madhav Rao defeated the Nizam, com- hold over North India. In the South, the Mar-
pelled Hyder Ali of Mysore to pay a tribute, athas were involved in a long-drawn-out war
and reasserted Maratha control over northern with Tipu Sultan and won ultimate victory, in
India by defeating the Rohillas and subju- 1792. As a result of this victory, they secured
gating the Rajput states and Jat chiefs. The territory up to the Tungabhadra from Tipu. The
Marathas also came to exercise considerable Marathas also inflicted a crushing defeat on
influence on the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam the Nizam of Hyderabad at Khardo in 1795,
and made him their pensioner. Thus, Madhav for not having paid chauth and Sardeshmukhi
Rao restored the Marathas to the position of to the Marathas for quite some time. Under the
pride, which they occupied before the defeat treaty concluded between the two, the Nizam
at Panipat in 1761. agreed to pay 3 crores and 29 lakh of rupees
as arrears.
Narayan Rao (1772–1774)
As Madhav Rao had no son, after his death his Baji Rao II (1796–1818)
younger brother Narayan Rao succeeded him After the death of Madhao Rao Narayan, Baji
as Peshwa. He effected reconciliation with his Rao II, son of Raghunath Rao, became the
uncle Raghoba but soon developed differences Peshwa. He was a thoroughly useless ruler and
with him. As a result, Raghoba got him killed. began to play off one chief against the other to
Thereafter, the Maratha leaders set up a coun- protect his own interests. This greatly under-
cil of state known as Bara Bhai to conduct the mined the solidarity of the Marathas. In 1802,
affairs of the state. he signed a treaty with the English (Treaty of
2.112 Chapter 12
Bassein) whereby he agreed to accept a sub- attacked by Holkar. This resulted in the third
sidiary force of 600 infantry and artillery from Maratha war in which Holkar suffered a defeat
the English in return for ceding territory worth and gave up all claims to the territories north
20 lakhs, to meet the expenses of this force. of river Chambal.
He also promised to consult the English on all The final clash which ultimately led to the
matters. This treaty was strongly condemned extinction of Maratha power took place in
by other Maratha chiefs such as Scindhia and 1817–1818. As the end of this war, Peshwa
Bhonsle who regarded it as a national humili- Baji Rao II surrendered to the English and they
ation and decided to oppose it. This led to the abolished the office of the Peshwa.
second Maratha war, which resulted in the
defeat of Scindhia as well as Bhonsle. Both Decline of the Marathas
these Maratha chiefs were forced to accept
British residents at their courts. The severe defeat of the Maratha army in the
Holkar, another Maratha chief, however, Third Battle of Panipat was followed by the
continued to assert his independence and death of Peshwa Balaji Baji Rao. The conflicts
refused to enter into subsidiary alliance with among its members, their intrigues and rival-
the English. This was quite irritating to the ries, especially between Holkar and Sindhiyas
English and they were determined to crush his made the united action among them impossible
power. The English got an opportunity when and contributed to the decline of the Maratha
the ruler of Jaipur, an ally of the English, was Empire.
Exercise
Match the following: (c) Precious metal
(d) Hundi
.KUV+ .KUV++
The maximum share out of the Chauth col-
A. Shivaji’s mother 1. Jijabai
lections went to
B. Shivaji’s father 2. Shahji (a) the king
C. Shivaji’s 3. Dadoji (b) the Peshwa
guardian Konddeo (c) the Maratha Chief
(d) The Pandit Rao
D. Shivaji’s guru 4. Ram Das
Samarth Muhammad Quli a Muslim convert was
reconverted to Hinduism by Shivaji in
5.Ahilyabai
1676. What was his real name?
%QFGU (a) Vyankoji
A B C D (b) Raghunath Pant
(a) 1 2 3 4 (c) Netaji Palkar
(b) 1 3 2 4 (d) Nishchal Pun Goswami
(c) 5 2 4 3 Who appointed the Pratinidhi?
(d) 5 4 3 2 (a) Sahu
What was Saranjam? (b) Sambhaji
(a) Land grant (c) Raja Ram
(b) High military post (d) Balaji Baji Rao
The Marathas 2.113
What was Maratha state’s share in the pro- (c) Balaji II
duce of the land? (d) Madhav Rao I
(a) 15 per cent (b) 20 per cent Who were Mirasdars?
(c) 24 per cent (d) 40 per cent (a) Jagirdars
Who among the following was not a saint (b) Commanders of army
or thinker of Maharashtra? (c) Those with hereditary rights in land
1. Dyaneshwar (d) Those to whom revenue-free land
2. Hemadri grants were made
3. Chakradhar The practice of granting Jagirs was intro-
4. Narsingh Mehta duced in the days of Raja Ram and Tarabai
(a) Only 1 and 2 (b) Only 2 and 3 because
(c) Only 3 and 4 (d) Only 4 (a) Maratha chiefs wanted to gain social
The Maratha saint who exercised a pro- prestige and economic gains through
found influence on the minds of his coun- the grant of Jagirs.
trymen and inspired them with ideals of (b) The Maratha government did not have
social reform and national regeneration enough cash to pay the salaries.
was (c) Aurangzeb’s offer of grant of Jagirs
(a) Ramdas Samarth to the Maratha chiefs had to be
(b) Gaga Bhatta counteracted.
(c) Tukaram (d) Both (b) and (c).
(d) Vaman Pandit In Shivaji’s time, five Pulisiya meant
In the following gradation of Shivaji’s cav- (a) watchman of the village
alry show, which is not correct? (b) copper coin
(a) One Naik was placed over ten privates (c) an official of the secret se vice
(paiks) (d) an ammunition
(b) One havaldar was placed over fi e naiks When did the relations between Marathas
(c) One jumladar was placed over two or and Rajputs worsen?
three havaldars (a) In the time of Balaji Baji Rao
(d) One hazari was placed over ten (b) In the time of Balaji Vishwanath
jumladars (c) In the time of Sadashiv Rao
Arrange chronologically the events related (d) In the time of Baji Rao I
to Shivaji. The official in charge of pargana under
1. Visit to Agra Shivaji was designated as
2. Invasion of Poona (a) Subahdar (b) Havaldar
3. Coronation (c) Patel (d) Pant
4. Treaty of Purandhar
The first clash between Shivaji and
(a) 1, 4, 3, 2 (b) 2, 1, 4, 3 Mughals took place in 1657. Where did
(c) 3, 1, 2, 4 (d) 2, 4, 1, 3 Shiraj invade?
The Maratha power reached its zenith dur- (a) Ahmad Nagar and Junnar
ing the Peshwaship of (b) Jawli and Poona
(a) Balaji Vishwanath (c) Konkan and Surat
(b) Baji Rao I (d) South Konkan and Ramgarh
2.114 Chapter 12
The Treaty of Warna was signed in 1731, The JW\WTFCHVCTwas
between (a) the king’s court at Satara
(a) Shivaji and Raja Jai Singh (b) the office of Ny yadhish
(b) Raja Ram and Tarabai (c) the Peshwa’s secretariat at Pune
(c) Sahu and Sambhaji (d) the office of mamlatda
(d) Jai Singh and Sambhaji Which of the following CUJVC RTCFJCPU
Who was the Maratha minister to surren- did not hold military commands besides
der to the Mughals in 1700 after the death their civil duties?
of Raja Ram? (a) Sachiv or home secretary in-charge of
(a) Parsuram the king’s correspondence
(b) Ramchand Pant (b) Peshwa or the prime minister
(c) Prahlad Neeraji (c) Amatya or the finance ministe
(d) All of these (d) Pandit Rao or the royal chaplain
The last major expedition of Shivaji in (e) Nyayadhisha or the chief justice
1676 was against (a) A and B (b) A and C
(a) Goa (b) Poona (c) Band E (d) D and E
(c) Travancore (d) Karnataka Match the following members of the
Afzal Khan was a military commander Maratha confederacy with their territorial
who had been sent to punish Shivaji. He limits?
belonged to
.KUV+ .KUV++
(a) Bijapur
(b) Malwa A. Bhonsle 1. Indore
(c) Mewar B. Gaekwar 2. Berar
(d) Ahmadnagar
C. Holkar 3. Poona
Identity the fort where the Mughals laid
seize on Raja Ram for eight years? D. Scindhia 4. Baroda
(a) Purandhar (b) Satara E. Peshwa 5. Gwalior
(c) Jinji (d) Kolhapur
%QFGU
What was Mokasa? A B C D E
(a) The Regular army (a) 1 2 3 4 5
(b) Jagirs (b) 3 1 2 5 4
(c) A tax (c) 2 4 1 5 3
(d) Religious ceremony (d) 2 3 4 5 1
Who is popularly known as Nana Saheb? What was the distinction between the two
(a) Baji Rao I branches of Shivaji’s cavalry known as the
(b) Baji Rao II Bargis and the Silahdars?
(c) Balaji Baji Rao (also known as Balaji (a) Bargis had to maintain two horses for
II) each trooper whereas Silahdars had to
(d) Nana Phadnavis maintain three horses for each trooper.
The hereditary Zamindars were called (b) Bargis were supplied with horses and
(a) Mirasdar (b) Jamadar arms by the state where as Silahdars
(c) Nayak (d) Deewandar had to bring their own equipments.
The Marathas 2.115
(c) Bargis were trained soldiers, whereas signed in 1655 between Shivaji and the
Silahdars were loose auxiliaries with- Mughal general Raja Jai Singh of Amber?
out any regular training. (a) Shivaji surrendered 23 forts out of 35
(d) Bargis belonged to Muslim communi- forts to the Mughals and retained 12
ties whereas Silahdars were Maratha forts.
soldiers. (b) A mansab of 5000 was granted to
Which of the following gradations of the Shivaji’s son, Sambhaji.
Maratha infantry under Shivaji is correct? (c) Shivaji promised to join personally in
(a) One Naik was placed over nine pri- any Mughal campaign in the Deccan.
vates
RCKMU (d) All of these.
(b) One Havaldar was placed over fi e The unit of measurement of land in the
Naiks Maratha dominion was
(c) One Jumladar was placed over two or (a) Tanab (b) Jarib
three Havaldars (c) Kathi (d) None of these
(d) All of these
Where was the naval base of Shivaji?
The subordinate officers of the Patel were (a) Colaba
(a) Deshpande, Deshmukh (b) Kalyan
(b) Kulkarni, Chaugule (c) Bassien
(c) Sardesai, Deshpande (d) Silsit
(d) Sardesai, Deshmukh
Which of the following was the main result
Shivaji introduced a uniform unit of mea- of third battle of Panipat?
surement for the purpose of land revenue. (a) Peshwa weakened
This unit was known as (b) Rise of Hyder Ali in south
(a) jarib (c) Gaz (c) Opportunity of consolidation to
(c) Kathi (d) Tanab British in Bengal
Where was the seat of Sahu’s kingdom (d) Nazibuddaula’s occupation of sover-
located? eignty at Delhi
(a) Poona (b) Kolhapur’ After the fall of Raigarh of the Mughals,
(c) Satara (d) Jinji the next capital of the Maratha govern-
Who is credited with the authorship of ment was
Dasabodha? (a) Satara (b) Pune
(a) Eknath (b) Tukaram (c) Supa (d) Kolhapur
(c) Ramdas Samarth (d) Yaman Pandit
Who were known as Bagirdars in South?
The first fort captured by Shivaji was (a) Jagirdars of Bijapur
(a) Raigarh (b) Shivner (b) Maratha soldiers on hire
(c) Torna (d) Javli (c) Land owners of Golkunda
Who was the highest in the Asht Pradhan (d) Maratha land holders
cabinet of Shivaji? The Peshwas were
(a) Sumant (b) Amatya (a) Chitpavan Brahmins
(c) Pradhan (d) Peshwa (b) Malaviya Brahmins
Which of the following statements is cor- (c) Bhonsle Marathas
rect about the Treaty of Purandar that was (d) Successors of Yadavas of Devagiri
2.116 Chapter 12
Which of the following was not one of (c) Shivaji I

the Maratha Jagirdars who played a very (d) her son Sambhaji II
prominent part in the politics of Ahmad- Match the following members of the
nagar and Bijapur kingdoms? Maratha confederacy with their respective
(a) Shahji Bhonsle (b) Jadhav Rao seats of power:
(c) Murar Rao (d) Jagdev
.KUV+ .KUV++
‘The Maratha confederacy was a curi-
ous and baffling political puzzle.’ Whose A. Peshwas 1. Poona
words are these? B. Bhonsles 2. Nagpur
(a) V.A. Smith (b) Sardesai
C. Gaekwads 3. Baroda
(c) P.E. Roberts (d) Grant Duff
Which of the following CUJVC RTCFJCPU D. Holkars 4. Indore
was also known as Surunavis or Chitnis? E. Sindhias 5. Gwalior
(a) Pandit Rao (b) Sachiv
%QFGU
(c) Sumant (d) Amatya
A B C D E
What was Hibindi in Maratha Kingdom? (a) 1 3 5 2 4
(a) Civilian Army (b) Sachiv (b) 1 2 3 4 5
(c) Peasants (d) Ambassadors (c) 2 4 1 3 5
Which of the following CUJVC RTCFJCPU (d) 2 1 3 5 4
was in-charge of intelligence or espio- What was Kesaria?
nage? (a) Maratha fla
(a) Senapati or Sari-i-navbat (b) Maratha fort
(b) Mantri (c) Maratha guerrilla warfare unit
(c) Sachiv (d) A title given to head of the village
(d) Sumant
Which of the following was not one of the
In the revenue system introduced by Shiv- regions conquered during the Peshwaship
aji, the revenue was collected through of Baji Rao I?
(a) farming out land revenue (a) Malwa
(b) collection of revenue through (b) Bundelkhand
deshmukhs (c) Gujarat
(c) direct collection of revenue by the (d) Orissa
state official
(d) All of these In what way did the terms of the Treaty of
1714 imply a complete departure from the
The battle of Mukand Dara was fought policy of Shivaji?
during the (a) It amounted to the Marathas cooperat-
(a) First Anglo-Maratha war ing with the Mughals.
(b) Second Anglo-Maratha war (b) It amounted to acknowledgement of
(c) Third Anglo-Maratha war the lordship of the emperor of Delhi.
(d) Fourth Anglo-Maratha war (c) It amounted to a compromise between
After Raja Ram’s death his widow Tarabai the Marathas and the Mughals.
ruled on behalf of (d) It implied that Sahu was more or less
(a) her minor son Shivaji II equal to a governor of the Mughal
(b) Sahu empire.
The Marathas 2.117
The Peshwa-controlled confederacy dis- (c) Sack of Surat

solved into five virtually independent (d) Attack on Shaista Khan
Maratha states after (e) Shivaji’s visit to Agra
(a) Sahu’s death (1749) (a) A-I, B-I1, C-HI, D-IV, E-V
(b) The death of Baji Rao I (1740) (b) A-V, B-IV, C-HI, D-II, E-I
(c) The Third Battle of Panipat (1761) (c) A-Ill, B-II, C-IV, D-V, E-I
(d) The annexation of Maharashtra (1848) (d) A-II, B-III, C-I, D-IV, E-V
The Treaty of Rajput was signed in 1806 It is said that at the time of the coronation
between the British and of Ashtapradhan’s stood round the throne
(a) Holkar (c) Scindhia to pour holy water on the king’s head.
(b) Gaekwad (d) Bhonsle Which of following stood on the right side
of the throne?
The Peshwaship was abolished by the Eng- I. Peshwa
lish at the time of II. Senapati
(a) Peshwa Narayan Rao III. Sachiv
(b) Peshwa Raghunath Rao IV. Mantri
(c) Peshwa Madhav Rao I V. Pandit Rao
(d) Peshwa Baji Rao II (a) I, II, III and IV
Match the following (b) Il and III
(a) Acquisition of the fort of Toma (c) I, III and IV
(b) First clash with Mughals (d) I, II, III and V
Answer Keys
1. (a) 2. (a) 3. (c) 4. (c) 33. (c) 34. (c) 35. (c) 36. (d)
5. (c) 6. (d) 7. (d) 8. (a) 37. (d) 38. (c) 39. (a) 40. (c)
9. (a) 10. (d) 11. (c) 12. (c) 41. (a) 42. (b) 43. (a) 44. (b)
13. (d) 14. (b) 15. (a) 16. (a) 45. (c) 46. (b) 47. (a) 48. (b)
17. (a) 18. (c) 19. (a) 20. (d) 49. (c) 50. (c) 51. (c) 52. (b)
21. (a) 22. (c) 23. (b) 24. (c) 53. (a) 54. (d) 55. (b) 56. (c)
25. (a) 26. (c) 27. (d) 28. (c) 57. (a) 58. (d) 59. (b) 60. (c)
29. (b) 30. (d) 31. (b) 32. (c)
Part III: Modern
13
ESTABLISHMENT OF
BRITISH RULE IN INDIA
Conquest of Bengal laid down that ‘the factory of the English
Company be troubled no more with demands
The British conquest of India may be said to of customs for goods imported or exported
have begun with the battle of Plassey fought either by land or by water nor that their goods
in Bengal in 1757. Let us, therefore, first ana- be opened and forced from them at underrates
lyze the historical forces and factors which led in any places of government by which they
to the battle of Plassey, which in turn opened shall pass and repass up and down the country,
the way for the ultimate conquest of Bengal. but that they buy and sell freely and without
Among India’s provinces, Bengal was the most impediment’. After Shuja, this PKUJCP was
fertile and the richest. ignored and the English were called upon to
The East India Company established a fac- pay duties similar to other merchants. In AD
tory at Hugli in Bengal in AD 1651 under 1672, Shaista Khan, the Mughal governor
Bridgeman. This was followed by the open- of Bengal granted them exemption from the
ing of more factories at Patna and Cassim- payment of duties. In AD 1680, Aurangzeb,
bazar. As the staples of commerce in Ben- the Mughal emperor, issued a HCTOCP order-
gal could not be purchased near the coast, ing that none should molest the Company’s
they had to be procured from places lying people for customs or obstruct their trade.
far up the waterways of the Province. Con- In spite of all this, the Company’s agents
sequently, the Company was subject to pay- could not escape from the demands of the local
ment of tolls at numerous customs posts and customs officers and their goods were some-
meeting the demands of local officers. So, times seized. It was to protect its agents from
in AD 1651 they had to obtain from Prince these unscrupulous officials that the Company
Shuja, the viceroy of Bengal, a HCTOCP grant- decided to have a fortified settlement at Hugli.
ing the Company the privileges of trading ‘in This led to a fight between the Mughals and the
return for a fixed annual payment of duties English. In the course of this fight, the English
worth Rs.3,000’. In AD 1656, the Company were repulsed from Hugh. Finally, they made
secured another PKUJCP from Shuja. It was peace with the Mughals who allowed them
3.4 Chapter 13
to return to Sutanuti. An English factory was The English and Siraj-ud-daulah

established at Sutanuti. In AD 1696, the Eng-
lish got an excuse to fortify the settlement. During the last years of Alivardi Khan’s reign
They were given the \COKPFCTK of the three (AD 1740–1756), confusion prevailed. His
villages of Sutanuti, Kalikata (Kalighata– efforts to establish a regular system of govern-
Calcutta) and Govindapur. In AD 1700, the ment failed. The Nawab’s health deteriorated.
English factories in Bengal were placed There was uncertainty regarding succession
under the control of a president and coun- after his death. Alivardi had no male heir
cil. The new fortified settlement was called but he was blessed with three daughters. His
Fort William. Sir Charles Eyre was the first daughters were married to three sons of his
president of Fort William. brother. Alivardi chose Siraj-ud-daulah, the
In the seventeenth century, the principal son of his youngest daughter, as his succes-
articles of the English trade in Bengal were sor. The other two sons-in-law of Alivardi,
silk, cotton goods, salt petre, and sugar. The who were the governors of Dacca and Purnea,
Company did not derive much advantage from respectively, disliked this arrangement. But
trade in Bengal owing to the irregular private they died before Alivardi. But Ghasiti Begam,
trade of the factors of the Company. Things the widow of the governor of Dacca and Shau-
changed in the eighteenth century. The Com- kat Jung, the son of the governor of Purnea,
pany’s trade and influence steadily expanded were there not only to serve as centres of plots
during the first forty years of the eighteenth and conspiracies but also to pursue the policy
century, in spite of the political disorders of of the deceased elder sons-in-law of Alivardi
the period. The most notable event in the his- to its logical conclusion. Ghasiti Begam had
tory of the Company during this period was amassed immense wealth, which she had kept
the sending of its embassy to the Mughal court with herself. She had a large body of armed
in AD 1715. It was conducted from Calcutta retainers. She encamped with her retainers
by John Surman. The object was to secure numbering 10,000 men at Moti Jihil , a garden
some villages around Kalikata and also some a few kilometres away from Murahidabad. She
concessions throughout Mughal India. Ham- was ably supported by her diwan, Rajballabh.
ilton, who joined the embassy as a surgeon, Many thought that she would emerge success-
cured the emperor Farrukh Siyar of a painful ful in the war of succession that might follow
disease. The emperor, who was pleased with the death of Alivardi. Watts, the chief of the
this, at once granted the request of the Com- English factory at Cassimbazar, advised the
pany. The trading privileges of the Company government of Calcutta presidency to sup-
in Bengal were confirmed in AD 1717 under port Rajballabh and comply with his request.
‘a royal HCTOCP’ subject to an annual payment The rumour was widely spread in Murshi-
of Rs.3,000. These included the freedom to dabad that the English had espoused the cause
export and import their goods in Bengal with- of Ghasiti Begam. Siraj-ud-daulah promptly
out paying taxes and the right to issue passes or informed Alivardi about the machinations of
FCUVCMU for movement of such goods. The ser- the English. The Nawab, who was on his death
vants of the Company were also permitted to bed, immediately questioned Forth, who was
trade but they were not covered by the HCTOCP attached to the factory of Cassimbazar, about
issued in AD 1717. They were required to pay this. But Forth denied the charge and, to sat-
the same taxes as the Indian merchants. They isfy the Nawab, disowned any intention on the
were permitted to rent an additional territory part of English to interfere in Indian politics.
around Calcutta. But all these did not satisfy Siraj-ud-daulah,
ESTABLISHMENT OF BRITISH RULE IN INDIA 3.5
who was embittered against the English on the opposite camp, who had a greater chance of
issue of fortification success than Siraj-ud-daulah. When Krishna-
About this time, the question of additional das, Rajballabh’s son, fled to Calcutta with his
fortification of Calcutta assumed immense pro- family and treasure, the English at once agreed
portions. As in other parts of India, the English to take them under their protection, knowing
and French had established their settlements in fully well that such action would invite upon
Bengal close to each other. The English estab- them the wrath of Siraj-ud-daulah. When this
lished their settlements at Calcutta and the was known to Siraj-ud-daulah, he, quite under-
French at Chandernagore. At times, the French standably, regarded it as proving the complic-
and the English fought each other, whenever a ity of the English in the scheme of Rajballabh
war broke out between them in Europe, even to block his way to the Bengal OCUPCF.
if their relations in India were cordial. In AD In the midst of all these troubles, Alivardi
1756, there was a possibility of outbreak of died in April 1756. Siraj-ud-daulah ascended
hostilities between them in Europe. The Eng- the throne without any difficulty. His regime
lish, therefore, mounted guns on the old fort, was a turning point in the history of not only
more as a measure of protection against the Bengal but also India. Although his succes-
French than as a prelude to a war against the sion was unopposed, his troubles were great.
Nawab. They did not stop at that. They com- He had to deal with the hostile activities of
menced additional fortifications. What irri- Ghasiti Begam and her well-wisher, Rajbal-
tated the Nawab most was not so much the labh. Soon after his succession, he seized the
fortifications themselves, but the manner in huge wealth of Ghasiti Begam and thereby
which they were done. The English did not curbed her ambition for acquiring influence
take prior permission of the Nawab. The for- in government. Ghasiti Begam was quietly
tifications were sought to be completed with- removed to Siraj-ud-daulah’s palace with-
out his knowledge. Siraj-ud-daulah, who was out bloodshed. Siraj-ud-daulah then removed
administering the state at that time on account Mir Jafar from his post as commander of the
of the illness of Alivardi, justifiably regarded army and appointed in his place Mir Madan,
the actions of the English as an infringement of who was noted for his bravery and devotion.
the Nawab’s sovereignty. Further, he had before Mohan Lal, another faithful and able officer,
him the example of the Nawab of Karnatak, was made RGUJMCT of the FGYCP-MJCPCJ.
who suffered on account of the Anglo–French Even at this stage, Siraj-ud-daulah did not
struggle in the Karnatak. He did not, therefore, want to precipitate matters with the English. For,
want the English and the French to fight in his although Ghasiti Begam was suppressed, Shau-
dominions and thereby undermine his author- kat Jang, the governor of Purnea, still remained
ity as they had done in case of the Nawab of the centre of revolutionary conspiracy against
Karnatak. So he ordered the English as well as him. So, Siraj-ud-daulah riving priority to his
the French to demolish their fortifications at internal trouble, marched towards Purnea. But
Calcutta and Chandernagore respectively. The when he reached Rajmahal, he got a letter from
French obeyed immediately. But the English Drake, the governor of Calcutta, in reply to his
did not oblige Siraj-ud-daulah. Their success demand for demolition of the fortifications.
over the French in the Karnatak made them The reply, though couched in polite language,
arrogant. Further, like many others, they had did not give any indication of the intention of
discounted the chances of Siraj-ud-daulah’s the English to comply with the Nawab’s request.
accession to the throne. So they were eager to The Nawab, at once, changed his mind. He now
gain the favour of Rajballabh, the leader of the realized that he had to fear the British more than
3.6 Chapter 13
Shaukat Jang. So, he returned to Murshidabad ancient rights and immunities of the Company
and seized the English factory at Cassimbazar. and to compensate them for the losses suffered
Then, he marched towards Calcutta and reached by them during the war. A pacifying reply, sup-
there on 16 June 1756. Drake and his men posed to have been sent by the Nawab, did not
abandoned the fort to its fate and sought safety reach Watson. So Clive marched on Calcutta.
on board the ships. Fort William was captured Manikchand pretended to fight and finally
by the Nawab. It was during this occupation of fled from Calcutta. Clive recovered Calcutta
Calcutta that the so-called ‘Black Hole’ inci- on 2 January 1757, without much fighting.
dent is said to have occurred. It is alleged that Hugli was plundered. In spite of all these
146 English prisoners were confined on one things, Siraj-ud-daulah came to Calcutta and
hot and humid night in a small room measuring concluded the Treaty of Alinagar on 9 Febru-
about 5.5 metres long and 4.75 metres wide. ary 1757. All the demands of the English were
On the next morning only twenty-three of them practically conceded.
survived to tell the story of that tragic summer The attitude of the Nawab and the possibil-
night. This story has been doubted on many ity of a French army from Pondicherry joining
good grounds. The number of prisoners kept in the Nawab, made the English realize the need
the room had been exaggerated. Whatever it is, for replacing Siraj-ud-daulah by a Nawab who
there can be no doubt that the Nawab was not in would be more amenable to their control. So a
any way personally responsible for the incident. conspiracy was hatched with the help of disaf-
After the fall of Calcutta, the English fected chiefs. It was decided to place Mir Jafar
took refuge in Fulta. Knowing the situation on the OCUPCF of Bengal. Mir Jafar and Rai
in Bengal so well, they immediately tried to Durlabh, the two generals of the Nawab and
retrieve their position by exploiting the inter- Jagat Seth joined in the plot. A regular treaty
nal situation. They carried on intrigues with was drafted. The Company and its important
the disgruntled elements of the state, They servants were promised handsome rewards
won over to their cause Manikchand, Ami- in return for their military help. At the last
chand (Omichand), a leading merchant, and moment, a difficult situation arose. Amichand
Jagat Seth – all leading men of the Nawab’s who acted as the go-between, demanded that
court. At the same time, they appealed to the a large share of the plunder was to be given
Nawab to restore their privileges of trade in to him.
Calcutta, The interested advisers of the Nawab The Company was not prepared to give
persuaded him to agree to a compromise with him a large share. Amichand threatened to
the English. Meanwhile, the Madras coun- reveal the plot to the Nawab. To silence him,
cil was busy making preparations for a war Clive prepared a forged copy of the treaty in
against the Nawab. An expedition was sent which Amichand’s demands were conceded.
to Calcutta under Robert Clive and Admiral When Watson refused to sign this forged copy
Watson. The Nawab was not aware of all these of the treaty, his signature was forged at the
developments. Even the English at Fulta were instance of Clive. The valid document omitted
ignorant of the help sent from Madras. They altogether any mention of reward to Amichand.
even pleaded with Clive and Watson to desist The Nawab, who sensed the conspiracy, did not
from war-like operations against the Nawab, imprison Mir Jafar and others. Alternatively,
saying that he was on the point of conceding he tried to conciliate the English by sending
their just demands. But Clive and Watson paid away the French fugitives from his court. He
no heed to their suggestions. Watson wrote a himself went to meet Mir Jafar and appealed to
letter to the Nawab, asking him to restore the him in the name of Ali Vardi Khan for loyalty
and unity. When Mir Jafar gave him the most sums as gifts or bribes to the high officials of
solemn assurance of help, Siraj-ud-daulah felt the Company. Clive received over rupees two
immensely satisfied. He then proceeded to million. Watts got over rupees one million.
make preparations for war against the English In all, the Company and its servants seemed
with Mir Jafar as commander of his forces. to have collected more than thirty million
Three days before Siraj-ud-daulah’s meet- rupees from the Nawab. The British merchants
ing with Mir Jafar had taken place, the Eng- and officials were not henceforth required to
lish army had left Calcutta on its expedition pay any taxes on their private trade. Though, in
against the Nawab. It did not meet with any theory, the position of Mir Jafar did not differ
real opposition till it reached Plassey on the fundamentally from that of Siraj-ud-daulah,
bank of the Bhagirathi, where the Nawab was in practice the supreme control of affairs had
already entrenched with his troops. The bat- passed into the hands of Clive. The Nawab
tle broke out on 23 June 1757. The Nawab’s depended completely on Clive’s support for
forces under Mir Jafar and Raj Durlabh did not maintaining himself on the OCUPCF of Bengal.
join the fight. Only a small contingent com- Mir Jafar soon realized that he had struck
manded by two loyal generals, Mir Madan and only a bad bargain with the English. His trea-
Mohan Lal, and guided by a French general, sury was soon emptied by the demands of the
made a bold advance. Clive, who was forced Company’s officials for presents and bribes.
to withdraw into a mango grove after three The Company itself became greedy. It wanted
hours of fighting, continued his cannonade. A Bengal to meet the expenses of Bombay and
chance shot killed Mir Madan. But Mohan Lal Madras presidencies. Mir Jafar soon discov-
continued the offensive. At this time, Mir Jafar ered that it would not be possible for him to
advised the Nawab to recall Mohan Lal. The meet the demands of the Company as well as
Nawab accepted this advice. Mohan Lal’s its officials. So, he entered into a conspiracy
retreat was the signal for complete flight. The with the Dutch at Chinsura. Attempts were
Nawab himself fled to his capital. The battle of made to import fresh military forces from the
Plassey was a battle only in name. In all, the Dutch settlement in Java. But Clive thwarted
English lost twenty-nine men and the Nawab, their efforts. The Dutch, defeated and humbled
nearly 500 men. He made an effort to collect at Bidera in AD 1759, sued for peace.
his forces. But his men fled pell-mell in all Mir Kasim was an able, efficient, and strong
directions. Finding no other way, he left his ruler. He was determined to free himself from
capital. But he was captured and executed by foreign control. He thought, and very rightly so,
Mir Jafar’s men. that a well-filled treasury and an efficient army
After the battle of Plassey, Mir Jafar was were essential to maintain his independence. So
made the Nawab of Bengal. The sovereignty he decided to increase his income by removing
of the English over Calcutta was recog- corruption from revenue administration and
nized. The English were authorized to keep a raising a modern and disciplined army on the
resident at the Nawab’s court. The Company European model. The English did not like all
was granted undisputed right to free trade in this and, more so, his attempt to check the mis-
Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa. It also received use of the HCTOCP of AD 1717 by the Company’s
the \COKPFCTK of the twenty-four RCTICPCU servants, who demanded that their goods should
near Calcutta. A sum of Rs. 17,700,000 was be free of duties, whether they were meant for
paid as compensation to the Company and to export or for internal use. This privilege had
the traders of Calcutta for the Nawab’s attack adversely affected the Indian traders, who had
on Calcutta. In addition, Mir Jafar paid large to pay these duties. Further, the Company’s
3.8 Chapter 13
servants illegally sold the FCUVCMU to friendly During the war, Mir Kasim was defeated in
Indian merchants and thereby enabled them a series of battles in AD 1763 at Katwah, Mur-
to evade internal custom duties. This practice shidabad, Giria, Sooty, Udaynala, and Mon-
had not only caused great loss to honest Indian ghyr. Mir Kasim fled to Patna where he had
merchants through unfair competition, but killed all the English prisoners. From there,
also deprived the Nawab of a very impor- he went to Avadh (Oudh). There he formed a
tant source of revenue. In addition to this, the confederacy with Nawab Shuja-ud-daulah of
Company and its servants became so much Avadh and Shah Alam II, the fugitive Mughal
intoxicated by their new-found power that they emperor, with a view to recover Bengal from
started oppressing the people and the officials the English. The allies clashed with the Eng-
of the Nawab. They compelled the Nawab’s lish army led by Hector Munro, at Buxar on
officials and zamindars to offer presents and October 22, 1764, and got defeated. Shah
bribes. They forced the Indian artisans, peas- Alam, at once, joined the English camp and
ants, and merchants to sell their goods cheaply concluded peace with the English a little later.
to them and to buy from them their goods at The battle of Buxar demonstrated the superior-
a high price. Those who refused were merci- ity of English arms over the combined strength
lessly flogged or imprisoned. All these were of two major Indian powers. It was not a mere
committed so openly that this period has been skirmish. It was a closely-fought battle. The
described as the period of open and unashamed English suffered 850 casualties out of a total
plunder. of about 7000 men. Their victory was not the
Mir Kasim realized that so long as these product of a conspiracy or treachery. It firmly
abuses continued, he could never hope of established the English supremacy over Ben-
becoming free from the control of the Eng- gal, Bihar, and Orissa. It placed Avadh at their
lish. So, in AD 1792, he shifted his capital to mercy. Mir Kasim fled and led a wandering
Monghyr and abolished all duties on internal life till his death near Delhi in AD 1777.
trade thereby giving the Indian merchants a
concession, which the English had seized by Awadh
force. The English clamoured against this and Awadh became independent under Saadat Ali
insisted upon having preferential treatment as Khan who was the leader of the Irani faction
against other merchants. Ellis, the chief of the in the court of Muhammad Shah. After being
English factory at Patna, asserting the rights in the service of Sarbuland Khan (1710–
of the English, made an attempt to seize the 1712), Saadat Ali Khan joined the service of
city. The attempt, however, ended in failure. Farrukh-Siyar. He became Faujdar of Hindaun
His garrison was destroyed. But these events and Bayana and was made a noble on 9 Octo-
resulted in the outbreak of war between Mir ber 1720. He was an extremely bold, energetic,
Kasim and the English. Though the abolition iron-willed, and intelligent person. At the time
of duties on internal trade was the immediate of his appointment, many rebellious zamind-
cause of the war, the real cause was that both ars had raised their displeasure everywhere in
the parties claimed to be the real masters of the province. They refused to pay the land tax,
Bengal. Mir Kasim believed that he was the organized their own private armies, erected
independent ruler of Bengal. The English forts, and defied the Imperial Government.
demanded that he should be a mere tool in For years together, Saadat Khan had to wage
their hands. They supported their claim on the war upon them. He succeeded in suppressing
fact that they were the people who had put him lawlessness and disciplining the big zamindars
on the OCUPCF of Bengal. and, thus, increasing the financial resources of
his government. He won over the chieftains the Bangash Pathans. In his war against the
and zamindars through various concessions. Bangash Pathans in 1750–1751, he secured
Moreover, most of the defeated zamindars Maratha military help by paying a daily allow-
were also not displaced. They were usually ance of Rs. 25,000 and Jat support by pay-
confi med in their estates after they had sub- ing Rs. 15,000 a day. Later, he entered into
mitted and agreed to pay their dues (land rev- an agreement with the Peshwa, by which the
enue) regularly. Peshwa was to help the Mughal Empire against
Saadat Khan also carried out a fresh rev- Ahmad Shah Abdali and to protect it from
enue settlement in 1723. He is said to have such internal rebels as the Indian Pathans and
improved the lot of the peasants by levying the Rajput rajas. In return, the Peshwa was to
equitable land revenue and by protecting them be paid Rs. 50 lakh, granted the EJCWVJ of the
from oppression by the big zamindars. Punjab, Sindh, and several districts of north-
Like the Bengal Nawabs, he too did not ern India, and made the Governor of Ajmer
discriminate between Hindus and Muslims. and Agra. The agreement failed as the Peshwa
Many of his commanders and high offi- went over to Safdarjang’s enemies at Delhi,
cials were Hindus: and he curbed refractory who promised him the governorship of Awadh
zamindars, chiefs, and nobles irrespective and Allahabad.
of their religion. His troops were well- Safdarjang maintained a very high standard
paid, well-armed, and well-trained. His of personal morality. As a matter of fact, all
administration was efficient. He too continued the founders of the three autonomous king-
the LCIKT system. He extended the jurisdiction doms of Hyderabad, Bengal, and Awadh,
of Awadh over Banaras, Ghazipur, Jaunpur, namely, Nizam-ul-Mulk, Murshid Quli Khan
and Chunar. He gradually acquired power and and Alivardi Khan, and Saadat Khan and
fame. He was summoned to Delhi at the time Safdarjang, were men of high personal moral-
of invasion of Nadir Shah in 1739, but he com- ity. Nearly all of them led austere and simple
mitted suicide in March 1739, as he could not lives. Their lives challenged the belief that all
fulfil the promise made by him to Nadir Shah. the leading nobles of the eighteenth century
He was succeeded by his nephew Safdarjang. led extravagant and luxurious lives. It was only
The next Governor of Awadh was in their public and political dealings that they
Safdarjang (1739–1754). He was the nephew, resorted to fraud, intrigue, and treachery.
and son-in-law of Saadat Ali Khan. In 1742, In a civil war with the emperor in 1753,
emperor Muhammad Shah asked Safdarjang Safdarjang left for Avadh and died in 1754. He
to protect Bihar. Safdarjang went to Bihar and gave lasting peace to Awadh and Allahabad. He
entered Patna city in December 1742. How- was succeeded by his son Shuja-ud-Daulah.
ever, the Mughal emperor asked him to come When Mir Qasim was driven out from Bengal
back and he did so in February 1743. in 1763, he took refuge with Shuja-ud-Daulah,
When Ahmed Shah became the emperor who agreed to help him recover his lost prov-
in 1748, he appointed Safdarjang as his ince. Mir Qasim helped Shuja-ud-Daulah in
wazir. During his reign, he suppressed subduing the rebels of Bundelkhand and prom-
rebellious zamindars, won over others, and ised to pay the Mughal emperor and Shuja-
made an alliance with the Maratha sardars ud-daulah ten and seventeen lakh of rupees
so that his dominion was saved from respectively. In October 1764, the battle of
their incursions. He was able to win the Buxar was fought, in which Shuja-ud-daulah
loyalty of Rajput chieftains and shaikhzadas. and Mir Qasim were defeated. After running
He carried on warfare against the Rohelas and from one place to another, Shuja-ud-daulah
3.10 Chapter 13
was finally defeated in the battle of Kora in In 1856, Awadh was annexed by English East
May 1765. Colonel Fletcher overran the terri- India company and Wajid Ali Shah was given
tory of Shuja-ud-daulah and occupied Banaras, a pension and sent to Calcutta.
Buxar, and Allahabad. Awadh fell completely
under British control.
But after the return of Lord Clive, as Gov- Marathas
ernor of East India Company in May 1765, Among the Indian powers, who challenged
Shuja-ud-daulah got back all the lost territo- British imperialism, the Marathas stood out
ries with the exception of Kora and Allahabad. prominently. For, they were the people who
With the help of the British army, Shuja-ud- made the last attempt to build up their political
daulah defeated and killed Hafiz Rahmat supremacy in India on the ruins of the Mughal
Khan, leader of the Rohillas, and Rohilkhand empire. They were the people who competed
became a part of the kingdom of Awadh. with the English for political dominance for
Shuja-ud-daulah died on 26 January 1775, and about forty years. The primary cause of their
he was succeeded by his eldest son, Asaf-ud- failure is to be seen in the character of the Mar-
daulah. atha state as it stood in the eighteenth century.
The accession of Asaf-ud-daulah marked ‘The cohesion of the peoples of the Maratha
the beginning of the degradation and exploi- state’, as pointed out by J.N. Sarkar, ‘was not
tation of Awadh by the English Company. organic, but artificial, accidental and therefore
This was due to the fact that Asaf-ud-daulah precarious’. That was because no systematic
was weak and dependent on the British. War- effort was made to bring about an organized
ren Hastings forced the Nawab of Awadh to improvement of the Maratha community; noth-
accept another brigade and pay for it. The Brit- ing was done to educate the people – no con-
ish got the right of nominating the ministers crete measure was taken to foster unity among
of Asaf-ud-daulah. British control over Awadh them. It is an acknowledged fact that no politi-
continued to grow and there was more and cal development of a people is possible if it is
more exploitation of Awadh. Asaf-ud-daulah not accompanied by a sound financial policy
died in 1797 and his son, Wazir Ali, was rec- and if it is not based on satisfactory financia
ognized by Sir John Shore but he was deposed arrangements. Unfortunately, the nature of the
and Saadat Ali was put on the throne. Maratha land was such that it was not helpful
Lord Wellesley put pressure on Saadat Ali for the development of agricultural prosperity.
to sign the annexation of Awadh by the British, Nor was it helpful to develop industry and trade.
but the Nawab refused. However, by the treaty Consequently, the Maratha state had to depend
of 1801, the British took away Rohilkhand and on uncertain and precarious sources of income,
the Eastern districts from Awadh to pay the the chief among them being EJCWVJ. Apart from
expenses of the subsidiary force. This was an the fact that these sources of income could not
act of high-handedness. During the regime of easily be ascertained in advance to enable the
Lord William Bentinck, there was danger to government to plan its development accord-
the very existence of the state of Awadh on ingly, their collection had caused great irrita-
account of its misgovernment. tion to the people from whom they were col-
Nasir-ud-Din died in 1837 and he was suc- lected. As a result of this, in times of difficult ,
ceeded by Muhammad Ali, who was forced the Marathas were unable to get the sincere
to pay for another British brigade. In 1842, cooperation of those affected by these imposts.
Muhammad Ali was succeeded by Amjad The revival of the LCIKT system after the death
Ali, who was succeeded by Wajid Ali Shah. of Shivaji, served as a powerful disintegrating
factor. The Maratha jagirdars cared more for in war-like qualities. Their bravery too can-
themselves than for the national cause. The not be doubted. Tipu was a diplomat of no
frequent quarrels among them not only weak- mean order. This is evident from his realisa-
ened their power but also served to divide them tion that England, not an Indian power, was
most. Excepting a few like Malhar Rao Hol- his enemy. Having known that France was
kar, Mahadaji Sindhia, and Nana Phadnavis, the great enemy of England, he cultivated the
the other jagirdars indulged in intrigues and friendship of France. But the English had out-
bitter fratricidal strife to such a great extent witted him in the diplomatic war. Wellesley,
that they would not unite even when their possessing, as he did, penetrating insight and
independence was threatened by a common a clear vision, took immediate steps to destroy
enemy. Thus when Sindhia and Bhonsle fought French influence in Indian courts and armies.
the British, Holkar stood on the sidelines and The eventual failure of the French in the Euro-
the Gaikwar gave help to the British. Another pean wars proved to be an important factor for
weak point was the Maratha military system. the failure of the Indian powers, particularly
The Marathas had discarded their old tactics Mysore, against the English.
by the close of the eighteenth century. They
could not organize a military system on the
scientific lines of the West. Though men like Haidar Ali (AD 1760–1782)
Mahadaji Sindhia had the ability to create a Haidar Ali, born in 1721 in an obscure fam-
military system on the western model, finance ily, started his career as a petty officer in the
served as a stumbling block. Mysore army. Though uneducated, he pos-
sessed a keen intellect and was a man of great
Carnatic energy, daring, and determination. He was also
a brilliant commander and a shrewd diplomat.
The Carnatic was one of the UWDCJU of the
Haidar Ali soon found his opportu-
Mughal Deccan and as such came under the
nity in the wars, which involved Mysore
Nizam of Hyderabad’s authority. But just as in
for more than twenty years. Cleverly using
practice, the Nizam had become independent
the opportunities that came his way, he
of Delhi, so also the Deputy Governor of the
gradually rose in the Mysore army. He soon
Carnatic, known as the Nawab of Carnatic,
recognized the advantages of western mili-
who had freed himself of the control of the
tary training and applied it to the troops
Viceroy of the Deccan and made his office
under his own command. He established a
hereditary. Thus, Nawab Saadutullah Khan of
modern arsenal in Dindigal, in 1755, with the
Carnatic had made his nephew, Dost Ali, his
help of French experts. In 1761, he overthrew
successor without the approval of his superior,
Nanjaraj and established his authority over the
the Nizam. Later, after 1740, the affairs of the
Mysore state. He extended full control over
Carnatic deteriorated because of the repeated
the rebellious RQNKICTU (warrior chieftains and
struggles for its 0CYCDUJKR and this provided
zamindars) and conquered the territories of
an opportunity to the European trading com-
Bidnur, Sunda, Sera, Canara, and Malabar. A
panies to directly interfere in Indian politics.
major reason for his occupation of Malabar
was the desire to have access to the Indian
Mysore Ocean. Though illiterate, he was an efficient
Other Indian powers that resisted the British administrator. He was responsible for intro-
were the rulers of Mysore, Haidar Ali and ducing the Mughal administrative and revenue
Tipu Sultan. Both of them were not lacking system in his dominions. He took over Mysore
3.12 Chapter 13
when it was a weak and divided state, and possessions of the RQNKICTU and to eliminate
soon made it one of the leading Indian powers. the intermediaries between the state and the
He practised religious toleration and his first cultivator. However, his land revenue was as
dewan and many other officials were Hindus. high as that of other contemporary rulers – it
Almost from the beginning of the establish- ranged up to one-third of the gross produce.
ment of his power, he was engaged in wars But he checked the collection of illegal cesses
with the Maratha sardars, the Nizam, and the and he was liberal in granting remissions.
British. His infantry was armed with muskets and
Haidar also proved to be the most formi- bayonets in the European fashion, which were,
dable enemy of the English in India. He allied however, manufactured in Mysore. He also
with the French and the Nizam and gave a made an effort to build a modern navy after
crushing defeat to the English in the First 1796. For this purpose, he established two
Anglo–Mysore War (1767–1769) and forced dockyards, the models of the ships being sup-
them to conclude a humiliating treaty in April plied by the Sultan himself. In personal life,
1769. In the Second Anglo–Mysore War he was free from vices and kept himself free
(1780–1784), Haidar formed a common front from luxury. He was recklessly brave and, as
with the Nizam and the Marathas against the a commander, brilliant. He was fond of say-
English. During the course of this war, Haidar ing that it was, ‘better to live a day as a lion
captured Arcot and inflicted a very humiliat- than a lifetime as a sheep’. He died fighting at
ing defeat on the English in 1782. But while the gates of Srirangapatam in pursuance of this
the war was in progress, Haidar Ali died on 7 belief. He was, however, hasty in action and
December 1782, and left the task of continuing unstable in nature.
the war against the English to his son Tipu. As a statesman, he, more than any other
eighteenth century Indian ruler, recog-
Tipu Sultan (AD 1782–1799) nized to the full extent the threat that the
Tipu Sultan, who ruled Mysore till his death English posed to South India as well as to
at the hands of the British in 1799, was a man other Indian powers. He stood forth as the
of complex character. He was, for one, an steadfast foe of the rising English power.
innovator. His desire to change with the times The English, in turn, looked upon him as
was symbolized in the introduction of a new their most dangerous enemy in India.
calendar, a new system of coinage, and new Tipu continued the second Anglo–Mysore
scales of weights and measures. His personal war against the English till 1784, when both
library contained books on such diverse sub- the sides got tired and concluded peace by
jects as religion, history, military science, the Treaty of Mangalore (March 1784) on the
medicine, and mathematics. He showed a basis of mutual restitution of conquests.
keen interest in the French Revolution. He The Third Mysore War was fought between
planted a Tree of Liberty at Serigapatam and British and Tipu from 1790 to 1792 in the time
he became a member of a Jacobin Club. His of Lord Cornwallis. Tipu was defeated. By
organizational capacity is borne out by the the treaty of Srirangapatam, signed in March
fact that in those days of general indiscipline 1792, Tipu had to give up half of his territory.
among Indian armies, his troops remained The Fourth Mysore War was fought in
disciplined and loyal to him to the last. He the time of Lord Wellesley. Lord Wellesley
tried to do away with the custom of giving demanded absolute submission from Tipu and
jagirs, and thus increase state income. He as he refused to do so, war was declared. Tipu
also made an attempt to reduce the hereditary died fighting at Srirangapatam in May 1799.
After the war, Lord Wellesley annexed large Alternatively, we find the British being helped
and important territories. by the Marathas and the Nizam in fighting
against Haidar Ali. The British naval superior-
Annexation of Punjab ity was one of the most decisive factors for the
failure of the Indian powers. Naval superiority
After the defeat of the Marathas at the hand of enabled them to eliminate other European fac-
Ahmad Shah Abdali the Sikhs took advantage tors like the Portuguese, the Dutch, the Dan-
and established their own states, known as 12 ish, the Spanish, as well as the French from
OKUNU. Subsequently, Ranjit Singh subdued them trade competition. Their sea power provided
and built a big and powerful empire, which them with a safe entry and exit, whenever it
extended not only from the Sutlej to the Indus pleased them, and enabled them to repair their
but also to trans-Indus regions like Dera Ismail losses and strike at the interior parts from sev-
Khan and Dera Ghazi Khan. However, the Brit- eral vantage points at will. Such power helped
ish were keeping a watch over Punjab’s affairs them to establish their territorial supremacy
and, in 1809, they entered into a treaty with Ran- in the Karnatak and the Deccan by eliminat-
jit Singh, known as the Amritsar Treaty. Accord- ing the local chiefs as well as the French. It
ingly, Ranjit Singh had to forgo his claim over enabled them to retreat when pressed hard by
the trans-Sutlej areas. However, not much of the their adversary, and secure fresh supplies of
problem existed between the Sikhs and the Brit- resources either from other nearby settlements
ish till 1839. But after the death of Ranjit Singh in or even from their home in the British Isles.
1839, there was a succession feud which provided We have seen that when Siraj-ud-daulah over-
an opportunity for the British to interfere in Sikh ran Calcutta, the British took refuge at Fulta,
affairs. This resulted in the first Anglo–Sikh War near the sea, under the full protection of their
in 1845, leading to the Lahore Treaty, which navy until reinforcement arrived from Madras.
reduced the status of Punjab to a British depend- Leadership was yet another important
ency. This was followed by the Second Anglo– factor. The British produced men of rare
Sikh War in 1849, which final y ended in the distinction ‘from the conquistador type in the
annexation of Punjab to the British colonial person of Clive to the military genius of Wel-
empire. Thus, from 1757 (Battle of Plassey) to lington (Arthur Wellesley), from the subtle
1856 (final annexation of Awadh), the entire statesmanship of a Warren Hastings to the
eastern and northern India came to be occupied ardent empire-building of a Wellesley’. The
by the British. Indian states had also some equally great
statesmen and men of character in Mahadaji
Sindhia, Haidar Ali, Nana Phadnavis, etc. But
Factors Behind British the British had a definite advantage in so far
Success Against Indian as secondary leaders were concerned. Their
military science, diplomacy, and administra-
Powers tive training produced an increased level of
One significant factor for the collapse of the competence among secondary leaders, which
Indian powers was that they did not all join could not be equalled by the Indians.
together. There were occasions when they Another advantage enjoyed by the British
showed some tendency to come together as in was the superior type of military discipline
the case of the Nizam and Haidar Ali in 1767. through which a high degree of morale was
But British diplomacy proved to be very effec- maintained among the British troops at all
tive in destroying such combinations in no time. times. The habitual loyalty of the troops to
3.14 Chapter 13
their officers was something unique. The Brit- of the features of a subsidiary alliance system
ish army was trained in modern methods of though in a rudimentary form. Hastings and
war unlike the Marathas. It is true that some of Cornwallis had developed it. The treaty with
the armies of the Indian powers were trained the Nizam made in 1768 also contained some
by the Europeans. But they could not have the features of this system. It had a clause assuring
rich and varied experience of European wars, him that some British troops would be sent to
which the English army had possessed. his help when called upon to do so. The system,
But, even more valuable to the British was however, was given its complete form by Welles-
the discipline of the East India Company’s ley. While the earlier administrators, mentioned
servants. ‘They carried with them the familiar above, concluded their treaties for a limited
backup of the English law as well as English purpose with a particular prince, Wellesley
commercialism and English patriotism as well regarded these treaties as part of the technique
as a fierce type of individualism.’ of supremacy. The treaties with Shuja-ud-daulah
Yet another aspect was the easy availability were defensive, treating Awadh as an out work
of vast resources to the British. The conquest of Bengal against the Marathas and Afghans.
of Bengal and the establishment of British The treaties of Wellesley were offensive, plac-
supremacy in the Karnatak gave the British the ing advanced posts of British troops in the heart
much needed fiscal resources. of princely Indian territories.
Moreover, the French defeat in the Karnatak The salient features of the subsidiary alli-
had left the Indian princes with no European ance system, in its mature form, were as
power capable of rendering them effective aid follows:
against the British. Lastly, there was no show
down of collision between the facets of British 1. The subsidiary alliance system was a boon
imperialism and Indian society. So there was to a prince in danger from neighbours,
no resistance unto death. British imperialistic as the British had guaranteed under this
ideas and policies were purely economic in system his independence against all cor-
nature and as long as their social and religious ners. And, to make the guarantee effec-
ideals were not disturbed, the Indians did not tive, a subsidiary force was permanently
bother about such imperialism. stationed within the frontiers of the allied
state.
2. The prince undertook to pay and supply
Policy of Subsidiary Alliance these troops either in cash or by alienating
Besides nursing a policy of conquest to extend a part of his territory to the company.
the British dominions in India, Lord Wellesley, 3. The subsidiary state was not to nego-
the Governor General of India (1798–1805) fol- tiate with any other power without
lowed certain arbitrary methods to bring more previous consultation with the company’s
and more Indian territories under British rule. government.
One of them was the subsidiary alliance system. 4. It was not to take any European into its
This system, however, did not originate with service without obtaining the permission
Lord Wellesley. According to Malcolm, alli- of the Company.
ances of the same character as those formed by 5. A British resident was stationed in the
Lord Wellesley had been entered into by almost subsidiary state.
all his predecessors starting with Robert Clive. There were, however, some variations in
British alliance with Shuja-ud-daulah and his the terms of the treaties with different states.
successor, Asaf-ud-daulah of Awadh, had some Thus, in the case of Hyderabad, the company
declared that it had no manner of concern with line in advance of the political frontier and,
any of the Nizam’s children, relations, ser- thereby, keep the evils of war at a distance
vants, or subjects, with respect to whom the from the sources of British wealth and power
Nizam was absolute. In the case of Awadh, in India. It was prelude to British control of
however, it reserved the positive right of inter- Indian territory, which was outside the control
ference in the internal management of that of the company and provided vantage taints
part of the country retained by the Nawab. As for winning the wars the British had provoked.
regards Mysore, the treaty provided for a suit- Though the alliances amounted to annexation
able subsidiary force for which the Maharaja in disguise, they did not incur any odium in the
would discharge the increased expense. It was minds of the princes or foreign observers as in
further declared that in case the company’s the case of Dalhousie’s annexations made at a
administration apprehended failure in the sup- later date. By removing the substance of the
ply of funds, the Governor General in Council power of princely states and replacing it with
would be free to introduce such regulations that of the company, Wellesley silently con-
and ordinances as he deemed expedient for the verted the British empire in India into British
internal management and collections. empire of India. However, the system tended
Wellesley signed his subsidiary treaties with to strengthen weak and vicious rulers. By sap-
the Nizam of Hyderabad in 1798 and 1800. ping the spontaneous energy of the protected
The Nizam ceded a part of his territories to the state, it stood in the way of improving the char-
company in lieu of cash payment for the main- acter of its government.
tenance of the subsidiary forces. The Nawab Relieved of the problems of defence and
of Awadh signed a subsidiary treaty in 1801. protected from internal and external danger, the
After the fall of Tipu, the Hindu ruler who was princes spent their time in ease and pleasure and
restored to the throne made a subsidiary treaty neglected their government. They enjoyed pro-
with the British, which was much more severe tection without any responsibility, leading ulti-
than those entered into by the Nizam and mately to administrative anarchy and political
the Nawab of Awadh. Mysore became a com- degeneracy of the states, a condition which was
plete dependency of the company. In 1802, used by Lord Dalhousie at a later date to justify
Peshwa Baji Rao III agreed to accept the sub- his policy of annexation. Thomas Munro, com-
sidiary alliance. He agreed to surrender terri- menting on the system, had made the follow-
tories yielding revenues worth 26 lakh for its ing observations. ‘The subsidiary system has
maintenance. In 1803, Bhonsle and in 1804, a natural tendency to render the government
Sindhia concluded subsidiary alliance with the of every country in which it exists, weak and
British. In 1805, Gaikwar entered into a sub- oppressive, to extinguish all honourable spirit
sidiary treaty with the British. among higher classes of society, and to degrade
The subsidiary alliance system proved and impoverish the whole people. The simple
completely successful so far as its primary and direct mode of conquest from without is
purpose of giving a prince a sense of security more creditable both to our armies and to our
was concerned. The people were spared from national character, than that, of dismember-
recurrent invasions and the harrowing scenes, ment from within by the aid of a subsidiary
which normally accompanied armies on the force?’ The people of the protected states had
march. As far as the British were concerned, no resource against such erring rulers.
the system enabled them to maintain an effi- As the British force undertook the defence
cient army at the expense of the Indian princes. of a protected state, its ruler disbanded his
The system enabled the formation of a military own army in order to save money. This led to
3.16 Chapter 13
unemployment of thousands of professional recognized this right in the beginning. In 1825,

soldiers and these soldiers swelled the ranks of the British government passed a formal reso-
the Pindaris and spread misery around. lution to the effect that Indian princes had a
The question is often raised why any ruler right to adopt as per Hindu law and that the
had agreed to a system that was likely to get British government was bound to acknowledge
him firmly enmeshed in the British political the adoption. Later, they held that the power of
web. The answer is that some, like the Peshwa adoption was subject to their consent as they
Baji Rao, were too short-sighted or distressed had become the paramount power. In other
to consider the ultimate consequences at words, adoption could be valid if ratified by
the time of concluding the subsidiary trea- the paramount power. If that was withheld, the
ties. Some, like the Nizam, preferred certain state would pass by lapse to the paramount
dependence with a treaty to certain extinction power. Between 1826 and 1848, no less than
without one. Still some were simply oppor- fifteen instances of adoption were recognized
tunistic. Some still hoped that some turn in by the British government. Of these, seven
events might restore their fortunes. were made by reigning princes. In a few other
cases, adoption was set aside mainly because
it was irregular. But, in most of these cases,
Doctrine of Lapse invalidity of adoption did not lead to annexa-
Lord Dalhousie annexed a number of Indian tion. In certain cases such as the case of Jalaun
states and abolished dignitary titles and in Bundelkhand, invalidity of adoption led to
pensions, the last vestiges of once powerful and annexation on the ground that the ruler was
independent states without resort to or even only a jagirdar, and not a sovereign prince.
show of force in pursuance of what is known Colaba was annexed for failure of heirs on
as the Doctrine of Lapse. It means that on the the ground that the right of investiture was
absence of natural heirs, the sovereignty of the expressly reserved to the British government.
dependent states, of those created by the Brit- The state of Mandavi lapsed to the British
ish government/or held on a subordinate ten- as it was a tributary to the British and as the
ure lapsed to the paramount power, a position legitimate claimant was very remotely con-
which was agreed the British government had nected with the deceased chief. It is thus clear
acquired after the fall of the Mughal Empire. that the principle applicable to adoption and
The Doctrine of Lapse also did not recognize the policy of annexation were not invented by
the right of those states to adopt heirs. Dalhousie. Dalhousie only applied the prin-
The paramount power insisted on the right ciple most vigorously. Fortunately or unfor-
of recognizing the succession, with its corol- tunately for Dalhousie, he had to deal with a
lary of regulating it in doubtful or disputed number of cases involving a decision on the
cases. The question arises as to what would right of adoption. He divided Indian states into
happen if there was no recognized natural three categories: (1) dependent states created
heir. Hindu law provided for this contingency by the British government, (2) tributary and
by the practice of adoption. A Hindu, without subordinate states and (3) independent states.
any male issue, may adopt a son after observ- He laid down, as a general principle, that no
ing some rites and ceremonies. Such a son adoption should be permitted to the first case,
comes immediately into the possession of all that no adoption without the previous consent
the rights and obligations of a son born of a of the paramount power should be recognized
legitimately wedded wife. The British rulers in regard to the second category, and there
should be no interference in the case of the appearances without the reality of authority
third category of states. were sure to shake the native confidence in the
The first case to be dealt by him was Satara, good faith of the Company. On the death of the
which was revived by Lord Hastings in 1818 ex-peshwa, Baji Rao II, the pension granted
for the benefit of the direct descendant of to him was not allowed to his adopted son,
Shivaji. It came well within the class of depen- Dundu Pant (Nana Sahib) on ground the pen-
dent states. The raja died in 1848 without a sion given to Baji Rao II was personal, not a
male issue. But he had adopted a son without hereditary one.
the previous consent of the British govern- Dalhousie abolished the title of the nawab
ment. As Satara fell under the first category, of the Karnatak on the death of Mahammad
the claim of the adopted son was set aside and Ghaus, who left behind no male heir. He
Satara was annexed. rejected the claim of the uncle of the deceased
Jhansi was annexed setting aside the claims Nawab to the rank and dignity of the nawab.
of the adopted son on the ground that there was He treated the treaty of Wellesley with Nawab
no male heir. Jhansi was originally dependent Azim-ud-daulah as purely personal. If several
on the peshwa. Later it was given to the British, of the latter’s descendants were allowed to suc-
who placed a ruler on its throne on terms of sub- ceed, he argued, it was due to the favour of the
ordinate cooperation. Since the new ruler was British government, not because of the heredi-
not a ruling chief and since the adoption made tary right of succession.
in the last minute was hot recognized by the Thanjavur was annexed after the death of
British government, his claims were set aside. Raja on the ground that he had left no male
Dalhousie set aside the claim of the widow heir. The raja was an independent sovereign.
of the ruler of Sambalpur, who died in 1849 The state was not created by the British. He
and annexed it to the British dominions as the had left behind two daughters. All these show
late ruler had left no male heir. It was also that there was no justification for applying the
pointed out that no adoption had ever been principle of the Doctrine of Lapse in this case.
proposed. Jaitpur was annexed in 1849 apply- The annexation of Thanjavur leaves no doubt
ing the Doctrine of Lapse. The raja of Nagpur that Dalhousie pursued the steady policy of
died in 1853 without leaving a male heir. He seizing every chance of aggrandizement on
did not adopt any son. Dalhousie regarded any pretext, fair or foul.
Nagpur as a dependent state, and so annexed it Dalhousie wanted to abolish the title of the
to the British dominion. nominal Delhi emperor. But this proposal was
Two petty states, named Baghat and turned down by the Court of Directors.
Udaipur, were annexed in 1851 and 1852 Whatever might have been the legal posi-
respectively as the rulers had left no male tion of the states annexed by Dalhousie, it is
heirs. After the Revolt of 1857 they were clear that his motives in annexing some of the
restored to the relatives of the deceased rulers states were purely imperialistic. For example,
who died without leaving male heirs. Dalhou- Satara and Nagpur were placed right across the
sie’s proposal to annex Karauli was rejected by main lines of communication between Bom-
the supreme government on the ground that it bay and Madras and Bombay and Calcutta.
was a protected ally, not a dependent state. Further, he considered annexation as desir-
The principle of lapse was also used to able when possible. His predecessors had
sweep away the titles and pensions of the acted on the principle of avoiding annexation,
rulers of some of the states on the ground that if it could be avoided. Dalhousie acted on the
3.18 Chapter 13
general principle of annexing, if he could do affected and of resentment to a much wider

so legitimately. His annexations served as a circle, which eventually proved to be one of
cause of deep discontent to those immediately the causes of the Great Revolt of 1857.
Exercise
In which of the following Carnatic Wars Which one of the following pairs is
was Robert Clive prisoner of the French? wrongly matched?
(a) The First Carnatic War (a) The First Carnatic War, 1746–1748
(b) The Second Carnatic War (b) The Second Carnatic War, 1748–1954
(c) The Third Carnatic War (c) The Third Carnatic War, 1758–1763
(d) Both (a) and (b) (d) Dupleix’s recall to France, 1754
In the Carnatic, the right of Nawab Anwar- The first English factory in Bengal was
ud-din was disputed by established at
(a) Chanda Sahib (a) Kalikata (b) Chittagong
(b) Dost Ali (c) Hugli (d) Govindapur
(c) NasirJang The English obtained the permission to
(d) Both (a) and (b) dig a ditch and throw up an entrenchment
The capital of the Carnatic was at around their settlement of Fort William
(a) Arcot (b) Trichinopoly from
(c) Bangalore (d) Ambur (a) Murshid Quli Khan
Chanda Sahib was treacherously killed by (b) Alivardi Khan
the Raja of (c) Siraj-ud-daulah
(a) Ambur (b) Thanjavur (d) Mir Kasim
(c) Carnatic (d) Hyderabad What were the terms of the treaty between
Which measure of Clive strengthened the Siraj-ud-daulah and Clive in 1757 just
position of the East India Company in before the Battle of Plassey?
India? (a) The English were to be paid Rs. 175
(a) Introduction of double-government in lakh besides the compensation for
Bengal losses
(b) Restoration of Oudh to its nawab (b) The privileges of the Company were
(c) Acceptance of the FKYCPK of Bengal, to be restored and the English permit-
Bihar and Orissa ted to fortify Calcutta
(d) Checking of corruption and abuses (c) The British were to get exclusive trad-
of private trade by the Company’s ing rights in Bengal
servants (d) Siraj-ud-daulah was to be guided by
In Eastern India, the English Company the British
opened its first factories in Consider the following statements and
(a) Orissa (b) Bengal mark the option which is correct.
(c) Bihar (d) Assam (i) British intervention in Afghan affairs
The English Company opened their first gave birth to three Afghan wars.
factory/company in the South at (ii) Lord Lawrence initiated the policy of
(a) Surat (b) Masulipatam Masterly inactivity that refers to being
(c) Madras (d) Cochin noninterfering, but being watchful.
(iii) Lord Ellenborough was responsible Chandernagore and to desist from fighting
for the plan of conquest of Sindh. each other?
(a) i and ii (a) Murshid Quli Khan
(b) i (b) Alivardi Khan
(c) None of the above (c) Siraj-ud-daulah
(d) All of the above (d) Mir Qasim
In the Black Hole episode, the number of Match the following:
prisoners is given out as
.KUV+ .KUV++
(a) 150 (b) 148
(c) 147 (d) 146 A. First Car- 1. Dupleix was
natic War defeated by Clive
In the Black Hole story, the dimensions of
the prison room are given as B. Second Car- 2. War ended in com-
(a) 20 feet long by 15 feet 12 inches wide natic War promise with Treaty
(b) 18 feet long by 14 feet 10 inches wide of Axe-lachapal
(c) 16 feet long by 13 feet 8 inches wide C. Third Car- 3. Battle of
(d) 14 feet long by 12 feet 6 inches wide natic war Wandiwash
In the Black Hole episode, the number of %QFGU
survivors were A B C
(a) 25 (b) 24 (a) 2 1 3
(c) 23 (d) 22 (b) 1 2 3
Who among the following was the prime (c) 3 2 1
author of the story of the Black Hole epi-
Match List I with List II and select the cor-
sode in Bengal?
(a) Roger Drak
(b) J.Z. Holwell .KUV+ .KUV++
(c) Philip Woodruff
2GTUQPU
2QUVU
(d) Robert Clive
A. Mir Jafar 1. The Mir Bakshi
Which statement is not correct about the
B. Manik Chand 2. The Officer in
Company and its affairs in Bengal after
charge of Calcutta
Plassey?
(a) It abused the concessions granted in C. Amir Chand 3. A rich merchant
the form of FCUMCVU D. Jagat Seth 4. The biggest
(b) It virtually monopolized all trade in banker of Bengal
Bengal
(c) It compelled the weavers to supply %QFGU
stipulated quantities of cloth at low and A B C D
fi ed prices and that too at fi ed dates, (a) 1 2 3 4
by terrorizing them through fl gging (b) 2 3 4 1
(d) It gave financial help to Bengal weav- (c) 3 4 2 1
ers for the manufacture of cotton cloth (d) 4 3 2 1
Who among the following ordered both The details of the conspiracy hatched by
the English and the French to demol- Clive against Siraj-ud-daulah were settled
ish their fortifications at Calcutta and through
3.20 Chapter 13
(a) Rai Duriab thoroughly defeated. What was the main

(b) Manik Chand reason for this defeat?
(c) Amir Chand (a) Treacherous behaviour of the army
(d) Jagat Seth commanders
A treaty was signed between Mir Qasim (b) The defection of Shah Alam II
and the English in 1760. Which of the fol- (c) Inherent defects of the Indian army
lowing was not included in it? and State organization
(a) It was agreed that the English would (d) Lack of adequate preparation for the
not abuse the trade principles that confrontation
they had been granted earlier Which of the following district/s was/were
(b) Mir Qasim would become Nawab of rewarded by Mir Qasim to the English
Bengal Company?
(c) Mir Qasim would give Midnapore, (a) Burdwan
Chittagaon, and Burdwan to the English (b) Midnapore
(d) Mir Qasim would clear all the debt (c) Chittagong
that Mir Jafar owed to the Company (d) All of the above
Mir Jafar was the Nawab of Bengal from The term FWUVCM implies
1757 to (a) Free pass or duty-free trade
(a) 1760 (b) A riot
(b) 1761 (c) A port near Hooghly
(c) 1762 (d) Market place
(d) 1764
During whose reign did Monghyr become
De Boigne was the Army General (chief
the capital of Bengal?
commander) of
(a) Mir Jafar (b) Mir Qasim
(a) Nawab of Arcot
(c) Siraj-ud-daulah (d) Alivardi Khan
(b) Mahadji Scindia
(c) Nizam of Hyderabad What were the terms of the treaty of Ali-
(d) Tipu Sultan of Mysore nagar in 1757 between the English and
Siraj-ud-daulah?
The Battle of Biderra was fought between
(a) The English were allowed to fortify
(a) The English and the French
the city of Calcutta
(b) The English and the Dutch
(b) The English were not to attack the
(c) The English and the Portuguese
French factories in Bengal
(d) The French and the Nawab’s army
(c) The English were to get the \COKPF
In the fateful Battle of Plassey, how many CTK of the area adjoining the city of
men did the English lose? Calcutta
(a) 30 (b) 29 (d) Siraj-ud-daulah was to concede to all
(c) 28 (d) 27 the demands of the English
In the battle of Plassey, Nawab Siraj-ud- Mir Qasim formed an alliance with Shuja-
daulah lost ___ men. ud-daulah and Shah Alam II at
(a) 2000 (b) 1500 (a) Awadh (b) Bihar
(c) 1000 (d) 500 (c) Orissa (d) Bengal
The three allies clashed with the Com- During Mir Qasim’s reign, Ram Narayan
pany’s army at Buxar (1764) and were was the deputy subedar of
(a) Bengal (b) Bihar (a) The Rohilla War

(c) Orissa (d) Awadh (b) The Second Anglo–Maratha War
Consider the following statements and (c) The Second Anglo–Mysore War
mark the option which is correct. (d) The Trial of Nand Kumar
(i) Lord Wellesley was responsible for the Match List I with List II and select the cor-
Fourth Anglo–Mysore War, British rect answer using the codes given below:
Victory and the death of Tipu Sultan.
.KUV+ .KUV++
(ii) Tipu Sultan initiated the policy of
expansion of Mysore. A. The Treaty of Surat 1. 1775
(iii) Raghunath Rao was also known as B. The Treaty of Purandar 2. 1776
Madhav Rao Narayan.
C. The Treaty of Salbai 3. 1792
(a) i and ii
(b) All of the above D. The Treaty of Seringapatam 4. 1782
(c) None of the above %QFGU
(d) iii A B C D
Mir Qasim’s clash with the English Com- (a) 1 2 3 4
pany came over (b) 2 2 4 3
(a) The succession to the throne (c) 2 1 3 4
(b) The regulation of inland duties (d) 2 1 4 3
(c) Unnecessary intervention of the In 1775, while an intense struggle for
Company’s officials power was taking place among the
(d) All of the above Marathas, the British officials in Bombay
Mughal emperor Shah Alain II granted the decided to intervene on behalf of
FKYCPK of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa to the (a) Madhav Rao II
Company in (b) Raghunath Rao
(a) 1765 (b) 1766 (c) Nana Phadnavis
(c) 1768 (d) 1709 (d) Narayan Rao
Nana Phadnavis took up the cause of the Arrange the following in chronological
posthumous son of Narayan Rao against order.
(a) Raghoba (i) First Anglo–Mysore War
(b) Baji Rao (ii) First Carnatic War
(c) Madhav Rao (iii) First Afghans War
(d) None of the above (iv) First Anglo–Maratha War
‘Now India is Ours.’ After which war, did (a) (ii) (i) (iii) (iv)
the English declare the following state- (b) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
ment? (c) (ii) (iv) (i) (iii)
(a) Battle of Buxar (d) (ii) (iii) (i) (iv)
(b) Rohilla war
The First Anglo–Maratha War was con-
(c) Fourth Anglo–Mysore War
cluded by the peace treaty of
(d) Second Anglo–Maratha War
(a) Surat
Which one of the following did not take (b) Purandhar
place under governorship of Warren (c) Salbai
Hastings? (d) None of the above
3.22 Chapter 13
After the Battle of Buxar, a treaty was signed (a) The Nizam
between Shuja-ud-daulah and the English at (b) The Maratha
Allahabad. Which of the following was not (c) The successor of Haider Ali
included in the Treaty of Allahabad? (d) Both (a) and (b)
(a) Both agreed to join offensive and After the defeat of Buxar, Avadh came
defensive alliances under British power. They tried to make it
(b) Shuja-ud-daulah agreed to pay to a buffer state between
Shah Alam II, Rs. 26 lakh per year as (a) Their possessions and the Mughals
tribute (b) Their possessions and the Marathas
(c) Shuja-ud-daulah agreed to pay to the (c) Their possessions and the French
company Rs. 50 lakh as war indemnity (d) Their possessions and the Dutch
(d) Shuja-ud-daulah agreed to give the
Match List I with List II. Select the correct
districts of Allahabad and Karah to
answer using the codes given below:
the Company
Convinced of the inevitability of a war .KUV+ .KUV++
with the English, Tipu had sought the help A. Gaekwad 1. Nagpur
of the B. Sindhia 2. Indore
(a) Turks
C. Holkar 3. Gwalior
(b) French
(c) Portuguese D. Bhonsle 4. Baroda
(d) Both (a) and (b) %QFGU
Who was the Maratha representative who A B C D
signed the treaty of Purondhar (1776)? (a) 1 2 3 4
(a) Raghoba (b) 2 3 4 1
(b) Sakha Ram Bapu (c) 3 4 2 1
(c) Madhav Rao (d) 4 3 2 1
(d) Nana Phadnavis Dost Ali became the Nawab of Carnatic
Haider Ali’s father was a Nayak in the with the help of
army of Subedar of (a) A French office
(a) Sira (b) Aurangazeb
(b) Mysore (c) A British office
(c) Hyderabad (d) None of the above
(d) None of the above Peshwa Baji Rao II accepted the subsid-
Who proudly declared that it was ‘better iary alliance by the Treaty of Bassein on
to die like a soldier, than to live a miser- (a) 25 October 1802
able dependent on the infidels, in the list (b) 31 December 1803
of their pensioned rajas and nabobs’? (c) 31 December 1802
(a) Haider Ali (d) 25 October 1803
(b) Tipu Sultan Peshwa Baji Rao I obtained from
(c) Nana Phadnavis the Mughals the UWDGFCTKU of
(d) Shivaji (a) Ahmadnagar and Nagaur
After the defeat of Tipu in 1799, nearly (b) Malwa and Bijapur
half of Tipu’s dominions were divided (c) Gujarat and Malwa
between the British and their ally (d) Khandesh and Berar
The Marathas made a desperate last (d) He defeated the Dutch at Chinsura and
attempt to regain their independence and Biderra
old prestige in ___against the British.
Match the following:
(a) 1820
(b) 1819 .KUV+ .KUV++
(c) 1818
(d) 1817 A. Anglo– 1. Treaty of Bassein
Maratha War
By the Second Treaty of Allahabad, the
fugitive Emperor Shah Alam was taken B. SecondAnglo– 2. Treaty of Salbai
under the Company’s protection and was Maratha War
to reside at C. Third Anglo– 3. Peshwa Baji Rao II,
(a) Allahabad (b) Kara Maratha War Yashwant Rao Hol-
(c) Delhi (d) Agra kar and Appa Sahib
Regarding the military achievements of Bhonsle defeated
Clive, which fact is the most revealing ?
%QFGU
(a) He doggedly held Arcot in 1753
A B C
(b) The plan for holding Arcot was sug-
(a) 2 3 1
gested by a member of the Madras
(b) 1 2 3
Council
(c) 2 1 3
(c) It was Kilpatric who ordered the
momentous advance, when Clive was The first modern arsenal was established at:
absent from the fiel , and that advance (a) Dindigul (b) Hyderabad
decided the battle of Plassey (c) Bengal (d) Bombay
Answer Keys
1. (a) 2. (a) 3. (a) 4. (b) 33. (a) 34. (b) 35. (a) 36. (b)
5. (c) 6. (a) 7. (b) 8. (b) 37. (a) 38. (a) 39. (d) 40. (b)
9. (c) 10. (b) 11. (b) 12. (d) 41. (b) 42. (b) 43. (c) 44. (c)
13. (d) 14. (b) 15. (c) 16. (b) 45. (d) 46. (d) 47. (b) 48. (a)
17. (d) 18. (c) 19. (b) 20. (a) 49. (b) 50. (a) 51. (b) 52. (d)
21. (c) 22. (a) 23. (a) 24. (b) 53. (d) 54. (c) 55. (c) 56. (d)
25. (b) 26. (b) 27. (d) 28. (c) 57. (a) 58. (b) 59. (c) 60. (a)
29. (d) 30. (a) 31. (b) 32. (d)
14
Uprisings Against the
British Rule
Peasant Movements arrested. However, people of Banaras sup-
ported Chet Singh and protested against
Numerous works exist on the agrarian and colonial rule. The Bishenpur revolt of
social history of pre-colonial and colonial 1789 led by the local ruler and sup-
India. Although the imperialist historiography ported by local people was also identical
has denied exploitation of India and has taken in nature. Between 1799 and 1800 Poli-
credit for bringing intellectual awakening gars who were deprived of their military
in India, the nationalist historiography for a power adopted Guerilla warfare to thwart
long time has only focused on Indian national the authority of British rulers. These were
movement. The role of Congress leadership localized protests and rooted in specific
in mobilizing peasants has been highlighted. causes.
However, this has come under scrutiny. 2. In all popular protests, economic exploi-
Ranajit Guha who has studied the popular tation as perpetuated by the British rule
aspects of peasant insurgency between 1783 caused tension. The land revenue poli-
and 1900 has provided an analytical frame- cies and forest laws led to resentment.
work on this issue. In his assessment, he has Alongside, exploitation of dominant
counted 118 protest movements between 1783 Indian zamindars and money lenders was
and 1900. This number kept on increasing also opposed. Thus, the revolt of sanyasis
in the twentieth century. It is not possible to and faquirs, which resulted from the fam-
analyse hundreds of these movements. How- ine of 1769–1770, was directed against
ever, by focusing on the structure of protest, the British rulers and local zamindars in
dominant characteristics of popular protests in Bengal. The revolt of Kols (1831–1832)
colonial times can be pointed out: and Bhumij (1832–1833) was also rooted
1. In the initial years of British rule, displaced in colonial exploitation.
rulers and military personnel reacted 3. Many uprisings were restorative in nature.
against colonial demands. For instance, The rebels aimed to restore back pre-
when Warren Hastings demanded money existing political structure and social and
from Chet Singh, Raja of Banaras and economic rights. There was protest against
when the latter failed to give it, he was the penetration of alien authorities and
Uprisings Against the British Rule 3.25
outsiders. Thus, in the revolt of 1857, lead- became the main centre of the rebellion. Majanu
ership of traditional rulers was accepted. Shah was the main leader of this rebellion. He
Alongside, small peasants belonging travelled from place to place both in Bihar
to Jat and Rajputs also rose against the and Bengal to inspire people to continue the
alien rule. There were peaceful efforts to struggle. However, during December 1776, he
restore back what the protestors regarded was severely injured while leading the struggle
their rights. Thus, in the Pabna uprising from the front. Subsequently, he succumbed to
of 1873–1883 tenant farmers hoped that his injuries. After his death, his brother Musa
the British rule was in favour of restoring Shah took over the leadership and the rebel-
back their landed rights. lion continued for some time. However, inter-
4. In numerous uprisings, there was pro- nal fissures, which led to the weakening of the
test against growing indebtedness. Thus, movement, appeared. The leadership went in
the Deccan revolt of 1875 was against the hands of Bhavani Pathak, who was also
Marwari money lenders. killed while fighting. Stray incidents did con-
5. Violence was an integral part of popular tinue for some time; however, ultimately the
protests. It was directed against oppressors. rebellion was suppressed. Bankim Chandra
Chattopadhyay in his novel #PCPFOCVJ had
given a picturesque description of this rebel-
Sanyasi–Faquir Rebellion lion and his song Bande Mataram continued to
Sanyasi rebellion had engulfed parts of Ben- inspire the Indian freedom fighters in general
gal and Bihar during the period ranging from and the Indian revolutionaries in particular for
1763 to 1800. The major groups involved in a long time during our freedom struggle.
the process of that rebellion were ever impov-
erishing peasants and artisans, members of the
disbanded armies of nawabs and that section Indigo Rebellion
of sanyasis who were engaged in agricultural In the nineteenth-century Bengal, peas-
work. Peasants provided the social base for the ants were cultivating indigo; however, it was
rebellion. Ex-army men provided the leader- being processed and produced by the Euro-
ship, and sanyasi and faquirs inspired and pro- pean Indigo planters and some of the local
vided a religious fervour to the whole process zamindars. These European indigo planters
of the struggle. They inspired these rebels to and local zamindars were committing all kinds
launch a fight to finish struggle. The leaders of excesses and atrocities against the peas-
came both from Hindu and Islamic back- ants engaged in indigo cultivation. The new
grounds. They attacked not only the offices Company Charter Act of 1933 made it easier
of the Company Bahadur but also those of for any and every Britisher to come and settle
zamindars. The Company described them as down in India with full freedom to own land.
looters and thugs. However, they were chal- As a result, a number of Britishers bought
lenging the Company with the support of the zamindaries and settled down in India. During
peasantry. They attacked the Dacca centre of those days, production of indigo was a very
the Company and raised the slogans of Aum lucrative business, as synthetic indigo was yet
and Bande Mataram. These rebels success- to be invented. These European indigo planters
fully captured the Company in Dacca and kept used to force the peasants to cultivate indigo
it under their control for some time. Similar for their use. Their modus operandi was that by
attacks were launched against different cen- making some advance payment to the indigo
tres, namely Patna, Hooghly, Cooch Bihar, cultivators, they used to enter into an agreement
Patna and Saran. Subsequently, North Bengal with them. In the process, they had to sell their
3.26 Chapter 14
product at the minimum price. Subsequently, Pabna’s Peasant Rebellion

they forcibly made the cultivators to work for
them and sell their production to them even at (1872–1873)
unremunerative prices. Thus, whereas a peas- Pabna Rebellion has a historic place in the his-
ant could have earned some profit by cultivat- tory of the peasant’s revolt in India. As per the
ing a piece of land with a crop of his choice, he section 10 of the 1859 declaration the peasants
was forced to grow indigo even when he could had been given occupancy right over the lands
not receive his cost of production. If he tried to they have been cultivating for a long time.
resist, he was severely punished. Vishwanath However, zamindars were employing all kinds
Sardar was the first to rise in rebellion against of tricks and instrumentalities to prevent the
such atrocious practices. He was from Nadia peasants from exercising their rights. Apart
district. In the first decade of the nineteenth from dispossessing the peasants from lands,
century, he ignited rebellious fire among the they were harassing them in several other
indigo cultivators drawn from different parts ways.
of Bengal. However, ultimately he was caught At times, they would take away their cattle
by the police and hanged. Similar kinds of or they would lodge false court cases against
rebellions also occurred in the Mymensingh them. All this made the peasants to lose their
district, in the third decade of the nineteenth proverbial patience. Yusufshahi paragana was
century. the main centre of the Pabna rebellion.
However, by 1858–1860 the peasants really This rebellion led to a new Bengal Tenancy
lost their patience. Excesses and atrocities Act of 1885, which provided that a peasant’s
committed against them went beyond all mea- family cultivating a piece of land for 12 years
sures. Hence, anger erupted and took the form or more would be entitled to have ownership
of an armed rebellion. In different parts, the right over it. It was a matter of great relief for
people rose in rebellion. They started raiding the peasants. In all these peasants’ resistance
the bungalows of the indigo planters. Thus, movements, one could see a persistent com-
the government was forced to set up an Indigo mon pattern and a lot of common ground. All
Commission in March 1860, which submit- these struggles were a reaction to excesses and
ted its report in August 1860. Meanwhile, the atrocities committed by the zamindars and
peasants launched a No Tax campaign. They the officers of the Company. All these were
stopped paying rent to indigo planters and localized movements, as the problems faced
zamindars. Ultimately, peasants won the battle by them were of localized nature. They could
and forcible cultivation of indigo by peasants not be considered as organized movements
was stopped for good. In their struggles, the launched nation-wide to get rid of the Com-
peasants got the support of a number of Ben- pany Raj. There was another common factor in
gali intellectuals. One of them was Dinabandhu all these movements: they were mostly spon-
Mitra, who wrote a drama called 0KN&CTRCP, taneous in nature. They took an organizational
which vividly depicted the plight of indigo- form in the course of the movement and even
cultivating peasants. Even some Christian their leadership was of a local nature. However,
missionaries lent their support to the peasants. all these movements made it clear that there
However, the unity of the peasants and their was a limit to which the people could suffer.
determination to fight to finish turned out to And once that limit is crossed, the people are
be their greatest strength. Neel rebellion con- bound to revolt. Through their resistance, the
tinues to occupy a distinct place in the annals people forced the government to take effective
of history of the peasant movements in India. steps for the redressal of their grievances. In
other words, these movements made their own There was also a long tradition of rebellion
contributions towards the emergence of the among the Santhal community, which also
rule of law in our country. inspired them for a big rebellion in 1855. On
30 June 1855, a big gathering of the Santhals
took place in the Bhagnadih village of San-
Tribal Rebellions thal paragana. The Santhals from nearly 400
The tribal people of India were one of the villages participated in that meeting. They
worst victims of the colonial rule. For mil- took a solemn pledge that they would launch
lennia they had led an isolated life from other an armed rebellion against the Company Raj
groups. Over the ages, they had evolved a life- and also against all outsiders. They were fully
style, which was in keeping with their natural convinced that through armed rebellion they
environment. Forest lands were their main- would be able to establish a regime of religion
stay. They were used to enjoying the bounties and justice. In fact, they were hoping for the
of nature while keeping their environment coming of the Satjug. The village Bhagna-
clean and intact. They had also enjoyed their dih was the own village of Sidhu and Kano
own system of governance without much of who were the real leaders of the movement.
external influences. In other words, they were The government officials were told to leave
used to leading a peaceful life away from the the area within 15 days otherwise they would
humdrum and tension-ridden modern life. have to pay with their lives. It was also made
The colonial rule adversely impacted their clear that Santhals would have their own Raj.
lives. Tribal chieftains started being treated Thousands of Santhals armed with their tradi-
as zamindars and through them the colonial tional weapons launched the struggle. Zamin-
administration extracted excessive land rev- dars, government officials and money lenders
enue from them. Gradually, they were being started being attacked. Police stations, railways
deprived of their forest resources, which they and post offices, being symbols of government
had enjoyed freely for millennia. All these led authorities, were also under attack.
to a deep sense of resentment among the tribal However, the government soon took the
people, which ultimately resulted in several counter measures. Martial law was imposed
rebellions on their part. and army was given free hand to deal with
the situation. Although 15 thousand Santhals
Santhal Rebellion lost their lives, in a massive operation by the
army, one positive result of the rebellion was
(1855–1856) that Santhal pargana was soon recognized as
Santhal revolt was characterized by class soli- a separate administrative unit. It goes without
darity transcending ethnicity. There was not saying that Santhal rebellion occupies a unique
only well-defined programme to resist exploi- place in the annals of resistance against the
tation but the leadership of Sido and Kanho was British.
characterized by the usage of spiritual codes to
organize rebels. Before the outbreak, elaborate Munda Rebellion
preparations were made. Both written and oral
messages were used to solicit support. Above (1899–1900)
all, women also played an important role in Like Santhals another tribal group Munda,
the uprisings. The way this revolt started and residing in Chhota Nagpur region, also rose in
spread over vast space showed that Santhals rebellion during 1899–1900. Birsa was their
were determined to combat their exploiters. leader. Hence, at times it is also described as
3.28 Chapter 14
Birsa–Munda rebellion. Munda were used to the tribal movements of the plains often incor-
collective farming. However, after the arrival porated. This again was partly on account of
of the British Raj, zamindars, money lenders their relative isolation from Hindu society, and
and other outsiders started playing havoc with a strong Christian missionary influence in their
the lives of the Mundas. Their system of collec- modernization. The movements in the north-
tive farming was totally destroyed. They started east tended to be political and secular, with a
losing their land, which created a great sense definite continuity, unlike those of Chhotanag-
of resentment among the Mundas. They started pur, which were often followed by long periods
demanding that the land should be under their of dormancy or even extinction.
ownership and in no case under the zamindars.
Mundas were also resenting against the spread Kuki Revolt
of Christianity in the area. Many of the Mundas The Kukis had migrated to Manipur in the
who had become Christians were not happy. 18th century. The British policy of recruitment
They could see a lot of hypocrisy among the for coolie labour during World War I seriously
Christian missionaries. They were convinced affected the stability of the labour-short Kuki
that the spread of Christianity was also a part economy in general and their agriculture in
of the British stratagem to subdue the local particular. Guerrilla war under their chiefs
people. All this convinced them that unless went on for 2 years, fuelled also by other griev-
the British rule is done away with, there would ances such as pothang (tribals being made to
be no relief for them. Hence, they wanted to carry the baggage of officials without pay-
replace the British Raj with Munda Raj. ment) and government efforts to stop shifting
cultivation or jhum. The rebellion could be put
Movements of the Frontier out only after a long time and lot of effort.
Tribes
Zeliangrong Movement
The following characteristics affected the
types of movements that occurred in the north- The only other important tribal movement of
eastern frontier. In the first place, with one the frontier to have made some link with the
striking exception, these movements tended to national movement was the Zeliangrong move-
remain aloof from the freedom struggle, often ment among the Nagas of Manipur belonging
incorporating a demand for political autonomy to the Zemi, Liangmei and Rongmei tribes.
either within the Indian Union or as a separate
unit. This was also because many of the tribes Rani Gaidinliu’s Naga Movement
were living on the international frontier, shar- Jadonang (1905–1931), a young Rongmei
ing ethnic and cultural affinities with tribes- leader, came to the fore to bring about social
men across the border. Similarly, in contrast unity and to revitalize the age-old religion by
to Central India, there was hardly any agrar- abolishing irrational customs. From this inter-
ian and forest-based movement as the tribals nal reform and unity, the movement turned
remained in possession of land and surround- outward during its second phase to become a
ing forests except in Tripura. political struggle against British rule and for
Some scholars point to another differ- the establishment of a Naga Raj. Jadonang was
ence between the tribal movements in the two captured and hanged on 29 August 1931.
regions: the movements in the north-east were After his execution, the movement was
by and large revolutionary or revivalist, rather carried on by 17-year-old Gaidinliu till it was
than having a ‘Sanskritising’ tendency, which suppressed in 1932. She integrated the tribal
movement with the Civil Disobedience move- remained and found expression once again in
ment and preached disobedience to oppres- 1824. Bijoy Singh, taluqdar of Kunja and a
sive laws and non-payment of house tax. The relative of Ramdayal assumed the leadership.
movement used Gandhi’s name and the Indian The rebellion collapsed after the fall of Kunja
National Army called Gaidinliu ‘Rani’. This into British hands.
link, however, remained weak and the Con- At a somewhat earlier date, a religious men-
gress could not enter the hills, except the dicant at Badawar in Patiala organized a rebel-
municipal jurisdiction of Shillong, before lion and declared himself to be the last avatar
independence. Jadonang’s religious ideas crys- of Hindu mythology, the Kali. His aim was to
tallized in the Heraka cult led by Gaidinliu. drive the British from India. With his arrest,
After the movement was finally suppressed, it the revolt collapsed.
was convened into a peaceful movement with The Jats living in the district of Rohtak rose
the establishment of tribal organizations such in revolt soon after the passing of this area into
as Kabui Samiti (1934), Kabui Naga Associa- British hands at the end of the Second Maratha
tion (1946), Zeliangrong Council (1947) and War. The events of 1824 made them active again.
Manipur Zeliangrong Union. It was publicly proclaimed that the authority of
British government was at an end. The rebellion
spread to Hissar, Rewari and Buadelkhand. A
Civil Rebellions Pindari chief, Shaikh Dalla, ravaged the Tapti
There were frequent outbursts, often leading valley. He was probably in league with Appa
to serious armed resistance against the Brit- Saheb, the former ruler of Nagpur.
ish authority throughout India, in the first half In Gujarat, the Kolis, a group of rude and
of the 19th century. The chief cause of these turbulent people, created disturbances in the
outbursts was the grave discontent caused by neighbourhood of Baroda. They revolted again
the establishment of the British rule in India. in 1828. A far more serious outbreak took
This discontent was of different kinds. The place in 1839. Three Brahmanas led the move-
British rule was not favourably looked upon ment and worked for the restoration of the
by the ruling chiefs and royal families of the peshwa. In 1844, the Kolis rose in revolt again
states annexed by the British. A large section and proceeded up to Satara. In 1846, they were
of the people, who found it difficult to adjust brought under control. However, the members
themselves to the new system of administra- of the revolt were extinguished only in 1850
tion, were also not well disposed to the British. when all their leaders were captured.
In 1820, an insurrection broke out in Mer- There were disturbances in the south also.
wara. The British acquired Ajmer a part of In Tamil Nadu, Maruthu Pandiyar of Siva-
Merwara, from Daulat Rao Sindhia in 1818. gangai appealed to all sections of the people
The Merwaras defied the attempts of the Brit- to unite and fight till the alien rule was exter-
ish to establish their control over them. When minated. In 1799, armed rebels attacked the
the British sent an army to deal with them, a British posts and stores at different places.
general revolt broke out in 1820. At the begin- Veerapandiya Kattabomman, inspired by
ning of 1821, the rebellion was crushed. Maruthu Pandiyar, rose in revolt.
The Gujars, an ethnic group of people living Some of the outbreaks directly followed
in the Doab, revolted against the British. The as a consequence of the policy of annexation.
cause of the revolt was the resumption of the The most serious of these rebellions was the
big estate of Ramdayal after his death in 1813. one organized in Sambalpur, which came under
Although this was suppressed, the discontent the British by the Treaty of 1826. Surendra Sai,
3.30 Chapter 14
the old pretender to the throne, organized the major source of patronage. Added to this, Brit-
rebellion. With the arrest of Surendra Sai, the ish policy discouraged Indian handicrafts and
rebellion came to an end. promoted British goods. The highly skilled
Thus, these movements were primary ini- Indian craftsmen were forced to look for
tiatives against the colonizers, which became alternate sources of employment that hardly
much more matured and organized from the existed, as the destruction of Indian handicrafts
fourth decade of the nineteenth century and was not accompanied by the development of
culminated in the revolt of 1857. modern industries. Karl Marx remarked in
1853: ‘It was the British intruder who broke
up the Indian handloom and destroyed the
The Revolt of 1857 spinning-wheel. England began with depriving
The revolt of 1857 was a product of the char- the Indian cottons from the European market;
acter and policies of the colonial rule. The it then introduced twist into Hindustan and in
cumulative effect of British expansionist poli- the end inundated the very mother country of
cies, economic exploitation and administra- cotton with cottons.’
tive innovations over the years had adversely Zamindars, the traditional landed aris-
affected the positions of all—rulers of Indian tocracy, often saw their land rights forfeited
states, sepoys, zamindars, peasants, traders, with the frequent use of a quo warranto by the
artisans, pundits, maulvis, and so on. The sim- administration. This resulted in a loss of status
mering discontent burst in the form of a vio- for them in the villages. In Awadh, the storm
lent storm in 1857 which shook the British centre of the revolt, 21,000 taluqdars had their
Empire in India to its very foundations. estates confiscated and suddenly found them-
The causes of the revolt emerged from all selves without a source of income, ‘unable
aspects—socio-cultural, economic and politi- to work, ashamed to beg, condemned to pen-
cal—of daily existence of Indian population ury’. These dispossessed taluqdars seized the
cutting through all sections and classes. These opportunity presented by the sepoy revolt to
causes are discussed in the following sections. oppose the British and regain what they had
lost.
Economic Causes
The colonial policies of the East India Com- Political Causes
pany destroyed the traditional economic fab- The East India Company’s greedy policy
ric of the Indian society. The peasantry was of aggrandizement accompanied by broken
never really to recover from the disabilities pledges and oaths resulted in loss of political
imposed by the new and a highly unpopular prestige for it, on the one hand, and caused
revenue settlement. Impoverished by heavy suspicion in the minds of almost all ruling
taxation, the peasants resorted to loans from princes in India, on the other hand, through
money lenders/traders at usurious rates, the such policies as of ‘Effective Control’, ‘Sub-
latter often evicting the former on non-pay- sidiary Alliance’ and ‘Doctrine of Lapse’.
ment of debt dues. These money lenders and The right of succession was denied to Hindu
traders emerged as the now landlords, while princes. The house of Mughals was humbled
the scourge of indebtedness has continued to when on Prince Faqiruddin’s death in 1856,
plague Indian society to this day. whose succession had been recognized con-
British rule also meant misery to the arti- ditionally by Lord Dalhousie, Lord Canning
sans and handicraftsmen. The annexation of announced that the next prince on succession
Indian states by the Company cut off their would have to renounce the regal title and the
ancestral Mughal palaces, in addition to renun- services might be required by the Government.
ciations agreed upon by Prince Faqiruddin. This caused resentment.
The collapse of rulers—the erstwhile aristoc- The Indian sepoy was equally unhappy
racy—also adversely affected those sections of with his emoluments compared with his Brit-
the Indian society, which derived their suste- ish counterpart. A more immediate cause of
nance from cultural and religious pursuits. the sepoys’ dissatisfaction was the order that
they would not be given the foreign service
Socio-Religious Causes allowance (Motto) when serving in Sindh or
in Punjab. The annexation of Awadh, home of
Racial overtones and a superiority com-
many of the sepoys, further inflamed their
plex characterized the British administrative
feelings.
attitude towards the native Indian popula-
tion. The activities of Christian missionaries
who followed the British flag in India were Beginning and Spread
looked upon with suspicion by the Indians.
The reports about the mixing of bone dust in
The attempts at socio-religious reform such
atta (flour) and the introduction of the Enfield
as abolition of sati, support to widow-remar-
rifle enhanced the sepoys’ growing dissatisfac-
riage and women’s education were seen by a
tion with the Government. The cartridge of the
large section of the population as interference
new rifle had to be bitten off before loading
in the social and religious domains of Indian
and the grease was reportedly made of beef
society by outsiders. These fears were further
and pig fat. The army administration did noth-
compounded by the Government’s decision to
ing to allay these fears, and the sepoys felt their
tax mosque and temple lands and legislative
religion was in grave danger.
measures, such as the Religious Disabilities
The greased cartridges did not create a
Act, 1856, which modified Hindu customs,
new cause of discontent in the army, but sup-
for instance declaring that a change of religion
plied the occasion for the simmering discon-
did not debar a son from inheriting the prop-
tent to come out in the open. The revolt began
erty of his heathen father.
at Meerut, 58 km from Delhi, on 10 May
1857 and then, gathering force rapidly, soon
Discontent Among Sepoys embraced a vast area from the Punjab in the
The conditions of service in the Company’s north and the Narmada in the south to Bihar in
Army and cantonments increasingly came the east and Rajputana in the west.
into conflict with the religious beliefs and Even before the Meerut incident, there
prejudices of the sepoys. Restrictions on were rumblings of resentment in vari-
wearing caste and sectarian marks and secret ous cantonments. The 19th Native Infan-
rumours of proselytizing activities of chap- try at Berhampur, which refused to use the
lains (often maintained on the Company’s newly introduced Enfield rifle and broke
expenses) were interpreted by Indian sepoys, out in mutiny in February 1857, was dis-
who were generally conservative by nature, as banded in March 1857. A young sepoy of the
interference in their religious affairs. 34th Native Infantry, Mangal Pandey, went a
To the religious Hindu of the time, cross- step further and fired at the sergeant major of
ing the seas meant loss of caste. In 1856, Lord his unit at Barrackpore. He was overpowered
Canning’s Government passed the General and executed on April 6 while his regiment
Service Enlistment Act, which decreed that all was disbanded in May. The 7th Awadh Regi-
future recruits to the Bengal Army would have ment, which defied its officers on May 3, met
to give an undertaking to serve anywhere their with a similar fate.
3.32 Chapter 14
And then came the explosion at Meerut on and lack of leadership qualities created politi-
24 April, ninety men of 3rd Native Cavalry cal weakness at the nerve centre of the revolt
refused to accept the greased cartridges. On 9 and caused incalculable damage to it.
May, eighty-five of them were dismissed, sen- At Kanpur, the natural choice was Nana
tenced to 10 years’ imprisonment and put in fet- Saheb, the adopted son of the last Peshwa, Baji
ters. This sparked off a general mutiny among Rao II. He was refused the family title and,
the Indian soldiers stationed at Meerut. The banished from Poona, was living near Kanpur.
very next day, on 10 May, they released their Nana Saheb expelled the English from Kan-
imprisoned comrades, killed their officers and pur, proclaimed himself the Peshwa, acknowl-
unfurled the banner of revolt. They set off for edged Bahadur Shah as the emperor of India
Delhi after sunset. In Delhi, the local infan- and declared himself to be his governor. Sir
try joined them, killed their own European Hugh Wheeler, commanding the station, sur-
officers including Simon Fraser, the political rendered on 27 June 1857.
agent, and seized the city. Lieutenant Wil- Begum Hazrat Mahal took over the reigns
loughby, the officer-incharge of the magazine at Lucknow where the rebellion broke out on
at Delhi, offered some resistance, but was over- 4 June 1857 and popular sympathy was over-
come. The aged and powerless Bahadur Shah whelmingly in favour of the deposed Nawab.
Zafar was proclaimed the emperor of India. Her son, Birjis Qadir, was proclaimed the
Delhi was soon to become the centre of the Nawab and a regular administration was orga-
Great Revolt and Bahadur Shah, its symbol. nized with important offices shared equally
This spontaneous raising of the last Mughal by Muslims and Hindus. Henry Lawrence,
king to the leadership of the country was a rec- the British resident, the European inhabitants
ognition of the fact that the long reign of Mughal and a few hundred loyal sepoys took shelter
dynasty had become the traditional symbol of in the residency. The residency was besieged
India’s political unity. With this single act, the by the Indian rebels and Sir Henry was
sepoys had transformed a mutiny of soldiers killed during the siege. The command of the
into a revolutionary war, while all Indian chiefs besieged garrison devolved on Brigadier
who took part in the revolt hastened to proclaim Inglis who held out against heavy odds. The
their loyalty to the Mughal emperor. early attempts of Sir Henry Havelock and Sir
James Outram to recover Lucknow met with
Storm Centres and Leaders of the no success. Finally, Sir Colin Campbell, the
new commander-in-chief, evacuated the Euro-
Revolt peans with the help of Gorkha regiments. In
At Delhi the nominal and symbolic leadership March 1858, the city was finally recovered by
belonged to the Mughal emperor, Bahadur the British, but guerrilla activity continued till
Shah, but the real command lay with a court September of the same year.
of soldiers headed by General Bakht Khan At Bareilly, Khan Bahadur, a descendant
who had led the revolt of Bareilly troops and of the former ruler of Rohilkhand, was placed
brought them to Delhi. The court consisted in command. Not enthusiastic about the pen-
of ten members: six from the army and four sion being granted by the British, he organized
from the civilian departments. The court con- an army of 40,000 soldiers and offered stiff
ducted the affairs of the state in the name of resistance to the British.
the emperor. Emperor Bahadur Shah was per- In Bihar, the revolt was led by Kunwar
haps the weakest link in the chain of leadership Singh, the zamindar of Jagdishpur. An old man
of the revolt. His weak personality, old age in his seventies, he nursed a grudge against the
British who had deprived him of his estates. where he died in 1862. Thus, the great House
He unhesitatingly joined the sepoys when of Mughals was final y and completely extin-
they reached Arrah from Dinapore. guished. Terrible vengeance was wreaked on
Maulvi Ahmadullah of Faizabad was the inhabitants of Delhi. With the fall of Delhi,
another outstanding leader of the revolt. He the focal point of the revolt disappeared.
was a native of Madras and had moved to Faiz- One by one, all the great leaders of the
abad in the north where he fought a stiff bat- revolt fell. Military operations for the recap-
tle against the British troops. He emerged as ture of Kanpur were closely associated with
one of the revolt’s acknowledged leaders once the recovery of Lucknow. Sir Colin Camp-
it broke out in Awadh in May 1857. bell occupied Kanpur on 6 December 1857.
The most outstanding leader of the revolt Nana Saheb, defeated at Kanpur, escaped
was Rani Lakshmibai, who assumed the to Nepal in early 1859, never to be heard of
leadership of the sepoys at Jhansi. Lord Dal- again. His close associate Tantia Tope escaped
housie, the governor-general, had refused to into the jungles of central India, was captured
allow her adopted son to succeed to the throne while asleep in April 1859 and put to death.
after her husband Raja Gangadhar Rao died, The Rani of Jhansi had died on the battle-field
and had annexed the state by the application of earlier in June 1858. Jhansi was recaptured
the infamous ‘Doctrine of Lapse’. Driven out through assault by Sir Hugh Rose. By 1859,
of Jhansi by the British forces, she gave the Kunwar Singh, Bakht Khan, Khan Bahadur
battle cry—‘main apni jhansi nahin doongi’ Khan of Bareilly, Rao Sahib (brother of Nana
(I shall not give away my Jhansi). She was Saheb) and Maulvi Ahmadullah were all dead,
joined by Tantia Tope, a close associate of while the Begum of Awadh was compelled to
Nana Saheb, after the loss of Kanpur. Rani hide in Nepal. At Benaras, a rebellion had been
of Jhansi and Tantia Tope marched towards organized, which was mercilessly suppressed
Gwalior where they were hailed by the Indian by Colonel Neill, who put to death all sus-
soldiers. The Sindhia, the local ruler, how- pected rebels and even disorderly sepoys.
ever, decided to side with the English and By the end of 1859, British authority over
took shelter at Agra. Nana Saheb was pro- India was fully re-established. The British
claimed the Peshwa and plans were chalked Government had to pour immense supplies
out for a march into the south. Gwalior was of men, money and arms into the country,
recaptured by the English in June 1858. though Indians had to later repay the entire
For more than a year the rebels carried on cost through their own suppression.
their struggle against heavy odds.
Causes of Failure of Revolt

Suppression of the Revolt Limited territorial spread was one factor; there
The revolt was final y suppressed. The British was no all-India veneer about the revolt. The
captured Delhi on 20 September 1857 after eastern, southern and western parts of India
prolonged and bitter fighting John Nicholson, remained more or less unaffected.
the leader of the siege, was badly wounded and Certain classes and groups did not join and,
later succumbed to his injuries. Bahadur Shah in fact, worked against the revolt. Big zamin-
was taken prisoner. The royal princes were cap- dars acted as ‘break-waters to storm’; even
tured and butchered on the spot, publicly shot Awadh taluqdars backed off once promises of
at point blank range, by Lieutenant Hudson land restitution were spelt out. Money lend-
himself. The emperor was exiled to Rangoon ers and merchants suffered the wrath of the
3.34 Chapter 14
mutineers badly and anyway saw their class Kunwar Singh, Lakshmibai—were no match
interests better protected under British patron- to their British opponents in generalship. On
age. Modern educated Indians viewed this the other hand, the East India Company was
revolt as backward looking, and mistakenly fortunate in having the services of men of
hoped the British would usher in an era of exceptional abilities in the Lawrence brothers,
modernization. Most Indian rulers refused to John Nicholson, James Outram, Henry Have-
join and often gave active help to the British. lock, Edward, and so on.
By one estimate, not more than one-fourth of The mutineers neither had a clear under-
the total area and not more than one-tenth of standing of colonial rule nor did they have
the total population was affected. a forward looking programme, a coherent
The Indian soldiers were poorly equipped ideology, a political perspective or a societal
materially, fighting generally with swords alternative. The rebels represented diverse ele-
and spears and very few guns and muskets. ments with differing grievances and concepts
On the other hand, the European soldiers of current politics.
were equipped with the latest weapons of war The lack of unity among Indians was per-
such as the Enfield rifle. The electric telegraph haps unavoidable at this stage of Indian his-
kept the commander-in-chief informed about tory. Modern nationalism was yet unknown
the movements and strategy of the rebels. in India. In fact, the revolt of 1857 played an
The revolt was poorly organized with no important role in bringing the Indian people
coordination or central leadership. The prin- together and imparting to them the conscious-
cipal rebel leaders—Nana Saheb, Tantia Tope, ness of belonging to one country.
Exercise
Consider the following statements and (d) they resulted out of local causes and
mark the option which is correct. grievances
(i) In Delhi, Bahadur Shah was the nom- Which one of the following statements
inal leader and the real command was about the civil rebellions of the early
under General Bakht Khan. phase is not correct?
(ii) In Arrah, Rani Lakshmibai assumed (a) Their main cause was the new sys-
the leadership of the sepoys. tem of revenue administration, which
(iii) In Lucknow, the revolt was led by reduced the authority of the landown-
Begum Hazrat Mahal. ers and laid extremely heavy burdens
(a) (i) and (iii) upon the land.
(b) All of these (b) They were widespread and sometimes
(c) None of these organized on all-India basis.
(d) (ii) (c) They were backward-looking and lacked
The civil rebellions during the first hun- any modern feeling of nationalism.
dred years of the British rule were local- (d) Their leadership was inevitably tra-
ized and isolated from each other because ditional, based on links and loyalties
(a) poor means of communication between the peasants and the petty
debarred them from uniting chieftains.
(b) the leaders of these rebellions had no Which tribal leader was regarded as an
common meeting ground incarnation of God and Father of the
(c) Both (a) and (b) World (Dharti Aba)?
(a) Kanhu Santha (b) Rupa Naik (a) B.C. Majumdar

(c) Birsa Munda (d) Joria Bhaga (b) P.C. Joshi
What wore the two main outward activities (c) S.B. Chaudhary
of the Kukas in Punjab? (d) V.D. Savarkar
(a) Destruction of idols and murder of The rebellions of the Moplah peasants of
butchers Malabar (north Kerala) during 1836–1854
(b) Revival of Sikh sovereignty and expul- were directed against the oppression of
sion of the English from Punjab (a) revenue officials of the British
(c) Both (a) and (b) government
(d) Insistence on kirtans and wearing (b) money lenders
band woven doth (c) landlords
(d) All of these
Which point relating to Oudh contributed
to the Oudh Sepoy’s Mutiny in 1857? The wrath of the indigo agitations of the
(a) Its annexation contrary to the pledge nineteenth century was mainly directed
(b) The sepoys had to pay higher taxes to against the oppression of
the new rulers in Oudh. (a) the government
(c) Large number of Oudh sepoys in the (b) the foreign planters
British army (c) the zamindars
(d) Dispossession of taluqdars and others (d) Both (b) and (c)
who were thrown out of jobs Which was the most famous and the lon-
gest of the rebellions or uprisings which
The leader of 1857 mutineers who was
lasted from 1815 to 1832?
caught and hanged was
(a) Santhal Uprising
(a) Nana Saheb
(b) Kutch Rebellion
(b) Tantia Tope
(c) Kol Rebellion
(c) Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi
(d) Jat Rebellion
(d) Kunwar Singh
The mutineers are said to have proclaimed
The great revolt of 1857 can be regarded one leader of the revolt as the Peshwa at
as the culmination of traditional opposi- Kanpur on the 30th June 1857. He was
tion to the British rule except for one point (a) Tantia Tope
and that is (b) Kunwar Singh
(a) in all the popular revolts, zamind- (c) Nana Saheb
ars, disposed chiefs, and taluqdars (d) Bala Rao
participated Ramosi risings were
(b) in some of the popular revolts even (a) the revolt of the peasants and the hill
rebellious monks provided leadership, tribes of the Maratha country against
as for example, the Sanyasi rebellion the British rule under the leadership
(c) Millions of peasants, artisans and sol- of Umaji Naik (1827–1828)
diers joined the rising of 1857 (b) the revolt of the riots of Mysore against
(d) The rebels resented the Christian val- the Raja and the zamindars (1831)
ues which the British tried to thrust (c) the revolt of the Wagheras of Okha
down their throats. Mandal against the British rule
Who among the following was the author (d) the revolt of the peasants and the
of Civil Rebellion in the Indian Mutinies zamindars against the oppressive rule
1857–89? of Colonel Hannay in Awadh (1778)
3.36 Chapter 14
It has been stated that the British authority (a) Raising an adequate band of fighter
was overthrown in many cites of United (b) Selecting a leader possessing the nec-
Provinces between 10 May and 31 May essary qualifications for commanding
1857. The city which remained immune the forces
from the mutineer’s influence during this (c) Choosing a territory under Muslim
period was rule to guarantee the security of the
(a) Agra (b) Mathura band of warriors
(c) Kanpur (d) Lucknow (d) Raising resources from the prosperous
At which of the places, the sepoys’ mutiny peasantry
was provoked by women’s taunts? The first British officer to be informed
(a) Banaras (b) Meerut of Mangal Pandey firing at the Sergeant
(c) Lucknow (d) Agra Major was
Which popular movement of the nineteenth (a) Col. Mitchell
century was much better planned, organized (b) Lieutenant Saugh
and well-knit than the Revolt of 1857? (c) General Hearsey
(a) The Munda rebellion (d) Col. Smith
(b) The Deccan riots Who was the head of the East India
(c) The Sanyasi rebellion Company in 1857?
(d) The Wahabi movement (a) Charles Peterson
Dr. R.C. Majumdar states that in Eastern (b) Thomas Patterson
Punjab, the mutineers were joined by the (c) R.D. Mangles
civil population in many places. What was (d) James Duff
the unpleasant and unpatriotic action the One of the following cases was not respon-
people indulged? sible for the discontent of the people.
(a) They drove out the government Identify
officials (a) General Service Enlistment Act
(b) They burnt government buildings. (b) Introduction of Railways
(c) They committed robberies and (c) Introduction of Telegraph
murders. (d) Christian Missionaries
(d) None of these Muslim faqirs, from their headquarters
What was the main plank of the pro- in the Nepal Terai, wandered about the
gramme of the Faraizi sect? country levying contributions and defying
(a) Radical reforms in Muslim religious the authority of the British government.
practices Which of the following was their founder
(b) Opposition to the exploitation of the leader?
peasantry by the zamindars (a) Chirag Ali Shah (b) Majnu Shah
(c) To expel the British and restore (c) Hyder Ali (d) Tipu
Muslim rule in Bengal Why did the uprising of the Bhils take
(d) To offer civil disobedience to the British place during the first half of the nineteenth
by non-payment of taxes, and so on. century?
For meeting which of the following (a) The devastation of the region by
requirements for the preparation for jihad Marathawars
did Syed Ahmad Rae Bareilly select the (b) The Pindari depredations
north-western frontier region as the base (c) The famine in the Deccan
of operations? (d) All of these
The Kharwar Movement was launched by disbandment by Daji Krishna Pandit,
which tribal group minister of Kolhapur
(a) Mundas (b) Santhals (d) the rising of Sawantwadi under the
(c) Kolis (d) Rampa leadership of Phond Sawant (1844)
In which of the following battles with the Who were the Chuars?
Sikhs did the partisans of the holy war suf- (a) Zamindars of Bihar and Bengal
fer a terrible defeat in which Syed Ahmad (b) Peasants of West Bengal
lost his life? (c) They meld lands of Chotanagpur and
(a) The Battle of Amritsar West Bengal in lieu of para-military
(b) The Battle of Charsadda services to the zamindars.
(c) The Battle of Batekot (d) They held zamindari rights in Odisha
(d) The Battle of Attock and Central India
The occasion for the uprising of the Khasis The cause for the rebellion of Sikander
in Asom (1829) was Jah, Nizam of Hyderabad, and his support-
(a) The imposition of access by the ers against the British was
British to build a road joining Asom (a) the imposition of subsidiary alliance
and Sylhet on Hyderabad by Lord Wellesley
(b) The induction of a large number of (b) the British attack on Tipu Sultan towards
British troops on the pretence of build- whom the Nizam was sympathetic
ing a road to Join Asom and Sylhet (c) interference by the British residents in
(c) The oppression of the revenue official the court politics of Hyderabad
(d) The oppression of the zamindars (d) The arrogant attitude of the British
Which was the first tribal group to rise resident
against the British The most remarkable among the early
(a) Khasi rebellions was that of the sanyasis who
(b) Kolarian belonged to the order of the Giris among
(c) Mundas the followers of the great Indian religious
(d) Santhala philosopher Sri Sankaracharya. They
Which of the following tribal rebelled in remained active from 1763 to 1800 and
1831–1832 since their villages were being came into conflict with the British forces.
transferred from their headmen (Mundas) Which of the following was/were the main
to Sikh and Muslim revenue farmers? cause(s) of the Sanyasi rebellion?
(a) Chuars of the Jungle Mahals (a) Steps taken by the British government
(b) Hos of Singhbhum to prevent their activities in Bengal
(c) Kols of Chotanagpur (b) The anti-Hinduism propaganda of the
(d) None of these Christian missionaries
The Gadkari Revolt was (c) Both (a) and (b)
(a) the insurrection of Narasappa for the (d) None of these
restoration of the deposed Raja Pratap The most probable reason for the non-
Singh of Satara (1841) interference of the British government in
(b) the rising organized by Dadaji the activities of Syed Ahmad was
Daulatrao Ghorpade in the interests (a) It was a purely religious movement
of Kolhapur (1829) and the British had no desire to inter-
(c) the rising of hereditary servants fere with the religious aspirations of
attached to forts when threatened with the people.
3.38 Chapter 14
(b) The British were confident of their Which of the following was/were the
military might and were not afraid of leader(s) of the uprising of Odisha zamin-
the activities of the movement. dars (1804–1817) against the British rule?
(c) The target of the holy war was (a) Raja of Khurda
Maharaja Ranjit Singh’s Sikh state (b) Jagatbandhu, the leader of the Paiks
and not British India. (the landed militia)
(d) The movement was carried on in (c) Both (a) and (b)
utmost secrecy and the British were (d) Rupchand Konar
unaware of its political activities. Consider the following statements and
Who was the most trusted adviser of mark the option which is correct.
Emperor Bahadur Shah during the Revolt (i) R.C. Majumdar described the 1857
of 1857? Revolt as neither first nor national
(a) Hakim Ahsanullah war of independence.
(b) Prince Jawan Bakht (ii) T.R. Holmes described the 1857
(c) Queen Zeenat Mahal Revolt as conflict between civiliza-
(d) Prince Bakht Khan tion and barbarism.
Which of the rebellions or uprisings (iii) Jawaharlal Nehru said that 1857
established a government before it was Revolt was nothing but a Hindu–
crushed? Muslim conspiracy.
(a) Santhal Uprising (a) (ii)
(b) Kutch Rebellion (b) (i) and (ii)
(c) Kol Rebellion (c) All of these
(d) Jat Rebellion (d) None of these
Match the following What was the most fundamental weakness
(i) Ahom (a) Savaram of the Revolt of 1857?
(ii) Khasi (b) Buddhu Bhagat (a) It lacked a planning, programme and
(iii) Bhils (c) Gomdhar Kunwar funds
A B C (b) The rebels failed to understand the
(a) 1 2 3 significance of contemporary scien-
(b) 3 2 1 tific ad ancements
(c) 2 3 1 (c) The entire movement lacked a mod-
ern, unifie , and forward-looking
The cause of the rebellion of the princes programme
and the nobility of the old Ahom Court in (d) There was no understanding of the
Asom in the 1820s was character of the enemy’s political
(a) The failure of the British to withdraw organization among the rebels
and restore Ahom government on the
conclusion of the Burmese War If it were the hurt sentiments of the people
(b) The deposition of Gomdhar Konwar, that gave impetus to the Mutiny of 1857,
their popular ruler, by the British then which of the following best expresses
(c) The British intervention in the internal the cause thereof?
court politics of the Ahoms (a) Unreliability-of the British word of
(d) The alarming rise in the activities of honour
the Christian missionaries (b) Innovations such as telegraph
(c) The inability of the British to under- Why it is not correct to call the Revolt of
stand the people and the consequen- 1857 a purely ‘military mutiny’ because it
tial insults and injuries that the people was
suffered (a) inspired by national sentiments
(d) The activities of the British Christian (b) a movement of peasants and artisans
missionaries comprising the masses
(c) Not confined to the army and its causes
Which of the following statements about were deeper than those involved in
the planning and organization of the Revolt usual breaches of military discipline
of 1857 is perhaps the most accurate? (d) Led by leaders from the upper classes
(a) There was no conspiracy since not a
single witness came forward to make Apart from various sectional and group
such a claim movements against the British, the com-
(b) There was an organized conspiracy mon people also raised their voice against
to revolt but the organization had them and organized mass agitations.
not progressed sufficient y when the Which of the following was not a factor
Revolt broke out accidentally responsible for these mass agitations?
(c) In the absence of a leader of requisite (a) Enhancement of duty on salt
organizing ability no planning could (b) Introduction of standard weights and
have taken place measures
(d) None of these (c) Income Tax Act
(d) Forcible conversion of Indians of
Who was the Governor of Bombay during
Christianity
the Revolt of 1857?
(a) Elphinstone (b) Watson The Indian Association agitation was con-
(c) Ripley (d) Campbell ducted in defence of
One of the Muslim leaders openly pro- (a) Tenant rights
claimed jihad (crusade against the Chris- (b) Zamindars rights
tians) and exhorted the Muslims to (c) Both (a) and (b)
massacre all the Christians. He was (d) None of these
(a) Mirza Feroz Shah Where was an agitation launched over the
(b) Birjees Kudur, Walee of Awadh Income Tax Act in 1860?
(c) Maulvi Liaquat Ali (a) Surat (b) Patna
(d) Syed Qatabshah (c) Hyderabad (d) Calcutta
Answer Keys
1. (a) 2. (d) 3. (b) 4. (c) 29. (c) 30. (c) 31. (c) 32. (a)
5. (a) 6. (c) 7. (b) 8. (d) 33. (c) 34. (c) 35. (a) 36. (a)
9. (c) 10. (c) 11. (b) 12. (b) 37. (b) 38. (a) 39. (c) 40. (b)
13. (c) 14. (a) 15. (c) 16. (b) 41. (c) 42. (a) 43. (b) 44. (a)
17. (d) 18. (c) 19. (a) 20. (c) 45. (c) 46. (c) 47. (d) 48. (a)
21. (b) 22. (c) 23. (a) 24. (b) 49. (a) 50. (a)
25. (d) 26. (b) 27. (b) 28. (a)
15
Socio-Economic Impact of
the British Rule in India
Socio-Religious Movements Theosophical Society, adopted Hinduism and
regarded it as better than all other religions. On
of the Eighteenth and the hand, they attacked the social and religious
Nineteenth Centuries evils, which were eating into the very vitals of
the Hindu society and brought many reforms,
The soil for the growth of the Indian nationalist and on the other, they unfolded before the Hin-
was prepared by the socio-religious move- dus, the pictures of their glorious past, ancient
ments of the eighteenth and nineteenth cen- civilization and hoary culture. The Hindus
turies. Among these, the Brahmo Samaj, the began to be conscious of their ancient great-
Arya Samaj, the Ramakrishna Mission and the ness. With self-consciousness came the sense
Theosophical Society were prominent. Raja of self-respect, which, in its train, brought dis-
Ram Mohan Roy, who founded the Brahmo satisfaction against the British rule. Indians
Samaj in 1928, is often called ‘the prophet of began to realize the evils of their subjection.
nationalism’. He is also remembered as the Freedom began to be considered necessary
Father of Indian Renaissance or the Modern even for the achievement of social reforms.
Age in India. He was mostly responsible for These movements preached love for India,
the rejuvenation of the Indian society. Swami Indians and Indian things.
Dayananda, the founder of the Arya Samaj, was
another saviour of the Hindu society. He saved
Hinduism from the onslaught of Islam and Western Education
Christianity by pointing out the superiority of Macaulay is said to be mostly responsible for
the Hindu religion and the sterling worth of the introducing the Western system of education
Hindu scriptures such as the Vedas. The general in India. His objective was to train and bring
cult of the Swadeshi can also be traced to his up Indians in the Western manner and method,
teachings. Swami Ramakrishna Paramahamsa and to bring two people—British and Indian—
and his great disciple Swami Vivekananda also socially, culturally and politically near. In
contributed a good deal to the revival of Hin- 1833, he said: ‘It would be the day in Eng-
duism. Mrs. Annie Besant, the President of the lish history, when having become instructed
Socio-Economic Impact of the British Rule in India 3.41
in European knowledge, they (Indian) shall The Influence of the Press in India
demand Europe institutions.’ It may be a moot
By the 1890s, the Press in India had become
point whether this was the real objective of
fairly powerful. By 1877, there were 644
Macaulay or not, but none can deny that first
newspapers in India, most of them Vernacu-
demand for self-governing institutions in India
lar. The Vernacular Press Act of Lord Lytton
came from those who had acquired the West-
was a deliberate attempt to gag the Vernacular
ern education.
Press and thus ‘to smother the rising flame of
The result of this education was also disas-
discontent, by blocking the chimney’. It was
trous for some of the Indians. They began to
later withdrawn. The Press in India proved a
ape everything Western and became slaves of
great force, through which, the Indian nation-
foreign fabrics and fashions. They lost faith in
alism derived its vigour and strength. It helped
their heritage, culture and themselves. They
to make public the grievances of Indians and
became, therefore, in a way, willing tools of
to expose the failings and deficiencies of the
the British Imperialism. However, all the same,
alien rule. It brought home to Indians that the
the English language proved a blessing in dis-
main hurdle in the way of India’s uplift was her
guise for Indians in many ways. Through the
slavery and that a political organization was
vehicle of the English language, English litera-
absolutely essential to check the misrule.
ture, which is full of democratic ideas, became
accessible to Indians. It infused in them, a new
love for liberty and freedom. Ideas of Milton, Ilbert Bill Controversy
Burke, Mill, Macaulay, Herbert Spencer and Sir C.P. Ilbert was the Law Member of the
many others became available to them through Executive Council of Lord Ripon. Sir Ilbert
the Western literature. introduced a Bill, the objective of which was
It also enabled Indians to go abroad and live to remove some of the disqualifications from
among Englishmen and other Western nations. which the Indian magistrates suffered, while
When Indians went abroad, they saw the way trying Europeans which was also against the
in which free nations of the world lived. They principles of the Rule of Law. The Bill advo-
studied for themselves the working of demo- cated a right cause and was sponsored by an
cratic political institutions. When these young European Law member. Yet, it was made the
men returned to India, the life here became objective of such an unprecedented agitation
suffocating and revolting to them. Again, the by Europeans and Anglo-Indians, as was never
English language served as a ‘lingua franca’, witnessed before in the country. The European
that is the common all India language. It was community in India rose to a man to oppose the
through the medium of English language that enactment of this Bill. It was seriously argued
seventy two educated Indians from every nook that the Indian Judges were not fit to adminis-
and corner of the country could exchange their ter justice to a white man, even when he was
ideas, in 1885, in Bombay for the first time in a criminal The European Defence Association
the history of the country, with the set purpose was formed by the opponents of the Bill, with
of evolving a national organization for the branches in all important centres of India to
country as a whole. For the first 15 years or so, carry on agitation against the Bill. Rs. 1,50,000
the national movements were also confined to were collected to fight for the retention of this
those who had learnt and mastered the English class privilege, which the white men enjoyed
language and were brought up essentially in in India in the administration of the criminal
the Western style. justice.
3.42 Chapter 15
Indian Renaissance terms and by weeding out many of the corrupt-

ing and irrational elements from the nineteenth
Nature century religious beliefs and practices, the
The religious reform movements of modern reformers enabled their followers to meet the
times had an underlying unity—most of them official taunt that their religions and society
were based on the twin doctrines of reason were decadent and inferior.
(rationalism) and humanism, though they The religious reform helped many Indians
also sometimes tended to appeal to faith and to come to terms with the modern world. In
ancient authority to bolster their appeal. More- fact they arose to recast the old religions into
over, it was to the rising middle classes, whose a new modern mould to suit the needs of new
aspirations they expressed, that they appealed social groups of society. Thus, pride in the past
to most. They tried to free anti-intellectual reli- did not prevent India from accepting the essen-
gious dogmas and blind faith from the human tial superiority of the modern world in general
intellect’s capacity to think and reason. They and modern science in particular. Of course,
opposed the ritualistic, superstitious, irrational some people insisted that they were merely
and obscurantist elements in Indian religions. going back to the original, most ancient scrip-
Many of them abandoned, though with vary- tures, which were suitably interpreted. As a
ing degrees, the principle of authority in reli- result of the reformed outlook, many Indians
gion and evaluated truth in any religion or its began to acquire a modern, worldly, secular
holy books by its conformity to logic, reason and national outlook in place of a narrow out-
or science. look dominated by considerations of caste and
Some of these religious reformers appealed religion, though the latter’s tendency by no
to tradition and claimed that they were merely means came to an end. Moreover, more and
reviving the pure doctrines, beliefs and prac- more people began to think in terms of pro-
tices of the past. However, in fact, the past moting their physical and cultural welfare in
could not be revived. Often, there was no this world in place of passively accepting their
agreed picture of the past. lot and waiting for improvement in life after
Every reformer, who appealed to the past, death. These movements also to some extent
interpreted it in such a way to make it appear ended India’s cultural and intellectual isolation
to agree with the reforms he was suggesting. from the rest of the world and enabled Indians
Often the reforms and the outlook were new, to share in the stream of world ideas. At the
only their justification was based on an appeal same time, they were no longer bewitched by
to the past. Many of the ideas that conflicted everything in the West. In fact, those who cop-
with the modern scientific knowledge were ied the West blindly were increasingly looked
usually declared to be a later accretion or mis- down upon.
interpretation. And since the orthodox could
not accept this view, the religious reformers
came into conflict with the orthodox sections Limitations
and became, at least in the beginning, religious Two negative aspects of the religious reform
and social rebels. movements may also be noted. First, all of
Apart from purely religious considerations, them catered the needs of a small percent-
these religious reform movements fostered age of the population—the urban middle and
among Indians greater self-respect, self-con- upper classes. None of them could reach the
fidence and price in their country. By inter- vast masses of the peasantry and the urban
preting their religious past in modern rational poor, who continued by and large to lead their
lives in the traditional, custom-ridden ways. the persons coming from lower castes who had
This was because they basically gave voice to for centuries suffered under the most destruc-
the urges of the educated and urban strata of tive caste oppression, which had developed
Indian society. precisely during the ancient period. The result
The second limitation, which later became of all these factors was that instead of all Indi-
a major negative factor, was the tendency to ans taking an equal pride in their past material
look backward, appeal to past greatness and and cultural achievements and deriving inspi-
to rely on scriptural authority. These tended ration from them, the past became a heritage
to go against the positive teachings of the of the few. Moreover, the past itself tended to
reform movements themselves. They under- be torn into compartments on partisan basis.
mined to some extent the supremacy of human Many in the Muslim middle classes went to the
reason and scientific outlook. They encour- extent of turning to the history of West Asia
aged mysticism in new garbs and fostered for the traditions and movements of pride.
pseudo-scientific thinking. Appeals to past Increasingly, Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs and
greatness created false pride and smugness, Parsis, and later on lower-caste Hindus who
while the habit of finding a ‘Golden Age’ in had been influenced by the reform movement,
the past acted as a check on the full accep- tended to be different from one another. On
tance of modern science and hampered the the other hand, the Hindu and Muslim masses
effort to improve the present. However, most who followed traditional ways untouched by
of all these tendencies tended to divide Hin- the reform movements still lived in harmony,
dus, Muslims, Sikhs and Parsis, as also high practicing their different religious rituals. To
caste Hindus from low caste Hindus. Any some extent, the process of the evolution of a
over-emphasis on religion in a country con- composite culture that had been going on for
taining many religions was bound to have a centuries received a check, though in other
divisive effect. Moreover, the reformers put spheres national unification of the Indian
a one-sided emphasis on the religious and people was accelerated. The evil aspects of
philosophical aspects of the cultural heritage. this phenomenon became apparent when it
These aspects were, moreover, not a common was found that, along with rapid the increase
heritage of all people. On the other hand, art of national consciousness another conscious-
and architecture, literature, music, science ness—communal consciousness—had begun
and technology and so on, in which all fit sec- to rise among the middle classes. Many other
tions of people had played an equal role were factors were certainly responsible for the birth
not sufficiently emphasized. In addition, the of communalism in modem times; however,
Hindu reformers invariably confined their undoubtedly the nature of religious reform
praise of the Indian past to its ancient period. movements also contributed towards it.
Even a broad-minded man like Swami Vive-
kananada talked of the Indian spirit or India’s
past-achievements in this sense alone. These Social Reform
reformers looked upon the medieval period of The humanistic ideals of social equality
Indian history as essentially an era of deca- and the equal worth of all individuals which
dence. This was not only unhistorical but also inspired the newly educated middle class had
socially and politically harmful. It tended to a major impact on the field of social reform.
create the notion of two separate people. Simi- This enlightened section of society was dis-
larly, an uncritical praise of the ancient period gusted with the prevailing social ills and
and religions could not be fully acceptable to inhuman social practices. The social reform
3.44 Chapter 15
movements formed an integral part of the were further suppressed by practices such as
religious reforms primarily because nearly all purdah, early marriage, ban on widow-remar-
the effort towards social ills such as untoucha- riage and sati. Both Hindu and Muslim women
bility and gender-based inequity derived legiti- were economically and socially dependent,
macy from religion in one way or the other. while education was generally denied to them.
In later years though, the social reform move- The Hindu women had no right to inherit prop-
ment gradually dissociated itself from religion erty or to terminate an undesirable marriage.
and adopted a secular approach. Also, earlier The Muslim women could inherit but only
the reform movements had a rather narrow half as much as men could, while in matters
social base—they were limited to the upper of divorce there was no equality between men
and middle classes and upper castes who tried and women. Polygamy was prevalent among
to adjust their modernized views with reject to Hindus as well as Muslims.
the existing social conditions. However, later Their glorification as wives and mothers
on, the social reform movements penetrated was the only way in which the society recog-
the lower strata of society to revolutionize and nized the contribution of women as members
reconstruct the social sphere. of society. The struggle for the improvement
In the beginning, organizations such as the of the status of women in the society was con-
Social Conference, Servants of India Society sidered to be vital, since a radical change in
and the Christian missionaries were instrumen- the domestic sphere—where initial socializa-
tal in social reform along with many enlight- tion of the individual takes place and where
ened individuals namely Jyotirao Phule, Gopal a crucial role is played by women—was the
Hari Deshmukh, K.T. Telang, B.M. Malabari, need of the hour. There was a clear under-
D.K. Karve, Sri Narayana Guru, E.V. Ramas- standing that this change would translate into
wami Naicker and B.R. Ambedkar. In later reformed homes and reformed men, and that
years, especially with the onset of the twen- no country whose females were sunk in igno-
tieth century, the national movement provided rance could ever make significant progress in
the leadership and organization for social civilization.
reform. The social reform movements, the free-
To reach the masses, propaganda in Indian dom struggle, movements led by enlightened
languages was the modus operandi of the women themselves and, later, free India’s
reformers who used a variety of media such as Constitution have done much for the eman-
novels, dramas, poetry, short stories, the press cipation of women. The reformers basically
and, in the 1930s and later on, the cinema to appealed to the doctrines of individualism and
spread their views. equality, and argued, to bolster their appeal,
Broadly, the social reform movements had a that true religion did not sanction an infe-
two-point agenda—fight for the betterment of rior status to women. They raised their voice
status of women in society and fight to remove against degrading customs, such as polyg-
disabilities arising out of untouchability. amy, purdah, child marriage, restrictions on
widow remarriage, and worked relentlessly
Fight for Betterment of Position of Women to establish educational facilities for women,
The reformers had to work against great odds. to persuade the government to enact favour-
Women were generally accorded a low status able legislations for women and in general
and were considered to be inferior adjuncts to to propagate giving up of medieval, feudal
men, with no identity of their own. Their desire attitudes. Because of the indefatigable efforts
to give expression to their talents and energies of the reformers, a number of administrative
measures were adopted by the government to founded the Widow Remarriage Association in
improve the condition of women. the 1850s. Another prominent worker in this
field was Karsandas Mulji who started the
Abolition of Sati Satya Prakash in Gujarat in 1852 to advocate
Influenced by the frontal attack launched by widow remarriage.
the enlightened Indian reformers led by Raja
Ram Mohan Roy, the government declared Child Marriage
the practice of sacrifice or the burning alive The Native Marriage Act (or Civil Marriage
of widows illegal and punishable by criminal Act) signified the coming of legislative action
courts as culpable homicide. The regulation in prohibiting child marriage in 1872. It had a
of 1829 was applicable in the first instance limited impact as the Act was not applicable to
to Bengal Presidency alone, however, was Hindus, Muslims and other recognized faiths.
extended in slightly modified forms to Madras The relentless efforts of a Parsi reformer, B.M.
and Bombay Presidencies in 1830. Malabari, were rewarded by the enactment of
the Age of Consent Act (1891) which forbade
Female Infanticide the marriage of girls below the age of 12. The
The practice of murdering female infants imme- Sarda Act (1930) further pushed up the mar-
diately after birth was common among upper riage age to 18 and 14 for boys and girls,
class Bengalis and Rajputs who considered respectively. In free India, the Child Marriage
females to be an economic burden. The Bengal Restraint (Amendment) Act, 1978 raised the
regulations of 1795 and 1804 declared infanti- age of marriage for girls from 15 to 18 years
cide illegal and equivalent to murder, while an and for boys from 18 to 21.
Act passed in 1870 made it compulsory for par-
ents to register the birth of all babies and pro- Education of Women
vided for verification of female children for some The Christian missionaries were the first to
years after birth, particularly in areas where the set up the Calcutta Female Juvenile Society in
custom was resorted to in utmost privacy. 1819. The Bethune School, founded by J.E.D.
Bethune, president of the Council of Educa-
Widow Remarriage tion in Calcutta in 1849 was the first fruit of
The Brahmo Samaj had the issue of widow the powerful movement for women’s educa-
remarriage high on its agenda and did much tion that arose in the 1840s and 1850s. Pandit
to popularize it. However, it was mainly due Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar was associated
to the efforts of Pandit B. Ishwar Chandra with no less than 35 girls’ schools in Bengal
Vidyasagar (1820–1891), the principal of San- and is considered one of the pioneers of wom-
skrit College, Kolkata, that the Hindu Widows’ en’s education. Charles Wood’s Despatch on
Remarriage Act, 1856, which legalized mar- Education (1854) laid great stress on the need
riage of widows and declared issues from for female education. In 1914, the Women’s
such marriages as legitimate, was passed by Medical Service did a lot of work in training
the government. Vidyasagar cited Vedic texts nurses and mid-wives. The Indian Women’s
to prove that the Hindu religion sanctioned University started by Professor Karve in 1916
widow remarriage. was one of the outstanding institutions impart-
Jagannath Shankar Seth and Bhau Daji ing education to women. In the same year,
were among the active promoters of girls’ Lady Hardinge Medical College was opened
schools in Maharashtra, Vishnu Shastri Pandit in Delhi.
3.46 Chapter 15
Factors which Undermined Caste For instance, the Arya Samaj while crusading
against disintegration of Hindu society into
Rigidities
myriad sub-castes, aimed at reconstructing it
The pressure of British rule in India unleashed on the original four-fold division and uphold-
certain forces, sometimes through direct ing the right of even the lowest castes to study
administrative measures and sometimes indi- the scriptures.
rectly by creating favourable circumstances.
For instance, the creation of private prop-
erty in land and free sale of land upset caste The Brahmo Samaj
equations. A close interlink between caste The Brahmo Samaj was the result of the first
and vocation could hardly continue in a state creative activity of the Indians inspired by
of destruction of village autarchy. Besides, Indian Renaissance. One of the greatest forces
modern commerce and industry gave birth in the making of new India, the Brahmo Samaj
to several economic avenues while growing was formally founded on 23 January 1830,
urbanization and modern means of transport although it had begun its missionary work in
added to the mobility of populations. The Brit- 1828.
ish administration introduced the concept of The Brahmo Samaj was established by
equality before law in a uniformly applied sys- Raja Ram Mohan Roy. His primary aim was
tem of law which dealt a severe blow to social to reform Hindu society and religion. He
and legal inequalities, while the judicial func- believed in the unity of God and was against
tions of caste panchayats were taken away. The idol-worship, ritualism and blind faith and he
administrative services were made open to all established the Samaj for the same. He had
castes and the new education system was on to struggle hard against orthodox Hindus and
totally secular lines. fanatic Christian missionaries who challenged
The social reform movements also strove his views. After the death of Raja Ram Mohan
to undermine caste-based exploitation. From Roy, the Brahmo Samaj was gradually divided
the mid-nineteenth century onwards, numer- into several sects. Maharshi Debendranath
ous organizations and groups such as the Tagore established the ‘Adi Brahmo Samaj’,
Brahmo Samaj, Prarthana Samaj, Arya Samaj, Keshab Chandra Sen established the ‘Bhartiya
Ramakrishna Mission, the Theosophists, the Brahmo Samaj’ and another one was estab-
Social Conference and individuals worked lished by the name of the ‘Sadharana Brahmo
to spread education among the untouchables Samaj’. Dr. Atmaram Pandurang established
and remove restrictions imposed on them the ‘Prarthana Samaj’ in Maharashtra in 1867,
from entering or using ponds, tanks and so on. parallel to the idea of the Brahmo Samaj. All
Although many of them defended the chatur- these different organizations differed with
varna system, they criticized the caste system, each other only in matters of detail but the
especially untouchability. The social reformers main source of inspiration of all remained the
attacked the rigid hereditary basis of caste dis- principles of the Brahmo Samaj established by
tinctions and the law of karma which formed Ram Mohan Roy.
the basis of the religio-philosophic defence of The Brahmo Samaj gave new life to Indian
the undemocratic authoritarian caste institu- society in its all spheres. On the basis of the
tion. They called on people to work for bet- ‘Vedas’ and the ‘Upanishads’, it taught that
terment in the real world in which they lived, God is one, every religion possesses truth,
rather than strive for salvation after death. idol-worship and ritualism are useless and
social evils have no connection with religion, it nationalism. The Brahmo Samaj not only
interpreted religion with reason and logic and helped in social and religious reforms in India
was first in this field in India. The Samaj was but also helped in modernizing her. It placed
benefited by western concepts of liberty of before the Indian people the problems con-
thoughts, reason and innovation in society and cerning their society and religion and also
religion. Its approach was not that of reproach put forth the solutions of these problems. It
but of reform. It led the first movement that thus created an intellectual awakening among
fought against the evil practices of Hindu soci- them. Though Brahmo Samaj failed to get
ety and religion and paved the way for other itself completely free from the impact of west-
social and religious reform movements among ern culture, it prepared the ground to accept
the Hindus. the challenge of the west first and encouraged
The Brahmo Samaj attempted to reform the Indians to fight the battle confidently and
Hindu society. It led a crusade against the prac- carry on with the far reaching social and reli-
tice of sati, polygamy, child-marriage, mar- gious reforms in their society.
riages with minor girls, caste system, purdah
system, untouchability and use of intoxicants. Associations Related with Brahmo Samaj
It adopted inter-caste marriages, education of
1. Atmiya Sabha—Ram Mohan Roy
women, widow remarriages and so on as prac-
2. Tattvabodhini Sabha—Debendranath
tical measures for removing the social evils.
Tagore
It succeeded in creating a momentum against
3. Sangat Sabha—Keshab Chandra Sen
these social evils in Bengal.
4. Indian Reform Society—Keshab Chandra
The Brahmo Samaj adopted all possible
Sen
means to propagate its social and religious
5. Veda Samaj (Madras)
ideas. It established societies and educational
6. Prarthna Samaj (Maharashtra)
institutions, started publishing newspapers
7. Adi Brahmo Samaj (1866)
and magazines, conducted debates with its
8. Brahmo Samaj of India
opponent, arranged for lectures and tours of
9. Sadharana Brahmo Samaj (Anand Mohan
its members to come in direct contact with the
Bose)
people.
The leaders of the Brahmo Samaj also
worked for the welfare of peasants, liberty The Arya Samaj
of the press and social legislation. It served The Brahmo Samaj did remarkable job in
the Indian people as part of the human- reforming the Hindu religion and society;
ity and it remained free from sectarian atti- however, it was influenced by Christianity
tude. Mahatma Gandhi too accepted many and western culture and mostly remained
of its social programmes such as welfare of a defence against Christianity and Islam in
women and depressed classes in his political India. Thus, it failed to satisfy the soul of
programme. Hinduism, which needed an aggressive cham-
The leaders of Brahmo Samaj also partici- pion of its cause. India founded it in the form
pated in building national sentiment among of Arya Samaj, which was established by
the Indians. It glorified the ancient culture ardent patriot and Sanyasi Swami Dayananda
of India, developed confidence among Indi- Saraswati.
ans towards their own religion and thus, par- The original name of Swami Dayananda
ticipated indirectly in resurgence of Indian was Mula Shankar who was born in 1824, in
3.48 Chapter 15
a Brahmin family, in Morvi state (Gujarat). (ii) Gurukuls were opened to spread this
At the age of 21 he left his home and became knowledge of Vedas.
an ascetic. At the age of 36, he spent two and (iii) Stress was laid on women education to
a half years at Mathura as disciple of a saint ensure proper place of dignity for them.
scholar Swami Virjanand (a blind man) who
taught him the philosophical interpretation Dayananda was the first Hindu reform-
of the Vedas and asked him to purify Hindu- ist who launched a counter attack on Chris-
ism and to preach the true Vedic religion. He tian and Muslim critics by challenging them
founded the Arya Samaj in 1875 in Bombay. on their own ground. He died on 30 October
Two years later the headquarters was shifted 1883.
to Lahore. He translated the Vedas and wrote The Arya Samaj did extremely useful work
three books—Satyarth Prakash (Hindi), for reforming the Hindu society and reli-
Veda Bhashya Bhumika and Veda Bhashya gion. Two basic concepts of Arya Samaj were
(Sanskrit). largely responsible for its success, namely (a)
it provided equal status to all its members. (b)
Reform Programmes of Arya Samaj It pursued religious propaganda with fanatic
zeal. It also helped in the educational develop-
1. It presented the noblest aspect of Hinduism ment of Indians and affected national move-
and created among them a sense of pride. ment as well.
2. Faith in the theory of ‘Karma’ (action) and In the field of religion, the Arya Samaj
transmigration of soul opposed idol-worship, ritualism, the practice
3. It started the campaign of ‘Shudhi’ or of animal sacrifice, idea of heaven and hell
purification. and the concept of fatalism. It claimed that
4. Opposition to child marriage and ‘Vedas’ were the sources of all knowledge.
polygamy. Thus, having complete faith in the superiority
5. Casteism and untouchability was con- of Hinduism and the ‘Vedas’, the Arya Samaj
demned and equality of mankind was successfully met the challenge of Islamic
preached. and Christian propaganda against Hindu-
6. Support to widow remarriage in certain ism and in turn, it attacked their principles
circumstances. vehemently.
7. Sati system was regarded as the sin and The Arya Samaj provided noble service to
the system was vehemently opposed. Hindu society as well by making onslaught on
8. Arya Samaj also opened or orphanages its social evils. It incessantly worked for female
and widow houses. education, upliftment of the depressed classes
9. It stirred in the people of India the senti- and abolition of casteism. It also opposed
ments of patriotism and freedom. child-marriages, purdah, polygamy and the
10. It played a progressive role in the field of practice of sati. It started ‘Shudhi movement’
national awakening by attacking religious according to which the converted Muslims and
superstitions, polytheism and the suprem- the Christians were taken back into Hindu fold
acy of the brahmins. after pacifying them.
11. Arya Samaj did meritorious work in the The Arya Samaj established a number
field of education— of educational institutions in India, particu-
(i) A chain of D.A.V. colleges was opened for larly in the North. The educational institu-
education of boys and girls. D.A.V. college tions have participated not only in defending
at Lahore was opened in 1886. Hindu religion, society and culture but also
in the growth of education, knowledge and first ‘math’ (organizational centre) was estab-
enlightenment in general. lished at Baranagar. In 1899, another ‘math’
The Arya Samaj immensely contributed was started at Belur, which became the cen-
towards arousing national consciousness. tral ‘math’. It looks after the organization and
According to a scholar, ‘Political indepen- working of all ‘maths’ spread all over India
dence was one of the first objectives of Day- and even outside it. It is also the educational
ananda. Indeed, he was the first man to use centre of the saints of the Ramakrishna Mis-
the term ‘Swaraj’. He was the first to insist on sion. The Mission has drawn all into ideals and
people using only ‘Swadeshi’ things manufac- principles from the life and teachings of Sri
tured in India and to discard foreign things. He Ramakrishna. Born in a poor Brahmin fam-
was the first to recognize Hindi as the national ily, the childhood name of Ramakrishna was
language of India.’ Many Indian national lead- Gadadhar Chattopadhyay. He is regarded as
ers were deeply influenced by the principles one of the greatest spiritual leaders of India.
and philosophy of the Arya Samaj. In fact, the He was the devotee of Goddess Kali, who lived
Arya Samaj participated in building up per- and worshipped at the Dakshineswar temple.
sonalities of many Indians who imbibed the The credit of propagating the ideals of
spirit of militant Hinduism from it and partici- Ramakrishna goes to his great disciple Vive-
pated actively in the national movement. kananda. He was born in a rich Kshatriya
family at Calcutta in 1863. His real name was
Ten principles of Arya Samaj introduced in 1877: Narendranath. At his death-bed, Ramakrishna
1. The Vedas are the only source of truth. assigned him the responsibility to look after
Therefore, the study of the Vedas is abso- his disciples and carry his message to peo-
lutely necessary. ple. Vivekananda represented the very soul
2. Recitation of the ‘Mantras’ of the ‘Vedas’ of Hinduism and its spiritualism. His mes-
and performance of Yojna sage of spiritualism contributed remarkably
3. Opposition to reincarnation theory of God towards strengthening not only Hindu religion
and religious pilgrimages and society but also Indian nationalism. He
4. Opposition to idol-worship regarded religion as the manifestation of the
5. Faith in theory of ‘Karma’ and trans- divinity that is already in man. He once said,
migration of soul ‘Religion is neither in books, nor in intellec-
6. Faith in one God who has not physical tual consent, nor in reason. Reason, theories
existence doctrines, books, religious ceremonies are all
7. Opposition to child marriage and helps to religion, religion consists in realiza-
polygamy tion.’ He believed in the fundamental unity of
8. Belief in female-education all religions. Service of humanity and soci-
9. Support to widow-remarriage in certain ety was kept as the primary objective in the
circumstances religious teachings of Vivekananda. He also
10. Attempts to propagate Hindi and Sanskrit gave his message to the educated Indians. He
language declared, ‘So long as the millions live in hun-
ger and ignorance, I hold every man a traitor
who, having been educated at their expense,
The Ramakrishna Mission pays not the least heed to them.’ He also partic-
The Ramakrishna Mission was established in ipated in building up of the Indian nationalism.
1887 by Swami Vivekananda, the chief disci- Due to his efforts, the Ramakrishna Mission
ple of Swami Ramakrishna Paramahamsa. The became a strong movement within the Indian
3.50 Chapter 15
Renaissance and is still doing useful service to times, this word has been used by the theosoph-
the Indian society. ical society. The Society was first established
by Madame H.P. Blavatsky and Colonel H.S.
Thoughts of Swami Vivekananda and his Olcott in USA in 1875. They were inspired
contribution by Indian thought and culture. They arrived in
India in 1879 and established its headquarters
1. The mission worked to help the poor, at Adyar (Madras). Mrs. Annie Besant, later
improve the conditions of women, fight on, became the President of this Society and
against untouchability and superstition started the Home Rule League as well popular-
and to overhaul the education system. ized it in India. She came to India in 1893 at
2. He stressed the supremacy of the Hindu the age of 46 and thereafter remained engaged
religion and culture. in social, religious and educational activities.
3. He anticipated that Hinduism was based The philosophy of theosophical society was
on spiritual values while the western cul- primarily drawn from Hindus and Buddhist
ture and civilization was materialistic. philosophies. It was accepted that all religions
4. He believed in the unity and equality of all are simply different forms of one ancient wis-
religions. dom and, therefore, the study of the philoso-
5. Economically, he was in favour of agro- phies of all religions was necessary to find the
based small-scale industries. ultimate truth.
6. Humanism was the soul of his religious,
spiritual and social ideas. Main principles of the Theosophical Society
7. He gave social relevance to monosticism 1. To form an organization of all people on
and spiritual relevance to the life of the the basis of fraternity of all
normal householder. 2. Study of ancient religion, philosophy and
8. He was the first to ask the priests to make science that are found in every part of the
it their mission to alleviate the sufferings world
of human beings. 3. To find out the laws of nature and devel-
9. He believed that Indian Nationalism can opment of divine powers in man
be based on four pillars namely—
(i) Consciousness and pride in the ancient The ideas and objectives of the Theosophical
glory of India Society
(ii) Awakening of the country men 1. It stood for making a comparative study of
(iii) Development of moral and physical all religions but considering Hinduism as
strength the most profound spiritual religion.
(iv) Unity based on common spiritual ideas 2. Believe that saints, philosophers, prophets
10. He wanted that the Indian youth should and so on are all children of Brahma and
rise, awake and work to eradicate hunger they rule the world under his guidance.
and ignorance among the masses. 3. It stressed universal brotherhood among
human beings.
The Theosophical Society 4. The ultimate goal of an individual is to
The word theosophy is derived from two Greek attain salvation but salvation does not
words ‘Theos’ and ‘Sophia’, which means mean end of ‘Karma’ but self-realization.
‘God’ and ‘Wisdom’, respectively. Therefore, 5. It aimed at resurrecting India’s glorious
theosophy means knowledge of God. In San- past to encourage Indians to gain a spirit
skrit, we call it ‘Brahmo-Gyan’. In modern of cultural and national pride.
6. In the social sphere, the society opposed lords and employment of Indians in higher
untouchability, child marriages and advo- services.
cated the upliftment of downtrodden Henry Derozio was accused of misguiding
classes and widows. the youth. He was removed from office
7. To open schools for depressed classes and and unfortunately he died soon after in
for girls. The boys were encouraged for 1831.
scout movement.
Prarthana Samaj
The Young Bengal Movement
The society was founded in 1867 in Maha-
The reform zeal of Ram Mohan Roy was rashtra. The founders were M.G. Ranade, Dr.
earned forward by several intellectuals of Ben- Atmaram Pandurang and R.G. Bhandarkar.
gal, which resulted in Young Bengal Move- The society was aimed at removing the evil
ment. The Henry Vivian Derozio, a young social customs. A purity movement was also
Anglo-Indian was the leader of this move- launched which included (i) admission of con-
ment. He was born in 1809 and was a teacher verts from other religions, (ii) anti-dancing
in Hindu college. He inspired his students to and (iii) reduction in marriage expenditure.
think rationally and to love and struggle for Vishnu Shastri and D.K. Karve were the other
liberty, equality and freedom in society and two social reformers who worked with Ranade.
politics. His followers who led the Young Karve launched the widow remarriage move-
Bengal Movement were called Derozians. ment. The society was pioneer in the field of
Although the young Bengal movement gained social reform in Maharashtra.
no popularity and brought no fruitful results,
it represented the sentiments of the educated Radha Swami Movement
Bengalis who tried to carry forward the mes- The movement was founded by Tulsi Ram
sage of Ram Mohan Roy through pamphlets, at Agra in 1861. He is popularly known as
newspapers and public associations. Swamiji Maharaj. The following were the
main principles:
The ideals of the movement
1. The movement was influenced by the ide- 1. All religions are true.
als of liberty, equality and fraternity, the 2. There is one supreme being and the
main objectives of French revolution of supremacy of Guru.
1789. 3. They believe in simple social life.
2. It gave impetus to discuss freely on all 4. There is no need to renounce the worldly
subjects moral, religious and social. life for spiritual attainments.
3. It believed in rational thinking. 5. They believe in charity, faith and spirit of
4. It opposed the useless social customs service.
favoured better treatment for Indians 6. They recognize no temple and sacred
abroad, supported the rights of the women place.
and prepared public opinion arid sup- Deva Samaj
ported the freedom of press.
5. It urged the followers to live or die for It was founded by Shiv Narayan Agnihotri in
truth and practising all virtues and shun- 1887 at Lahore. The following were the main
ning all vices. teachings:
6. It started agitation for the protection of 1. Supremacy of the Guru
peasants from the oppression of the land 2. Right deeds
3.52 Chapter 15
3. Eternity of the soul point that the decline of handicraft industries

4. Ideal social conduct and abstain from was inevitable, was a worldwide phenomenon,
vices and was a logical outcome and integral part
of the Industrial Revolution and the coming of
the factory system. The peculiar situation in
Economic Impact of British India—very different from the developments
Rule in India in European countries and North America—
Indian economy went through a significant may be summarized thus: (a) Nineteenth cen-
transformation in the second half of nineteenth tury India witnessed a steep decline of handi-
and early twentieth centuries. The hegemony crafts, a process which continued well into
of British industrial capital over a subordinate the twentieth century and (b) Unlike Euro-
– subjugated economy – had commenced from pean countries, India was not compensated
the day of renewal of Charter Act of 1813. by a sufficient rise of modern industry. As a
But India’s integration into world capitalist result, there was decline in the number and
economy and the consequent transformation proportion of the Indian population engaged
of the colonial economy into a product of raw in industry.
product, consumer of industrial commodities The nineteenth century was the period of
and the development of an enclaved industrial industrial capital, i.e., Britain’s rising indus-
economy with little or no multiplier effect on trialists and trading interests launched a new
the whole economy began during the later economic offensive based on the principles of
half of the nineteenth century. Foreign capital, free trade against India. Their persistent pro-
which entered the colonial sector, went into paganda and lobbying resulted in the abolition
mining, plantations, and raw material proof the Company’s monopoly of Indian trade
cessing, or into the development of export by the Charter Act of 1813. A change came
industries as a kind of enclave of the imperial in the character of Indo–British trade. So far,
metropolis, defected from the rest of the colo- India had been chiefly an exporting country;
nial economy, both seeking its markets abroad and from then onwards it became an import-
and sending its profits abroa ing country. English tweed and cotton stuff
flooded the Indian markets, spelling ruination
of the Indian weaving industry. The govern-
De-Industrialization ment of William Bentinck noted in 1834,
During the first half of the nineteenth century, ‘The misery hardly finds a parallel in the his-
or even up to 1880, India’s economy witnessed tory of commerce. The bones of the cotton
a strange phenomenon. While western coun- weavers are bleaching the plains of India.’ In
tries were experiencing industrialization, India a similar vein, Karl Marx, a shrewd contem-
suffered a period of industrial decline. This porary observer remarked: ‘It was the British
process has been described as de-industrial- intruder who broke up the Indian handloom
ization. India’s traditional handicraft indus- and destroyed the spinning wheel. England
try decayed beyond recovery. The period of began with depriving the Indian cottons from
decline of Indian handicrafts was contempo- the European market; it then introduced tweed
raneous with the fi m foundation of the Indus- into Hindustan and in the end inundated the
trial Revolution in England and England’s tight very mother country of cotton with cottons.’
control over the strings of Indian economy. Dr. D.R. Gadgil has mentioned three principal
Western scholars like Morris D. Morris and A. causes which operated in the first half of the
Thornera are never weary of emphasizing the nineteenth century in bringing about a rapid
decline in the artistic excellence and economic and no worse off economically at the end of
importance of Indian handicrafts. They were: the period than at the beginning’ and possibly
(1) The disappearance of native Indian courts, ‘absolute growth occurred’. D. Thorner has
which patronized fancy arts and handicrafts compared the census data for 1881 with that
and often employed the best craftsmen on a for 1931 in respect to workers engaged in agri-
regular salary basis. (2) The establishment of culture and manufacture respectively and come
an alien rule, with the influence of the many to the conclusion that ‘the industrial distribu-
foreign influences that such a change in the tion of the modem working force from 1881 to
nature of government meant. New classes rose 1931 stood still’. All the same, they concede
after the establishment of British rule, namely, that probably new classes emerged after the
the European officials and the new Indian edu- establishment of British rule the major shift
cated professional class. The European bureau- from industry to agriculture happened some-
cracy normally patronized English-made time between 1815 and 1880.
products and the Indian Western-educated pro- A recurrent theme of national writers of all
fessional class limited European standards and shades of opinion – Moderates, Extremists,
poured scorn on everything Indian. (3) The and Gandhiites – was that Britain developed
competition of a more highly developed form those aspects of Indian economy like railways,
of machine industry. ports, and irrigation developments, which sub-
This is general agreement among scholars served the economic interests of industrial-
that the decline of Indian handicrafts was not ized Britain and ignored, and even thwarted,
universal ‘for the periods differed from one the growth of modern industry within India.
part of the country to another’. Rajasthan, for De-industrialization and Britain’s callous
example, was opened by railways after 1911, indifference to Indian industrial development
hence the decline occurred after that. Further, became the rallying slogan in the anti-colonial
despite heavy odds, the Indian handicrafts struggle.
could not be completely wiped out. The rural
population, steeped in poverty and tradition-
alism, continued to purchase comparatively Ruralization of Indian Economy
cheaper khadi cloth and village-made iron With de-industrialization, Indian economy
and wooden agricultural ploughs and other tended to become more and more agricultural.
implements. The Swadeshi movement, in the Millions of manufacturing classes in indus-
beginning of the twentieth century, popular- trial towns like Dacca, Murshidabad, Surat,
ized indigenous products on patriotic grounds and other places were rendered jobless and
and thus created some market for khadi in the drifted from towns to villages for a livelihood.
urban areas. In the Gandhian era, village indus- This increasing dependence of the population
tries received encouragement, and populariza- on agriculture for subsistence and slant of the
tion of khadi kept alive Indian handicrafts. Indian economy on production of agricultural
Recently, some Western scholars like Mor- goods and raw materials to the neglect of
ris D. Morris have challenged the ‘imperial industrial development has been described as
exploitation thesis’ put forward by Indian a trend towards realization or peasantization
national writers and publicists and instead of the Indian economy. British writers of the
argued that colonial rule ‘probably stimulated nineteenth century took pride in describing
economic activity in India in a way which had India as traditionally an agricultural country.
never been possible before’ and that ‘the hand- A close examination of the British
loom weavers were at least no fewer in number economic policy towards India makes it
3.54 Chapter 15
abundantly clear that Britain deliberately legislative umbrella by legalizing their exploi-
adopted such policies, which ruined the com- tation. Act XIII of 1859 and Inland Immigra-
peting handicraft industries of India; it then tion Act of 1882 made breach of contract a
helped develop the agricultural resources criminal offence and authorized the tea plant-
of India to make it ‘an agricultural farm’ of ers to arrest a runaway labourer without any
industrialized Britain. As early as 17 March warrant.
1769, the Court of Directors desired the Com- Over-pressure on agriculture created serious
pany’s agents in Bengal to encourage the distortions in Indian economy apart from cre-
manufacture of raw silk and discourage manu- ating serious problems in the agrarian sector.
factured silk fabrics. This objective was to be The increase in the number of persons in agri-
achieved by forcing the silk-winders to work culture did not mean increase in agricultural
in the Company’s factories and prohibit them production, but impoverishment of the rural
from working in their homes. Commending masses. A number of factors – historical, polit-
this policy of compulsion-cum-encourage- ical, economic, and social – blocked the mod-
ment, a Select Committee of the House of ernization of Indian agriculture and worked as
Commons in 1783 desired a perfect plan of a ‘built-in depressor’. The stagnation in Indian
polity ‘to change the whole face of that indus- agricultural production amidst increasing pop-
trial country, in order to render it a field of the ulation accounted for recurring famines and
produce of crude materials subservient to the increasing poverty in the nineteenth and first
manufactures of Great Britain’. R.C. Dutt has quarter of the twentieth century.
rightly pointed out that this resolution settled
the policy of England towards India till 1833
and later. It ‘effectively stamped out many of Impoverishment of the Peasantry
the national industries of India for the benefit The peasant was progressively impoverished
of English manufactures’. under British rule. In spite of the fact that he
Industrialized Britain desired the develop- was now free of internal wars, his material
ment of the vast potential of India’s agricul- condition deteriorated and he steadily sank
tural resources. However, a possible snag was into poverty. In the very beginning of the Brit-
the poor quality of Indian raw materials. To ish rule in Bengal, the policy of Clive and War-
make good this deficiency, British nationals ren Hastings of extracting the largest possible
needed to be given permission for free entry land revenue had led to such devastation that
and settlement in India. The Charter Act of even Cornwallis complained that one-third of
1833 removed all restrictions on European Bengal had been transformed into ‘a jungle
immigration and acquisition of landed prop- inhabited only by wild beasts’.
erty in India. And British capital flowed to Nor did improvement occur later. In both
develop India’s plantation industry in tea, the permanently and temporarily settled
coffee, indigo, and jute cultivation. The Gov- \COKPFCTK areas, the peasants were left to the
ernment of India provided adequate facili- mercies of the zamindars, who raised rents to
ties. The Assam Wasteland Rules provided unbearable limits, compelled them to pay ille-
for the grant of extensive tracts of land up to gal dues and perform forced labour or beggar
3000 acres per holder as freehold property and oppressed them in diverse other ways.
exempted from land tax on payment of fixed The condition of the cultivators in the
sums. The tea planters of Assam used force Ryotwari and Mahalwari areas was no better.
and fraud to recruit labour for work in tea Here, the Government took the place of the
estates. The Government of India provided the zamindars and levied excessive land revenue,
which was, in the beginning, fixed as high as the British revenue system enabled the mon-
one-third to one-half of the produce. Heavy eylender or the rich peasant to take posses-
assessment of land was one of the main causes sion of land. Even the benefits of peace and
of the growth of poverty and the deterioration security established by the British, through
of agriculture in the nineteenth century. their legal system and police, were primarily
Even though the demand for land rev- reaped by the moneylender in whose hands the
enue went on increasing year after year – it law placed enormous power; he also used the
increased from Rs. 15.3 crore in 1857–1858 power of the purse to turn the expensive pro-
to Rs. 35.8 crore in 1936–1937–the propor- cess of litigation in his favour and to make the
tion of the total produce taken as land revenue police serve his purposes. Moreover, the liter-
tended to decline, as the prices rose and pro- ate and shrewd moneylender could easily take
duction increased. No proportional increase advantage of the ignorance and illiteracy of the
in land revenue was made as the demanding peasant to twist the complicated processes of
of extortionate revenue became obvious. But law to get favourable judicial decisions.
by now the population pressure on agriculture Gradually, the cultivators in the Ryotwari
had increased to such an extent that the lesser and Mahalwari areas sank deeper and deeper
revenue demand of later years weighed on into debt and more and more land passed into
the peasants as heavily as the higher revenue the hands of moneylenders, merchants, rich
demand of .the earlier years of the Company’s peasants, and other moneyed classes. The
administration. process was repeated in the \COKPFCTK areas,
The evil of high revenue demand was where the tenants lost their tenancy rights and
made worse by the fact that the peasant got were ejected from the land or became subten-
little economic return for it. The Government ants of the moneylender.
spent very little on improving agriculture. The process of transfer of land from cul-
It devoted almost its entire income to meet- tivators was intensified during periods of
ing the needs of the British–Indian adminis- scarcity and famines. The Indian peasant
tration, making the payments of direct and hardly had any savings for critical times and
indirect tribute to England, and serving the whenever crops failed, he fell back upon the
interests of British trade and industry. Even moneylender not only to pay land revenue but
the maintenance of law and order tended to also to feed himself and his family.
benefit the merchant and the moneylender, The growing commercialization of agri-
rather than the peasant. culture also helped the moneylender-cum-
The moneylender was greatly helped by merchant to exploit the cultivator. The poor
the new legal system and the new revenue peasant was forced to sell his produce just
policy. In pre-British times, the moneylender after the harvest and at whatever price he could
was subordinated to the village community. get as he had to meet in time the demands
He could not behave in a manner totally dis- of the Government, the landlord, and the
liked by the rest of the village. For instance, moneylender. This placed him at the mercy of
he could not charge usurious rates of inter- the grain merchant, who was in a position to
est. In fact, the rates of interest were fixed by dictate terms and who purchased his produce
usage and public opinion. Moreover, he could at a price which was much less than the mar-
not seize the land of the debtor; he could, at ket price. Thus, a large share of the benefit of
most, take possession of the debtor’s personal the growing trade in agricultural products was
effects like jewellery or parts of his standing reaped by the merchant, who was very often
crop. By introducing transferability of land, also the village moneylender.
3.56 Chapter 15
Ruin of Old Zamindars and Rise of the Indian moneyed classes were keen to buy
land and become landlords was the absence
New Landlordism
of effective outlets for investment of their
The first few decades of the British rule wit- capital in industry. Another process through
nessed the ruin of most of the old zamindars in which landlordism spread was that of sublet-
Bengal and Madras. This was particularly so ting. Many owner–cultivators and occupancy
with Warren Hastings’ policy of auctioning the tenants, having a permanent right to hold land,
rights of revenue collection to the highest bid- found it more convenient to lease out land to
ders. The Permanent Settlement of 1793 also land hungry tenants at exorbitant rent than to
had a similar effect in the beginning. The heav- cultivate it themselves. In time, landlordism
iness of land revenue–the Government claimed became the main feature of agrarian relations
ten-elevenths of the rental–and the rigid law of not only in the \COKPFCTK areas but also in the
collection, under which the \COKPFCTK estates Ryotwari areas.
were ruthlessly sold in case of delay in pay- A remarkable feature of the spread of land-
ment of revenue, worked havoc for the first few lordism was the growth of subinfeudation or
years. Many of the great zamindars of Bengal intermediaries. Since the cultivating tenants
were utterly ruined. Nearly half of the landed were generally unprotected, and the over-
property of Bengal had been transferred from crowding of land led tenants to compete with
the old zamindars, who had resided in the vil- one another to acquire land, the rent of land
lages and had traditions of showing some to went on increasing. The zamindars and the
new landlords tenants, merchants, and other new landlords found it convenient to sublet
moneyed classes, who usually lived in town their right to collect rent to other eager persons
and were quite ruthless in collecting money on profitable terms. But as rents increased,
to the last pie, what was due from the tenant, subleasers of land in their turn sublet their
irrespective of difficult circumstances. Being rights in land. Thus, by a chain process, a
utterly unscrupulous, possessing little sympa- large number of rent-receiving intermediaries
thy for the tenants, they began to subject the between the actual cultivator and the govern-
latter to rack renting and ejection. The Per- ment sprang up. In some cases in Bengal, their
manent Settlement in North Madras and the number went as high as fifty. The condition
Ryotwari Settlement in the rest of Madras of the helpless cultivating tenants, who ulti-
were equally harsh on the local zamindars. But mately had to bear the unbearable burden of
the condition of the zamindars soon improved maintaining this horde of superior landlords,
radically. In order to enable the zamindars to was precarious beyond imagination. Many of
pay the land revenue in time, the authorities them were little better slaves.
increased their power over the tenants by extin-
guishing the traditional rights of the tenants. Stagnation and Deterioration of
The zamindars now set out to push up the rents
to the utmost limit. Consequently, they rapidly Agriculture
grew in prosperity. As a result of overcrowding of agriculture,
In the Ryotwari areas too, the system of excessive land revenue demand, growth of
landlord–tenant relations spread gradually. landlordism, increasing indebtedness, and the
As we have seen above, more and more land growing impoverishment of the cultivators,
passed into the hands of moneylenders, mer- Indian agriculture began to stagnate and even
chants, and rich peasants, who usually got the deteriorate resulting in extremely low yields
land cultivated by tenants. One reason why per acre.
Overcrowding of agriculture and increase Nor did the cultivator, rack rented by both the
in subinfeudation, led to subdivision and frag- Government and the landlord, have any incen-
mentation of land into small holdings, most of tive to do so. After all, the land he cultivated
which could not maintain their cultivators. The was rarely his property and the bulk of the ben-
extreme poverty of the overwhelming majority efit which agricultural improvements would
of peasants, left them without any resources bring was likely to be reaped by the horde of
with which to improve agriculture by using absentee landlords and moneylenders. Subdi-
better cattle and seeds, more manure, fertil- vision and fragmentation of land also made it
izers, and improved techniques of production. difficult to effect improvements.
Exercise
Match the following works with their (a) Abolition of sati
authors (b) Abolition of slavery
(c) Removal of disabilities due to change
.KUV+ .KUV++ of religion
A. Hamir Hath 1. Dayananda (d) Suppression of the organized bands
Saraswati of things
B. Anandamath 2. C.S. Bajpayee Which of the following suggestions
C. Nil Darpan 3. Bankim Chandra were given by Raja Ram Mohan Roy for
Chatterjee reforming the judicial system?
(a) Separation of judiciary from the
D. Satya Prakash 4. Dinabandhu Mitra
executive
E. Nibandhamala 5. Chiplunkar (b) Codification of civil and criminal
%QFGU laws
A B C D (c) Both (a) and (b)
(a) 2 3 4 1 (d) Appointment of high caste Hindus to
(b) 1 2 3 4 judicial posts
(c) 5 3 4 2 Which of the following was not one of
(d) 3 5 4 2 Raja Ram Mohan Roy’s postulates for the
To which of the following governor-gen- regeneration of Indian society?
eral goes the credit of taking steps to stop (a) Rational and scientific approac
the human sacrifices practised by the (b) Principle of human dignity and social
Khonds in Odisha under the erroneous equality of all men and women
belief that thereby the fertility of the land (c) Introduction of modern capitalism
was increased? and industry in the country
(a) Lord Ellenborough (d) Independence from foreign rule
(b) First Lord Hardinge Who conferred Ram Mohan Roy with the
(c) Warren Hastings title of Raja?
(d) Lord Canning (a) Aurangazeb
Which of the following was not one of (b) Ahmad Shah
the social reform measures introduced by (c) Akbar Shah II
William Bentinck? (d) Bahadur Shah II
3.58 Chapter 15
In 1809, Ram Mohan Roy wrote Gift What could be regarded as the greatest
to Monotheism in which he put forward contribution of the Arya Samaj?
weighty arguments against belief in many (a) Crusade against the rigidities of the
gods and for the worship of a single god. caste system
This work was written in (b) Converting non-Hindus to Hinduism
(a) Arabic (c) Providing protection to the cow
(b) Latin (d) Evoking a sense of pride in India’s
(c) Persian past
(d) French Who propounded the motto ‘Go back to
Who was the chief architect of the Prar- the Vedas’?
thana Samaj in Maharashtra? (a) Mul Shankar
(a) R.G. Bhandarkar (b) Bal Gangadhar Tilak
(b) M.G. Ranade (c) Jyotirao Phule
(c) Pandita Ramabai (d) Narendranath Datta
(d) Gopal Ganesh Agarkar Consider the following statements and
Which social reformer of Maharash- mark the correct option.
tra became famous by the Pen-name of (i) Swami Dayananda’s slogan of ‘Back
‘Lokahitawadi’? to Vedas’ was a call for revival of
(a) Atmaram Pandurang Vedic learning and Vedic purity of
(b) Bal Gangadhar Tilak religion and not revival of Vedic
(c) Gopal Hari Deshmukh times.
(d) Krishna Shastri Chaplunkar (ii)Raja Ram Mohan Roy was the ini-
The characteristic feature of Ramakrish- tiator of public agitation on political
na’s religious doctrine was questions in the country.
(a) mystical experience (iii)Swami Vivekananda emphasized on
(b) belief in the truth of all religions need for a healthy balance between
(c) unity of godhead spiritualism and materialism.
(d) divine dispensation (a) (i) and (iii)
(b) (ii)
Who wrote ‘So far as Bengal is con-
(c) All of these
cerned, Vivekananda may be regarded as
(d) None of these
the spiritual father of Modern Nationalist
Movement’? Who was the founder of Tattvabodhini
(a) Keshav Chandra Sabha?
(b) Mahatma Gandhi (a) Dadoba Pandurang
(c) S.C. Bose (b) Debendranath Tagore
(d) Raja Ram Mohan Roy (c) Radha Kant Deb
(d) Keshav Chandra Sen
‘Not mercy, but service for man must
be regarded as God’. Who said this sen- Match the following organization with
tence? their founders.
(a) Bankim Chandra Chatterjee .KUV+ .KUV++
(b) Vivekananda
(c) Ramakrishna Paramahamsa A. M.G. Ranade 1. Bombay Social
(d) Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar Reform Association
B. Henry Vivian 2. Young Bengal Who wrote ‘Arctic Home of Aryans’ and
Derozio Movement ‘Gita Rahasyam’?
(a) Lala Lajpat Roy
C. H.P. 3. Theosophical (b) Mahadev Govind Ranade
Blavatsky Society (c) Bal Gangadhar Tilak
%QFGU (d) Jawaharlal Nehru
A B C Asiatic Society of Bengal was established
(a) 3 1 2 during the period of
(b) 1 2 3 (a) Warren Hastings
(c) 2 3 1 (b) Lord Cornwallis
Consider the following statements and (c) William Bentinck
mark the correct option. (d) Lord Wellesley
(i) Ramakrishna Paramahamsa used Which of the following tenets of Brahmo
to say ‘All different religious veins Samaj was not responsible for its elitist
are but different ways leading to the following?
same goal.’ (a) Deistic theology
(ii) Swami Dayananda established (b) Rational ethics
Vedant college in 1825. (c) Loving devotion to God and service
(iii) Raja Ram Mohan Roy’s first of man
philosophical work was (d) None of these
6WJHCVWN/WYCJJKFKP.
(a) (iii) The cornerstone of the Aligarh Move-
(b) (ii) ment was
(c) All of these (a) Hindu–Muslim amity
(d) None of these (b) Socio-religious reforms in the
Muslim community
Who was the founder of Bombay Presi-
(c) Anglo-Muslim alliance as the only
dency Association?
means of Muslim security and
(a) Anandamohan Bose
solidarity
(b) Suresh Chandra Banerjee
(d) Social accommodation and coordina-
(c) Feroz Shah Mehta
tion between Muslims, Hindus and
(d) Chandra Shekhar Azad
Christians
Who started Indian Association?
(a) Womesh Chandra Banerjee In the beginning, the policy of the Brit-
(b) Gopal Krishna Gokhale ish government in India towards religious
(c) Badruddin Tyabji and social matters was
(d) Surendranath Banerjee and (a) benevolent neutrality
Anandamohan Bose (b) active interference
(c) cautious reform
Who established British Indian Associa-
(d) deliberate denigration
tion?
(a) Subrahmanya Ayyar The governor-general who was respon-
(b) Womesh Chandra Banerjee sible for passing the famous Regulation
(c) Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar XVII of 1829, which declared Sati illegal
(d) Debendranath Tagore and punishable by courts was
3.60 Chapter 15
(a) John Adam (c) Mahadev Govind Ranade

(b) Amherst (d) Vishnu Shastri Pandit
(c) William Bentinck Mrs. Annie Besant was a theosophist
(d) Auckland who came to India in 1893. She estab-
Who among the following made the first lished the Central Hindu School at
systematic critique of moderate politics (a) Bombay (b) Calcutta
in 1893–1894 in a series of articles enti- (c) Madras (d) Banaras
tled ‘New Lamps for Old’? The science of theosophy is
(a) Aurobindo Ghosh (a) physical science
(b) Bal Gangadhar Tilak (b) occult science
(c) Satish Chandra Mukherjee (c) ordinary science
(d) Lala Lajpat Rai (d) natural science
Kumaran Asan is associated with the Which of the following disciples of Day-
social renaissance of ananda Saraswati set up the Dayananda
(a) Kerala (b) Tamil Nadu Anglo-Vedic College at Lahore?
(c) Andhra Pradesh (d) None of these (a) Lala Lajpat Rai
(b) Pandit Guru Dutt
Which of the following pair is correctly (c) Swami Shraddhananda
matched? (d) Lala Hansraj
(a) Gokhale—British Indian Association
The Deobandi Movement was an off-
(b) Narayan Malhar Joshi—All India
shoot of the
Trade Union Congress
(a) Wahabi Movement
(c) Annie Besant—Servants Society of
(b) Bhakti Movement
India
(c) Qadiri Silsilah
(d) Dadabhoi Naoroji—Home Rule
(d) Firdausi Silsilah
League
Whose efforts led to the enactment of the
The World Parliament of Religion in Age of Consent Act, 1891?
which Swami Vivekananda had partici- (a) S.S. Bengali
pated at Chicago in 1893 was the (b) Behramji M. Malabari
(a) first World Parliament of Religion (c) Dadabhai Naoroji
(b) Second World Parliament of Religion (d) Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
(c) Third World Parliament of Religion
(d) Fourth World Parliament of Religion Who founded the Social Service League
in 1911 in Bombay to secure for the
Who said ‘one religion, one caste and masses of the people better and reason-
one God for mankind’? able conditions of life and work?
(a) Sri Narayan Guru (a) N.M. Joshi
(b) Ramaswamy Naicker (b) Karsondas Mulji
(c) Jyotirao Phule (c) B P. Wadia
(d) Mahatma Gandhi (d) S.A. Dange
The Widow Remarriage Association was The women’s movement in India started
founded in 1850 by largely under the inspiration of
(a) Atmaram Pandurang (a) Sarojini Naidu
(b) Jyotirao Phule (b) Mrs. Annie Besant
(c) Ramabai Ranade The magna carta of western education

(d) Herabai Tata system in India was
The journal Bahiskrit Bharat was brought (a) the report of the Committee of Public
by Instruction, 1823
(a) Mahatma Gandhi (b) the Charter Act of 1833
(b) M.G. Ranade (c) despatch of Sir Charles Wood
(c) Karsondas Mulji Secretary of State, 1854
(d) B.R. Ambedkar (d) report of the Hunter Commission,
1862
Who began the Shudhi movement, that is
conversion of non-Hindus to Hinduism? In 1916, the Indian women’s university
(a) Ram Mohan Roy was set up in Bombay by
(b)Swami Dayananda Saraswati (a) Jyotirao Phule
(c) Keshab Chandra Sen (b) Vishnu Pandit
(d) Swami Vivekananda (c) M.G. Ranade
(d) D.V. Karve
The Deccan Education Society was
founded under Ranade’s inspiration in Who among the following was associated
(a) 1864 (b) 1874 with women’s education?
(c) 1884 (d) 1894 (a) J.E. Bethune
(b) Annie Besant
Match the following institutions with the (c) Sister Nivedita
years of their foundation: (d) None of these
.KUV+ .KUV++ From which year did the English lan-
A. Brahmo Samaj 1. 1828 guage become the medium of education
in India?
B. Paramahamsa Sabha 2. 1849 (a) 1831
C. Deoband School 3. 1866 (b) 1835
D. Prarthana Sainaj 4. 1867 (c) 1854
(d) 1858
E. Arya Samaj 5. 1875
The famous Fergusson College of Pune
F. Theosophical Society 6. 1875 was started in l885 by
G. Ramakrishna Mission 7. 1897 (a) the Deccan Education Society
(b) the Servants of India Society
%QFGU
(c) the Theosophical Society
A B C D E F G
(d) the Social Service League
(a) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
(b) 2 3 1 5 4 7 6 The first generation of the English-edu-
(c) 3 1 2 6 7 4 5 cated young men of Bengal were influ-
(d) 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 enced by
Who founded the Madras Hindu Social (a) Rabindranath Tagore
Reforms Association in 1892? (b) Raja Ram Mohan Roy
(a) Dadabhai Naoroji (c) Henry Vivian Derozio
(b) Gopal Krishna Gokhale (d) None of these
(c) Veeresalingam Pantulu H.V. Derozio taught at Hindu College
(d) Mrs. Annie Besant from 1826 to 1831. He followed the most
3.62 Chapter 15
radical views of the time and drew his Which of the following statements about
inspiration from the the Indian Press is/are incorrect.
(a) American War of Independence (a) The Bengal Gazette, a weekly paper,
(b) French Revolution was started by James Augustus Hicky
(c) Movement for the Betterment of an Englishman, in 1780.
Ireland (b) The Calcutta Journal was started by
(d) All of these J.S. Buckingham in 1818.
(c) The Bengali and the Amrita Bazar
Who described the Derozians as ‘the
Patrika were the first vernacular
pioneers of the modern civilization of
papers in India.
Bengal, the conscript fathers of our race
(d) All of these
whose virtues will excite veneration and
whose fallings will be treated with gen- The first newspaper published by the
tlest consideration’? Indians in English language was
(a) R.C. Dutt (a) The Patriot
(b) V.D. Savarkar (b) The Hindu
(c) Surendranath Banerjee (c) Young India
(d) Rabindranath Tagore (d) Native Opinion
The first free university in India, com- Match the following:
pletely independent of the government
and receiving no grant from it, was .KUV+ .KUV++

0GYURCRGTU
(QWPFGTU
(a) Aligarh Muslim University
,QWTPCNU
(b) Women’s University, Pune
(c) Banaras Hindu University A. Sabd 1. Keshab Chandra
(d) Vishwa Bharati, Shantiniketan Kaumundi Sen
Who among the following is known as B. Indian Mirror 2. Raja Ram Mohan
the ‘Liberators of the Indian Press’? Roy
(i) Sir Charles Metcalfe C. Amrita Bazar 3. G.S. Aiyar and
(ii) Lord Minto Patrika Vir Raghavacharya
(iii) Sir Thomas Munro
D. Hindu 4. Sisir Kumar Ghosh
(iv) Lord Macaulay
(a) (i), (ii) and (iii) %QFGU
(b) (ii), (iii) and (iv) A B C D
(c) (i) and (iv) (a) 1 3 4 2
(d) (ii) and (iii) (b) 2 3 4 1
(c) 3 2 4 1
Which of the following is/are correct
(d) 2 1 4 3
about the Vernacular Press Act, 1878?
(a) It was passed by Lord Mayo. Which of the following newspapers used
(b) It came to be known as the ‘Gagging by Annie Besant for movement?
Act’. (a) Common Wheel
(c) It was replaced by Lord Ripon in (b) New India
1882. (c) Amrita Bazar
(d) Both (b) and (c) (d) Both (a) and (b)
Vernacular Press Act was promulgated in (c) Prakasam Pantulu

(a) 1856 (d) Veera Raghava Chari
(b) 1878 The newspaper edited by Bankim Chan-
(c) 1899 dra Chatterjee was
(d) 1878 (a) The Hindu (b) Indian Mirror
The journal ‘Vandemataram’ was run by (c) Amrita Bazaar (d) Bangodarshan
(a) Bipin Chandra Pal Name the first newspaper to be published
(b) Arvinda Kumar Ghosh in India?
(c) Both (a) and (b) (a) The Calcutta Chronicle
(d) Bal Gangadhar Tilak (b) The Bengal Gazette
Which state was pioneer in the field of (c) The Madras Courier
Indian journalism? (d) The Bombay Herald
(a) Madras
(b) Bombay
(c) Bengal .KUV+ .KUV++
(d) Punjab
A. The Hindu 1. Bal Gangadhar
Who among the following started the Tilak
newspaper called the ‘Voice of India’?
(a) Bhikaji Cama B. The Sadhavani 2. Govind Vithal
(b) Dadabhai Naoroji Kunti
(c) Lala Har Dayal C. The Prabhakar 3. G. Subrahmanya
(d) V.D. Savarkar Ayyar
The newspaper ‘Hindu’ was established
D. Darpan 4. Akshay Chandra
by
Sarkar
(a) Subrahmanya Ayyar and Veera
Raghava Chary %QFGU
(b) Annie Besant A B C D
(c) Rajagopalachari (a) 3 4 2 1
(d) Chandra Shekhar Azad (b) 1 2 3 4
Which of the following pairs is correctly (c) 2 1 4 3
matched? (d) 3 2 1 4
(a) Ganesh Damodar Savarkar: Naujawan The most fortunate consequence of the
Bharat Sabha destruction of the pre-capitalist urban
(b) Sardar Ajit Singh: Bharat Mata handicrafts and the rural artisans industry
Society of India under the British was that:
(c) G.S. Arundale: Hindustan Socialist (a) India was transformed into a single
Republican Party economic whole
(d) Bhupendranath Dutta: Abhinav (b) The ruined handicraftsman shifted to
Bharat Samaj modern Indian industries
The newspaper ‘Andhra Prakasika’ was (c) The ruined artisans developed a
run by national outlook
(a) Ananada Charyulu (d) The ruined artisans became conscious
(b) Parthasaradhi Nayudu of their problems
3.64 Chapter 15
Which was the principal means by which Which was not a serious hurdle in the
the industrialisation of India was carried growth of Indian industries under the
out in the 19th century? British?
(a) Monetization of the Indian economy (a) Absence of heavy metallurgical and
(b) Financial institutions under control of machine producing industries
the British (b) Poverty of the rural population
(c) Improved means of communications (c) Lack of technical education
(d) The new legal system. (d) Lack of initative and enterprise on the
part of the natives
Which factors was not responsible for the
ruin of Indian Industry in 18th century? Out of the following points regarding
(a) Disappearance of native rulers Indian capitalism which is debatable?
(b) Imposition of heavy duties on goods (a) Indian finance magnates like Jagat
imported into England from India Seths and Aminchands had no entre-
(c) Poor craftsmanship of Indians preneurial skill
(d) Lack of demand for Indian goods (b) The British financial institutions like
banks discriminated against Indian
What was the reason for the Indian econ- business
omy not picking up even after granting (c) Indian banks were not permitted to
of protection to Indian Industries even as open more branches and Indians were
late as the beginning of the 20th century? made to patronise British insurance
(a) Lack of mining, metallurgical and companies
heavy engineering technology (d) Both banking and insurance were in
(b) Lack of purpose because of foreign the hands of British fi ms
rule
(c) India having already lost the techno- Which of the following correctly reflects
logical trade the policies of Britain to extend its mar-
(d) Inadequate infrastructure ket in India through the free trade policy?
(a) British imports were admitted free of
As a result of British rule the ruin of duties into India and Indian manufac-
rural Industries proceeded more rapidly tures were admitted free of duties into
because the: England
(a) British purchased all their require- (b) While British imports were admitted
ments in England at nominal rates of duties into India,
(b) Indian rulers were replaced by the Indian goods were admitted abso-
British lutely free of duty into England
(c) British exported raw materials from (c) India was forced to admit British
India imports either free or at nominal rates
(d) Introduction of railways enabled the of duties, while India’s manufactures
British goods to reach the remotest continued to be subjected to high
villages import duties in England
Which among the following was not one (d) Protective tariffs were provided for
of the industries in India during the Brit- import and export of goods at both
ish rule? places
(a) Cotton (b) Jute Only one country did not join other Euro-
(c) Iron (d) Coal pean countries in prohibiting or imposing
heavy duties on the import of Indian cot- (a) The middle-class intelligentsia
ton goods which was the country? (b) The new elite who were showered
(a) Germany with titles like Raj Bahadurs, Rai
(b) France Sahibs
(c) Holland (c) Loyal Indians in government services
(d) Italy (d) Baniyas, money-lenders and land-
Which of the following was not one of lords (new zamindars)
the reasons why railways constituted a What was expected out of the Permanent
drain on India? Settlement?
(a) Interest on foreign investments was (i) It would make the Company’s land
remitted outside India revenue regular
(b) The stock was purchased in England (ii) It would create a class of landlords
(c) They were financial y losing concerns similar to those in British
(d) Excessive salaries, were paid to the (iii) The Company would be able to
European employees who sent their encourage agriculture
savings to England (iv) It would better the lot of peasants
(a) (i) and (ii)
Though methods of production and the
(b) (i) and (iii)
rural economy underwent radical changes
(c) (ii) and (iv)
because the farmer became a part of the
(d) (ii) and (iii)
money economy one of the following was
not one of the reasons why the peasants Indicate one of the following systems
did not benefit from the changes? which helped develop the closest ties
(a) Smallness of their holdings between the people and the government?
(b) Heavy land revenue assessment (a) Ryotwari system
(c) Rack-renting by the landlords (b) Zamindari system
(d) Shortage of money supply (c) Mahalwari system
(d) Mootadari system
Pressure on land in the first decades of
The British introduced Mahalwari Sys-
19th century was the result of:
tem in:
(a) Over-population
(a) The Gangetic valley, the North-West
(b) The unplanned but clever destruction
Province, part of Central India, and
of indigenous industry
the Punjab
(c) Unemployment
(b) Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, Northern
(d) Employment of foreigners in Indian
districts of Madras and districts of
administration, army, and railways
Varanasi, coastal districts of Andhra
Name the region where the Company (c) In parts of Madras and Bombay
agreed to limit the land-tax to one-third Presidencies
of the gross produce? (d) In Central India and Awadh
(a) Bengal The spread of landlordism was marked
(b) The Gangetic Valley by the growth of the following?
(c) The Bombay Presidency (a) Aristocracy
(d) The Madras Presidency (b) Capitalism
Who was the most pampered child of the (c) Sub-infeudation
British Raj? (d) Cultivation
3.66 Chapter 15
Which were the areas affected by famines The immediate consequence of British
in the 70’s of the 19th century? colonization of India was the:
(i) Most of the Southern States (a) Imposition of a commercial economy
(ii) United Provinces and Bihar (b) Ruin of rural industries
(iii) Rajputana and the Punjab (c) Deindustrialization
(iv) Bengal and Orissa (d) Beginning of agricultural revolution
(a) i, ii and iv only Which statement on the British conquests
(b) i, ii and iii only of India is the most apt?
(c) i and ii only (a) Conquered in a fit of absence of mind
(d) ii, iii and iv only. (b) Conquered for promoting the theme
Commercialisation of agriculture had of white man’s burden
manifold impact. Which one, of the fol- (c) Conquered without own money
lowing has been wrong listed? (d) Fitfully conquered India without any
(a) It resulted in steady increase in forethought
food production which considerably The company laid the railway line in the
brought down prices of agricultural country to
products (a) export from the interior to ports
(b) It gave a serious setback to the self- (b) reach out the imports to the markets
sufficient character of village com- (c) Both (a) & (b)
munity in India (d) None of the above
(c) It resulted in the rise of a powerful
Which of the following was the most
class of money-lenders in the villages
important factor responsible for the
(d) It resulted in more land being brought
extinction of urban handicrafts after the
under cultivation
British conquest?
The book ‘Poverty and un-British Rule in (a) The oppression practiced; by the East
India’ was written by: India Company and its servants on
(a) M.N. Roy the craftsmen of Bengal
(b) Dadabhai Naoraji (b) The high import duties and other
(c) C. Rajagopolacharya restrictions imposed ori the import of
(d) Gopalakrishna Gokhale Indian goods into Britain and Europe
Which one of the following features (c) The development of modern manu-
brings homethe feudal character of soci- facturing industries in Britain
ety in eighteenth century? (d) The competition with the cheaper
(a) The intermediaries between the state machine-made goods, imported duty-
and the peasant were the chiefs, the free from Britain
assignees, the guarantees and the rev- Which statement is not correct of the pre-
enue farmers British Urban industries?
(b) The king was the proprietor of rev- (a) They met the needs of aristocratic
enue and not of land and wealthy strata of society. Indian
(c) The peasant was not the intermediary as well as foreign and the require-
serf but master of his own land and its ments of the state and other public
cultivation institutions
(d) There was no clash between the peas- (b) They also produced articles of daily
antry and the intermediaries use for the common people
(c) The urban industries functioned to Which one of the following destroyed the
meet the specific needs of the select peasants’ rights over the land cultivated
social strata and institutions by them:
(d) The most striking feature of the urban (a) Annual Settlement
industries was the extremely limited (b) Mahalwari Settlement
character, of their market (c) Permanent Settlement
The first Factory Act restricting the work- (d) Quinquennial Settlement
ing of men and children and authoris- Under Mahalwari settlement, the settle-
ing the Local Governments to make the ment was made with :
necessary rules was passed during the (a) The village community as a whole
time of: (b) Zamindars and cultivators jointly
(a) Bentinck (c) The zamindars
(b) Clemency Canning (d) The cultivators
(c) Lytton The first Agricultural College was estab-
(d) Ripon lished at Poona in
What were the main exports of India in (a) 1900
the early eighteenth century? (b) 1908
(i) Textile (c) 1920
(ii) Saltpetre (d) 1950
(iii) Sugar The recommendations of Strachey com-
(iv) Slaves mission on famines was made into a code
(v) Iron ore in 1883. Which point is a recommenda-
(a) (i), (ii), (iii) tion of the Strachey Commission?
(b) (i), (iii) and (iv) (a) Duty of the State to offer relief in
(c) (ii), (iii) and (iv) times of needs and relief work should
(d) (iii), (iv) and (v) begin in advance before the people
Who was the first to entrust the collec- were physically exhausted
tion and supervision of revenue to Eng- (b) Most of the money should come from
lish officials called ‘collectors’? the local authorities
(a) Warren Hastings (c) The Central Government should
(b) Cornwall is contribute a part of it
(c) Clive (d) Preference should be given to local
(d) Bentinck works rather than to large public
works
When did the Company’s commercial
actjvities finally come to an end? The British expenses on wars were
(a) 1833 (b) 1853 charged on the Indian treasury except the
(c) 1858 (d) 1861 following:
(a) Expedition to the Persian Gulf
The Theory of economic drain was pro-
(b) Conquest of Burma
pounded by:
(c) First World War
(a) Madan Mohan Malaviya
(d) Second World War
(b) Surendranath Baneijee
(c) R.C. Dutt When was the most comprehensive Act
(d) Dadabhai Naoroji regarding the Industrial workers passed?
3.68 Chapter 15
(a) 1908 (b) 1911 (b) Home charges

(c) 1922 (d) 1923 (c) English officials remitting to England
Which factor had no bearing on the drain major part of their salaries, pensions,
of India’s wealth to England? incomes furlough allowances and
(a) Employment of Europeans in Indian savings
administration, army and railways (d) Famines
Answer Keys
1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (b) 4. (c) 57. (a) 58. (d) 59. (d) 60. (b)
5. (d) 6. (c) 7. (c) 8. (b) 61. (c) 62. (c) 63. (b) 64. (a)
9. (c) 10. (b) 11. (c) 12. (c) 65. (b) 66. (b) 67. (d) 68. (b)
13. (d) 14. (a) 15. (c) 16. (b) 69. (a) 70. (a) 71. (a) 72. (c)
17. (a) 18. (a) 19. (c) 20. (d) 73. (c) 74. (c) 75. (d) 76. (d)
21. (d) 22. (c) 23. (a) 24. (c) 77. (d) 78. (b) 79. (c) 80. (c)
25. (c) 26. (a) 27. (c) 28. (a) 81. (c) 82. (d) 83. (b) 84. (d)
29. (a) 30. (b) 31. (a) 32. (a) 85. (d) 86. (a) 87. (a) 88. (a)
33. (d) 34. (d) 35. (b) 36. (d) 89. (c) 90. (b) 91. (a) 92. (b)
37. (a) 38. (b) 39. (a) 40. (c) 93. (b) 94. (a) 95. (c) 96. (c)
41. (d) 42. (b) 43. (c) 44. (a) 97. (d) 98. (b) 99. (d) 100. (a)
45. (c) 46. (c) 47. (d) 48. (a) 101. (a) 102. (a) 103. (d) 104. (c)
49. (b) 50. (a) 51. (c) 52. (b) 105. (a) 106. (b) 107. (b) 108. (a)
53. (c) 54. (c) 55. (c) 56. (c) 109. (b) 110. (d)
16
The Freedom Struggle
The Early Nationalists The first Muslim President of the
INC was Rahimatullah Sayani (1896).
(1885–1905) (BadruddinTyabji and Dadabhai Naoroji
In 1884, A.O. Hume founded the Indian were both Parsis.)
National Union, which was the precursor of P. Anand Charlu, who presided over the
the Indian National Congress, founded in 7th session of the INC in 1891 at Nag-
the next year. pur, described the Congress as ‘a mighty
The first meeting of INC began on Decem- nationalizer’.
ber 28, 1885, in the hall of Gokuldas Tejpal Indian Council Act of 1892:
Sanskrit College, Bombay. Enlarged the Supreme and Provincial
The first English president of the INC was Councils, and empowered the members
George Yule in 1888 at the 4th Allahabad to discuss the budget and ask questions
session. on matters of public interests.
Other English presidents of INC were: Did not concede to the people the right
William Wedderburn, 1889, Bombay of electing their own representatives to
Alfred Webb, 1894, Madras the Councils. However, it introduced
Henry Cotton, 1904, Bombay indirect elections for the Imperial and
William Wedderburn, 1910, Allahabad Provincial Legislative Councils.
Annie Besant, 1917, Calcutta Indian Councils Act, 1892, was followed
William Wedderburn was the biogra- by:
pher of A.O. Hume and was the only Tariff Duties Act, 1894, and
English to become the president of the Custom Duties Act, 1896.
INC twice. Dadabhai Naoroji wrote, 2QXGTV[ CPF VJG
The British Committee of the INC was 7P$TKVKUJ4WNGKP+PFKC, in 1901.
started in July 1889 with William Wed- R.C. Dutta wrote, 'EQPQOKE *KUVQT[ QH
derburn as chairman and William Digby as +PFKC, in 1902.
secretary. Lord Curzon’s regime (1899–1905) marked
The British Committee founded a jour- the high-water mark of British imperial-
nal, India, as an organ of Congress’ view. ism in India. His rule was full of ‘mis-
The Committee was finally abolished in sions, commissions and omissions’. But
1920. the proverbial last straw was the Partition
3.70 Chapter 16
of Bengal, ostensibly on the ground of Universities Commission. It became the

‘administrative convenience’, but was in most active centre for the propagation of
fact an attempt to break the prevailing cur- the boycott and UYCFGUJK ideologies.
rent of Indian nationalism and the Hindu– Vishwa Bharti was founded in 1901.
Muslim unity. The National Council of Education, also
6JG2CTVKVKQPQH$GPICN was announced on called the Jatiya Siksha Parishad, was
July 7, 1905. founded on August 14, 1906, to impart the
It was made effective on October 16, ‘3-D’ system of education—literary, scien-
1905, which was observed as the Rakhi tific and technical.
Bandhan Day on the suggestion of Swadeshi movement produced a large num-
Rabindranath Tagore. ber of industrial strikes from 1905 to 1906.
On the same day, Anand Mohan Bose But:
laid the foundation of the Federation It had temporary success and failed to
Hall in Calcutta. bring about the economic regeneration
The international events contemporary to of the country.
the Partition of Bengal and Swadeshi move- The objectives of national education
ment were: hardly made any progress.
The defeat of the Italians in 1894 at the The movement left the peasants practi-
hands of the Abyssinians, cally untouched.
The victory of Japan over Russia It failed to achieve the much needed
(1904–05), Hindu–Muslim unity. By and large, the
The rise of the Sien Fien movement in Muslims stood aloof.
Ireland and Rabindranath Tagore started Swadeshi
The Young Turk revolt in Turkey. Bhandar in 1897, and Sarala Devi, Lakshmi
Bampfylde Fuller described the Muslims as Bhandar in 1903.
his ‘favourite wife’ during the Partition. Sakharam Ganesh Deuskar, in his Bengali
Boycott was first suggested by K.K. Mitra book, &GUJGT -CVJC, exposed England’s
in 5CPLKXCPK on July 3, 1905. economic exploitation of India.
%CTN[NG %KTEWNCT intended to prevent stu- The first Indian Industrial Conference was
dents from joining the Swadeshi and Boy- held at Benaras in 1905 with R.C. Dutta as
cott movements. Out of its bitterness was president.
born the idea of national education. The 23rd session of Congress (1907) was
$GPICN 0CVKQPCN %QNNGIG and school initially proposed to be held at Nagpur.
was founded after Carlyle Circular with It was later shifted to Surat. The tussle
Aurobindo Ghosh as principal. between the Moderates and Extrem-
Ghosh propounded the theory of ‘orga- ists could not be contained any more and
nized and relentless boycott of British the Congress split here.
goods, British system of education, judi- Dr. Rasbehari Ghosh presided over the
ciary and executive’. session.
Anti-Circular Society was founded in An evaluation:
November 1905 to provide education for During the first two decades of its exis-
the expelled students. tence, the keynote of Congress’ aims,
The Dawn Society was founded in July objectives and methods were moderation
1902 by Satish Chandra Mukherjee, as and constitutionalism. It did not work
a protest against the report of the Indian for UYCTCL or representative government,
The Freedom Struggle 3.71
but asked for minor concessions, such He described the Congress as a ‘Congress
as constitutional reforms, administrative of flatterers’ and the Congress session as
reforms and economic reforms. ‘a holiday resort’.
The Congress’ method of political work He said, ‘If a God were to tolerate
may be described by the 3 Ps–petitions, untouchability, I would not recognise
prayers and protests. him as God at all’.
The Congress expressed loyalty to the On June 22, 1897, the date of jubilee cel-
British Crown and looked on the British ebration of Queen Victoria, the Chapekar
Rule as God’s gift for the betterment of brothers, Damodar and Balkrishna, mur-
India. dered Rand, the Plague Commissioner of
Its movement was limited to the middle Poona, and Lt. Ayerst. Tilak justified the
class intelligentsia. assassination, and was arrested and sen-
The Congress secured minor conces- tenced to jail. It was after his release that he
sions–appointment of Public Service was acclaimed, ‘Lokmanya’.
Commission in 1886, Resolution of the The Chapekar Brothers were associated
British House of Commons for simul- with Hindu Dharma Sangha.
taneous ICS exams in India and Britain In 1898, Viceroy Lord Elgin II openly
and Welby Commission on Indian declared, ‘India was conquered by the
Expenditure. sword and by the sword it shall be held.’ In
It aroused national awakening and the same year, laws were enacted curbing
trained people in the art of political the freedom of the press and speech.
agitation. Bipin Chandra Pal called Swami
Among the many theories floated to explain Vivekanand (1863–1902) the Prophet of
the foundation of the Indian National Indian Nationalism.
Congress, the Safety-Valve Theory has Pal founded the newspaper, $CPFG
attracted the most, widespread debate. /CVTCO, with Aurobindo Ghosh as
Lala Lajpat Rai believed that the Congress co-editor.
was founded to serve as ‘safety valve’ Sister Nivedita, whose actual name was
for the escape of danger that the Brit- Margaret Noble, the Irish disciple of Vive-
ish Empire faced in India. However, the kanand, did much to foster the new spirit
majority opinion converges to the idea that of national awakening. She wrote, -CNKVJG
Congress’ birth was ‘impersonal, a birth in /QVJGT and 6JG9GDQH+PFKCP.KHG.
circumstances’. Barisal Incident (1906), a conference of Ben-
gal Provincial Conference, led by Aswini
Kumar Dutta, was dispersed; its prominent
Rise and Growth of Militant leaders were beaten up and imprisoned.
Nationalism Swadesh Bandhav Samiti was founded
by Aswini K. Dutta
Tilak inaugurated the celebration of 5CPFJ[C was edited by Brahmanbandhav
Ganapati festival in 1893 and Shivaji Upadhyay.
festival in 1895. ;WICPVCT was started by Bhupendranath
He also edited, -GUCTK (daily), in Marathi Dutta in March 1906.
and, /CJCTCVVC (weekly), in English. Prafulla Chaki and Khudiram Bose
He started the Swadesh Vastra Pracharini attempted to murder Judge Kingsford at
Sabha. Muzaffarpur on April 30, 1908.
3.72 Chapter 16
Aurobindo and his brother Barindra escaped to Japan on May 12, 1915, assum-
Ghosh were arrested in the Alipore bomb ing the name of P.N. Tagore.
trial. Barindra was transported for life but The following people were involved in
Aurobindo was acquitted owing to brilliant the Hardinge Bomb case: Amir Chand,
pleading of his counsel, Chittaranjan Das. Awadh Behari and Bal Mukund.
Anushilan Samiti was founded by Barindra Ras Behari Bose operated from
Ghosh, Jatindranath Banerjee and Pramo- Dehradun to form a link between the
tha Mitter in 1902 with its headquarters at revolutionaries of Bengal and Punjab.
Calcutta. The Anushilan Samiti of Dacca In 1913, Lala Hardayal, Bhai Parmanand
was founded by Pulin Das in 1902. These and Ramchandra founded the Ghadar Party
were the first revolutionary secret societies in San Francisco. Its aim was to send vol-
in Bengal. unteers and money to organize mutiny and
In 1905, Barindra Ghosh published, rebellion in India. In the same year, Lala Har-
$JCXCPK /CPFKT (a guidebook for revo- dayal started the weekly, *KPFWUVCP)JCFCT,
lutionaries), followed by the publication in Punjabi, Urdu, Marathi and English.
of 8CTVCOCP4CPCPKVK. When Lala Hardayal started attack-
Mitra Mela was founded in 1899 by ing the immigration policy of the US,
Savarkar brothers, Ganesh and Vinayak. In he was arrested and had to leave. The
1904 Ganesh Savarkar founded Abhinav Ghadar Party was left in the hands of
Bharat after Mazzini’s Young Italy. Ram Chandra.
Shyamji Krishna Verma founded the Indian In 1917, when the US entered into WWI
Home Rule Society in 1905. He started a on the side of the Allies, Ram Chandra
monthly, +PFKCP 5QEKQNQIKUV, in 1905 from was arrested with 16 others and the
London. Ghadar Party activities came to a halt.
He was joined by Savarkar, Lala Zimmeran Plan was formulated by
Hardayal and Madan Lal Dhingra, and Virendranath Chattopadhyay, Bhupen Dutta
‘India House’ of London became the and Lala Hardayal. They set up the Indian
centre of revolutionary activities. Independence Committee in Berlin in 1915.
Their activities alarmed the British gov- Raja Mahendra Pratap (chief of the Hath-
ernment, and Shyamji left London leav- ras state in UP), Barkatullah and Obedulla
ing Savarkar incharge of India House. Sindhi set up a Provisional Government of
On June 1, 1909, Madanlal Dhingra mur- Free India in Kabul in 1915.
dered William Curzon Wylie, a retired The Muslim League was founded on
officer of the Indian army. Dhingra was December 30, 1906, at the initiative of
caught and hanged. Nawab Salimullah of Dacca, Nawab
Savarkar was arrested and taken to India Mohsin-ul-Mulk, Nawab Waqar-ul-Mulk
in connection with the Nasik Conspiracy and Aga Khan.
case. On the way to India, he tried to Aga Khan led a Muslim delegation, called
escape from the ship, but could not suc- the Shimla Delegation, in 1906 to the
ceed. Savarkar was transported for life. viceroy, Lord Minto, to demand separate
In 1907, Taraknath Das founded the Indian electorate for Muslims. It was awarded by
Independence League in California. He the Morley–Minto Reforms of 1909.
also started publishing, (TGG*KPFWUVCP. The Indian Patriots’ Association, organized
Rasbehari Bose, supposed to be the hand in 1907, sought to improve the lot of the
behind the Hardinge Bomb case (1912), peasants.
Bharat Mata Samiti was formed by Sufi Iyer returned his knighthood in pro-
Amba Prasad. test. (Subramania Iyer was known as the
Morley–Minto Reforms of 1909: Grand Old Man of South India).
Created an official majority in the She edited two papers, %QOOQPYGCN
Imperial Legislative Council and non- and 0GY+PFKC.
official majorities in the Provincial She presided over the Congress session
Legislative Councils, at Calcutta in 1917.
Introduced element of direct elections to She wrote a booklet, +PFKC#0CVKQP.
the Legislative Councils. The Home Rule Movement:
Introduced the communal electorate for Demanded self-government for Indians
the first time in Indian politics. in the Legislative Councils to be elected
The Partition of Bengal was annulled in by the people, and Executive Councils to
December 1911 by an announcement by be responsible to the Legislative
King George V at Delhi Durbar. By the Councils.
same announcement, the capital of India Was conceived on the lines of the Irish
was transferred from Calcutta to Delhi. Home Rule Movement.
Lucknow Pact of 1916, between the Con- Was outside the Congress, but not
gress and the League, accepted the provi- opposed to its policies.
sion of separate electorates for Muslims. It Played an important part in the national
also accepted under-representation of Mus- struggle for independence and broad-
lims in Muslim majority areas and over- ened its base by including women and
representation in Muslim minority areas. students.
The Lucknow session of Congress Slackened after Montague’s announce-
passed a resolution demanding self- ment in the British Parliament about a
government at an early date and domin- responsible government in India. Tilak
ion status for India. went abroad for the libel suit against
It brought about the reunion of the Valentine Chirol’s, +PFKCP7PTGUV.
Moderates and the Extremists. The death Montague–Chelmsford Reforms: The Act
of Gokhale and Pheroze Shah Mehta of 1919:
in 1915 softened the attitude of the Introduced during the premiership of
Moderates. Lloyd George.
The president of the Lucknow session Provided for distribution of power
was Ambika Charan Mazumdar. between the centre and the provinces.
Annie Besant came to India in 1895, and Restricted the powers of the Legislative
joined the Congress in 1914. Assembly. Though it was given the
She started the Home Rule League in power to pass the budget, it had no right
1916. Tilak also founded a Home Rule to either discuss or vote on certain items.
League simultaneously, which confined Introduced the system of dyarchy in the
its activities to Maharashtra (excluding provinces—the Governor-in-Council hold-
Bombay) and Central Province. ing charge of Reserved subjects and the
She bought, /CFTCU 5VCPFCTF, and governor and ministers holding charge of
renamed it, 0GY+PFKC, to popularize the the Transferred subjects.
Home Rule movement. The Governor was supreme in pro-
She was arrested by the Madras gov- vincial administration and legisla-
ernment in June 1917. Sir Subramania tion. All bills passed by the Provincial
3.74 Chapter 16
Legislatures required the assent of the He mentioned three causes of poverty in

governor and the governor-general. In India—doctors, advocates and the railways.
case of the Transferred subjects, the gov- In 1920, Gandhi formed the Majur Maha-
ernor had the power to reject the advice jan, Labour Tribunal, which stood for
of his ministers and act on his own. peaceful relations, arbitrations and social
Provided for the first time the establish- service.
ment of a Public Service Commission. The Rowlatt Act armed the Executive with
The Moderates accepted the Reforms of unlimited powers to suppress political vio-
1919 as a substantial instalment in India’s lence. It enabled the government to sus-
struggle for self rule. But the Extrem- pend the right of habeas corpus. Gandhiji
ists rejected it as entirely unacceptable. described the Act as, ‘symptoms of a deep-
seated disease’. He launched a UCV[CITCJC
against it on April 6, 1919.
Emergence of Gandhi and Rowlatt Satyagraha was Gandhiji’s first
Non-Cooperation Movement experiment in mass UCV[CITCJC.
But he suspended the Satyagraha when
Mahatma Gandhi was born on October 2,
it became violent. Gandhi called it his
1869. He spent 21 years (1893–1914) in
Himalayan Miscalculation.
South Africa. He returned to India in January
Jallianwala Bagh massacre–April 13, 1919
1915 and founded the Sabarmati Ashram at
(on the Baishakhi day)–happened when
Ahmedabad in May 1915.
Brigadier Michael O’Dyer ordered his
Gandhi started, +PFKCP 1RKPKQP, in South troops to fire on people assembled peace-
Africa. In India, he began, ;QWPI+PFKC (an fully in Jallianwala Bagh. According to
English weekly), and 0CXLKXCP (a Gujarati official estimates, 200 to 300 people were
weekly). killed while the unofficial estimates put the
He started his political career in April 1917 number between 1200 and 1500.
with Champaran Satyagraha. Rajendra In protest, Gandhi returned the Kaiser-
Prasad, Mazhar-ul-Haq, Mahadev Desai i-Hind medal given to him for his work
and J.B. Kriplani worked with him in during the Boer War. Rabindranath
Champaran. Tagore returned his knighthood.
His next stoppage was the cotton textile The British government appointed the
mills of Ahmedabad (1918). Gandhi went Hunter Committee (four British, three
on a fast unto death and a settlement was Indians) to enquire into the Punjab distur-
reached after 21 days. It was his first hun- bances. The Congress appointed a non-offi-
ger strike. cial committee consisting of Motilal Nehru
His next involvement was Kheda Satya- (Chairman), C.R. Das, Abbas Tyabji, M.R.
graha, where the remission of land revenue Jaykar and Gandhi.
was withheld by the government. During Before the Hunter Committee began its
the movement, Indulal Yagnik was Gandhi’s proceedings, the government, passed
chief lieutenant. an Indemnity Act–also called the
Until 1918, Gandhi was a supporter of the Whitewashing Bill–for the protection of
British rule. its officers.
He considered his participation in the The Hunter Committee exonerated
Amritsar Congress (1919) as his real entry Brig. Dyer of all charges, whereas the
into the Congress politics. Congress Enquiry Committee demanded
a punishment for Brig. Dyer and asked people would no longer regard law as
for the resignation of the viceroy. something sacrosanct.
However, the government removed Brig. The non-cooperation programme, included
Dyer from his service and absolved the among other things,
viceroy of all guilt. Boycott of the forthcoming election
Muhammad Ali, Saukat Ali and Maulana under the Gol Act, 1919.
Azad formed the Khilafat Party. October Triple boycott of legislature, courts and
17, 1919, was observed as the Khilafat Day. educational institutions.
Gandhi was elected the president of the All Boycott of foreign goods and promotion
India Khilafat Conference held that year. of UYCFGUJK goods instead.
The Khilafat Issue: The Sultan of Turkey Hindu–Muslim unity and eradication of
was the Caliph or the religious head of untouchability.
the Muslims all over the world. During Surrender of government titles and
WWI, Turkey sided with Germany and honours.
was defeated. The Treaty of Versailles The above programme was first pro-
dismembered Turkey and reduced the posed at the special session of the
Sultan to a figurehead in his own domain. Congress in Calcutta, and was ‘endorsed’
The Khilafat Committee wanted restora- by the Nagpur session the same year
tion of the privileges of the Sultan. (December 1920).
Gandhi launched the Non-Cooperation The Nagpur session of Congress declared
movement (NCM) on August 1, 1920. the object of the Indian National Congress
Tilak died on the same day. The Con- as the ‘attainment of UYCTCLŏ. The Nagpur
gress decided to raise Re. 1 crore for Tilak session also revolutionized the Congress by
Swaraj Fund. making it a mass-based party.
The Tana Bhagat movement started dur- Chauri-Chaura incident (February 4, 1922)
ing the same time at Chota Nagpur. took place in Gorakhpur, where an angry
The Eka movement started in Awadh crowd attacked a police station and burnt it,
during the NCM (1921–2). resulting in the death of 22 policemen.
The Moplah uprising gave a violent turn Suspension of NCM in February 12, 1922.
to the Movement in August 1921. Gandhi was arrested on March 18, 1922,
Rastriya Stree Sangh was formed during and sentenced to six years imprison-
the Movement—thus ensuring greater ment. He was released on February 5,
participation of women, especially in 1924, on the grounds of ill health.
Bombay and Calcutta. Success/failure of the NCM:
In November 1921, the Prince of Wales The Congress became a mass movement
visited India to inaugurate the new with the involvement of peasants in vil-
Constitution (under the Reforms of lages, workers in cities, women and stu-
1919). Gandhi refused to accept the dents. It thus transformed the nature of
proposals of the Reforms. But C.R. the freedom struggle.
Das opposed the NCM as he did not The fear of the British administration
want the opportunity to slip out. disappeared.
Annie Besant too opposed it as she felt Gandhiji emerged as the undisputed
that the programme of Civil Disobedience leader.
would bring about a general laxity in However, the Punjab wrongs and the
the law and order situation and the Khilafat grievances were not redressed.
3.76 Chapter 16
Gandhiji’s promise of UYCTCL within a and the Muslim members. The party was
year was not achieved. The Nationalist Party.
The Hindu–Muslim unity, which The Swarajists, who had swept the elec-
Gandhiji had assiduously built, was tion of 1923, suffered a rout in the election
broken. of 1926, except in Madras. The reasons
The Khilafat issue soon lost its relevance were manifold:
when the people of Turkey rose under Death of C.R. Das in 1925.
Mustafa Kamal Pasha and, in November Split in the party along communal lines into
1922, deprived the Sultan of his political Responsivists and Non-Responsivists.
powers. Pasha abolished the caliphate in The Responsivists accepted positions
1924 and established a secular state. in government committees in Assemblies
and Executive Councils.
Swaraj Party and Civil Contribution of the Swarajists:
The Public Safety Bill, on which the gov-
Disobedience ernment was defeated in the Legislature
At the Gaya session (1922), on the issue in 1928, related to arming the govern-
of Council entry, the Congress got divided ment to deport ‘undesirable’ and ‘sub-
into: versive’ foreigners.
Pro-changers—C.R. Das, Motilal Nehru, The hollowness of the Reforms of 1919
Vitthalbhai Patel. was thoroughly exposed.
No-changers—Rajendra Prasad, Valla- They filled an important gap in the after-
bhbhai Patel, C. ijayaraghavachariar; math of the suspension of the NCM.
Chief spokesman—Rajaji. The minority, consisting only of non-offi-
However, the Swarajists continued to cial Indians, felt that dyarchy had clearly
remain within the Congress fold. It was failed.
not a splinter party. Lord Birkenhead, the then secretary of state
Earlier in 1918, the Congress had witnessed (SoS), expectedly, said that action would be
its first split over the issue of Montague taken on the basis of majority report.
Declaration. C.Y. Chintamani, Tej Bahadur Alexander Muddiman was the home
Sapru, Srinivas Shastri and S.N. Banerjee member of Viceroy’s Executive Council.
had formed the Indian Liberal Party. Jinnah and Tej Bahadur Sapru were
The Swarajists recorded impressive victo- among the non-official members.
ries in the elections of 1923. Three major Gandhi presided over only one Congress
problems were taken up by them: session, the Belgaum session, in 1924.
The problem of constitutional advance Gandhi undertook a three-week fast in
through self-government, September 1924 to halt communal conflict.
Civil liberties and repeal of repressive He observed the year 1926 as the Year of
laws and Silence.
Development of indigenous industries. Jawaharlal Nehru attended the Congress of
In 1923–4, Congressmen captured power in Oppressed Nationalities held at Brussels in
many municipalities. As a result: February 1927.
C. R. Das became Mayor of Calcutta The All India Trade Union Congress was
(Subhash Bose his CEO) established in 1920. It was instrumental
In the Central Assembly, the Swarajists in organizing a large number of strikes in
formed a coalition with the Moderates the 1920s, especially in the second half.
In 1923–4, Patel began a classic UCV[CITCJC Pandit G.B. Pant also received seri-
in Borsad taluka in rural Gujarat against ous injuries from which he could never
the imposition of a poll tax to pay for recover.
extra police deployed in the wake of a wave Lala Lajpat Rai is called, ‘Sher-i-
of dacoities in that area. Punjab’. He dubbed Congress meetings
Bardoli Satyagraha (1928) was organized as, ‘the annual national festival of the
against the increase of land revenue. After educated Indians’.
this, Patel was given the title of ‘Sardar’. Dr. N.H. Hardikar was the US-trained
The government instituted the Maxwell doctor who served as Lala Lajpat
Broomfield Commission to look into the Rai’s personal assistant and went to
Bardoli land revenues. found India’s first constructive national
In December 1927, All India States Peo- youth movement, the Seva Dal, in 1925.
ples Conference (AISPC or Praja Man- Simon Commission report was published
dal Movement) was formed by Balwant on June 7, 1930. Among its recommenda-
Rai Mehta Maniklal Kothari and G.R. tions were:
Abhayankar. Federal constitution for India,
Rajkot Satyagraha was led by Mansukhlal Provincial autonomy subject to overrid-
Mehta, Amritlal Seth and Balwantrai ing powers vested in the governor,
Mehta. Enlargement of provincial legislative
In 1939, Jawaharlal Nehru became the councils,
president of the AISPC at Ludhiana. Responsible government in place of
Simon Commission was announced two dyarchy, but made no mention of domin-
years earlier (in November 1927) than ion status.
promised (in the Reforms of 1919) to In response to the challenge posed by
review the working of the 1919 Constitu- Lord Birkenhead, the SoS for India, the
tion. The non-inclusion of any Indian in the All Parties Conference appointed a sub-
Commission shocked the Indians. committee, chaired by Motilal Nehru,
The Congress and the Hindu Mahasabha in May 1928. Jawaharlal Nehru acted
decided to boycott the Simon as the secretary of the Constitution
Commission. Making Committee.
Dr. Ansari presided the Madras session Delhi Proposals was passed in 1927 by
of Congress in 1927, which decided to M.A. Jinnah. It proposed:
oppose the Simon Commission. Joint electorates in place of separate
Justice Party and Unionist Party electorates for Muslims.
(founded by Sikandar Hayat Khan One-third seats in the centre to be
in Punjab) cooperated with the reserved for Muslims.
Simon Commission. Reserved seats for Muslims in Bengal
The League got split on the issue with and Punjab till universal adult suffrage
Jinnah carrying the ‘majority’ with him was achieved.
in favour of boycott. The Shaft fac- Creation of three new Muslim-majority
tion of the League cooperated with the provinces of Sindh, Baluchistan and
government. NWFP.
Lala Lajpat Rai received serious inju- The Proposals were accepted by the
ries during the anti-Simon agitation and Congress and included in the Nehru
died afterwards on November 17, 1928. Report.
3.78 Chapter 16
The Nehru Report was the first attempt The year 1929 proved to be a year of
to draw up a Constitution for India. It excitement.
recommended: On April 8, Bhagat Singh and B.K. Dutta
(a) Dominion status, and not complete threw bombs in the Central Legislative
independence, Assembly.
(b) Rejection of separate electorates, Jatin Das died in Lahore jail on
(c) Linguistic provinces, September 13, 1929, after 64 days of
(d) Nineteen fundamental rights including fasting.
universal adult suffrage, An attempt was made to blow up Lord
(e) Complete dissociation of state from Irwin’s train near Delhi in December
religion, 1929 by some members of the HSRA.
(f) The Indian Parliament at the centre The HSRA aimed to overthrow colonial
to consist of a 500-member directly- rule and aimed to establish Federal Repub-
elected House of Representatives (for lic of the United States of India in its place.
five years) and a 200-member indi- The world economic crisis of 1929 dealt a
rectly-elected Senate (for seven years). severe blow to the economy of India.
Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhash Bose The Bengal Jute Workers Union that had
did not like the idea of dominion status been formed in 1925 gave leadership to the
and formed an Independence League to general strike in 1929.
promote the cause of independence. According to the Deepavali Declaration
The Report had contained an ultimatum (October 31, 1929) by Lord Irwin, the objec-
to the government that the proposals tive of British policy was to grant dominion
should be accepted and implemented by status to India.
December 31, 1929, failing which the It proposed a Round Table Conference
Congress would start a non-cooperation after the publication of the Simon
campaign. The failure of the government Commission Report.
to respond led to the launching of the Delhi Statement (1929) was proposed by
Civil Disobedience Movement (CDM) Gandhi, Motilal Nehru, M.M. Malviya and
by Gandhiji. the Liberals. It accepted the Irwin offer
The Nehru Report was opposed by Hindu (through the Deepavali Declaration), sub-
Mahasabha as well as many in the Congress ject to four conditions:
who were opposed to giving too many con- The objective of the RTC should be to
cessions to the League. Jinnah then went discuss dominion status and not merely
back to the Shaft faction of the League and reforms of the 1919 Constitution.
gave his 14-point demands. Congress to have a majority
Butler Committee Reports (1929) reas- representation.
serted that, ‘Paramountcy must remain A policy of general amnesty to political
paramount,’ but explicitly stated that it prisoners.
was not automatically transferable to any General policy of reconciliation.
dominion with a self-governing centre. The Lahore session of Congress (1929)
Paramountcy was to be exercised directly demanded, ‘Purna Swarajya’. At mid-
by the viceroy and not by the governor- night of December 31, 1929, Jawaharlal
general-in-council. Nehru unfurled the Tricolour on the banks
It removed relations with princes from a of Ravi and proclaimed that ‘it was a crime
possible government dominated by the against man and God to submit any longer
Congress. to the British rule’.
The Congress celebrated January 26, Red Shirts joined the CDM and were ruth-
1930, as Independence Day. lessly suppressed.
The Congress Working Committee Round Table Conferences (RTCs) were
vested absolute authority in Gandhiji to suggested by Sir John Simon to the Brit-
draw up the programme of action and ish Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald.
the timing, mode and manner of launch- Subsequently, Lord Irwin made his famous
ing the CDM. ‘Deepavali Declaration’ (October 31, 1929).
Gandhiji formulated ‘11 points’ of First RTC was held from November 12,
administrative reforms. It was quite a 1930, to January 19, 1931.
come-down from the Purna Swarajya Congress did not attend the conference.
resolution, but it helped concretize the Ambedkar wanted the depressed classes
national demands. to be treated as a separate community.
He sought an interview from Lord Irwin Even the princes agreed in favour of a
to present these demands. The interview federation.
was denied, which led to the launching Sir Tej Bahadur Sapru persuaded Gandhi
of the CDM. to meet Lord Irwin.
The Civil Disobedience Movement: Gan- Gandhi–Irwin Pact (or Delhi Pact) was
dhi began his 241-mile Dandi March on signed on March 5, 1931.
March 11, 1930, at Sabarmati Ashram, Congress agreed to withdraw the CDM
Ahmedabad, with 78 followers, including and participate in the ongoing RTCs.
Sarojini Naidu. He reached Dandi on April Government agreed to release politi-
6 and broke the salt law. On the same day cal prisoners and withdraw harsh
Motilal gifted his Anand Bhavan to the ordinances.
Congress. People living near the sea were permitted
C. Rajgopalachari led the march of to make salt for their own use.
volunteers in Tamil Nadu to break the Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev and Raj Guru
salt law. They marched from Trichy were executed on March 23.
to Vadaraniyam (on Tanjore coast). Second RTC was held from September 7,
In Kerala, K. Kelappan marched from 1931, to December 11, 1931.
Calicut to Payannur. Gandhi was the sole representative, even
Rani Gaidinliu organized the Naga though 15 representatives were allowed.
uprisings during the CDM (1931). The Conference was deadlocked on
The Chittagong Armoury Raid was led the question of the minorities.
by Surya Sen on April 18, 1930. Lord Willingdon succeeded Lord Irwin
News of Gandhi’s arrest led to working as viceroy in the meantime.
class strike in Sholapur. A firing incident on political prisoners
Gandhi was arrested on May 5, 1930, at took place in Hijli jail in September 1931.
Dharsan, 150 miles from Bombay. Ramsay MacDonald declared ‘Communal
During the CDM, Gandhi was lodged in Award’.
Yerawada jail and Nehru in Nainital jail. Third RTC took place from November to
Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan started the first December 1932.
Pushto political monthly, 2WMJVQQP. He The government issued a White Paper on
organized a volunteer brigade, Khudai Khid- the basis of the three RTCs.
matgar, popularly known as the Red Shirts, The Paper was passed by the British
at Peshawar in 1929, who were pledged to Parliament as the Government of India
the freedom struggle and non-violence. The (GoI) Act, 1935.
3.80 Chapter 16
The Karachi Congress met six days after Gandhi retired from active politics in
the execution of Bhagat Singh, on March October 1934 and decided to devote all his
29, 1931. It endorsed the Gandhi–Irwin time for the removal of untouchability and
Pact or the Delhi Pact. It also adopted two the upliftment of the Harijans.
resolutions on Fundamental Rights and Success/failure of the CDM:
Economic Policy. The freedom struggle further penetrated
Lord Willingdon succeeded Lord Irwin as the masses and Indian independence was
viceroy. He repudiated Irwin’s policy of only a matter of time.
reconciliation and refused to honour the Enhanced the prestige of the Congress
Gandhi–Irwin Pact. and Gandhiji, in particular.
On his return from the second RTC, Gandhi But ‘Purna Swarajya’ was not achieved.
resumed the CDM. But the government The GoI Act of 1935 did not transfer real
struck hard—Gandhi was arrested and put power to the Indians.
in the Yerawada Jail. Gradually, the Move- Less–Mody Pact (1933): Bombay gave
ment died down. preference to Lancashire, whose com-
Communal Award (August 17, 1932) petition had weakened, in return to Lan-
declared the depressed classes to be minori- cashire’s promise to buy more Indian raw
ties and entitled them to separate electorates. cotton since Japan was cutting down on
Gandhi started a fast unto death on Indian cotton imports.
September 20. The Poona Pact (Yerawada Tata signed a similar pact to overcome
Pact) was signed on September 25, 1932, Belgian competition in steel.
between Gandhi and B.R. Ambedkar.
It abandoned separate electorates for Revolutionary Terrorism of
the depressed classes, but increased
the number of seats reserved for the the Second Phase
depressed classes from 71 to 147 in the Various socialist and communist groups
Provincial Legislatures and 18 per cent came into existence in the 1920s. Dissat-
of the total in the Central Legislature. isfaction with the outcome of the NCM,
For the reserved seats, there would be and with the Gandhian political ideas and
a primary election by the Scheduled programmes, led to the rise of communism.
Castes alone of four candidates, out of The Russian Revolution of 1917 proved
whom one would be chosen by the gen- an enormous influence.
eral electorate. In October 1920, M.N. Roy went to Russia to
M.M. Malviya formed the Congress attend the Second Congress of the Commu-
Nationalist Party after the Poona Pact of nist International (Comintern) and helped
1932. Lenin evolve his policies. In the same year,
Gandhi started the All India Untouchability he formed the Communist Party of India in
League in September 1932, while he was Tashkent with the help of Abani Mukherji,
in Yerawada jail, and the weekly, *CTKLCP, Mohammad Ali and Mohammad Shafiq.
in January 1933. From Berlin, Roy started the fortnightly,
Gandhi decided to fast for 21 days from 8CPIWCTF QH +PFKCP +PFGRGPFGPEG, and
May 8, 1933, for self-purification. In later published, +PFKCKP6TCPUKVKQP.
November 1933, he set out on a long tour By the end of 1922, through Nalini
covering 12,500 miles to promote the cause Gupta and Shaukal Usmani, Roy
of the Harijan. established contacts with S.A. Dange,
Muzaffar Ahmad, Singaravelu and the Kakori railway station on August 9,

Gulam Hussain. 1925, in the Saharanpur–Lucknow section.
Singaravelu Chettiyar formed the Labour In this case, Ramprasad Bismil, Rajendra
Kisan Party in 1923. Lahin, Ashfaqullah and Roshan Singh were
In May 1924, Muzaffar Ahmad, Dange, sentenced to death. Chandrashekhar Azad,
Nalini Gupta and Shaukat Usmani were jailed however, managed to escape.
in the ‘Kanpur Bolshevik Conspiracy case’. Meerut Conspiracy case (1929–33): In the
In 1922, Dange brought out, 5QEKCNKUV, wake of growing industrial unrest, the gov-
the first ever communist journal from ernment arrested several Communist lead-
India (8CPIWCTF was brought out by ers, including Muzaffar Ahmad, S.A. Dange
M.N. Roy from Berlin). and P.C. Joshi, and put them in Meerut
The Communist Party of India (CPI) was jail. Jawaharlal Nehru, M.C. Chagla and
founded in 1925. But its successful estab- M.A. Ansari defended their case.
lishment was due to the British communist, Lahore Conspiracy case (1929): On August
Phillip Spratt, who in 1926 organized a 8, 1929, Bhagat Singh and B.K. Dutta
number of trade unions and student orga- exploded two bombs on the floor of the
nizations. The Meerut Conspiracy of 1929 Central Legislative Assembly at Delhi
gave the Communist Party a great propa- against the Public Safety Bill and the Trade
ganda opportunity. Dispute Bill. Shortly after the incident, the
In July 1934, the CPI was declared an police discovered bomb factories at Lahore
illegal organization. and Saharanpur.
During the Quit India (QI) movement, In Lahore Conspiracy case, Jatin Das died
the CPI opposed the British in WWII after 64 days of fasting on September 13,
till Russia entered the war. But after July 1929. The case ended with the execution
1942, it supported the war efforts of the of Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev and Rajguru
British, as the Soviet Union had then on March 23, 1930.
entered the war on the side of the Allies. Chittagong Armoury Raid (1930): On
A brief revival of terrorism in Bengal April 18, 1930, Surya Sen made a daring
(1923–4) culminated in the murder of an attack on the Chittagong Armoury. He was
Englishman, Tegart, by Gopinath Saha assisted by valiant women like Kalpana
in January 1924. Dutta and Pritilata Wadedar.
Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay wrote, 2CVJGT Surya Sen was arrested in 1933 and
&CDK (1926), and Sachin Sanyal wrote, hanged.
$CPFK,GGXCP, which exercised tremendous On August 29, 1930, Binay Krishna Bose
influence on the youth of Bengal. shot and fatally injured F.J. Lowman and
In 1926, Progressive Writers Association Hudson. A few months later Binay, Badal
was formed with Premchand as its president. and Dinesh entered the Writers’ Building
Hindustan Republican Association was and fatally shot the Inspector General of
set up at Kanpur in October 1924 by Ram Prison, Colonel Simpson.
Prasad Bismil, Jogesh Chandra Chaterjee On September 22, 1932, a group of revo-
and Sachin Sanyal. It was later renamed lutionaries, led by Pritilata Wadedar,
as Hindustan Socialist Republican Army/ attacked the European Club in Chittagong
Association (HSRA). with pistols and bombs. Pritilata Wadedar
Kakori Conspiracy case (1925): A train car- was injured and committed suicide during
rying government treasury was looted near the raid.
3.82 Chapter 16
Bina Das made an attempt on life of the Provided for dyarchy at the centre. Two
Governor of Bengal, Sir Stanley Jack- chambers:
son, during the convocation address of 1. Federal Assembly, for five years.
Calcutta University in 1932. 2. Council of States, one-third of mem-
Udham Singh murdered Michael O’Dyer on bers retiring every three years.
March 13, 1940, in Caxton Hall, London. Non-votable items in the Federal budget
The idea of a socialist pressure group constituted about four-fifths of its total.
within the Congress developed in the Provincial autonomy sought introduction
Nasik Jail (1933) by Jayaprakash Narayan, of responsible government in the provinces
Ashok Mehta. Meenoo Masani, Achvut and abolition of dyarchy in them.
Patwardhan and Yusuf Meherally. Provincial Legislatures were made bicam-
The young radicals of the Congress founded eral for the first time in six provinces
the All-India Congress Socialist Party on (Bengal, Madras, Bombay, United Prov-
May 17, 1934, with Jayaprakash Narayan ince, Bihar and Assam).
as organizing secretary and Acharya Naren- Separate electorates provided for Mus-
dra Dev as president. The first session of the lims, Sikhs, Christians, Anglo-Indians and
party was held at Bombay in October 1934 Europeans.
under the presidentship of Sampurnanand. Establishment of a Federal Court at Delhi
In 1935, Sampurnanand wrote, # (in 1937) with a Chief Justice, and not more
6GPVCVKXG5QEKCNKUV2TQITCOOGHQT+PFKC. than six judges.
In 1933, the Congress Socialist Party Fell far short of dominion status.
leader, N.G. Ranga, started the Indian The Act separated Burma from India. Sindh
Peasant Institute at Nidubrolu to train and NWFP were given the status of prov-
Kisan cadres. inces.
In 1933, Sahajanand revived the Kisan Atlee criticized the Act as it had given
Sabha in Bihar. undue weight to the princes and had fos-
The Faizpur session of Congress (1937), tered communalism.
presided over by Jawaharlal Nehru, passed Jawaharlal Nehru described the new Con-
the Provisional Agrarian Programme. stitution as ‘a machine with strong brakes
but no engine’. He called it ‘a Charter of
Slavery’.
Important Developments The Congress won a clear majority in six
out of 11 provinces in the elections of 1937
Between 1935-39 and was the single largest party in three
The Government of India Act, 1935: Intro- other provinces – NWFP, Bengal and Assam.
duced the concept of an All-India Federa- The Congress formed ministries in these
tion comprising the British provinces and six provinces with the dual object of
the princely states (through the Instru- combating the new Act on the one hand
ment of Accession). It did not come into and pushing through the constructive
existence since the princely states did not programme on the other.
give their consent for the Union. Soon, a bitter conflict arose between the
Introduced division of power into Congress Socialists and Congress Right-
three–federal, provincial and concur- wingers on the most important issue of
rent. Residuary powers lay with the Kissan Movement. Jayaprakash Narayan
governor-general. resigned from the CWC in protest
against the pro-zamindar stand of the with Atlee as deputy prime minister and
Congress ministry of Bihar. Cripps as leader of the House of Com-
Hindustan Majdur Sabha was founded mons. Churchill also set up an India Com-
by Patel, Kriplani and Rajendra Prasad in mittee with Atlee as its chairman.
1938. August Offer (August 8, 1940):
A National Planning Committee was Explicitly offered dominion status (in
appointed by Subhash Bose after he became the future) for the first time.
the Congress President at the Haripura ses- Enlarged Viceroy’s Council and estab-
sion (1938). lished a War Consultative Committee for
Subhash Bose was re-elected as the presi- the present.
dent in the Tripuri session of Congress Recognized the right of Indians to frame
(1939) defeating Gandhi’s nominee, the Constitution (after WW II).
Pattabhi Sitaramaiya (Maulana Abul Kalam Conceded Congress’ demand for a con-
Azad was the original choice, but he with- stituent assembly.
drew after Bose expressed his intention to Agreed not to force the minorities to
seek re-election). The session also passed accept any constitutional arrangement,
the Pant Resolution, which reiterated its which went against their interests.
faith in Gandhi’s leadership. Congress rejected the August Offer and
The Congress Socialist Party abstained started individual civil disobedience.
from voting on the Pant Resolution. Vinoba Bhave was the first to offer UCV[
Subhash Bose resigned from the CITCJC and Nehru the second.
Congress and founded the Forward Bloc The Ramgarh Congress session (March
in April 1939. At its first annual confer- 1940) decided to launch ‘civil disobedi-
ence in June 1939 in Bombay, the Bloc ence’ as soon as the organization was con-
adopted the programme of forming a sidered fit enough for the purpose. But it
parallel government. left the timing and forming of movement
Rajendra Prasad was elected in place of entirely to the discretion of Gandhiji.
Subhash. Maulana Azad was the president of the
Mahatma Gandhi was first called, Ramgarh session.
‘Rashtrapita’, by Subhash Bose. Atlantic Charter (August 12, 1941) was
The non-Congress or League ministry of jointly issued by President Roosevelt and
Bengal, Punjab and Sindh pledged support to Churchill. It declared, among other things,
the World War II. So did the Indian princes. the right of the people to choose their
The Congress ministers resigned in protest own form of government and the restora-
on November 1, 1939, and the six provinces tion of self-government to those who had
passed under the Governor’s rule. been forcibly deprived of it. But, Churchill
The League celebrated December 22, 1939, maintained that the Charter was not appli-
as the Day of Deliverance (from the rule of cable to India and it related only to the
the Congress). countries invaded by Hitler.
Japan entered into WWII on December 7,
1941.
Quit India Movement Chiang-Kai-Shek visited India in February
Winston Churchill became the prime min- 1942 and urged the British government to
ister of Britain in May 1940. He recon- give real political power to the Indian people.
structed the War Cabinet in February 1942 The Cripps Mission was sent by Churchill
3.84 Chapter 16
due to pressure from Chiang-Kai Shek and During the QI movement, Achyut
President Roosevelt. Patwardhan, Jayaprakash Narayan, R.M.
Cripps Mission (March 1942) was sent by Lohia, Aruna Asaf Ali and Nana Patil
Churchill in the backdrop of rapid advances started underground movements. They
made by Japan in South-East Asia. Lord formed a 12-point programme, and tried to
Linlithgow was the viceroy and Lord implement it in rural areas. They set up a
Amery was the SoS. Nehru and Azad were Central Directorate in Bombay and a par-
the official negotiators for the Congress. allel guerrilla organization, known as Azad
Among its proposals: Pasta, with its branches all over India.
It intended to set up an Indian Union Usha Sharma started an underground
soon after the WW II. The Union would radio station at Bombay.
have dominion status with the power to The first parallel government was estab-
secede from the Commonwealth. lished in Ballia under Chittu Pandey.
A Constituent Assembly to be con- Prati Sarkar at Satara was established by
vened after the end of the War to Y.B. Chavan and Nana Patil.
frame a new constitution. Members of Sucheta Kriplani formed a Satyagraha
the Assembly to be partly elected by Samiti.
Provincial Assemblies and partly nomi- The CPI, after the removal of the ban
nated by the princes. on it in July 1942, had supported the
Pakistan was conceded in principle. League’s demand for Pakistan and the
It contained provisions, which could war efforts of the government.
divide India into hundreds of indepen- Under the pseudo-name, Jiauddin, Subhash
dent states. Bose travelled from Calcutta to Kabul.
Gandhi rejected the proposals as a ‘post- Subhash Bose escaped his internment on
dated cheque’. January 26, 1941, and went to Berlin to
The League was opposed to the idea of enlist the support of Germany.
a single government for the whole of Ras Behari Bose formed the Indian Inde-
India. pendence League in 1942 in Bangkok and
Failure of Cripps Mission led to the Indian National Army (INA or the Azad
Wardha Resolution of Congress (July Hind Fauz) in the same year with Mohan
1942). Singh as its commander-in-chief.
Wardha Resolution (July 14, 1942): The Bangkok conference invited
Gandhi sent Madeline Slade, popu- Subhash Bose to South Asia. Bose took
larly known as Mira Ben, to apprise the the command of the INA in Singapore
viceroy of the purport of the Wardha on July 4, 1943. From then onwards, he
Resolution. was known as, ‘Netaji’.
Bombay Resolution (August 8, 1942) or The Springing Tiger was another name
Quit India Resolution: of the INA.
Gandhi gave the call, ‘Do or die’. The INA hoisted the Indian flag in
Rajaji was openly in favour of partition March 1944 in Kohima.
(of India) and against the QI movement. The INA officers tried by a British court
Lord Linlithgow described the QI move- martial in 1945–6 were Shah Nawaz,
ment as ‘by far the most serious rebel- Gurdial Singh Dillon and Captain Sehgal.
lion since that of 1857’. The trials were held at Red Fort, Delhi.
Jawaharlal Nehru, Tej Bahadur Sapru Wavell Plan (June 14, 1945):
and Bhulabhai Desai defended the INA Related to the formation of a provisional
officers in their trial. The Muslim League interim government at the centre.
also joined in countrywide protest. Proposed that the Viceroy’s Executive
Even though the court martial held the Council was to have an equal number of
INA prisoners guilty, the government Muslims and Hindus.
felt it expedient to set them free. Sought that all portfolios be held
by Indian members, except the war
portfolio.
Achievement of Freedom The Plan failed due to Jinnah’s unrea-
Gandhi–Jinnah Talks (September 9–27, sonable demand that the League alone
1944): Rajgopalachari had induced should choose the Muslim members of
Gandhiji to accept the principle of Pakistan the Executive Council. This gave a vir-
and devised a formula, known as Rajaji tual veto to the League, which it used at
Formula, which formed the basis of the all subsequent developments, ultimately
talks. Rajaji Formula proposed that: leading to partition.
The League should cooperate with the Maulana Azad described the failure of
Congress to form an interim government. the Wavell Plan as ‘the breakwater in
A commission should demarcate the India’s political history’.
boundaries of Muslim-dominated areas One day after the ratings mutinied, i.e.,
in the north-west and east of India. on February 19, 1946, Atlee decided
A plebiscite to decide the issue of sepa- to send the Cabinet Mission to India,
ration in these areas. headed by Sir Pethwick Lawrence (the
Common subjects of defence, commerce SoS), and consisting of Sir Stafford
and communication to be discussed. Cripps and A.V. Alexander.
Jinnah rejected the Formula saying the Cabinet Mission’s proposals:
Pakistan thus offered was a moth-eaten Rejected the demand for Pakistan.
one. But, in reality, he was opposed to Proposed federal government with con-
the idea of conducting a plebiscite. siderable provincial autonomy.
Desai–Liaquat Pact was signed between Sought formation of Constituent
Bhulabhai Desai, leader of the Congress Assembly on the basis of proportional
party in the Central Legislature and Liaquat representation consisting of representa-
Ali Khan, deputy leader of the League in tives of British India and the Indian states.
that assembly. The pact proposed the for- Sought for the provinces to be divided into
mation of an interim government at the three groups—A, B and C—while elect-
centre, consisting of: ing the members for the Constituent
An equal number of persons nominated Assembly: Group A—Madras, Bombay,
by the Congress and the League in the United Provinces, Central Provinces,
Central Legislature. Bihar and Orissa; Group B—Punjab,
20 per cent reserved seats for the NWFP and Sindh and Group C—Bengal
minorities. and Assam.
No settlement could be reached between Formation of an interim government.
the Congress and the League on these The League observed August 16, 1946, as
lines. the Direct Action Day, which was marked
3.86 Chapter 16
by great killings in Calcutta. An English Referendum in the Muslim-majority

official, Tennyson, described Calcutta as ‘a Sylhet district of Assam.
cross between the worst of London air raids Accordingly, two Boundary
and the Great Plague’. Commissions, both headed by Sir Cyril
The Interim Government (September 1946): Radcliff, were constituted for the parti-
The Congress took office in September tion of Bengal and Punjab.
1946 with Jawaharlal Nehru as vice presi- June 3, 1947, British government announced
dent, and Jinnah joined in October. Liaquat the Partition Plan.
Ali held the finance portfolio. The League July 4, 1947, Indian Independence Bill
did not join the Constituent Assembly. introduced in the House of Commons.
The Constituent Assembly met in New July 15, 1947, The Bill passed by the House
Delhi on December 9, 1946, with Rajendra of Commons.
Prasad as president. July 18, 1947, The Bill received the Royal
Nehru’s Objective Resolution was passed assent.
by the Constituent Assembly in its second August 15, 1947, Birth of independent
meeting in the third week of January India.
1947. The resolution envisaged the Indian
Union as a sovereign independent republic
comprising autonomous units with residu- Communal Politics in India
ary powers, with adequate safeguards for Muslim League was founded in 1906,
the minorities. Hindu Mahasabha in 1915 and RSS in
Atlee’s historic announcement (February 1925.
20, 1947) declared that the British govern- Separate electorates for Muslims were
ment would quit India by June 1948. Lord awarded under the Morley–Minto Reforms,
Mountbatten would succeed Lord Wavell to 1909.
prepare the plan for the transfer of power. The Lucknow Pact of 1916 accepted the
Mountbatten assumed office on March 24, League’s demand of separate electorates.
1947. The shadow of communal riots loomed
Mountbatten, after a series of meetings with large over the country throughout the
the political leaders between March and 1920s. The Arya Samajists started Suddhi
May 1947, decided that the Cabinet Mis- and Sangathan movements. The Muslims
sion framework had become untenable and started the Tabligh and Tanzeem move-
formulated an alternative plan, codenamed ments in retaliation.
‘Plan Balkan’. This plan is also called the The Swarajists were also divided along
‘Dickie Bird Plan’. communal lines. The Responsivists among
But the Plan was quickly abandoned them joined the Hindu Mahasabha.
when Nehru reacted violently to it. Jinnah (as well as the Sikh League) had
Partition Plan or June 3 Plan: rejected the Nehru Report and in March
Granting of dominion status to India and 1927 placed before the League a detailed
Pakistan. list of Muslim demands, known as the 14
Partition of Bengal and Punjab to be points. These included, inter alia, one-third
decided by the representatives of the representation of Muslims in the Cen-
minority and majority communities in tral Legislature, separate electorates for
their assemblies sitting separately. the minorities, provincial autonomy and
Referendum to decide the case of NWFP. residual powers to provinces.
Jinnah had parted company with Congress in After the Muslim League performed badly
1928. He had settled down in London in 1932 in the 1937 elections, it resorted to extreme
to practice law. He returned to India in 1935 communalism. Jinnah blocked all avenues
and led the League in the election of 1937. of conciliation by demanding that Congress
In December 1930, Muhammad Iqbal, should declare itself a Hindu organization and
poet and philosopher, elaborated the idea the League as the sole representative of the
of Muslim India in the Allahabad session Indian Muslims.
of Muslim League. He conceptualized the The Lahore session of Muslim League
Two-Nation Theory. passed the Pakistan Resolution on March
In 1932, Rahmat Ali founded the Pakistan 23, 1940. It was drafted by Sikandar Hayat
National Movement and issued a four-page Khan, moved by Fazlul Haq and seconded
leaflet, ‘Now or Never’. He prepared a plan by Khaliquzzaman.
for the establishment of Pakistan compris- Fazlul Haq had earlier founded the
ing Punjab, NWFP, Kashmir, Sindh and Krishak Praja Party in Bengal.
Baluchistan. March 23, 1943, Pakistan Day observed.
Rahmat Ali coined the word Pakistan. August 16, 1946, Direct Action Day.
Important Committees/Commissions
Atchison Commission 1886 Public Service
Islington Commission 1912
Lee Commission 1924
Campbell Commission 1866 Famine
Strachey Commission 1880
Lyall Commission 1896
MacDonell Commission 1900
Mansfield Commission 1866 Currency
Hurschel Commission 1893
Fowler Commission 1898
Babbington Smith Committee 1919
Hilton Young Commission 1926 Army
Esher Commission 1920
Skeen Committee 1925
Garran Commission 1932
Chalfield Commission 1939
W.W. Hunter Commission 1882 Education
Raleigh Commission 1902
Sadler Commission 1917
Hartog Committee 1929
3.88 Chapter 16
Sargent Plan 1944

Amini Commission 1878 Land revenue
Frazer Commission 1902 Police
Actworth Commission 1919 Railways. Proposed Separate
Budget for the Railways
Hunter Commission 1919 Punjab Disturbances/Jalianwala
Bagh Tragedy
Butler Commission 1928 Indian states’ Paramountcy
Whitley Commission 1929 Labour
Maxwell Broomfield Committee 1928 Bardoli Land Review
Linlithgow Commission 1928 Agriculture
Fawcett Commission Tariffs and Wages
Sapm Commission 1935 Unemployment
Floud Commission 1940 Tenancy in Bengal
Congress Sessions
Year Venue President Details
1885 Bombay W.C. Banerjee Attended by 72 Delegates
1886 Calcutta Dadabhai Naoroji Indian National Conference merged
with the INC
1887 Madras Badruddin Tyabji
1888 Allahabad George Yule First English President
1889 Bombay William Wedderburn
1890 Calcutta Pheroze Shah Mehta
1891 Nagpur P. Ananda Charlu
1892 Allahabad W.C. Banerjee
1893 Lahore Dadabhai Naoroji
1894 Madras Alfred Webb
1895 Poona S.N. Banerjee
1896 Calcutta Rahimtulla Sayani First Muslim President
1897 Amravati C. Sankaran Nair
1898 Madras Anand Mohan Bose
1899 Lucknow R.C. Dutta Demand for Permanent
Fixation of Land Revenue
1900 Lahore N.G. Chandavarkar
1901 Calcutta Dinshaw E. Wacha

1902 Ahmedabad S.N. Banerjee
1903 Madras Lai Mohan Ghose
1904 Bombay Henry Cotton
1905 Benaras G.K. Gokhale
1906 Calcutta Dadabhai Naoroji The Word, Swaraj, Used for the First
Time by the President
1907 Surat Rashbehari Ghose Congress Split
1908 Madras Rashbehari Ghose Constitution of the
Congress Drawn
1909 Lahore M.M. Malviya
1910 Allahabad William Wedderburn Only British to Become the Congress
President Twice
1911 Calcutta Bishan Narayan Dhar
1912 Bankipur R.N. Mudholkar
1913 Karachi Syed Mohammed
1914 Madras Bhuendranath Basu
1915 Bombay S.P. Sinha
1916 Lucknow A.C. Majumdar Reunion of Congress Factions;
Congress-League Pact
1917 Calcutta Annie Besant First Woman President
1918 Delhi M.M. Malviya Resignation of Moderates like S.N.
Banerjee, Tej Bahadur Sapru
1919 Amritsar Motilal Nehru
1920 Nagpur Vijayaraghavachariyar New Constitution for
the Congress
1921 Ahmedabad C.R. Das (in prison)
Hakim Ajmal Khan
(Acting President)
1922 Gaya C.R. Das Formation of Swaraj Party
1923 Delhi (spl) Abul Kalam Azad Youngest President
Kakinada Maulana Mohammed Ali
1924 Belgaum Mahatma Gandhi
1925 Kanpur Sarojini Naidu First Indian Woman President
1926 Gauhati S. Srinivasa Iyengar
1927 Madras M.A. Ansari Independence Resolution Adopted for
the First Time
1928 Calcutta Motilal Nehru All India Youth Congress Came into
Being
3.90 Chapter 16
1929–30 Lahore Jawaharlal Nehru Poorna Swaraj Resolution

1931 Karachi Vallabhbhai Patel Resolution on Fundamental Rights
and National Economic Policy
1932 Delhi R. Amritlal Seth
1933 Calcutta J.M. Sengupta
1934 Bombay Rajendra Prasad
1935 Lucknow Rajendra Prasad
1936 Lucknow Jawaharlal Nehru Nehru Urged Congress to Adopt
Socialism as its Goal
1937 Faizpur Jawaharlal Nehru First Session Held in a Village
1938 Haripura Subhash Bose National Planning Committee Set up
under the Chairmanship of J.L. Nehru
1939 Tripuri Subhash Bose Rajendra Prasad Took over after Bose
Resigned
1940–6 Ramgarh Abul Kalani Azad Nehru from July to September 1946
1946–7 Meerut Acharya J.B. Kriplani During Independence
1948–9 Jaipur P. Sitaramaiah
1950 Nasik P.D. Tandon
The sessions for the years 1930, 1935 and 1941–5 were not held.
Exercise
‘The Congress was indeed not the voice Who said, ‘We have no right to seize Sind,
of the masses, but it was the duty of their yet we shall do so, and a very advanta-
compatriots to interpret their grievances geous, useful, humane piece of rascality
and offer suggestions for their redress.’ it will be’?
The national leader who advocated this (a) Charles Grant
role for the Indian National Congress (b) Defoe
was: (c) William Digby
(a) W.C. Banerjee (d) Charles Napier
(b) Gopal Krishan Gokhale Who observed, ‘The Congress is in real-
(c) Dadabhai Naoroji ity a civil war without arms’?
(d) Pheroze Shah Mehta (a) Lord Curzon.
(b) Lord Dufferin
Who declared, ‘Sedition has become my (c) M.A. Jinnah
religion’? (d) Sayyid Ahmad Khan
(a) J.L. Nehru When was the Congress Socialist Party
(b) C.R. Das formed?
(c) S.C. Bose (a) 1934
(d) Gandhi (b) 1936
(c) 1932 (d) The people were afraid of the

(d) 1933 government
The Congress socialists began to orga- Who declared in 1942 that the aim of
nize ______. British policy in India was ‘the earliest
(a) Trade union movement possible realization of self-government
(b) Kisan Sabha in India’?
(c) Peasants’ movement (a) Lord Wavell
(d) All the above (b) Stafford Cripps
When was the All India States People’s (c) Winston Churchill
Conference founded? (d) Pethic Lawrence
(a) 1925 The Congress passed the ‘complete inde-
(b) 1929 pendence’ resolution at Lahore on the
(c) 1927 banks of ______.
(d) 1931 (a) Chenab
Nicobar Island was named as ______ (b) Ravi
Island by Subhash Bose. (c) Jhelum
(a) Swaraj (d) Beas
(b) Kranti A British Committee of the Indian
(c) Shaheed National Congress was started in 1889
(d) Dharma under the chairmanship of ______.
The Home Rule Movement stood for (a) W.C. Banerjee
______. (b) A.O. Hume
(a) Complete independence of India (c) W. Digby
(b) Introduction of universal adult (d) W. Wedderburn
franchise The announcement by Lord Mountbatten
(c) Self-government for India that India and Pakistan would be free was
(d) Both (b) and (c) made on ______.
Which Act proposed the establishment of (a) February 3, 1947
an All India Federation? (b) April 3, 1947
(a) 1935 Act (b) 1909 Act (c) June 3, 1947
(c) 1892 Act (d) 1935 Act (d) August 3, 1947
Where was the All Party Convention held In 1943, which province plunged into the
in December 1928? worst famine?
(a) Calcutta (b) Madras (a) Orissa
(c) Nagpur (d) Bombay (b) Rajputana
In the early phase, the national movement (c) Bengal
was not as successful as it should have (d) Kathiawad
been. What was the reason? Who was the founder of the Swatantra
(a) It was not a strong movement and had Party?
no roots among the masses (a) B.G. Tilak
(b) Its leaders were not strong (b) Dadabhai Naoroji
(c) The British government tried to (c) Gopal Krishna Gokhale
ignore it (d) C. Rajagopalachari
3.92 Chapter 16
#UUGTVKQP
# The naval ratings mutiny (c) Gandhiji
was powerful against the British. (d) S.C. Bose
4GCUQP
4 The naval ratings collided The Muslim League observed Direct
with the INA. Action Day in support of their demand
(a) A and R are true, and R explains A for Pakistan on ______.
(b) A and R are true, but R does not (a) August 14, 1945
explain A (b) May 16, 1946
(c) Both A and R is false (c) August 16, 1946
(d) A is true and R is false (d) August 14, 1947
How many seats were reserved by the At which session did the Congress decide
Poona Pact Provincial Legislatures for to take a more active part in people’s
the depressed classes? movements in the states?
(a) 148 (a) Haripura
(b) 141 (b) Lucknow
(c) 132 (c) Faizpur
(d) 127 (d) Tripuri
Match the following: Who was the Congress representative
.KUV+ .KUV++ at the first Round Table Conference
(1930–1)?
A. Cripps 1. 1942
(a) Mahatma Gandhi
B. Shimla Conference 2. 1945 (b) Subhash Chandra Bose
C. Naval Ratings Mutiny 3. 1946 (c) G. B. Pant
(d) There was no Congress representative
%QFGU
A B C Modem Indian nationalism arose mainly
(a) 1 2 3 ______.
(b) 1 3 2 (a) As a result of studying the English
(c) 2 1 3 language
(d) 2 3 1 (b) Because of the steady erosion of the
What was the main motive of the British caste system
in developing modern communications (c) As religion was no longer considered
system in India? important
(a) To improve internal trade (d) To meet the challenge of foreign
(b) To facilitate the East India Company’s domination
trade and commerce in the country When did the British government issue a
(c) To modernize India White Paper?
(d) To unify the people of the vast (a) July 1935
country (b) January 1935
Who declared in 1942, ‘The land belongs (c) March 1933
to those who will work on it and none (d) October 1934
else’? What was the first step taken by the Brit-
(a) J.L. Nehru ish government against the Congress in
(b) B.R. Ambedkar 1888?
(a) It banned the Congress the Krashak Praja Party and the Muslim
(b) It ordered the government not to League?
participate in the activities of the (a) Bengal (b) Punjab
Congress (c) Sind (d) Assam
(c) It tried its best to see that the Congress Which commission was also known as
did not get a suitable place for hold- the ‘White Men Commission’?
ing its session at Allahabad (a) Rand Commission
(d) It tried to bring division among the (b) Simon Commission
leaders of the Congress (c) Robertson Commission
Where was Subhash Bose first addressed (d) Butler Commission
as ‘Netaji’? Why was the Simon Commission appointed
(a) Singapore by the British government?
(b) Germany (a) To inquire into the causes of growing
(c) Japan violence in India
(d) Soviet Union (b) To suggest reforms in the system of
Who remarked in 1941: ‘The wheels of government established under the Act
fate will some day compel the English of 1919
to give up their Indian Empire. But what (c) To Indianize the defence forces
kind of India will they leave behind’? (d) For all the above purposes
(a) Jawahar Lal Nehru The Europeans in India launched vigor-
(b) Gandhi ous campaign for the repeal of the Ilbert
(c) Rabindranath Tagore Bill for:
(d) Maulana Abul Kalam Azad (a) Monopolization of higher judicial
The number of persons who courted posts for Europeans
arrest during the Salt Satyagraha was (b) Exclusion of Indians from Viceroy’s
______. Council
(a) 65 (c) Their exemption from the jurisdiction
(b) 600 of Indian judges and magistrates
(c) 60 thousand (d) None of the above
(d) 66 hundred
The demands in the ‘Quit India’ resolu-
What is the correct chronological order tion did not include ______.
of Gandhian Movements? (a) Immediate recognition of India’s
(i) Rowlatt Acts Movement freedom
(ii) Khera Movement (b) Evolving a scheme of Constituent
(iii) Champaran Movement Assembly
(iv) Ahmedabad Mill strike (c) Permission for withdrawing India
(a) (iii), (iv), (ii), (i) from the British Commonwealth
(b) (iii), (ii), (iv), (i) (d) Formation of a provisional government
(c) (ii), (iii), (iv), (i) Who among the early nationalists car-
(d) (ii), (iii), (i), (iv) ried on active propaganda in England
After the elections of 1937, which prov- to persuade the British to yield to their
ince came to be ruled by a coalition of demands?
3.94 Chapter 16
(a) Gopal Krishna Gokhale (c) Civil disobedience movement–1920

(b) Dadabhai Naoroji (d) Home Rule movement–Annie
(c) M.G. Ranade Besant
(d) Dinshaw E. Wacha Who among the following were known as
The first Muslim president of the Indian the ‘Bombay Triumvirate’?
National Congress was ______. (a) B.G. Tilak, G.K. Gokhale and K.T.
(a) Maulana Abul Kalam Azad Telang
(b) Sayyid Ahmad Khan (b) Pheroze Shah Mehta, K.T. Telang and
(c) Badruddin Tyabjee Badruddin Tyabjee
(d) Hakim Ajmal Khan (c) B.G. Tilak, G.H. Deshmukh and
The Government of India Act, 1935, was Dadabhai Naoroji
a result of discussions in the ______.. (d) Dadabhai Naoroji, K.T. Telang and
(a) All Party Conference R.G. Bhandarkar
(b) Third Round Table Conference
Which one of the following papers was
(c) Lucknow session of Congress
contemporary to -GUCTK and connected
(d) Second Round Table Conference
with the task of national awakening
The advocates of Home Rule Movement movement?
believed in ______. (a) The National Herald
(a) Constitutional methods (b) The Maratha
(b) Violence (c) The Swaraj
(c) Revolutionary agitation (d) The Hindu
(d) Direct action
The main programme of Red Shirts,
Which of the following proved to be the
which was organized by Khan Abdul
stumbling block of the Second Round
Ghaffar Khan in support of the Civil Dis-
Table Conference to which Mahatma
obedience movement, was ______.
Gandhi was sent as the sole representa-
(a) To offer resistance to the military
tive of the Congress?
operations of the government in the
(a) Disagreement regarding the federal
north-western frontier portion
character of the constitution
(b) To carry on revolutionary and terror-
(b) Inability to solve the communal
ist activities
question
(c) To propagate the Congress
(c) Continuance of repressive measures
programme
by the government
(d) To build a para-military organization
When was the first Round Table Confer- At which place was the first session of
ence held? the Indian National Congress held?
(a) October 1, 1930 (a) Calcutta
(b) November 12, 1930 (b) Delhi
(c) June 2, 1930 (c) Lahore
(d) May 10, 1930 (d) Bombay
Choose the incorrect pair. Who was the European, who worked
(a) Government of India Act–1935 ardently for the Indian national move-
(b) Pal, Lal, Bal–Extremist group in the ment and bitterly criticized the British
Congress rule by saying, ‘The British empire is
rotten to the core, corrupt in every direc- When, in 1931, did the Congress start a
tion, and tyrannical and mean’? no rent, no tax campaign?
(a) A.O. Hume (a) October
(b) Sister Nivedita (b) December
(c) Annie Besant (c) June
(d) W. Weddemburn (d) January
In respect of which of the following pro- Choose the incorrect statement about the
posals of the Cabinet Mission was there political associations of the pre-Congress
basic difference of opinion between the phase.
Congress and the Muslim League? (a) Almost all of them were dominated
(a) Creation of Pakistan by wealthy, commercial or Zamindari
(b) Framing of the Union Constitution by elements
a Constituent Assembly to be elected (b) They were truly national in character
on a communal basis (c) They presented political and eco-
(c) The plan for an interim government nomic demands before the British
which would convene a constituent India government and the British
assembly to frame the Constitution Parliament
(d) None of the above (d) They worked mainly for administra-
The Faizpur session of the Congress was tive reforms, larger employment of
held in ______. Indians in administrative services,
(a) 1936 the spread of education, association
(b) 1931 of Indians with the government and
(c) 1933 the encouragement of Indian trade
(d) 1934 and industries
The Ghadar Party was pledged ______. Besides the ideological influence of sev-
(a) To supply arms to the revolutionaries eral leaders of nationalism, the political
in India to fight a ainst the British background of extremism was created by
(b) To mount a massive attack on India to the fact that ______.
make it free from the British rule (a) The Moderates had failed in their
(c) To wage a revolutionary struggle efforts to secure any worthwhile
within the country to force the British reforms
leave India (b) The Moderates were divided on the
(d) None of the above aims and objectives of nationalist
The point on which the negotiations movement
between Sir Stafford and the Congress (c) The Moderates did not allow the
leaders broke down was ______. Indian National Congress to become
(a) Refusal to set up a constitution-mak- a mass movement
ing body immediately (d) The Moderates played into the hands
(b) Refusal to accept the Congress’ of the viceroy
demand for the immediate transfer of Bhagat Singh and B.K Dutt threw a bomb
effective power to Indians in the Central Legislative Assembly on
(c) Broken promises of the past April 8, 1929. The objective was to ______.
(d) The proposal of Sir Stafford regard- (a) Protest against non-withdrawal of the
ing the partitioning of India Rowlatt Act
3.96 Chapter 16
(b) Protest against the passage of the (c) November 2, 1939

Public Safety Bill, which would have (d) December 2, 1939
reduced civil liberties The most important administrative
(c) Destroy the Central Legislative reform for which the early nationalists
Assembly agitated, concerned ______.
(d) Create the fear of unknown in the (a) The separation of the judiciary from
hearts of Englishmen the executive
What was the object of the Punjab Lanfi (b) The discontinuation of policy of dis-
Alienation Act? arming the Indian people
(a) To fix the maximum ceiling of agri- (c) Indianization of higher grades of the
cultural land administrative service
(b) To restrict the sale or transfer of agri- (d) None of the above
cultural land
The Indian National Congress was
(c) To save the land of cultivators
formed during the governor-generalship
from passing into the hands of
of ______.
money-lenders
(a) Lord Ripon
(d) To protect the cultivators from forced
(b) Lord Dalhousie
eviction
(c) Lord Dufferin
In December 1922 Motilal Nehru formed (d) Lord Curzon
the Swaraj Party to function as a group
within the Congress. It accepted the Con- What was the basic reason for the failure
gress programme, except in one respect: of the Wavell Plan?
______. (a) The Congress and the Muslim League
(a) That it supported the separate repre- could not come to an agreement
sentation for minorities (b) The proposal was not backed by the
(b) That it decided to participate in the government in Britain
Council elections (c) The League wanted to extract a
(c) That it opposed withdrawal of the promise for an independent state of
Civil Disobedience movement by Pakistan
Gandhiji (d) None of the above
(d) That it decided not to remain non- The Congress’ expression of loyalty to
violent in the face of brutal repres- the crown in all the sessions and its ‘pol-
sion by the government icy of prayer and petition’ dissatisfied
On July 5, 1943, who was made the presi- ______.
dent of Indian Independence League? (a) The Indian Muslims
(a) Madan Singh (b) The common man
(b) Subhash Bose (c) More advanced sections of
(c) V.D. Savarkar nationalists
(d) Rash Behari Bose (d) None of the above
When Congress ministries resigned in Who made this remark on Gaidinliu:
1939, what day was celebrated by M.A. ‘A day will come when India also will
Jinnah as the ‘Day of Deliverance’? remember and cherish her’?
(a) April 2, 1939 (a) S.C. Bose
(b) September 2, 1939 (b) Vallabh Bhai Patel
(c) Gandhi (c) June 1943

(d) J.L. Nehru (d) December 1943
Which of the following was not one of Who formed the Congress–Khilafat
the political associations to be set up dur- Swaraj Party in 1922?
ing the pre-Congress phase, before the (a) Dr. Ansari and Sardar Patel
Revolt of 1857? (b) Babu Rajendra Prasad
(a) The British Indian Association (c) Subhash Chandra Bose
(b) The Indian Association (d) C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru
(c) Madras Native Association What was the objective of the new policy
(d) None of the above of ‘council entry’ proposed by the Swara-
Through which of the following was jists?
the Partition of Bengal subsequently (a) To expose the ‘no-changes’
annulled? (b) To provide better and efficient
(a) Morley–Minto Reforms, 1909 administration
(b) Report on Indian Constitutional (c) To give trial to the Government of
Reforms, 1918 India Act, 1919
(c) Montague–Chelmsford Reforms, (d) To wreck the reforms from within by
1919 ‘uniform, consistent and continuous
(d) Proclamation of the king made dur- obstruction’
ing the coronation durbar staged at While Ripon’s liberal administration
Delhi on December 12, 1911 was raising new hopes in the minds of
The effects of civil disobedience were the nationalists, which of the following
considerable. Which of the following was gave a rude shock and new impetus to the
not one of them? national movement?
(a) Foreign goods worth Rs. 30 crore (a) Factory Act
were sealed in the city and port of (b) IlbertBill
Bombay (c) Black Acts
(b) Production of salt was stopped (d) Tenancy Bill
(c) Sixteen British-owned cloth mills of Who was the first to offer individual
Bombay were closed satyagraha?
(d) Decline started on sterling securities (a) Jawahar Lal Nehru
in India (b) Abul Kalam Azad
Who was the leader of the Swaraj Party (c) Vinoba Bhave
in the central provinces? (d) Rajendra Prasad
(a) G.B. Pant In which session did the Congress pass
(b) S. Vidyarthi the resolution on Fundamental Rights?
(c) S.V. Tambe (a) Faizpur
(d) D. Majumdar (b) Lucknow
When did Subhash Bose become the (c) Lahore
Supreme Commander of the Indian (d) Karachi
National Army? In the Round Table Conference, who
(a) October 1943 among the following demanded that
(b) July 1943 depressed classes should be treated as
3.98 Chapter 16
a separate community for electoral pur- Which one of the following adumbrated
poses? principles and constitutional provisions,
(a) B.R. Ambedkar which were later incorporated in the
(b) Mahatma Gandhi Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms?
(c) Mohammad Ali Jinnah (a) Nehru Report
(d) Sarojini Naidu (b) Wavell Plan
Under which Act was the ‘King’s Coun- (c) Lucknow Pact
cil’ established for the first time? (d) Poona Pact
(a) 1919 (b) 1921 How many organizations took part in the
(c) 1923 (d) 1925 All Party Meeting held on February 28,
Where did Subhash Bose go to at first in 1928?
March 1941? (a) 25 (b) 29
(a) Germany (c) 27 (d) 31
(b) Soviet Union When was an interim cabinet was formed
(c) Japan by the Congress?
(d) Singapore (a) July 1946
The Non-Cooperation movement advised (b) January 1946
people to boycott certain things. Which (c) September 1946
was not included among them? (d) December 1946
(a) Surrender of Titles Arrange the following in chronological
(b) Boycott of foreign goods order.
(c) Boycott of government hospitals A—Dandi March
(d) Refusal to attend government parties, B—Jallianwalla Bagh massacre
durbars and official function C—Quit India movement
Who led a medical mission to China in D—Swadeshi movement
1938? (a) B D A C
(a) Dr. Kotnis (b) D B A C
(b) Dr. M.A. Ansari (c) B A D C
(c) Dr. M. Atal (d) D B C A
(d) Dr. Saiftiddin With how many followers did Gandhi
Where did some soldiers of Air Force undertake the Dandi March?
stage a JCTVCN against British government (a) 72 (b) 81
on January 20, 1946? (c) 76 (d) 78
(a) Lahore (b) Delhi What was/were the features of the
(c) Bombay (d) Karachi Government of India Act of 1935?
The association organized by Dadabhai (a) An All India Federation
Naoroji, the Grand Old Man of India, (b) A bicameral legislature
was ______. (c) Provincial autonomy
(a) The East Indian Association, 1866 (d) All of the above
(b) The Poona Sarvajanik Sabha, 1870 Militant nationalism had a favourable
(c) The Bombay Presidency Association, situation for growth because ______.
1885 (a) The protests of the Moderates had
(d) The Indian National Conference, 1883 failed to yield results
(b) It was the only way to terrorize the Secretary of State’s Council, Viceroy’s
English away Executive Council and Government
(c) The official arrogance and the repres- Executive Councils
sion could be retaliated only by mili- (b) Larger employment of Indians in
tant nationalism higher services, and holding of
(d) It had a solid base among the masses Indian Civil Service examinations in
The Tebhaga struggle was waged by the England and India simultaneously
sharecroppers of______. (c) Reduction in military expenditure
(a) Punjab (b) Gujarat (d) More educational facilities and
(c) Bengal (d) Oudh employment opportunities for women
Why did Syed Ahmad Khan vigorously Who was the President of the Muslim
oppose the demand for the introduction League who rejected the Nehru Report?
of elective system in India? (a) Muhammad Iqbal
(a) He felt that democracy had not taken (b) Sikander Hyat Khan
roots in India (c) Kharak Singh
(b) He feared that elections would not be (d) Dastur Mirza
free and fair What was the circumstance which led
(c) He feared that elections would result to the preparation of the Nehru Report
in the Hindu dominance (1928), containing proposals for consti-
(d) He wanted continuance of the English tutional reforms?
rule in India (a) The desire of the nationalists to offer
suggestions for taking India nearer to
After the Non-Cooperation movement, the goal of self-government
Deshbandhu C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru (b) The rejection by the Government of
came to be known as ______. India of the nationalist demand for
(a) No-changers dominion status
(b) Passive changers (c) Lord Birkenhead, SoS for India had
(c) Pro-changers challenged the Indians to produce an
(d) Violent changers agreed Constitution
What did the Mountbatten Plan (June 3, (d) None of the above
1947) relate to? Which of the following was not one of
(a) Creation of a federal government the reforms on which the Congress laid
(b) The method by which power was to special emphasis during its first phase?
be transferred from the British to the (a) Development of self-government
Indian hands (b) Creation of separate electorate for the
(c) A plan for controlling the communal minorities
riots raging all over India at that time (c) Abolition of the Indian Council
(d) None of the above (d) None of the above
The Moderates organized agitations on When did Clement Attlee declare that the
constitutional lines from 1885 to 1905. British would quit India by June 1948?
Which of the following was not one of the (a) May 15, 1947
demands presented during the agitations? (b) February 20, 1947
(a) Expansion of Legislative Councils, (c) June 6, 1947
representation of Indians on the (d) August 15, 1947
3.100 Chapter 16
Answer Keys
1. (d) 2. (d) 3. (d) 4. (d) 53. (a) 54. (c) 55. (b) 56. (b)
5. (a) 6. (d) 7. (c) 8. (a) 57. (b) 58. (a) 59. (b) 60. (c)
9. (c) 10. (a) 11. (a) 12. (a) 61. (b) 62. (b) 63. (d) 64. (c)
13. (b) 14. (b) 15. (d) 16. (c) 65. (c) 66. (a) 67. (c) 68. (d)
17. (c) 18. (d) 19. (b) 20. (a) 69. (b) 70. (d) 71. (b) 72. (c)
21. (a) 22. (b) 23. (c) 24. (c) 73. (a) 74. (d) 75. (d) 76. (b)
25. (d) 26. (d) 27. (d) 28. (c) 77. (c) 78. (d) 79. (a) 80. (a)
29. (c) 30. (b) 31. (c) 32. (c) 81. (b) 82. (c) 83. (c) 84. (d)
33. (a) 34. (a) 35. (b) 36. (b) 85. (a) 86. (c) 87. (b) 88. (c)
37. (c) 38. (c) 39. (b) 40. (c) 89. (b) 90. (d) 91. (d) 92. (a)
41. (b) 42. (a) 43. (b) 44. (b) 93. (c) 94. (c) 95. (c) 96. (b)
45. (c) 46. (b) 47. (d) 48. (b) 97. (d) 98. (c) 99. (c) 100. (b)
49. (c) 50. (d) 51. (b) 52. (c)
17
POST-PARTITION INDIA
Aftermath of Partition everyday occurrence. No one was innocent and
no one profited. The result was migration, exile
Partition of India resulted in nationwide griev- and hatred. Almost a half a million lives were
ance. There were at least three areas of special lost. Devastation in terms of the injured, mis-
grievance. Firstly, Pakistan resented the exclu- ery and hate was far greater. About five and a
sion of Calcutta from Eastern Pakistan. Sec- half million Muslims are said to have migrated
ondly, Pakistan also resented the allotment of to Western Pakistan, constituting about one-
half of the mixed Gurdaspur district to India. fifth of its then population. An equal number
This allotment made access to Kashmir prac- of Sikhs and Hindus moved eastwards. In addi-
ticable by means of a new road running from tion, about 400 thousand Hindus left Sind. As
Pathankot. Thirdly, the Sikhs felt themselves columns of refugees moved south-east into
frustrated, betrayed and truncated when parti- India, they spread consternation, hatred and
tion was announced. The Boundary Commis- violence. Delhi was flooded by refugees.
sion was helpless in the matter pertaining to After the violence came the question of
the Sikhs. For the Sikhs were nowhere even settlement of the refugees. In Punjab, there
near to being the majority. They spilled in were at least the lands vacated by the Mus-
almost equal proportions on both sides of the lims, who crossed over the border. But to
line. As a result, they found their community Delhi, many more came in than went out.
in the Punjab neatly divided down the middle. The refugees thronged the public places, set
The Sikhs considered that this was something up shops in the streets and commandeered
which ought not to be borne. The result was mosques. All these contributed to the build-
the Punjab massacre. ing up of tension. It was at this time that
The Sikhs had already been in conflict with M.K. Gandhi came to Delhi from Bengal. To
the Muslims in the last days of the old Pun- his dismay, he found the Muslim minority in
jab Province. They had been largely driven Delhi being threatened with a motive. What
out of Lahore, while the Muslims were elimi- was more serious was that there was some
nated from Amritsar. The rising, following the sympathy within the government for such
announcement of the Boundary Award, soon attitudes. In January 1948, he called for the
became a Sikh–Muslim civil war. The Hindu agreed payment of assets to Pakistan, which
Jats joined the Sikhs in East Punjab. Killing was withheld since the Kashmir dispute
of villagers and attacks on convoys became had broken in October 1947 and a peace
3.102 Chapter 17
pact in Delhi, including the evacuation of 57 Dislocation of Economy

occupied mosques. When Vallabhbhai Patel
remonstrated with him, he began a fast unto partition of India caused enormous economic
death. Only when the money was paid and dislocation to both India and Pakistan. An inte-
peace pact concluded that he gave up his grated economic life, developed through ages
fast. within the natural boundaries of a given land,
The government had to stretch itself to the was dislocated. About 23 per cent of the land
maximum to give relief to and to resettle and and about 20 per cent of the population got
rehabilitate the refugees. The task took some separated from the mainland to form Pakistan.
time, but it was accomplished. The task of Since the land inherited by Pakistan was pri-
rehabilitating and resettling refugees from East marily agricultural areas, which produced sur-
Bengal was, however, made difficult by the plus food grains and raw materials, there was
fact that the exodus of Hindus from East Ben- an immediate shortage of food stuffs and raw
gal continued for many years. While nearly all materials in India. The eastern half of Bengal
the Hindus and Sikhs from West Pakistan had and the western half of Punjab, which went to
migrated in one wave in 1947, a large number Pakistan were very fertile areas. The loss of
of Hindus in East Bengal had chosen to stay these areas affected adversely the balance of
back in the initial years following partition. food supply. Since the losses in food grains
But as communal riots broke out periodically were much more in proportion to the popula-
in East Bengal, there was a steady stream of tion that had gone out, the effect was much
refugees from there year after year till as late greater on Indian Union. Since the circum-
as 1971. Providing them with work and shel- stances of the creation of Pakistan were such,
ter and psychological assurance, therefore, in order to create friendly relations between
became continuous, and therefore, a difficult the two countries, India had to meet this food
task. Whereas the refugees from West Punjab shortage by importing food from outside.
could be resettled in the large extent of land Equally serious was the loss of raw materi-
and property left by the Muslim emigrants to als. Pakistan was rich in agricultural products
Pakistan from different parts of North India, such as raw jute, cotton and sugarcane. But
West Bengal was handicapped by lack of such most of the cotton, jute and sugar mills were
facility. Further, it was easier for a Punjabi located in India. These industries suffered for
or a Sindhi to settle in places like Himachal want of adequate raw materials. As the rela-
Pradesh, Haryana, western UP, Rajasthan and tionship between the two countries was far
Delhi because of linguistic affinity. This was from being cordial, there was no coordination
not the case with regard to the refugees of between agricultural and industrial spheres in
West Bengal. Language problem necessitated India.
the settlement of refugees only in Bengal and Trade and commerce suffered on account of
to a small extent in Assam and Tripura. Again disruption of the long, established channels of
a very large number of refugees were engaged transport and communications. Railway lines
in agricultural operations before their dis- were cut by the new international borders.
placement. Since no land was available in the Movement of goods and men became very
land where they sought refuge, they were com- much affected on this account.
pelled to seek their livelihood in semi-urban The problem of displaced persons, about
and urban areas as the underclass. In this way, which we have already studied, caused great
they contributed to the process of immigration strain to the general economy of the country.
of West Bengal. Finding land, home and job for the displaced
POST-PARTITION INDIA 3.103
persons placed a massive burden on the coun- the Standing Committee of the Chamber of
try’s financial and administrative resources. Princes passed the following resolution on
In view of this, the government just could not January 29, 1947: ‘(1) The entry of the States
attend whole time to the problem of rebuilding into the Union shall be on no other basis than
the economy of the country immediately after that of negotiation and the final decision will
the partition. rest with each state, which can only be taken
after consideration of the complete picture
of the constitution. (2) All the rights surren-
Integration of Indian States dered by the States to the paramount power
One of the major problems, inherited by the will return to the States. The proposed Union
government of Indian Union from the Brit- of India will, therefore, exercise only such
ish, was the Indian Princely States, number- functions in relation to the States in regard to
ing 552, occupying nearly 40 per cent of the Union subjects as are assigned or delegated to
Indian territory. These states varied in size and them by the Union. Every state shall continue
population from Hyderabad, with its 17 mil- to retain its sovereignty and all rights and pow-
lion inhabitants, to a borderland of tiny states ers, except those that have been expressly del-
and large estates. The princes enjoyed varying egated to it. There can be no question of any
degrees of autonomy under the British system powers being vested or inherent or implied in
of paramountcy. the Union in respect of the States, unless spe-
The position of the Indian States in the cifically agreed to by them. (3) The constitu-
new set up was foreshadowed by the Cabinet tion of each State, its territorial integrity and
Mission. In a memorandum on States Treaties the succession of its reigning dynasty in accor-
and Paramountcy, presented to the Chancellor dance with the law, custom and usage of the
of the Chamber of Princes on May 22, 1946, State, shall not be interfered with by the Union
the Cabinet Mission pointed out that when a or any part thereof.’
new fully self-governing and independent gov- After the declaration regarding the parti-
ernment or governments came into being, the tion of India, things changed. Some states like
British government would cease to exercise Bhopal, Travancore and Hyderabad pleaded
the powers of the paramountcy. It meant: that that they could not accept the original plan to
the rights of the States which flowed from their which they had given their assent on the basis
relationship to the Crown would no longer of a united India.
exist; all the rights surrendered by the States The princes claimed that paramountcy could
to the paramount power would return to the not be transferred to the newly-created states,
States; political arrangements between the Indian Union and Pakistan. Their ambitions
States on the one hand and the British Crown were fuelled by the announcement made by
and British India on the other would thus cease Clement Attlee on February 20, 1947, that the
to exist; the void had to be filled either by the British government had no intention of hand-
States entering into a federal relationship with ing over their powers and obligations under
the successor government or governments in paramountcy to any successor government of
British India; failing this, enter into particular British India, and the most they felt able to do
political arrangements with it or with them. was through Mountbatten, their last viceroy,
Accepting the Cabinet Mission’s Plan of a to discourage separatist aspirations by empha-
Union of India embracing both British India sizing the compulsions of geography. So the
and the States, having power in respect of only rulers of many states claimed that they would
foreign affairs, defence and communications, be independent from August 15, 1947, when
3.104 Chapter 17
British rule ended. In this they got encour- including some substantial States, covering
agement from M.A. Jinnah, who declared on large contiguous and mainly homogeneous
June 18,1947, that the princely states would areas, were integrated to form five new unions,
be independent once paramountcy was termi- one ruler from each being chosen as the head
nated and they would be free to remain inde- of the union with the title, Rajpramukh, who
pendent, if they so desired. was to be equivalent of the governor of the
The question of integration of States was province. These were Greater Rajasthan union,
taken up in the period of the Interim govern- the Madhya Bharat union, the Patiala and East
ment itself. The leaders of the Interim gov- Punjab states union, Vindhya Pradesh and Sau-
ernment, Nehru and other national leaders rashtra. Cochin was united with Travancore.
believed that unity was paramount. Sardar About 61 States were brought under the direct
Patel was put incharge of the newly created central government administration as separate
States Department (July 1947) to deal with units or in consolidated blocks. Bhopal, Cooch
the problem. He had chosen V.P. Menon as Bihar, Tripura, Manipur, etc., passed under the
the secretary of the department. Fully aware of central administration. Hyderabad, Mysore
the danger posed to Indian unity by the possible and Kashmir were left unaffected by these
transience of the rulers of the States, they acted changes.
promptly. They used every means to bring the The Government of India hoped that the
States to join the existing federal units or new Nizam would introduce representative govern-
federal units of their own persuasion, cajolery ment during this period and thereby make the
or buffering. Inducements offered included problem of merger easier. But the Nizam had
personal privileges, exemption from income other plans. He engaged Sir Walter Monckton,
tax and the opportunity of taking part in all- a leading lawyer and friend of Mountbatten, to
India public affairs, which many had availed. negotiate with the Government of India on his
The threats included economic and social iso- behalf with instructions to prolong the nego-
lation and the spectre of popular movements tiations as much as possible so that he could
within their States. By August 1947, all the have enough time to build up his military
552 States, with the exception of Hyderabad, strength and force India to accept his sover-
Kashmir, Junagadh and Travancore, had been eignty. He was also having an alternative plan
persuaded to sign instruments of accession and to accede to Pakistan taking advantage of the
standstill agreements, which had the effect of tension created by Kashmir problem between
surrendering their powers in the three fields the two countries.
of foreign relations, defence and communica- In the following months, the stubborn
tions, and maintaining unchanged all arrange- negotiation continued to the accompaniment
ment in other matters. Travancore surrendered of freelance arms running from outside and
after a few days. growing disorder from within. Certain other
The success achieved in the preliminary developments that took place in Hyderabad
step taken towards integration of States with further complicated the problem. A powerful
India, encouraged Patel to proceed further to Muslim communal organization, called the
see the process through. No fewer than 216 Ittehad ul Muslimin, was growing strong with
small States were fairly quickly abolished the official support. On August 7, 1947, the
as separate units and merged into the prov- Hyderabad State Congress launched a UCV[C
inces. Thus, Mayurbhanj merged into Orissa, ITCJC movement to force the Nizam to democ-
Kolhapur and Baroda into Bombay, Ram- ratize the government. The Nizam replied by a
pur and Banaras into UP. About 275 States, repressive policy, putting in prison thousands
of UCV[CITCJKU and also instigated the Raza- In November 1956, it adopted a constitution
kars, the paramilitary wing of the Ittehad ul legalizing the States of Jammu and Kashmir as
Muslimin to attack the UCV[CITCJKU. Unable to a unit of the Indian Union. In 1953–4, there was
withstand the repressive policy of the Nizam a possibility of finding a solution to the Kash-
and the ferocity of the Razakars, thousands of mir issue. Mohammed Ali Bogra, who became
people fled from the state and sought shelter in prime minister in 1953, and Nehru exchanged
temporary camps set up in Indian territory. The cordial visits between themselves. These were
Congress-led movement was forced to take up followed by a joint statement issued on August
arms. Meanwhile, a powerful Communist-led 20, 1953. Nehru agreed to hold a plebiscite in
peasant struggle took place in the Telengana Kashmir. But the exigencies of Cold War poli-
region about which a reference had already tics snuffed the flame of hope.
been made. The peasant FCNCOU (squads) orga- The Kashmir problem continued to be
nized in the Telengana, took upon themselves used to needle India in the UN as Pakistan
the task of protecting the people against the became more and more integrated into the
Razakars. US-fed western alliance system, such as the
At the United Nations, instead of getting SEATO. Under these conditions, it was found
justice, India learnt her first lesson in the Cold extremely difficult to find a solution to this
War politics. Britain, continuing to nurture a problem. Only when Soviet Russia began to
resentment of the Congress and India and a support India on Kashmir, after understanding
liking for the Muslim league and Pakistan, the importance of Indian non-alignment, that
encouraged Pakistan’s aggressive designs on India could heave a sigh of relief. From 1956
Kashmir. USA lined up behind Pakistan, hop- onwards, Soviet Russia used its veto power in
ing to use Pakistan as a front line state against the Security Council to thwart all resolutions
the USSR. The Soviet Union was not inclined on Kashmir unacceptable to India. Up to early
to support the cause of India as she was not 1960s, India was able to ward off international
sure whether India was any longer a running pressure on the Kashmir issue with Soviet sup-
dog of British imperialism. port. But the situation changed in 1962 when
In April 1950, Sir Owen Dixon was China attacked India, and when Pakistan lined
appointed as United Nations’ representative up with the Chinese, India was forced to look
in one of the United Nations’ Commissions to the west for assistance. This had made it dif-
to help the parties for expeditious and endur- ficult for India to resist western pressure on
ing solution of the dispute between India and Kashmir.
Pakistan in regard to the State of Jammu and In July 1957, the Security Council passed
Kashmir. But his efforts proved futile. On a resolution calling for status quo in Kashmir.
his request to be relieved, the United Nations A resolution sponsored in the Security Coun-
appointed Frank Graham as United Nations’ cil, by Britain, Australia, Cuba and the USA
representative. His efforts were also of no for sending UN forces to Kashmir for the
avail. solution of the Kashmir issue, was vetoed by
In 1951, a constituent assembly met in USSR. The deputation of Gunnar Jarring, with
Jammu and Kashmir to frame a constitution for instruction to explore the possibilities for set-
the State. It ratified the accession of the State tlement of the Kashmir dispute and the revival
to India in February 1954. The Indian govern- of the Graham Commission by a resolution
ment took the stand that the vote of the con- of the Security Council, proved abortive.
stituent assembly was a sufficient substitute In the absence of the requisite conditions and
for a plebiscite. in view of the continued Pakistani aggression
3.106 Chapter 17
in a portion of the State, the question of plebi- old age, sickness and disablement; making
scite was dead so far as India was concerned. arrangements within 10 years from the com-
Jammu and Kashmir State had been accorded mencement of the Constitution for free and
a special status as guaranteed under Article compulsory education for all children up to the
370 of the Constitution. age of 14; protecting children against exploi-
tation; organizing village panchayats; taking
The Democratic Constitution, steps to stop the use of intoxicating drinks
and drugs except for medical purpose; taking
1950 steps to protect every monument and place of
The Constitution declares India, that is Bharat, historical importance from destruction or dis-
as a Sovereign Democratic, Secular, Socialist figurement and to protect and improve envi-
Republic. It guarantees to all citizens funda- ronment and to safeguard forests and wildlife;
mental rights – the right to freedom of speech taking steps to maintain international peace
and expression, the right to assemble peace- and security, good relations with other nations
ably and the right to freedom of conscience and to foster respect for international law and
and worship, subject to general considerations treaty obligations.
of public security and morality. All citizens, The Constitution provides for the appoint-
whatever be their religion, race, caste, sex and ment of a vice president of India. Any citizen
place of birth, are allowed to enjoy equality of India, 35 years of age or more, is eligible for
before law. No disability can be imposed on: the post. He must also have the qualification
them in any respect. Untouchability is abol- for election to the Rajya Sabha. He is elected
ished and its practice in any form is forbidden. by the members of both houses of parliament
No person can be deprived of his life, prop- assembled at a joint meeting. The voting is
erty or personal liberty, except according to held by secret ballot. The mode of election is
the procedure established by law. The law may in accordance with the system of proportional
provide for preventive detention of a person representation by means of single transfer-
for three months and even for a longer period, able vote. The vice president holds office for
either on the recommendation of an Advisory a period of five years. He may be removed at
Board or in accordance with law passed by any time by a resolution to that effect passed
the Parliament. The law authorizing compul- in the Rajya Sabha and agreed to by the Lok
sory acquisition of property should provide Sabha. He is the ex-officio chairman of the
for compensation. Part IV of the Constitution Rajya Sabha.
contains directive principles of state policy. The Constitution provides for a council of
Though not enforceable by the court, they ministers. The prime minister is its head. He
are nevertheless fundamental in the govern- is appointed by the president. He is the linch-
ance of the country. The State is expected to pin of government. Almost all powers formally
apply these principles in making laws. Among vested in the president are, in fact, exercised
them, the following deserve special mention: by the prime minister who serves as a link
securing equal pay for equal work for both between the president, the cabinet and the
men and women; securing suitable employ- parliament. He has full powers to choose min-
ment for men, women and children, so that isters as well as recommend their dismissal.
their health is not undermined, to secure par- By convention, the president appoints the
ticipation of workers in the management of leader of the majority party in the Lok Sabha
industrial undertaking; providing work educa- as prime minister. The ministers hold office
tion and assistance in cases of unemployment, during the presence of the president. They
are collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha. 1950s, the process of agrarian reform involv-
They may be from either house of the parlia- ing abolition of intermediaries (Zamindars and
ment. The council of ministers formulates gen- jagirdars) can be said to have been completed.
eral policy of the government. It prepares the The abolition of Zamindari system meant
draft of all official bills and presents it before the conversion of about 20 million erstwhile
the parliament for approval. tenants into landowners. The compensation
actually paid to the Zamindars was generally
Reforms in the Agrarian small and varied from state to state, depending
upon the strength of the peasant movement,
Sector consequent class balance between the land-
The first important agrarian reform after inde- lord and tenants, the ideological composition
pendence was the abolition of the Zamindari of the congress leadership and of the legisla-
system. By 1949, Zamindari abolition bills tive as a whole. In Kashmir no compensation
were introduced in a number of provinces such was paid. Most states adopted a variation of
as UP, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Madras, Assam the model worked out in UP, where the com-
and Bombay. These were based on the report pensation paid was inversely related to the
of the UP Zamindari Abolition committee, size of the land which came under a Zamindar.
chaired by G.B. Pant. There was widespread The small Zamindars received about 20 times
apprehension that the Zamindars might try to their net annual income as compensation while
cause delay in acquisition of their estates by the big Zamindars were to receive merely two
moving the court, raising issues like the vio- or four times their net annual income. Further
lation of the fundamental right to property or the payment of compensation was to stretch
inadequacy of the compensation. To meet such over a long period, in some cases 40 years.
a situation, the Constituent Assembly, which Out of a total due of Rs. 6700 million the com-
was in the process of making India’s Constitu- pensation actually paid till 1961 was Rs. 1642
tion, tried to forestall such a situation incor- million.
porated in the Constitution. Such provision as The next important agrarian reform was
were necessary to enable the state assembly concerned with tenancy legislation. After the
to push through the bills finding before them abolition of the Zamindari system, the issue
on the basis of compensation recommended of continuing tenancy in Zamindari areas
by the state legislatures, still many Zamind- remained to be solved. Such tenancy existed
ars challenged the constitutionality of the law in the lands of the former Zamindars, now
permitting Zamindari abolition. The courts said to be under their personal cultivation, as
upheld the landlords’ suit. The Congress gov- well as in the lands sub-leased by the former
ernment responded by getting the first and sec- occupancy tenant, who now became the land-
ond constitutional amendments passed in 1951 owner. Absolution area under ryotwari tenure,
and 1955 respectively to further strengthen covering nearly one-half of the country at the
the hands of the legislatures for implementing time of independence, the problems of land-
Zamindari abolition, making the question of lords and unsecure, rack-rented tenancy were
violation of any fundamental right or ineff - rampant. Since the political and economic
ciency of compensation not permissible in the conditions varied from place to place the
courts. By 1956, most of the provinces passed nature of tenancy legislation passed in differ-
the Zamindari abolition acts. A major difficulty ent provinces and the manner of their imple-
in implementing these acts was the absence of mentation also varied a great deal. Yet we find
adequate land records. Yet, by the end of the certain commonly-shared objectives of various
3.108 Chapter 17
legislations and some common features in the names of their kith and kin merely to avoid
way in which they were implemented. the ceiling. Again, in some states, the ceiling
But till the end of 1970 not a single acre could be raised, if the size of the landholder’s
was declared surplus in large states like Bihar. family exceeded 5. Consequently, very few
In Andhra Pradesh, a mere 1400 acres were landed families came to hold lands exceeding
declared surplus, but no land was distributed. the ceiling limit. Secondly, a large number of
Only in Jammu and Kashmir, land ceiling exemptions to the ceiling limits were allowed
laws were fully implemented. By the middle in many states following the recommendations
of 1955, about 230 thousand acres of surplus of the Second Plan that certain categories of
land were handed over to tenants and landless land such as plantations, orchards, efficiently
labourers, that too without paying any com- managed farms on which heavy investments
pensation. However, taking India as a whole, were made etc., could be exempted from ceil-
only 2.4 million acres were declared surplus ings. Though the intentions were laudable, the
by 1970, and the area distributed constituted exemptions were often carried to absurd limits.
only about 50 per cent of the surplus land, con- For example, the criterion of efficiently man-
stituting a mere 0.3 per cent of the total arable aged farm was sufficiently vague for large
land. number of landholders to evade the ceilings by
The reason for these dismal shows is not simply getting themselves declared efficient.
difficult to seek. Rural landowners found in Lastly, the long delay in bringing the legisla-
the land ceiling legislations, a threat to pri- tion defeated its purpose to some extent. The
vate property. This fear was also shared by the landowners had enough time to either sell their
urban interest. As a result, opposition to ceil- excess lands or make mala fide transfers in the
ings started building up in large parts of the name of their relatives and even make benami
country, in the press, in parliament, in state transfers. Thus, by the time the ceiling legis-
legislatures and even within the Congress lations were ready for implementation, there
party. N.G. Ranga, secretary of the Congress were barely any holding left above the ceiling
parliamentary party, resigned from the Con- and, consequently, little surplus land became
gress in 1959 on this issue. He and C. Raja- available for redistribution.
gopalachari joined hands with Minoo Masani
to form the Swantantra Party in 1959. The Building an Industrial Welfare
long delay of nearly 14 years, after the idea
was officially mooted, in passing the enabling State
legislation in 1961, and the nature of the leg- The Indian Constitution aims at the establish-
islation ensured that the ceilings would have ment of a welfare state. Article 38 of the Con-
no great effect. The ceiling laws in most states stitution lays down that, ‘the state shall strive
were defective. Firstly, the ceiling fixed on to promote the welfare of the people by secur-
existing holding by the states was very high, ing and protecting as effectively as it may a
when we take into account the fact that 70 per social order in which justice social, economic
cent of landholdings in India were less than and political shall inform all the institutions
5 acres. In Andhra Pradesh, it varied from of national life.’ We have already referred
27 to 312 acres depending upon the type of to the responsibility assigned to the state to
land. Moreover, in most states, initially, the ensure that all citizens have adequate means
ceilings were imposed on individuals and of livelihood, that there is equitable distribu-
not on family. This had enabled landowners tion of material resources, and concentration
to divide up their holdings nationally in the of wealth and means of production is avoided;
that there is to be equal pay for equal work for efforts to establish a welfare state through
men and women; that the health of the work- rapid industrialization and other ways.
ers, children and women is to be protected; During the Nehru years, three Five-Year
that the workers should get a living wage and Plans were conceived. The first Five-Year Plan
just and humane conditions of work; that all covered the period from April 1951 to March
citizens should have the right to work, to edu- 1956. During this period, considerable progress
cation and public assistance in case of unem- was made on several fronts. The overall eco-
ployed, old age, sickness etc. The state is to nomic performance was far more impressive
take steps to improve standard of living, nutri- than that of the colonial period. India’s national
tion, provide free legal aid and promote edu- income or Gross National Product (GNP) grew
cational and other interests of the Scheduled at an average rate of 4 per cent per annum.
Castes and Tribes and other weaker sections. This was roughly four times the rate of growth
This is in line with the present day conception achieved during the last 50 years of colonial
of the states, i.e., the state is to be an organi- rule. This rate of growth compared favourably
zation to promote social good on the largest with rates achieved by advanced countries dur-
possible scale. In attempting to achieve this ing their early development. There was a sub-
purpose, the tendency is for governments to stantial rise in the savings and investment rates.
make themselves more and more conspicu- It has been estimated that domestic savings and
ous by the planning of the economic life of the total investment in the Indian economy were
people. Nehru looked upon rapid economic both 5.5 per cent of national income in 1950–1,
development as basic for the implementation rising to savings of 10.5 per cent and invest-
of his social welfare policies. In the chap- ment of 14 per cent in 1965–6.
ter on objectives of Planned Development, During the first three Plans, industry grew
which he wrote for the Third Five Year Plan, very rapidly, more rapidly than agriculture, at
he observed, ‘A high rate of economic growth a compound growth rate of 7.1 per cent per
sustained over a long period is the essential annum between 1951 and 1965. The industrial
condition for achieving a rising level of living growth was based on rapid import substitution;
for all citizens, and especially for those in low initially, of consumer goods and particularly,
income groups or lacking the opportunity to since the Second Plan, of capital goods and
work.’ At the Avadi Session of the Congress, intermediate goods. The emphasis on the latter
he said, ‘We cannot have a welfare state in is evident from the fact that 70 per cent of plan
India with all the socialism and communism in expenditure on industry in the Second Plan
the world unless our national income goes up went to metal machinery and chemical indus-
greatly. Socialism or communism might help tries and in the Third Plan, 80 per cent went to
you to divide your existing wealth, if you like, those industries. The result was a 70 per cent
but in India there is no existing wealth for you increase in consumer goods industries, a qua-
to divide; there is only poverty to divide. How drupling of the intermediate goods production
can we have a welfare state without wealth? and a ten-fold increase in the output of capital
What is essential, therefore, is production – goods. This increase in output brought about a
whatever the nature of society, socialist or cap- three-fold increase in aggregate industrial pro-
italist.’ Nehru’s developing strategy comprised duction between 1951 and 1969. The tremen-
three pillars – planning for rapid industrial and dous growth rate achieved during the period
agricultural growth, a public sector to develop of the first three Plans went a long way in
strategic industries and a mixed economy. The reducing India’s near total dependence on the
Union and State are expected to direct their advanced countries for basic goods and capital
3.110 Chapter 17
investment, which was necessary for creation reason to pursue an independent, foreign pol-
of new capacity. icy. He knew that India was a proud possessor
of a great civilization, whose history extended
Foreign Policy of over a long period of time and that she was
a subcontinent of considerable size. These, he
Non-Alignment thought, by themselves would require India to
it is said that V.K. Krishna Menon coined aspire to speak in her own voice. Further, India
the word, ‘non-alignment’ and Nehru is the had developed a high sense of nationalism dur-
originator of the idea of non-alignment. But ing the struggle for freedom.
Nehru himself had declared that he was not the With the advancement of time, the national
originator of the idea of non-alignment. He said climate, in which non-alignment and Indian
that it was something inherent in the tradition attitude about it had flourished, was pro-
of India and truly expressed the Indian genius. foundly changed. In the wider international
But it was Nehru who made the idea of non- environment, the circumstances that made
alignment as the basis of India’s foreign policy. India’s non-alignment marginally meaningful
As Prime Minister of free India, he had every had also changed.
Exercise
Who said, ‘I feel, however, good a Con- (a) Canada
stitution may be, it is sure to turn out bad (b) United States of America
because those who are called to work (c) China
it, taken to be a bad lot. However bad a (d) France
Constitution may be, it may turn out to be ‘Indian Constitution establishes a uni-
good if those who are called to work it, tary state with subsidiary federal features
happens to be a good lot. The working of a rather than federal state with subsidiary
Constitution does not depend wholly upon unitary features.’ Who among the follow-
the nature of the Constitution’? ing said this?
(a) Dr. Ambedkar (a) K.C. Wheare
(b) Dr. Rajendra Prasad (b) Sir Ivor Jennings
(c) Dr. Subhash Kashyap (c) K.M. Panikkar
(d) None of the above (d) B.R. Ambedkar
‘The Constitution . . . is essentially British Which of the following rights was
in its texture.’ Who made this statement described by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar as The
regarding Indian Constitution? Heart and soul of the Constitution?
(a) Ivor Jennings (a) Right to Equality
(b) Allan Gledhill (b) Right to Constitutional Remedies
(c) K.C. Wheare (c) Right to Freedom of Religion
(d) A.N. Palkhivala (d) Right to Property
Provisions such as, ‘India is a Union of The provisions regarding rule of law, law-
States’ and giving of residuary powers making procedure, single citizenship and
to the Union, have been taken from the Parliamentary form of government are
Constitution of ______. adopted from _______.
(a) USSR Constitution How many Princely States existed at the
(b) Irish Constitution time when the Constituent Assembly was
(c) UK constitution making the Constitution?
(d) South African Constitution (a) 600
The provisions of the Constitution regard- (b) 800
ing fundamental rights, judicial review (c) 900
president as the executive head and (d) 950
supreme commander of the Army, pream- The two persons who played a vital role
ble independence of judiciary are adopted in the integration of princely states were
from _______. _____.
(a) USA Constitution (a) Sardar Patel and Jawaharlal Nehru
(b) UK Constitution (b) Sardar Patel and V.P. Menon
(c) Germany Constitution (c) Sardar Patel and Rajendra Prasad
(d) Australia Constitution (d) Sardar Patel and K.M. Munshi
Which word in the Preamble of our Con- The first state to become bifurcated after
stitution signifies the creation of condi- independence was _____.
tions, which provide the essential ingredi- (a) Punjab
ents necessary for the fullest development (b) Assam
of the personality of the individual? (c) Bombay
(a) Equality (d) Bengal
(b) Justice Who among the following went on
(c) Liberty a fast unto death for the creation of
(d) None of the above Andhra who died after 56 days of fasting?
#UUGTVKQP
# The Constitution of India (a) Potti Sriramulu
declares India as a secular state. (b) T. Prakasam
4GCUQP
4 The state has no official reli- (c) N.V. Gadgil
gion and it provides freedom to practice (d) None of the above
and propagate any religion of their choice. Who among the following was/were
Select the appropriate option. member(s) of the States Reorganization
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is Commission appointed in 1953?
the correct explanation of (A) (a) F. Fazal Ali
(b) Both (A) and R are true but (R) is not (b) H.N. Kunzru
a correct explanation of (A) (c) K.M. Panikkar
(c) (A) is true, but (R) is false (d) All of the above
(d) (A) is false, but (R) is true Who was the chairman of the state reorga-
The members of the Constituent Assembly nization committee?
were _____. (a) H.N. Kunzru
(a) Elected by Provincial Assemblies (b) K.M. Panikkar
(b) Only representatives of the princely (c) Khusru
states (d) Fazal Ali
(c) Elected directly by people States Reorganization committee was
(d) Nominated by the government appointed in _____.
3.112 Chapter 17
(a) 1953 (a) Agricultural production

(b) 1955 (b) Abolition of the Zamindari system
(c) 1958 (c) Educational institutions
(d) 1960 (d) Trade and industry
The French settlement of Chandannagar #UUGTVKQP
# The Government of India
was transferred to India on _____. set up the Planning Commission in March
(a) May 2, 1950 1950 to assess the country’s material capi-
(b) May 2, 1951 tal and human resources.
(c) May 2, 1952 4GCUQP
4 Jawaharlal Nehru was the first
(d) May 2, 1953 chairman of the Planning Commission.
Which of the following states became a
Select the correct option.
part of Indian territories in 1961?
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the cor-
(a) Goa
rect explanation of A
(b) Daman and Diu
(b) Both A and R are true, but R is not a
(c) Dadra and Nagar Havelli
correct explanation of A
(c) A is true, but R is false
Nehru believed that no nation could think (d) A is false, but R is true
of development unless it had a properly
By the end of the first Five Year Plan, the
_____.
national income increased by _____.
(a) Elected government
(a) 17.5%
(b) Planned economy
(b) 15%
(c) Planned social structure
(c) 14%
(d) 10%
Match List I with List II and select the cor-
rect answer using the codes givenbelow: The second Five Year Plan, launched in
1956, put emphasis on large scale _____.
.KUV+ .KUV++ (a) Industrialization
A. Durgapur Steel 1. United States (b) Agricultural production
Plant. of America (c) Foreign trade
B. Bhilai Steel Plant 2. Germany
The first phase, spanning roughly over
C. Rourkela Plant 3. Great Britain
the first three Five Year Plan periods,
D. Bhakra Nangal 4. Soviet Union was characterized by _____.
Project (a) Fairly sustained growth in per capita
%QFGU incomes
A B C D (b) Distinct acceleration in public sector
(a) 1 2 3 4 investment
(b) 2 3 1 4 (c) Growth of industrial output
(c) 3 4 2 1 (d) All of the above
(d) 4 3 1 2 The Planning Commission in India was
The First Five Year Plan was launched appointed in _____.
in 1951 and it placed special emphasis (a) 1948 (b) 1950
on ______. (c) 1952 (d) 1954
The implications of the policy of ceiling (a) October 2, 1951

on land-holding in the 1950s were _____. (b) October 2, 1952
(i) To meet the land hunger of working (c) October 2, 1953
cultivators (d) October 2, 1954
(ii) To reduce disparity in agricultural The Community Development Programme
incomes, in ownership and in the use was not successful because _____.
of land (a) The officials did not work in the real
(iii) To increase employment opportunity social spirit
in the rural sector (b) The officials failed to arouse the
Which of the following options are enthusiasm of the villagers
correct? (c) Both (a) and (b)
(a) (i) and (ii) (d) None of the above
(b) (ii) and (iii)
(c) (i) and (iii) Which of the following statements is/are
(d) (i), (ii) and (iii) correct?
(a) Removal of poverty has been the
In which Five Year Plan was the actual objective of the 7th Five Year Plan.
growth rate more than the target growth (b) Removal of the poverty has been the
rate? objective of the 6th Five Year Plan.
(a) First Plan (b) Second Plan (c) Removal of the poverty has been the
(c) Fifth Plan (d) Seventh Plan objective of the 5th Five Year Plan.
The outline of second Five Year Plan was (d) Removal of the poverty has been the
made by _____. objective of the 3rd Five Year Plan.
(a) Charan Singh
Which of the following Five Year Plans
(b) Fazal Ali
achieved the lowest growth rate?
(c) P.C. Mahalanobis
(a) Second (b) First
(d) Kunjru
(c) Fourth (d) Third
Match List-I with List-II and identify
the correct answer from the Codes given The Hindu Marriage Act was passed in
below. ______.
(a) 1952
.KUV+ .KUV++
(b) 1953

(KXG;GCT2NCP
;GCTU
(c) 1954
A. 1st Plan 1. 1951–6 (d) 1955
B. 3rd Plan 2. 1961–6 What were the features of India’s Foreign
C. 5th Plan 3. 1974–9 Policy during Nehruji’s government?
D. 7th Plan 4. 1985–90 (i) It was based on the principle of
%QFGU non-alignment
A B C D (ii) India opposed the imperialistic and
(a) 1 3 4 2 colonialistic foreign policy
(b) 2 1 4 3 (iii) India opposed racial discrimination
(c) 3 4 2 1 (iv) Special emphasis was placed on Asia
(d) 1 2 3 4 Choose the correct option.
The community development programme (a) (i) and (ii)
was launched on _____. (b) (ii) and (iv)
3.114 Chapter 17
(c) (ii), (iii) and (iv) (a) India

(d) (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv) (b) Russia
#UUGTVKQP
# Non-alignment was an (c) Great Britain
objective of India’s foreign policy. (d) United States of America
4GCUQP
4 It is based on the principles Which of the following statements is not
of Panchsheel. correct?
Select the correction option. (a) The Chinese attacked India in October
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is 1962 to settle the boundary dispute
the correct explanation of (A) (b) China not only refused to recognize
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is the McMohan line but also mounted
not a correct explanation of (A) a massive attack on India
(c) (A) is true, but (R) is false (c) Krushchev’s speech of December 12,
(d) (A) is false, but (R) is true 1962, in the Supreme Soviet con-
The policy of non-alignment is a positive demned the Chinese aggression
and vital policy, which follows from the (d) The Chinese aggression of India was
teachings of _____. praised by a leading newspaper of the
(a) Mahatma Gandhi world
(b) Tilak In which year did Dalai Lama flee to
(c) Jawaharlal Nehru India?
(d) None of the above (a) In 1947
The first summit meeting of the Non- (b) In 1950
Aligned Movement was held in September (c) In 1957
1961 at _____. (d) In 1959
(a) France Match List I with List II and identify the
(b) Belgrade right code that matches.
(c) Canada
(d) None of the above .KUV+ .KUV++
India and China signed an agreement by A. Asian Relations 1. Brussels
which India recognized Tibet as a region Conference
of China. This agreement is known as B. Afro-Asian 2. Bandung
_____. Conference
(a) Panchsheel
C. International 3. Delhi
(b) Non-alignment
Conference
(c) Indo–Sino pact
(d) None of the above D. Simla Conferencec 4. Simla
Who was the finance minister in the %QFGU
Interim Government led by Jawaharlal A B C D
Nehru? (a) 4 1 3 2
(a) M.A. Jinnah (b) 2 1 4 3
(b) I.I. Chundrigar (c) 3 2 1 4
(c) Liaquat Ali Khan (d) 3 1 2 4
(d) None of the above When did the first Lok Sabha function?
Which was the first country to recognize (a) 1952–6
the communist regime in China? (b) 1953–7
(c) 1952–7 (c) Dr. Rajendra Prasad

(d) None of the above (d) Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel
Who was the first Speaker of free India’s 50. Match List-I with List-II and identify the
first Legislature (Constituent Assembly) right code that matches:
(a) G.V. Mavalankar .KUV+ .KUV++
(b) K.M. Munshi A. Chinese aggression 1. 1954
(c) Frank Anthony B. Nationalization of banks 2. 1971
(d) Sarojini Naidu C. 2nd war declared between 3. 1962
Who said, ‘If the people who are elected India and Pakistan
are capable and men of character and D. Declaration of Panchsheel 4. 1969
integrity, they would be able to make the %QFGU
best even of a defective Constitution. If A B C D
they are lacking in these, the Constitution (a) 3 4 2 1
cannot help the country’? (b) 3 4 4 2
(a) Sardar Hukam Singh (c) 4 3 2 4
(b) K.M. Munshi (d) 1 3 4 2
Answer Keys
1. (a) 2. (a) 3. (a) 4. (a) 29. (a) 30. (c) 31. (d) 32. (b)
5. (b) 6. (c) 7. (a) 8. (c) 33. (c) 34. (a) 35. (d) 36. (d)
9. (a) 10. (a) 11. (a) 12. (b) 37. (d) 38. (d) 39. (a) 40. (b)
13. (c) 14. (a) 15. (d) 16. (d) 41. (a) 42. (c) 43. (a) 44. (d)
17. (a) 18. (a) 19. (d) 20. (b) 45. (c) 46. (c) 47. (a) 48. (c)
21. (c) 22. (a) 23. (b) 24. (a) 49. (c) 50. (a)
25. (a) 26. (d) 27. (b) 28. (d)
18
WORLD CONCEPTS
Mother Goddess position held by the Mother Goddess in the
Aegean society.
The Hittites, who established a kingdom in the
north central part of Asia Minor along River
Halys, are considered by J.E. Swan as the Law Codes
originators of the Mother Goddess of fertility. The chief motives in organizing political insti-
Mother Goddess was one of the oldest of the tutions were protection and maintenance of
Aegean divinities. In many respects, she was law and order. Personal revenge, ‘an eye for an
the Aegean counterpart of Ishtar, the mother eye and a tooth for a tooth’, was the first stage
of the Babylonian gods. Isis of ancient Egypt in the evolution of law. This was followed by
was regarded as the, ‘source of all existing substitution of damages in the form of gold or
things, the mother of men and animals’. She goods in place of revenge in blood. A regular
made plants grow and fruit trees bear. She cre- tariff determining how much should be paid
ated day and night. She brought fertility, gov- for an eye, an arm or life was established. Such
erned fecundity, wielded destruction and dealt practices were prevalent in Babylonia in the
out death. Her symbols were the dove and the time of Hammurabi, who ruled between 2123
serpent. They represented the great contrast in and 2081 BC. Hammurabi’s name is associated
her powers, which covered both the good and with the first of the law codes known to us. One
the evil. The serpent appears to have been her copy of his code, carved upon a diorite stone
most constant companion. As ‘Lady of the shaft about 2.4 m high, has been preserved.
Snake’, she ruled the underworld, as ‘Lady of Hammurabi is depicted as receiving the laws
Wild Creatures’, she dominated the earth and from the Sun god. He wanted to make his peo-
as ‘Lady of the Dove’, she ruled in heaven. ple believe that the laws were divine. It is quite
In order to make her character as the fruitful clear that he did not originate all the laws, for
mother complete, a god was associated with many of them appear in old Sumerian records.
her. This god was born of Mother Earth and All that he did was to codify them and enforce
suckled by a goat. He was master of men and them. The principle of an eye for an eye and a
animals and used the lion, the strongest of ani- tooth for a tooth continued to be practised, but
mals, as his aid. He existed as both man and under the supervision of the state. If a house
animal. As animal, he was the bull. As man, fell and killed the son of a householder, the
he was at first Minos, and later Zeus. Women builder must suffer the loss of his own son.
were given an important place in the religious Death penalties were quite common. Both
ceremonies mainly because of the important parties convicted of adultery were made to
WORLD CONCEPTS 3.117
pay their lives as price. Harbouring a runaway jurists interpreted the laws. They modernized
slave also attracted capital punishment. Judges old laws and emphasized the importance of
were appointed to try cases. This was certainly high ethical standards in legal procedure. The
a great advancement over the blood-feud sys- praetor, before whom cases were tried, issued
tem practised by most people at that time. an edict at the beginning of his term of office,
Hebrecus had a law code called the Mosaic explaining the principles that he expected to
Code. The object behind the compilation of follow in cases brought before him. Under
this code was to preserve unity among them. this procedure, Roman law was permitted to
About 444 BC, Ezra, a learned priest, called develop.
together all the people and read before them Roman civil law, dealing with persons,
what was called the Book of the Law of Moses. things and actions, became a fundamental ele-
The rulers and the churchmen agreed to follow ment in western cultural tradition. The legal
the Laws of Moses in their day-to-day life. The concept of a corporation originated in the
Ten Commandments, believed to have been Roman law of personality. The law of things
passed on by God to Moses, form the basis of classified the various types of property—
the Code of Moses. The Ten Commandments sacred property, common property and private
stressed the need for establishing a theocratic property. Furthermore, the scheme of things
community, among the Hebrews. It meant that classified and validated the means of legally
god was the head of the state and his Com- acquiring ownership. This could be done under
mandments had the force of law; declared the Roman civil law in three ways: (1) by for-
against idolatry; favoured the absolute power mal sale in the presence of witnesses; (2) by a
of the head of the family and the subordination magistrate’s order of transfer; and (3) by use,
of women to men; upheld the sanctity of mar- one year for movables and two for immovables.
riage and private property; and condemned any
desire to covet another man’s wife or property.
The Mosaic Code dealt with every aspect Roman Republic
of human life—food, clothing, medicine, Rome made her appearance as a monarchic
hygiene, love, lust, etc. It has given a list of city state. The Roman monarchy lasted from,
diseases caused by excessive indulgence and the foundation of Rome, about 753 BC to 510
remedies for them. It has outlined the mea- BC. In 510 BC, the last of the Roman kings,
sures to be followed in dealing with people Tarquin the Proud, was expelled from the state
afflicted with such diseases and precautionary and Rome was proclaimed a republic. The pow-
steps to be taken to avoid them. It emphasized ers till now exercised by the king were vested
the need for keeping the body and soul clean. in an annually elected officer called the consul.
In Athens, Draco came out with the first The comitia centuriata was given the power to
written law in 621 BC, which came to be elect the consul. Like the king, the consul-
called after him as Draco’s Code. During the filled vacancies in the senate; summoned and
last half of the seventh century BC, great dis- presided over the senate and the assembly;
tress reigned in Athens. One of the causes of appointed all the officials; punished those who
the distress was the ignorance of the law, which withstood authority; represented the state in
was not yet written. As law was not written dealings with other states; and led the army
down, the common people were at the mercy in war. He enjoyed the trappings of the king.
of the nobles. This unprecedented distress pro- Thus, the lictors bore before him the fasces.
vided enough material for a revolution. He sat in the curule chair. The consul was thus
Changes in law were achieved in Rome more distinguished from the people by his dress and
by interpretation than by legislation. Trained symbols of authority.
3.118 Chapter 18
Aware of the evils of uncontrolled power, the individual Spartan could free a Helot. But the
Romans decided to entrust these powers to two Helots, who served in the state army loyally in
consuls instead of one, so that one could act times of war, could be freed by the state. Such
as a check upon the other. The dual character freed Helots were called Neodamodes.
acted as a check upon the power of the consuls. The slaves formed an important element
But the veto was to be pronounced in person. in the population of Athens. They were unfree
The position of the consul was also weakened labourers who worked in the fields. Most of
by the short tenure. Further, as a consul’s impe- the industries were worked by the labour of
rium, which included powers of life and death, slaves. There were three kinds of slaves – chil-
was absolute outside the city, he was compelled dren born of slave parents, slaves purchased in
to allow an appeal to the people against a sen- the market and prisoners of war, who had been
tence, which affected the life status of a citizen. enslaved. Rich people had a large number of
This restricted imperium was imperium domi. slaves. Even the poorest citizen had one or two
In later days, the tribunes could veto their acts. slaves. The slaves were ruled by their masters
They could be tried for their mistakes after they who could punish them or sell them, but usu-
had laid down their offices. In the fifth century ally they were treated with kindness. The life
BC, the consuls were given assistants called the of the slave was protected by law. No master
quaestors, appointed first by the consuls and could kill a slave. Many of the slaves were
later elected by the assembly. paid small wages. Some of them who had won
the favour of their masters could get freedom.
Without these slaves, it could not have been
Slavery in Ancient World possible for Athens to develop their democ-
In ancient Egypt, the people were differenti- racy in which all the citizens participated in
ated into easily distinguishable classes: a lei- the government directly.
sure class, forming the upper stratum and a The ancient city state of Rome was based
slave class, making up the lower stratum. It on slavery so as to secure the citizens leisure
was possible for an individual to pass from the for activity on behalf of the state and leisure
lower to the other, even as high as the priest- for self-development. But no system of slav-
hood and to a leading government position. ery elsewhere approached the brutality of the
Slave economy permitted the building of pyra- Roman system. The demand for slaves was so
mids, palaces, irrigation projects, etc. The cul- great that the Roman merchants conducted
tivation of land was assigned to the slaves. slave hunts on every frontier. Many slaves
The slaves formed the lowest social division were captured in war. The numerous conquests
in the Babylonian society. They were treated as of Rome brought in a vast number of slaves.
personal property. The slaves were also imported from abroad,
In ancient Greek society, the slaves being purchased in the great slave markets.
formed an indispensable element. They were All citizens had slaves, the rich having several.
called Helots, in Sparta, one of the two most The treatment of the slaves showed at its worst,
important city states of ancient Greece. They the Roman lack of regard for human life. The
lived in isolated huts, built on the lands which slaves were badly fed. Gangs of slaves in
they cultivated. These lands did not belong chains were worked to death and barbarously
to them, but to the Spartan masters, who punished. They were beaten with rods. If
also owned the Helots. The Spartans, being condemned to death, the slave was crucified.
a minority surrounded by the Helots, treated Sometimes the caprice of a master could free
the Helots with utmost cruelty. The master a slave or the slave might purchase his free-
could kill any Helot on the least excuse. No dom. Such of the slaves who become free were
called freedman. But this was very rare. The clearer shape in men’s minds and the traditions
Roman slavery deeply injured Roman life. which had guided usage began to take the form
It supplanted free labour and was one of the of laws embodied in written constitutions. Fur-
causes, which led to the decay of the free men. ther they planted colonies in distant lands and
The employment of slave artisans enabled the thus helped in the process of Greek expansion.
Roman capitalists to earn large profits. The The most successful aristocracy in the ancient
influx of eastern slaves, who were employed in world was that of Rome during the period from
households, brought eastern superstitions and the fourth to the second centuries BC.
several influences which debased family lives. In theory, there is much to be said in favour
Slavery was a potent source of disorder. There of aristocracy. It lays emphasis on quality rather
were slave rebellions. Even where they did than quantity. It gives the community a ruling
not rebel, they posed a great danger to public class, who inherit and bequeath to posterity
security, for gangs of slaves infested the lonely high traditions of public service and who can
roads, robbing and murdering and thus making be trusted to administer public affairs with per-
travel unsafe in several areas. sonal integrity and honour, because they pos-
sess a high position, independent of politics by
virtue of their birth, family background, wealth
Aristocracy and experience. It seems to be a natural institu-
Aristocracy is a form of government in which tion. Rousseau says, ‘It is the best and the most
the final authority is vested in the hands of a natural arrangement that the wisest should gov-
small number of nobles, who rule by virtue of ern the many when it is assured that they will
their birth, wealth and experience. The Greeks govern for its profit, not for their own’.
regarded aristocracy as the government by Aristocracies are conservative and an ele-
the best. In Greek, ‘CTKUVQUŏ means ‘be based ment of conservatism is necessary for the
on birth, wealth, age, military power, priestly body politic. They curb passionate or unrea-
power education, or a combination of these and sonable tendencies and avoid rash political
similar distinctions’. This type of government experiments. They advance by cautious and
was in existence in various parts of the world. measured steps. They have the great virtue of
In ancient Greece, it replaced monarchy in cer- moderation. This moderation is dictated by
tain city states. Aristocracies played a valuable the need for their own security. They always
role in the political development of Greece. remember that subject masses outnumber them
They worked out the idea of public duty, the and that they have greater physical force. They
idea that the mind and body alike of each are aware that immoderate use of their power
individual should be cultivated to the utmost may lead to stiff resistance. Furthermore,
benefit of the state. The honourable pride of aristocracies are conducive to progress. Maine
noble descent made the nobles cherish the idea has said that the progress of mankind, which
and set an example of unselfish devotion to the has been achieved so far, is due to the rise and
state. This conception was called by the Greeks fall of aristocracies, to the formation of one
as the idea of ‘Good Life’. The aristocracies aristocracy within another or to the succession
helped in elaborating the political machinery of one aristocracy to another.
of the states. This was indeed inevitable for the Aristocracy has certain defects. Aristoc-
new machinery had to be created to replace the racies have a tendency to become constantly
monarchical part of older constitution which smaller and more exclusive. Aristocrats may
had disappeared. Thus we find magistrates boast of their birth, wealth and experience.
with limited power occupying the place of the Not in all cases these have value from the point
king. Under them the idea of law began to take of view of the public. Wealth can never be
3.120 Chapter 18
synonymous with wisdom or goodness. People lesson’. The actual number of his students was
born in aristocratic families cannot always be small, but his influence as far-reaching.
wise. It is wrong to assert that all aristocrats An opportunity to apply his political theo-
are people with excellent character. The expe- ries came when he was appointed the chief
rience of aristocrats may not suit the condi- magistrate of the city of Chung-tu. He was
tions at all times. Aristocrats generally have quite successful in suppressing crime and in
sympathy for the people of their own rank and organizing a good government. He dispensed
status and have little sympathy for the common justice without fear or favour. Everything was
man. They are generally reactionaries and are regulated: the food that the people should eat,
unwilling to move with the times. Aristocracy the dress they had to wear, the kind of houses
is excessively rigid. Society is hardly static. It in which they were to live, the prices of articles
is the hallmark of a good government to adapt to be sold and wages to be paid. On account
itself to changing socio–economic conditions. of his efforts, loyalty and good faith marked
But aristocracies, in trying to preserve their every man and submissiveness graced every
power, are unwilling to adapt themselves. Aris- woman. Confucius incurred the displeasure
tocracy is opposed to democratic principles of and hatred of selfish politicians, who were not
equality. The values of aristocracy are antago- happy with his effort to establish a good gov-
nistic to the values of democracy. These defects ernment in the country. He was soon dismissed
have led to the discrediting of aristocracy. from his office and was forced to leave his
home to wander over Chiba, looking for a ruler
who would accept his ideas. But he could not
Confucianism find one in the whole of China. His life ended
The philosophy of Confucius is called Confu- in privation. His last remark was that, ‘There
cianism. Confucius (K’ung Fu-tzu, 551–479 is not one in the empire who will make me his
BC) was not the founder of a religion. He teacher. Verily, my time has come to die.’
was not even a religious reformer. In his own
words, he was, ‘not a maker but a transmitter,
believing in and loving the ancients’. Like the Humanism
Buddha, he at first lived a life of luxury. His The term ‘humanism’ is derived from the term
restless and penetrating mind would not allow ‘humanista’, a new name originating in stu-
him to remain inactive. He dedicated himself to dent slang for teachers of grammar, rhetoric
the task of putting the Chinese society in order. and the other humane studies. The human-
Like Socrates, he was a great teacher. He started ists were scholars of classics. Though medi-
a school in his own house when he was just 22 eval scholars had also devoted their time to
years old. He taught history poetry and rules of their study, it was only then that an increased
propriety. He laid great stress on the rules of emphasis was put on its study. This emphasis
propriety. He said, ‘A man’s character is formed was so great that it constituted a real change.
by the Odes, developed by the Rites (ceremony Humanists discovered texts hitherto lost.
and courtesy), and perfected by music’. He did These included 6CEKVWU and .WETGVKWU. Copies
not follow any set rules in pedagogy, but tried of texts already known came to be multiplied
to satisfy the curiosity of his students. He said, at an extraordinary rate, so that knowledge of
‘I do not open up the truth to one who is not the texts was diffused far beyond the narrow
eager, nor help out anyone who is not anxious circle of medieval scholars who previously
to explain himself. When I have presented one had had access to them. Most striking was the
corner of a subject to anyone, and he cannot quickening in Greek studies. In spite of the
from it learn the other three, I do not repeat my long contacts between Europe and Byzantium,
the number of people knowing Greek or car- humanists as well. Whatever be their role, the
ing about Greek literature in the West before humanists prided themselves on writing cor-
the late fourteenth century AD, was almost nil. rect Latin speeches, much as their medieval
The earlier translations of Greek often came predecessors had done.
from an intermediary Arabic version. These The humanistic enthusiasm for classical
pertained almost completely to medicine sci- antiquity influenced the artists of the period.
ence and Aristotelian philosophy. Reflecting the classical revival, the fashion
The humanists now began to teach Greek in building changed from the soaring Gothic
in the universities and translate Homer and the to adaptations of the ancient Roman temple
other poets, the orators, the historians, and the emphasizing symmetry and the horizontal line.
philosophers other than Aristotle. In this they Palaces and private residences began to rival
were greatly helped by the Greek exiles like cathedrals and churches in magnificence. The
Manuel Chrysolaras, who lectured in Florence arts became less Christian and more and more
between AD 1396 and 1400, and Greek visi- secular than they had been in the Middle Ages.
tors like the scientist and Platonist, Gemistos For patrons, artists turned increasingly to rulers
Plethon, who attended the church council of and businessmen. For subjects, they chose not
Florence in AD 1437. In AD 1462, Cosimo only the traditional virgin, Christ and saints,
de Medici established a Platonic Academy in but also pagan gods and their own patrons.
Florence. Pico della Mirandola, who knew They copied classical models and launched
Hebrew and Arabic besides Greek and stud- bold experiments in artistic expression.
ied Jewish allegory and Arab philosophy, was
one of its outstanding members. He hoped to
find a set of keys to man and the universe, Enlightened Despotism
the common denominator of faith by careful Enlightened despotism was an almost univer-
examination of the varied beliefs and ideas of sal pattern by the last quarter of the eighteenth
the past. His effort was typical of the best in century AD, much as the divine right monarchy
humanist scholarship. on the pattern of Louis XIV of France had
The humanists were more than scholars. been in the seventeenth century AD and as
They shone as writers in their own right. They parliamentary government was at the end of
wrote voluminous letters, speeches, poems, the nineteenth century. It means government by
treatises on grammar and rhetoric, history, a reforming ruler who, under the influence of
politics, education and religion. Only a few the ideas of the Enlightenment, was genuinely
humanists can be described as freelance writ- desirous of improving the living standards of
ers. Most were either teachers or acted as sec- the people and was at the same time concerned
retaries to princes or city governments. The with achieving what would today be called
humanists proclaimed an ideal of eloquence. ‘efficien y’, ‘economy’, ‘rationalization’ and
As professional rhetoricians, they were con- even streamlining. He was one who wanted
vinced that classical models supplied the best to eliminate the kind of obstacles. which were
guides. Many of them developed great con- weakening the ancient regime in France.
tempt for the learning of their medieval prede- Frederick II (AD 1740–86) of Prussia (one
cessors, whose ideas on life and learning they of the states of Germany) was the showcase
did not share. But many others had developed of enlightened despotism. He was the darling
a great regard for medieval scholastic thought of the RJKNQURJGU (enlightened or advanced
and continued to study it. By the middle of thinkers). He owed a great deal, however, to his
the fifteenth century AD, many lawyers and Hohenzollern predecessors. His great grand-
doctors and other professional men were father, Frederick William, the Great Elector
3.122 Chapter 18
(AD 1640–88), had built up the Prussian admin- Social contract and
istration, preserved Prussia through the last
decade of the Thirty Years’ War, which ravaged General Will
Germany between AD 1618 and 1648, and came The Social Contract Theory is one among
out fairly well in the settlement that followed the various theories which have been strived
the war. His grandfather, by getting the consent to explain the origin of the state. The theory
of the emperor to the acquisition of the title of states that the state is the result of a contract or
king in (though not of) Prussia, enhanced the an agreement entered into by men. History of
prestige of Prussia. His father, King Frederick the world is thus divisible into two periods—
William I (AD 1713–40), bequeathed to him an the period before the state was formed and the
excellent army and a well-filled treasury, which period after its formation. In the first period,
were quite useful to his son. there was no law which could be enforced by a
Frederick II was cosmopolitan in his inter- coercive authority. It is said that in this period,
ests and tastes. He was deeply interested in fine people lived in a state of nature, in which they
arts. He was a sceptic in matters of religion. He were subject only to such regulations as nature
disliked drinking, gluttony and smoking. So he was supposed to prescribe. There was no human
found life at the court unbearable. He tried to authority to formulate these rules precisely or
flee from the country. But he was caught and to enforce them. After some time, the peo-
condemned to death. In the end, his life was ple decided to establish a government. While
spared. Thereafter, he followed the commands doing so, they parted with their natural liberty
of his father. He professed the religious opin- and agreed to obey the laws to be prescribed
ions dictated to him by his father. He began by the government. While the exponents of the
to evince interest in the administration. He theory generally agree on the essential idea,
underwent rigorous military training. By the viz., that the state is a human creation, the
time he became the king, his early idealism and result of a contract, they differ on their under-
human tendencies disappeared and he became standing of the nature of the life of the people
a cynic. He believed in nothing but brute force. before the formation of the state, i.e., the state
This was unbecoming of an enlightened ruler. of nature, the reasons which goaded them to
He started spending his time, energy, attention establish a government, the contracting parties
and money on the army. When it was shattered, and the terms of the contract.
he rebuilt it with great care. If the Prussian The idea of a social contract is found in the
army became the envy and model of Europe, political treatises both of the East and the West.
it was not only due to the tireless drill, iron Arthasastra of -CWVKN[C refers to it. ‘People suf-
discipline and up-to-date weapons but also due fering from anarchy, as illustrated by the prover-
to the great enthusiasm and ability of Freder- bial tendency of a large fish swallowing a small
ick. At the time of his accession, Prussia was one, first elected Manu to be their king; and
not particularly rich. It had its full share of allotted one-sixth of the grains grown and one-
medieval institutions, medieval class structure, tenth of their merchandise as sovereign dues.
serfdom and other stumbling blocks to a uni- Supported by this payment, kings took upon
fied progressive nation. But it had a remark- themselves the responsibility of maintaining
able bureaucracy, perhaps the best in Europe, the safety and security of their subjects.’ Plato
a landed nobility, full of feudal pride, yet loyal refers to it in his writings. In his work, the %TKVQ,
to the crown and willing to serve it faithfully in Socrates is represented as awaiting calmly the
peace and war, and common people relatively execution of his sentence, even though he con-
submissive and obedient and emotionally sidered it unjust, because he would not break
conditioned to accept higher authority. his covenant with the state by escaping from
prison into exile. Again, in the 4GRWDNKE, Glau- West to appreciate them. As a result, Europe,
con puts forth the view, while discussing the cloaked in darkness and inhabited by barbar-
concept of justice, that legislation and contracts ians, was suddenly illuminated by a blaze of
between man and man originated in a compact light that helped the ignorant to see the truth
of mutual abstinence from injustice. and transform themselves into cultivated gen-
Locke (AD 1632–1704) gives his version of tlemen. This belief is wrong for there was no
the social contract in his 6YQ6TGCVKUGUQH)QX large migration of Greeks after 1453. Many had
GTPOGPV; written chiefly to justify the English migrated earlier. Even in the twelfth century,
Revolution of AD 1688. He too begins with the the Western rediscovery of the classical herit-
description of the state of nature. To him, men age was already well under way. In the thir-
are free and equal in the state of nature. Each teenth century, Aquinas and others had already
lives according to his own liking. This freedom, incorporated Aristotelian philosophy into the
however, is not licence. There is a natural law Christian scheme. It is therefore is mislead-
or the law of reason, which commands that ing to speak of rebirth towards the close of the
no one shall impair the life, the health, the medieval period. There is no doubt that there
freedom or the possessions of another. The was certainly a transition and that Europe was
important point of difference to be noted is growing less medieval and increasingly mod-
that while the law of nature of Hobbes stresses ern. This does not mean that all scholars or
self-preservation, that of Locke emphasizes artists of the Renaissance suddenly appeared
the freedom and preservation of all men. There totally devoid of medieval qualities or totally
is, however, no common superior to enforce imbued with modern ones. Still, it is not
the law of reason. Each individual is obliged improper to apply the term Renaissance to the
to work out his own interpretation. The result civilization of the transition period.
is that while the state of nature is not a state of The Renaissance first began in Italy because
war, as it is in the view of Hobbes, it is none- of its location. The trade and commerce of Ital-
theless still full of fears and continual dangers ian merchants had brought there most of the
and man’s enjoyment of rights is very insecure. wealth of Western Europe. Ideas soon spread
Consequently, the peace among men may be so to other countries and national cultures, which
precarious as not to be easily distinguishable were closely associated with political devel-
from the anarchy picturized by Hobbes. opments, arose. The golden age of the Italian
Renaissance ended in the first quarter of the
sixteenth century. The spark of culture, the
Renaissance spirit of humanism, had crossed the Alps and
The term ‘renaissance’ means rebirth. When spread to Germany, France and England.
men applied it to the extraordinary fl wering Cultural activities were slowly gaining
of letters and the arts, which began in the four- ground in Germany in the second half of the
teenth century in Italy and spread at varying fifteenth century. Agricola was appointed
speeds and with varying intensity to the other professor of classical literature at Heidel-
countries of Europe, they wanted it to mean berg University, Reuchlin was the first great
a rebirth of classical culture, a return to the German scholar of the classes. The Germans
excellence of the ancient Greeks and Romans attempted to connect humanism and theol-
and a rejection of everything for which the ogy and to instil the spirit of reform into clas-
Middle Ages had stood. It was believed that sical learning. This had its consummation in
when Constantinople fell to the Turks in 1453, Luther’s conflict with the papacy.
refugee Greek scholars brought to the West At the beginning of the sixteenth century,
the manuscripts of the classics and taught the the intellectual revival began to manifest itself
3.124 Chapter 18
in France. Charles VIII led a French army is not easy to define because it has various
into Naples, where he made contacts with the aspects and is not a force acting in one direc-
learning of Italy. Several important scholars, tion only. Generally speaking, nationalism is
including Erasmus, were attracted to Paris a feeling of oneness or common conscious-
where they taught at the University. ness based on political, historical, religious,
linguistic, psychological and other factors in a
state. It is to be distinguished from patriotism.
Nationalism While nationalism necessarily contains politi-
Though some European states attained nation- cal consciousness, patriotism may not have it.
hood about the sixteenth century, nationalism Nationalism needs patriotism, but there can be
as a very vital force in modern times clearly patriotism even without nationalism.
emerged only in the nineteenth century. In the The following factors influence in creating
twentieth century, it has become still more and promoting nationalism:
conspicuous. In fact, the very basis of the
modern state is nationalism, which is almost 1. Common land is an essential factor, for it
the one idea for which masses of men will still creates a common bond among the people.
die. Nothing thrills the people of a country so Without a common land, clearly marked
much as the force of nationalism. Nothing gal- out by geographical boundaries, people
vanizes and revitalizes the people in a country cannot have a common basis for their
as national feeling. national feeling. A common land creates a
The term, ‘nation’ (PCVWU = born), etymo- clear image in the minds of the people and
logically means a group of people coming a strong feeling of attachment is fostered.
from a common stock. But today it is not used 2. Common historical background, present-
in such a narrow sense Nation represents all ing great triumphs and achievements com-
or a vast majority of people in a state brought mon joys and sorrows, common sufferings
together by an emotional or political force and political bondage, serve as a good
known as nationalism. The term nationalism basis for nationalism.
Exercise
Who called commerce is a perpetual war Who was mainly responsible for the estab-
of wit and energy among all nations? lishment of the League of Nations?
(a) Jean Bodin (a) Woodrow Wilson
(b) Jean Baptist Colbert (b) Lloyd George
(c) Thomas Mun (c) Clemenceau
(d) Thomas Hobbes (d) Joseph Stalin
Whiteman’s burden was theory of _____. Who wrote, ‘History has no ultimate
(a) Humanism (b) Imperialism philosophical purpose, but is a delight in
(c) Non-alignment (d) Socialism itself’?
Who among the following belongs to the (a) Sir Thomas Munro
sub-altern school of historiography? (b) R.G. Collingwood
(a) Bipan Chandra (c) G.H. Trevelyan
(b) Romila Thapar (d) Cicero
(c) Ranjit Guha Who was universally acclaimed as the
(d) Ramchandra Guha Prince of the Humanists?
(a) Erasmus (a) Marshal Tito

(b) John Colet (b) Jawaharlal Nehru
(c) Thomas More (c) Nelson Mandela
(d) Francisco Petrarch (d) President Sukarno
During Renaissance, interest in the study Which is considered to be the most signifi-
of Graeco–Roman classics came to be cant aspect of Rousseau’s political theory?
known as _____. (a) Absolute sovereignty
(a) Individualism (b) Hedonism (b) General Will
(c) Romanticism (d) Humanism (c) Single Contract
Bandung Conference relates to _____. (d) A happy state of affairs before the for-
(a) Nazism (b) Non-alignment mation of a government
(c) Apartheid (d) Imperialism Protestantism was officially recognized in
_____.
Who is known as the showpiece of enlight-
(a) Diet of Warms, 1521
ened despotism?
(b) Diet of Augnsburg, 1555
(a) Louis XIV (b) Frederick II
(c) Diet of Spears, 1526
(c) Joseph II (d) Catherine II
(d) Diet of Augnsburg, 1592
Calvinists in France were known as _____. One of the following rulers was not asso-
(a) Puritans (b) Presbyterians ciated with Enlightened Despotism. Who
(c) Huguenots (d) Catholics was he?
Who was the first Greek Historian? (a) Fredrick II of Prussia
(a) Thucydides (b) Herodotus (b) Peter the Great of Russia
(c) Homer (d) Megasthenes (c) Louis XIV of France
(d) Joseph II of Austria
Which of the following is considered to be
collectively spoken of as the Bible of Con- The fee paid to the Lord for the use of the
fucianism? mill, brewery and bakery was known as
(a) The Book of the Dead _____.
(b) Zend Avesta (a) Banalite (b) Corvee
(c) The Coffin Texts (c) Gabelle (d) Taille
(d) The Book of Mencius The rise of bourgeoisie to economic power,
westernization of the world and revival of
Which of the following is not a salient fea-
slavery were the consequences of _____.
ture of Annales school?
(a) Commercial Revolution
(a) Interdisciplinary approach
(b) Feudalism
(b) Search for ‘new sources’
(c) Industrial Revolution
(c) Long duree
(d) Manorialism
(d) Region-centric approach
Who among the following articulates that
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there can be no objectivity in history?
#WVJQTU 9QTMU
(a) Post-Modernists (b) Marxists
(c) Neo-Colonialists (d) Sub-alternists A. Erasmus 1. Divine Comedy
B. Machiavelli 2. Utopia
Who among the following was not associ-
C. Thomas More 3. The Prince
ated with the foundation of Non-Alignment
Movement? D. Dante 4. Praise of Folly
3.126 Chapter 18
%QFGU The Russian Social Democratic Party was

A B C D founded by ______.
(a) 3 2 1 4 (a) Karl Marx
(b) 2 1 3 4 (b) Lenin
(c) 1 2 3 4 (c) Melenkov
(d) 4 3 2 1 (d) George Phekhanov
Bullionism and the favourable balance of Mustafa Kamal Pasha terminated the con-
trade were the basic features of _____. cept of theocratic state in Turkey in the
(a) Colonialism year _____.
(b) Commercialism (a) 1927
(c) Free Trade (b) 1930
(d) Mercantilism (c) 1925
(d) 1937
Match List I with List II and select the Law code is related to _____.
correct answer. (a) Hammurabi (b) Thucydides
.KUV+ .KUV++ (c) Strabo (d) Justin
A. Council of Trent 1. Social Contract Who wrote, ‘Whoever writes completely
free from bias will produce a colourless
B. Adolf Hitler 2. Duce and dull book’?
C. Jean Jacques 3. Counter- (a) J.B. Bury
Rousseau Reformation (b) Michel Oakeshool
D. Benito Mussolini 4. Fuhrer (c) R.G. Collingwood
(d) A.L. Rouse
%QFG ‘History is past politics.’ Who held this
A B C D view?
(a) 4 1 2 3 (a) Stubbs
(b) 2 4 1 3 (b) Carlyle
(c) 3 4 2 1 (c) Seeley
(d) 3 4 1 2 (d) Trevelyn
Humurabi’s code belongs to _____. Confucianism developed in _____.
(a) Roman civilization (a) Korea
(b) Greek civilization (b) Malaysia
(c) Babylonian civilization (c) China
(d) Chinese civilization (d) Thailand
Answer Keys
1. (b) 2. (b) 3. (c) 4. (a) 17. (b) 18. (c) 19. (b) 20. (c)
5. (c) 6. (a) 7. (d) 8. (d) 21. (d) 22. (b) 23. (d) 24. (c)
9. (b) 10. (c) 11. (b) 12. (d) 25. (b) 26. (b) 27. (a) 28. (a)
13. (d) 14. (b) 15. (c) 16. (b) 29. (a) 30. (a)
Part IV: Previous
Years’ Solved Papers
UGC NET History Paper II
June 2008
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NVMUJQMFDIPJDF RVFTUJPOT FBDI RVFTUJPO DBSSZJOH UXP

NBSLT"UUFNQUBMMUIFRVFTUJPOT
Indian nationalism emanated from ‘tradi- the railways and telegraph, and the emergence
tional patriotism’, a socially active sentiment of a new public space created by the colonial
of attachment to land, language and cult, that institutions.
developed in the subcontinent long before the The ‘nationalism’ in pre-colonial India
process of Westernization had begun. In India meant:
of the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, (a) Patriotism
such sentiments were emerging on a regional (b) Linguistic affinit
basis as homeland was being defined by various (c) Cultural construction of homeland
terms like EFTIWBUBO or OBEV, where identities (d) Social activism
were gradually taking shape with the devel- What contributed most to the dissolution
opment of regional languages and religions of cultural barriers ?
affiliations. But although regionally centred at (a) Commercialization
Bengal, Maharashtra, Awadh or Mysore, their (b) Creation of mughal empire
isolation broke down through various means (c) Pilgrimage
of communication, the political legitimacy of (d) Communication networks
the Mughal empire was recognised throughout
Hindustan, which was thought to be the abode The East India Company’s rule resulted in:
of both Hindus and Muslims. Cultural barriers (a) Evangelicalism
melted down through commercialisation and (b) Good Government
regular pilgrimages. As the East India Company (c) New Ethical Tradition
established its hegemony, this traditional patri- (d) Consolidation of patriotic sentiments
otism manifested itself through various indig- The revolt of 1857 was:
enous critiques of foreign rule deviating from (a) an aristocratic revolt
the established ethical traditions of good gov- (b) a revolt of the common people
ernment and through irate reactions to Christian (c) a reactionary upsurge
missionary propaganda. Finally, it burst forth (d) the culmination of the early resistance
through numerous acts of resistance, partici- What was the most important outcome of
pated by both princes and the commoners, cul- the direct administration ?
minating in the revolt of 1857. After the revolt, (a) growth of education
a modern sector of politics gradually evolved in (b) development of railways and telegraph
India, through rapid spread of education, devel- (c) evolution of a modem sector of politics
opment of communication systems, such as (d) growth of colonial institutions
4.4 Model Question Paper–June 2008
Which among the following is associated 4GCUQP

4 This was caused primarily by
with Palaeolithic: the changes in climatic conditions.
(a) Chopper-chopping tools Read the above statements and select the
(b) Geometric tools correct code below:
(c) Pecking tools %QFGU
(d) Polished tools (a) (A) is correct, but (R) is wrong
Which among the following represents (b) (A) is incorrect, but (R) is true
Mesolithic: (c) Both (A) and (R) are correct
(a) Gathering (d) Both (A) and (R) are wrong
(b) Hunting Given below are two statements where
(c) Food production one labelled Assertion (A) and the other
(d) Domestication of animals labeled Reason (R):
Which among the following stands for #UUGTVKQP
# The second urbanization
Neolithic: occurred in the Gangetic plains during the
(a) Nomadism (b) Transhumance second half of the first millennium BC.
(c) Sedentism (d) Urbanism 4GCUQP
4 This was effected by the
Which of the following is associated with favorable climatic conditions.
the Harappa Civilization ? Read the above statements and select the
(a) Chauntra (b) Langhnaj correct answer from the codes below:
(c) Mehrgarh (d) Ahar %QFGU
Given below are two statements where (a) Both (A) and (R) are incorrect
one labelled Assertion (A) and the other (b) Both (A) and (R) are true
labelled Reason (R): (c) (A) is correct, but (R) is false
#UUGTVKQP
# The pace of human devel- (d) (A) is untrue, but (R) is true
opment was very slow during the stone Arrange the following into sequential
age. order and select the correct answer from
4GCUQP
4 Primarily because humans the following codes:
were dependent on hit and trial method of (i) Janapada
learning. (ii) Mahajanapada
(iii) Jana
Read the above statements and select the
(iv) Empire
correct answer from the codes below:
%QFGU
%QFGU
(a) (ii), (iii), (i), (iv)
(a) (A) is correct, but (R) is wrong
(b) (iii), (iv), (ii), (i)
(b) Both (A) and (R) are correct
(c) (iv), (ii), (i), (iii)
(c) (A) is wrong, but (R) is correct
(d) (iii), (i), (ii), (iv)
(d) Both (A) and (R) are incorrect
Arrange the following into sequential
Given below are two statements one order and select the correct answer from
labelled Assertion (A) and the other the following codes:
labelled Reason (R): (i) Junagarh inscription
#UUGTVKQP
# The first urbanization in (ii) Allahabad pillar inscription
India decayed by the end of 3rd millennium (iii) Aihole inscription
BC. (iv) Pathari Stamb inscription
Model Question Paper–June 2008 4.5
%QFGU Match List-I with List-II and select the

(a) (iv), (i), (iii), (ii) correct answer from the codes below:
(b) (i), (ii), (iii), (iv)
(c) (ii), (iii), (iv), (i) .KUV+ .KUV++
(d) (iii), (iv), (i), (ii) (a) Dhamma (i) Samundra-
Vijay gupta
order and select the correct answer from (b) Kanyopayadan (ii) Caravan
the following codes: traders
(i) Ramayana (ii) Samved (c) Poet king (iii) Harsh Vardhan
(iii) Mahabharata (iv) Ashtadhyayi
(d) Sarthavaha (iv) Ashoka
%QFGU
%QFGU
(a) (i), (iv), (iii), (ii)
(a) (b) (c) (d)
(b) (ii), (iii), (i), (iv)
(a) (iii) (iv) (i) (ii)
(c) (iii), (i), (ii), (iv)
(b) (iv) (i) (iii) (ii)
(d) (iv), (ii), (i), (iii)
(c) (iv) (i) (ii) (iii)
Organise the following into chronological (d) (i) (iv) (ii) (iii)
order and select the correct answer from
the fol-lowing codes: Match List-I with List-II and select the
(i) Fa Hsian (ii) Megathnese correct answer from the codes below:
(iii) Huien Tsang (iv) Alberuni .KUV+ .KUV++
%QFGU (a) Varnashrama (i) Buddhism
(a) (ii), (i), (iii), (iv)
(b) Tirthankara (ii) Brahmanism
(b) (iii), (ii), (iv), (i)
(c) (iv), (iii), (ii), (i) (c) Shaivism (iii) Jainism
(d) (i), (iv), (ii), (iii) (d) Vajrayana (iv) Vedic
Match List-I with List-II and select the %QFGU
correct answer from the codes below: (a) (b) (c) (d)
.KUV+ .KUV++ (a) (iv) (iii) (ii) (i)
(b) (ii) (i) (iv) (iii)
(a) Twin Mound (i) Rig Veda System (c) (iii) (iv) (ii) (i)
(b) Vidath (ii) Harappa (d) (iv) (ii) (iii) (i)
Civilization
$IBIMHIBOJ was dominant during the reign
(c) Doctrine of (iii) Arthashastra of
Karma (a) Qutbuddin Aibak
(d) Saptang (iv) Brahmanism (b) lltutmish
Theory (c) Balban
%QFGU (d) Alauddin Khalji
(a) (b) (c) (d) When did Babur adopt the title of (IB[J?
(a) (ii) (i) (iv) (iii) (a) 1525
(b) (iv) (i) (ii) (iii) (b) 1526
(c) (iii) (iv) (ii) (i) (c) 1527
(d) (iv) (iii) (ii) (i) (d) 1528
The Rishi 4JMTJMBI refers to an order of sufi 4GCUQP

4 It did not have any effect on
saints in Mughal resources.
(a) Kashmir (b) Ajmer In the context of the above two statements,
(c) Hyderabad (d) Agra which one of the following is correct:
Who was the writer of 4BGJOBUVM"VMJZB? %QFGU
(a) Mian Mir (a) (A) is correct, but (R) is wrong
(b) Mulla Shah Badakhshi (b) Both (A) and (R) are correct
(c) Nizam-ud-din Ahmad (c) (A) is wrong, but (R) is correct
(d) Dara Shikoh (d) Both (A) and (R) are wrong
Name the two Delhi Sultanate historians Given below are two statements one
whose works bear the same title 5BSJLI* labelled as #UUGTVKQP
# and the other
'JSV[TIBIJ. labelled as 4GCUQP
4
(a) Zia-ud-din Barani and Amir Khusrau
(b) Shams Siraj Afif and Minhaj Sira #UUGTVKQP
# Alauddin khalji was inv-
(c) Hasan Nizami and Amir Khusrau olved in major changes in the taxation
(d) Zia-ud-din Barani and Shams Siraj system and collection of grain. He also
Afi undertook certain measures to ensure low
prices.
Given below are two statements one
4GCUQP
4 In the interests of expanding
labelled as Assertion (A) and the other
his forces and of maintaining them on low
labelled as Reason (R):
pay.
#UUGTVKQP
# ;BU denotes the number of
In the context of the above two statements,
troopers held by the mansabdars,
which one of the following is correct?
4GCUQP
4 4BXBS denotes the personal
%QFGU
status and standing in the Mughal admin-
(a) (A) is correct, but (R) is wrong
istrative hierarchy.
(b) Both (A) and (R) are correct
In the context of the above two statements, (c) (A) is wTong, but (R) is correct
which one of the following is correct. (d) Both (A) and (R) are wrong
%QFGU Which of the following is chronologically
(a) (A) is correct, but (R) is wrong correct?
(b) Both (A) and (R) are correct (a) Sangama, Saluva, Tuluva, Aravidu
(c) (A) is wrong, but (R) is correct (b) Saluva, Tuiuva, Aravidu, Sangama
(d) Both (A) and (R) are wrong (c) Tuluva, Aravidu, Sangama, Saluva
Given below are two statements one (d) Aravidu, Sangama, Saluva, Tuluva
labelled as #UUGTVKQP
# and the other Arrange the following in correct sequence:
labelled as4GCUQP
4 (a) Shams Siraj Afif, Abbas Khan
#UUGTVKQP
# Invading of Balkh and Sarwani, Hasan Nizami, Minhaj Siraj
Badakhshan and three closely spaced sieges (b) Hasan Nizami, Minhaj Siraj, Shams
of Qandahar by Shahjahan resulted in noth- Siraj Afif, Abbas Khan Sarwani
ing except the shedding of blood, the kill- (c) Abbas Khan Sarwani, Hasan Nizami,
ing of thirty to forty thousand of people, Shams Siraj Afif, Minhaj Sira
and the expenditure of thirty five million (d) Minhaj Siraj, Abbas Khan Sarwani,
rupees. Hasan Nizami, Shams Siraj Afi
Arrange the following in correct sequence: %QFGU

(a) Battle of Ghagra, Battle of Kalinjar, (a) (b) (c) (d)
Second Battle of Panipat, Battle of (a) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
Talikota (b) (iv) (iii) (ii) (i)
(b) Second Battle of Panipat, Battle of (c) (iii) (i) (ii) (iv)
Kalinjar, Battle of Talikota, Battle of (d) (ii) (iv) (iii) (i)
Ghagra Match List-I with List-II and select the
(c) Battle of Kalinjar, Battle of Ghagra, correct answer from the codes given
Second Battle of Panipat, Battle of below:
Talikota
.KUV+ .KUV++
(d) Battle of Talikota, Battle of Kalinjar,
Second Battle of Panipat, Battle of (a) Quwwat-ul (i) Shershah Suri
Ghagra Islam mosque
Match List-I with List-II and select the cor- (b) Alai Darwaza (ii) Qutbuddin
rect answer from the codes given below: Aibek
(c) Atala mosque (iii) Alauddin Khalji
.KUV+ .KUV++
(d) Rohtasgarh (iv) Ibrahim Shah
(a) Nicolo De Conti (i) Russia Fort Sharqi
(b) Athanasius (ii) Italy %QFGU
(a) (b) (c) (d)
(c) Abdur Razzaq (iii) Portugal (a) (ii) (iii) (iv) (i)
(d) Domingo Paes (iv) Iran (b) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
(c) (iv) (iii) (ii) (i)
%QFGU (d) (iii) (iv) (i) (ii)
(a) (b) (c) (d) Cornwallis code of 1793 separated:
(a) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (a) Civil from judicial administration
(b) (iii) (iv) (ii) (i) (b) Revenue collection from administra-
(c) (ii) (i) (iv) (iii) tion of civil justice
(d) (iv) (iii) (ii) (i) (c) The Bengal from central
administration
Match List-I with List-II and select the cor-
(d) The civil from military administration
rect answer from the codes given below:
The Ulgulan (ULGULAN) was a move-
.KUV+ .KUV++ ment of the:
(a) Agarias
(a) Mutamid Khan (i) Padshahnama (b) luangs
(c) Hos
(b) Lahori (ii) Muntkhab-ut-
(d) Mundas
Tawarikh
Identify the person not favouring the idea
(c) Badaoni (iii) Igba l namd-i- of land tax being permanently fixed:
Jahangiri (a) Alexander Dow
(b) Henri Patullo
(d) Khafi Khan (iv) Muntkhab-ul-
(c) Philip Francis
Lubab
(d) Warren Hastings
Given below are two statements one In the context of the above two statements,
labelled as Assertion (A) and the other which one of the following is correct.
labelled as Reason (R): %QFGU
#UUGTVKQP
# The Roytwari system did (a) (A) is true but (R) is false
not eliminate village elites as interme- (b) (A) is false but (R) is true
diaries between the government and the (c) Both (A) and (R) are false
peasantry. (d) (A) is true but (R) does not explain (A)
4GCUQP
4 The village power struc- Which of the following is chronologically
ture was hardly altered and even more correct ?
strengthened by the new system. (a) Parthana Samaj—Brahmo Samaj—
Arya Samaj—Poona Sarvajanik
Sabha—Atmiya Sabha
(b) Atmiya Sabha—Brahmo Samaj—
%QFGU Parthana Samaj—Arya Samaj—
(a) (A) is true and (R) is false Poona Sarvajanik Sabha
(b) (A) is false and (R) is true (c) Atrniya Sabha—Parthana Samaj—
(c) Both (A) and (R) are true Brahmo Samaj—Arya Samaj—
(d) Both (A) and (R) are false Poona Sarvajanik Sabha
Given below are two statements one (d) Atmiya Sabha—Brahmo Samaj—
labelled CU Assertion (A) and the other Parthana Samaj—Poona Sarvajanik
labelled as Reason (R): Sabha—Arya Samaj
#UUGTVKQP
# The goal of the extremists Arrange the following in chronological
was swaraj, which different leaders inter- order:
preted differently. (i) The Indian Penal Code
4GCUQP
4 The leaders coming from (ii) The code of Civil Procedure
different linguistic zones understood it (iii) The Criminal Procedure Code
differently. In the context of the above (iv) Police Act
statements, which one of the following is %QFGU
correct. (a) (i) (iii) (iv) (ii)
%QFGU (b) (ii) (iii) (i) (iv)
(c) (ii) (i) (iv) (iii)
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true
(d) (iv) (ii) (iii) (i)
(b) (A) is true and (R) are false
(c) (A) is false and (R) is true Arrange the following in chronological
(d) Both (A) and (R) are false order:
(i) Satara Prati Sarkar
Given below are two statements, one (ii) Mopalah
labelled as Assertion (A) and the other (iii) Tamralipta Jatiya Sarkar
labeled as Reason (R): (iv) Hool
#UUGTVKQP
# The Morley-Minto %QFGU
Reforms satisfied both the contending (a) (i) (iii) (ii) (iv)
factions of Indian National Congress. (b) (ii) (iv) (i) (iii)
4GCUQP
4 The Morley-Minto Reforms (c) (iv) (ii) (iii) (i)
addressed all their concerns. (d) (iii) (i) (ii) (iv)
Match the List-A with List-B using the Match List-A with List-B using the codes:
code: .KUV# .KUV$
.KUV# .KUV$ (a) Anjuman (i) Polygamy
(b) Kulin (ii) Cultivator
(a) The Emergence of (i) Partha
Indian Nationalism Chatterjee (c) Kanakkaram (iii) Association
(d) Mitakshara (iv) Inheritance
(b) Nationalism and (ii) Anil seal
%QFGU
Colonialism in
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Modern India
(a) (i) (iii) (iv) (ii)
(c) The Nation and its (iii) G.Alloysius (b) (iii) (i) (ii) (iv)
Fragments (c) (iii) (i) (iv) (ii)
(d) (iv) (iii) (ii) (i)
(d) Nationalism (iv) Rajnarain
without a Nation Chandavarkar During second world war, who said, ‘I
in India have not become the King’s First Minis-
ter to preside over the liquidation of the
%QFGU British Empire’.
(a) (b) (c) (d) (a) Lord Beaconsfiel
(a) (ii) (iii) (iv) (i) (b) John Lloyd
(b) (ii) (i) (iii) (iv) (c) Winston Churchill
(c) (ii) (iv) (i) (iii) (d) Benjamin Disraeli
(d) (iii) (iv) (ii) (i)
Where was the first socialist group formed:
Match List-A with List-B using codes: (a) Great Britain (b) Russia
.KUV# .KUV$ (c) Germany (d) France
What was most obvious expression of
(a) Bengalee (i) Aurobindo
imperialism?
Ghosh
(a) Superior technology
(b) Bande Mataram (ii) Bankim (b) Colonies
Chandra (c) Communication network
Chatterjee (d) Cultural supremacy
(c) Amrita Bazar (iii) Surendranath Research in observation process has to be:
Patrika Banerjee (a) continuous and persistent
(b) occasional and general
(d) Bangabasi (iv) Motilal (c) hurriedly carried proposition
Ghosh (d) none of the above
%QFGU Who warns against defining ‘behaviour’
(a) (b) (c) (d) as ‘rationality’?
(a) (ii) (iii) (iv) (i) (a) Milton Friedman
(b) (iii) (ii) (i) (iv) (b) Vincent J. Tarascio
(c) (iii) (iv) (ii) (i) (c) Werner Hochwald
(d) (iii) (i) (iv) (ii) (d) Stark Werner
Answer Keys
1. (a) 2. (a) 3. (d) 4. (d) 29. (b) 30. (a) 31. (c) 32. (c)
5. (c) 6. (a) 7. (b) 8. (c) 33. (a) 34. (a) 35. (d) 36. (c)
9. (c) 10. (a) 11. (c) 12. (b) 37. (a) 38. (b) 39. (c) 40. (b)
13. (d) 14. (b) 15. (b) 16. (a) 41. (d) 42. (c) 43. (c) 44. (b)
17. (a) 18. (b) 19. (a) 20. (b) 45. (b) 46. (c) 47. (b) 48. (b)
21. (c) 22. (a) 23. (d) 24. (d) 49. (a) 50. (c)
25. (b) 26. (a) 27. (b) 28. (a)
December 2008
0QVG6JKU RCRGT EQPVCKPU HKHV
OWNVKRNGEJQKEG SWGUVKQPU GCEJ SWGUVKQP ECTT[KPI VYQ

OCTMU#VVGORVCNNVJGSWGUVKQPU
4GCF VJG RCUUCIG IKXGP DGNQY CPF CPUYGT The newly-developed institutions and evolving
VJGSWGUVKQPUVJCVHQNNQYDCUGFQPVJGRCU structures formed an interconnected and mutu-
UCIG[QWWPFGTUVCPF ally reinforcing network, which survived and
India’s underdevelopment was not traditional brought into being the colonial structure.
or inherited from the precolonial past. India Why was India’s underdevelopment not
of the eighteenth century was undeveloped traditional?
and not underdeveloped. On a world scale, it (a) India in the 18th century was
was not less but perhaps more developed than undeveloped
many other national economies, as most of (b) India did not inherit underdevelop-
the world development has occupied after the ment from the past
eighteenth century and basically after 1850. In (c) India in the 18th century was not
fact, there was not much of a gap between the underdeveloped
economic condition of Mughal India and that (d) India was not a poor nation
of pre-industrial Europe and Japan, The basic
Why eighteenth century India could not be
feature of colonialism in India in its long his-
called underdeveloped?
tory since the 1750s was the appropriation by
(a) World development occured after 18th
Britain of the social surplus produced in India.
century
Also while the forms of surplus appropriation
(b) India did not lag behind other nations
underwent changes through different stages of
(c) Most other nations developed after
colonialism direct appropriation of surplus,
1850
employment of our boys, unequal exchange,
(d) Indian economy was comparable with
profits of industrial capitalism and interest
contemporary Europe and Japan
on public debt—the fact of surplus appropria-
tion remained constant and basic. There were Which of the following is the basic feature
of course, many changes and some of them of colonialism?
were positive for example, the development of (a) unequal exchange
the railways—when seen in isolation. But these (b) appropriation of social surplus
changes came within and as part of the colo- (c) interest on public debt
nial framework and became, therefore, part of (d) expropriation of the industrial profi
the process of underdevelopment. Colonialism Why the railways could not alter the course
is best seen as a totality or a unified structure. of development in India?
4.12 Model Question Paper–December 2008
(a) Railways were only superficia Read the above statements and select the
(b) Railways were positive changes correct answer from the codes below:
(c) Railways were often neglected %QFGU
(d) Railways formed only a part of the (a) (A) is correct, but (R) false
colonial framework (b) (A) is false, but (R) true
Colonialism should be seen by: (c) Both (A) and (R) are incorrect
(a) its networks (d) Both (A) and (R) are correct
(b) its institutions Given below are two statements, one
(c) its totality labelled Assertion (A) an the other labelled
(d) its changes Reason (R):
Which of the following represents Palaeo- #UUGTVKQP
# Beginning of landgrants in
lithic? Gupta period is associated with the incep-
(a) Microliths tion of feudalism.
(b) Madras inuutry
4GCUQP
4 This was imperative for eco-
(d) Neoliths
nomics development.
(d) Megaliths
Which among the following is associated
with Mesolithic?
(a) Sohan %QFGU
(b) Burzahom (a) (A) is correct, but (R) is incorrect
(c) Bhimbitaka (b) (A) is false, but (R) is true
(d) Shortughai (c) Both (A) and (R) are incorrect
(d) Both (A) and (R) are true
Which of the following stands for New
Stone age? Given below are two statements, one
(a) Hunting labelled Assertion (A) an the other labelled
(b) Pastoralism Reason (R):
(c) Scavenging #UUGTVKQP
# Arabs invaded India in the
(d) Food production first half of the 8th century A.D.
Which among the following denotes 4GCUQP
4 They were inspired by the
Harappa Civilization? imperialistic considerations.
(a) Malwa Culture Read the above statements and select the
(b) Gandhar Grave Culture correct answer from the codes below:
(c) Megalithic Culture
%QFGU
(d) Sothi Culture
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true
Given below are two statements, one (b) Both (A) and (R) are incorrect
labelled Assertion (A) and the other (c) (A) is true, but (R) is false
labelled Reason (R): (d) (A) is untrue, but (R) is true
#UUGTVKQP
# Kushan period in ancient Arrange the following into seqential order
Indian history is the mostprosperous and select the correct answer from the
period. codes given below:
4GCUQP
4 We witness all round devel- (i) Chalcolithic age
opment during this period. (ii) Iron age
Model Question Paper–December 2008 4.13
(iii) Bronze age .KUV+ .KUV++

(iv) Stone age
(a) Sabha and (i) Rudradaman
%QFGU
Samiti
(a) (iii), (ii), (i), (iv)
(b) (ii), (i), (iv), (iii) (b) Northern (ii) Vedic period
(c) (iv), (iii), (i), (ii) Black Polished Ware
(d) (i), (iv), (ii), (iii) (c) Girnar (iii) Ashoka
Arrange the following into seqential order inscription
and select the correct answer from the (d) Devanam (iv) Gangetic plain
codes given below: Piyon
(i) Rajatarangini
%QFGU
(ii) Harsh Charit
(a) (b) (c) (d)
(iii) Prithvi Raj Raso
(a) (ii) (iv) (iii) (i)
(iv) Sangam literature
(b) (ii) (iv) (i) (iii)
%QFGU (c) (iv) (ii) (i) (iii)
(a) (iv), (iii), (ii), (i) (d) (ii) (i) (iv) (iii)
(b) (iii), (iv), (i), (ii)
(c) (i), (iii), (ii), (iv) Match List-I with List-II and select the
(d) (iv), (ii), (i), (iii) correct answer from the codes below:
Arrange the following in chronological .KUV+ .KUV++
sequence and select the correct answer (a) Bodhisattva (i) Jejakbhukti
from the codes given below:
(i) Chakravartin (ii) Maharaja (b) Dravid Style of (ii) Huna
(iii) Mahararjadhiraj (iv) Rajan architecture
%QFGU (c) Mihirkula (iii) South India
(a) (iii), (ii), (i), (iv) (d) Chandella (iv) Buddhism
(b) (iv), (iii), (ii), (i) %QFGU
(c) (ii), (i), (iii), (iv) (a) (b) (c) (d)
(d) (iv), (ii), (iii), (i) (a) (iv) (iii) (i) (ii)
Which of the order below is correct? (b) (i) (iii) (ii) (iv)
Select the correct answer from the codes (c) (iv) (iii) (ii) (i)
given below: (d) (i) (iv) (ii) (iii)
(i) Ganga kingdom
Match List-I with List-II and select the
(ii) Arab invasion
correct answer from the codes given
(iii) Mahender Pallava
below:
(iv) Rise of Hoysala power
%QFGU .KUV+ .KUV++
(a) (iii), (ii), (i), (iv) (a) Etched Carnelian (i) Bengal
(b) (iv), (iii), (ii), (i) bead
(c) (ii), (i), (iv), (iii) (b) Copper (ii) Port
(d) (i), (ii), (iii), (iv)
(c) Bary gaza (iii) Harappa
rect answer from the codes given below: (d) Tamralipti (iv) Rajasthan
%QFGU (c) Nasiruddin Qubacha, Ghazi Malik,

(a) (b) (c) (d) Islam Shah, Zafar Khan.
(a) (iv) (ii) (iii) (i) (d) Ghazi Malik, Nasiruddin Qubacha,
(b) (iv) (i) (ii) (iii) Islam Shah, Zafar Khan.
(c) (iv) (iii) (ii) (i) Arrange the following in correct chrono-
(d) (iii) (iv) (ii) (i) logical order:
When did Sher Shah Suri annex Malwa? (a) Devgiri, Ranthambore, Malwa, Gujarat
(a) 1540 (b) Malwa, Ranthambore, Gujarat, Devgiri
(b) 1541 (c) Gujarat, Ranthambore, Malwa, Devgiri
(c) 1542 (d) Ranthambore, Malwa, Gujarat, Devgiri
(d) 1543 Match List-I with List-IIand select the cor-
Who was awarded the title of Mirza Raja? rectanswer form the codes given below:
(a) Bhar Mal (b) Jai Singh
(c) Jaswant Singh (d) Raj Singh .KUV+ .KUV++
In Maratha administration, /CLWOFCT (a) Ali Muhammad (i) Nuskha-i-
was? Khan Dilkusha
(a) Accountant (b) Zia-ud-din (ii) Mirat-i-
(b) Secretary Ahmadi
(c) Government Officia Barani
(d) Cashier (c) Bhim Sen (iii) Shahjahan
Battle of Haldighati was fought between: Narna
(a) Mughals and Amber (d) Inayat Khan (iv) Fatawa-i-
(b) Mughals and Kota Jahandari
(c) Mughals and Mewar
%QFGU
(d) Mughals and Marwar
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Arrange the following in correct sequence: (a) (ii) (iv) (i) (iii)
(a) Alauddin Masud Shah, Razia Sultan, (b) (i) (iii) (iv) (ii)
Moizuddin Bahramshah, Ruknuddin (c) (iv) (ii) (i) (iii)
Firuzshah (d) (iii) (iv) (ii) (i)
(b) Ruknuddin Firuzshah, Razia Sultan,
Moizuddin Bahramshah, Alauddin Match List-I with List-II and select the cor-
Masud Shah rect answer form the codes given below:
(c) Razia Sutlan, Alauddin Masud Shah, .KUV+ .KUV++
Ruknuddin Firuzshah, Moizuddin
Bahramshah (a) Shah Mir (i) Jajnagar
(d) Moizuddin Bahramshah, Aiauddin (b) Zafar Khan (ii) Khandesh
Masud Shah, Ruknuddin Firuzshah, (c) Malik Raja (iii) Kashmir
Razia Sultan
(d) Jauna Khan (iv) Gujarat
Arrange the following in correct sequence:
(a) Nasiruddin Qubacha, Zafar Khan, %QFGU
Ghazi Malik, Islam Shah. (a) (b) (c) (d)
(b) Nasiruddin Qubacha, Islam Shah, (a) (i) (iv) (ii) (iii)
Ghazi Malik, Zafar Khan. (b) (ii) (i) (iii) (iv)
(c) (iii) (iv) (ii) (i) #UUGTVKQP

#Khan Jahan enjoyed more
(d) (iv) (ii) (iii) (i) extensive powers than had been vouch-
Match List-I with List-II and select the EQT safed to any previous 9C\KT.
TGEVanswer form the codes given below: 4GCUQP
4 Firoz Shah Tuglaq capitu-
lated and gave Khan Jahan, his Wazir, per-
.KUV+ .KUV++
mission to employ and dismiss whomso-
(a) Lambardar (i) State Laws ever he wished.
(b) Barid (ii) News In the context of the above two statements,
Reporter which one of the following is correct?
(c) Waqia Nawis (iii) Village %QFGU
Headman (a) (A) is correct, but (R) is wrong
(d) Jawabit (iv) Intelligence (b) Both (A) and (R) are correct
Officer (c) (A) is wrong, but (R) is correct
(d) Both (A) and (R) are wrong
%QFGU
(a) (b) (c) (d) Given below are two statements, one
(a) (iv) (i) (ii) (iii) labelled Assertion (A) an the other labelled
(b) (ii) (iii) (iv) (i) Reason (R):
(c) (iii) (iv) (ii) (i) #UUGTVKQP
# The Mughal empire was
(d) (i) (iii) (iv) (ii) connected by a surprisingly rapiad infor-
Given below are two statements, one mation loop for public news.
labelled Assertion (A) an the other labelled 4GCUQPU
4 The Mughal emperors did
Reason (R): not receive news reports from distant pro-
#UUGTVKQP
# During the seventeenth vincial capitals within a few days which
century India, the economic growth stim- could be read out daily in the public audi-
ulated by the growing importance of a ence hall.
new external connection: the link between In the context of the above two statements,
Mughal India and early modern Europe. which one of the following is correct ?
4GCUQP
4 Each trading concern in %QFGU
Mughal India operated under a Royal (a) (A) is correct, but (R) is wrong
Charter which granted it exclusive national (b) Both (A) and (R) are correct
rights to carry out the India trade. (c) (A) is wrong, but (R) is correct
In the context of the above two statements, (d) Both (A) and (R) are wrong
The Act of 1919 provided for:
%QFGU (a) a separate and simultaneous ICS
(a) (A) is correct, but (R) is wrong examination to be held in India.
(b) Both (A) and (R) are correct (b) a separate, but not simultaneous, ICS
(c) (A) is wrong, but (R) is correct examination to be held in India.
(d) Both (A) and (R) are wrong (c) reservation for Indians in the ICS
Given below are two statements, one examination.
labeled Assertion (A) an the other labelled (d) holding of the ICS examination in
Reason (R): Bombay, Calcutta and Madras.
Which of the following concepts is PQV 4GCUQP

4 He wanted to broaden the
associated with the non-cooperation social base of the Congress.
movement? In the context of the above two statements,
(a) Atmasakti which one of the following is correct?
(b) Non-violence
(c) Boycott %QFGU
(d) Charka (a) Both the statements are false.
(b) (A) is true and (R) is false.
The filature is a system related to: (c) Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) does
(a) cotton weaving not explain (a)
(b) iron-smelting (d) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R)
(c) silk-reeling explains (A).
(d) copper working
Given below are two statements, one
Who had evolved the concept of the drain labelled Assertion (A) and the other
of wealth? labelled Reason (R):
(a) Bankim Chandra Chatterjee
(b) Romesh Dutt #UUGTVKQP
# What occured in India
(c) Dadabl-rai Naoroji under British rule was at the most aborted
(d) Bipan Chandra modernization, typical of modern colonial
economic structure.
labelled Assertion (A) and the other 4GCUQP
4 British persistently followed
labelled Reason (R): the policy of turning India into an agricul-
ture country.
#UUGTVKQP
# The Revolt of 1857 marked
an important watershed in the evolution of In the context of the above two statements,
British policies towards the Indian states. which one of the following is correct?
4GCUQP
4 The Revolt of 1857 ended the %QFGU
rule of the East India Company. (a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is
only the partial explanation of (A).
In the context of the above two statements, (b) Both (A) arid (R) are true and (R)
which one of the following is correct? fully explains (A).
%QFGU (c) (A) is true and (R) is false.
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is (d) Both (A) and (R) are false.
the correct explanation of (a). Arrange the following in chronological
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) does order:
not explain (A). (i) Simon Commission
(c) (A) is true and (R) is false. (ii) Indian Industrial Commission
(d) (A) is false and (R) is true. (iii) Indian Financial Commission
Given below are two statements, one (iv) Indian Education Commission
labelled Assertion (A) and the other %QFGU
labelled Reason (R): (a) (i) (ii) (iv) (iii)
#UUGTVKQP
# Gandhi for the first time (b) (i) (iii) (iv) (ii)
had made untouchability an issue of public (c) (iv) (ii) (iii) (i)
concern. (d) (ii) (iii) (iv) (i)
Arrange the following in chronological .KUV# .KUV$

order:
(i) Praja Mandal (ii) Hool (a) Permanent (i) Alexander
(iii) Ulgulan (iv) Marias Settlement Reed
%QFGU (b) Ryotwari (ii) Thomas Law
(a) (ii) (iii) (iv) (i) Settlement
(b) (i) (ii) (iv) (iii) (c) Mahalwari (iii) G.Wingate
(c) (iv) (i) (ii) (iii) Settlement
(d) (ii) (iii) (iv) (i) (d) Bombay Sur- (iv) Holt Mack-
Arrange the following in chronological vey System enzie.
order:
(i) Age of Consent Act %QFGU
(ii) Deccan Agricultural Relif Act (a) (b) (c) (d)
(iii) Police Act (a) (ii) (i) (iv) (iii)
(iv) Universities Act (b) (ii) (i) (iii) (iv)
(c) (iii) (iv) (ii) (i)
%QFGU
(d) (iv) (iii) (ii) (i)
(a) (i) (iii) (ii) (iv)
(b) (iii) (ii) (i) (iv) Match the List-A with List-B using the
(c) (iii) (ii) (ii) (i) code:
(d) (iii) (ii) (iv) (i) .KUV# .KUV$
Match the List-A with List-B using the
(a) William Jones (i) Evangelicalism
code:
(b) CharlesGrant (ii) Utilitarian-ism
.KUV# .KUV$
(c) Thomas (iii) Orientalism
(a) Prosperous (i) C.A.Bayly Macaulay
British India
(d) Thomas (iv) Liberalism
(b) The History of (ii) R.C.Dutt Munro
British India
%QFGU
(c) The Economic (iii) William (a) (b) (c) (d)
History of Digley (a) (iv) (ii) (iii) (i)
India (b) (iii) (i) (iv) (iii)
(d) Origins of (iv) James Mill (c) (iii) (ii) (i) (iv)
Nationality in (d) (iii) (iv) (ii) (i)
South Asia
The Nazi Soviet Pact was signed in:
%QFGU (a) 1937 (b) 1938
(a) (b) (c) (d) (c) 1939 (d) 1940
(a) (ii) (iii) (i) (iv) Which country disagreed with England
(b) (iii) (iv) (ii) (i) and France over colonial issues in 1940s?
(c) (iii) (i) (ii) (iv) (a) America
(d) (iv) (iii) (ii) (i) (b) Russia
Match the List-A with List-B using the (c) Germany
code: (d) Italy
Identify the non-commonwealth country Who among the following was worried
from the following: against entry of value judgements in
(a) Pakistan (b) Nepal Social Science Research?
(c) Sri Lanka (d) Myanmar (a) T.W. Hutchison
Research is a studious search for: (b) M.J. Ulmer
(a) Identificatio (b) Facts (c) Louis Dumont
(c) Hunt for material (d) Hypothesis (d) John Stuart Mill
Answer Keys
1. (a) 2. (c) 3. (b) 4. (d) 29. (c) 30. (d) 31. (a) 32. (a)
5. (c) 6. (a) 7. (a) 8. (d) 33. (a) 34. (a) 35. (b) 36. (c)
9. (d) 10. (d) 11. (a) 12. (c) 37. (a) 38. (d) 39. (b) 40. (c)
13. (c) 14. (d) 15. (d) 16. (c) 41. (d) 42. (c) 43. (b) 44. (a)
17. (b) 18. (c) 19. (d) 20. (c) 45. (b) 46. (c) 47. (b) 48. (d)
21. (b) 22. (a) 23. (c) 24. (b) 49. (b) 50. (a)
25. (b) 26. (c) 27. (a) 28. (c)
June 2009

NBSLT"UUFNQUBMMPGUIFN
Which of the following is not associated Match List-I with List-II and choose your
with Paleolithic? answer from the codes given below:
(a) Mongoloid .KUV+ .KUV++
(b) Homo sapiens
(c) Homo sapiens sapiens (a) Uttarapath (i) Pratisthan
(d) Homo erectus (b) Kalinga (ii) Taxila
Which of the following is not associated (c) Satavahana (iii) Mahismati
with Mesolithic?
(d) Avanti (iv) Tosali
(a) Hunting–gathering
(b) Domestication of animals %QFGU
(c) Domestication of plants (a) (b) (c) (d)
(d) Horticulture (a) (ii) (iv) (i) (iii)
Which of the following is not associated (b) (iii) (ii) (iv) (i)
with New Stone age? (c) (iv) (iii) (ii) (i)
(a) Domestication of plants (d) (i) (iv) (iii) (ii)
(b) Iron Match List-I with List-II and choose your
(c) Sedentary life answer from the codes given below:
(d) Early village settlements
.KUV+ .KUV++
Which of the following is not associated
with the first Urbanization? (a) Indika (i) Banabhatta
(a) Town Planning (b) Harshacharita (ii) Chandbardai
(b) Citadel
(c) Prithwiraj Raso (iii) Megasthanese
(c) Defense wall
(d) Coins (d) Rajatarangini (iv) Kalhana
Which of the following is not associated %QFGU
with Megaliths? (a) (b) (c) (d)
(a) Pastoralism (a) (iv) (iii) (i) (ii)
(b) Ash mounds (b) (iii) (i) (ii) (iv)
(c) Iron tools (c) (ii) (iv) (iii) (i)
(d) Institutional trade (d) (i) (ii) (iv) (iii)
Match List-I with List-II and choose your %QFGU

answer from the codes given below: (a) (b) (c) (d)
.KUV+ .KUV++ (a) (iv) (iii) (ii) (i)
(b) (iii) (ii) (i) (iv)
(a) J u n a g a r h (i) Harshavardhana (c) (iv) (ii) (iii) (i)
Inscription (d) (ii) (i) (iv) (iii)
(b) Iron pillar (ii) Pushyagupta
Inscription
(c) Banskhera (iii) Chandergupta-II labelled as Reason (R):
Inscription
#UUGTVKQP
# Second urbanisation in
(d) Aihole (iv) Pulkeshin-II India was caused by the use of iron tech-
Inscription nology.
%QFGU 4GCUQP
4Iron technology was the mov-
(a) (b) (c) (d) ing force.
(a) (ii) (iii) (i) (iv)
In the context of the above two statements
(b) (i) (ii) (iv) (iii)
which of the following is correct?
(c) (iii) (iv) (ii) (i)
(a) (A) is true but (R) is untrue
(d) (iv) (i) (ii) (iii)
(b) (R) is true but (A) is untrue
Match List-I with List-II and choose your (c) Both (A) and (R) are true
answer from the codes given below: (d) Both (A) and (R) are untrue
.KUV+ .KUV++ Given below are two statements, one
(a) Anga (i) Giribraj
(b) Magadha (ii) Champa #UUGTVKQP
# The punch marked coins
(c) Kosal (iii) Vaishali were inscribed in Brahami Script.
4GCUQP
4It facilitated trade.
(d) Vajji (iv) Shravasti
In context of the above two statements
%QFGU which of the following is correct?
(a) (b) (c) (d) (a) (A) is true but (R) is false
(a) (ii) (i) (iv) (iii) (b) (R) is true but (A) is false
(b) (i) (iii) (ii) (iv) (c) Both (A) and (R) are true
(c) (iii) (iv) (i) (ii) (d) Both (A) and (R) are false
(d) (iv) (ii) (iii) (i)
Match List-I with List-II and choose your labelled as Assertion (A) and the other
answer from the codes given below: labelled as Reason (R):
# Sangam literature is a
(a) Pallava (i) Praversen ‘Sanskrit Kavya’.
(b) Ikshavaku (ii) Ishwardatt 4GCUQP

4 It offers information on the
social conditions.
(c) Abhir (iii) Dhanyakatak
In view of the above two statements which
(d) Vakataka (iv) Kanchipuram of the following is correct?
(a) (A) is true but (R) is false (c) (A) is true, but (R) is false
(b) (A) is false but (R) is true (d) (A) is false, but (R) is true
(c) Both (A) and (R) are false The post of %JXBOJ.VTULIBSBK was cre-
(d) Both (A) and (R) are true ated by which of the following Sultans?
Given below are two statements, one (a) Alauddin Khalji
labelled as Assertion (A) and the other (b) Ghiyasuddin Balban
labelled as Reason (R): (c) Razia
#UUGTVKQP
# Gupta period witnessed (d) Ibrahim Lodi
growth of literary writings. ‘Pushti Marg’ was founded by:
4GCUQP
4Overall conditions were con- (a) Chaitanya
ducive to such a development. (b) Vallabhacharya
(c) Ramanand
(d) Nimabark
which of the following is true?
(a) (A) is true but (R) is false Match List-I of rulers with List-IIof trav-
(b) (R) is true but (A) is false ellers and choose your answer from the
(c) Both (A) and (R) are false code below:
(d) Both (A) and (R) are true .KUV+ .KUV++
4WNGTU
6TCXGNNGTU
labelled as Assertion (A) and the other (a) Devaraya I (i) Domingo Paes
(b) Devaraya II (ii) Abdul Razak
#UUGTVKQP
#Tripartite struggle was the
(c) Krishna (iii) Nichlo-De
political struggle for the Supremacy of
Devaraya -Conti
north India.
4GCUQP
4This was essential. (d) Achyuta (iv) Ferno Nuniz
Devarayalu
which of the following is correct? %QFGU
(a) (A) is true but (R) is false (a) (b) (c) (d)
(b) (A) is false but (R) is true (a) (iii) (ii) (i) (iv)
(c) Both (A) and (R) are false (b) (ii) (iv) (iii) (i)
(d) Both (A) and (R) are true (c) (iii) (i) (ii) (iv)
(d) (i) (iii) (ii) (iv)
labelled as Reason (R)
#UUGTVKQP
#Iltutmish was not a usurper. #UUGTVKQP
# Mughals failed to recon-
4GCUQP
4 There was nothing to be stitute the agrarain system of Western
usurped. Deccan.
In the context of the above two statements, 4GCUQP
4 Decades of Mughal cam-
which of the following is correct? paign on Ahmadnagar, Khandesh and
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is Bijapur weakened their authority on
the correct explanation of (A) Western Deccan.
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is In the context of the above two statements
not the correct explanation of (A) which one of the following is correct?
(a) Both
#and
4are true and
4is %QFGU
the correct explanation of
# (a) (b) (c) (d)
(b) Both
#and
4are true, but
4is (a) (iii) (ii) (i) (iv)
not the correct explanation of
# (b) (iv) (i) (ii) (iii)
(c)
#is true, but
4is false (c) (i) (iv) (iii) (ii)
(d)
4is true, but
#is false (d) (iii) (ii) (iv) (i)
In 1595–96 the Mughal Mansabdars were Who was the ruler of Mewar at the time
classified into: of Akbar’s attack on Chittor in A.D. 1567–
(a) 6 groups 1568?
(b) 5 groups (a) Rana Sanga
(c) 4 groups (b) Rana Udai Singh
(d) 3 groups (c) Maharana Pratap
Match List-I with List-II and choose your (d) Rana Amar Singh
answer from the code below: Match List-I with List-II and select the
.KUV+ .KUV++ correct answer from the code given below:

$CVVNGU
;GCTQHVJG .KUV+ .KUV++
$CVVNGU (a) R.P. Tripathi (i) Tughlaq Dynasty
(a) Battle of Rajmahal (i) A.D. 1527 (b) Ishwari (ii) Twilight of the
Prasad Delhi Sultanate
(b) Second Battle of (ii) A.D. 1529
Panipat (c) K.S. Lal (iii) Some Aspects
of Muslim
(c) Battle of Khanwa (iii) A.D. 1556 Administration
(d) Battle of Ghagara (iv) A.D. 1576 (d) Agha Mehdi (iv) History of
%QFGU Husain Qarauna Turks
(a) (b) (c) (d) %QFGU
(a) (ii) (iii) (i) (iv) (a) (b) (c) (d)
(b) (iv) (i) (ii) (iii) (a) (iii) (iv) (ii) (i)
(c) (iii) (iv) (i) (ii) (b) (ii) (i) (iii) (iv)
(d) (iv) (iii) (i) (ii) (c) (iv) (ii) (i) (iii)
Match List-I with List-II and choose your (d) (i) (iii) (ii) (iv)
answer from the code below: Main export commodity of Vijayanagar
.KUV+ .KUV++ Kingdom was

YTKVVGT
YQTMU (a) Black pepper
(b) Textiles
(a) Nizamuddin (i) Humayun (c) Salt
Ahmad Nama (d) Silk
(b) Ali Muhammad (ii) Mirat-i- What is the correct chronological sequence
Khan Ahmadi of the following Peshwas?
(c) Gul Badan Begam (iii) Tabqat (i) Bajirao I
-i-Akbari (ii) Balaji Vishwanath
(iii) Balaji Bajirao
(d) Ibn Batuta (iv) Rahela
(iv) Madhavarao
%QFGU (a) Lord Macaulay

(a) (b) (c) (d) (b) Lord William Bentinck
(a) (i) (iii) (ii) (iv) (c) Dadabhai Naoroji
(b) (iv) (ii) (i) (iii) (d) Raja Ram Mohan Ray
(c) (ii) (i) (iii) (iv)
The highest British Capital Investment in
(d) (iii) (iv) (i) (ii)
India was made in the:
The south Indian city famous for Inlay (a) Tea, Coffee and the Indigo Plantation.
work during medieval period was (b) Railways, Banking, Insurance and
(a) Tanjore Shipping
(b) Bidar (c) Cotton Textile Industry.
(c) Bijapur (d) Jute Mills.
(d) Hampi
Who was the first to formulate theory of
What was the sequence of the establish- three successive phases of British Colo-
ment of factories in India by the following nialism in India namely, Mercantilist, Free
European powers? Choose your answer Trade, Mercantile Capitalism and Finance
from the code given below: Imperialism?
(i) English (a) Dadabhai Naoroji
(ii) French (b) R.C. Dutt
(iii) Dutch (c) R.P. Dutt
(iv) Portuguese (d) Karl Marx
%QFGU
(a) (b) (c) (d) In 1920 the All India Trade Union Con-
(a) (iv) (iii) (i) (ii) gress was organized by:
(b) (i) (iii) (ii) (iv) (a) B.P. Wadia
(c) (ii) (iv) (i) (iii) (b) Mahatma Gandhi
(d) (iii) (i) (iv) (ii) (c) N.M. Joshi
(d) Jawaharlal Nehru
‘Nishan’ documents are defined as:
(a) Letters written in the name of Mughal Who was the greatest Parsi Social
princes Reformer of the 19th century?
(b) Letters written in the name of Mughal (a) Jamsetji Tata
Emperor (b) Rustom Behramji
(c) Letters sent by the Mughal official (c) Behramji M. Malabari
(d) Letters sent by the ruler to another (d) Pheroz Shah Mehta
ruler Which modern historian opined that the
The Ryotwari settlement was made with ‘so called first national war of indepen-
the: dence was neither first, nor national, nor a
(a) Zamindars war of independence’?
(b) Cultivators (a) S.N. Sen
(c) Village communities (b) Tarachand
(d) Muqaddams (c) R.C Majumdar
Who remarked in 1834 that ‘The bones of (d) K.K. Dutta
the cotton weavers are bleaching the plains Who gave the call—‘One religion, one
of India’? caste and one God for mankind’?
(a) Jyotiba Phule (a) G.D. Birla

(b) Swami Vivekanand (b) Mahadev Desai
(c) Shri Narayana Guru (c) Amritlal Thakkar
(d) Periyar Ramaswami Naikar (d) Dr. B.R. Ambedkar
Who was a bitter critic of Sir Syed Ahmad Who amongst the following was chosen as
Khan’s ideas and the Aligarh movement? Dewan of three princely states–Mysore,
(a) Chiragh Ali Jaipur and Hyderabad?
(b) Altaf Hussain Hali (a) M. Vishweshraya
(c) Nazir Ahmad (b) C.P. Ramaswami Iyer
(d) Jamaluddin Afghani (c) V.P. Madhava Rao
The two greatest pioneers in the cause of (d) Mirza Ismail
widow’s education were Adyar was the famous centre and head-
(a) D.K. Karve and Pandita Ramabai quarter of the
(b) M.G. Ranade and R.G. Bhandarkar (a) Aurobindo Ashram
(c) Ishwar Chandra Vidya Sagar and (b) Madras Mahajan Sabha
Keshav Chandrasen (c) Theosophical Society
(d) B.M. Malabari and K. Sridharlu Naidu (d) Ramakrishna Mission
Who argued that the Khilafat Movement Who called commerce is a perpetual war
was a result of the emergence of a ‘middle of wit and energy among all nations?
class’ among Indian Muslims? (a) Jean Bodin
(a) Francis Robinson (b) Jean Baptist Colbert
(b) W.C. Smith (c) Thomas Mun
(c) Mushirul Hasan (d) Thomas Hobbes
(d) Mohd. Mujeeb
Whiteman’s burden was theory of
In the Ahemdabad Mill strike of 1917
(a) Humanism
Mahatma Gandhi’s intervention resulted
(b) Imperialism
in the enhancement of wages for the
(c) Non-alignment
workers by
(d) Socialism
(a) 25%
(b) 35% Who amongst the following belongs to the
(c) 45% Subaltern school of historiography?
(d) 55% (a) Bipan Chandra
Chittagong Armoury Raid was Organized (b) Romila Thapar
under the leadership of (c) Ranjit Guha
(a) Jatin Das (d) Ramchandra Guha
(b) Surya Sen Who was universally acclaimed as the
(c) Ganesh Ghosh Prince of the Humanists?
(d) Khudiram Bose (a) Erasmus
Who was the first President of the Hari- (b) John Colet
jan Sevak Sangha founded by Mahatma (c) Thomas More
Gandhi? (d) Francisco Petrarch
Answer Keys
1. (d) 2. (d) 3. (b) 4. (d) 29. (a) 30. (a) 31. (b) 32. (b)
5. (d) 6. (a) 7. (b) 8. (a) 33. (a) 34. (d) 35. (c) 36. (c)
9. (a) 10. (a) 11. (c) 12. (b) 37. (c) 38. (c) 39. (d) 40. (a)
13. (b) 14. (d) 15. (a) 16. (b) 41. (c) 42. (b) 43. (b) 44. (a)
17. (a) 18. (b) 19. (a) 20. (d) 45. (b) 46. (c) 47. (b) 48. (b)
21. (d) 22. (d) 23. (a) 24. (b) 49. (c) 50. (a)
25. (a) 26. (b) 27. (c) 28. (a)
December 2009
0QVG 5IJT QBQFS DPOUBJOT GJGUZ
PCKFDUJWF UZQF RVFTUJPOT FBDI RVFTUJPO DBSSZJOH UXP

Which of the following stands for Lower Match List-I with List-II and choose your
Palaeolithic period? answer from the codes given below:
(a) Homo Habilis .KUV+ .KUV++
(b) Homo Sapiens
(a) Harappa (i) Spoked
(c) Homo Sapiens Sapiens
Civilization wheel
(d) Australoid
(b) Aryans (ii) Copper
Which of the following is associated with technology
Palaeolithic period?
(c) Gautami Putra (iii) Jainism
(a) Crescent
(b) Triangle (d) Shravanabelgola (iv) Satavahana
(c) Polished Hand Axe %QFGU
(d) Acheulian Hand Axe (a) (b) (c) (d)
Which of the following represents Meso- (a) (ii) (iv) (iii) (i)
lithic period? (b) (iii) (ii) (iv) (i)
(a) Ground tools (c) (ii) (i) (iv) (iii)
(b) Olduwan (d) (iv) (iii) (i) (ii)
(c) Clactonian Match List-I with List-II and choose your
(d) Microliths answer from the codes given below:
Which of the following stands for Neo- .KUV+ .KUV++
lithic?
(a) Ayas (i) Latin
(a) Scavenging
(b) Gathering–Hunting (b) Aes (ii) Sanskrit
(c) Food production (c) Ayari (iii) English
(d) Pastoralism (d) Iron (iv) Avesta
Which of the following denotes permanent %QFGU
living? (a) (b) (c) (d)
(a) Nomadism (a) (ii) (i) (iv) (iii)
(b) Transhumance (b) (i) (ii) (iv) (iii)
(c) Semi-sedentism (c) (ii) (i) (iv) (iii)
(d) Sedentism (d) (iii) (ii) (i) (iv)
Match List-I with List-II and choose your (c) (iv) (ii) (i) (iii)
answer from the codes given below: (d) (ii) (i) (iv) (iii)
.KUV+ .KUV++ Given below are two statements, one
labelled as #UUGTVKQP
# and the other
(a) Vajji (i) Indraprastha
labelled as 4GCUQP
4
(b) Chedi (ii) Kausambi
#UUGTVKQP
# The concept of ‘Sarve
(c) Vats (iii) Vaishali Hitai and Sarve Sukhai’ in Vedic Philoso-
(d) Kuru (iv) Shaktimati phy is for the upliftment of all the people.
4GCUQP
4 It aims to work for the better-
%QFGU
ment of all human beings.
(a) (b) (c) (d)
(a) (iv) (i) (iii) (ii) In the context of the above two statements,
(b) (iii) (iv) (ii) (i) which of the following is correct?
(c) (i) (iii) (ii) (iv) (a) Both (A) and (R) are true.
(d) (ii) (iv) (i) (iii) (b) (A) is true but (R) is untrue.
(c) (A) is false but (R) is true.
Match List-I with List-II and choose your
(d) Both (A) and (R) are untrue.
answer from the codes given below:
.KUV+ .KUV++ labelled as Assertion (A) and the other
(a) Thirthankar (i) Buddhism labelled as Reason (R):
(b) Kathasaritasagar (ii) Jainism #UUGTVKQP
# The concept of ‘Bahujan
Hitai and Bahujan Sukhai’ in Buddhism is
(c) Bodhisatva (iii) Somadeva
for the upliftment of the majority of the
(d) Brihtakathamanjri (iv) Ksheminder people.
%QFGU 4GCUQP
4 It aims to relieve the majority
(a) (b) (c) (d) of the population of its problems.
(a) (ii) (iii) (i) (iv) In the context of the above two statements,
(b) (i) (iv) (iii) (ii) which of the following is correct?
(c) (ii) (ii) (iv) (i) (a) (A) is true but (R) is untrue.
(d) (iv) (i) (ii) (iii) (b) (R) is true but (A) is untrue.
(c) Both (A) and (R) are true.
(d) Both (R) and (A) are untrue.
.KUV+ .KUV++ labelled as Assertion (A) and the other
(a) Triratna (i) Buddhism labelled as Reason (R):
(b) Jataka (ii) Jainism #UUGTVKQP
# Kushana period was the
golden age in ancient Indian history.
(c) Mudrarakshas (iii) Somadeva
4GCUQP
4 This period witnessed all
(d) Kathasaritasagar (iv) Vishakhadatt round development.
%QFGU In the context of the above two statements,
(a) (b) (c) (d) which of the following is correct?
(a) (ii) (iii) (iv) (i) (a) (A) is true but (R) is false.
(b) (ii) (i) (iii) (iv) (b) (R) is true but (A) is false.
(c) Both (A) and (R) are false. (c) (A) is true, but (R) is false.
(d) Both (A) and (R) are true. (d) (R) is true, but (A) is false.
Given below are two statements, one Which one of the following Sultans
labelled as Assertion (A) and the other brought the Ashokan Pillar to Delhi?
labelled as Reason (R): (a) Giasuddin Tughlaq
#UUGTVKQP
# Indian feudal system dis- (b) Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq
couraged agriculture production. (c) Firoz Tughlaq
(d) Sikander Lodi
4GCUQP
4 It was enemical to agricul-
tural growth. Who among the following in South
India did not accept the sovereignty of
In view of the above two statements, which Alauddin?
of the following is correct? (a) Pandyas
(a) (A) is true but (R) is false. (b) Hoysalas
(b) (R) is true but (A) is false. (c) Yadavas
(c) Both (A) and (R) are true. (d) Kakatiyas
(d) Both (A) and (R) are false.
Title of the book in which Amir Khusrau
Given below are two statements, one describes the political and social condi-
labelled as Assertion (A) and the other tions of the reign of Qutubuddin Mubrak
labelled as Reason (R): Shah is
#UUGTVKQP
# Pulkeshin-II defeated (a) Kharzain-ul-Futuh
Harshvardhana. (b) Nuh-i-Siphar
4GCUQP
4 He wanted to expand his (c) Mifta-ul-Futuh
empire in north India. (d) Tughlaq Nama
which of the following is correct? In Bahamani Kingdom, ‘Sadre-i-Jahan’
was the chief of which department?
(a) (A) is true but (R) is false. (a) Religious and judicial
(b) (R) is true but (A) is false. (b) Military
(c) Both (A) and (R) are true. (c) Foreign
(d) Both (A) and (R) are false. (d) Revenue including land revenue
Given below are two statements, one What is the correct sequence of the-
labelled as Assertion (A) and the other following?
labelled as Reason (R): (i) Muntakhab-ul-Tawarikh
#UUGTVKQP
#In spite of large and effi- (ii) Kitab-ul-Hind
cient army, Balban did not think of territo- (iii) Muntakhab-ul-Lubab
rial expansion of his Sultanate. (iv) Tabqat-i-Nasiri
4GCUQP
4 Tughril’s Revolt com- %QFG
pletely diverted his attention towards its (a) (i), (iii), (iv), (ii)
suppression. (b) (ii), (iv), (i), (iii)
In the context of the above two statements, (c) (iv), (iii), (i), (ii)
which one of the following is correct? (d) (iii), (iv), (ii), (i)
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is Vasco da Gama visited which one of the
the correct explanation of (A). following ports?
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is (a) Goa
not the correct explanation of (A). (b) Madgoan
(c) Mangalore (a) Akbar

(d) Calicut (b) Jahangir
Given below are two statements, one (c) Shajahan
labelled as Assertion (A) and the other (d) Aurangzeb
labelled as Reason (R): ‘Pietra-dura’ technique of surface orna-
#UUGTVKQP
# The Chishti Silsila was the mentation was first adopted in
most prominent amongst the Sufi orders. (a) Itimad-ud-Daula’s Tomb
4GCUQP
4 The Silsila had its sphere (b) Taj Mahal
of influence in Rajasthan, Punjab, Bihar, (c) Diwan-e-Am (Red Fort, Delhi)
Bengal,Orissa and the Deccan. (d) Moti Masjid (Agra Fort)
In the context of the above two statements, On whom Jahangir conferred the title of
which one of the following is correct? Nadir-ul-Jama?
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is (a) Abul Hassan
the correct explanation of (A). (b) Mansur
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is (c) Basant
not the correct explanation of (A). (d) Giasuddin Beg
(c) (A) is true, but (R) is false.
Which was the most important commodity
(d) (R) is true, but (A) is false.
exported from India in the 17th Century?
Struggle between Mughal forces with (a) Spices
Maharana Pratap of Mewar which took (b) Cotton textile
place in June, 1576, has been described by (c) Indigo
Abul Fazal as the Battle of (d) Saltpetre
(a) Haldighati
(b) Gogunda Given below are two statements, one
(c) Khamnor labelled as Assertion (A) and the other
(d) Kumbhalgarh labelled as Reason (R):
Given below are two statements, one #UUGTVKQP
# By A.D. 1750, Peshwa
labelled as Assertion (A) and the other became all powerful in Maratha Kingdom.
labelled as Reason (R): 4GCUQP
4 Peshwas shifted their head-
#UUGTVKQP
# After five years of direct quarter from Satara to Pune.
administration and experimentation, Akbar In the context of the above two statements,
placed the lands of North India with the which one of the following is correct?
Mansabdars. %QFG
4GCUQP
4 Akbar’s treasuries obtained and (a) (A) is correct, but (R) is wrong.
augmented revenue from the new system. (b) Both (A) and (R) are correct, but (R)
In the context of the above two statements, is not the correct explanation of (A).
which one of the following is correct? (c) (A) is wrong, but (R) is correct.
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is (d) Both (A) and (R) are wrong.
the correct explanation of (A). The Permanent Settlement was made with
(b) (A) is false but (R) is correct. the
(c) (A) is correct but (R) is false. (a) Zamindars
(d) Both (A) and (R) are false. (b) Peasant Cultivators
The ‘du-aspa’ and ‘Seh-aspa’ rank was (c) Village Communities
first introduced during the reign of (d) Muqaddams
Parsi Social Reformer Behramji M. Mala- (c) Maulana Abul Kalam Azad
bari carried on his campaign against (d) Chiragh Ali
(a) Infant and Child Marriage
The Journal ‘Bahishkrit Bharat’ was
(b) Polygamy
started by
(c) Female Infanticide
(a) Jyotiba Phule
(d) Widow remarriage
(b) Dr. B. R. Ambedkar
Which tribal leader was regarded as an (c) M. K. Gandhi
incarnation of God and Father of the (d) Karsandas Mulji
World (Dharti Aba)?
(a) Kanhu Santha Who took over the leadership of the
(b) Rupa Naik Brahmo Samaj after the death of Raja
(c) Birsa Munda Ram Mohan Roy?
(d) Joria Bhagat (a) Dwarka Nath Tagore
(b) Keshav Chandra Sen
Who said ‘The British rule was a bleeding
(c) Devendra Nath Tagore
drain from India’?
(d) Ram Chandra Vidya Vagish
(a) Dadabhai Naoroji
(b) M. G. Ranade Who made the greatest contribution in
(c) R.C. Dutt organizing the Kisan Sabha Movement?
(d) Bal Gangadhar Tilak (a) N. G. Ranga
A leading British Parliamentarian and Poli- (b) Vallabh Bhai Patel
tician admitted that the Revolt of 1857 was (c) Jawaharlal Nehru
a ‘National Revolt’ not a ‘Military Mutiny’. (d) Swami Sahjanand Saraswati
(a) Lord Dalhousie An Indian revolutionary who was a Profes-
(b) Lord Canning sor of Sanskrit and Philosophy in the Uni-
(c) William Gladstone versities of Berkeley and Stanford died in
(d) Benjamin Disraeli Philadelphia
Which social reformer of Maharashtra (a) Shyamji Krishna Verma
became famous by the name of ‘Lokhit- (b) Lala Har Dayal
wadi’? (c) Tarak Nath Das
(a) Atmaram Pandurang (d) Bhai Parmanand
(b) Bal Gangadhar Tilak Under the ‘Old Guarantee System’ the
(c) Gopal Hari Deshmukh British Companies investing in railways
(d) Gopal Krishna Gokhale were assured a guarantee of
Raja Ram Mohan Roy raised his voice and (a) 3%
agitated against which evil custom and (b) 5%
practice? (c) 8%
(a) Caste Custom (d) 10%
(b) Kulinism Who argued that de-industrialization did
(c) Sati Pratha not take place in India in the colonial
(d) Widow remarriage period?
Who was not associated with the Aligarh (a) Bipan Chandra
Movement? (b) Amiyo Baghchi
(a) Altaf Hussain Hali (c) Anil Seal
(b) Nazir Ahmad (d) Morris D. Morris
Which Princely State resembled ‘Ramra- (a) Individualism

jya’ according to Gandhiji? (b) Hedonism
(a) Baroda (b) Gwalior (c) Romanticism
(c) Mysore (d) Patiala (d) Humanism
Arrange the following events in chrono- Bandung Conference relates to
logical order: (a) Nazism
(b) Non-alignment
I. Indian States Commission (c) Apartheid
II. Round Table Conference (d) Imperialism
III. Establishment of All India States
People’s Conference Calvinists in France were known as
IV. First Justice Party Government (a) Puritans
(b) Presbyterians
(a) IV, III, I, II (c) Huguenots
(b) III, I, IV, II (d) Catholics
(c) I, IV, III, II
Who was the first Greek Historian?
(d) II, III, IV, I
(a) Thucydides
During Renaissance the interest in the (b) Herodotus
study of Graeco-Roman Classics came to (c) Homer
be known as (d) Megasthene
Answer Keys
1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (d) 4. (c) 29. (b) 30. (c) 31. (a) 32. (a)
5. (d) 6. (c) 7. (a) 8. (b) 33. (c) 34. (a) 35. (d) 36. (c)
9. (a) 10. (d) 11. (a) 12. (c) 37. (c) 38. (c) 39. (b) 40. (c)
13. (b) 14. (a) 15. (a) 16. (b) 41. (d) 42. (b) 43. (b) 44. (d)
17. (c) 18. (c) 19. (b) 20. (a) 45. (a) 46. (a) 47. (d) 48. (d)
21. (b) 22. (d) 23. (a) 24. (b) 49. (c) 50. (b)
25. (d) 26. (b) 27. (a) 28. (a)
June 2010

1. Which of the following is associated with %QFGU

the lower Palaeolithic period? (a) (A) is incorrect, but (R) is true.
(a) Homo erectus (b) Both (A) and (R) are incorrect.
(b) Neanderthal (c) Both (A) and (R) are true.
(c) Homo sapience (d) (A) is correct, but (R) is false.
(d) Homo sapience sapience Given below are two statements, one is
Which among the following represents the labelled as Assertion (A) and the other is
Mesolithic period? labelled as Reason (R):
(a) Olduwan tools #UUGTVKQP
# During the Rig Vedic period
(b) Hand axe the society was pastoral.
(c) Triangle tools 4GCUQP
4 The mode of subsistence was
(d) Polished tools primarily based on pastoralism.
Which among the following denotes the Read the above statements and select the
Neolithic period? correct answer from the codes below:
(a) Kunal %QFGU
(b) Lothal (a) (A) is correct, but (R) is false.
(c) Daimabad (b) (A) is untrue, but (R) is true.
(d) Chirand (c) Both (A) and (R) are false.
Given below are two statements, one is (d) Both (A) and (R) are correct.
labelled as Assertion (A) and the other is Given below are two statements, one is
labelled as Reason (R): labelled as Assertion (A) and the other is
#UUGTVKQP
# Harappa civilization was labelled as Reason (R):
developed with the application of copper #UUGTVKQP
#The rise of religious move-
tools. ments in the 6th century BC was an outcome
4GCUQP
4 This enabled people to of prevalent social and economic unrest.
make better use of the available natural 4GCUQP
4 The improved economic
resources. condition of the deprived sections of the
Read the above statements and select the society embolden them to seek their right-
correct answer from the codes below: ful place.
Read the above statements and select %QFGU

the correct answer from the codes given (a) (ii), (iii), (i), (iv)
below: (b) (iii), (iv), (ii), (i)
%QFGU (c) (iv), (i), (ii), (iii)
(a) (A) is correct, but (R) is false. (d) (iv), (ii), (i), (iii)
(b) (A) is incorrect, but (R) is true. Arrange the following into sequential
(c) Both (A) and (R) are correct. order and select the correct answer from
(d) Both (A) and (R) are incorrect. the codes given below:
Given below are two statements, one is (i) Malvikagnimitra
labelled as Assertion (A) and the other is (ii) Harshacharita
labelled as Reason (R): (iii) Ashtadhyayi
#UUGTVKQP
# Kushana period witnessed (iv) Rajatarangini
large scale cultural integration. %QFGU
4GCUQP
4 Kushana Kings advocated (a) (ii), (iii), (iv), (i)
themselves it by example. (b) (iii), (ii), (i), (iv)
(c) (iv), (ii), (i), (iii)
Read the above statements and select
(d) (iii), (i), (ii), (iv)
the correct answer from the codes given
below: Arrange the following into sequential
%QFGU order and select the correct answer from
(a) (A) is correct, but (R) is incorrect. the codes given below:
(b) (A) is false, but (R) is true. (i) Pulkeshin-II
(c) Both (A) and (R) are false. (ii) Pushyamitra Shunga
(d) Both (A) and (R) are true. (iii) Shankaracharya
(iv) Chandabaradai
order and select the correct answer from %QFGU
the codes given below: (a) (ii), (i), (iii), (iv)
(i) Megalithic period (b) (i), (iii), (ii), (iv)
(ii) Chalcolithic period (c) (iii), (iv), (ii), (i)
(iii) Northern Black Polished Ware (d) (iv), (i), (iii), (ii)
(iv) Black and Red Ware Match List-I with List-II and select the cor-
%QFGU rect answer from the codes given below:
(a) (iii), (iv), (i), (ii) .KUV+ .KUV++
(b) (ii), (iv), (i), (iii)
(a) Levirate (i) Kamrup
(c) (iv), (ii), (iii), (i)
(d) (i), (iii), (iv), (ii) (b) Punch-marked (ii) Rig Veda
coins
Arrange the following into sequential (c) Varmanas (iii) Bihar
(d) Nalanda (iv) Early Historical
the codes given below:
Period
(i) Janapada
(ii) Mahajanapada %QFGU
(iii) Empire (a) (b) (c) (d)
(iv) Jana (a) (ii) (iii) (i) (iv)
(b) (ii) (iv) (i) (iii) %QFGU

(c) (iii) (ii) (iv) (i) (a) (b) (c) (d)
(d) (iv) (iii) (ii) (i) (a) (ii) (iii) (i) (iv)
Match List-I with List-II and select the cor- (b) (iv) (iii) (i) (ii)
rect answer from the codes given below: (c) (iii) (iv) (ii) (i)
(d) (i) (iii) (iv) (ii)
.KUV+ .KUV++
In which of the following sources it is
(a) Second Urban- (i) Satavahana
stated that Prithviraj III entertained the
ization Dynasty
ambition of conquering the whole world?
(b) Kharavela (ii) Bilhana (a) Taj-ul-Maasir
(c) Gautamiputra (iii) Orissa (b) Prithviraj Prabandha
(d) Vikramadeva (iv) Iron Charita (c) Tabqat-i-Nasiri
%QFGU (d) Prithviraj Raso
(a) (b) (c) (d) Who among the following Delhi Sultans
(a) (iv) (i) (ii) (iii) enlarged the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque?
(b) (iii) (ii) (iv) (i) (i) Iltut Mish
(c) (ii) (iv) (iii) (i) (ii) Balban
(d) (iv) (iii) (i) (ii) (iii) Alaud-Din Khalji
(iv) Firozshah Tughlaq
Match List-I with List-II and select the cor- Select your answer from the codes
rect answer from the codes given below: given below:
.KUV+ .KUV++ %QFGU
(a) Nagar style of (i) Buddhism (a) (i), (ii), (iv)
architecture (b) (i) and (iii)
(b) Shravan-belagola (ii) Pallava (c) (ii) and (iv)
dynasty (d) (i), (ii), (iii)
(c) Tantrayan (iii) North India Who among the following Sultans of
(d) Mahend-eraver- (iv) Karnataka Delhi advocated the policy that ‘follow the
man Shailey middle course in realizing the Kharaj’?
%QFGU (a) Balban
(a) (b) (c) (d) (b) Jalalud-Din Khalji
(a) (iii) (iv) (i) (ii) (c) Ghyasuddin Tughlaq
(b) (iv) (i) (ii) (iii) (d) Firoj Tughlaq
(c) (ii) (iv) (iii) (i) Which of the following statements are not
(d) (iv) (iii) (i) (ii) true about Sultan Ghyasud-Din Tughlaq?
Match List-I with List-II and select the cor- (i) He befriended Shaikh Nizamuddin
rect answer from the codes given below: Aulia.
(ii) He gave certain concessions to Khots
.KUV+ .KUV++ and Muqaddams.
(a) Kalibanga (i) R.C. Gaur (iii) He sent his son Ulugh Khan to recover
(b) Mitathal (ii) M.D.N. Sahi arrears of tribute from Pratapa Rudra.
(iv) He levied a tax termed haqq-i-shurb.
(c) Atranjikhera (iii) Suraj Bhan
Select the correct answer from the codes
(d) Jakhera (iv) B.B. Lal given below:
%QFGU (i) Propagation of Vaishnavite Bhakti by

(a) (i), (ii) and (iii) Ramananda
(b) (i) and (iii) (ii) Compilation of Adigrantha
(c) (ii) and (iii) (iii) Close of the Ibadatkhana
(d) (ii) and (iv) (iv) Foundation of the Chishti order in the
Who put forth the hypothesis of ‘Urban Deccan
revolution’ in northern India during the Select the correct answer from the codes
thirteenth and fourteenth centuries? given below:
(a) K.M. Ashraf
%QFGU
(b) Moreland
(a) (i), (iv), (iii), (ii)
(c) Mohammad Habib
(b) (i), (iii), (ii), (iv)
(d) K.S. Lal
(c) (ii), (iv), (i), (iii)
Given below are two statements, one (d) (iv), (i), (iii), (ii)
labelled as Reason (R): Given below are two statements, one
#UUGTVKQP
# The arrival of north Indian
Sufis in the Deccan during the fourteenth
and fifteenth centuries brought deep #UUGTVKQP
# Akbar proclaimed Dahsala
changes in the region’s political and reli- in the twenty-fourth year of his reign.
gious fabric. 4GCUQP
4 He decided to abolish all
4GCUQP
4 They came to the Deccan to other existing methods of land revenue
justify Khalji and early Tughlaq invasions assessment in the Mughal empire.
of the Deccan plateau. In the context of the above two statements,
In the context of the above two statements, which one of the following is correct?
which one of the following is correct? %QFGU
%QFGU (a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A).
the correct explanation of (A). (b) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not the correct explanation of (A).
not the correct explanation of (A). (c) (A) is true, but (R) is false.
(c) (A) is true, but (R) is false. (d) (A) is false, but (R) is true.
(d) (A) is false, but (R) is true.
Which of the following is the correct rect answer from the codes given below:
chronological order of the Vijayanagara
ruling dynasties? .KUV+ .KUV++
(a) Saluva, Tuluva, Sangama, Aravidu
'XGPV
;GCT
(b) Sangama, Saluva, Tuluva, Aravidu (a) The Mughal conquest (i) 1584
(c) Sangama, Tuluva, Saluva, Aravidu of Malwa
(d) Sangama, Aravidu, Saluva, Tuluva
(b) Introduction of the (ii) 1592
The Portuguese captured Goa in the year Ilahi Era
(a) 1496 (b) 1510
(c) Annexation of Kash- (iii) 1585
(c) 1524 (d) 1556
mir in Mughal empire
Arrange the following events into correct
chronological order: (d) Conquest of Orissa (iv) 1561
%QFGU (c) (iii) (ii) (i) (iv)

(a) (b) (c) (d) (d) (i) (iv) (iii) (ii)
(a) (iii) (ii) (i) (iv) Shahu was set free from the Mughal cap-
(b) (iv) (i) (iii) (ii) tivity by
(c) (i) (iii) (iv) (ii) (a) Aurangzeb
(d) (iii) (i) (ii) (iv) (b) Prince Azam
Which of the following illustrated manu- (c) Prince Kam Bakhsh
scripts were prepared during Akbar’s time? (d) Jahandar Shah
(i) The Diwan-i-Amir Hasan Dihlavi By which act the British Parliament had
(ii) The Raj Kanwar abolished the monopoly of East India
(iii) The Tutinama Company’s trade in India?
(iv) The Yoga Vashista (a) Regulating Act, 1773
Select your answer from the codes given (b) Charter Act, 1813
below: (c) Charter Act, 1833
%QFGU (d) Government of India Act, 1858
(a) (i), (ii) and (iv) Arrange the following British Legislations
(b) (ii) and (iv) concerning women in chronological order:
(c) (i), (iii) and (iv) (i) Hindu Widow Remarriage Act
(d) (iii) and (iv) (ii) The Native Marriage Act (Civil
Who among the following foreign travel- Marriage Act)
lers described the manufacture of indigo (iii) Abolition of Sati in Bengal Province
in India? (iv) The Age of Consent Act
(a) Ibn Battuta %QFGU
(b) Nicolo De Conti (a) (iii), (i), (ii), (iv)
(c) William Finch (b) (i), (ii), (iii), (iv)
(d) Peter Mundi (c) (iv), (ii), (i), (iii)
Match List-I with List-II and select the cor- (d) (ii), (iii), (iv), (i)
rect answer from the codes given below: Arrange in chronological order the Famine
Commissions formed by the Government
.KUV+ .KUV++
of British India:
(a) Ahmad Yadgar (i) Maasir-i- (i) Macdowell Commission
Jahangiri (ii) Lyall Commission
(b) Sujan Rai (ii) Maasir-ul- (iii) Campbell Commission
Umara (iv) Strachey Commission
(c) Khwaja (iii) Tarikh-i- %QFGU
Kamghar Salatin-i- (a) (iv), (iii), (ii), (i)
Ghairat Khan Afghaniah (b) (iii), (iv), (i), (ii)
(c) (i), (ii), (iii), (iv)
(d) Shah Nawaz (iv) Khulast-ut-
(d) (ii), (iii), (i), (iv)
Khan Twarikh
Maulana Shibli Nomani belonged to the
%QFGU (a) Aligarh School
(a) (b) (c) (d) (b) Deoband Madarsa
(a) (iii) (iv) (i) (ii) (c) Firangi Mahal
(b) (ii) (i) (iii) (iv) (d) Nadwat-ul-ulema
Gandhiji’s intervention in the Ahmedabad %QFGU

Mill Strike of 1917 led to the enhance- (a) (b) (c) (d)
ment of wages of the workers by (a) (iv) (iii) (ii) (i)
(a) 25 % (b) 30 % (b) (iii) (ii) (i) (iv)
(c) 35 % (d) 40 % (c) (ii) (iv) (iii) (i)
The chief grievance of the peasants in (d) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
Champaran Satyagraha (1917) was against Match List-I with List-II and select the
the correct answer.
(a) awabs or illegal cesses
.KUV+ .KUV++
(b) oppression of the landlords
(c) land revenue demand (a) Chinnava (i) Rampa Uprising
(d) tinkathia system 1922
In which Session the Indian National Con- (b) Haji Shariat (ii) GadkariRevolt
gress adopted the resolution on Funda- Ullah 1944
mental Rights? (c) Alluri Sita- (iii) Faraizi Move-
(a) Madras (1927) (b) Lahore (1929) ram Raj ment 1838
(c) Karachi (1931) (d) Faizpur (1936) (d) Krishna Daji (iv) Kittur Uprising
Who argued that de-industrialization did Pandit 1924
not take place in India under the colonial
rule? %QFGU
(a) Amiyo Baghchi (a) (b) (c) (d)
(b) Bipan Chandra (a) (iv) (iii) (i) (ii)
(c) Morris D Morris (b) (iii) (iv) (i) (ii)
(d) Toru Matsui (c) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
(d) (ii) (i) (iv) (iii)
Who founded the Hindu College of
Calcutta in 1817? Paramountcy is the position of permanent
(a) David Hare power enjoyed by the British Government
(b) William Jones in relation to the
(c) H.T. Princep (a) Zamindars
(d) Henry Vivian Derozio (b) Princely states
(c) Peasants
Match List-I with List-II and select the (d) Christian Missionaries
correct answer.
The Congress Ministry in Madras during
.KUV+ .KUV++ 1937–39 was headed by
(a) Maulana Abul (i) The Indian (a) T. Prakasham
Kalam Azad Struggle (b) Subramanium Bharti
(b) Dadabhai (ii) Asbab-i-Bagha- (c) C. Rajgopalachari
Naoroji wat-i-Hind (d) K. Kamraj
(c) Sir Syed (iii) Poverty and Who was the Chairman of the Drafting
Ahmad Khan Un-British Committee of the Indian Constitution?
Rule in India (a) Dr. Rajendra Prasad
(b) Dr. B.R. Ambedkar
(d) Subhash (iv) India Wins (c) B. N. Rau
Chandra Bose Freedom (d) Jawaharlal Nehru
Arrange the following events in their Bullionism and the favourable balance of
chronological order: trade were the basic features of
(i) Cripps Mission (a) Colonialism
(ii) Quit India Movement (b) Commercialism
(iii) Individual Satyagraha (c) Free Trade
(iv) August Offer (d) Mercantilism
(a) (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) Match List-I with List-II and select the
(b) (iv), (iii), (i), (ii) correct answer from the codes given below
(c) (iii), (iv), (ii), (i) the lists:
(d) (ii), (i), (iv), (iii)
.KUV+ .KUV++
Who was known as the father of
‘Humanism’? (a) Erasmus (i) Divine Comedy
(a) Dante (b) Erasmus (b) Machiavelli (ii) Utopia
(c) Machiavelli (d) Petrarch
(c) Thomas More (iii) The Prince
The fee paid to the Lord for the use of the
mill, brewery and bakery was known as (d) Dante (iv) Praise of Folly
(a) Banalitè (b) Corveè
%QFGU
(c) Gabellè (d) Taille
(a) (b) (c) (d)
The theory of ‘General Will’ was put for- (a) (iii) (ii) (i) (iv)
ward by (b) (ii) (i) (iii) (iv)
(a) Diderot (b) Montesquieu (c) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
(c) Rousseau (d) Voltaire (d) (iv) (iii) (ii) (i)
Answer Keys
1. (a) 2. (c) 3. (d) 4. (b) 29. (a) 30. (b) 31. (b) 32. (a)
5. (d) 6. (c) 7. (d) 8. (b) 33. (b) 34. (a) 35. (c) 36. (d)
9. (c) 10. (d) 11. (a) 12. (b) 37. (c) 38. (c) 39. (a) 40. (a)
13. (d) 14. (a) 15. (b) 16. (d) 41. (a) 42. (b) 43. (c) 44. (b)
17. (b) 18. (d) 19. (d) 20. (c) 45. (b) 46. (d) 47. (b) 48. (b)
21. (c) 22. (b) 23. (b) 24. (d) 49. (b) 50. (d)
25. (c) 26. (b) 27. (c) 28. (c)
December 2010

The eulogies or ‘prashasti’ among the fol- #UUGTVKQP

# The Varna system existed
lowing inscriptions: during the Rigvedic period.
I. Aihole Inscription of Pulakesin II. 4GCUQP
4 Mandala X of Rigveda men-
II. Allahabad Pillar Inscription of tions Chaturvarna system.
Samudra Gupta.
%QFGU
III. Junagarh Inscription of Rudradaman.
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is
IV. Hathigumpha Inscription of Kharavela.
the correct explanation of (A).
%QFGU (b) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is
(a) I, II and III are correct. not a correct explanation of (A).
(b) I and II are only correct. (c) (A) is true, but (R) is false.
(c) II and III are only correct. (d) (A) is false, but (R) is true.
(d) I, III and IV are correct. Arrange the following dynasties in chron-
Match List-I with List-II and select the cor- ological order by using the codes given
rect answer from the codes given below: below:
(I) Shunga dynasty
.KUV+ .KUV++

+PFWU8CNNG[6QYP
4KXGT$CPM (II) Haryanka dynasty
(III) Nanda dynasty
(a) Mohenjodaro (i) Ghaggar (IV) Mauryan dynasty
(b) Ropar (ii) Ravi %QFGU
(c) Banawali (iii) Sutlej (a) II, I, III, IV (b) I, II, III, IV
(d) Harappa (iv) Indus (c) III, I, II, IV (d) IV, II, I, III
Match the following with reference to the
%QFGU Buddha’s life:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
(a) (ii) (iii) (iv) (i) .KUV+ .KUV++

5[ODQN
$WFFJCŏUGXGPV
(b) (ii) (iii) (i) (iv)
(c) (iv) (ii) (i) (iii) (a) Lotus (i) Renunciation
(d) (iv) (iii) (i) (ii) (b) Horse (ii) Birth
Given below are two statements, one (c) Wheel (iii) Mahaparinirvana
labelled as Reason (R): (d) Stupa (iv) First Sermon
%QFGU The chief port for trade with Burma and
(a) (b) (c) (d) Ceylon during the Mauryan period was
(a) (i) (ii) (iv) (iii) (a) Arikamedu
(b) (ii) (i) (iv) (iii) (b) Tamralipti
(c) (ii) (i) (iii) (iv) (c) Barukaccha (Broach)
(d) (iv) (i) (ii) (iii) (d) Sopara
The Bodhisatva Doctrine is associated Buddha image appeared with Halo (Prabha
with Mandala) around the head and adorned
(a) Mahayana Buddhism with flying Gandharva Figures and Lotus
(b) Hinayana Buddhism designs in the following School of Art:
(c) Vajrayana Buddhism (a) Gandhara School of Art
(d) Theravada Buddhism (b) Gupta School of Art
Four Buddhist Councils were held in the (c) Mathura School of Art
following places. Arrange them in chrono- (d) Amaravati School of Art
logical order by using the codes given In which of the following crafts did India
below: benefit most technologically under the
(I) Vaishali influence of Rome?
(II) Rajagriha (a) Glass making
(III) Kundala Vana (b) Ship building
(IV) Pataliputra (c) Gem-cutting
%QFGU: (d) Manufacture of arms
(a) I, III, IV, II Ujjain was made the second capital of
(b) II, IV, III, I Guptas during the reign of
(c) III, I, IV, II (a) Kumara Gupta
(d) II, I, IV, III (b) Chandra Gupta II
Given below are two statements, one (c) Samudra Gupta
labelled as Assertion (A) and the other (d) Skanda Gupta
labelled as Reason (R): Which of the following were the Buddhist
seats of learning?
#UUGTVKQP
# Satavahana society shows
I. Nalanda
traces of matrilineal elements.
II. Vikramasila
4GCUQP
4 Queens and not Kings were III. Kanchipuram
the real rulers during Satavahana period. IV. Varanasi
%QFGU: %QFGU
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is (a) I, II and IV are correct.
the correct explanation of (A). (b) I, III and IV are correct.
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is (c) I and IV are only correct.
not a correct explanation of (A). (d) I and II are only correct.
(c) (A) is true, but (R) is false. Which of the following were the principal
(d) (A) is false, but (R) is true. crops of Agriculture during the Sangam
Ashoka carved out rock-cut caves at period?
Barabar and Nagarjun hills in Bihar for (a) Rice and Sugarcane
one of the following: (b) Wheat and Rice
(a) Hinayana (b) Digambara (c) Wheat and Barley
(c) Mahayana (d) Ajivika (d) Rice and Cotton
.JGUBVM'VUVI composed by Amir Khus- (c) (A) is true, but (R) is false.
rau describes (d) (A) is false, but (R) is true.
(a) The military campaigns of Jalal-ud- Who stated that ‘although only a tenth of the
Din Khalji (Muslim) population of Delhi reached Deo-
(b) The meeting between Bughra Khan gir (Daulatabad) yet they were able to turn
and Kaikubad the city into a fertile and prosperous land’?
(c) Ala-ud-Din Khalji’s conquest of (a) Ibn Battuta
Chittor (b) Shams-i-Siraj Afi
(d) Ghyas-ud-Din Tughlaq’s achievements (c) Abd-al-Malik Isami
Which of the following statements is/are (d) Zia-ud-Din Barani
true? Match List-I with List-II and select the cor-
(i) Ala-ud-Din Khalji instructed Malik rect answer from the codes given below:
Kafur to annex the Kakatiya State.
.KUV+ .KUV++
(ii) Kakatiya ruler Pratap Rudra was to
be made a tributary King to Ala-ud- (a) Wakil-i-dar (i) Controller general
Din Khalji. of the military
(iii) Pratap Rudra regularly sent annual department
tribute to the Delhi Sultans. (b) Amir-i- (ii) Head of State the
(iv) Pratap Rudra was escorted to Delhi hajib news agency
by Khusro Shah.
(c) Ariz-i- (iii) Master of Ceremo-
Select your answer from the codes given
mumalik nies at the Court
below:
%QFGU (d) Barid-i- (iv) Officer incharge
(a) (i) only mumalik of royal household
(b) (ii) only %QFGU
(c) (i), (ii) and (iii) (a) (b) (c) (d)
(d) (ii), (iii) and (iv) (a) (iv) (iii) (i) (ii)
Given below are two statements, one (b) (ii) (i) (iv) (iii)
labelled as Assertion (A) and the other (c) (iv) (i) (ii) (iii)
labelled as Reason (R): (d) (ii) (iii) (iv) (i)
#UUGTVKQP
# Sheikh Nizamuddin Aulia Which of the following statement is not
saw the reign of seven Sultans, succeeding true about Kabir?
one after another, on the throne of Delhi, (a) He rejected differences based on caste,
but he never visited the court of any of race and religion.
them. (b) He was opposed to scriptural
knowledge.
4GCUQP
4 He disliked the State Patron- (c) He rejected adherence to empty rituals.
age to the Suhrawardi Sufi Saints. (d) He advocated a philosophy of devo-
In the context of the above two statements, tion and labour.
which one of the following is correct? Which of the following measures were
%QFGU taken by Mahmud Gawan to curb the
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is power of the Bahmani nobles?
the correct explanation of (a). (i) He reduced the size of their estates.
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is (ii) He increased the amount of land
not the correct explanation of (A). classified as r yal domain.
(iii) He lowered the rate of land revenue %QFGU

demand. (a) (b) (c) (d)
(iv) He forbade governors from control- (a) (iv) (iii) (ii) (i)
ling more than a single fort. (b) (i) (ii) (iv) (iii)
Select the correct answer from the codes (c) (iv) (ii) (iii) (i)
given below: (d) (i) (iv) (ii) (iii)
(a) (i), (ii), (iii) Given below are two statements, one
(b) (i), (ii), (iv) labelled as Assertion (A) and the other
(c) (ii) and (iii) labelled as Reason (R):
(d) (ii) and (iv)
#UUGTVKQP
# It was in Jahangir’s reign
Who is the author of ‘Archaeology, Art that the art of painting reached its highest
and Religion: New Perspectives on Vijay- water mark.
anagara’?
(a) Noburu Karashima 4GCUQP
4 He was against architectural
(b) Anila Verghese decoration.
(c) Kathleen D. Morrison In the context of the above two statements,
(d) Carla M. Sinopoli which one of the following is correct?
Arrange the following into correct chrono- %QFGU
logical order: (a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is
(i) Creation of twelve Subahs by Akbar the correct explanation of (A).
(ii) Introduction of the Dahsala system. (b) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is
(iii) Introduction of the dagh system. not the correct explanation of (A).
(iv) Introduction of the dual rank (the zat (c) (A) is true, but (R) is false.
and the sawar). (d) (A) is false, but (R) is true.
Select your answer from the codes given Match List-I with List-II and select the
below: correct answer from the codes given below
%QFGU:
.KUV+ .KUV++
(a) (iii) (ii) (i) (iv)
(b) (iv) (i) (ii) (iii) (a) Iqbalnama-i (i) Inayat Khan
(c) (iii) (iv) (ii) (i) Jahangiri
(d) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (b) Tarikh-Rashidi (ii) Mutmad
Match List-I with List-II and select the cor- Khan
rect answer from the codes given below: (c) Shahjahannama (iii) Isar Das
.KUV+ .KUV++ nagar
(a) Introduction of the prac- (i) 1620 (d) Fatuhat-i (iv) Mirza Haider
tice of Jhroka darshan Alamgiri Doghlat
(b) Recovery of Qandahar (ii) 1646 %QFGU

from the Safavids (a) (b) (c) (d)
(c) Mughal occupation of (iii) 1638 (a) (i) (ii) (iv) (iii)
Balkh (b) (iv) (ii) (iii) (i)
(c) (ii) (i) (iv) (iii)
(d) Conquest of Kangra (iv) 1580 (d) (ii) (iv) (i) (iii)
Match List-I with List-II and select the cor- The author of Tuhfut-ul-Muwahidin was
rect answer from the codes given below: (a) Sir Syed Ahmad Khan
(b) Raja Rammohan Roy
.KUV+ .KUV++
(c) Maulana Abul Kalam Azad

/QPWOGPV
4WNGTYJQDWNVKV (d) Altaf Husain Hali
(a) Jame Masjid (i) Abdullah
Who denounced Congress as a ‘micro-
(Char Minar) Qutub shah
scopic minority’?
(b) Hira Masjid (ii) Shahjahan (a) Sir Syed Ahmad Khan
(c) MotiMasjid (iii) Mohammad- (b) Lord Dufferin
QuliQutub- (c) Lord Curzon
Shah (d) Theodore Beck
(d) Gol Gurmbaz (iv) Ali Adil Shah Since when Income Tax was permanently
imposed in India?
%QFGU (a) 1860
(a) (b) (c) (d) (b) 1869
(a) (i) (iv) (iii) (ii) (b) 1878
(b) (iii) (i) (ii) (iv) (d) 1886
(c) (ii) (i) (iv) (iii)
(d) (ii) (iv) (iii) (i) Under the ‘Guarantee System’, the Brit-
ish companies investing in railways were
Who among the following historians looks assured a guaranteed dividend of
upon Shivaji as the ‘most constructive (a) 3%
genius of medieval times’? (b) 5%
(a) Vincent A. Smith (c) 8%
(b) M.G. Ranade (d) 10%
(c) Jadunath Sarkar
(d) A.R. Kulkarni Maulana Abdul Bari belonged to the
(a) Aligarh School
Who applied the ‘Great Firm’ theory to
(b) Deoband Madarsa
explain the decline of the Mughal Empire?
(c) Firangi Mahal School
(a) W.C. Smith
(d) Nadwat-ul-Ulema
(b) C.A. Bayly
(c) J.F. Richards Who argued the Khilafat Movement was
(d) Karen Leonard the result of the emergence of a ‘Middle
Arrange in chronological order the Indian Class’ among Indian Muslims?
initiative in education. (a) Peter Hardy
(i) Bethune School, Calcutta (b) Francis Robinson
(ii) Banaras Hindu University (c) W.C. Smith
(iii) M.A.O. College, Aligarh (d) Mohd. Mujeeb
(iv) Hindu College, Calcutta Arrange the following events into correct
%QFGU chronological order:
(a) (iv) (i) (iii) (ii) (i) Cabinet Mission Plan
(b) (iii) (iv) (ii) (i) (ii) Bombay Plan
(c) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (iii) Wavell Plan
(d) (ii) (iii) (iv) (i) (iv) Mountbatten Plan
%QFGU Match List-I with List-II and select the cor-
(a) (ii) (i) (iii) (iv) rect answer from the codes given below:
(b) (ii) (i) (iv) (iii)
.KUV+ .KUV++
(c) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
(d) (iv) (iii) (ii) (i) (a) Mahatma (i) Al-Hilal
Gandhi Gandhi
Who opened a widow home at Pune, formed
a widow remarriage association, married to (b) Bal Gangad- (ii) Harijan
a widow in 1893 and in 1916 founded a har Tilak
Women’s University in Bombay? (c) Maulana (iii) Kesari
(a) M.G. Ranade Mohd Ali
(b) Prof. D.K. Karve (d) Maulana Abul (iv) Hamdard
(c) Bal Gangadhar Tilak Kalam Azad
(d) G.V. Joshi
%QFGU
(a) (b) (c) (d)
(a) (ii) (iii) (iv) (i)
.KUV+ .KUV++ (b) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
(a) Vanchi Iyer (i) Tinnevelli (c) (iv) (iii) (ii) (i)
Conspiracy (d) (iii) (ii) (iv) (i)
Case Who amongst the following was the author
of the ‘Silk Letter Conspiracy’?
(b) T.K. Madhavan (ii) Vaikom
(a) Maulana Abdul Bari
Satyagraha
(b) Maulana Abul Kalam Azad
(c) Srinivas Pillay (iii) The Hindu (c) Zafar Ali Khan
Progressive (d) Obeidullah Sindhi
Improvement
Arrange the following events into correct
Society
chronological order:
(d) E.V. Ramas- (iv) Self Respect (i) Chittagong Armoury Raid Case
wami Naiker Movement (ii) Bomb Blast in Muzaffarpur
%QFGU (iii) Lahore Conspiracy Case
(a) (b) (c) (d) (iv) Kakori Case
(a) (ii) (i) (iii) (iv) %QFGU
(b) (iii) (iv) (ii) (i) (a) (ii) (iii) (iv) (i)
(c) (iv) (iii) (i) (ii) (b) (iv) (ii) (iii) (i)
(d) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (c) (i) (iv) (ii) (iii)
The Subaltern Interpretation of Indian his- (d) (iii) (i) (ii) (iv)
tory is not shared by Bhudan Movement was started by
(a) Ranjit Guha (a) Mahatma Gandhi
(b) Shahid Amin (b) Jai Prakash Narayan
(c) Bipan Chandra (c) Vinoba Bhave
(d) Gyan Pandey (d) Kaka Kalelkar
Who was known as the ‘Prince of (c) Croce (iii) ‘Man is born free
Humanists’? but everywhere he
(a) Francisco Petrarch is in chains.’
(b) Dante
(c) Boccacio (d) Madame (iv) ‘I am the Child of
(d) Erasmus Roland Revolution’
Which country could not develop into a %QFGU

Nation State in the sixteenth century? (a) (b) (c) (d)
(a) Englan (a) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
(b) France (b) (iv) (iii) (i) (ii)
(c) Germany (c) (iii) (iv) (ii) (i)
(d) Spain (d) (iv) (iii) (i) (ii)
Match List-I with List-II and select the Who propounded the Theory of Utilitari-
correct answer from the codes given below anism?
the lists: (a) David Hume
(b) John Stuart Mill
.KUV+ .KUV++ (c) Jeremy Bentham
(a) Napoleon (i) ‘A history is con- (d) Eric Stokes
Bonaparte temporary history The ‘Great Depression’ (1929) economic
crisis was met by adopting the policy of
(b) Jean (ii) ‘Liberty what (a) Stimulus
Jacques crimes are com- (b) Marshall Plan
Rousseau mitted in thy (c) New Deal
name’ (d) Open Door
Answer Keys
1. (b) 2. (d) 3. (d) 4. (a) 29. (c) 30. (d) 31. (a) 32. (b)
5. (b) 6. (a) 7. (d) 8. (c) 33. (b) 34. (a) 35. (b) 36. (c)
9. (d) 10. (b) 11. (a) 12. (a) 37. (d) 38. (a) 39. (b) 40. (d)
13. (b) 14. (d) 15. (a) 16. (a) 41. (c) 42. (a) 43. (d) 44. (a)
17. (c) 18. (b) 19. (d) 20. (a) 45. (c) 46. (d) 47. (d) 48. (b)
21. (d) 22. (c) 23. (b) 24. (a) 49. (c) 50. (c)
25. (a) 26. (b) 27. (d) 28. (b)
June 2011

In which of the following archaeological Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi was written by
sites, the evidence of reservoir was found? (a) Shams-i Siraj Afi
(a) Lothal (b) Kalibangan (b) AmirKhusrau
(c) Banawali (d) Chanhudaro (c) Mir Khurd
Panchajana in Rigveda refers to (d) Firoz Shah Tughlaq
(a) Five tribes of Aryans Fawaid u’l Faud compiled by Amir Hasan
(b) Five tribes of Non-Aryans Ala Sijzi is a record of ‘Doings and Say-
(c) Five heads of a village ings’ of
(d) Heads of fi e villages (a) Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti
How many reasons are mentioned in the (b) Shaikh Farid Ganj Shakar
Rigveda for promoting agriculture? (c) Shaikh Salim Chishti
(a) 04 (b) 05 (d) Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya
(c) 06 (d) 07 In Sufi terminology 8JMBZBU means
Who among the following Kings did issue (a) Foreign territory
gold coins for the first time in India? (b) Chief’s territory
(a) Kujula Kadphises (c) Spiritual territory
(b) Vima Kadphises (d) Zamindar’s territory
(c) Kanishka Tenth edict issued by Jahangir just after his
(d) Chandragupta II coronation was related to
Who among the following Kings was the (a) Prohibition within his empire
first to issue a long inscription in Sanskrit? (b) Jurisdiction of Jagirdars
(a) Ashoka (c) Treatment of sick subjects at the
(b) Rudradaman State’s expenses
(c) Kharavela (d) Prevention of forceful acquisition of
(d) Gondopharnes one’s house by another
Which of the following denotes the Bhukti Foundation of Jama Masjid of Delhi was
in the Gupta period? laid down by
(a) Province (a) Emperor Shah Jahan
(b) District (b) Mahabat Khan
(c) Municipal Board (c) Islam Khan
(d) Village (d) Emperor Aurangzeb
The office of Amin was created by #UUGTVKQP

# The Nishadas, originally
(a) Firoz Tughlaq (b) Akbar aboriginals, were untouchables to the
(c) Jahangir (d) Shah Jahan Buddhists.
Which of the following places was not a 4GCUQP
4 This is in tune with the atti-
Portuguese trading station? tude of the early Brahmanical law-givers.
(a) Calicut (b) Broach Read the above statements and select the
(c) Cochin (d) Mahe correct answer from the codes below:
Who among the following had taught the %QFG
English at Buxar? (a) (a) is correct, but (R) is incorrect.
(a) Mir Jaffar (b) (a) is incorrect, but (R) is correct.
(b) Siraj-ud-Daulah (c) Both (A) and (R) are incorrect.
(c) Mir Kasim (d) Both (A) and (R) are correct and (R) is
(d) Shujauddin the correct explanation of (A).
When was the Pitt’s India Act passed? Given below are two statements, one
(a) 1781 (b) 1784 labelled as Assertion (A) and the other
(c) 1786 (d) 1788 labelled as Reason (R):
Who among the following had founded the #UUGTVKQP
# Prithviraj III occupies a
Indian Association for the Cultivation of unique place in Indian history as the last
Science? great emperor of Northern India.
(a) J.C. Bose 4GCUQP
4 We know it is evidenced by
(b) Meghnad Saha the contemporary sources.
(c) Homi Bhaba
(d) Mahendralal Sarkar
Where did the Punjabi Ghadrites on board
%QFG
the -COCICVC/CTW clash with the Brit-
(a) (A) is correct, but (R) is false.
ish army?
(b) (A) is false, but (R) is correct.
(a) Bombay (b) Calicut
(c) Both (A) and (R) are incorrect.
(c) Budge Budge (d) Calcutta
(d) Both (A) and (R) are correct and (R) is
In which of the following years was the the correct explanation of (A).
Planning Commission of India estab-
lished?
(a) 1935
(b) 1947
(c) 1950 #UUGTVKQP
# Indians established several
(d) 1951 States in Malay Peninsula during the first
five centuries of the Christian era.
For the unification of Italy, ‘Young Italy’
was formed by 4GCUQP
4 The archaeological remains
(a) Cavour do not indicate the existence of flourish-
(b) Victor Emmanual ing Indian colonies.
(c) Garibaldi In view of the above statements, which one
(d) Mazzini of the following is correct?
Given below are two statements, one %QFG
labelled as Assertion (A) and the other (a) (A) is correct, but (R) is false. (R) is
labelled as Reason (R): not the correct explanation of (a).
(b) (A) is false, but (R) is true. (b) Domingo (ii) Devaraya II
(c) Both (A) and (R) are incorrect. Paes
(d) Both (A) and (R) are correct.
(c) Ferno (iii) Devaraya I
Nunz
labelled as Reason (R): (d) Abdur (iv) Achyuta Ray
#UUGTVKQP
# According to Moreland Razzak
the major portion of India’s export was %QFGU:
accounted for textiles. (a) (b) (c) (d)
4GCUQP
4 Babur mentions that the cot- (a) (iii) (i) (iv) (ii)
ton cloth among the main merchandise (b) (i) (iv) (ii) (iii)
brought from India to Kabul. (c) (iii) (ii) (i) (iv)
In the context of above two statements, (d) (ii) (i) (iv) (iii)
which one of the following is correct? Given below are two statements, one
%QFG: labelled as Assertion (A) and the other
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is labelled as Reason (R):
correct explanation of (A). #UUGTVKQP
# Commercialization of
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is agriculture had further differentiated the
not the correct explanation of (A). peasantry.
(c) (A) is true, but (R) is false. 4GCUQP
4 Commercialization of agri-
(d) (A) is false, but (R) is true. culture led to agricultural growth.
Match the List-I with List-II and choose In view of the above two statements, which
your answer from the codes given below: of the following is correct?
.KUV+ .KUV++ %QFG:
5VCVG %CRKVCN (a) (A) is true, but (R) is false.
(a) Nizam Shahi (i) Golkunda (b) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is
not the correct explanation of (a).
(b) Qutub Shahi (ii) Bijapur (c) Both (A) and (R) are correct and (R) is
(c) Imam Shahi (iii) Ahmedn agar the correct explanation of (A).
(d) Adil Shahi (iv) Berar (d) (A) is false, but (R) is correct.
%QFGU
(a) (b) (c) (d)
(a) (iii) (i) (iv) (ii)
(b) (ii) (iii) (i) (iv) #UUGTVKQP
# The peasant movement in
(c) (i) (ii) (iv) (iii) India remained isolated and local.
(d) (iv) (ii) (iii) (i) 4GCUQP
4 Indian agricultural society
Match the List-I with List-II and choose was complex in structure.
your answer from the codes given below: In the context of the two statements which
one of the following is correct?
.KUV+ .KUV++
6TCXGNNGTU 4WNGTUQH8KLC[CPCICT %QFG:
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is
(a) Nicolo (i) Krishnadevaraya not the correct explanation of (a).
de-conti (b) (A) is correct, but (R) is false.
(c) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is Arrange the following into chronological
the correct explanation of (A). order and select the correct answer from
(d) Both (A) and (R) are false. the codes given below:
Given below are two statements, one (i) Dharmapal
labelled as Assertion (A) and the other (ii) Mihirbhoja
labelled as Reason (R): (iii) Mahendrapal
(iv) Vatsraja
#UUGTVKQP
# The Second Five Year Plan
marked a shift in favour of heavy industry. %QFGU
4GCUQP
4 Import substitution in this (a) (ii) (iii) (i) (iv)
area was considered an imperative for (b) (iii) (i) (iv) (ii)
self-reliance. (c) (i) (iv) (ii) (iii)
In the context of the above two statements, (d) (iv) (i) (ii) (iii)
which one of the following is correct? What is the correct sequence of the follow-
%QFG ing buildings? Point out your answer from
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is the codes given below:
not the correct explanation of (A). (i) Itimau-d-DaulaTomb
(b) (A) is correct, but (R) is false. (ii) Humayun’s Tomb
(c) Both (A) and (R) are false. (iii) Mausoleum of Asaf Khan
(d) Both (A) and (R) are correct and (R) is (iv) Taj Mahal
%QFGU
Arrange the following into chronological (a) (ii) (i) (iii) (iv)
order and select the correct answer from (b) (i) (ii) (iv) (iii)
the codes given below: (c) (iii) (i) (ii) (iv)
(i) Indica (d) (iv) (iii) (i) (ii)
(ii) Rigveda
(iii) Arthashastra Give the correct sequence of the follow-
(iv) Tripitak ing battles. Choose your answer from the
codes given below:
%QFGU
(i) Battle of Kanauj
(a) (i) (iv) (ii) (iii)
(ii) Battle of Khan wah
(b) (ii) (i) (iv) (iii)
(iii) Third Battle of Panipat
(c) (iv) (i) (ii) (iii)
(iv) First Battle of Panipat
(d) (ii) (iv) (iii) (i)
Arrange the following into chronological %QFGU
order and select the correct answer from (a) (iv) (ii) (i) (iii)
the codes given below: (b) (i) (iii) (ii) (iv)
(i) Sriharsha (c) (ii) (i) (iii) (iv)
(ii) Magha (d) (iii) (iv) (ii) (i)
(iii) Bharavi Arrange the following source books in
(iv) Bhatti chronological sequence. Point out your
%QFGU answer from the codes as given below:
(a) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (i) Khazain-ul-Futuh
(b) (ii) (iii) (i) (iv) (ii) Waqa’at-i-Mushtaki
(c) (iii) (iv) (ii) (i) (iii) Tabaqat-i-Akbari
(d) (iv) (ii) (i) (iii) (iv) Ma’asir-i-Jahangiri
%QFGU (b) Ravi (ii) Mohenjodaro

(a) (ii) (iii) (iv) (i)
(b) (i) (iii) (ii) (iv) (c) Ghaggar (iii) Ropar
(c) (iv) (iii) (ii) (i) (d) Sutlej (iv) Harappa
(d) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) %QFGU
What is the sequence of the foundation of (a) (b) (c) (d)
the following institutions? (a) (ii) (iv) (i) (iii)
(i) Sanskrit College in Banaras (b) (i) (iii) (ii) (iv)
(ii) Fort William College (c) (ii) (iii) (iv) (i)
(iii) Calcutta Madarassa (d) (iii) (i) (ii) (iv)
(iv) Asiatic Society of Bengal Match List-I with List-II and select the
%QFGU correct answer from the codes given
(a) (iii) (iv) (i) (ii) below:
(b) (iii) (iv) (ii) (i)
(c) (iv) (iii) (ii) (i) .KUV+ .KUV++
(d) (ii) (iii) (i) (iv) (a) Camelian bead (i) Bengal
What is the correct sequence of the publi- (b) Copper (ii) Port
cation of the following works? (c) Arikamedu (iii) Harappa
(i) Godan
(ii) Anandamath (d) Tamralipti (iv) Rajasthan
(iii) Gitanjali %QFGU
(iv) NilDarpan (a) (b) (c) (d)
%QFGU (a) (iv) (ii) (iii) (i)
(a) (i) (iii) (iv) (ii) (b) (iv) (i) (ii) (iii)
(b) (iii) (iv) (ii) (i) (c) (iv) (iii) (ii) (i)
(c) (iv) (ii) (iii) (i) (d) (iii) (iv) (ii) (i)
(d) (iv) (ii) (i) (iii) Match List-I with List-II and select the
What is the correct historical sequence of correct answer from the codes given
the following peasant movements? below:
(i) Champaran .KUV+ .KUV++
(ii) Eka
(a) Republics (i) Rudradaman
(iii) Pabna
(iv) Mopala (b) Northern (ii) Sixth Century
%QFGU Black Polished B.C.
(a) (ii) (iii) (i) (iv) Ware
(b) (i) (iii) (ii) (iv) (c) Girnar (iii) Kapilavastu
(c) (ii) (iii) (iv) (i) inscription
(d) (iii) (iv) (i) (ii) (d) Sakyas (iv) Gangetic plain
Match List-I with List-II and select the cor- %QFGU
rect answer using the codes given below: (a) (b) (c) (d)
.KUV+ .KUV++ (a) (ii) (iv) (iii) (i)

4KXGT
6QYP (b) (ii) (iv) (i) (iii)
(c) (iv) (ii) (i) (iii)
(a) Indus (i) Kalibangan (d) (ii) (0) (iv) (iii)
Match List-I with List-II and choose your (c) David (iii) The Congress
answer from the codes given below: Page inTamil Nadu
.KUV+ .KUV++ (d) C. A. (iv) An Agrarian History
(a) Abul Fazl (i) Tarikh-i-Firuz Bayly of South India
Shahi
%QFGU
(b) Ziauddin Bami (ii) Akbarnama (a) (b) (c) (d)
(c) Abdul Hamid (iii) Badshahnama (a) (iv) (iii) (ii) (i)
Lahori (b) (ii) (iii) (iv) (i)
(d) Khafi Kha (iv) Muntkhabab (c) (iii) (iv) (ii) (i)
-ul-Lubab (d) (iii) (iv) (i) (ii)
%QFGU Match List-I with List-II and choose your
(a) (b) (c) (d) answer from the codes given below:
(a) (i) (ii) (iv) (iii)
(b) (ii) (i) (iii) (iv) .KUV+ .KUV++
(c) (iii) (i) (ii) (iv) (a) Naoroji (i) Harijan
(d) (iv) (ii) (i) (iii) (b) Tilak (ii) Drain
Which of the following pair is not cor- (c) Gandhi (iii) Panchasheel
rectly matched?
(d) Nehru (iv) Swaraj
'ORGTQT 0QQH5WDCU
%QFGU
(a) Akbar 15 (a) (b) (c) (d)
(b) Jahangir 17 (a) (iv) (iii) (ii) (i)
(c) Shah Jahan 22 (b) (ii) (iv) (i) (iii)
(c) (ii) (iv) (iii) (i)
(d) Aurangzeb 24 (d) (iv) (iii) (i) (ii)
Which of the following event related to Match List-I with List-II and choose your
Akbar’s reign is not correctly matched? answer from the codes given below:
'XGPV ;GCT .KUV+ .KUV++
(a) Capture of Merta 1562 (a) Rousseau (i) Rudradaman
(b) Seize of Asirgarh 1601 (b) Marc Block (ii) General Will
(c) Conquest of Gondwana 1564 (c) F. Engeis (iii) Sanskritzation
(d) Conquest of Orissa 1582 (d) M.N.Srinivas (iv) Feudalism
Match List-I with List-II and choose your %QFGU
answer from the codes given below: (a) (b) (c) (d)
.KUV+ .KUV++ (a) (ii) (iv) (iii) (i)
(b) (ii) (iv) (i) (iii)
(a) David (i) Prelude to Partition (c) (iv) (iii) (ii) (i)
Arnold (d) (ii) (iii) (iv) (i)
(b) David (ii) The Local Roots 3FBE UIF GPMMPXJOH QBTTBHF DBSFGVMMZ BOE
Ludden of Indian Politics: DIPPTFUIFDPSSFDUBOTXFSPGUIFRVFTUJPOTUIBU
Allahabad GPMMPX
Yet the millions who rejoiced throughout What does the ‘tryst with destiny’ actually
the subcontinent, thrilled to Nehru’s midnight refer to?
speech on India’s ‘tryst with destiny’, and made (a) Nehru’s inaugural speech in the
of 15 August an unforgettable experience even Parliament
for someone who was then only a child, had (b) Celebration of 15th August, 1947
not been entirely deluded. The Communists in (c) Independence of India
1948-51 learnt to their cost that the slogan :FI (d) None of the above
"[BEJ+IVUB)BJ (‘this freedom is a farce’) cut Why did the Communist slogan fail?
little ice. Indian freedom was the beginning of (a) It was misconceived.
a process of decolonization which has proved (b) Communist suffered persecution.
irresistible, at least so far as political indepen- (c) Post-colonial developments did not
dence is concerned. Far from becoming a pup- justify it.
pet of Britain or the USA, India under Nehru (d) None of the above.
did gradually develop an independent foreign
How did democratic India emerge?
policy, based on the thennovel concept of non-
(a) Through the development of the dem-
alignment and friendship with socialist coun-
ocratic state and polity.
tries and the emerging Third World. A broadly
(b) Through the development of demo-
democratic constitution was promulgated in
cratic institutions.
January 1950—despite many limitations, a big
(c) Through the introduction of the uni-
advance on British Indian Institutions which
versal suffrage.
had avoided universal suffrage till the very
(d) None of the above.
end. Princes and [BNJOEBST were gradually
eased out, land ceilings imposed (though sel- How was Free India reorganized?
dom implemented), the old ideal of linguistic (a) Through linguistic reorganisation of
recoganization of States was achieved in 1956, States.
basic industries were built up through planned (b) Through the development of industries
development of a public sector, and food pro- and agriculture.
duction increased considerably in sharp con- (c) Through rebuilding Indian States and
trast to the nearstagnation of the first half of economy.
the century. (d) None of the above.
Answer Keys
1. (a) 2. (a) 3. (d) 4. (b) 29. (d) 30. (d) 31. (c) 32. (a)
5. (b) 6. (a) 7. (a) 8. (d) 33. (a) 34. (d) 35. (a) 36. (c)
9. (c) 10. (c) 11. (a) 12. (a) 37. (d) 38. (a) 39. (d) 40. (b)
13. (d) 14. (c) 15. (b) 16. (d) 41. (b) 42. (d) 43. (b) 44. (d)
17. (c) 18. (c) 19. (d) 20. (c) 45. (b) 46. (b) 47. (c) 48. (a)
21. (d) 22. (b) 23. (c) 24. (a) 49. (a) 50. (a)
25. (a) 26. (a) 27. (c) 28. (b)
December 2011

Which of the following games was known (a) 1908
to the people of the Indus Vallely? (b) 1910
(a) Chariot racing (c) 1912
(b) Game of dice (d) 1914
(c) Polo Chachnama is a history of Sind and was
(d) Horse riding originally written in
Which of the following did Mahavira the (a) Persian language
real founder of Jaimsm-belong to? (b) Hebrew language
(a) Jnatrika tribe (c) Arabic language
(b) Malla tribe (d) Sanskrit language
(c) Lichchhavi tribe
(d) Sakya tribe Mohd bin Tughlaq and Emperor Akbar
used to drink the water of which of the fol-
In which of the following Asokan inscrip- lowing rivers?
tions the Brahmi script was not used?
(a) Yamuna river
(a) Saranath
(b) Ghaghra river
(b) Shahbazgarhi (c) Ganga river
(c) Dhauli (d) Indus river
The Neolithic people had their settlements in Amir Khusrau is known to have innovated
(a) Quartzite rocks musical instrument
(b) Granite rocks (a) Violin
(c) Natural rocks (b) Tabla
(d) Houses of burnt bricks (c) Guitar
(d) Sitar
On which archaeological site the evidence
of fire cult was found? The marble stone used in the construction
(a) Hastinapur of Taj Mahal was brought from
(b) Alamgirpur (a) Amber
(c) Kaushambi (b) Aurangabad
(d) Lothal (c) Kishangarh
(d) Makrana
In which of the following years the Numis-
matic Society of India was established at Arrange the following events in chrono-
Allahabad? logical order using the code given below:
(a) Battle of Panipat 1 (c) First Five Year Plan

(b) Battle of Haldighati (d) Second Five Year Plan
(c) Battle of Buxar Given below are two statements, one
(d) Battle of Dharmat labelled as Assertion (A) and the other
%QFGU labelled as Reason (R):
(a) (i), (ii), (iv), (iii) #UUGTVKQP
# The early Aryan settlers
(b) (i), (iv), (iii), (ii) were engaged in taking possession of the
(c) (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) land of the seven rivers represented by the
(d) (i), (iii), (ii), (iv) Indus and its tributaries.
Who among the following Indian rulers 4GCUQP
4 We noticed conflict between
had first opposed the Portuguese? various Aryan tribes.
(a) Krishnadeva Raya
(b) Pulakeshin II
(c) Akbar
(d) Zamorin %QFGU
Who among the following did issue the (b) (A) is false, but (R) is true.
dastak? (c) Both (A) and (R) are incorrect.
(a) Mughal Emperor (d) Both (A) and (R) are correct and (R) is
(b) Nawab of Bengal the correct explanation of (A).
(c) Governor o f Fort William
(d) Diwan of Bengal Given below are two statements, one
Muzaffar Jung, the Nizam of Hyderabad, labelled as Reason (R):
had granted Territorial concessions to
(a) Portuguese #UUGTVKQP
# The Indo-Roman Trade
(b) Dutch relations declined during 3rd – 4th century
(c) French A.D.
(d) English 4GCUQP
4 Increasing Brahmin suprem-
acy put a riddle on sea journey.
Who among the following did start the
Ryotwari Settlement in Madras? Read the above statements and select the
(a) Thomas Munroe correct answer from the codes below:
(b) Alexander Reed %QFGU
(c) Mountstuart Elphinstone (a) (A) is correct, but (R) is false.
(d) Henry Dundas (b) (A) is false, but (R) is correct.
.FJO,BNQG was written by (c) Both (A) and (R) are correct and (R) is
(a) Adolf Hitler the correct explanation of (A).
(b) Mussolini (d) Both (A) and (R) are incorrect.
(c) General Franco Given below are two statements, one
(d) Ottovon Bismarck labelled as Assertion (A) and the other
Which of the following was the Nehru- labelled as Reason (R):
Mahalanobis strategy associated with? #UUGTVKQP
# India is bounded on the
(a) National Planning Committee North by the Himalayas and on the South,
(b) Bombay Plan East and West by the open sea.
4GCUQP
4 Thus India is cut off from the (c) (A) is true, but (R) is false.
rest of the world. (d) (A) is false, but (R) is true.
Read the above statements and select the Given below are two statements, one
correct answer from the codes below: labelled as Assertion (A) and the other
%QFGU labelled as Reason (R):
(a) (A) is correct, (R) is false. #UUGTVKQP
# The Portuguese had intro-
(b) (A) is false, but (R) is correct. duced violence in Asian waters.
(c) Both (A) and (R) are incorrect. 4GCUQP
4 The Portuguese motive was
(d) Both (A) and (R) are correct. to control major sea lanes of Asian trade.
Given below are two statements, one is In view of the above two statements, which
labelled as Assertion (A) and the other of the following is correct?
%QFGU
#UUGTVKQP
# Akbar wanted to establish (a) (A) is false, but (R) is true.
friendship with the Rajputs. (b) (A) is true, but (R) is false.
4GCUQP
4 The Mughal links with Cen- (c) Both (A) and (R) are correct and (R) is
tral Asia having been snapped, Akbar had the correct explanation of (A).
to make friendship alliance in India. (d) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) does
In the context of above two statements, not explain (A).
%QFGU labelled as Assertion (A) and the other
the correct explanation of (A). #UUGTVKQP
#: Western education had an
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is important role in the evolution of Indian
not the correct explanation of (A). Nationalism.
(c) (A) is true, but (R) is false. 4GCUQP
4 Western education produced
(d) (A) is false, but (R) is true. a critical public discourse conducive to its
Given below are two statements, one growth.
labelled as Assertion (A) and the other In the context of above two statements,
labelled as Reason (R): which one of the following is correct?
#UUGTVKQP
# Malabar pepper was one of %QFGU
the most important items of export from (a) (A) is correct, but (R) is wrong.
India during the period of Akbar. (b) Both (A) and (R) are correct, but (R)
4GCUQP
4: The producing regions and does not explain (A).
principal exporting ports in South India (c) Both (A) and (R) are wrong.
were well outside of Akbar’s empire. (d) Both (A) and (R) are correct and (R) is
In the context of above two statements, the correct explanation of (A).
the correct explanation of (A). #UUGTVKQP
# De-industrialization was
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is uniform neither over space nor over the
not the correct explanation of (A). time period.
4GCUQP
4 The artisan production did (i) Greeks
not conform to a particular pattern. (ii) Romans
In the context of the above two statements, (iii) Sakas
which of the following is correct? (iv) Parthians
%QFGU %QFGU
(a) Both (A) and (R) are false. (a) (iv), (iii), (i), (ii)
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) does (b) (ii), (i), (iii), (iv)
not explain (A). (c) (iii), (iv), (i), (ii)
(c) (A) is false, but (R) is true. (d) (iv), (i), (iii), (ii)
(d) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is Arrange the following gods in the order of
the correct explanation of (A). their importance in the Rig Vedic Society
Given below are two statements, one and choose your answer from codes given
labelled as Assertion (A) and the other below:
labelled as Reason (R): (i) Agni
#UUGTVKQP
# The Partition in 1947 led (ii) Varuna
to large-scale displacement of population. (iii) Indra
(iv) Marut
4GCUQP
4 The Partition in 1947 was ill-
conceived and irrational. %QFGU
(a) (ii) (i) (iii) (iv)
In the context of the above two statements, (b) (iii) (i) (ii) (iv)
which of the following is correct? (c) (iv) (ii) (i) (iii)
%QFGU (d) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
(a) (A) is true, but (R) is false. Arrange in chronological sequence the fol-
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) lowing travellers’ visit to India:
explains (A). (i) Bernier
(c) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) does (ii) Ibn Batuta
not fully account for (A). (iii) Hiuen Tsang
(d) Both (A) and (R) are false. (iv) William Hodges
Arrange the following into historical (a) (iii), (ii), (i), (iv)
sequence and select the correct answer (b) (ii), (iii), (iv), (i)
from the codes given below: (c) (iv), (ii), (iii), (i)
(i) Chalcolithic age (d) (i), (iii), (iv), (ii)
(ii) Iron age
What is the correct chronological sequence
(iii) Bronze age
of the following Bhakti saints?
(iv) Stone age
(i) Chaitanya
%QFGU: (ii) Ramanuja
(a) (iii), (ii), (i), (iv) (iii) Tukaram
(b) (ii), (i), (iv), (iii) (iv) Namdev
(c) (iv), (i), (iii), (ii)
%QFGU
(d) (iv), (ii), (i), (iii)
(a) (i), (iii), (ii), (iv)
Arrange the following into historical (b) (iv), (ii), (iii), (i)
sequence and select the correct answer (c) (ii), (iv), (i), (iii)
from the codes given below: (d) (iii), (ii), (i), (iv)
What is the correct sequence of the follow- (iii) Madras Mahajan Sabha
ing events related to Shivaji? (iv) Indian Association
(i) Treaty of Purandhar %QFGU
(ii) First Plunder of Surat (a) (i), (ii), (iv), (iii)
(iii) Coronation (b) (i), (ii), (iii), (iv)
(iv) Visit to Agra (c) (ii), (iii), (iv), (i)
(a) (ii), (i), (iv), (iii) (d) (i), (iii), (iv), (ii)
(b) (i), (iii), (ii), (iv)
Arrange the following societies by the year
(c) (iii), (iv), (i), (ii)
of their foundation; and select the answer
(d) (iv), (iii), (ii), (i)
from using the codes given below:
East India Company was established (i) Indian Association for the Cultivation
in the of Science
(a) Early Fifteenth Century (ii) Society for the Acquisition of General
(b) Early Sixteenth Century Knowledge
(c) Late Sixteenth Century (iii) Bihar Scientific Societ
(d) Early Seventeenth Century (iv) Aligarh Scientific Societ
Arrange the following Viceroys in histori- %QFGU
cal order: (a) (i), (iii), (iv), (ii)
(i) Northbrook (b) (ii), (iv), (iii), (i)
(ii) Dufferin (c) (iv), (iii), (i), (ii)
(iii) Lytton (d) (ii), (iv), (i), (iii)
(iv) Mayo
(v) Ripon Match the List-I with List-II and choose
%QFGU your answer from the codes given below:
(a) (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (i) .KUV+ .KUV++
(b) (iv), (i), (iii), (v), (ii)
(c) (iv), (i), (v), (iii), (ii) (a) Srauta (i) Sacred and
(d) (ii), (iii), (iv), (i), (v) sutras secular law and
administration
Arrange the following wars in chronologi-
cal order using the codes given below: (b) Grihya (ii) Rules for the perfor-
(i) First Burma War Sutras mance of the great
(ii) First Anglo-Afghan War sacrifice
(iii) First Anglo-Maratha War (c) Dharma (iii) Directions for the
(iv) First Anglo-Sikh War Sutras simple ceremonies of
%QFGU daily life
(a) (iii), (i), (ii), (iv) (d) Sulva (iv) Rules for the measure-
(b) (iv), (iii), (ii), (i) Sutras ment and building a
(c) (iii), (ii), (i), (iv) place of sacrifice and
(d) (iii), (i), (ii), (iv) the fire altars
Arrange the following organisations by the %QFGU
year of their foundation: (a) (b) (c) (d)
(i) British Indian Association (a) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
(ii) Poona Sarvajanik Sabha (b) (iii) (ii) (iv) (i)
(c) (iv) (iii) (ii) (i) (b) Sir Thomas Roe (ii) Shah Jahan
(d) (ii) (iii) (i) (iv)
(c) Peter Mundy (iii) Jahangir
answer from the codes given below: (d) Bernier (iv) Aurangzeb
.KUV+ .KUV++ %QFGU

#WVJQT
$QQM (a) (b) (c) (d)
(a) (i) (iii) (ii) (iv)
(a) Kautilya (i) Smriti (b) (i) (ii) (iv) (iii)
(b) Bhadrabahu (ii) Mahabhashya (c) (iii) (i) (iv) (ii)
(c) Katyayana (iii) Kalpa Sutra (d) (iv) (i) (iii) (ii)
(d) Patanjali (iv) Arthashastra
%QFGU
(a) (b) (c) (d) .KUV+ .KUV++
(a) (iv) (iii) (i) (ii) (a) Zahiruddin (i) Akbar
(b) (iii) (ii) (i) (iv) (b) Jalaluddin (ii) Babur
(c) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
(d) (iv) (ii) (i) (iii) (c) Nooruddin (iii) Aurangzeb
Match List-I with List-II and choose your (d) Alamgir (iv) Jahangir
answer from the codes given below: %QFGU
(a) (b) (c) (d)
.KUV+ .KUV++
(a) (i) (iii) (ii) (iv)
(a) Gita Govinda (i) Bilhana (b) (ii) (i) (iv) (iii)
(b) Parishishta- (ii) Somadeva (c) (i) (ii) (iv) (iii)
parvam (d) (iv) (ii) (iii) (i)
(c) Kathasarit- (iii) Hemachandra Match List-I with List-II and choose your
sagara
(d) Vikramanka- (iv) Jayadeva .KUV+ .KUV++

devacharita (a) T.B. Macaulay (i) Permanent
%QFGU Settlement
(a) (b) (c) (d) (b) John Shore (ii) Congress
(a) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
(c) Elijah Impey (iii) Education
(b) (iv) (iii) (ii) (i)
(c) (iii) (iv) (ii) (i) (d) A.O. Hume (iv) Supreme Court
(d) (ii) (iii) (iv) (i) %QFGU
Match List-I of travellers with List-II of the (a) (b) (c) (d)
rulers, visiting India during the period of (a) (iii) (i) (iv) (ii)
the latter. Point out answer from the codes: (b) (ii) (iii) (i) (iv)
(c) (iii) (ii) (i) (iv)
.KUV+ .KUV++
(d) (iii) (iv) (i) (ii)
6TCXGNNGT 4WNNGT
(a) Ibn Batuta (i) Mohd. bin correct answer from the codes given
Tughlaq below:
.KUV+ .KUV++ (b) S.N.Banerjee (ii) Poona Sarva-

#WVJQT
9QTM janik Sabha
(a) R.C. Dutt (i) Social Back- (c) A.K. Fazlul Haq (iii) Indian
ground of Indian Association
Nationalism (d) GK.Gokhale (iv) Swaraj Party
(b) R.J. Moore (ii) Elite Conflict in %QFGU
a Plural Society (a) (b) (c) (d)
(c) A.R. Desai (iii) Economic His- (a) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
tory of India (b) (iv) (iii) (ii) (i)
(d) H.J. Broom- (iv) The Crisis of (c) (ii) (iii) (iv) (i)
field Indian Unity (d) (iv) (iii) (i) (ii)
%QFGU 4GCFVJGHQNNQYKPIRCUUCIGECTGHWNN[CPF
(a) (b) (c) (d) EJQQUG VJG EQTTGEV CPUYGT QH VJG SWGUVKQPU
(a) (iii) (iv) (i) (ii) VJCVHQNNQY
(b) (iii) (iv) (ii) (i) Hegel’s philosophy bridged the chasm
(c) (iii) (ii) (i) (iv) separating Christian scholars and secular phi-
(d) (i) (iii) (iv) (ii) losophers. He provided enough God to satisfy
liberal Christians and also emphasized on
Match List-I with List-II and select the cor- reason that appeased the rationalists. In the
rect answer from the codes given below: process, he established new paradigms that
.KUV+ .KUV++ swept through academia. His macro-historical

/QXGOGPV
4GIKQP approach widened the sphere of historical stud-
ies. It illustrated the benefits of expanding the
(a) Prati Sarkar (i) Bihar studies that had hitherto been limited to politi-
(b) Chasi-mulia Raj (ii) Bengal cal history and biographical works. New pos-
(c) Ulgulan (iii) Maharashtra sibilities in social history were avidly accepted
by the next generation of historians, including
(d) Tamralipta Jatiya (iv) Orissa Karl Marx. Efforts were made to link separate
Sarkar histories into an all-encompassing world his-
%QFGU tory. Hegel’s division of history into four great
(a) (b) (c) (d) epochs (the Oriental, the Greek, the Roman,
(a) (ii) (i) (iii) (iv) and the German) convinced many historians
(b) (iii) (iv) (i) (ii) that different eras and cultures were funda-
(c) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) mentally dissimilar and had to be evaluated
(d) (iii) (iv) (ii) (i) within their own contexts and in recognition of
the specific ‘needs of that age.’ Hegel’s insis-
Match List-I with List-II and select the cor- tence that motives often differed from those
rect answer from the codes given below: professed, led to a more critical appraisal of
.KUV+ .KUV++ source materials. Actions, motives, and reper-

.GCFGTU
1TICPKUCVKQP cussions were increasingly scrutinized for con-
sistency, and casual relationships became more
(a) C.R.Das (i) Krishak Praja and more important. The dialectic model had
Party less immediate impact, but in later generations
it has become a staple tenet in many historical (c) Limited to Political and Biographical
interpretations. works
How did Hegel try to bridge the gap (d) None of the above
between Christian Scholars and Secular 49. Hegel expanded history writings by
Philosophers? emphasizing on one of the following:
(a) By establishing new paradigm that (a) Economic History
swept through academia. (b) Religious History
(b) Provided enough God to satisfy liberal (c) History of Science and Technology
Christians and emphasized on reason (d) Social History
that appeased the rationalists. In Hegel’s words motives differ from those
(c) Emphasizing on reason only. professed, but to understand this one
(d) Emphasizing on the Christian requires to
Philosophy. (a) Have more critical appraisal of source
In Hegel’s time in which two spheres his- material
torical writings were limited and he was (b) Try to identify motives
not satisfied with those: (c) Actions are to be underlined
(a) Limited to Christian History (d) None of the above
(b) Limited to Secular History
Answer Keys
1. (b) 2. (a) 3. (b) 4. (c) 29. (b) 30. (a) 31. (c) 32. (a)
5. (a) 6. (b) 7. (c) 8. (a) 33. (c) 34. (b) 35. (a) 36. (b)
9. (d) 10. (d) 11. (a) 12. (d) 37. (b) 38. (d) 39. (a) 40. (b)
13. (b) 14. (d) 15. (a) 16. (a) 41. (a) 42. (b) 43. (a) 44. (d)
17. (d) 18. (d) 19. (a) 20. (a) 45. (c) 46. (d) 47. (b) 48. (c)
21. (a) 22. (b) 23. (a) 24. (d) 49. (d) 50. (a)
25. (b) 26. (b) 27. (c) 28. (b)
June 2012

Which one of the following pairs is not Match List-I with List-II and select the cor-
correct? rect answer from the codes given below:
(a) Lowser: Hunting, Palaeolithic
.KUV+ .KUV++
gathering
(b) Upper: Hunting, Palaeolithic gathering (a) Rigveda (i) Vajsaneye
(c) Mesolithic: Hunting, gathering (b) Yajurveda (ii) Shakala
(d) Neolithic: Food Production
(c) Samaveda (iii) Shaunaka
Match the List-I with List-II and select the
(d) Atharvaveda (iv) Kauthum
correct answer from the codes given below:
%QFGU
.KUV+ .KUV++
(a) (b) (c) (d)
(a) Sarai Khola (i) Haryana (a) (i) (iv) (iii) (ii)
(b) Tarkhan- (ii) Pakistan (b) (ii) (i) (iv) (iii)
waladera (c) (i) (iii) (ii) (iv)
(c) Kunal (iii) Rajasthan (d) (iii) (iv) (i) (ii)
(d) Shikarpur (iv) Gujarat
%QFGU .KUV+ .KUV++
(a) (b) (c) (d)
(a) (ii) (iii) (i) (iv) (a) Digha Nikaya (i) Dhammapada
(b) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (b) Khuddaka (ii) Mahapari-
(c) (ii) (iv) (iii) (i) nibbana sutta
(d) (i) (ii) (iv) (iii) Nikaya
Which one of the following pairs is cor- (c) Vinayapitaka (iii) Kathavastu
rect? (d) Abhidhamma (iv) Khandhaka
(a) Rock shelter: Langhnaj pitaka
(b) Microlith: Mahadaha
(c) Site associated: Lekhakia with %QFGU
butchering (a) (b) (c) (d)
(d) Stone tool: Isampur Workshop (a) (ii) (i) (iv) (iii)
(b) (iii) (ii) (iv) (i) .KUV+ .KUV++

(c) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
(d) (iii) (iv) (ii) (i) (a) Agathocles (i) Buddha
(b) Kadphises I (ii) Samkarshana
‘Indica’ of Megasthenes was preserved in
later Greek accounts. Which one of the (c) Vimakad- (iii) Atash phises
following Greek travellers’ account is not (d) Kanishka I (iv) Shiva
associated with ‘Indica’?
%QFGU
(a) Ktesius
(a) (b) (c) (d)
(b) Strabo
(a) (ii) (i) (iv) (iii)
(c) Arrian
(b) (i) (iv) (iii) (ii)
(d) Pliny
(c) (iii) (i) (ii) (iv)
Which one of the following pairs is not (d) (iv) (iii) (ii) (i)
correct? Which one of the following evidence is not
(a) Rock Edict: Sarnath the correct evidence of Ramagupta in later
(b) Minor Rock: Bahapur Edict period?
(c) Pillar Edict: Rampurva (a) Manasollasa of Someshwara
(d) Minor Pillar: Sanchi Edict (b) Shankararya’s commentary on
Which one of the following administrative Harshcharita
structure in ascending order is correct? (c) Majmat-ul-Tawarikh of Abul Hasan
(a) Dronamukha, Sthaniya, Samgrahana, Ali
Karvatika (d) Sanjan Tamrapatra of Amoghvarsha
(b) Sthaniya, Karvatika, Dronamukha, Given below are two statements, one is
Samgrahana labelled as Assertion (A) and the other is
(c) Sthaniya, Dronamukha, Karvatika, labelled as Reason (R)
Samgrahana #UUGTVKQP
# The majority ofpeasants in
(d) Sthaniya, Dronamukha, Samgrahana, the Post-Gupta Period were considered to
Karvatika belong to Sudra Varna.
What is the correct chronological order of 4GCUQP
4 A large scale incorporation
the following? of tribes into caste system started taking
(a) The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea place from the Post-Gupta Period.
(b) Cosmos Indikopleustes Read the above statements and select
(c) Geography of Ptolemy the correct answer from the codes given
(d) Indica of Megasthenes below:
Choose the answer from the codes given %QFGU
below: (a) Both (A) and (R) are correct and (R) is
(a) (a) (b) (c) (d) the correct explanation of (A)
(b) (a) (c) (d) (b) (b) (A) is correct, but (R) is false
(c) (d) (a) (c) (b) (c) (A) is false, but (R) is correct
(d) (c) (d) (a) (b) (d) Both (A) and (R) are false
Match List-I with List-II and select the Which one of the following collection
correct answer from the codes given of hymns of Alvar poetry collected by
below: Nathmuni?
(a) Periyapuranam (ii) Alauddin Khalji extended his author-

(b) Tirumurai ity to Bengal
(c) Nalayira Divya Prabandhan (iii) Ghiyasuddin Tughluq made Bengal
(d) Tiruttondal Tiruvantati part of the Delhi sultanate in 1324
Identify the dynasty to which Queen (iv) Firuz Shah Tughluq invaded Bengal
Rudramadevi belonged to twice during the reign of Shamsuddin
(a) Chalukyas of Badami Iliyas Shah.
(b) Pandyas of Madurai Select the correct answer from the codes
(c) Kakatiyas of Warrangal given below:
(d) Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi %QFGU
Match List-I with List-II and select the cor- (a) (ii) (iii) (iv)
rect answer from the codes given below: (b) (ii) (iv)
(c) (ii) (iii)
.KUV+ .KUV++ (d) (iii) (iv)
(a) Kirtivarman (i) Vatapi Match List-I with List-II and select the cor-
(b) Simhavishnu (ii) Tanjaur rect answer from the codes given below:
(c) Dantivarman (iii) Kanchipuram .KUV+ .KUV++
(d) Vijayalaya (iv) Manyekheta (a) Shaikh (i) Delhi Chishti
%QFGU Moinuddin
(a) (b) (c) (d) (b) Simhavishnu (ii) jodhan
(a) (iv) (iii) (ii) (i) Zakariya
(b) (ii) (iii) (iv) (i) (c) Shaikh (iii) Multan Masud
(c) (iii) (i) (ii) (iv) Farid-ud-din Ganj-i- Shakar
(d) (i) (iii) (iv) (ii)
(d) Shaikh (iv) Ajmer Auliya
In which one of the following ancient liter- Nizamuddin
ary works a separate section of painting is
found? %QFGU
(a) Panchasiddhantika (a) (b) (c) (d)
(b) Vishnudharmottara Purana (a) (iii) (iv) (ii) (i)
(c) Panchatantra (b) (iii) (ii) (iv) (i)
(d) Natyashastra (c) (iv) (iii) (ii) (i)
Which one of the following was the rev- (d) (iv) (ii) (iii) (i)
enue officer of the Chola dynasty? Who termed the dominion of Sultan
(a) Aulnayak Muhammad Tughlaq as ‘Hind and Sind’?
(b) Sherundaram (a) Ziyauddin Barani
(c) Varitppottagakka (b) Abdal Malik Isami
(d) Perumakkal (c) Ibn Battuta
Which of the following statements are not (d) Yahia-bin Ahmad Sirhindi
correct? What measures were adopted by Mahmud
(i) After Balban’s death, his son Bughra Gawan to curb the power of the Bahmani
Khan assumed sovereignty in Nobles?
Lakhnauti (i) He reduced the size of their estate
(ii) He increased the amount of land clas- (c) Gulbadan Begum

sified as r yal domain (d) Abdul Hamid Lahori
(iii) He forbade governors from control- In the Mughal System of administration,
ling more than a single fort Mir Bakshi was
(iv) He enhanced the rate of land revenue (a) Commandar-in-chief of the Mughal
demand. army
Select the correct answer from the codes (b) Incharge of the imperial mint
given below: (c) Minister-in-charge of Treasury
%QFGU (d) Paymaster General
(a) (i) (iv) (iii) Which of the following social reforms was
(b) (i) (ii) (iii) not introduced by Akbar?
(c) (iii) (iv) (ii) (a) Legalization of widows remarriage
(d) (i) (iii) (iv) (b) Registration of marriage
Arrange the following in correct chrono- (c) Total ban on the practice of sati
logical order: (d) The age of circumcision was raised to
(i) Chaitanya twelve
(ii) Eknath Which of the following statements is true?
(iii) Surdas (a) In Mughal India, cultivation of indigo
(iv) Tulsidas was confined to the provinces of Delhi
%QFGU and Agra
(a) (ii) (i) (iii) (iv) (b) Madad-i-Maash grants were made
(b) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) hereditary by Aurangzeb
(c) (i) (ii) (iv) (iii) (c) Altamgha Jagirs were made transfer-
(d) (i) (iii) (ii) (iv) able by Jahangir
Given below are two statements, one (d) Kashmir was brought under the zabti
labelled Assertion (A) and other labelled system of land revenue
Reason (R). Match List-I with List-II and select the cor-
#UUGTVKQP
# In military terms Firuz rect answer from the codes given below:
Shah Tughluq’s reign was undistinguished
.KUV+ .KUV++
4GCUQP
4 He could not subjugate the
ruler of Nagarkot In the context of the (a) Maasir-i- (i) Motmid Khan
above two statements, which one of the Jahangiri
following is correct? (b) Iqbalnama-i- (ii) Saqi Mustaid
%QFGU Jahangiri Khan
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is (c) Maasir-i- (iii) Khwaza
the correct explanation of (A) Alamgiri Kamgar Ghai-
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is rat Khan
not the correct explanation of (A)
(c) (A) is true, but (R) is false (d) Futuhat-i- (iv) Isardas Nagar
(d) (A) is false, but (R) is true Alamgiri
Who described the Mughal imperial %QFGU
Harem as the ‘Pavilion of chartity’? (a) (b) (c) (d)
(a) Nizamuddin Ahmad (a) (i) (iii) (ii) (iv)
(b) Abul Fazl (b) (iii) (i) (ii) (iv)
(c) (ii) (iii) (i) (iv) (b) Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is
(d) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) not the correct explanation of (A)
Arrange the following events in chrono- (c) (A) is true, but (R) is false
logical order: (d) (A) is false, but (R) is true
(i) Mughal occupation of Balkh Given below are two statements, one is
(ii) Introduction of the system of month labelled as Assertion (A) and the other is
proportion labelled as Reason (R):
(iii) Extinction of Nizamshahi #UUGTVKQP
# The number of Rajput
(iv) Treaty of the Mughals with Bijapur Mansabdars declined in the Mughal nobil-
and Golkunda ity during the second half of Aurangzeb’s
(a) (ii) (iii) (iv) (i) reign.
(b) (iii) (ii) (i) (iv)
4GCUQP
4 Aurangzeb assigned large
(c) (iv) (iii) (ii) (i)
number of Jagirs to nobles from the Dec-
(d) (ii) (iv) (i) (iii)
can.
Arrange the following in chronological
order:
(i) Prince Akbar’s flight to the Decca
below:
(ii) Conquest of Golkunda by Aurangzeb
(iii) Capture of Chitagong by Shaista
the correct explanation of(a)
Khan
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is
(iv) The institution of Khalsa by Guru
not the correct explanation of (A)
Gobind Singh
(c) (A) is true, but (R) is false
Select the correct answer from the codes (d) (A) is false, but (R) is true
given below:
(a) (i) (iii) (ii) (iv) rect answer from the codes given below:
(b) (iii) (i) (ii) (iv) .KUV+ .KUV++
(c) (ii) (iv) (iii) (i)
$QQM
#WVJQT
(d) (i) (iii) (iv) (ii)
(a) Indian Painting (i) Ashok
Given below are two statements, one is under the Mughals kumar Das
labelled as Assertion (A) and the other is
labelled as Reason (R): (b) Architecture of (ii) Moti
Mughal India Chandra
#UUGTVKQP
# The English East India
Company eliminated their Portuguese and (c) The Technique of (iii) Percy
Dutch trade rivals by the end of the Seven- Mughal Painting Brown
teenth century. (d) Mughal Painting (iv) Catherine
4GCUQP
4 The English traders sold during Jahangir’s B. Asher
goods of superior quality at cheaper rates. Time
Read the above statements and select %QFGU
the correct answer from the codes given (a) (b) (c) (d)
below: (a) (ii) (i) (iii) (iv)
%QFGU (b) (iii) (ii) (iv) (i)
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true, and (R) is (c) (iv) (ii) (i) (iii)
the correct explanation of (A) (d) (iii) (iv) (ii) (i)
Consider the names of the following %QFGU

Mughal Emperors of the Eighteenth cen- (a) (A) is correct, but (R) is not correct
tury: (b) (A) is not correct, but (R) is correct
(i) Alamgir II (c) (A) and (R) both are not correct
(ii) Ahmad Shah (d) (A) is correct and (R) is the correct
(iii) Jahandar Shah explanation of (a)
(iv) Muhammad Shah In which year did Robert Clive accepted
Which among the following sequences rep- the Diwani of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa
resents the correct chronological order? from the Mughal ruler.
(a) (ii) (i) (iii) (iv) (a) 1761 (b) 1765
(b) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (c) 1778 (d) 1781
(c) (iii) (iv) (ii) (i) The Treaty of Bassien (1802) was signed
(d) (iii) (iv) (i) (ii) between:
Given below are two statements, one is (a) the English and Peshwa Baji Rao II
labelled as Assertion (A) and other is (b) the English and Tipu Sultan
labelled as Reason (R). (c) the English and Holkar
#UUGTVKQP
#The 1857 Mutiny was sup- (d) the English and Gaikwad
pressed by the British The Home Rule Movement started by
4GCUQP
4Except for a few like Rani of Annie Besant aimed at:
Jhansi, a very few Indian rulers partici- (a) boycotting foreign goods
pated in the mutiny. (b) educating the Indian Masses
(c) attaining self-rule for India
Read the above statements and select the (d) agitating against the British Monopoly
correct answer from the codes given below in administration
%QFGU Which of the following is the correct
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is chronological order of the English East
the correct explanation of (A) India Company factories established in
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is India?
not the correct explanation of (A) (i) Surat
(c) Both (A) and (R) are falseA (ii) Masulipatnam
(d) (A)is true, but (R) is false (iii) Hugli
Given below are two statements, one (iv) Balasore
labelled as Assertion (A) and other %QFGU
labelled as Reason (R). (a) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
#UUGTVKQP
# Dr. Annie Besant organ- (b) (ii) (i) (iv) (iii)
ised the Home Rule Movement against the (c) (iii) (iv) (i) (ii)
British Rule. (d) (iv) (iii) (i) (ii)
4GCUQP
4 She wanted to organise all Who was the first woman President of the
sections of Indian people on the basis of Indian National Congress?
a single political slogan above religious (a) Sarojini Naidu
consideration Read the above statements (b) Annie Besant
and select the correct answer from the (c) Sucheta Kripalani
codes given below: (d) Madam Cama
Who wrote Poverty and Un-British Rule in %QFGU

India? (a) (b) (c) (d)
(a) Dadabhai Naoroji (a) (i) (iii) (ii) (iv)
(b) R. C. Dutt (b) (iii) (ii) (i) (iv)
(c) Charles Wood (c) (iv) (iii) (ii) (i)
(d) M. N. Roy (d) (ii) (iv) (iii) (i)
August 8, 1942 is important in Indian His- Which of the following is the correct
tory for chronological order of the Viceroys?
(a) Formation of Indian National Army by (i) North Brook (ii) Minto
Subhash Chandra Bose at Singapore (iii) Linlithgow (iv) Mayo
(b) Cripp’s Proposals for Dominion status %QFGU
(c) Non-co-operation Movement (a) (iv) (i) (ii) (iii)
launched by Mahatma Gandhi (b) (ii) (iii) (i) (iv)
(d) Quit India Movement launched by (c) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
Mahatma Gandhi (d) (iii) (iv) (ii) (i)
Which is correctly matched: Arrange the following into sequential
(a) ‘Do or Die’ – Jawaharlal order and select correct answer from the
Nehru codes given below:
(i) St. Thomas war
(b) ‘Swaraj is my birth – Mahatma (ii) The Pindari war
right’ Gandhi (iii) Buxar war
(c) ‘Give me blood, – Subhash (iv) War of Chandurthi
I will give you Chandra Bose %QFGU
freedom’ (a) (i) (iv) (iii) (ii)
(b) (iv) (iii) (ii) (i)
(d) ‘Independence – B. G. Tilak (c) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
through non-violence (d) (iv) (ii) (iii) (i)
must be our aim’
Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer from the codes given below
correct answer from the codes given below
.KUV+ .KUV++
.KUV+ .KUV++ (a) Col. Tod (i) Memoir of
(a) Freedom at (i) Collins and Central India
Midnight Lapierre (b) John Malcolm (ii) Annals and
(b) The Story of (ii) C. P. Ramas- Antiquities of
the Integra- wami Iyar Rajasthan
tion of Indian (c) C. R.Wilson (iii) Historical
States Sketches of
(c) Travancore (iii) V. P. Menon South India
Dewan (d) M. Wilks (iv) EarlyAnnals of
(d) Secretary of (iv) Pethick- Law- the English in
State rence Bengal
%QFGU (b) (i) (ii) (iv) (iii)

(a) (b) (c) (d) (c) (iv) (ii) (iii) (i)
(a) (ii) (i) (iv) (iii) (d) (ii) (i) (iv) (iii)
(b) (ii) (iii) (iv) (i)
(c) (i) (iv) (iii) (ii) Chronologically arrange the following
(d) (iii) (i) (ii) (iv) schools of historical thought as emerged
Match List-I with List-II and select the at different points of time
correct answer from the codes given below (i) Enlightenment Historiography
(ii) Church Historiography
.KUV+ .KUV++ (iii) Annals Historiography
(a) Punjab Tenancy Act (i) 1883 (iv) Subaltern Historiography
(b) The Ilbert Bill (ii) 1868 Select the correct answer from the codes
given below:
(c) Hunter Commission (iii) 1921
%QFGU
(d) Chamber of Princes (iv) 1882
(a) (i) (iii) (iv) (ii)
%QFGU (b) (ii) (iii) (i) (iv)
(a) (b) (c) (d) (c) (ii) (i) (iii) (iv)
(a) (ii) (iii) (i) (iv) (d) (i) (ii) (iv) (iii)
Answer Keys
1. (c) 2. (a) 3. (d) 4. (b) 29. (a) 30. (b) 31. (c) 32. (b)
5. (a) 6. (a) 7. (a) 8. (c) 33. (d) 34. (c) 35. (a) 36. (d)
9. (a) 10. (a) 11. (a) 12. (a) 37. (b) 38. (a) 39. (c) 40. (b)
13. (c) 14. (c) 15. (d) 16. (b) 41. (b) 42. (a) 43. (d) 44. (c)
17. (c) 18. (b) 19. (c) 20. (c) 45. (a) 46. (a) 47. (a) 48. (a)
21. (b) 22. (a) 23. (c) 24. (a) 49. (d) 50. (c)
25. (d) 26. (c) 27. (b) 28. (b)
December 2012

Match List-I with List-II and select the cor- (c) Samaveda (iii) Pippalada
(d) Atharvaveda (iv) Shakala
.KUV+ .KUV++ %QFGU
(a) Mesolithic site (i) Langhnaj (a) (b) (c) (d)
(b) Microlith (ii) Bagor (a) (iv) (iii) (ii) (i)
(Rajasthan) (b) (ii) (i) (iii) (iv)
(c) (iv) (i) (ii) (iii)
(c) Beginning of (iii) Birbhanpur (d) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
settled Agriculture
Excavations at the sites of the places men-
(d) Chalcedony (iv) Chopni tioned in the Mahabharata are related to
mando which one of the following cultures?
%QFGU (a) Northern Black polished ware
(a) (b) (c) (d) (b) Red and Black polished ware
(a) (ii) (i) (iii) (iv) (c) Painted grey ware
(b) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (d) None of the above
(c) (iii) (ii) (i) (iv) Which, one of the following places, is not
(d) (ii) (iii) (iv) (i) associated with mature Harappan settle-
In Which one of the following places the ment?
centre of stone tool manufacture is found? (a) Dhalewan (b) Lakhmirwala
(a) Mehbubanagar (c) Surkotda (d) Sarai Khola
(b) Malaprabha Recently in which place broken relief
(c) Isampur sculpture of King Ashoka has been dis-
(d) palaghat covered?
Match the List-I with List-II and select (a) Kanaganahalli in Karnataka
the correct answer from the codes given (b) Mahasthan in Uttar Pradesh
below: (c) Kumrahar in Bihar
.KUV+ .KUV++ (d) Nittur in Karnataka
(a) Rigveda (i) Kanva In which Buddhist scripture religious prac-
tices in the contemporary period of Bud-
(b) Yajurveda (ii) Ranayaniya dha has been mentioned?
(a) Ambattha Sutta Match the List-I with List-II and select
(b) Mahavamsa the correct answer from the codes given
(c) Bhaddasala Jataka below:
(d) Brahmajala Sutta
.KUV+ .KUV++
Which, one of the following, is not the
anthology of Sangam literature? (a) Ashvaghosha (i) Kumarpala
(a) Ettutokai (b) Tirrukkurala Charita
(c) Pattupattu (d) Ahinanuru (b) Bhasa (ii) Mudrarakshasa
Match the List-I with List-II and select (c) Vishakhadatta (iii) Balacharita
the correct answer from the codes given (d) Hemachandra (iv) Buddhacharita
below:
%QFGU
.KUV+ .KUV++ (a) (b) (c) (d)
(a) Al-Biruni (i) Mc Crindle (a) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
(b) (iv) (iii) (ii) (i)
(b) Megasthenes (iiv Beal (c) (ii) (iii) (iv) (i)
(c) Faxian (iii) Legge (d) (iii) (ii) (iv) (i)
(d) Xuanzang (iv) Sachau In which year the first English translation
%QFGU of Arthashastra was published?
(a) (b) (c) (d) (a) 1905 (b) 1909
(a) (iv) (i) (iii) (ii) (c) 1915 (d) 1960
(b) (iv) (ii) (iii) (iv) Arrange the following Nanda Kings in
(c) (ii) (iii) (i) (iv) chronological sequential order and select
(d) (iv) (ii) (iii) (i) the correct answer from the codes given
Given below are two statements, one is below:
labelled as Assertion (A) and the other is (a) Govishanka
labelled as Assertion (A) and the other is (b) Panduka
labeled as Reason (R). (c) Ugrasena
#UUGTVKQP
# North India between 750 (d) Dhana
A.D. and 1200 A.D. witnessed the emer- %QFGU
gence and full growth of a new politico- (a) (b) (c) (a) (d)
socio-economic structure. (b) (c) (b) (a) (d)
4GCUQP
4 There is total unanimity (c) (a) (b) (c) (d)
among historians to describe this new (d) (b) (c) (d) (a)
structure as ‘feudalism’. Select the incorrect answer from the fol-
Read the above statements and select the lowing statements:
correct answers from the codes given below: (a) The reign of Kumaragupta faced the
%QFGU Huna invasion.
(a) (A) is correct but (R) is false. (b) The first Huna Chief Toramana man-
(b) (A) is incorrect but (R) is correct. aged to conquer Western India and
(c) Both are correct and (R) is the correct area around Eran in Central India.
explanation of (A) (c) Toramana adopted the Jaina faith.
(d) Both are correct and (R) is not the (d) Mihirakula managed to conquer Sri
correct explanation of (A). Lanka.
Arrange the following names in chrono- %QFGU

logical order and select the correct answer (a) (b) (c) (d)
from the codes given below: (a) (iv) (iii) (ii) (i)
(a) Yoshomati (b) Pushyabhuti (b) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
(c) Naravardhan (d) Rajyashri (c) (i) (iii) (iv) (ii)
%QFGU (d) (i) (ii) (iv) (iii)
(a) (c) (b) (d) (a) The Sultan Ghari was built as the mauso-
(b) (b) (c) (a) (d) leum of
(c) (b) (a) (c) (d) (a) Qutubuddin Aibak
(d) (a) (d) (c) (b) (b) Ruknuddin Firoz
Match the List-I with List-II and select the (c) Balban
correct answer from the codes given below: (d) Nasiruddin Mahmud
.KUV+ .KUV++
(a) Pallava (i) Lingaraja below:
Dynasty Temple
(b) Somavamsa (ii) vedanarayan .KUV+ .KUV++
Temple
5WHK6GTOKPQNQI[
/GCPKPIU
(c) Chalukya (iii) Mukteshwar (a) Futuh (i) Sufi hospice
Dynasta Temple (b) Khanqah (ii) Conversation
(d) Chola Dynasty (iv) Lad Khan of a Sufi Saint
Temple c) Barkat (iii) Unasked for
%QFGU Charity
(a) (b) (c) (d) (d) Malfuz (iv) Spiritual grace
(a) (iii) (i) (iv) (ii) acquired by a
(b) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) Sufi
(c) (ii) (iii) (i) (iv)
(d) (iv) (iii) (ii) (i) %QFGU
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Match the List-I with List-II and select the (a) (i) (iii) (ii) (iv)
right answer from the codes given below: (b) (iii) (i) (iv) (ii)
.KUV+ .KU++ (c) (iii) (ii) (i) (iv)
(QWPFGT 6JGQTKGU (d) (iv) (iii) (ii) (i)
(a) Bhandarkar (i) Origin of Who separated the office of the Wali and
Rajputs from Amir?
Kshatriyas (a) Balan
(b) Alauddin Khalji
(b) Chandabardai (ii) Foreign origin
(c) Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq
of Rajputs
(d) Muhammad Tughlaq
(c) Colonel Tod (iii) Origin of
Rajputs from ‘The pivot of the Kingdom of Delhi rests
Agni-Kunda on wheat and barley, while the foundation
of the Sultanate of Gujarat rests on corals
(d) Gaurishankar (iv) Huna origin of and pearls, because there are eighty four
Ojha Rajputs ports under this Sultan.’ The above remark
is attributed by the author of Mirat-i- (b) The Portuguese made huge profits
Sikandari to by selling Indian spices in European
(a) Sultan Khizr Khan markets.
(b) Sikandar Lodi (c) The Portuguese captured many places
(c) Babur on the coasts of the Indian Ocean and
(d) Humayun built their fortresses there.
Match List-I with List-II and select the (d) The Portuguese declared that other
correct answer from the codes given traders could not bring their ships
below: into the Indian Ocean without their
permission.
.KUV+ .KUV++

0COGQHEQKP
-KPIFQOKP Vijayanagara exhibited ‘Proto-patrimoni-
YJKEJVJGEQKP alism’. Who expressed this view?
EKTEWNCVGF (a) N. Karashima
(b) Burton Stein
(a) Mahmudi (i) Sur Kingdom (c) K.A. Nilkanta Sastri
(b) Rupaiah (ii) Delhi (d) B.A. Saletore
Sultanate Match List-I with List-II and select the
(c) Pagoda (iii) Vijayanagar correct answer from the codes given
(d) Tanka (iv) Gujarat
below
Sultanate .KUV+ .KUV++
%QFGU
(QTGKIP6TCXGNNGTU
4WNGTU
(a) (b) (c) (d) (a) Abdur Razaq (i) Akbar
(a) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
(b) Ibn Battuta (ii) Muhammad
(b) (ii) (i) (iv) (iii)
bin Tughlaq
(c) (iv) (i) (iii) (ii)
(d) (iv) (ii) (iii) (i) (c) Sidi Ali Reis (iii) Jahangir
Which of the following statements is not (d) William Finch (iv) Deva Raya II
true? %QFGU
(a) Sultan Zainul-Abidin never allowed (a) (b) (c) (d)
the Saiyids to grab dictatorial power (a) (iv) (ii) (iii) (i)
in his court. (b) (iii) (ii) (iv) (i)
(b) He called himself Amir ul-Muminin. (c) (iii) (ii) (i) (iv)
(c) He took immense interest in agricul- (d) (iv) (ii) (i) (iii)
tural production and expansion. Consider the following statements about
(d) He abolished the post of Shaikh the Jaziya tax in the Mughal period:
ul-Islam. (i) Akbar abolished the Jaziya in 1564.
Which of the following statements about (ii) Akbar re-imposed the Jaziya in 1575.
the activities of the Portuguese traders in (iii) Akbar abolished the Jaziya again in
India during the early sixteenth century is 1579-80.
not correct? (iv) Aurangzeb re-imposed the Jaziya in
(a) The Portuguese were the first 1679.
Europeans to reach India via Red Sea Which are the correct statement from the
route. above.
(a) (i), (ii) (c) (iii) and (iv)

(b) (i), (ii), (iii) (d) (i), (ii), (iii)
(c) (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) Match List-I with List-II and select the cor-
(d) (i), (iv) rect answer from the codes given below:
Arrange the following in chronological
.KUV+ .KUV++

$QQM
#WVJQT
(i) Conquest of Orissa by Akbar. (a) Gulshan-i- (i) Gulam Murtaza
(ii) Introduction of Dagh system. Ibrahimi
(iii) Creation of the twelve Subahs (b) Basatin-us- (ii) Fuzuni As-
(provinces) Salatin trabadi
(iv) Introduction of the dual rank (the Zat
(c) Futuhat-i- (iii) Bhimsen
and the Sawar)
Adilshahi
%QFGU
(a) (iii) (i) (ii) (iv) (d) Nuskha-i- (iv) Muhammad
(b) (i) (iii) (iv) (ii) Dilkusha Qasim Firishta
(c) (ii) (iii) (i) (iv) %QFGU
(d) (iii) (iv) (i) (ii) (a) (b) (c) (d)
Who among the following painters were (a) (i) (iii) (ii) (iv)
considered by Jahangir as masters without (b) (ii) (iii) (iv) (i)
rival in their particular spheres? (c) (iv) (iii) (ii) (i)
(i) Abul Hasan (d) (iv) (i) (ii) (iii)
(ii) Bishan Das Match List-I with List-II and select the
(iii) Ustad Mansur correct answer from the codes given below
(iv) Manohar the lists:
Select the correct answer from the codes .KUV+ .KUV++
given below:
$QQM
#WVJQT
%QFGU (a) Early Mughal (i) Somprakash
(a) (i), (ii), (iv) Painting Verma
(b) (i), (iii)
(b) A History of Sul- (ii) Ebba Koch
(c) (ii), (iv)
tanate Architecture
(d) (i), (iii), (iv)
(c) Mughal Painters (iii) Milo Cleve-
Which of the following States of North- and their works land Beach
East India was/were invaded by the
Mughals? (d) Mughal Architec- (iv) R. Nath
(i) The Dimasa ture: An Outline
(ii) The Meitei of its History
(iii) The Ahom and Development
(iv) The Koch (1526-1858)
Select the correct answer from the codes %QFGU
given below: (a) (b) (c) (d)
(a) (i) and (iii) (a) (iii) (iv) (i) (ii)
(b) (ii) (b) (iv) (ii) (iii) (i)
(c) (i) (ii) (iv) (iii) (c) England

(d) (ii) (i) (iii) (iv) (d) Spain
Given below are two statements, one is Given below are two statements, one is
labelled as Assertion (A) and other is labelled as Assertion (A) and other is
labelled as Reason (R): labelled as Reason (R):
#UUGTVKQP
# Many Sanskrit works on #UUGTVKQP
# Assessment forever was
music were translated into Persian during the central point in the Permanent Settle-
the medieval period. ment of Bengal introduced in 1793.
4GCUQP
4 The early Chishti Sufis were 4GCUQP
4 Cornwallis believed that the
fond of musical assemblies called Sama. Zamindars will develop their lands.
Consider the above statements and select Read the above statements and select
the correct answer from the codes given the correct answer from the codes given
below. below:
%QFGU %QFGU
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is (a) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is
the correct explanation of (A). not the correct explanation of (A).
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is (b) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is
not the correct explanation of (A). the correct explanation of (A).
(c) (A) is true, but (R) is false. (c) Both (A) and (R) are false.
(d) (a) is false, but (R) is true. (d) (A) is true, but (R) is false.
Given below are two statements, one is Who was the First President of Fort Wil-
labelled as Assertion (A) and the other is liam of Calcutta?
labelled as Reason (R): (a) Charles Eyre
#UUGTVKQP
# It was in Shahjahan’s reign (b) John Child
that the arts of dance and music reached (c) George Oxendan
its highest watermark. (d) Gerald Aungier
4GCUQP
4 He was a patron of arts and Match List-I with List-II and select the
literature. correct answer from the codes given
below:
Consider the above statements and select the
correct answer from the codes given below. .KUV+ .KUV++
%QFGU (a) Indian Mirror (i) M.N. Roy
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is (b) Tribune (ii) G.A. Nateshan
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is (c) Modern (iii) Debendranath
not the correct explanation of (A). Review Tagore
(c) (A) is true, but (R) is false. (d) Independent (iv) Dayal Singh
(d) (A) is false, but (R) is true. India
Which one of the following State was not %QFGU
a Nation State in the 17th century? (a) (b) (c) (d)
(a) France (a) (iii) (iv) (ii) (i)
(b) Germany (b) (ii) (iii) (i) (iv)
(c) (iv) (ii) (iii) (i) (b) Rajahmundry, Mustafanagar,

(d) (i) (iii) (iv) (ii) Machilipatam, Ellore
Match List-I with List-II and select the cor- (c) Mustafanagar, Ellore, Rajahmundry,
rect answer from the codes given below: Chicacole
(d) Chicacole, Mustafanagar, Ellore,
.KUV+ .KUV++ Kondaveedu
(a) Mahatma (i) President of Surat The aim of the Cripps Mission was
Gandhi Session (a) to prevent the Quit India Movement
from being launched
(b) Ras Bihari (ii) President of Cal- (b) to persuade Indian leaders to support
Ghosh cutta Session British war efforts
(c) Dadabhai (iii) President of (c) to convince the Congress Ministries to
Naoroji Lahore Session withdraw their resignations
(d) to set up a Constitution making body
(d) Jawaharlal (iv) President of Bel- immediately
Nehru gaum Session
Who wrote 1MBOOFE &DPOPNZ GPS *OEJB
%QFGU (1936)?
(a) (b) (c) (d) (a) R.C. Dutt
(a) (ii) (i) (iv) (iii) (b) M. Visvesvarayya
(b) (iv) (i) (ii) (iii) (c) N.G. Ranga
(c) (iii) (ii) (iv) (i) (d) D.R. Gadgil
(d) (i) (iii) (ii) (iv)
labelled as Assertion (A) and other
# The English introduced
(a) V.D. Savarkar (i) Gaddar Party Western Education in India.
4GCUQP
4 They wanted to make Indi-
(b) Lala Hardayal (ii) Curzon Wyllie
ans aware of scientific and national
(c) Tarakanath Das (iii) Abhinab advancement.
Bharat
(d) Madanlal (iv) Free correct answer from the codes given below:
Dhingra Hindustan %QFGU
%QFGU (a) (A) is false, but (R) is true.
(a) (b) (c) (d) (b) Both (A) and (R) are false.
(a) (ii) (i) (iv) (iii) (c) (A) is true and (R) is the most correct
(b) (iii) (ii) (i) (iv) explanation of (A).
(c) (i) (ii) (iv) (iii) (d) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is
(d) (iii) (i) (iv) (ii) not the correct explanation of (A).
Which of the following districts con- Arrange the following in chronological
stituted as the Northern Circars in the order and select the correct answer from
Madras Presidency? the codes given below:
(a) Mustafanagar, Ellore, Kondaveedu, (i) Second Anglo-Maratha War
Rajahmundry (ii) Third Anglo-Mysore War
(iii) Second Carnatic War %QFGU

(iv) First Anglo-Sikh War (a) (b) (c) (d)
%QFGU (a) (iii) (ii) (i) (iv)
(a) (iii) (ii) (i) (iv) (b) (ii) (iv) (iii) (i)
(b) (ii) (iii) (iv) (i) (c) (iii) (ii) (iv) (i)
(c) (i) (iv) (iii) (ii) (d) (i) (iii) (ii) (iv)
(d) (iv) (iii) (i) (ii) Arrange the following in chronological
Arrange the following in chronological order and select the correct answer from
order and select the correct answer from the codes given below:
the codes given below: (i) Cripps Mission
(i) Mundas Rebellion (ii) Gandhi-Irwin Pact
(ii) Santhal Rebellion (iii) Simon Commission
(iii) Moplah Revolts (iv) Partition of the Country
(iv) Deccan Riots %QFGU
%QFGU (a) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
(a) (iv) (i) (iii) (ii) (b) (ii) (i) (iv) (iii)
(b) (ii) (iii) (i) (iv) (c) (ii) (i) (iii) (iv)
(c) (i) (iv) (ii) (iii) (d) (iii) (ii) (i) (iv)
(d) (ii) (iv) (i) (iii) Which law under the British regime
allowed to imprison people without due
trial?
(a) Rowlett Act
below:
(b) Sedition Act of 1870
.KUV+ .KUV++ (c) Hindu Code Bill
(d) Ilbert Bill
(a) Gou Rakshini (i) Vivekananda
Sabha The beginning of the Great Depression is
related to
(b) Rasta Goftar (ii) J.B. Wacha (a) The collapse of Prices in Japan
(c) Sadharan Brah- (iii) Dayanand (b) The sudden rise of Price Index in
mo Samaj Saraswati Europe
(c) The collapse of Prices in Wall Street
(d) Prabuddha (iv) Shivanath (d) Depression in Pacific Ocean r gion
Bharatha Sastri
Answer Keys
1. (a) 2. (c) 3. (c) 4. (c) 29. (b) 30. (c) 31. (d) 32. (a)
5. (d) 6. (a) 7. (d) 8. (b) 33. (b) 34. (d) 35. (b) 36. (b)
9. (a) 10. (a) 11. (b) 12. (b) 37. (a) 38. (a) 39. (b) 40. (d)
13. (b) 14. (b) 15. (b) 16. (a) 41. (c) 42. (b) 43. (b) 44. (d)
17. (a) 18. (d) 19. (b) 20. (d) 45. (a) 46. (d) 47. (c) 48. (d)
21. (b) 22. (c) 23. (d) 24. (a) 49. (a) 50. (c)
25. (b) 26. (d) 27. (c) 28. (a)
June 2013

Match List-I (Name of the book) with %QFGU

List-II (Author of the book) and select (a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is
the correct answer from the codes given the correct explanation of (A).
below: (b) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is
not correct explanation of (A).
.KUV+ .KUV++ (c) (A) is true, but (R) is false.
(a) Sketch of political His- (i) V.A. (d) (A) is false, but (R) is true.
tory of India (1811) Smith Match List-I with List-II and select the
(b) The History of British (ii) John correct answer from the code given below:
India (1881) Malcolm
.KUV+ .KUV++
(c) The History of India (iii) James
(1841) Mill (a) Terracotta horse (i) Banawali
figure
(d) The Early History of (iv) Elphistone
India (1904) (b) Terracotta (ii) Mohenjodaro
spoked wheel
%QFGU
(a) (b) (c) (d) (c) Fire alter (iii) Harappa
(a) (ii) (iii) (iv) (i) (d) Cemetery-H (iv) Kalibangan
(b) (iii) (ii) (i) (iv) %QFGU
(c) (ii) (i) (iii) (iv) (a) (b) (c) (d)
(d) (i) (iv) (ii) (iii) (a) (ii) (i) (iv) (iii)
Given below are two statements, one is (b) (i) (iii) (iv) (ii)
labelled as Assertion (A) and the other is (c) (ii) (iv) (iii) (i)
labelled as Reason (R). (d) (ii) (iii) (iv) (i)
#UUGTVKQP
#Neolithic age was followed The concept of ‘Oriental Despotism’ in
by the age of metals. Indian history was introduced by whom?
4GCUQP
4 For some time the use of (a) James Mill
stone implements continued side by side. (b) Lamaberg-Karlovsky
Read the above statements and select the (c) H.G. Rawlinson
correct answer from the codes given below: (d) C.H. Philips
Match List-I with List-II and select the (c) Agricultural land under State control.
correct answer with the help of the codes (d) Both (B) and (C).
given below: Arrange the following rulers in the chron-
.KUV+ .KUV++ ological order:
(i) Agnimitra
(a) William Jones (i) Indus Civilistion (ii) Pushyamitra
(b) James Prinsep (ii) Indian Coins (iii) Sumitra
(c) Cunningham (iii) Decipherment (iv) Sujeshta
of Indus Script %QFGU
(d) Sir John (iv) Asiatic Society (a) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
Marshall of Bengal (b) (ii) (i) (iv) (iii)
(c) (iii) (iv) (i) (ii)
%QFGU (d) (iv) (iii) (ii) (i)
(a) (b) (c) (d)
(a) (iv) (iii) (ii) (i) The Romaka Sidhānta in Indian astron-
(b) (iii) (ii) (i) (iv) omy shows signs of
(c) (ii) (i) (iv) (iii) (a) Roman influence
(d) (i) (iv) (iii) (ii) (b) Greek influence
Match List-I (king) with List-II (King- (c) Iranian influence
dom) and select the correct answer with (d) Arabian influenc
the help of the code given below: Match the List-I with List-II and select
.KUV+
-KPI .KUV++
-KPIFQO the correct answer from the codes given
below:
(a) Brahmadatta (i) Kekaya
.KUV+ .KUV++
(b) Jarasandha (ii) Kuru
(a) Vikramashila (i) Gujarat
(c) Janamejaya (iii) Kāśi
(b) Valabhi (ii) Madhy Pradesh
(d) Asvapati (iv) Magadha
%QFGU (c) Besnagar (iii) Andhra Pradesh
(a) (b) (c) (d) (d) Nagarjunakonda (iv) Bihar
(a) (i) (iii) (iv) (ii) %QFGU
(b) (iii) (iv) (ii) (i) (a) (b) (c) (d)
(c) (ii) (i) (iii) (iv) (a) (iv) (i) (ii) (iii)
(d) (iv) (ii) (i) (iii) (b) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
The earliest available Indian coins were (c) (ii) (iii) (iv) (i)
made of (d) (iii) (iv) (i) (ii)
(a) Gold Which one of the following inscriptions
(b) Silver provides the earliest epigraphical evidence
(c) Copper of Sati?
(d) Copper and Silver (a) Mathura Inscription of Huvishka
In Mauryan period ‘Sita tax’ was imposed (b) Junagarh Inscription of Rudradaman.
on (c) Eran Pillar Inscription of
(a) Forest land only. Bhanugupta.
(b) Agricultural land under private control. (d) Banskhera Inscription of Harsh.
Match List-I (Rulers) with List-II (Inscrip- (iii) His work Khazain-ul Futuh deals
tions) and select the correct answer with with the rigin of Sultan Kaiqubad.
the help of the codes given below: (iv) The musical instrument Sitar is
regarded as his invention.
.KUV+ .KUV++ Which of the statements given above
(a) Kumaragupta I (i) Uttaramerur are correct? Select your answer from
Inscription the codes given below:
(b) Kumargupta II (ii) Bilsad Inscription %QFGU
(c) Budhagupta (iii) Sarnath Inscription (a) (i) (iv)
(b) (i) (ii) (iii)
(d) Parantaka II (iv) Eran Inscription (c) (i) (ii) (iv)
%QFGU (d) (i) (iii) (iv)
(a) (b) (c) (d)
(a) (ii) (iii) (iv) (i) Which Sultan of Delhi got Qutubmi-
(b) (iii) (iv) (ii) (i) nar repaired, cleaned the derelict Hauz
(c) (i) (iii) (ii) (i) Khas and erected on its bank a specious
(d) (iv) (ii) (iii) (iv) madrasah?
(a) Iltutmish
Arrange the following in to sequential (b) Alauddin Khalji
order and select the correct answer from (c) Firuz Tughlaq
the codes given below: (d) Sikandar Lodi
(i) Simha Vishnu
(ii) Parameshaeavarman II Match List-I with List-II and select the cor-
(iii) Narasimhavarman I rect answer from the codes given below:
(iv) Mahandravaraman I .KUV+ .KUV++
%QFGU
5CKPV2QGVU
%QORQUKVKQPU
(a) (i) (iv) (iii) (ii) (a) Kabir (i) Vinaya Patrika
(b) (ii) (iii) (iv) (i) (b) Surdas (ii) Bijak
(c) (iii) (iv) (ii) (iii)
(c) Eknath (iii) Bhramar-Geet
(d) (iv) (ii) (i) (iii)
(d) Tulsidas (iv) Bhavartha Ramayana
The rulers of South India constantly fought
%QFGU
with each other, because of
(a) (b) (c) (d)
(a) Imperialistic ambition.
(a) (i) (iii) (ii) (iv)
(b) Old dynastic rivalry.
(b) (ii) (iii) (iv) (i)
(c) Desire to control the rivers like
(c) (ii) (iv) (i) (iii)
Godavari, Krishna and their valleys.
(d) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
(d) Monopolistic ambition to control sea
routes. Who among the following writers claim
Consider the following statements about that Muhammad bin Tughlaq had desig-
Amir khusrau: nated Firuz Shah as his heir?
(i) He was a disciple of the Sufi Saint (a) Ziauddin barani
Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya. (b) Shams-i-Siraj Afif
(ii) He is said to have written several (c) Ibn Battuta
treatises on music. (d) Yahia bin Ahmad Sirhindi
Match List I with List-II and select the Which one of the following pairs is cor-
corret answer from the codes given below: rectly matched?
.KUV+ .KUV++ (a) Second Battle Akbar Vs.
:

4GIKQPCN-KPIFQOU
4WNGT of Panipat Ibrahim Lodi
QH5WNVCPCVGRGTKQF (b) Battle of Akbar Vs. Rana
:
(a) Gujarat Sultanate (i) Mahmud Haldighati udai Singh
Khalji I (c) Battle of Aurangzeb
:
(b) Bahmani (ii) Mahmud Dharmat Vs. Dara
Sultanate Beghra (d) Battle of Aurangzeb
:
(c) Kashmir Sultanate (iii) Sultan Samugarh Vs. Shuja
Sikandar Match List-I with List-II and select the cor-
(d) Malwa Sultanate (iv) Ahmad Shah I rect answer from the codes given below:
%QFGU .KUV+ .KUV++
(a) (b) (c) (d)
(a) (ii) (iii) (iv) (i) (a) Khasa-i- (i) Trooper hired for the
(b) (ii) (i) (iii) (iv) sharifa occasion
(c) (iv) (ii) (iii) (i) (b) Sihbandi (ii) Emperor’s own
(d) (ii) (iv) (iii) (i) establishment
Who among the following rulers divided (c) Talab (iii) Transit duty
his troops into units of fifty, two hundred, (d) Zakat (iv) Mansabdar’s pay claim
two hundred fifty and five hundred?
(a) Sikandar Lodi (b) Sher Shah %QFGU
(c) Islam Shah (d) Akbar (a) (b) (c) (d)
(a) (ii) (i) (iv) (iii)
Arrange the followings in correct chrono- (b) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
logical order: (c) (iii) (i) (ii) (iv)
(i) Conquest of Gujarat by Akbar. (d) (ii) (iii) (i) (iv)
(ii) Battle of Haldighati.
(iii) Introduction of the dagh system. ‘The cities look attractive from a distance,
(iv) Introduction of the Ilahi era. but inside them all the splendor is lost in
Select the correct answer from the codes the narrowness of the streets and the bus-
given below: tling of the crowds.’
The above comment on the Mughal
%QFGU Indian cities was made by
(a) (ii) (i) (iv) (iii) (a) Father Monserrate
(b) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (b) Sir Thomas Roe
(c) (i) (iii) (ii) (iv) (c) Peter Mundi
(d) (ii) (ii) (i) (iv) (d) Tavernier
Identify the dynasty which Raj Singh Panj Who stated that ‘Twenty thousand men
Hajari belonged to worked incessantly to construct Taj Mahal’?
(a) Rathore of Bikaner (a) Mannuci
(b) Rathore of Jodhpur (b) Abdul Hamid Lahori
(c) Rathore of Kishangarh (c) Tavernier
(d) Rathore of Ratlam (d) Shah Nawaz Khan
Given below are two statements, one Consider the names of the following Mughal
labelled Assertion (A) and other labelled emperors of the Eighteenth century:
Reason (R). (i) Alamgir II
#UUGTVKQP
# Many Mughal nobles car- (ii) Ahmad Shah
ried on trade in their own name, or in part- (iii) Jahandar Shah
nership with merchants. (iv) Muhammad Shah
4GCUQP
4As Governor of Bengal, Mir Which among the following sequences
Jumla tried to monopolise trade in all represents the correct chronological order
important commodities. of these Mughal emperors? Select your
which one of the following is correct? %QFGU
Select your answer from the codes given (a) (ii) (i) (iii) (iv)
below: (b) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
(c) (iii) (iv) (ii) (i)
%QFGU
(d) (iii) (iv) (i) (ii)
the correct explanation of (A). Which of the following was not true of
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is james Augustus hickey?
not the correct explanation of (A). (a) He was the pioneer of Indian
(c) (A) is true, but (R) is false. Journalism.
(d) (A) is false, but (R) is true. (b) He was the founder of the Bengal
Chronicle.
Which historian called the Indian mer-
(c) He always worked for the press freedom
chants engaged in over-seas trade as
(d) He was sent to prison by Company
pedlars?
Government for being fearless
(a) N. Steensgaard
journalist.
(b) Om prakash
(c) Van Leur Who of the following governor Generals
(d) Ashin Das Gupta started the Indian Civil Services?
(a) William Bentinck
Which of the following pairs is not cor-
(b) Wellesley
rectly matched?
(c) Cornwallis
#WVJQTU $QQMU (d) Warren Hastings
(a) Sunil Kumar The Emergence At which ‘Women’s Indian Association’
of the Delhi was founded?
Sultanate (a) Bombay
(b) Calcutta
(b) Catherine B. India Before (c) Madras
Asher and Europe (d) Jaipur
Cynthia B.
Talbot Who authored the book ‘Stree-Purush
Tulana’ (A Comparison between Women
(c) Harbans Mukhia The Mughals and Men)?
of India (a) Tarabai shinde
(b) Ramabai Ranade
(d) Farhat Hasan Writing the
(c) Savitribai Phule
Mughal World
(d) Aanandibai Joshi
Match List-I with List-II and select the In which year Sharda Act was passed?
correct answer with help of the codes (a) 1927 (b) 1928
given below: (c) 1929 (d) 1930
.KUV+ .KUV++ Rani Gardinulu who fought against the

/QXGOGPV
#TGC British was from
(a) Tripura
(a) Pabna Movement (i) Maharashtra (b) Assam
(b) Moplah Rebellion (ii) East Bengal (c) Nagaland
(c) Deccan Riots (iii) Gujarat (d) Manipur
(d) Bardoli Movement (iv) Malabar Which one of the following was not asso-
ciated with Indian National Army?
%QFGU (a) Rashbihari Bose
(a) (b) (c) (d) (b) Lakshmi Sehgal
(a) (i) (ii) (iv) (iii) (c) Rashbihari Ghosh
(b) (i) (iv) (i) (iii) (d) General Mohan Singh
(c) (iii) (iv) (ii) (i)
(d) (iv) (i) (iii) (ii) In February 1947 Prime Minister Attlee
Declared that the British would quit India
In which year book Hind Swaraj was by
written? (a) May 1948 (b) June 1948
(a) 1907 (b) 1908 (c) July 1948 (d) August 1948
(c) 1909 (d) 1910
The generals of the I.N.A. Shah Nawaz,
Who of the following was known as Gurdial Singh Dhillon and Prem Sehgal,
‘Socrates of Maharashtra’? were formerly officers of the
(a) N.M. Joshi (b) M.G. Ranade (a) British Indian Army
(c) G.H. Deshmukh (d) G.K. Gokhale (b) British Army
As a result of the Poona Pact the number (c) Kashmiri Army
of seats reserved for the depressed classes (d) Punjab Army
out of general electorate seats were The Constituion of India introduced on
(a) Decreased 26th January, 1950 laid down certain basic
(b) Increased principles and values. Which of the fol-
(c) Retained lowing was not part of it?
(d) Abolished (a) India will be a secular and democratic
The Gujarat Sabha led by Gandhi played a republic.
leading role in the (b) It will be a Parliamentary system
(a) Ahmedabad Mill Workers’ Strike based on adult franchise.
(b) Peasant Agitation of Kheda (c) It guarantees all citizens equality
(c) Bardoli Agitation before law.
(d) Salt Satyagraha (d) It provides free education for girls.
Who of the following set up Mahila Arya The Moplahs were the poor peasants and
Samaj to improve Women’s education? agricultural labourers of South Malbar.
(a) Pandita Ramabai They were mainly converts to Islam from
(b) Sister Nivedita the lower castes like
(c) D.K. Karve (a) Tiyya, Cheruma
(d) G.S. Agarkar (b) Ramdasiya, Mehtar
(c) Mahar, Mang (d) NATO and Warsaw Pact came into
(d) Mala, Madiga being in due response to the Cold War
In the context of the Cold War, which one situation.
of the following statements is not correct? Consider the following observations con-
(a) USA planned to use the Island of cerning ‘new history’ and select the cor-
Cuba, as a base for launching her rect answer.
nuclear weapons. (a) It focused attention on manners, cus-
(b) Both USA and Soviet Union sent toms and beliefs of whole people.
weapons and troops to other countries (b) It tried to displace political history
to fight from the centre of historical attention.
(c) The Russians built the huge Berlin (c) It employed the methods and insights
Wall to prevent the people of East of sociology and other sciences.
Berlin from moving into West Berlin. (d) All of the above.
Answer Keys
1. (a) 2. (a) 3. (a) 4. (c) 29. (c) 30. (d) 31. (c) 32. (b)
5. (a) 6. (b) 7. (d) 8. (b) 33. (c) 34. (c) 35. (a) 36. (b)
9. (b) 10. (b) 11. (a) 12. (c) 37. (c) 38. (b) 39. (b) 40. (b)
13. (a) 14. (a) 15. (c) 16. (c) 41. (a) 42. (c) 43. (c) 44. (c)
17. (c) 18. (b) 19. (a) 20. (d) 45. (b) 46. (a) 47. (d) 48. (a)
21. (c) 22. (b) 23. (a) 24. (c) 49. (a) 50. (d)
25. (a) 26. (a) 27. (c) 28. (b)
September 2013
0QVG5IJTQBQFSDPOUBJOTGJGUZ
PCKFDUJWFUZQFRVFTUJPOTPGUXP
NBSLTFBDI"MMRVFTUJPOT
BSFDPNQVMTPSZ
Consider the following statements about Which of the following inscriptions makes
the Harappan civilization: a reference to Chandragupta Maurya?
(i) The sites are discovered both from the (a) Kandhar inscription of Ashoka
urban and rural areas. (b) Brahmagiri inscription of Ashoka
(ii) The inscriptions are in different con- (c) Junagadh inscription of Rudradaman I
temporary scripts. (d) Maski inscription of Ashoka
(iii) The tools and metals provide the idea The 5th pillar edict says that Ashoka made
of the specialised artisans. some living creatures such as parrots, fish,
(iv) The dock-yards have been found at ants, tortoises, etc, inviolable. After which
Lothal and Dholavira. consecration year was it ordered?
Which of the above statements are (a) 20th year
correct? (b) 26th year
(a) (i) and (ii) (c) 30th year
(b) (i) and (iii) (d) 15th year
(c) (ii) and (iv) Which of the following is not true about
(d) (iv) and (ii) the sangam age?
(a) Its historicity is debatable.
Which deities are not referred to in the
(b) The tamil commentaries of about the
Rig-veda?
8th century AD inform us about the
(a) The gods of natural phenomena like three sangams.
Indra, Agni, Varuna and Mitra. (c) There are references to wars between
(b) The goddesses like Ushas and Aditi. the Cholas, the Pandyas and the
(c) The semi-divine deities such as gand- Cheras in its poems.
harvas, apsaras and pishachas. (d) The exploits of the chiefs are not given
(d) Ganesha and Karttikeya. in its literature.
Which one of the following is not con- Which of the following does not belong to
tained in the Upanishads? Jainism?
(a) Avataravada (a) Anekantavada
(b) Atman (b) Ganadhara
(c) Brahman (c) Patimokkha
(d) Maya (d) Syadvada
Model Question Paper–September 2013 4.85
Which of the following is the theme of the (b) Udayagiri cave inscription of
sculptures of Gandhara art? Chandragupta II
(a) Presentation of bride to Siddhartha. (c) Bilsad pillar inscription of
(b) Gift of Jetavana Garden to the Buddha. Kumaragupta I
(c) Buddha’s parinirvana scene. (d) Bhitari pillar inscription of
(d) All the above. Skandagupta
Which of the following Gupta inscriptions Given below are two statements, one is
mentions Krishna and Devaki? labelled as Assertion (A) and the other is
(a) Allahabad pillar inscription of labelled as Reason (R).
Samudragupta
(b) Bhitari pillar inscription of #UUGTVKQP
# Rudradaman I repaired the
Skandagupta damaged embankment of Sudarshana lake.
(c) Eran stone pillar inscription of 4GCUQP
4 As a good gesture, he neither
Budhagupta levied any emergency tax nor demanded
(d) The Mehrauli iron pillar inscription the free services of people.
At which of the following Quinquennial In the context of the above two statements,
assemblies at Prayaga did Harsha donate which one of the following is correct?
almost all his belongings? %QFGU
(a) 5th (b) 6th (A) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is
(c) 7 th
(d) 8th the correct explanation of (A).
What is true about the Kushanas? (B) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is
(a) Their traces have been found in not the correct explanation of (A).
Central Asia. (C) (A) is true, but (R) is false.
(b) They perhaps initiated the practice of (D) (A) is false, but (R) is true.
appointing two governors simultane-
ously in the same province. Match the List-I with List-II and select
(c) The Gandhara art which developed the correct answer from the codes given
under them not only popularised the below:
Buddha in the anthropomorphic form, .KUV+ .KUV++
but also encouraged the amalgam of
6GTO
/GCPKPI
Indian and foreign arts.
(d) All the above. (a) Jajamani (i) Cultivable land
system
Who has propounded the theory of the
beginning of the process of State forma- (b) Kakini (ii) Land measurement
tion at regional and sub-regional levels (c) Kshetra (iii) Remuneration paid
during the early mediaeval period? in kind for services
(a) Hermann Kulke
(d) Nivartana (iv) Copper coin
(b) R.S. Sharma
(c) B.N. Datta %QFGU
(d) D.D. Kosambi (a) (b) (c) (d)
Which Gupta inscription records the gift (a) (i) (iii) (ii) (iv)
of a village in favour of a Vishnu temple? (b) (ii) (iv) (i) (iii)
(a) Allahabad pillar inscription of (c) (iii) (iv) (i) (ii)
Samudragupta (d) (iv) (ii) (iii) (i)
4.86 Model Question Paper–September 2013
Tilak, a Hindu general, served the army of: In respect of the reign of Sikandar Lodi
(a) Mir Qasim which one of the following observations is
(b) Mahmud Gaznavi correct?
(c) Mohammad Ghori (a) Sikandar’s love for justice was
(d) Yalduz remarkable and he provided speedy
The terms ‘Khut’, ‘Muqaddam’ and and impartial justice.
‘chaudhary’ in the Sultanate period (b) He persecuted the Hindus because of
referred to: his religious intolerance.
(a) Big Rajput chiefs (c) Sikandar made Agra his second
(b) Land Revenue Collectors capital.
(c) The class of rural intermediaries (d) All of the above.
(d) Officers of the Judicial depa tment Given below are two statements, one
The water tax collected during Firoz Shah rbaniz as Assertion (A) and the other
Tughlaq’s reign was known as: rbaniz as Reason (R).
(a) Sondhar (b) Haqq-i-Sharab #UUGTVKQP
# The process of urbaniza-
(c) Ghari (d) Charai tion during the sultanate period led to
Which of the following travellers has given social mobility among craftsmen in the
the graphic picture of sati practiced in the urban centres.
Sultanate period? 4GCUQP
4 The artisans and craftsmen
(a) Ibn Battuta considered low caste in the Hindu social
(b) Duarate Barbosa system, could now live even in the vicinity
(c) Abdur Razzaq of the ruling elite.
(d) A. Nikitin In the context of the above two statements,
Given below are two statements, one which one of the following is correct?
labelled as Assertion (A) and the other %QFGU
labelled as Reason (R). (a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is
#UUGTVKQP
# Alauddin Khilji decreed the correct explanation of (A).
that the entire revenue collection from (b) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is
Khalisa in the Doab as well as from Delhi not the correct explanation of (A).
should be in kind. (c) (A) is true, but (R) is false.
4GCUQP
4 Alauddin wanted a large (d) (A) is false, but (R) is true.
amount of grain reserve for Delhi for con- ‘Khair ul Majalis’ a sufi malfuzat, is dedi-
tingents as well as for price fixation. cated to which sufi saint?
In the context of the above two state- (a) Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki
ments, which one of the following codes (b) Nasiruddin Mahmud Chirag-i- Dilli
is correct? (c) Muhammad Gesu Daraz
%QFGU (d) Baba Hayat Qalandar
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is The du-aspa sih-aspa was introduced into
the correct explanation of (A). the Mughal mansabdari system by
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is (a) Babur
not the correct explanation of (A). (b) Akbar
(c) (A) is true, but (R) is false. (c) Jahangir
(d) (A) is false, but (R) is true. (d) Shah Jahan
The use of tobacco came to northern India The French East India Company was
during the reign of Akbar and it was pop- formed for trading with India under the
ularly used. Seeing its menance, it was patronage of:
banned by: (a) Louis XIII
(a) Emperor Akbar (b) Louis XIV
(b) Emperor Jahangir (c) Louis XV
(c) Emperor Shah Jahan (d) Louis XVI
(d) Emperor Aurangzeb Who made the following statement after
Which of the following is not correctly the battle of plassy?
matched? ‘Britain must secure the prosperity of
(a) Marco Polo–Portuguese India’s people before seeking any gain
(b) Pietro Della Valle–Italian itself. Britain’s right to rule India, so its
(c) William Hawkins–English leaders argued, could be made legitimate,
(d) Francois Bernier–French but only through just governance.’
Which one of the following terms denotes (a) Warren Hastings
money changers? (b) Edmund Burke
(a) Ijardars (b) Patels (c) Robert Clive
(c) Sarrafs (d) Wajhdars (d) Cornwallis
Which of the Mughal emperors disapproved Brahmo Samaj has not adopted one of the
of old women taking young husbands and following as the part of social reform:
said that ‘this goes against all modesty’? (a) Spread of modern education
(a) Babur (b) Akbar (b) Infallibility of the vedas
(c) Jahangir (d) Aurangzeb (c) Opposition to idolatery
(d) Rational ethics
In which of his works, prince Dara Shikoh
compares Islamic sufi concepts with the In 1837, Lord Auckland sent Alexander
Hindu philosophical outlook? Burnes as an English Ambassador to:
(a) Sakinat-ul Auliya (a) Baluchistan (b) Sindh
(b) Qawaid-i-Sultanate-i-Shah Jahan (c) Kabul (d) Kandhar
(c) Majma-ul- Bahrain The censorship of the Press Act was passed in
(d) Shahnama-i-Munawwar Kalam (a) 1773
In the context of the conquest of Gujarat (b) 1774
and Malwa by the Marathas, which one of (c) 1793
the following statements is correct? (d) 1799
(a) The Maratha claim of chauth and sard- One of the following organisations was not
eshmukhi was formalized in Gujarat associated with National Education Move-
and Malwa. ment in the early twentieth century.
(b) Subsequently the Maratha claim for (a) Bhagabat Chatuspadi of Satischandra
chauth and sardeshmukhi was substi- Mukherjee
tuted by a demand for the cessation of (b) The Saraswat Ayatan of Brahma
territory. Bandopadhyay
(c) The provinces were divided into (c) Santiniketan Ashram of Rabindranath
spheres of influence among the Tagore
Maratha Sardars. (d) Anushilan Samiti of Barindra Kumar
(d) All of the above. Ghosh
Given below are two statements, one is (c) Lord Lytton
labelled as Assertion (A) and the other (d) Lord Ripon
labelled as Reason (R). Match the List-I the annual sessions of
#UUGTVKQP
# British contemplated dif- Indian National Congress with List-II its
ferent strategies in India. At no time was President in that session:
the British vision of India ever informed
.KUV+ .KUV++
by a single coherent set of ideas.
(a) Lucknow (i) Hakim Ajmal
4GCUQP
4 Despite an enduring com- Session of 1916 Khan
mitment to the production of knowledge
about India, the British made little effort at (b) Delhi Session (ii) C.R. Das
any time to construct a consistent ideology of 1918
for their imperial enterprise. (c) Ahmedabad (iii) Madan Mohan
Read the above statements and select Session of 1920 Malaviya
the correct answer from the codes given (d) Gaya Session of (iv) Ambika Charan
below: 1922 Mazumdar
%QFGU %QFGU
(a) (A) is correct, but (R) is false. (a) (b) (c) (d)
(b) (A) is incorrect, but (R) is correct. (a) (iv) (iii) (i) (ii)
(c) Both are correct and (R) is the correct (b) (iii) (i) (ii) (iv)
explanation of (A). (c) (i) (ii) (iv) (iii)
(d) Both are correct and (R) is not the cor-
(d) (ii) (iv) (iii) (i)
rect explanation of (A).
Who became the trend-setter of Modern Given below are two statements, one
Telugu literature? labelled as Assertion (A) and the other
(a) Rao Bahadur Veeresa Lingam Pentulu labelled as Reason (R).
(b) Nanduri Venkata Subbarao #UUGTVKQP
# Montagu-Chelms-ford
(c) Kokkanda Venkataratnam Pentulu reforms in 1919 totally disregarded the
(d) Garimella Satyanarayana Lucknow pact.
On which post Dadabhai Naoroji was 4GCUQP
4 The defeat of Turkey created
appointed in the Baroda State? the spectre of ‘Islam in danger’ and started
(a) Treasurer (b) Minister Khilafat movement to mobilize mass sup-
(c) Dewan (d) Collector port for muslim leadership.
Mrs. Annie Besant leader of the Theo- Read the above statements and select the
sophical Society of India was correct answers from the codes given
(a) An English Lady below:
(b) An American Lady
%QFGU
(c) A European Lady
(d) An Irish Lady
(b) (A) is incorrect, but (R) is correct.
The Preservation of Ancient Monuments (c) Both are correct and (R) is the correct
Act was passed during the time of explanation of (A).
(a) Lord Curzon (d) Both are correct and (R) is not the cor-
(b) Elgin II rect explanation of (A).
In which year Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev and (a) E.H. Carr
Rajguru were hanged? (b) R.G. Collingwood
(a) 1929 (c) Lord Acton
(b) 1930 (d) Ernest Bernheim
(c) 1931 Who among the following does not belong
(d) 1935 to the school of subaltern historiography?
Feeling of bias is increasing in the histori- (a) Ranjit Guha
ans of the present day because of (b) David Arnold
(a) increasing communalism in writing (c) Bipin Chandra
(b) narrow interpretations of datas (d) Gyan Pandey
(c) regionalism and prejudices in writing The only country which welcomed India’s
(d) all the above are correct status as a member of nuclear club in 1974
Who among the following stated that ‘Bad was:
history is not harmless history. It is dan- (a) Germany (b) France
gerous. The sentences typed on apparently (c) Canada (d) UK
innocuous keyboards may be sentences of Which of the following characteristics of
death’? commonwealth is not correct?
(a) E.H. Carr (a) The commonwealth is neither a fed-
(b) Eric Hobsbawm eration nor a confederation.
(c) R.G. Collingwood (b) The voluntary character of the com-
(d) Marc Bloch monwealth is proved by the right of
Who among the following observed that the nations to secede.
‘the subject matter of history is not a general (c) It has a recognised constitutional
fact, such as revolution, custom or a culture, organisation.
nor is it a particular fact such as a war or a (d) There is no central authority and divi-
great personality, but it is thought.’? sion of power among the members.
Answer Keys
1. (b) 2. (d) 3. (a) 4. (c) 29. (c) 30. (d) 31. (b) 32. (b)
5. (b) 6. (d) 7. (c) 8. (d) 33. (b) 34. (c) 35. (d) 36. (d)
9. (b) 10. (b) 11. (d) 12. (a) 37. (c) 38. (a) 39. (c) 40. (d)
13. (d) 14. (b) 15. (c) 16. (b) 41. (a) 42. (a) 43. (a) 44. (c)
17. (c) 18. (b) 19. (a) 20. (d) 45. (d) 46. (b) 47. (b) 48. (c)
21. (ac) 22. (a) 23. (b) 24. (c) 49. (b) 50. (c)
25. (b) 26. (a) 27. (c) 28. (b)
December 2013
0QVGThis paper contains fifty (50) objective type questions of two (2) marks each. All questions
are compulsory.
Flake tools of Levallois technique is the Which of the below mentioned Indo-
characteristic feature of which area of the Greek rules issued coins bearing the fig-
following geological ages? ures of Krishna and Balarama?
(a) Lower Pleistocene (a) Menander (b) Agathocles
(b) Holocene (c) Heliocles (d) Archebius
(c) Upper Pleistocene Point out which one of the following sites
(d) Middle Pleistocene associated with the Nagas had a shrine
Match List-I with List-II and select the dedicated to Dadhikarna, the lord of the
correct answer from the codes below: Nagas
(a) Padmavati (b) Kantipuri
.KUV+ .KUV++ (c) Mathura (d) Rajagriha
(a) Sohagighat (i) Kashmir Neolith Which of the following Puranas replaces
(b) Balathal (ii) V.S. Wakankar the Buddha with Krishna in the list of the
(c) Bhimbetka (iii) Ahar Culture Site Avataras of Vishnu?
(a) Matsya Purana
(d) Burzahom (iv) A.C.L. Carlleyle (b) Bhagavata Purana
%QFGU (c) Vayu Purana
(a) (b) (c) (d) (d) Kurma Purana
(a) (iii) (iv) (i) (ii) The earlist Lingodbhavamurti of Siva has
(b) (iv) (iii) (ii) (i) been found at which one of the below
(c) (i) (ii) (iv) (iii) mentioned sites?
(d) (ii) (i) (iii) (iv) (a) Kanchi (b) Bhojpur
Which one of the following situated in (c) Gudimallam (d) Khoh
the North-East Afghanistan is a Harappan Which one of the below mentioned South
trading port? Indian temples has wall-paintings?
(a) Sutkagen Dor (b) Mundigak (a) Kailashnath temple at Kanchipuram
(c) Shoturgai (d) Nausharo (b) Virupaksha temple at Pattadakal
Which one of the following Buddhist texts (c) Vijayalaya Cholishwara temple at
mentions five hundred wives of Bimbisara? Narttamalai
(a) Mahavamsa (b) Mahavagga (d) Koranganatha temple at
(c) Dipavamsa (d) Mahavastu Srinivasanallur
Arrange the Pala kings listed below in %QFGU

chronological order and select the correct (a) (b) (c) (d)
answer from the codes given below: (a) (iv) (ii) (i) (iii)
(b) (iii) (iv) (ii) (i)
.KUV
(c) (i) (iii) (iv) (ii)
(i) Rajyapala
(d) (ii) (i) (iii) (iv)
(ii) Narayanapala
(iii) Devapala Match List-I with List-II and select the cor-
(iv) Gopala rect answer from the codes given below:
%QFGU .KUV+ .KUV++
(a) (ii) (i) (iv) (iv)
#WVJQTU
9QTMUQP.CY
(b) (iii) (ii) (i) (iii)
(a) Jimutavahana (i) Manutika
(c) (iv) (iii) (ii) (i)
(d) (i) (iv) (iii) (ii) (b) Govindaraja (ii) Smritichandrika
Match List-I with List-II and select the cor- (c) Vijnanesvara (iii) Dayabhaga
rect answer from the codes given below: (d) Devannabhatta (iv) Mitakshara
.KUV+ .KUV++ %QFGU

9QTMUQP/GFKEKPG
#WVJQTU (a) (b) (c) (d)
(a) (iv) (ii) (i) (iii)
(a) Bhanumati (i) Chakrapani- (b) (i) (iii) (ii) (iv)
datta (c) (iii) (i) (iv) (ii)
(b) Shalihotra (ii) Vangasena (d) (ii) (iv) (iii) (i)
(c) Vrikshayurveda (iii) Bhoja Match List-I with List-II and select the cor-
(d) Chikit- (iv) Sureshvara
sasarasamgraha .KUV+ .KUV++
%QFGU
6GORNG5V[NG
0COGQH6GORNG
(a) (b) (c) (d) (a) Nagara (i) Temple at Paharpur
(a) (iv) (i) (ii) (iii) (b) Dravida (ii) Jain temple at Lak-
(b) (iii) (ii) (i) (iv) kudi
(c) (ii) (iv) (iii) (i) (c) Chalukyan (iii) Nilkantha Mahadev
(d) (i) (iii) (iv) (ii) at Saunak
Match List-I with List-II and select the cor- (d) Exotic (iv) Kailashnath at Ellora
%QFGU
.KUV+ .KUV++ (a) (b) (c) (d)

-KPIU
&[PCUV[ (a) (ii) (iii) (i) (iv)
(b) (iii) (iv) (ii) (i)
(a) Udayanjeral (i) Pandya
(c) (iv) (i) (iii) (ii)
(b) Karikala (ii) Chola (d) (i) (ii) (iv) (iii)
(c) Nediyon (iii) Pallava Given below are two statements, one
(d) Simhavisnu (iv) Chera
#UUGTVKQP
# Ancient Indian Art styles (b) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is
during the Post-Gupta period are named as not the correct explanation of (A).
per dynasties ruling over a particular region. (c) (A) is true, but (R) is false.
4GCUQP
4 Rules of the Post-Gupta (d) (A) is false, but (R) is true.
dynasties were the sole patronisers of Art. Match List-I with List-II and select correct
Read the above statements and select the answer from the codes given below:
correct answer from the codes given below: .KUV+ .KUV++
%QFGU
.KVGTCT[YQTMU
#WVJQTU
(a) Both (A) and (R) are correct and (R) is
(a) Adab ul Harb (i) Ata Malik
wa al Shujat Juwaini
not the correct explanation of (A). (b) Tabaqat-i-Nasiri (ii) Zia ud din
(c) (A) is true, but (R) is false. Barani
(d) (A) is false, but (R) is true. (c) Tarikh-i-Jahan (iii) Minhaj Siraj
According to Al-Beruni, the antyajas were Gusha
(a) Hadi, Dom and Chandala caste of (d) Tarika-I Firuz (iv) Fakhr-i-
people Shahi Mudabbir
(b) Prostitutes
%QFGU
(c) Eight guilds of people below the (a) (b) (c) (d)
Sudras (a) (iii) (iv) (ii) (i)
(d) Foreigners (b) (iv) (iii) (i) (ii)
The Ilbari ruler who introduced Sijada, (c) (iv) (ii) (i) (iii)
Paibos and Nauroz to the Delhi Sultanate (d) (ii) (i) (iv) (iii)
was Match the List-I with List-II and select the
(a) Qutabuddin Aibek correct answer from the codes given below:
(b) Iltutmish
(c) Balban .KUV+ .KUV++
(d) Bahram Shah (a) Iqta-I Tamlik (i) A confidential
Given below are two statements, one meeting of
labelled as Assertion (A) and the other king and high
labelled as Reason (R): officials
#UUGTVKQP
# The Turks did not use (b) Majlis-i- (ii) Short term
Hindu style of representing human and Khalwat governorship
animal figures on the buildings. (c) Mahsul (iii) Gross income of
4GCUQP
4 They used geometrical and the province
floral designs and panels of inscriptions (d) Iqta-i-Istighal (iv) Hereditary Iqta
containing verses from Quran.
%QFGU
Read the above statements and select the (a) (b) (c) (d)
correct answer from the codes given below: (a) (ii) (iv) (iii) (i)
%QFGU (b) (iv) (i) (iii) (ii)
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is (c) (iv) (i) (ii) (iii)
the correct explanation of (A). (d) (ii) (iii) (iv) (i)
Shiqqdar was (a) Ralph Fitch (b) Nicolo Conti

(a) The head of village patwaris (c) A. Nikitin (d) F. Nuniz
(b) The military officer at the pargana level
‘Mawarun nahr’ was the Arabic term for
(c) The treasurer of the pargana
the Central Asian region of
(d) Looking after the trade activities
(a) Farghana (b) Khurasan
Given below are two statement, one (c) Khwarizm (d) Transoxiana
labelled as Reason (R): Concerning Humayun which of the fol-
lowing is correct?
#UUGTVKQP
# The Bhakti Movement of
(a) Humayun was very fond of astronomy
medieval period succeeded in bringing
and geography.
into the fold of Hinduism many adherents
(b) Humayun collected a large number of
of Buddhism and Jainism.
books for the imperial library.
4GCUQP
4 As a process of cultural (c) Humayun during his military cam-
assimilation many tribals were Hinduized paigns used to take some selected
by fitting themselves into the caste system. books for his use.
Read the above statements and select (d) All of the above
Din-i-Ilahi was primarily
below:
(a) The official religion of state
%QFGU: (b) A synthesis of Hinduism and Islam.
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is (c) The reiteration of the principle of uni-
the correct explanation of (A). versal harmony.
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is (d) A superior religion for the masses.
not the correct explanation of (A).
(c) (A) is true, but (R) is false. What was the percentage of rural popula-
(d) (A) is false, but (R) is true. tion of India, as per the popular estimate,
during the 16th and 17th centuries?
Shaikh Nuruddin was the founder of the (a) Around 55% (b) Around 65%
(a) Rishi Silsilah of Sufis in Kashmir
(c) Around 75% (d) Around 85%
(b) Chishti Silsilah of Sufis in Ajmer
(c) Firdausi Silsilah of Sufis in Bihar Consider the following statements in
(d) Suhrawardi Silsilah of Sufis in Multan respect of Rathor rebellion:
Considering the relationship between (i) The Rathor rebellion broke out fol-
ulema and the ruler during the Sultanate lowing the death of Prithvi Singh, son
period which one of the following state- of Jaswant Singh.
ments is correct? (ii) Aurangzeb installed Indra Singh as
(a) The ulema derived authority from the the ruler of Marwar.
shariat. (iii) The rebellion broke out following
(b) The ulema did not allow the Sultan to Aurangzeb’s plan to make Jodhpur a
interpret the Divine Word. part of the Mughal Empire.
(c) The ulema could not be dispensed (iv) Rani Hadi was supported by the
with by the Sultan at will. Rathors and Rana Raj Singh of
(d) None of the above Mewar in the rebellion.
Identify the foreign traveller who gives an Which of above statements (s) is/are
account of the Bahamani kingdom correct?
(a) (i) only %QFGU

(b) (ii) and (iii) (a) (b) (c) (d)
(c) (iii) and (iv) (a) (ii) (iii) (iv) (i)
(d) (ii) and (iv) (b) (iii) (iv) (i) (ii)
(c) (ii) (i) (iii) (iv)
Arrange the following in chronological (d) (i) (ii) (iv) (iii)
the codes given below: Given below are two statements, one is
(i) The Policy of Ring Fence labelled as Assertion (A), and the other is
(ii) The Policy of Equal Federation labelled as Reason (R):
(iii) The Policy of Subordinate Union #UUGTVKQP
# The process of transition
(iv) The Policy of Subordinate Isolation to Colonialism was underway over almost
%QFGU a century 1757–1856.
(a) (i) (iv) (iii) (ii) 4GCUQP
4English East India Company
(b) (i) (iii) (ii) (iv) annexed all the Indian territories directly
(c) (iii) (ii) (iv) (i) under its control.
(d) (iv) (ii) (i) (iii) Read the above statements and select
English East India Company lost the the correct answer from the codes given
monopoly of Chinese trade by below:
(a) The Chapter Act of 1813 (a) (A) is correct but (R) is false.
(b) The Chapter Act of 1833 (b) (A) is incorrect but (R) is correct.
(c) The Chapter Act of 1853 (c) Both are correct and (R) is the correct
(d) The Chapter Act of 1893 explanation of (A)
(d) Both are correct but (R) is not the cor-
Which of the following statements is rect explanation of (A).
incorrect?
(a) Amrita Bazar Patrika was originally a The main reason for the peasants to join
Bengali paper. the 1857 revolt was
(b) Samachar Darpan, the Vernacular (a) Inordinately high revenue demands.
newspaper was started during the (b) The revenue polices not only uprooted
period of Warren Hastings. the ordinary peasants but also
destroyed the gentry of the country.
(c) Bombay Times became the Times of
(c) The beneficiaries of the new revenue
India.
policies were also not satisfied.
(d) The Bengal Gazette, the Weekly
(d) All the above
Newspaper, was started by James
Augustus Hickey. Match the List-I with List-II and select
Match the List-I with List-II and select the the correct answer from the codes given
correct answer from the codes given below: below:
.KUV+ .KUV++ .KUV+ .KUV++
(a) Treaty of Allahabad (i) 1769 (a) Death of Sir Syed Ahmad (i) 1897
Khan
(b) Treaty of Madras (ii) 1765
(b) Madanlal Dhingra shot (ii) 1898
(c) Treaty of Purandar (iii) 1776 dead Curzon Wyllie in
(d) Treaty of Mangalore (iv) 1784 London
(c) Chapekar brothers mur- (iii) 1909 %QFGU

dered the cruel Plague (a) (b) (c) (d)
Commissioner Rand and (a) (iii) (i) (iv) (ii)
Lt. Ayerst (b) (i) (iv) (ii) (iii)
(c) (iv) (ii) (iii) (i)
(d) Coronation Durbar in (iv) 1911
(d) (ii) (iii) (i) (iv)
honour of George V held
at delhi One of the following was not associated
%QFGU with Justice Party:
(a) (b) (c) (d) (a) K.M. Patro
(a) (ii) (iii) (i) (iv) (b) Ramaswami Naikar
(b) (iii) (ii) (iv) (i) (c) Tanguturi Prakasam
(c) (i) (iv) (iii) (ii) (d) Raja Ram Rainingar
(d) (iv) (i) (ii) (iii) What did the ruler of Nabha and Jind offer
Given below are the two statements, one is Ranjit Singh as a token of accepting his
labelled as Assertion (A) and the other is subordination?
labelled as Reason (R): (a) Their forts (b) Their territory
#UUGTVKQP
# MaCaulay’s Law Commis- (c) Costly gifts (d) Their horses
sion enacted in 1860s marked an end to
Indicate the newspaper mentioned below
India seen as a land of ‘oriental despotism’
with which Gandhiji was not associated
4GCUQP
4Equity and justice were seen to (a) Indian Opinion (b) Indian Mirror
be meted out in place of what was imagined (c) Harijan (d) Young India
as the despots ‘dark and solemn’ justice.
Match the List-I with List-II
correct answer from the codes given below: .KUV+ .KUV++
%QFGU
2TKEGN[5VCVG
)WP UCNWVGU GPVKVNGF
(a) (A) is correct but (R) is false. D[VJGTWNGT
(b) (A) is incorrect but (R) is correct. (a) Sangli (i) 17
(c) Both are correct and (R) is the correct (b) Gwalior (ii) 9
explanation of (A) (c) Dholpur (iii) 15
(d) Both are correct but (R) is not the cor- (d) Kutch (iv) 21
rect explanation of (A).
%QFGU
Match the List-I with List-II and select the (a) (b) (c) (d)
correct answer from the codes given below: (a) (iii) (iv) (ii) (i)
.KUV+ .KUV++ (b) (iv) (ii) (i) (iii)
(a) Behramji M. (i) Emancipation (c) (i) (iii) (iv) (ii)
Malabari of women (d) (ii) (iv) (iii) (i)
(b) Dando Keshav (ii) Kanyansulkam Match List-I with List-II and select the cor-
Karve rect answer from the codes given below:
(c) Kandukuri Vee- (iii) Parsi Social
resalingam Reformer .KUV+ .KUV++
(d) Gurazada Appa (iv) Widow Remar- (a) Clement Attle (i) August Offer
Rao riage Movement (b) Mountbatten (ii) Breakdown plan
(c) Lord Linilithgow (iii) Cabinet Mission %QFGU

(a) (b) (c) (d)
(c) Wavell (iv) Plan Balkan (a) (iii) (ii) (iv) (i)
%QFGU (b) (iv) (i) (ii) (iii)
(a) (b) (c) (d) (c) (iv) (ii) (i) (iii)
(a) (iii) (iv) (ii) (i) (d) (i) (iv) (iii) (ii)
(b) (iv) (iii) (i) (ii) The ‘Idea of Progress’ in historiography
(c) (iii) (iv) (i) (ii) relates to
(d) (i) (ii) (iv) (iii) (a) Romanticism
Which one of the following was the most (b) Enlightenment
immediate problem India confronted after (c) Post modernism
independence? (d) Dialectical materialism
(a) Settlement of boundaries after The concept of ‘Total History’ is associ-
partition ated with which one of the following
(b) Division of Civil Service personnel schools of historical writing?
(c) Division of military assets (a) Marxist School
(d) Communal and refugee problem (b) Positivist School
Match List-I (Authors) with List-II (c) Annales School
(Books) and select the correct answer (d) Subaltern School
from the codes given below: The major determinant(s) of the policy of
.KUV+ .KUV++ non-alignment was/were
(a) Anti-racialism
(a) Lucien (i) The Peasants of the
(b) Anti-imperialism
Febvre Languedoc
(c) Both (A) and (B)
(b) Max Bloch (ii) The Historian’s (d) None of the above
Craft
(c) Emmanuel (iii) The Mediterranean Who among the following is the author of
L.R. Laduire The Cold War and its Origin?
(a) Daniel Singer
(d) Fernad (iv) The Regions of (b) A.F.K. Organski
Braudel France: France (c) D.F. Flaming
Comte (d) G. Ionescu
Answer Keys
1. (d) 2. (b) 3. (c) 4. (b) 29. (d) 30. (d) 31. (a) 32. (b)
5. (b) 6. (c) 7. (c) 8. (c) 33. (b) 34. (c) 35. (?) 36. (d)
9. (a) 10. (c) 11. (d) 12. (a) 37. (a) 38. (b) 39. (a) 40. (a)
13. (c) 14. (b) 15. (?) 16. (c) 41. (d) 42. (b) 43. (d) 44. (c)
17. (c) 18. (?) 19. (b) 20. (b) 45. (d) 46. (c) 47. (b) 48. (c)
21. (b) 22. (d) 23. (a) 24. (a) 49. (c) 50. (c)
25. (c) 26. (d) 27. (d) 28. (c)
UGC NET History Paper III
June 2013
0QVGThis paper contains seventy five (75) objective type questions of two (2) marks each. All
questions are compulsory.
Match List-I (authors) with List-II (defi- (c) Neolithic (iii) Flaked stone
nitions of history) and select the correct tools
answer with the help of the codes given
below: (d) Upper (iv) Microlithic tools
Palaeolithic
.KUV+ .KUV++ %QFGU

#WVJQTU
&GHKPCVKQPUQH*KUVQT[ (a) (b) (c) (d)
(a) Oakshott (i) All history is history (a) (i) (iv) (ii) (iii)
of thought. (b) (iii) (i) (iv) (ii)
(c) (iii) (iv) (i) (ii)
(b) Travelyan (ii) History is herself
(d) (ii) (iii) (iv) (i)
simply a science, no
less and no more. . The largest number of Harappan sites have
been found on the bank of the river
(c) Colling (iii) The fact is... that the (a) Indus (b) Satluj
wood past in history varies (c) Saraswati (d) Ravi
with the present.
. What was the unique feature of the Harap-
(d) Bury (iv) The value of history is pan civilization which was unknown to
not scientific. Its true other contemporary civilizations?
value is educational. (a) Cotton Cloth
%QFGU (b) Palatial Houses
(a) (b) (c) (d) (c) Steatite Seals
(a) (iii) (iv) (i) (ii) (d) Carnelian Beads
(b) (ii) (iii) (iv) (i) . Match List-I (Place name) with List-II
(c) (iv) (ii) (iii) (i) (Geographical location) and select the
(d) (iv) (iii) (i) (ii) correct answer from the code given below:
Match List-I with List-II and select the .KUV+ .KUV++
correct answer from the code given below: (a) Meluha (i) Bahrin
.KUV+ .KUV++ (b) Dilmun (ii) Indus Region
(a) Palaeolithic (i) Ground stone tools (c) Maken (iii) Central Asia
(b) Mesolithic (ii) Rock painting (d) Kurgaon (iv) Makaran Coast
%QFGU . The seat of the third great Sangam of

(a) (b) (c) (d) Tamil authors was at
(a) (i) (iii) (iv) (ii) (a) Gangaikond Cholapuram
(b) (iv) (i) (ii) (iii) (b) Kanchi
(c) (ii) (i) (iv) (iii) (c) Madura
(d) (iii) (i) (iv) (ii) (d) Tanjavur
. Who was the first to propound the theory . Which among the following was not a port
of Aryan invasion on India? city during the ancient period?
(a) R.E.M. Wheeler (a) Tuticorin (b) Poompuhar
(b) Gorden V. Childe (c) Tamralipti (d) Nagapatnam
(c) J. Marshall . Match List-I with List-II and select the
(d) R.P.Chanda correct answer from the code given below:
. The famous philosopher king of the king- .KUV+ .KUV++
dom of Panchala during the latter Vedic
(a) Romaka (i) Arabian’s influence
period was
Sidhanta
(a) Ajatasatru
(b) Parikshita (b) Rouletted (ii) Greek’s influence
(c) Pravahana jaivali Ware
(d) Svetaketu (c) Surkhi (iii) Roman’s influence
Who among the following Dharmasutra (d) Algebra (iv) Kushan’s influence
writers does not approve the system of
Niyoga? %QFGU
(a) Gautama (b) Apastamba (a) (b) (c) (d)
(c) Baudhayana (d) Vasishtha (a) (ii) (iii) (iv) (i)
(b) (iii) (ii) (iv) (i)
Several names of Kautilya have been men- (c) (iv) (ii) (iii) (i)
tioned in which one of the following? (d) (i) (iii) (ii) (iv)
(a) Devi-Chandra-Guptam . Which one of the following inscriptions
(b) Dasa-Kumara-Charita mentions the names of bhadragupta and
(c) Mudrarakshasa ashoka?
(d) Abhidhana-Chintamani (a) Allahabad Pillar inscription of
Which among the following places is not Samudragupta.
associated with the Megalithic culture? (b) Junagarh inscription of Rudradaman.
(a) Chandragiri (b) Brahmagiri (c) Shahbajgarhi inscription of Ashoka.
(c) Adichchanallur (d) Utnur (d) Hathigumpha inscription of Kharvela.
What is the correct chronological order of . Match List-I with List-II and select the
the following Greco-Roman authors? correct answer from the code given below:
(a) Ktesias (b) Pliny
(c) Strabo (d) Ptolemy .KUV+ .KUV++
%QFGU (a) Nyāya (i) Jamini
(a) (b), (c), (d), (a) (b) Vaiseshika (ii) Kapila
(b) (a), (c), (b), (d) (c) Sānkhya (iii) Kan.āda
(c) (c), (d), (a), (b)
(d) (d), (b), (c), (a) (d) Mimansa (iv) Gautam
%QFGU Match List-I with List-II and select the

(a) (b) (c) (d) correct answer from the code given below:
(a) (iii) (iv) (ii) (i) .KUV+ .KUV++
(b) (ii) (iii) (i) (iv)
(c) (iv) (iii) (ii) (i) (a) Tolkāppiyama (i) Jain Philosophy
(d) (iv) (i) (iii) (ii) (b) Tirūkkural (ii) Love Story
In connection with Satvahana coins which (c) Silappadikāram (iii) Tamil Grammar
one of the following statement is not
(d) Paripādal (iv) Philosophy
correct?
(a) They did not issue gold coins. %QFGU
(b) They issued gold coins. (a) (b) (c) (d)
(c) They issued lead coins. (a) (iii) (ii) (i) (iv)
(d) They issued potin coins. (b) (iii) (i) (ii) (iv)
(c) (i) (iii) (ii) (iv)
. Match List-I with List-II and select the
(d) (ii) (i) (iii) (iv)
correct answer from codes given below
Which Indian epigraph yields the first evi-
.KUV+ .KUV++ dence of zero?
(a) Kodumanal (i) Pallava Temple (a) Apsad inscription of Adityasena.
(b) Gangaikondan (ii) Port City (b) Gwalior inscription of Bhojdeva.
(c) Mahabalipuram (iii) Trade Centre (c) Nasik inscription of Gotamiputra
Satkarni.
(d) Poompuhar (iv) Chola Seat of (d) Hathigumpha inscription of Kharvela.
Power
(a) (b) (c) (d) labelled as Reason (R):
(a) (ii) (iv) (i) (iii)
#UUGTVKQP
# Pallava King Mahendra-
(b) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
Varman I built some of the finest rock-cut
(c) (ii) (iii) (iv) (i)
Hindu temples, including, those at Mahab-
(d) (iii) (iv) (i) (ii)
alipuram.
With which of the following eras was the
4GCUQP
4 Mahendra-Varman I began
Malava-reckoning identical?
life as a Jaina but was converted to
(a) Vikrama (b) Śaka
Shaivism.
(c) Gupta (d) Kali
. In which among the following a reference
to the trading activities of the Tamils is
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true, and (R) is
found?
(a) Mullaippattu
(b) Nedunalvadai
(c) Silappadigaram
(d) Manimekhalai
The writer of -WTCN, the famous Deccan
epic, was Arrange the following into sequential
(a) Kamban (b) Ottakuttan order and select the correct answer from
(c) Puglenid (d) Tiru-Valluvar the codes given below:
(i) Rajaraja Chola I Sultanate buildings, including both

(ii) Aditya Chola mosques and tombs.
(iii) Rajendra Chola
. Which crops were not cultivated in India
(iv) Parantaka Chola I
during the Sultanate period?
%QFGU
(a) Potato (b) Barley
(a) (b) (c) (d)
(c) Sesame (d) Maize
(a) (i), (ii), (iii), (iv)
(b) (ii), (iv), (i), (iii) Select your answer from the codes given
(c) (iii), (iv) (ii), (i) below:
(d) (iv), (iii), (i), (ii) %QFGU
Which of the following statements are not (a) 1, 2, 3
correct? (b) 1, 2
(a) Iltutmish’s tomb is an indication of the (c) 1, 4
mixing of the Hindu and Muslim tra- (d) 3, 4
ditions of architecture. . Match List-I with List-II and select the
(b) First true arch was used in the tomb of correct answer from the codes given
Sultan Nasiruddin Mahmud. below:
(c) The horse shoe arch was used for the .KUV+ .KUV++
first time in the construction of Alai
4WNGTUQH&GNJK
/GCUWTGQTGXGPV
Darwaza. 5WNVCPCVG
(d) Architectural device known as double
dome was not used in any building con- (a) Jalaluddin (i) Conquest of
structed during the Sultanate period. Khalji Bengal
Select your answer from the codes given (b) Alauddin (ii) Establishment of
below: Khalji the Department of
%QFGU Public Works
(a) 1, 3, 4 (c) Ghiyasuddin (iii) Execution of Sidi
(b) 2, 4 Tughlaq Maula
(c) 1, 3
(d) Firuz Shah (iv) Conquest of
(d) 2, 3, 4
Tughlaq Malwa and
. The period from 1236 to 1296 witnessed Gujarat
the reign of
(a) Five Sultans (b) Seven Sultans %QFGU
(c) Ten Sultans (d) Twelve Sultans (a) (b) (c) (d)
(a) (i) (iv) (iii) (ii)
. Which of the following statements is not
(b) (iii) (iv) (i) (ii)
correct?
(c) (iv) (iii) (i) (ii)
(a) In Delhi Sultanate use of slave labour
(d) (i) (iii) (iv) (ii)
in craft production was significant
(b) Slaves were also used for unskilled, . The names of the three successors of Khizr
domestic work. Khan, the founder of the Saiyyid dynasty,
(c) Sultan Firuz Tughlaq had 12,000 arti- are given below:
sans among his slaves. (i) Mabarak Shah
(d) Immigrant Muslim masons were (ii) Alauddin Alam Shah
employed for the construction of (iii) Muhammad Shah
Which of the following sequences repre- Which of the above statements are not cor-
sents the correct chronological order? rect? Select your answer from the codes
(a) (i), (ii), (iii) given below:
(b) (i), (iii), (ii) %QFGU
(c) (iii), (ii), (i) (a) (i) and (ii)
(d) (ii), (iii), (i) (b) (i) and (iv)
. Match List-I with List-II and select the cor- (c) (ii) and (iii)
rect answer from the codes given below: (d) (ii) and (iv)
.KUV+ .KUV++ . Given below are two statements, one

5WHKVGTOKPQNQI[)
/GCPKPI labelled as Assertion (A) and the other
(a) Futuh (i) Sufi Musical
gathering #UUGTVKQP
# Like his father and Surs,
Humayan was not willing to recognize
(b) Sama (ii) Conversations
any power politically superior to him.
of Sufi saints
4GCUQP
4 He himself assumed the title
(c) Barkat (iii) Unasked for
of Khalifa.
charity
(d) Malfuz (iv) Spiritual grace which one of the followings is correct?
acquired by a %QFGU
Sufi (a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is
%QFGU the correct explanation of (A).
(a) (b) (c) (d) (b) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is
(a) (i) (iii) (ii) (iv) not the correct explanation of (A).
(b) (iii) (i) (iv) (ii) (c) (A) is true, but (R) is false.
(c) (iii) (ii) (i) (iv) (d) (A) is false, but (R) is true.
(d) (iv) (iii) (ii) (i) . Who stated that the ‘best place for a
Who calls the political economy of the woman is the purdah or the grave?
Vijayanagara regime of the sixteenth cen- (a) Amir Khusrau
tury as feudal? (b) Isami
(a) N. Karashima (c) Badauni
(b) Burton Stein (d) Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi
(c) K.V. Ramesh . Who justified Mughal attack on Malwa by
(d) N. Venkataramanyya saying that Baz Bahadur occupied himself
. Consider the following statements: with ‘unlawful and vicious practices’?
(i) Guru Nanak was interested in all the (a) Nizamuddin Ahmad
major forms of contemporary reli- (b) Abdul Qadir Badauni
gious beliefs and practices whether (c) Arif Qandhari
‘Hindu’ or ‘Muslim’. (d) Abul Fazl
(ii) Guru Nanak was soft on the Jain . Given below are two statements, one
monks. labelled as Assertion (A) and the other
(iii) He considered ritual reading of scrip- labelled as Reason (R):
tures as waste of time. #UUGTVKQP
# The art of painting reached
(iv) During the last fifteen years of his its highest watermark during Jahanagir’s
life Guru Nanak settled at Kiratpur. reign.
4GCUQP
4 He was not interested in other (ii) Shah Jahan refused to grant land to
forms of art. Shanti Das, the leading Jain Jeweller
In the context of the above two statements, and banker of Ahmedabad to build a
which one of the following is correct? resting place for Jain saints.
%QFGU (iii) Shah Jahan banned mixed marriages
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is between Hindus and Muslims in
the correct explanation of (A). Kashmir.
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is (iv) Shah Jahan exempted the theologians
not the correct explanation of (A). from offering Sijda.
(c) (A) is true, but (R) is false. Which of the above statements are not cor-
(d) (A) is false, but (R) is true. rect. Select the correct answer from the
. Given below are two statements, one codes given below:
labelled as Assertion (A) and other %QFGU
labelled as Reason (R). (a) (i) and (ii)
#UUGTVKQP
# The advent of the Euro- (b) (ii) and (iii)
pean trading companies in India adversely (c) (ii) and (iv)
affected India’s export trade during the (d) (i) and (iv)
seventeenth century. Which Mughal Court Chronicle given an
4GCUQP
4 Large quantities of silver account of the Ahom Kingdom of Assam?
found its way into India due to the trading (a) Padshahnama
activities of the English East India Com- (b) Alamgirnama
pany in the seventeenth century. (c) F utuhat-i-Alamgiri
In the context of the above two statements, (d) Maasir-i-Alamgiri
which one of the following is correct? Which historian has spoken of tripartite
Select the correct answer from the codes relationship between zamindars, jagirdars
given below: and peasants as the reason for the crisis of
%QFGU the Mughal Empire and its decline?
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is (a) Stephan P. Blake (b) M. Athar Ali
the correct explanation of (A). (c) Satish Chandra (d) C.A. Bayly
not the correct explanation of (A). Consider the following statements:
(c) (A) is true, but (R) is false. (i) Shivaji could check the Deccan
(d) (A) is false, but (R) is true. power from intruding into his swaraj
territory.
. Which of the following officers was not
(ii) He could plunder Surat in 1664.
associated with the administration of cit-
(iii) He could withstand the attacks of
ies in the Mughal empire?
Shaista Khan and Mirza Raja Jai
(a) Nazim
Singh.
(b) Qazi
(iv) Bijapur and Golkunda were annexed
(c) Mir-i-adl
by the Mughal s to undermine the
(d) Kotwal
position of Shivaji.
Consider the following statements: Which of the above statements are not
(i) Shah Jahan discontinued Jharokha correct. Select the correct answer from the
darshan and tula dana. codes given below:
%QFGU 4GCUQP
4 The Company began to send
(a) (i) and (iii) to England the revenue of Bengal through
(b) (i) and (iv) what were called ‘Investment’.
(c) (ii) and (iii) In the context of the above two statements,
(d) (iii) and (iv) which one of the following is correct?
Which of the following pairs is not cor- (a) Both (A) and (R)are true and (R)is the
rectly matched? correct explanation of (A).
(a) Ahdi Gentleman trooper (b) Both (A) and (R)are true, but (R)is not
(b) Ashraf A person of noble the correct explanation of (A).
birth (c) (A) is true, but (R)is false.
(c) Jama-i-kamil Assessment of rev- (d) (A) is false, but (R)is true.
enue at normal rate . The biggest British capital investment in
(d) Siwanah Nigar News reporter India was made in
(a) The Jute Mills
(b) The Railways, Banking, Insurance and
correct?
Shipping.
(a) Horses constituted a very large item of
(c) The Tea and Coffee Plantations.
India’s overland import.
(d) The Indigo Plantations.
(b) Virji Vohra was one of the prominent
merchants of Surat during the 17th . Who said: ‘The misery hardly finds a
century. parallel in the history of commerce. The
(c) The Portuguese dominated India’s bones of the cotton weavers are bleaching
maritime trade during the 17th century. the plains of India.’?
(d) Many Mughal nobles participated in (a) William Bentinck
trade and commerce during the 17th (b) G.M. Travelyan
century. (c) C. Metcalfe
(d) Lord. Auckland
correct? . Who said, ‘Imparting education to natives
(a) Monetary system of the Mughals was is our moral duty’?
largely based on silver rupaiya. (a) Warren Hastings
(b) The Mughal rulers from Babur to (b) Wellesly
Shahjahan continued to harbour ter- (c) William Bentinck
ritorial ambitions in Central Asia. (d) Lord Moira
(c) There was no middle class in Mughal . After 1833 the single biggest source of
India. drain of Indian wealth to Britain was
(d) The period 1605–1658 witnessed sig- (a) Export of opium
nificant changes in the Mansab and (b) Export of indigo
Jagir systems. (c) British capital investment in India
. Given below are two statements, one (d) Export of cotton
labeled as Assertion (A) and the other Which of the following is not one of the
labeled as Reason (R): causes responsible for the rise of money-
#UUGTVKQP
# With the acquisition of lenders in British India?
Diwani of Bengal the Company directly (a) New Revenue Policy
organized the ‘drain of wealth’. (b) New Legal System
(c) New Educational System (c) Keshab Chandra Sen and Behramji
(d) Commercialization of Agriculture Malabari.
What was the common feature between (d) Keshab Chandra Sen and Mahadev
the Wahabi and Kuka movements? Govind Ranade.
(a) Both began as religious movement, but Shri Narayan Dharma Paripalana Yogam
drifted to became political movement. of Kerala worked for
(b) Both were political and economical (a) Upliftment of dalits and peasants.
movement. (b) Women’s education.
(c) Both followed the path of Ahinsa. (c) Eradication of child labour.
(d) Both not suffered from certain weak- (d) The Hindu widow remarriage.
nesses, such as communal passions, The name ‘Indian National Congress’ was
fanaticism and division with ranks. given by
(a) Dadabhai Naoroji
Who of the following was the biographer (b) M.G. Ranade
of Raja Rammohan Roy? (c) S.N. Bannerjee
(a) Armstrong (d) A.O. Hume
(b) Mary Carpenter
(c) David Havel
correct answer with the help of the codes
(d) Lawrence
given below:
The LexLoci Act gave
(a) no right over the ancestral properties .KUV+ .KUV++
for the Christian converts.
0COG
0GYURCRGT
(b) the Christian converts, the right to (a) Abul Kalam Azad (i) Bombay
inherit their ancestral properties. Chronicle
(c) no right over the ancestral properties
(b) Pheroze shah (ii) Al Hilal
for the converts from Budhist religion.
Mehta
(d) the right to inherit the ancestral prop-
erties for the converts from Jain (c) Mrs. Annie Besant (iii) Young
religion. India
Due to whose efforts Widow Remarriage (d) Mahatma Gandhi (iv) New India
Act was passed?
%QFGU
(a) Raja Rammohan Roy
(a) (b) (c) (d)
(b) Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar
(a) (ii) (i) (iv) (iii)
(c) D.K. Karve
(b) (i) (ii) (iv) (iii)
(d) M.G. Ranade
(c) (ii) (i) (iii) (iv)
In which year the Indian association for the (d) (iv) (i) (ii) (ii)
cultivation of science was established?
(a) 1874 (b) 1875
labeled as Assertion (A) and the other
(c) 1876 (d) 1877
labeled as Reason (R).
The Act Prohibiting Child Marriages was
passed in 1891 due to the efforts of #UUGTVKQP
# Avesta is the sacred book
(a) Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar and of Parsis.
Jyotiba Phule. 4GCUQP
4 Madam Cama made signifi-
(b) Mahadev Govind Ranade and Jyotiba cant contribution in reforming the Parsi
Phule. society and uplifting the Parsi women.
In the context of the above two statements, #UUGTVKQP

# After the Civil War in
which one of the following is correct? U.S.A. blacks faced difficulty regarding
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R). is voting right.
the correct explanation of (A). 4GCUQP (R) Some Southern States of
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is U.S.A. made it mandatory to have either
not a correct explanation of (A). the name of grandfather or father in the
(c) (A) is true, but (R) is false. electoral list of 1860.
(d) (A) is false, but (R) is true. (a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R). is
The first woman who got nominated to the (b) Both (A) and (R) are true, but(R)is not
Madras Legislative Council in 1927 was the correct explanation of (A).
(a) Muthulakshmi Reddy (c) (A) is true and (R) is false.
(b) Sister Subbalakshmi (d) (A) is false and (R) is true.
(c) Mehribai Tata
(d) Margaret Counsins . Who among the following said: ‘To define
the postmodernism is not just to define a
The Indian National Congress became a term. It is to characterize the present age
real mass based political party after the and to asses how we should respond to it.’?
(a) Nagpur Session of the Congress in (a) J.F. Lyotard
1891. (b) Arran Gare
(b) Nagpur Session of the Congress in (c) J.G. Merquior
1920. (d) None of the above
(c) Kanpur Session of the Congress in
1928. Consider the following statements and
(d) Faizpur Session of the Congress in point out the one which is incorrect in the
1936. context of research methodology:
(a) Subjective approach in Historical
Given below are two statements, one writing makes it possible to present a
labeled as Assertion (A) and the other true picture of the past.
labeled as Reason (R). (b) External and internal criticism helps
#UUGTVKQP
# Soon after the resignation the historian to establish the authen-
of the Congress Ministries in the provinces ticity of the records.
in 1939, the Muslim League observed a (c) To critically analyse the past happen-
deliverance day. ings the historian needs to know the
4GCUQP
4 Ambedkar supported it. In order of their occurance.
the context of the above two statements, (d) Historical records of the past may
which one of the following is correct? not be wholly authentic or genuine to
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is ascertain facts.
the correct explanation of (A). Consider the following statement:
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is ‘Before the scientific revolution of 17th
not the correct explanation of (A). century, history writing in the west suf-
(c) (A) is true, but (R) is false. fered from certain weaknesses.’
Which one of the following justifies the
Given below are two statements, one above?
labeled as Assertion (A) and the other (a) Most of the writers were ignorant
labeled as Reason (R) about the idea of change through time.
(b) The subject matter of history was the Company’s territories expanded to the west
treated more or less as a branch of lit- beyond the Bengal frontiers into the mountain-
erature or philosophy. ous Jungle Terai, in the 1770s and then into the
(c) Both (A) and (B) Ceded and Conquered Districts in 1802 there
(d) None of the above was another attempt to recruit from among the
The recruitment of the company’s army in hill tribes. While in the plains the Company
the eighteenth century was not just building on ran permanent recruitment centres, in the hills
the existing traditions of the North Indian mili- recruitment was made through local notables
tary labour market; those traditions were being and payment was offered through the Mughal
adopted to British imperial preferences. The system of ghatwali service tenures. The defeat
recruitment system for example, endorsed the of the Indian States, particularly of Mysore in
traditional British preference for peasants as the late eighteenth and of the Marathas in the
best potential recruits and followed the colonial early nineteenth centuries created another vast
stereotypes that wheat-eating Indians rather reservoir of surplus armed manpower to recruit
than the rice-eating groups were physically from; but the Company’s army could not absorb
more suitable for the job, although such ethnic all the disbanded soldiers of the Indian princes.
stereotyping became a much more important Then from 1815 there was another experiment
factor in army recruitment in the late nine- to recruit Gurkha soldiers from among the
teenth century rather than in the eighteenth. Nepalis, Garwahlis, and Sirmouri hill men. A
During the initial formative phase, Hastings skilful blending of the Nepali martial tradition
did not want to disturb the existing caste rules and European training and discipline made the
in the affairs of the army. So the Company’s Gurkhas the most trusted soldiers in the British
army consisted mainly of upper caste Brahman army.
and Rajput landed peasants from Awadh and . The recruitment of the Company’s army
the Rajput and Bhumihar Brahman peasants was based on
from north and south Bihar-both wheat- eating (a) The existing traditions of military
regions. These people joined the Company’s labour market.
army because the pay, allowances, pension and (b) Preferred peasants as best potential
resettlement provisions offered by the Com- recruits.
pany were much better than those offered by the (c) Colonial stereotypes.
regional States, and what was most important, (d) Physically suitable.
salaries were paid regularly. The deliberate pol-
icy of respecting caste, dietary, travel and oth- . The Company’s army consisted of
ers religious practices of the Sepoys fostered a (a) Upper Caste Brahman and Rajput.
high caste identity of the Company’s army. By (b) Landed Peasants from Bihar and
joining it many of the upcoming socially ambi- Bengal.
tious castes like the Bhumihar- Brahmans could (c) People from rice eating regions.
fulfill their aspirations for social mobility. (d) People only from South.
Cornwallis, despite his preference for Anglici- What kind of payment system British fol-
sation, did not disturb this specific organiza- lowed in army recruitment?
tion of the army, and as a result, the Company (a) Malgujari
came to possess a high caste army, which was (b) Ghatwali
prone to revolt when their social privileges and (c) Mahalwari
pecuniary benefits were cut from the 1820s. As (d) Yadgari
. Company could not absorb disbanded sol- Gurkhas became most trusted soldiers
diers after early nineteenth century because because
(a) It had surplus army. (a) They were experts in martial art.
(b) Company was weak economically. (b) They were hill men.
(c) Company did not want more Indian (c) They were disciplined.
force. (d) They were experts in Guerilla war.
(d) Of religious considerations.
Answer Keys
1. (a) 2. (c) 3. (c) 4. (a) 41. (a) 42. (b) 43. (c) 44. (d)
5. (c) 6. (d) 7. (c) 8. (b) 45. (c) 46. (c) 47. (c) 48. (a)
9. (d) 10. (d) 11. (b) 12. (c) 49. (b) 50. (a) 51. (d) 52. (c)
13. (a) 14. (a) 15. (b) 16. (c) 53. (c) 54. (a) 55. (b) 56. (b)
17. (b) 18. (d) 19. (a) 20. (c) 57. (b) 58. (c) 59. (c) 60. (a)
21. (d) 22. (b) 23. (b) 24. (a) 61. (a) 62. (a) 63. (b) 64. (a)
25. (b) 26. (b) 27. (c) 28. (d) 65. (b) 66. (b) 67. (a) 68. (b)
29. (c) 30. (b) 31. (b) 32. (b) 69. (a) 70. (c) 71. (ab) 72. (a)
33. (a) 34. (d) 35. (c) 36. (c) 73. (b) 74. (a) 75. (a)
37. (a) 38. (c) 39. (d) 40. (a)
September 2013
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NBSLTFBDI"MM
RVFTUJPOTBSFDPNQVMTPSZ
Which one of the following sites in cen- (c) He advocated complete tolerance.
tral India has yielded the largest number (d) He made scathing attacks against the
of copper hoard implements? useless rituals.
(a) Kayatha
(b) Pondi
(c) Gungeria
(d) Maheshwar .KUV+ .KUV++
Match the List-I with List-II and select (KPFURQVUQH (-KPIU)
the correct answer from the codes given +PUETKRVKQPU
below: (a) Rabtak (i) Dharma mahadevi
.KUV+ .KUV++
(b) Shar-i-Kuna (ii) Vindhyashakti

#TEJCGQNQIKECNUKVGU
4KXGT8CNNG[
(a) Chandraketugarh (i) Amaravati (c) Angul (iii) Kanishka
(b) Korkai (ii) Ganga (d) Basim (iv) Ashoka
(c) Karur (iii) Palar %QFGU
(d) Vasavasamudram (iv) Vaigai (a) (b) (c) (d)
(a) (ii) (iii) (iv) (i)
%QFGU
(b) (iii) (iv) (i) (ii)
(a) (b) (c) (d)
(c) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
(A) (i) (iii) (iv) (ii)
(d) (iv) (i) (ii) (iii)
(B) (iii) (i) (ii) (iv)
(C) (ii) (iv) (i) (iii) Which of the following is not correct about
(D) (iv) (ii) (iii) (i) the vedic age?
Which of the following, is not true of (a) Some portions of the Rigveda seem to
Ashoka? have been added later.
(a) He granted land to the ministers and (b) There is evidence of the existence of
the upper-most strata of bureaucracy brahmavadinis.
in lieu of salary. (c) The varna divisions started during its
(b) His Dhamma was an ethic meant for later phase.
good social conduct and cohesion. (d) The society was wholly matriarchal.
Which one of the following sites is not (c) Asura (iii) the father gives
associated with Painted Grey Ware? the daughter after
(a) Gilaulikhera receiving a cow and
(b) Noh a bull or two pairs
(c) Tripuri from bridegroom.
(d) Satwali
(d) Rakshasa (iv) the forcible abduc-
Sanauli in Baghpat district of UP is known
tion of the maiden
for which one of its following Archaeo-
from her house.
logical remains?
(a) Megaliths monuments %QFGU
(b) Neoliths instruments (a) (b) (c) (d)
(c) Harappan cemetery (a) (i) (iii) (ii) (iv)
(d) OCP culture remains (b) (ii) (iv) (i) (iii)
(c) (iii) (i) (ii) (iv)
Which of the following was one of the
(d) (iv) (ii) (iii) (i)
causes of differences between the Buddha
and Devadatta? Given below are two statements, one
(a) Buddha’s faith in non-violence labelled as Assertion (A) and the other
(b) Buddha’s desire to abandon the life of labelled as Reason (R).
a renunciate after ten years. #UUGTVKQP
# Ashoka’s consecration was
(c) Devadatta’s suggestions for making postponed for four years even after his
the followers the forest-dwellers. actual accession.
(d) Buddha’s desire not to allow the
women to enter the samgha. 4GCUQP
4 The royal astrologer warned
him that the coming four years are not aus-
Point out which one of the following sites picious for this occasion.
has yielded the remains of a Jaina stupa?
(a) Sanchi In the context of the above two statements,
(b) Dhamnar which one of the following is correct?
(c) Nalanda %QFGU
(d) Mathura (a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is
the correct explanation of (a).
Match the List-I with List-II and select
below:
.KUV+ .KUV++ (d) (A) is false, but (R) is true.

(QTOQH
/GCPKPI Which of the below mentioned inscrip-
OCTTKCIG tions of Mauryan times provides details
related to famine relief?
(a) Arsha (i) stealing a girl who (a) Mahasthan inscription
is sleeping, intoxi- (b) Erragudi inscription
cated or disordered (c) Nittur inscription
in intellect. (d) Jarrgada inscription
(b) Paishacha (ii) the purchase of Of the following, which does not form a
bride part of Bhagvad Gita?
(a) An emphasis on bhakti Which is not true of the contents of the
(b) The condemnation of Ajivikas Aihole Inscription of Pulakeshin-II?
(c) The imperishable Atman (a) Ravikirti, its composer calls himself
(d) Great emphasis on karma without equal of Bhasa and Kalidasa.
having any regard for the fruit (b) Pulakeshin II is projected a great
Which of the elliptical temples built at the conqueror.
following sites during 3rd–1st century B.C. (c) Pulakeshin II is called Satyashraya.
was dedicated to Naga cult? (d) It is dated in saka era 561 (= 639 Ō 40 AD)
(a) Vidisha Given below are two statements, one
(b) Dangwada labelled as Assertion (A) and the other
(c) Sonkh labelled as Reason (R).
(d) Atranjikhera #UUGTVKQP
# The defeat of Bhoja-I of
Arrange the following early Acharyas the Paramara dynasty of Malwa by Karna
of Shrivaishnava sect of South India in of the Kalachuri dynasty of Tripuri was
chronological order and select the correct followed by the latter to abdicate his
answer from the codes given below: throne.
List: 4GCUQP
4 Bhoja-I and Karna were eter-
(i) Yamunacharya nal enemies of each other.
(ii) Pundarikaksha
(iii) Nathmuni
(iv) Ramamishra
%QFGU
%QFGU
(a) (i) (iii) (ii) (iv)
(b) (iv) (i) (iii) (ii)
(c) (iii) (ii) (iv) (i)
(d) (ii) (iv) (i) (iii)
Match the List-I with List-II and select (d) (A) is false, but (R) is true.
Who has applied the theory of Feudalism
below:
for the Chola State?
.KUV+ .KUV++ (a) R.C. Majumdar

#WVJQT
9QTM (b) Burton Stein
(a) Mammata (i) Kumarapalacharita (c) R.N. Nandi
(d) A. Southal
(b) Sandhyakara (ii) Ramacharita
Nandi Arrange the following law-givers in
chronological order and select the correct
(c) Hemachandra (iii) Kavyaprakasha
(d) Bhatti (iv) Ravanavadha (i) Katyayana
%QFGU (ii) Medhatithi
(a) (b) (c) (d) (iii) Vishnu
(a) (i) (ii) (iv) (iii) (iv) Devanabhatta
(b) (ii) (iv) (iii) (i) %QFGU
(c) (iii) (ii) (i) (iv) (a) (b) (c) (d)
(d) (iv) (iii) (ii) (i) (a) (i) (iii) (ii) (iv)
(b) (ii) (iv) (i) (iii) (c) (A) is true, but (R) is false.
(c) (iii) (i) (ii) (iv) (d) (A) is false, but (R) is true.
(d) (iv) (ii) (iii) (i) Which of the sultans prohibited Muslim
Given below are two statements, one women from worshipping at the graves of
labelled as Assertion (A) and the other is the saints?
labelled as Reason (R). (a) Balban
#UUGTVKQP
# Subinfeudation gave rise (b) Alauddin Khilji
to a hierarchy of land lords, different from (c) Muhammad Tughlaq
the actual tillers of the soil. (d) Firozshah Tughlaq
Which one of the following dynasties did
4GCUQP
4 From 8th century onwards,
not belong to Kashmir?
hierarchical control over land was created
(a) Hindu Shahi (b) Karkota
by large scale sub infeudation.
(c) Utapala (d) Lohar
correct answer from the codes given below: Goa and Konkan regions were annexed to
the Vijayanagar empire during the reign of:
%QFGU (a) Harihara II
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is (b) Devaraya II
the correct explanation of (a). (c) Krishna Devaraya
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is (d) Narsa Nayak
(c) (A) is true, but (R) is false. Concerning sufi philosophy which one of
(d) (A) is false, but (R) is true. the following statements is incorrect?
(a) To the sufis the outstanding attribute
Sijdah theoretically means: of God is his effulgence.
(a) Prostration before King (b) The sufis practised several yogic exer-
(b) Prostration before God cises as means to suppress lust.
(c) Prostration before Diwan (c) As an aid to concentration the sufis
(d) Prostration before Imam favoured meditation than to music.
Given below are two statements, one (d) The sufis believed that it is only under
labelled as Assertion (A) and the other the guidance of the Pir that spiritual
labelled as Reason (R). progress is possible.
#UUGTVKQP
# Alauddin Khilji revoked Consider the following statements and
most of the small iqtas granted by the pre- choose correct answer from the codes
vious sultans. given below:
(i) Shaikh Hamiduddin Nagauri was a
4GCUQP
4 State’s share was increased to
chishti saint.
one half of the produce.
(ii) The early chishtis disapproved the
In the context of the above two statements, miracles.
which one of the following is correct? (iii) The chistis order originated in India.
%QFGU (iv) Shaikh Bahaud-din Zakaria had his
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is Khanqah in Patna.
the correct explanation of %QFGU
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is (a) i and iv
not the correct explanation of (A). (b) ii and iii
(c) i and ii #UUGTVKQP

# Rajputs enrolled in large
(d) iii and iv numbers in Akbar’s Tauhid-i-Ilahi.
The term cartaz in the medieval period 4GCUQP
4 Akbar’s alliance with the
stood for: Rajputs began as a political condition,
(a) Ilbari permit for inland trade but later it developed into closer relations
(b) Portuguese permit for sea trade between Hindus and Muslims.
(c) Dutch permit for sea trade %QFGU
(d) Mughal permit for inland trade (a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is
Arrange the following expeditions of the correct explanation of (A)
Shershah in chronological order: (b) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is
(i) Raisin not the correct explanation of (A).
(ii) Kalinjar (c) (A) is true, but (R) is false.
(iii) Malwa (d) (A) is false, but (R) is true.
(iv) Marwar Which one of the following is not cor-
%QFGU rectly matched?
(a) (iii) (i) (iv) (ii) (a) Nizam-ud-din Ahmad-Tabaqat-I
(b) (ii) (iii) (i) (iv) Akbari
(c) (iv) (i) (iii) (ii) (b) Abdul Qadir Badaoni-Muntakhab-ud
(d) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) Tawarikh
Given below are two statements, one is (c) Khafi Khan-Muntakhab-ul Luba
labelled as Assertion (A) and the other is (d) Abdur Rahim-Badshah Namah
labelled as Reason (R). Which of the Mughal emperors disap-
#UUGTVKQP
# Concerning progress of proved the practice of polygamy by saying
education Akbar was not satisfied with that ‘polygamy brings ruin to (the man’s)
mere multiplication of maktabs and health and woes to his home’?
madrasas. (a) Babur
4GCUQP
4 Akbar revised the syllabus of (b) Akbar
educational institutions thoroughly. (c) Shah Jahan
(d) Aurangzeb
the correct answer from the codes given Pietra dura, a decorative style, was adopted
below: in the Mughal architecture from the reign of
(a) Humayun
%QFGU
(b) Jahangir
(c) Shah Jahan
(d) Aurangzeb
not the correct explanation of (A). Which one of the following is not cor-
(c) (A) is true, but (R) is false. rectly matched?
(d) (A) is false, but (R) is true. #WVJQT $QQM
Given below are two statements, one (A) Ebba Mughal Architecture
labelled as Assertion (A) and the other Koch
labelled as Reason (R).
Select the correct answer from the codes (B) John F The Mughal Empire
given below: Richards
(C) Andre The History of Mughal (c) Tomb of Akbar (iii) Delhi
Wink Wink Architecture (d) Tomb of Fatehpuri (iv) Aurangabad
(D) R. Nath The immortal Taj Begum
Mahal: The evolution %QFGU
of the Tomb in Mughal (a) (b) (c) (d)
Architecture (a) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
Consider the following statements and (b) (ii) (iii) (iv) (i)
select the correct answer from the codes (c) (iv) (iii) (ii) (i)
given below: (d) (iii) (iv) (i) (ii)
(i) The provinces of the Gangetic plain, Arrange the following monuments in
during the 17th century showed sub- chronological order of construction and
stantial rise in the lands classified as select the correct answer from the codes
zabt. given below:
(ii) The zabt expansion increased the
(i) Jama Masjid, Delhi
ability of the administration to deal
(ii) Tomb of Humayun, Delhi
directly with village elite.
(iii) Badshahi Masjid, Lahore
(iii) Steady growth in the measured area
(iv) Taj Mahal, Agra
helped the Mughal State to keep pace
with rising agricultural production %QFGU
over the country. (a) (b) (c) (d)
(iv) The cultivators turned to more valu- (a) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
able cash crops such as sugarcane or (b) (ii) (iv) (i) (iii)
cotton. (c) (iii) (i) (ii) (iv)
%QFGU (d) (iv) (iii) (ii) (i)
(a) i and ii . Regarding the nature of the late medieval
(b) ii and iii rural society of India which one of the fol-
(c) ii, iii and iv lowing is correct?
(d) i, ii, iii and iv (a) The rural society of the medieval
Abdur Rahim Khan-i-khanan made impor- period was highly stratified in nature
tant architectural contributions at (b) Natural calamities, wars and local
(a) Burhanpur oppression often contributed to the
(b) Kabul shifting of rural people from one vil-
(c) Lahore lage to the other.
(d) Agra (c) The social structure of the village,
Match the List-I with List-II and select the old or new, reflected almost the same
correct answer from the codes given below: nature.
.KUV+ .KUV+

/QPWOGPV
2NCEG Given below are two statements, one
(a) Tomb of Rabia (i) Agra
Daurani
#UUGTVKQP
# The focal points in
(b) Tomb of Safdar (ii) Sikandra the Maratha political system was the
Jung institution of hereditary Peshwas.
4GCUQP
4 Baji Rao changed the char- Who among the following said ‘patrio-
acter of Maratha movement from struggle tism is religion and religion is love for
for national survival to empire building. India’?
In the context of the above two statements, (a) Dayananda Saraswati
which one of the following codes is correct? (b) Rabindranath Tagore
%QFGU (c) Swami Vivekananda
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is (d) Bankim Chandra Chatterjee
(c) (A) is true, but (R) is false. .KUV+ .KUV++
(d) (A) is false, but (R) is true. (a) Indian States (i) 1932
Which one of the following was the leader Commission
of Wahabi Movement?
(b) Communal Award (ii) 1929
(a) Syed Ahmad of Rai Bareilly
(b) Sir Syed Ahmad Khan (c) Gandhi-Irwin Pact (iii) 1928
(c) Muhammad Abdul Wahab (d) Lahore Session of the (iv) 1931
(d) Waliulla Congress
The Blue Water Policy was associated with: %QFGU
(a) Vasco Da Gama (a) (b) (c) (d)
(b) De Almeida (a) (iii) (i) (iv) (ii)
(c) Albuquerque (b) (ii) (iii) (iv) (i)
(d) Alfonso de Souza (c) (iii) (ii) (i) (iv)
Match the List-I with List-II and select the (d) (iv) (i) (iii) (ii)
correct answer from the codes given below: Given below are two statements, one is
.KUV+ .KUV++ labelled as Assertion (A) and the other is
(a) Introduction of the sys- (i) 1853
#UUGTVKQP
# Francis Buchanan’s tours
tem of direct recruitment
of Mysore and Eastern India and Colin
to the I.C.S. through a
Mackenze’s tours of Southern India, can
competitive examination
be said to have inaugurated the era of ‘sci-
(b) Introduction of the port- (ii) 1861 entific’ understanding of India based on
folio system detailed local knowledge.
(c) Establishment of Federal (iii) 1919 4GCUQP
4 Both Buchanan and Macken-
Court zie paid attention to India’s distinctiveness,
(d) Introduction of Dyarchy (iv) 1937 the caste system but both men are haphaz-
in the Provinces ard and unsystematic.
%QFGU Read the above statements and select the
(a) (b) (c) (d) correct answers from the codes given
(a) (i) (ii) (iv) (iii) below:
(b) (ii) (i) (iii) (iv) %QFGU
(c) (iii) (ii) (i) (iv) (a) (A) is correct, but (R) is false.
(d) (iv) (iii) (ii) (i) (b) (A) is incorrect, but (R) is correct.
(c) Both are correct and (R) is the correct (c) Satyendranath Bose
explanation of (A). (d) Lal Mohan Ghosh
(d) Both are correct and (R) is not the cor- Match the List-I with List-II and select
rect explanation of (A). the correct answer from the codes given
In 1834, one of the following remarked on below:
the famine that ‘the bones of the cotton
.KUV+ .KUV++
weavers are bleaching the plains of India’:
(a) Dadabhai Naoroji (a) Kandukuri (i) History of
(b) R.C. Dutt Veeresalingam Indian National
(c) William Bentinck Congress
(d) Palme Dutt (b) Madapati Hanu- (ii) Andhra Patrika
Bullionism and favourable balance of mantha Rao
trade were the salient features of: (c) Kasinathuni (iii) Vivekavardhani
(a) Laissez Faire Nageswar Rao
(b) Commercialism (d) Pattabhi (iv) Telanganaloo
(c) Mercantilism Seetaramaiah Andhrodyamam
(d) Capitalism
%QFGU
Match the List-I with List-II and select (a) (b) (c) (d)
the correct answer from the codes given (a) (iii) (iv) (ii) (i)
below: (b) (ii) (iii) (i) (iv)
.KUV+ .KUV++ (c) (iv) (i) (iii) (iii)
(d) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
(a) Kuka Revolt in the (i) 1861
Punjab Given below are two statements, one is
labelled as Assertion (A) and the other is
(b) Deposition of the (ii) 1869
Gaikwad of Baroda
#UUGTVKQP
# Colonial government con-
(c) Opening of Suez Canal (iii) 1872 sidered Gandhi as a spent force politically
(d) Indian High Courts Act (iv) 1875 after 1924.
%QFGU 4GCUQP
4 After 1924 Gandhi remained
(a) (b) (c) (d) aloof from direct politics and concentrated
(a) (ii) (iii) (i) (iv) on constructive programme and congress
(b) (iii) (iv) (ii) (i) itself got divided between ‘no changers’
(c) (iii) (ii) (i) (iv) and ‘pro-changers’.
(d) (iv) (i) (iii) (ii) Read the above statements and select the
The Muslim peasants of Malabar were correct answers from the codes given below:
known as: %QFGU
(a) Kukis (b) Jaintia (a) (A) is correct, but (R) is false.
(c) Moplahs (d) Wahabis (b) (a) is incorrect, but (R) is correct.
One of the following was not a revolution- (c) Both are correct and (R) is the correct
ary leader during the freedom movement: explanation of (A).
(a) Lala Haradayal (d) Both are correct and (R) is not the
(b) Birendrakumar Ghosh correct explanation of (A).
The words ‘Satyameva Jayate’ in the State which leader amongst the following held
emblem has been taken from the post of its President for the longest
(a) Mundaka Upanishad period?
(b) Svetasvatara Upanishad (a) Maulana Abul Kalam Azad
(c) Isa Upanishad (b) Jawaharlal Nehru
(d) Chandogya Upanishad (c) Gopal Krishna Gokhale
The Fergusson College at Pune was (d) W.C. Bannerjee
founded in 1885 by: India took a very strong anti-west stand
(a) The Social Service League during which one of the following?
(b) The Servants of India Society (a) Non-Alignment Movement
(c) The Deccan Education Society (b) Suez Canal Crisis
(d) Poona Sarvajanic Sabha (c) Annexation of French territories in
Match the List-I (Regions) with List- India
II (Annexations) and select the correct (d) Belgrade Summit
answer from the codes given below: Which leader among the following said
Kashmir acceded to the Indian Union
.KUV+ .KUV++ because of economic need?
(a) Punjab (i) 1848 (a) Hari Singh
(b) Satara (ii) 1801 (b) Shaikh Abdullah
(c) Mehar Chand Mahajan
(c) Ceded districts (iii) 1856
(d) Jawaharlal Nehru
(d) Awadh (iv) 1849 The first amendment to Indian Constitu-
%QFGU tion (1951) was enacted to confer power
(a) (b) (c) (d) on the States
(a) (iv) (i) (ii) (iii) (a) to place responsible restrictions on
(b) (i) (iii) (iv) (ii) freedom of expression
(c) (ii) (iv) (iii) (i) (b) to adopt Hindu Succession Bill
(d) (iii) (ii) (i) (iv) (c) to abolish zamindari system
Whom Gandhiji selected as the first satya- (d) None of the above
grahi to launch the individual satyagraha Which one of the following book is not
in October 1940? authored by R.S. Sharma?
(a) Vallabhbhai Patel (a) Sudras in Ancient India
(b) Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan (b) Urban decay in India
(c) Sarojini Naidu (c) From Lineage to State
(d) Dr. Rajendra Prasad (d) Material Culture and Social Formation
The command of Indian National Army in Ancient India
was given to Subhash Chandra Bose in: Which one of the following statements is
(a) 1941 incorrect concerning historical objectivity?
(b) 1942 (a) Historical objectivity is not linked up
(c) 1943 with value judgement.
(d) 1944 (b) It means dispassionate and scientific
From the genesis of Indian National Con- treatment of all the events narrated by
gress to India’s independence (1885–1947) the historian.
(c) Historical objectivity is conditional to (a) Preservation of world-peace

the nature and selection of events and (b) Extension of human freedom
the personality of the historian who (c) Opposition to colonialism and
functions under limitation. racialism
(d) Ideological differences often prevent (d) All of the above
the historian from attaining historical
Read the following passage and answer the
objectivity.
following five questions:
0QUVQ
Concerning post modernist theory which The drive to acquire political control of
one of the following is incorrect? tropical regions was almost universal among
(a) The post modernist contentions are as major European nations in the nineteenth cen-
arbitrary in their ascription of mean- tury. Where did the empires sprang from-a
ing as the text of the historians who greed for territory, a lust for power, accidental
use them. circumstances, or an economic motive?
(b) When language is said to be an inf - J.A. Hobson suggested that empires rose
nite play of meanings, anything writ- to protect European investments abroad at a
ten becomes a mere arrangement of time when the need to export capital was acute
words a discourse. because of falling rates of return on capital
(c) The post modern linguistic turn cuts at home. Competition for colonies, Hobson
the very ground on which historical believed, was behind the conflicts that dragged
studies stand. these powers into waging war against each
(d) Hostility to history is not a marked other.
character of post modernist thought. The imperialists believed that they were
Which one of the following statements is protecting home investment when expand-
correct concerning the Mughal theory of ing territories remains weak. The more com-
kingship? mon motives cited were markets for goods and
(a) The Mughal theory of kingship was opening for emigration, not export of capital.
an admixture of Turkish, Mangol and Investments were seen as a means rather than
Islamic ideals. the end. Different strands emphasised by indus-
(b) There was a conceptual change in the trial bourgeoisie or bankers and financiers. But
theory of kingship advocated by the the common point was that the profit seeking
Delhi sultans and the Mughals. led the capitalists to expand political control.
(c) The Mughal theory of kingship J. Gallagher and R. Robinson proposed
evolved gradually and obtained final that in the mid-nineteenth century, Britain
shape during the reign of Akbar. had already established an ‘informal empire’
(d) All of the above. secured by commercial, cultural and diplo-
matic links. The informal empire could take
Who among the following is not associ-
care of the economic interests well enough.
ated with the Utopian Socialists?
The change from informal to formal empire
(a) Saint Simon
was driven not by economic motives but by
(b) Charles Fourier
global and local political rivalries.
(c) Friedrich Engels
Large economic gains were made by own-
(d) Robert Owen
ing colonies that would strengthen the role of
Which one of the following objectives a profit motive and in turn capitalist interest
relate to Indian foreign policy initiatives? behind imperialism.
The European drive for control of tropical (c) opening for emigration
countries sprand from: (d) proselytization in tropical countries
(a) greed for territory
(b) lust for power Industrial bourgeoisie took stand to expand
(c) economic motives political control for:
(d) to over power other European nations (a) profit seekin
(b) to annihilate quarrelling tropical polit-
J.A. Hobson’s suggestions for the estab-
ical powers
lishment of empires:
(c) to make adventurous trips
(a) to protect European investments
(d) to establish schools, hospitals and
(b) acute need for export capital
philanthropic activities
(c) to de-industrialise
(d) falling rates of returns on capital at Change from informal to formal empires
home was driven by the idea of:
One of the following was not the motive of (a) economic motives
imperialists to control tropical countries: (b) global and political rivalries
(a) to protect home investments (c) diplomatic links
(b) markets for goods (d) cultural and religious links
Answer Keys
1. (c) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (b) 41. (d) 42. (b) 43. (a) 44. (b)
5. (d) 6. (c) 7. (c) 8. (c) 45. (a) 46. (d) 47. (a) 48. (d)
9. (d) 10. (c) 11. (c) 12. (a) 49. (c) 50. (c) 51. (b) 52. (c)
13. (b) 14. (c) 15. (c) 16. (c) 53. (d) 54. (a) 55. (c) 56. (a)
17. (d) 18. (b) 19. (c) 20. (c) 57. (c) 58. (a) 59. (d) 60. (c)
21. (a) 22. (b) 23. (b) 24. (d) 61. (a) 62. (b) 63. (b) 64. (a)
25. (a) 26. (a) 27. (c) 28. (c) 65. (c) 66. (a) 67. (d) 68. (d)
29. (b) 30. (a) 31. (a) 32. (d) 69. (c) 70. (d) 71. (d) 72. (c)
33. (d) 34. (b) 35. (b) 36. (c) 73. (d) 74. (a) 75. (b)
37. (d) 38. (a) 39. (c) 40. (b)
December 2013
0QVG5IJTQBQFSDPOUBJOTTFWFOUZGJWF
NBSLTFBDIRVFTUJPOT
BSFDPNQVMTPSZ
The method of Radiocarbon Dating was (a) KotDiji (b) Amri

used in India for the first time at (c) Mehrgarh (d) Kalibangan
(a) Deccan College, Pune Match List-I with List-II and select the
(b) Physical Research Laboratory, correct answer with the help of the codes
Ahmedabad given below:
(c) School of Archaeology, New Delhi
(d) Tata Institute of Fundamental .KUV+ .KUV++
Research, Mumbai
-KPIFQO
-KPI
Where were the first Palaeolithic tools A. Kura 1. Nichakshu
found in India? B. Kekaya 2. Parikshita
(a) Hallur C. Kasi 3. Asvapati
(b) Kumool D. Vatsabhumi 4. Ajatasatru
(c) Pallavaram %QFGU
(d) Tekkalkota A B C D
Arrange the following archaeologists in (a) 2 3 4 1
the chronological order and select the (b) 1 4 2 3
correct answer with the help of the codes (c) 3 2 1 4
given below: (d) 4 1 3 2
(i) James Fergusson After Hastinapur was swept away by floods
(ii) James Princep the Pandavas shifted their capital to
(iii) Alexander Cunningham (a) Kausambi
(iv) Edward Thomas (b) Kurukshetra
%QFGU (c) Ahichchhatra
(a) (ii) (i) (iv) (iii) (d) Indraprastha
(b) (iv) (ii) (i) (iii) Pataligrama, which later became the
(c) (iii) (iv) (ii) (i) famous city of Pataliputra, had been forti-
(d) (i) (iii) (ii) (iv) fied initially by
The Harappa culture people inherited (a) Bimbisara
the knowledge of wheat, barley and cot- (b) Kalasoka
ton cultivation from their ancestors of the (c) Ajatasatru
following: (d) Udayabhadra
‘Dharmaraja’ too was a title of Who among the following rulers had
(a) Ajatasatru (b) Asoka performed the maximum number of
(c) Kanishka (d) Harshavardhan Asvamedha sacrifices?
During Alexander’s invasion of India (a) Samudragupta
which of the following was ruled by two (b) Kumaragupta I
hereditary kings with the help of a council (c) Pushyamitra Sunga
of elders? (d) Pravarasena 1
(a) Ashtakaraja (b) Abhisara A drama named ‘Kauntaleshwar Dautya’
(c) Kshudraka (d) Pattala has been attributed to Kalidasa by
‘Pautavadhyaksha’ was incharge of which (a) Kuntalesha
department under the Mauryan adminis- (b) Bharavi
trative system? (c) Rajasekhara
(a) Weights and measures (d) Kshemendra
(b) Forest resources Given below are two statements, one
(c) Navy labelled as Assertion (A) and the other
(d) Shipping labelled as Reason (R):
Match List-I with List-II and select the #UUGTVKQP
# Harshavardhana, accord-
correct answer with the help of the codes ing to the Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsang,
given below: not only followed Buddhism, but also had
a marked antipathy to the Brahmanical
.KUV+ .KUV++
religion.

#PEKGPV2NCEGU
/QFGTP.QECVKQP
4GCUQP
4Some seals which refer to his
A. Pushkalavati 1. Begram
elder brother as a Buddhist describe Har-
(Afghanistan)
sha as a devoted Saiva.
B. Kapisa 2. Halebid In the context of the above two statements,
C. Gangavadi 3. Charsadda which one of the following is correct?
(Peshawar) %QFGU
D. Dvarsamudra 4. Mysore (a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is
%QFGU
A B C D
(a) 3 2 1 4
(b) 2 1 3 4
(c) 3 1 4 2
(d) 1 3 4 2 Match List-I with List-II and select the
correct answer with the help of the codes
Identify the Tamil anthology which is given below:
devoted to the praise of Chera Kings
(a) Narrinai (b) Padirruppattu .KUV+ .KUV++
(c) Aingurunuru (d) Kuruntogai
#PEKGPV6QYPU
2TGUGPV5KVG
Nahapana’s defeat at the hands of Gau- A. Anahilavada 1. Mandsor
tamiputra Satakarni is attested by which B. Aihole 2. Amaravati
of the following coin-hoards? C. Dhanyakatak 3. Badami
(a) Erakina (b) Nasik
(c) Qunduz (d) Ujjayini D. Dasapura 4. Patan
%QFGU (a) Futuhat-I Firoz Shahi

A B C D (b) Tari kh-I Mubarak Shahi
(a) 2 1 4 3 (c) Tarikh-I Firoz Shahi
(b) 4 3 2 1 (d) None of the above
(c) 3 4 1 2 Consider the following statements on the
(d) 4 1 2 3 reforms of Alauddin Khalji:
The temple of Rajarajesvara is dedicated (i) Confiscation of all grants of tax-free
to land.
(a) Kartikeya (b) Siva (ii) Introduction of daag and chehra in
(c) Vishnu (d) Surya his military.
Identify the dynasty, the rulers of which (iij) Abolition of iqtas of big nobles and
called themselves Brahma- Kshatriya military commanders.
(a) Pratihara (b) Chalukya (iv) Banning of public sale of liquor.
(c) Sena (d) Pala Select the correct answer from the codes
given below:
Who among the following rulers provided
financial help for the restoration of a %QFGU
demolished Mosque in Khambhat? (a) (i), (ii) and (iii)
(a) Bhoja Paramara (b) Mihira Bhoja (b) (ii), (iii) and (iv)
(c) Kumarapala (d) Chamundaraja (c) (i), (ii) and (iv)
(d) (i), (iii) and (iv)
Which of the following dynasties is known
Who among the following was an Alvar
for the involvement of women in its
Saint?
administration?
(a) Appar (b) Kulasekhara
(a) Kalchuri (b) Gahadavala
(c) Sambandar (d) Venkatanatha
(c) Chahamana (d) Chalukya
The Book of Marco Polo is primarily an
Chronologically arrange the following
account of
events and select the correct answer from
(a) Political history of South India
(b) Economic history of South India
(i) The collapse of Chalukya kingdom
(c) Cultural history of South India
of Kalyani
(ii) Conquest of Sri Lanka by Rajendra
Chola Arrange the visit of the following foreign
(iii) Annexation of Yadava kingdom of travellers to South India in chronologi-
Devagiri to the Sultanate of Delhi cal sequential order and select the correct
(iv) The visit of Marco Polo, the Venetian answer from the codes given below:
traveller to South India. (i) A Nikitin
%QFGU (ii) Abdur Razzaq
(A) (i) (iii) (ii) (iv) (iii) Caesar Fredrick
(B) (ii) (i) (iv) (iii) (iv) Domingo Paes
(C) (ii) (i) (iii) (iv) %QFGU
(D) (i) (iv) (iii) (ii) (a) (i) (iii) (ii) (iv)
In which of the following works we get (b) (ii) (iii) (iv) (i)
a detailed account of Firoz Shah’s canal (c) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
system? (d) (ii) (i) (iv) (iii)
Match List-I with List-II and select the %QFGU

correct answer from the codes given (a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is
below: the correct explanation of (A).
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is
.KUV+ .KUV++

1NFPCOGUQH
/QFGTPPCOGU
RNCEGU
A. Baran 1. Anhilwara
Shaikh Sharfuddin Yahya Maneri belonged
B. Qarachil 2. Bhatinda to the Sufi Silsilah
C. Tabarhind 3. Kullu (a) Firdausi
(b) Chishti
D. Patan 4. Bulandshahar
(c) Suhrawardi
%QFGU (d) Naqshbandi
A B C D Which one of the following is not correct
(a) 2 3 1 4 in respect of Baburnamah?
(b) 4 3 2 1 (a) The memoir of Babur is a historical
(c) 1 2 3 4 source of great literary value.
(d) 3 2 1 4 (b) The events described are not in chron-
Concerning the foundation of Tughlaq ological order.
dynasty by Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq, which (c) Babur described every good or bad act
one of the following statements is not with utmost impartiality.
true? (d) Historical events are inextricably
(a) At the time of accession, Ghiyasuddin’s mixed up with Babur’s own opinions,
authority had been unanimously sentiments and judgements.
accepted. Given below are two statements, one is
(b) Ghiyasuddin was having at his dis- labelled as Assertion (A) i and other is
posal a large number of loyal soldiers labelled Reason (R):
who extended support.
(c) In Delhi the people contributed a lot to #UUGTVKQP
# All Jagirdars were primar-
the stability of the Sultanate. ily the mansabdars but not all mansabdars
(d) The treasury of the empire which the were Jagirdars.
Sultan inherited was very sound. 4GCUQP
4 Some mansabdars were paid
Given below are two statements, one is in cash and not through Jagirs.
labelled as Assertion (A) and the other is In the context of the above two statements,
labelled as Reason (R): which one of the followir g is correct?
#UUGTVKQP
# The conduct of ruling %QFGU
authority in the Sultanate of Delhi was (a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is
governed by the Shariat. the correct explanation of
#
4GCUQP
4 The ideal of the state was not (b) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is
to convert the entire country from dar-ul- not the correct explanation of (A).
harb into dar-ul-Islam. (c) (A) is true, but (R) is false.
Read the above statements and select (d) (A) is false, but (R) is true.
the correct answer from the codes given Consider the following statements con-
below: cerning the Rajput States of Central India
and select the correct answer from the Who among the following remarked that,
codes given below: ‘Unlike contemporary early modem Euro-
(i) Baghelas ruled over Bandogarh pean kings, the Mughal emperors did not
(ii) Dhandera was a Rajput principality depend upon loans from private financiers
in the Suba of Allahabad. to meet routine expenditure.’?
(iii) Orcha was located on the route link- (a) Irfan Habib
ing the North and the Deccan. (b) Sanjay Subrahmanyam
(iv) Orcha was in the possession of the (c) W.H. Moreland
Bundela Rajputs. (d) J.F. Richards I
(a) (i), (ii) and (iii) rect answer from the codes given below:
(b) (ii), (iii) and (iv)
(C) (i), (iii) and (iv) .KUV+ .KUV++
2NCEG
(QWPFGT
Daag and Chehra in Mughal military A. Cityof Bikaner 1. Rana Kumbha
administration were introduced during the B. Kirti Stambha 2. Rao Bika
reign of (Chittor)
(a) Akbar C. City of Ahmed- 3. Alp Khan
(b) Jahangir abad
(c) Shahjahan
(d) Aurangzeb D. City of Hoshang- 4. Ahmed Shah I
abad
In the battle of Haldighati, Rana Pratap of
Mewar was defeated by the Mughal army %QFGU
led by A B C D
(a) Abdur Rahim Khan-i Khanan (a) 1 2 3 4
(b) Raja Man Singh (b) 1 2 4 3
(c) Raja Bhagwan Das (c) 2 1 4 3
(d) Saadullah Khan (d) 2 1 3 4
Iwan in Mughal architectural terminology Which of the following pairs is not cor-
means rectly matched?
(a) a ‘façade-gateway’ or high portal +PUVKVWVKQP .QECVKQP
(b) concave element in vaults, usually (a) Khudabaksh Library - Patna
arched. (b) Bhandarkar Oriental
(c) configuration in the shape of a square Research Institute - Pune
or rectangle with comers (c) National Library - New Delhi
(d) a pillared construction of any dimen- (d) Salarjung Museum - Hyderabad
sions and plan Arrange the following Peshwas in chrono-
Under which Mughal emperor naturalist logical order:
trends in Mughal painting reached their (i) Balaji Bajirao
apogee? (ii) Bajirao II
(a) Humayun (iii) Madhav Rao I
(b) Akbar (iv) Madhav Rao Narayan
(c) Jahangir Select the correct answer from the codes
(d) Shahjahan given below:
%QFGU (i) Koli

(a) (i) (ii) (iv) (iii) (ii) Santhal
(b) (i) (iii) (iv) (ii) (iii) Chuar and Ho
(c) (ii) (iii) (i) (iv) (iv) Waghera
(d) (iii) (ii) (iv) (i) %QFGU
Which one of the following statements is (a) (iii) (iv) (i) (ii)
not correct? (b) (iii) (iv) (ii) (i)
(a) In the Persian sources of the late medi- (c) (iv) (iii) (i) (ii)
eval period of India, account on the (d) (i) (iii) (iv) (ii)
life of rural society is very limited. The English East India Company lost its
(b) The foreign travellers of the period monopoly of Indian trade by throwing it
who visited India in their accounts open to the Britishers by the Charter Act of
provide hardly any account on rural (a) 1793 (b) 1813
society. (c) 1833 (d) 1853
(c) The regional literary sources help us Given below are two statements, one is
to know the life and conditions of the labelled as Assertion (A) and the other is
rural people to some extent. labelled Reason (R):
(d) The large mass of revenue records
#UUGTVKQP
# The British had no coher-
dealing with land revenue are of no
ent place for the princes in their imperial
help to construct the history of rural
ideology.
society in medieval India.
One of the following was not a major 4GCUQP
4 The princes were kept apart
result of the Permanent Revenue Settle- from each other. These traditional ruler-
ment of East India Company: ships served the purpose of announcing
(a) It created a class of loyal landlords. India’s enduring ‘differences’.
(b) Cultivators were put under the mercy Read the above statements and select the
of zamindars. correct answers from the codes given
(c) It hampered the process of revenue below:
increase to the company. %QFGU
(d) Agricultural production got a major (a) (A) is correct but (R) is false.
boost. (b) (A) is incorrect but (R) is correct.
Who was the Governor of Bengal between (c) Both are correct and (R) is the correct
1667 and 1669? explanation of (A).
(a) Robert Clive (b) Verlest (d) Both are correct and (R) is not the cor-
(c) Cartier (d) Count de Lally rect explanation of (A).
The founder of the Nizam’s State in Hyder- Who was the Governor of Madras in 1661?
abad was (a) Fox Croft (b) Streynsham
(a) Nizam Ali Khan (c) Gerald Aungier (d) Charles Boone
(b) Muzaffar Jung Which one of the following policy docu-
(c) Chin Lulich Khan ment was called the ‘Magna Carta’ of
(d) Mir Osman Ali Khan Western education system in India?
Arrange the following revolts in the (a) MaCaulay’s Minute of 1835
chronological order and select the correct (b) Indian Education Commission Report
answer from the codes given below: of 1882
(c) Charles Woods Despatch of 1854 %QFGU

(d) Releigh Commission Report of 1902 (a) (iii) (iv) (i) (ii)
In whose honour Gateway of India was (b) (iii) (i) (ii) (iv)
built? (c) (ii) (iii) (iv) (i)
(a) King George V (d) (iv) (ii) (i) (iii)
(b) King George VI Given below are the two statements, one
(c) Prince of Wales is labelled as Assertion (A) and other is
(d) Queen Victoria labelled as Reason (R):
Match the List-I with List-II and select #UUGTVKQP
# Indian States Commission
the correct answer from the codes given reiterated that ‘Paramountcy must remain
below: Paramount’.
4GCUQP
4 The British were disen-
.KUV+ .KUV++ chanted with the new corporate princely
A. Dadabhai culture.
l. Indian Mirror Read the above statements and select the
Naoroji
B. Dwarakanath
2. Rast Goftar %QFGU
Vidyabhushan
(a) (A) is correct but (R) is false.
C. Devendranath 3. Swadesh- ami- (b) (A) is incorrect but (R) is correct.
Tagore tram (c) Both are correct and (R) is the correct
D. G.S. Aiyer 4. Somaprakasha explanation of (A).
(d) Both are correct and (R) is not the cor-
%QFGU rect explanation of (A).
A B C D Arrange the following Commissions in the
(a) 3 2 4 1 chronological order and select the correct
(b) 2 4 3 1 answer from the codes given below:
(c) 2 1 3 4 (i) Kothari Commission
(d) 2 4 1 3 (ii) Radhakrishnan Commission
Veda Samaj founded under the I initiative (iii) Sadler Commission
of Kesab Chandra Sen in 1864 in Madras (iv) University Grants Commission
was renamed as the Brahmo Samaj of %QFGU
South India in 1871 by (a) (iii) (ii) (iv) (i)
(a) Sir R. Venkataratnam Naidu (b) (ii) (iii) (iv) (i)
(b) Rajagopala Naidu (c) (iv) (iii) (i) (ii)
(c) Subbarayala Chetti (d) (iii) (ii) (i) (iv)
(d) K. Sreedharalu Naidu Mrs. Annie Besant became the first woman
Arrange the following Viceroys in chrono- President of Indian National Congress in
logical order and select the correct answer the year
from the codes given below: (a) 1916 (b) 1917
(i) Lord Reading (c) 1919 (d) 1921
(ii) Earl of Willingdon Who said in 1904 that ‘Bengal United is a
(iii) Sir John Lawrence: power’, ‘Bengal divided will pull in sev-
(iv) Earl of Dufferin eral different ways.’?
(a) Lord Curzon (c) 1 3 4 2

(b) Herbert Risley (d) 3 1 4 2
(c) Lord Minto Who has remarked, ‘history is more inter-
(d) Sir Lancelot Hare esting than a novel’?
Shyamji Krishna Varma set up the India (a) David Hume
House in London to work for India’s free- (b) Toynbee
dom in the year (c) Livy
(a) 1902 (b) 1905 (d) Tacitus
(c) 1907 (d) 1909 Concerning relation of history with other
Who has called Gopal Krishna Gokhale a subjects within one of UIFfollowing state-
rare combination of ‘the practical, strenu- ments is not correct?
ous worker and the mystic dreamer of (a) Modern economichistory issupported
dreams’? by statistical data to a considerable
(a) Mrs. Sarojini Naidu extent.
(b) Mrs. Annie Besant (b) For a long time history was not con-
(c) Ganesh Savarkar sidered as a branch of literature.
(d) V.D. Savarkar (c) The relation between creative ideas
and their impact on society has
Vaikom Satyagraha was launched by
resulted in the formation of intellectual
Gandhiji in Kerala to
history.
(a) ban devadasi system in temple
(d) Time and space factors give history its
services.
correct perspective.
(b) remove untouchability
(c) for the appointment of non- Brahmins Who among the following declared that
as priests the postmodernist ideas were a menace to
(d) open the temples for the entry of avar- historical study?
nas or lower castes. (a) Arthur Manic
(b) Holden Furber
Match the List-I with List-II and select the (c) Richard J. Evans
correct answer from the codes given below: (d) H.E. Barnes
.KUV+ .KUV++ Consider the following observations relat-
A. Collins, Larry 1. Satanic Verses ing to Renaissance and select the correct
and Lapierre answer from the codes given below:
B. Judith Brown 2. The Great (i) Renaissance was marked with a new
Divide: Britain- kind of learning signified by a spirit
India- Pakistan of inquiry into every aspect of human
thought.
C. Salman Rush- 3. Freedom At
(ii) More emphasis was given to man
die Midnight
and humanism than to god and
D. H. V. Hudson 4. Gandhi’s Rise to spiritualism.
Power (iii) The study of the works produced by
%QFGU ancient Greek and Roman scholars
A B C D was not given importance.
(a) 3 4 1 2 (iv) The humanist movement which
(b) 4 2 3 1 ushered in Renaissance could not
emancipate the western thought from The Durham Report advocated the need of
the bondage of medieval Christianity. a gradual emancipation of British Colo-
%QFGU nies towards a state of complete indepen-
(a) (i) and(ii) dence. The recommendation was applied
(b) (i) and (iii) to
(C) (ii), (iii) and (iv) (a) The Colonies in Africa
(d) (i) (ii), (iii) and (iv) (b) The Colonies in Asia
Match the List-I with List-II and select (c) The Colonies in Europe
the correct answer from the codes given (d) All of the above
below: Read the following passage and answer the
questions numbers to :
.KUV+ .KUV++
Asoka (c. 273-236 B.C.), the grandson of
A. Montesquieu 1. Divine Comedy
Chandragupta, styled ‘the beloved of the
B Dante 2. The Spirit of Laws gods’ and ‘of lovable appearance’, suc-
C. Rousseau 3. The Social Contract ceeded to the throne of Pataliputra by
winning a fratricidal war. Nine years after
D. Machiavelli 4. The Prince
his accession he rounded off the empire’
%QFGU which he inherited from his grandfather
A B C D by annexing Kalinga. The Kalinga war
(a) 2 1 3 4 brought to the emperor a violent reac-
(b) 3 4 2 1 tion, no doubt under the influence of
(c) 4 3 1 2 Buddha’s teachings. He regretted the vast
(d) 2 3 4 1 numbers of men killed or taken prisoner;
Match the List-I with List-II and select he bemoaned the lot of pious men and
the correct answer from the codes given women to whom befell ‘personal violence,
below: death or banishment from loved ones’;
and he eschewed for ever war as an instru-
.KUV+ .KUV++
ment of governance. ‘If any one does
A. Jacob 1. The Society of him wrong, the ‘beloved of the god’ must
Burckhardt Jesus bear all that can be borne. He embarked
B. Ignatius of 2. Critique of Pure on a career of Dharma Vijaya, conquest
Loyola Reason through Dharma. He set up a network of
missions to preach Dharma; declared that
C. John Calvin 3. The Civilization of
all men were his children; ‘and what little
the Renaissance in
effort I make, - what is it for? - (in order)
Italy
that I may be free from debt to the crea-
D. Immanuel 4. Institutes of the tures, that I may render some happy here
Kant Christian Religion and that they may gain heaven in the next
%QFGU world’, said he. The Emperor constituted
A B C D himself as the guardian of the moral and
(a) 3 1 4 2 material welfare of the world.
(b) 4 3 1 2 Asoka is throughout referred to as ‘Deva-
(c) 3 4 1 2 nampiya’ and ‘Piyadasi’ in his edicts
(d) 1 3 2 4 except a few. Which are such exceptions?
(i) Maski (a) Tamilakam

(ii) Gujarra (b) Saurashtra
(iii) Nittur (c) Kandahar
(iv) Udegolam (d) Kashmir
Select the correct answer with the help of
In which of his edicts does Asoka express
remorse for the sufferings caused by the
%QFGU
Kalinga war?
(a) (i) only
(a) Separate Kaling Edicts
(b) (i) and (ii)
(b) Bhabru Edict
(c) (i), (iii) and (iv)
(c) Rock Edict XIII
(d) (i) (ii), (iii) and (iv)
(d) Rock Edict IV
Which is that source which gives a lie to
the tradition of a fratricidal war of Asoka? In which of his following inscriptions did
(a) Asokavadana Asoka declare that all people were his
(b) Dipavamsa children?
(c) Asokan Rock Edict IV (a) Minor Rock Edict I
(d) Asokan Pillar Edict VII (b) Rock Edict XII
Which one of the following did not form (c) Separate Kaling Edicts
part of the Asokan empire? (d) Rummindei Pillar Edict
Answer Keys
1. (d) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (c) 5. (a) 6. (a)
7. (c) 8. (b) 9. (d) 10. (a) 11. (c) 12. (b)
13. (b) 14. (d) 15. (a) 16. (d) 17. (b) 18. (b) 19. (c)
20. None of the given options. The correct answer is Jayasimha Siddaraja.
21. (d) 22. (b) 23. (c) 24. (c) 25. (b) 26. (b)
27. (d) 28. (b) 29. (d) 30. (c) 31. (a) 32. (d)
33. (d) 34. (d) 35. (a) 36. (b) 37. (b) 38. (c)
39. (c) 40. (c) 41. (c) 42. (b) 43. (b) 44. (d)
45. (b) 46. (c) 47. (a) 48. (b) 49. (c)
50. None of the given options. The correct answer is Edward Winter
51. (c) 52. (a) 53. (d) 54. (d) 55. (a) 56. (c)
57. (a) 58. (b) 59. (b) 60. (b) 61. (a) 62. (d)
63. (a) 64. (d) 65. (b) 66. (a) 67. (a) 68. (a) 69. (a)
70. None of the given options. The correct answer is North America or Canada.
71. (d) 72. (b) 73. (a) 74. (c) 75. (c)
Part V: Model Set
Papers
Model Set - I
Match List I with List II and select the cor- The name of the Act enabling the Hindus
rect answer from the codes given below converted into Christianity to inherit their
the lists: ancestral property?
(a) Act xxi of 1850
.KUV+ .KUV++ (b) Act xxii of 1850
A. Nasik Conspiracy 1. 1927 (c) Act xxiv of 1850
B. Alipur Conspiracy 2. 1928 (d) Act xxiii of 1850
C. Kakori Conspiracy Case 3. 1908 Father of Muslim Renaissance in Bengal
D. Lahor Conspiracy 4. 1909 was:
(a) Ameer Ali
%QFGU (b) Sir syed Ahmad Khan
A B C D (c) Nawab Samiullah
(a) 2 3 4 1 (d) Nawab Abdul Latif Khan
(b) 2 4 3 1
(c) 3 1 2 4 Who was the founder of ‘Namdhari
(d) 4 3 1 2 Movement’?
(a) Baba Dayal Das
Match List-I with List-II and select the (b) Baba Ram Singh
correct answer from the codes given below (c) Thakur Singh Sandhawalia
the lists: (d) Giani Gian Singh
.KUV+ .KUV++ What was the contribution of ‘Madras
A. Sayyid Ahamad 1. Dar-ul Ulum Hindu Association’ in Indian social
Baraelvi Deoband reform?
B. Muhammad 2. Barahim (a) Welfare of the socially deprived
Qasim Nanautavi people especially women.
(b) Social and moral reform in India.
C. Mirza Gulam 3. Tarika- i- (c) Social purity movement and oppose to
Ahmad Muhammadie Devdasi System.
D. Zakaullah 4. Delhi Urdu (d) Advocated vegetarianism, monothe-
Renaissance ism and pure and simple life.
%QFGU Chronologically arrange these commit-
A B C D tees:
(a) 2 4 3 1 (i) Sadler Commission
(b) 3 4 1 2 (ii) The Hunter commission
(c) 1 2 3 4 (iii) Wardha Scheme of Education
(d) 3 1 2 4 (iv) Hartog Committee
5.4 Model Set - I
%QFGU (i) the reactionary regime of lord Lytton

(a) ii, i, iv, iii gave a visible form to the Indian
(b) i, ii, iii, iv nationalism.
(c) iv, iii, ii, i (ii) the Second Afghan war during his
(d) iii, ii, i, iv period improved the economic posi-
Which of the following statements about tion of India.
the Thomason’s plane is not correct? (iii) He arranged the Delhi Durbar to
(a) In 1845, this plan was drafted by declare Queen Victoria as an the
James Thomson, the Lt. Governor of empress of India.
North-East Provinces. (iv) His Arms Act permitted Indians to
(b) The plan proposed the establishment keep arms.
of a school in every considerable Select the answer from the codes given
village. below:
(c) Board of directors supported this plan. (a) ii and iv
(d) This plan also planned to set up a (b) only ii
model school at every tehsil. (c) only iii
When did Bengal divide for the first time (d) i and iii
for the administrative purpose? Which of the following were the causes for
(a) 1874 the emergence and growth of revulation-
(b) 1903 ary terrorism in India?
(c) 1866 (i) Foundation of the youth with the
(d) 1897 constitutional methods of the moder-
Given below are two statements one ates and the passive resistance of the
labelled as Assertion (A) and other moderates and the passive resistance
labelled as Reasons (R) of the extremists;
(A) During the last half of eighteenth (ii) Failure of the Swadeshi and Anti-
century the educated Indian started the Partition movements to get the parti-
process of ‘Objectification’ of Culture. tion of Bengal;
(R) The growing racial tension, threat (iii) Protection and corporation given by
of conversion and reforming zeal of the masses to the terrorists;
Benthamite administrators made the edu- (iv) Growing hated among the youth for
cated Indians critical at their own culture. foreign rule due to racial arrogance of
Read the above statements and select the the British and the repressive meas-
correct answer from the codes given below. ures adopted by the Government;
(v) Influence of the Irish terrorists and
%QFGU
the Russian Nihilist
(a) (A) is false, but (R) is true.
(b) Both (A) and (R) are false. Select the correct answer from the codes
(c) (A) is true and (R) is the most correct given below:
explanation of (A). (a) i, ii & iv
(d) Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is (b) ii & v
not the correct explanation of (A). (c) ii, iii & iv
(d) i, ii, iv & v
Which of the following statements about
the regime of lord Lytton (1876–80)is/are #UUGTVKQP
# The worldwide contacts
incorrect? that the revolutionary terrorist established
Model Set - I 5.5
in quest of arms and shelter had important (a) Seirangpattam

ideological consequence. (b) Jatipur and Sambhalpur
4GCUQP
4 A good number of revolu- (c) Coimbatore
tionary terrorists got converted to social- (d) Vellore
ists and communists in the later period. The export of Slaves from India was
Read the above statements and select restricted in which year?
the correct answer from the codes given (a) 1789
below. (b) 1764
%QFGU (c) 1858
(a) (A) is false, but (R) is true. (d) 1868
(b) Both (A) and (R) are false.
Who was the founder of English East India
(c) Both (A) and (R) is true and (R) is the
Company?
correct explanation of (A).
(a) De La Haye
(d) Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is
(b) Duplex
(c) Dumas
On which occasion the slogan ‘Nagpur (d) Colbert
Cholo’ was raised?
Where did the English open first factory in
(a) Dandi March
the south in 1611?
(b) Non-cooperation Movement
(a) Madras
(c) Quit India Moment
(b) Trichonapally
(d) Jhanda satyagraha
(c) Masulipatam
When did the state of Rajasthan along with (d) Pulicat
its capital Jaipur was formed?
Which of the following is correctly paired?
(a) 17th March 1948
(a) Justice movement—North India
(b) 3rd March 1949
(b) Kayastha Movement—Karnataka
(c) 26th January 1950
(c) Lingayat Movement—South India
(d) 1st November 1956
(d) Namashudra Movement—Bengal
Match the Following: Which of the following is/are not followed
.KUV+ .KUV++ by the Revolt of 1857?
(i) Opening of Suez Canal
A. First Burmese War 1. Lord Dufferin
(ii) Conversion of Indian into Christianity
B. Third Burmese war 2. Lord Auckland increased.
C. First Afghan War 3. Lord Amberst (iii) Spreading of railway system into dif-
ferent part of India and 28,000 miles
D. Anglo-Nepal War 4. Marquess of
of track being laid by 1904.
Hastings
(iv) Passing of act Regulation XVII
%QFGU %QFGU
A B C D (a) ii, iii & iv
(a) 1 2 3 4 (b) i, iv
(b) 3 1 2 4 (c) ii & iv
(c) 2 3 4 1 (d) all are correct
(d) 3 1 2 4 #UUGTVKQP
# In some places artisans
A state annexed by the Doctrine of laps and craftsmen participated in the Revolt
was— of 1857.
5.6 Model Set - I
4GCUQP
4 The British Policy of ‘one- C. Princely 3. Benedict
way’ free tread destroyed village indus- Imposter Anderson
tries and handicrafts in India.
Read the above statements and select D. Location of 4. R. G. Collingwood
the correct answer from the codes given Culture
below. %QFGU
%QFGU A B C D
(a) (A) is false, but (R) is true. (a) 2 1 4 3
(b) (A) is true and (R) is false. (b) 3 4 1 2
(c) Both (A) and (R) is true and (R) is the (c) 1 4 3 2
correct explanation of (A). (d) 3 2 1 4
(d) Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is
Which is the name of the newspaper pub-
lished by the Indian Muslim League?
Who among the following was not one of (a) Quam
the founders of the Non-Aligned Move- (b) Inquilab
ment at Brioni in Yugoslavia? (c) Star of India
(a) Nehru (d) Bombay Chronicle
(b) Tito
(c) Suharto Who introduced the concept of alternative
(d) Nasser manliness?
(a) Vivekananda
The president of the Indian National Con- (b) Sri Aurobindo
gress at the time of Indian Independence (c) Dayanand Saraswati
was (d) Ramakrishna
(a) Maulana Abul Kalam Azad
(b) Jawaharlal Nehru Who was the father of land settlement in
(c) Dr. Rajendra Prasad North India?
(d) J. B. Kripalini (a) Mr. Holt Mackenzi
(b) Merttins Bird
Which one of the following is not correct
(c) Tomas Munro
regarding land-reforms in post-indepen-
(d) Philip Spratt
dence India?
(a) Ceiling on land holding Write the correct chronological order of
(b) Conferment of cultivator’s right over the following:
the land holdings (i) Cripp’s Mission
(c) Consolidation of land holdings (ii) Quit India Movement
(d) Prohibition of Benami transfer (iii) Individual Satyagraha
Match List I with List II and select the cor- (iv) August Offer
rect answer from the codes given below %QFGU
the lists: (a) (iv), (iii), (ii), (i)
(b) (iv), (iii), (ii), (i)
.KUV+ .KUV++
(c) (iii), (iv), (i), (ii)
A. Imagined 1. Partha Chatterjee (d) (iii), (vi), (ii), (i)
Community
Who founded Servant Society?
B. The Ideas of 2. Homi K. Bhaba (c) Gopal Hari Deshmukh
History (b) Gopal Krishna Gokhale
Model Set - I 5.7
(c) Dada Bhai Naoroji .KUV+ .KUV++

(d) Guru Ghasi Das
A. Bardoli 1. Swami Sradha
Match List I with List II and select the cor- Satyagraha Nanda
rect answer from the codes given below
the lists: B. Bharatiya Kishan 2. Sardar Vallabh
Vidyalay Bhai Patel
.KUV+ .KUV++
C. Bengal Praja 3. Miss. Anni
A. Seva Sadan 1. Haridaya Nath Party Besant
Kunjru
D. Bakasht Struggle 4. N. G. Ranga
B. Seva Samiti 2. Behramji
M. Malabari %QFGU
A B C D
C. Indian National 3. Miss. Anni
(a) 2 3 4 1
Social Conference Besant
(b) 2 4 3 1
D. Madras Hindu 4. M. G. Ranade & (c) 3 1 2 4
Association Raghunath Rao (d) 4 3 2 1
%QFGU Match List I with List II and select the cor-
A B C D rect answer from the codes given below
(a) 3 1 2 4 the lists:
(b) 2 1 4 3
.KUV+ .KUV++
(c) 3 1 2 4
(d) 1 2 3 4 A. Sadharan Brahmo Samaj 1. 1905
Arrange the following British Governors B. Dava Samaj 2. 1887
Calcutta in the chronological order. C. Sava Samiti 3. 1878
(i) Vansittart D. Servant of India society 4. 1914
(ii) Verelst
(iii) Darke %QFGU
(iv) Warren Hestings A B C D
(v) Cartier (a) 2 4 3 1
(b) 3 2 4 1
%QFGU
(c) 1 4 3 2
(a) i, iii, v, ii and iv
(d) 3 2 1 4
(b) iii, i, ii, v and iv
(c) ii, iii, i, v and iv Match List-I with List-II and select the
(d) iii, i, iv, ii and v correct answer from the codes given below
the lists:
Who was the first president of the council
of Fort William established in 1700? .KUV+ .KUV++
(a) Sir Charles Eyre
A. Nadwah-ul-ulama 1. 1894
(b) Sir John Child
(c) Sir Job Charnock B. Dar-ul-Ulama 2. 1866
(d) Sir William Norris
C. Ahmadia movement 3. 1889
D. Muhamadan educational 4. 1886
Conference
the lists:
5.8 Model Set - I
%QFGU .KUV+ .KUV++

A B C D
(a) 2 4 3 1 A. P. S. Shivaswami 1. Follower of
(b) 3 4 1 2 Iyar Mahatma Gandhi
(c) 1 2 4 3 B. Mannu Swami 2. National Liberal
(d) 3 2 1 4 Naidu Federation
Chronologically arrange following treaties C. MadaleineNaidu 3. Justice Party
(i) Treaty of Salbai D. Narsing Chinta 4. Industries
(ii) Treaty of Purandhar Mani
(iii) Treaty of Wadgaon
(iv) Treaty of Bassein %QFGU
%QFGU A B C D
(a) iv, iii, ii, i (a) 3 1 2 4
(b) ii, iii, i, iv (b) 1 2 3 4
(c) ii, iii, iv, i (c) 2 1 3 4
(d) i, ii, iii, iv (d) 3 2 1 4
Who was the author of the 5K[CTWN When did the first Factory Act Passed?
/WVCMJGTKO, a contemporary historical (a) 1875
account? (b) 1881
(a) Arif Muhammad (c) 1890
(b) Sahabuddin (d) 1891
(c) Nassir Hussain Who was the first president of All India
(d) Gulam Hussain Depressed Class?
How many Governor General did the (a) B. R. Ambedkar
British India had? (b) Shahu Maharaj
(a) 16 (c) E. V. Ramaswamy Naicker
(b) 14 (d) M. C. Raja
(c) 13 #UUGTVKQP
# The Federation of India
(d) 18 Chambers of Commerce and Industry
Who wrote ‘Rise of Maratha Power’? (FCCI) opposed the Civil Disobedience
(a) M. G. Ranade Movement.
(b) Gopal Hari Deshmukh 4GCUQP
4 G.D. Birla donated between
(c) Gopal Krishna Gokhale one of the five lakh rupees to the civil Dis-
(d) Raghunath Rao obedience Movement.
The theosophical society has its headquar- the correct answer from the codes given
ters at: below.
(a) New York
%QFGU
(b) Madras
(a) (A) is false, but (R) is true.
(c) Geneva
(b) Both (A) and (R) are false.
(d) London
(c) Both (A) and (R) is true and (R) is the
Match List-I with List-II and select the correct explanation of (A).
correct answer from the codes given below (d) Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is
the lists: not the correct explanation of (A).
Model Set - I 5.9
The Sikhs lost the First Anglo Sikh War. (a) Lord Elgin
Who among the following betrayed with (b) Lord Lawrence
Sikhs? (c) Lord Canning
(a) Lal Singh (d) Lord Northbrook
(b) Tej Singh Maulana Shibli Nomani belonged to the—
(c) Kalka Singh (a) Aligarh School
(d) Gulab Singh (b) Deoband Madarsa
‘White Mutiny’ (1859) occurred during (c) Firangi Mahal
the Viceroy-ship of (d) Nadwat-ul-ulema
Answers
1. (b) 2. (d) 3. (a) 4. (a) 29. (a) 30. (b) 31. (b) 32. (b)
5. (b) 6. (c) 7. (a) 8. (c) 33. (b) 34. (b) 35. (a) 36. (b)
9. (a) 10. (c) 11. (a) 12. (b) 37. (b) 38. (c) 39. (b) 40. (d)
13. (c) 14. (c) 15. (d) 16. (b) 41. (c) 42. (a) 43. (a) 44. (b)
17. (b) 18. (b) 19. (d) 20. (c) 45. (b) 46. (d) 47. (a) 48. (d)
21. (d) 22. (c) 23. (c) 24. (c) 49. (c) 50. (d)
25. (d) 26. (d) 27. (b) 28. (c)
Model Set - II
Match List-I with List-II and select the (i) Treaty of Madras
correct answer from the codes given below (ii) Treaty of Alinagar
the lists: (iii) Treaty of Surat
(iv) Treaty of Seringapatam
.KUV+ .KUV++ %QFGU
A. George Campbell 1. 1900 (a) ii, i, iii, iv
Commission (b) i, ii, iii, iv
B. Sir James Lyall Commission 2. 1867 (c) iv, iii, ii, i
(d) iii, ii, i, iv
C. Sir Richard Commission 3. 1878
During the time of Vellore Mutiny who
D. Sir Anthony Commission 4. 1898 was the Governor General?
%QFGU (a) Lord John Shore
A B C D (b) Lord Minto I
(a) 2 4 3 1 (c) Lord Hestings
(b) 3 4 1 2 (d) Lord Wellesley
(c) 1 4 3 2 By which of the following act the control
(d) 3 2 1 4 of the British Parliament stated in East
Match List-I with List-II and select the India Company’s administration?
correct answer from the codes given below (a) Act of 1858
the lists: (b) Pitt’s India Act
(c) Charter of 1835
.KUV+ .KUV++
(d) Regulating Act
A. The Bharat Shri maha 1. 1910
B. The women’s Indian 2. 1915
Association
the lists:
C. National council of women 3. 1925
for India. .KUV+ .KUV++
D. The all India women’s 4. 1927 A. Kunwar Singh 1. Jhansi
conference
B. Rani Laxmi Bai 2. Meerut
%QFGU
A B C D C. Kadam Shingh 3. Bihar
(a) 2 4 3 1 D. Maulvi Muhommad 4. Faizabad
(b) 3 4 1 2 Ullah
(c) 1 2 3 4 %QFGU
(d) 3 2 1 4 A B C D
Chronologically arrange these following (a) 3 1 2 4
treaties (b) 2 1 4 3
Model Set - II 5.11
(c) 3 1 2 4 Who was the founder of ‘Swami Narayan

(d) 1 2 3 4 Sect’?
Match List I with List II and select the cor- (a) Swami Sahajanand
rect answer from the codes given below (b) Swami Shraddhanand
the lists: (c) Shiv Narayan Agnihotri
(d) Narayan Malhar Joshi
.KUV+ .KUV++
Who started ‘Self Respect Movement’?
A. Bhagat Jawahar 1. Bund Rebellion
(a) Dr. T. M. Nair
Mal
(b) Periyar
B. Dhar Rao 2. Kuka Rebellion (c) Sir Narayan Guru
C. Chennamma 3. Kittur Rebellion (d) Chettiar
D. Poligar Rebellion 4. Narasimha Reddy Match List I with List II and select the cor-
%QFGU rect answer from the codes given below
A B C D the lists:
(a) 3 1 2 4
.KUV+ .KUV++
(b) 2 1 3 4
(c) 3 1 2 4 A. Aravipuram 1. C. R. Reddy
(d) 1 2 3 4 Movement
Chronologically arrange the following B. Praja Mitra 2. Sir Narayan Guru
uprisings: Movement
(i) Paik rebellion
C. SNDPY 3. Shri Narayan Guru
(ii) Poligar Rebellion
(iii) Farazi Rebellion D. Nair Service 4. K. Ramkrishna
(iv) Wahabi Movement Society Pillai Mannath
(a) iii, iv, i, ii Padmanabha
(b) iv, iii, ii, iv
(c) i, ii, iii, iv %QFGU
(d) iv, i, iii, ii A B C D
(a) 3 1 2 4
The writer of +PFKCPYCUQH+PFGRGPFGPEG (b) 3 1 4 2
is (c) 2 1 3 4
(a) S. N. Sen (d) 1 2 3 4
(b) V. D. Savarkar
(c) R.C. Majumdar Who established ‘Vedanta Society’?
(d) S. B. Chaudhary (a) Keshab Chandra Sena
(b) Devendra nath Tagore
Chronologically arrange following wars
(c) Vivekanand
(i) St. Thome
(d) Raja Rammohan Roy
(ii) Battle of Plassey
(iii) Battle of Wandiwash Who founded the Theosophical Society
(iv) Pindari war was founded in the U. S. A?
(a) iv, iii, ii, i (a) Dr. Annie Besant
(b) ii, iii, i, iv (b) A. O. Hume
(c) ii, iii, iv, i (c) Madam Blavatasky and Olcott
(d) i, ii, iii, iv (d) Swami Vivekanand.
5.12 Model Set - II
Match List I with List II and select the cor- (i) Cabinet Mission Plan
rect answer from the codes given below (ii) Bombay Plan
the lists: (iii) Wavell Plan
(iv) Mountbatten plane
.KUV+ .KUV++
A. N. N. Sen 1. Ghadar %QFGU
(a) ii, i, iii, iv
B. Praja Mitra 2. Indian Mirror
(b) ii, i, iv, iii
Movement
(c) i, ii, iii, iv
C. C. Y. Chintamani 3. The National (d) i, ii, iv, iii
Paper
Who among the following was the president
D. Naba Gopal Mitra 4. The leader of All India Trade Union Congress in 1929?
%QFGU (a) M.N. Roy
A B C D (b) Jawaharlal Nehru
(a) 3 1 2 4 (c) S. A. Dange
(b) 1 2 3 4 (d) Jai Prakash Narayan
(c) 2 1 4 3 #UUGTVKQP
# After their occupation of
(d) 3 2 1 4 Bengal, Bihar and Orissa, the English
Match List-I with List-II and select the used various means to bolster their trade
correct answer from the codes given below which resulted in the decline of Indian
the lists: handicrafts industry.
4GCUQP
4 The British monopolised the
.KUV+ .KUV++ trade of Bengal through various legislative
A. Bengal 1. Ganga Kishor enactments.
Gejeti Bhattacharya (a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is
the correct explanation of (A)
B. Snjibani 2. Krishna Kumar Mitra
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is
C. Sadhovani 3. Akshay Kr. Dutta not the correct explanation of (A)
D. Samachar 4. Serampore Mission (c) (A) is true but (R) is false
Darpean (d) (A) is false but (R) is true
%QFGU Match List I with List II and select the cor-
A B C D rect answer from the codes given below
(a) 3 1 2 4 the lists:
(b) 1 2 3 4 .KUV+ .KUV++
(c) 2 1 4 3 A. Bengal Journal 1. 1785
(d) 3 2 1 4 B. Calcutta morning Post 2. 1821
Who proposed the Preamble before the C. John Bull in the East 3. 1798
Drafting Committee of the constitution? D. Modern Review 4. 1907
(a) Jawaharlal Nehru %QFGU
(b) B. R. Ambedkar A B C D
(c) B. N. Rao (a) 2 1 4 3
(d) Mahatma Gandhi (b) 3 4 1 2
Write the correct chronological order of (c) 1 3 2 4
the following: (d) 3 2 1 4
Model Set - II 5.13
Match List I with List II and select the cor- 4GCUQP
4 Surya sen escaped to japan
rect answer from the codes given below along with his follower.
the lists: Read the above statements and select
.KUV+ .KUV++ the correct answer from the codes given
below.
A. Radha Swami Movement 1. 1861 %QFGU
B. India Reform association 2. 1902 (a) (A) is false, but (R) is true.
C. Madras Hindu Association 3. 1892 (b) Both (A) and (R) are false.
(c) (A) is true and (R) is the most correct
D. Bharat Dharma mahamandal 4. 1902 explanation of (A).
%QFGU (d) Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is
A B C D not the correct explanation of (A).
(a) 2 4 3 1 Arrange the following chronologically
(b) 3 4 1 2 (i) Cabinet Mission Plan
(c) 1 2 3 4 (ii) Desai-Liaqat Pact
(d) 3 2 1 4 (iii) Gandhi-Jinnah Talks
Arrange the following in chronological (iv) C. R. Formula
order and select the correct answer from %QFGU
the codes given below: (a) iv, iii, ii, i
(i) Gandhi-Irwin Pact (b) i, ii, iii, iv
(ii) Purna Swaraj (c) iii, iv, ii, i
(iii) Poona Pact (d) iv, ii, iii, i
(iv) August Offer
%QFGU consider List-I with List-II
(a) ii, i, iii, iv .KUV+ .KUV++
(b) i, ii, iii, iv
(c) i, iv, ii, iii A. Death of Motilal Nehru 1. 1925
(d) iii, ii, i, iv B. Death of Lajpat Rai 2. 1928
Which of the following was/ were person C. Death of C R Das 3. 1931
not involved with the foundation of the D. Death of Rabindra Nath 4. 1941
Anushilan Samiti of Calcutta in 1902? Tagore
(i) Promotha Mitra
(ii) Abani Mukharji Which of the above are incorrectly
(iii) BirendraKumar Ghosh matched and choose the answer from the
(iv) Jitendranath Gosh codes given below:
(v) Pulin Das (a) i and ii
Select the correct answer from the codes (b) i and iii
given below: (c) ii and iv
(a) ii & iv (d) iii and iv
(b) iii & iv #UUGTVKQP
# Gandhi’s technique of
(c) ii & v satyagraha was based on the twin concept
(d) iii & v of truth and non-violence.
#UUGTVKQP
# The Chittagong armoury 4GCUQPU
4 The literal meaning of
was resized by Surya Sen and his group. satyagraha is holding on to truth.
5.14 Model Set - II
Read the above statements and select the %QFGU

correct answer from the codes given below. (a) (b) (c) (d)
%QFGU (a) i, ii, iii, iv
(a) (A) is false, but (R) is true. (b) ii, iii, i, iv
(b) Both (A) and (R) are false. (c) i, iv, iv, iii
(c) Both (A) and (R) is true and (R) is the (d) ii, iv, iii, i
correct explanation of (A). Who British Commander during the sec-
(d) Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is ond Ingo-Mysore War against the Haidar
not the correct explanation of (A). Ali?
Who argued ‘de-industrialization’ in India (a) Coronal Smith
is a ‘Myth’? (b) Elphinstone
(a) Morris D. Morris (c) Sir Eyre Coote
(b) Richard Cobden (d) Lord Lake
(c) Daniel Thorner Who among the following English Com-
(d) Theodor Morrison manders did not involve against Maratha
Which of the following historiographical activities?
school or person address the Indian Free- (a) Jonathon Duncan
dom Movement as ‘Animal Politics’? (b) Malcolm
(a) Neo-traditionalist School (c) Coronal Smith
(b) Cambridge School (d) Colins
(c) Subaltern School Which Maratha State was the last one to
(d) Ania Loomba accept the English subsidiary alliance?
Which of the following clauses was/were (a) Gaekwar
not included in the Gandhi-Irwin pact? (b) Bhonsle
(i) Withdrawal all the ordinances and (c) Holkar
ending prosecutions (d) Scindhia
(ii) Release of all kinds of Political The Company signed the treaty of Ganda-
prisons mak (May 1879) with—
(iii) Restoration of the confiscated prop- (a) Habibullah
erty of the satyagrahis (b) Sher Ali
(iv) permittion peaceful picketing of liq- (c) Yakub Khan
uor, opium and foreign cloth shops. (d) Afzal Azim
(v) permitting all Indians to collect or
manufacture salt, free of duty. Arrange the following Nawabs in chrono-
Choose the answer from the codes given logical sequences.
below: (i) Alivardi Khan
(a) Only ii (ii) Nazm-ud-daula
(b) only i (iii) Sarfaraz Khan
(c) i, and ii (iv) Siraj-ud- daula
(d) ii and v (v) Shuja-ud-din
Arrange the followings chronologically: %QFGU
(i) Laws of Pancham (a) iv, iii, ii, i
(ii) Laws of Haptam (b) v, iii, i, iv and ii
(iii) Rent Act X (c) ii, iii, iv, i
(iv) Deccan Agriculture Relief Act (d) i, ii, iii, iv
Model Set - II 5.15
Which Governor General did not follow Which one of the following documents
the policy of Mastery Inactivity towards was the first to contain a catalogue of fun-
Afghanistan? damental rights?
(a) Lord John Lawrence (a) Nehru Report
(b) Lord Northbrook (b) Simon Commission
(c) Lord Curzon (c) Karachi Resolution
(d) Lord Mayo (d) Gandhi–Irwin Pact
Who reorganise the Kisan Sabha in 1933? Which one of the following was essen-
(a) Jai Prakash Narain tially a mouthpiece of Liberals?
(b) Dr. Rajendra Prasad (a) New India
(c) Sahaja Nanda (b) Leader
(d) Nehru (c) Young India
Which one among the following was the (d) Free Press Journal
first tread union in India?
In the committee which prepared the
(a) All India Tread Union
Nehru Report (1928) the Liberal Federa-
(b) Madras Labour Union Congress
tion was represented by
(c) Indian Tread Union Federation
(a) M. R. Jaykar
(d) National Tread Union Federation
(b) Tej Bahadur Sapru
When was the first Tread Union Act, pro- (c) V. S. Srinivasa Saatri
viding for voluntary registration, enacted?
(a) 1924 The Communal Award (1932) announced
(b) 1926 by Ramsay Macdonald spoke of special
(c) 1928 constituencies with separate communal
(d) 1939 electorates to be constituted for women in
all provinces except
Which session of the Congress adopted a
(a) NWFP
constitution for itself?
(b) Bengal
(a) Lahore Session (1900)
(c) Punjab
(b) Bombay Session (1904)
(d) Bombay Presidency
(c) Madras Session (1908)
(d) Allahabad Session (1910) At which place was the All-India Khilafat
Arrange these events in their chronologi- Conference held in 1919?
cal order; (a) Lucknow
(i) Formation of the Interim Government (b) Delhi
by the congress (c) Aligarh
(ii) Cabinet mission (d) Bombay
(iii) Direct Action day by the League Who of the following was not included
(iv) League’s participation in Interim in the first Interim National Government
Government. announced in August, 1946?
(a) i, iii, iv and ii (a) Dr. Rajendra Prasad
(b) iii, ii, i and iv (b) Dr. S. RadhaKrishnan
(c) ii, iii, i and iv (c) C. Rajagopalachari
(d) iv, ii, i and iii (d) Jagjivan Ram
5.16 Model Set - II
Answers
1. (a) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (b) 29. (d) 30. (a) 31. (b) 32. (d)
5. (d) 6. (a) 7. (b) 8. (a) 33. (a) 34. (c) 35. (c) 36. (d)
9. (b) 10. (d) 11. (a) 12. (b) 37. (c) 38. (b) 39. (b) 40. (c)
13. (c) 14. (c) 15. (c) 16. (c) 41. (b) 42. (b) 43. (c) 44. (c)
17. (b) 18. (a) 19. (a) 20. (b) 45. (a) 46. (b) 47. (b) 48. (a)
21. (c) 22. (c) 23. (c) 24. (a) 49. (b) 50. (d)
25. (c) 26. (a) 27. (a) 28. (c)
Model Set - III
Lord Bahubali’s statue named Given below are two statements, one labelled
Gomateswara statue is situated on the as Assertion (A) and the other labelled
_____ which is part of a sacred city of the as Reason (R):
Jains. #UUGTVKQP
# The punch marked coins
(a) Satpura mountains were inscribed in Brahami Script
(b) Vindhyachal mountains 4GCUQP
4 It facilitated trade.
(c) Eastern Ghats In context of the above two statements
(d) Indragiri hills which of the following is correct?
Who wrote 2CTXCVKRCTKPC[CO? (a) (A) is true but (R) is false
(a) Aswaghosa (b) (R) is true but (A) is false
(b) Visakhadatta (c) Both (A) and (R) are true
(c) Banadatta (d) Both (A) and (R) are false
(d) Cheraka Match List-I with List-II and choose your
Which of the following was a republic in answer from the codes given below:
sixth century B.C.? .KUV+ .KUV++
(a) Vrijian state
(b) Avanti A. Harappa 1. Spoked wheel
(c) Magadha Civilization
(d) None of these B. Aryans 2. Copper
Identify the incorrect combination among technology
the following— C. Gautami Putra 3. Jainism
(a) Harappa and Grenary D. Shravanabelgola 4. Satavahana
(b) Mohen-jo-daro and the great bath
(c) Dholavira and single citadel %QFGU
(d) Lothal and Dockyard A B C D
Which among the following excavated (a) 2 4 3 1
sites is related to Malwa culture? (b) 3 2 4 1
(a) Navadatoli (c) 2 1 4 3
(b) Nagda (d) 4 3 1 2
(c) Eran Which work refers to India’s contacts with
(d) Azadnagar Baveru?
Which one of the following is a language of (a) Arthasastra
Baluchistan but linguistically Dravidian? (b) Dipavamsa
(a) Brahui (c) Agamas
(b) Kui (d) Jatakas
(c) Parji Match List-I with List-II and choose your
(d) Pengo answer from the code given below:
5.18 Model Set - III
.KUV+ .KUV++ %QFGU

A B C D
A. Bilhana 1. Manasollasa (a) 2 1 3 4
B. Someshvara 2. Gita Govinda (b) 1 2 3 4
C. Somadeva 3. Vikramankade- (c) 4 2 1 3
vacharita (d) 4 1 2 2
D. Jayadeva 4. Kathasaritasagara The translation of Chintamani Bhatta’s
Suka-saptati into the Persian title Tui-
%QFGU inama was done by which of the following
A B C D sufi saints?
(a) 3 1 4 2 (a) Sheikh Hamiduddin Nagori
(b) 1 3 4 2 (b) Sheikh Fariduddin
(c) 2 4 3 1 (c) KhwajaZiyauddin Nakhashabi
(d) 3 1 2 4 (d) Khwaja Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki
Given below are two statements, one labelled Match List-I (Officials) with List-II (Func-
as Assertion (A), and the other labelled tions) and select the correct answer using
as Reason (R): the codes given below the lists:
#UUGTVKQP
# The Pratitya-Samutapada
.KUV+ .KUV++
is a concept of the Buddhist philosophy.
4GCUQP
4 It believes in cause and effect. A. Peshwa 1. General Administration
In the context of the above two statements, B. Amatya 2. Incharge of Income and
which one of the following is correct? Expenditure
(a) (A) is true, but (R) is false. C. Sachiva 3. King’s Correspondent
(b) (R) is true, but (A) is false. and Home Affairs
(c) Both (A) and (R) are false. D. Sumant 4. Foreign Affairs
(d) Both (A) and (R) are true.
%QFGU
Which of the following texts mentions in A B C D
detail the contract theory of the origin of the (a) 2 1 3 4
State? (b) 1 2 3 4
(a) Digha Nikaya (c) 2 1 4 3
(b) Dipavamsa (d) 1 2 4 3
(c) Kamandakiya
Which one of the following pairs is not
(d) Mahavamsa
correctly matched?
Match List-I with List-II and choose your (a) 1560: Fall of Bairam Khan
answer from the code given below: (b) 1564: Conquest of Gondwana
(c) 1570: Fall of Ranthambhor
.KUV+ .KUV++ (d) 1576: Battle of Haldighati
A. Dasavatara temple 1. Aihole Who was the Mughal commander to defeat
B. Gupta brick temple 2. Bhitargaon Malik Amber in the battle of Nander?
C. Meguti temple 3. Nachana (a) Munim Khan
Kuthar (b) AbdurRahimKhan-e-Khana
(c) AsadKhan
D. Parvati temple 4. Deogarh (d) Salim
Model Set - III 5.19
Who was the foreign traveller to C. Kashmir 3. 1591

describe the history of the period in later
Aurangzeb’s period? D. Kandhar 4. 1586
(a) Dr. Gamilee Kareri %QFGU
(b) Frankois Bernier A B C D
(c) Tavernier (a) 1 3 4 2
(d) Niccolo Manucci (b) 3 1 2 4
Which of the following book does not (c) 4 1 3 2
belong to Akbar’s period? (d) 2 1 3 4
(a) Abul Fazal—Akbarnama
Socio-religious movements in medieval
(b) Badayuni—Muntakhab-ul-Tawarikh
India profoundly affected:
(c) Abdul Hamid Lahori—Padshahnama
(a) Social life
(b) Economic life
Which of the following officcr was not (c) Cultural life
included in Mughal village administration? (d) Regional languages
(a) Nayab
(b) Mukaddam Given two statements, one labelled as
(c) Patwari Assertion (A), and the other labelled as
(d) Patel or Chaudhary Reason (R):
#UUGTVKQP
# Under the Great Mughals
Match list I with list II and answer
architecture flourished.
correctly:
4GCUQP
4 Some of the Great Mughals
.KUV+ .KUV++ were great patrons of architecture.
A. Hemu 1. Ruler of Bikaner
B. Bairam Khan 2. Afghan ruler (a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is
Mohammad Adil the correct explanation of (A).
Shah’s Commandar (b) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is
C. Baaz Bahadur 3. Guardian of Akbars not the correct explanation of (A).
(c) (A) is true but (R) is false
D. Rao Ram singh 4. Ruler of Malwa
(d) (A) is false but (R) is true
%QFGU
What is the correct chronological sequence
A B C D
of the following Peshwas?
(a) 2 3 4 1
(i) Bajirao I
(b) 2 4 3 1
(ii) Balaji Vishwanath
(c) 3 4 2 1
(iii) Balaji Bajirao
(d) 3 2 1 4
(iv) Madhavarao
Match list I with List II and answer cor- %QFG
rectly: (a) (i) (iii) (ii) (iv)
.KUV+ .KUV++ (b) (iv) (ii) (i) (iii)
#MDCTUGZRGPFKVKQP (c) (ii) (i) (iii) (iv)
(d) (iii) (iv) (i) (ii)
A. Kabul 1. 1585
What is the correct sequence of the
B. Sindh 2. 1595 following?
(i) Muntakhab-ul-Tawarikh Match the following:

(ii) Kitab-ul-Hind
.KUV+ .KUV++
(iii) Muntakhab-ul-Lubab

YTKVGT
YQTMU
(iv) Tabqat-i-Nasiri
%QFG A. Subhash Chandra 1. Indian wins
(a) i, iii, iv, ii Bose Freedom
(b) ii, iv, i, iii B. Abul Kalam Azad 2. Wither India?
(c) iv, iii, i, iii
C. Rajendra Prasad 3. India struggles
(d) iii, iv, ii, ii
for freedom
answer from the code below: D. Jawahar Lal Nehru 4. India Divided
%QFGU
.KUV+ .KUV++
A B C D

YTKVGT
YQTMU
(a) 1 4 3 2
A. N i z a m u d d i n 1. Humayun Nama (b) 3 2 4 1
Ahmad (c) 3 1 4 2
B. Ali Muhammad 2. Mirat-i-Ahmadi (d) 4 1 2 3
Khan By whom was the All India Trade Union
C. Gul Badan 3. Tabqat-i-Akbari founded?
Begam (a) Dinbandhu Mitra
(b) Narayan Malhar Joshi
D. Ibn Batuta 4. Rahela
(c) N. G. Ranga
%QFGU (d) Jawahar Lal Nehru
A B C D The outbreak of five famines in India dur-
(a) 3 2 1 4 ing the first quarter of the Nineteenth Cen-
(b) 4 1 2 3 tury was due to—
(c) 1 4 3 2 1. Decline of Indian industries.
(d) 3 2 4 1 2. Immobility of agricultural labour.
Arrange the following in chronological 3. Failure of monsoons.
order— 4. Import of manufactured goods.
I. Surat split Which of these statements are correct?
II. Partition of Bengal (a) 2 and 3
III. Foundation of Muslim League (b) 1 and 4
IV. Congress session drafts its constitution (c) 1, 2 and 3
(a) IV, II, III, I (d) 2, 3 and 4
(b) III, II, I, IV Consider the following statements:
(c) II, IV, III, I The impact of British imperialistic policies
(d) II, III, I, IV on Indian agriculture was—
Who was the first President of the Indian 1. Creation of a new market economy.
Home Rule League established in April 2. Polarisation between landowners and
1916? tillers.
(a) Joseph Bapista 3. Increase in the number of landless
(b) Annie Besant labourers.
(c) N.C. Kelkar 4. Unemployment among village
(d) B.G.Tilak artisans.
Which of these statements are correct? 2. Hindu Association in Portland later

(a) 1, 2 and 3 changed its name to Hindustan
(b) 2, 3 and 4 Ghadar party.
(c) l and 4 3. The Revolutionary trend was launched
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 in April 1908, by KhudiramBose
&Prafulla chaki when they threw a
From which year the English language
bomb on Kings ford.
became the medium of education in India?
(a) All the above are correct
(a) 1831
(b) None of the above is correct
(b) 1835
(c) Only 1 is correct
(c) 1854
(d) Only 2 is correct
(d) 1858
Which one of the following statement is
The University Grants Commission was
incorrect?
constituted in 1853 on the recommenda-
(a) Civil Disobedience Movement was
tions of—
started based on the issue of salt.
(a) Hunter commission
(b) Dandi March was started from
(b) Radhakrishnan commission
Gandhiji’s ashram at Wardha.
(c) Mr. J.F. Mc Dougall commission
(c) Gandhi violated the salt laws on April
(d) Hunter commission
6, 1930
The Viceroy who put forward the proposal (d) Salt march was widely covered by the
of August Offer in 1940 was— European and American press.
(a) Wavell
(b) Linlithgow After Quit India Movement, C. Rajago-
(c) Willingdon palachari issued a pamphlet entitled ‘The
(d) Brabourne Way Out’. Which one of the following was
a proposal in this pamphlet?
Name the British officers who are famous (a) The establishment of a ‘War Advisory
for Revenue settlements: Council’ composed of representatives
1. James Grant of British India and the Indian States.
2. John Shore (b) Reconstitution of the Central
3. Warren Hastings Executive Council in such a way that
4. Macnaughton all its members, except the Governor
(a) 1, 2 General and the Commander–in–
(b) 1, 2, 3 Chief should be Indian leaders.
(c) 3, 4 (c) Fresh elections to the Central and
(d) 2, 3 Provincial Legislatures to be held at
Who was the chairman of the First Famine the end of 1945 and the Constitution
Commission in India in the 19th century? making body to be convened as soon
(a) Sir Antony Mac Donnell as possible.
(b) Sir James Lyall (d) A solution for the constitutional
(c) Sir-Richard Strachey deadlock.
(d) Sir George Campbell Consider the following statements:
Consider the following statements: 1. Dr. Rajendra Prasad persuaded
1. V.D. Savarkar and his brother Ganesh. Mahatma Gandhi to come in
Organised Mitramela and Abhinav Champaran to investigate the problem
Bharat as secret societies. of peasants.
2. Acharya J. B. Kriplani was one of ‘Ryothu Rakshana Yatra’ from Ichapuram
the Mahatma Gandhi’s colleagues in to Madras in the Madras presidency was
his Champaran investigation. Which organised in 1937–8 by:
of the statements given above is are (a) Indian National Congress
correct? (b) Andhra Peasants Association
(a) 1 only (c) Kisan Sabha
(b) 2 only (d) Communist Party
(c) Both 1 and 2
Which of the following is not correctly
(d) Neither 1 nor 2
matched?
The title of ‘Viceroy’ was added to the (a) Surendranath Banerjee-India Today
office of the Governor-General of India (b) Jawaharlal Nehru-Discovery of India
for the first time in (c) Subhash Chandra Bose-Fight for
(a) 1848 (b) 1856 Freedom
(c) 1858 (d) 1862 (d) Pattabhi Seetharamaiah- History of
#UUGTVKQP
# Indian Industrial Commis- Indian National Congress
sion was appointed in 1916. #UUGTVKQP
# Lala Lajpat Rai died of
4GCUQP
4 This came as a benefit out of police lathi-charge during the March
the fact that the Tata Iron and Steel Works against Simon Commission.
rendered much service to the British in the 4GCUQP
4 Simon Commission did
War of 1914. Codes: not consist of even a single Indian as a
(a) Both (A) and (R) are individually true Member.
and (R) is the correct explanation of
(A). %QFGU
(b) Both (A) and (R) are individually true (a) Both (A) and (R) arc individually true
but (R) is not the correct explanation and (R) is the correct explanation of
of (A) (A).
(c) (A) is true but (R) is false (b) Both (A) and (R) are individually true
(d) (A) is false but (R) is true but (R) is not the correct explanation
of (A)
‘Paramountcy is Paramount’ is the state-
(c) A is true but R is false
ment in the preamble of:
(d) A is false but R is true
(a) Simon Commission (Indian Statutory
Commission) Consider the following leaders:
(b) Butler Commission (Indian States 1. Bahvant Rai Mehta
Commission) 2. J.N. Sen Gupta
(c) Hunter Commission (Indian Education 3. Sardool Singh Kaveeshar
Commission) 4. Sudhakar Rao
(d) Cabinet Mission
Who among these were not the chief
One of the following is not a colonial conveners of the All-India States People
historiographer. Conference (AISPC)?
(a) Judith Brown (a) 2 and 3
(b) A.L. Basham (b) l, 2 and 4
(c) Anil Seal (c) 1, 3 and 4
(d) V.A. Smith (d) 2, 3 and 4
Answers
1. (d) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (c) 29. (a) 30. (c) 31. (b) 32. (b)
5. (a) 6. (a) 7. (b) 8. (c) 33. (d) 34. (b) 35. (b) 36. (b)
9. (b) 10. (a) 11. (d) 12. (c) 37. (c) 38. (d) 39. (a) 40. (c)
13. (c) 14. (c) 15. (b) 16. (c) 41. (d) 42. (b) 43. (c) 44. (c)
17. (b) 18. (a) 19. (c) 20. (a) 45. (d) 46. (a) 47. (c) 48. (a)
21. (a) 22. (a) 23. (d) 24. (a) 49. (b) 50. (d)
25. (c) 26. (b) 27. (a) 28. (d)
Model Set - IV
Who of the following was the earliest (c) Mauryas–Sungas–Kushans–Guptas
known Greek follower of Bhagavatism? (d) Kushans–Guptas–Sungas–Mauryas
(a) Megasthenes Match List-I with List-II and choose your
(b) Antialkidas answer from the codes given below:
(c) Heliodorus
(d) None of the above .KUV+ .KUV++
In the Mauryan Government women could A. Uttarapath 1. Pratisthan
be employed as: B. Kalinga 2. Taxi la
(a) Royal Bodyguards C. Satavahana 3. Mahismati
(b) Superintendents of weaving D. Avanti 4. Tosali
establishments
%QFGU
(c) Intelligence agents & spices
A B C D
(d) All the above
(a) 2 4 1 3
Which one of the following pairs is not (b) 3 2 4 1
correctly matched? (c) 4 3 2 1
(a) Dharamsastra: Works on religion and (d) 1 4 3 2
philosophy
Given below are two statements, one labelled
(b) Chaturvarnya: Four Ashrams
as Assertion (A) and the other labelled
(c) Shudra: Service to three varnas
as Reason (R):
(d) Mahamatra: Superior Official
#UUGTVKQP
# Second urbanisation in
For what reason the ganasamgha areas India was caused by the use of iron tech-
have been indicated as ‘mlechchhadesha’ nology.
in the post-Vedic period? 4GCUQP
4 Iron technology was the mov-
(a) Absence of ranking based on varna ing force.
(b) Rejection of Vedic rituals In the context of the above two statements
(c) Killing of cows which of the following is correct?
(d) Speaking alien languages (a) (A) is true but (R) is untrue
Which among the following combinations (b) (R) is true but (A) is untrue
is correct? (c) Both (A) and (R) are true
(a) Pushyamitra Shunga–Patanjali (d) Both (A) and (R) are untrue
(b) Kanishka–Thera Nagasena Which of the following pairs is not
(c) Menander–Ashvaghosh correctly matched?
(d) Chandragupta I–Harishena
A. Junagarh Inscription of Tus’ashpha
Which of the following is the correct Rudradaman
chronological order?
(a) Guptas–Kushans–Mauryas–Sungas B. Hathigumpha Inscrip- Parsvanatha
(b) Sungas–Mauryas–Guptas–Kushans tion of Kharavela
Model Set - IV 5.25
C. Udaigiri Cave Inscrip- Virasena (a) Battle of Chanderi–Battle of Ghagra–

tion of Chandragupta II Saba Battle of Dourah–Battle of Chausa
(b) Battle of Chanderi–Battle of Ghagra–
D. Mandasor Stone Inscrip- Vatsabhatti Battle of Chausa–Battle of Dourah
tion of Kumaragupta (c) Battle of Ghagra–Battle of Chanderi–
and Bandhuvarman Battle of Dourah–Battle of Chausa
The river which formed the boundary (d) Battle of Ghagra–Battle of Chanderi–
between the Shakyas and the Koliyas is: Battle of Chausa–Battle of Dourah
(a) Gandak Consider the following statements:
(b) Saryu 1. Akbar prohibited sati - the immolation
(c) Achiravati of widow on husband’s pyre.
(d) Rohini 2. Akbar discouraged child marriage and
Who spoke about the gold-drain of the encouraged widow remarriage among
Roman Empire? theHindus.
(a) Herodotus Which of the statements given above is/are
(b) Strabo correct?
(c) Pliny (a) 1 only
(d) Arrians (b) 2 only
(c) Both l and 2
Which of the following statements is true
(d) Neither 1 or 2
about the Kushana period?
(a) issue of silver coins on a large scale Which one of the following sets of officers
(b) flourishing of the Gandhara School of was not found in the Provincial Adminis-
Art tration of the Mughals?
(c) patronage of Amarsimha (a) Subehdars, Faujdars, Karoris
(d) extension of the Kushana empire upto (b) Faujdars, Diwan, Bakhshi
Bengal (c) Muhtasib, Wazir, Amil
Match List-I with List-II and select the (d) Wazir, Bakhshi, MirSaman
correct answer from the code given below: Match List-I (Foreign travellers) with
List-II (Year of visit to India) and select
.KUV+ .KUV++
the correct answer using the codes given
A. Harsha 1. Harshacharita below the lists:
B. Vijnanesvara 2. Samarangan
.KUV+ .KUV++
Sutradhara
A. Hawkins 1. 1615
C. Bhoja 3. Privadarsika
B. Thomas Roe 2. 1608
D. Bana 4. Mitakshara
C. Manucci 3. 1585
%QFGU
A B C D D. Ralph Fitch 4. 1658
(a) 1 2 4 3 %QFGU
(b) 3 2 4 1 A B C D
(c) 3 4 2 1 (a) 2 1 4 3
(d) 1 2 3 4 (b) 1 2 4 3
Which one of the following is the correct (c) 2 1 3 4
chronological sequence? (d) 1 2 3 4
5.26 Model Set - IV
Match List-I (Authors) with List-II (Lit- B. Malik Sarwar 2. Gujarat
erary work) and select the correct answer
using the codes given below the lists: C. Dilawar Khan 3. Khandesh
D. Malik Zafar Khan 4. Malwa
.KUV+ .KUV++
A. Abbas Khan 1. Futuhat-i Alamgiri %QFGU
Sarwani A B C D
(a) 3 4 1 2
B. Gulbadan 2. Tarikh-i-SherShahi (b) 3 1 4 2
Begam (c) 1 2 4 3
C. Badauni 3. Muntakhab-ut-Abdual (d) 4 1 2 3
(Mulla Qadir) Tawarikh
To which dynasty was Lalitaditya Mukt-
D. Ishwardas 4. Humayun Namah 1 apid, the ruler of Kashmir related?
Nagar (a) Utpal dynasty
%QFGU (b) Lohar dynasty
A B C D (c) Karkot dynasty
(a) 2 4 1 3 (d) None of the above
(b) 2 4 3 1 Which is a characteristic of Tughlaq archi-
(c) 4 2 3 1 tecture?
(d) 4 2 1 3 1. Descending walls
Consider the passage given below: 2. Arches and Beam
‘No one should interfere with the people’s 3. Use of cheap brown stone
religious beliefs, for no one deliberately (a) Only 1
chooses an incorrect religion.’ This view (b) Only 2
was expressed in (c) Only 1 and 3
(a) advice to Bughra Khan (d) All 1, 2, 3
(b) advice to Humayun What was the percentage of the production
(c) letter to Shah Abbas which Muqaddam received for the duty of
(d) message to Khusrau realization of revenue tax?
Which is the correct serial of Alauddin’s (a) 2½%
military expeditions? (b) 5%
(a) Gujarat, Ranthambhor, Chittor, (c) 5½%
Malwa, Jalore (d) 7%
(b) Malwa, Jalore, Gujarat, Ranthambhor, Match list 1 to list 2 and answer correctly—
Chittor
(c) Gujarat, Chittor, Jalore, Malwa, .KUV+ .KUV++
Ranthambhor
(d) Gujarat, Ranthambhor, Jalore, Malwa, A. Chandra Dev 1. Gahadwal dynasty
Chittor B. Dhang 2. Parmar dynasty of
Match list I with list II and answer with the Malwa
help of the following— C. Upendra 3. Chandel dynasty
.KUV+ .KUV++ D. Bhimdev 4. Chalukya dynasty
A. Malik Raza Farooqi 1. Jaunpur of Gujrat
Model Set - IV 5.27
%QFGU Given below are two statements, one

A B C D labelled as Assertion (A), and the other
(a) 2 4 1 3 labelled as Reason (R):
(b) 1 3 2 4 #UUGTVKQP
# The medieval Indian cul-
(c) 1 2 4 3 ture bears deep imprints of Persian and
(d) 4 2 3 1 Central Asian traditions.
Match List-I with List-II and choose your 4GCUQP
4 The ruling class patronized
answer from the code below: only the Persian and Central Asian culture.
In the context of the above statements,
.KUV+ .KUV++ which one of the following is correct?

$CVVNGU
;GCTQHVJG %QFGU
$CVVNGU (a) Both (A) and (R) are correct, and (R)
A. Battle of Rajmahal 1. AD 1527 is the correct explanation of (A)
(b) Both (A) and (R) are correct, but (R)
B. Second Battle of 2. AD 1529 is not the correct explanation of (A)
Panipat (c) (A) is true, but (R) is false
C. Battle of Khanwa 3. AD 1556 (d) (A) is false, but (R) is true
Which of the following is not correctly
D. Battle of Ghagara 4. AD 1576 matched?
%QFGU (a) Battle of Chausa–June, 1535
A B C D (b) Death of Sher Shah–May, 1545
(a) 2 3 1 4 (c) Bairam Khan’s regency–1556 to 1560
(b) 4 1 2 3 (d) Treaty of Purander–1665
(c) 3 4 1 2 Following were included in the Home
(d) 4 3 1 2 charges which drained the wealth to Eng-
Given below are two statements, one land up till 1858:
labelled as Assertion (A), and the other 1. The Company’s share holders were
labelled as Reason (R): given dividend out of the revenues of
India.
#UUGTVKQP
# During the first half of the
2. Interest on public debt.
Eighteenth century the Maratha confed-
3. Guranteed Interest on capital taken
eracy achieved its zenith of power ruling
for the construction of Railways and
over vast territory in western, central and
irrigation.
northern India.
4. Expenditure on India office. Which of
4GCUQP
4 The Rajputs supported the the following statements are correct?
Marathas against the Mughals. In the con- (a) 1, 2, 3
text of the above two statements, which (b) 2, 3, 4
one of the following is correct? (c) 1, 3, 4
%QFG (d) 1, 2, 3, 4
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is In the permanent settlement the share of
the correct explanation of (A) Zamindars was—
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is (a) 1/4
not the correct explanation of (A) (b) 1/3
(c) (A) is true, but (R) is false (c) 1/11
(d) (A) is false, but (R) is true (d) 1/6
5.28 Model Set - IV
Match the following: C. Colin Campbell 3. Jhansi

.KUV+ .KUV++ D. Hugh Rose 4. Kanpur
A. Local Self- 1. Lord %QFGU
Government Dufferin A B C D
B. Act of 1802 2. Lord Minto (a) 1 2 3 4
(b) 2 3 4 3
C. Foundation of the Indian 3. Lord Ripon (c) 2 1 3 4
National Congress (d) 1 2 4 3
D. Simla Deputation List 4. Lord Mayo Match the following—
(Viceroys)
.KUV+ .KUV++
5 Lord
$CVVNGU
;GCTQHVJG$CVVNGU
Lansdowne
A. Chinnava 1. Godkari revolt
%QFGU (1844)
A B C D B. Haji 2. Farazi Movement
(a) 1 2 4 5 Shariatullah (1838)
(b) 3 5 1 5
(c) 1 5 4 2 C. Alluri 3. Rampa uprising
(d) 3 2 1 5 Sitaram Raju
Which of the following came to be known D. Krishna Daji 4. Kittur uprising
as the Magna Carta of English education Pandit (1824)
in India? %QFGU
(a) Raleigh commission A B C D
(b) Hunter commission (a) 4 1 3 1
(c) Kothari commission (b) 2 3 4 1
(d) Wood’s despatch (c) 1 4 3 2
Which of the following pair is correctly (d) 1 2 4 1
matched? Modernization of Muslims in India was
(a) Gokhale—British Indlian Association started by—
(b) Narayan Malhar Joshi—All India (a) Sir Syed Ahmad Khan
Trade Union Congress (b) Abdul Latif
(c) Annie Besant—Servants Society of (c) Badruddin Tayyabji
India (d) Saiyid Amir Ali
(d) Dadabhoi Naoroji—Home rule
league The main objective of the ‘gurudwaras’
reform movement of the 1920’s was—
Match the following
(a) To run them on original traditions of
.KUV+ .KUV++ sikhism

$CVVNGU
;GCTQHVJG (b) To free them of the corrupt sewadars
$CVVNGU (c) To free them from official
A. James Outram 1. Delhi Jathedars
(d) To democratise the functioning of
B. John Nicholson 2. Lucknow Gurudwaras
Model Set - IV 5.29
#UUGTVKQP
# Gandhiji withdraw Civil Which of the following were involved in
Disobedience Movement in 1934. throwing a bomb at the procession of Lord
4GCUQP
4 He withdrew it because of Hardinge through Chandni Chowk (Delhi)
business pressures. in 1912?
(a) Assertion and reasoning are true 1. Pulin Das
and reasoning is the correct way of 2. Bal Mukund
explaining 3. Avadh Behari
(b) (A) and (R) are true but (R) is not cor- 4. Amir Chand
rect explanation of (A) (a) 1, 2, 3
(c) (A) is true but (R) is false (b) 2, 3, 4
(d) (A) is false but (R) is true (c) 2 and 3
Many castes tried to improve their own (d) None of these
social traditions and launched struggles Consider the following statements:
for higher status in the caste hiearchy. This 1. Chapekar brothers of Poona-Damodar
was dubbed as sanskritisation by: and Balkrishna-assasimated two
(a) M.K.Gandhi British officers
(b) Bernard Cohn 2. In London, Madan Lal Dhingra
(c) B. R. Ambedkar Killed Curzon While and India offic
(d) M. N. Sriniwas official
Write the correct chronological order of 3. The Hindu paper carried the inscriptor
the following events? Angrezi Raj Ka Dushman.
1. Round Table Conference-II (a) All the above are correct
2. Founding of Congress Socialist Party (b) Only 3 is correct
3. Dandi March (c) Only 1 and 2 are correct
4. Ordinance Rule of Willingdon Code: (d) None of the above is correct
%QFGU
mark the option which is correct.
(a) 1, 3, 2, 4
(i) R.C. Majumdar described the 1857
(b) 3, 1, 2, 4
Revolt as neither first nor national
(c) 3, 1, 4, 2
war of Independence.
(d) 1, 3, 4, 2
(ii) T.R. Holmes described the 1857
The main reason for criticizing the Gan- Revolt as conflict between civiliza-
dhi-Irwin pact was: tion & Barbarism.
(a) Communal electorate (iii) Jawaharlal Nehru said that 1857
(b) Banning of peaceful proces- sions Revolt was nothing but a Hindu-
(c) Lacked the provision of saving the Muslim conspiracy.
hangings of freedom fighter (a) ii
(d) Amnesty to the political prisoners (b) i & ii
The first tribal leader who was inspired by (c) all of the above
Mahatma Gandhi and his ideology was— (d) none of the above
(a) Alluri Sitaram Raju #UUGTVKQP
# Middle class played a
(b) Jadonang prominent part in National Movement.
(c) Jhabkar Bapa 4GCUQP
4 Middle class believed in
(d) Rani Gaidinliu terrorism.
5.30 Model Set - IV
(a) Assertion and reasoning are true Match List I (Year) with List II (Act) and
and reasoning is the correct way of select the correct answer using the codes
explaining given below the lists:
(b) A and R are true but R is not correct
explanation of A .KUV+ .KUV++
(c) A is true but R is false A. 1921 1. Bombay Small Holders
(d) A is false but R is true Relief Act
Which socialist leader ran awayfrom the B. 1926 2. U.P. Tenancy Act
Hazaribagh prison andassumed the lead-
ership of QuitIndia Movement? C. 1938 3. Oudh Rent Act
(a) Ram Manohar Lohia D. 1939 4. Agra Tenancy Act
(b) Aruna Asaf Ali
(c) Jai Prakash Narain %QFGU
(d) NarendraDev A B C D
The party which did not co-operate in the (a) 2 4 1 3
Quit India Movement of 1942? (b) 3 4 1 2
(a) Forward Bloc (c) 2 1 4 3
(b) Hindu Mahasabha (d) 3 1 4 2
(c) Communist
(d) Socialists
Answers
1. (c) 2. (d) 3. (b) 4. (b) 29. (a) 30. (b) 31. (c) 32. (b)
5. (c) 6. (c) 7. (a) 8. (c) 33. (d) 34. (b) 35. (b) 36. (a)
9. (b) 10. (d) 11. (c) 12. (b) 37. (a) 38. (b) 39. (c) 40. (d)
13. (c) 14. (a) 15. (c) 16. (c) 41. (c) 42. (c) 43. (b) 44. (b)
17. (a) 18. (b) 19. (b) 20. (a) 45. (c) 46. (b) 47. (c) 48. (c)
21. (b) 22. (c) 23. (d) 24. (a) 49. (c) 50. (b)
25. (b) 26. (d) 27. (d) 28. (b)
Model Set - V
Consider the following statements in (c) (A) is true but (R) is false
regard to Rowlatt Act: (d) (A) is false but (R) is true
1. Rowlatt Act was passed in 1919 What was the immediate cause for the
2. It was an act which gave the British launch of the Swadeshi movement?
government massive power to repress (a) The partition of Bengal done by Lord
political Activities. Curzon.
3. The act allowed that government to (b) A sentence of 18 months rigorous
arrest anybody without a trial for two imprisonment imposed on Lokmanya
years. Tilak.
Which of the statements given above is/are (c) The arrest and deportation of Lala
correct? Lajput Rai and Ajit Singh, and pass-
(a) 1 only ing of the Punjab Colonization Bill.
(b) 2 only (d) Death sentence pronounced on the
(c) only 1 and 2 Chapekar brothers.
(d) 1, 2 and 3
Which of the following is wrongly matched
Regarding the Indus Valley Civilization, (a) The Pitt’s India Act (1784): Board of
consider the following statements: Control to guide and control compa-
1. It was predominantly a secular civi- ny’s affairs
lization and the religious element, (b) Charter Act of 1813: Company’s
though present, did not dominate the monopoly of trade with India ended
scene. (c) Charter Act of 1833: Company’s debt
2. During this period, cotton was used taken over by the government of India
for manufacturing textiles in India. (d) Charter Act of 1853: To regulate com-
Which of the statements given above is/are pany’s affairs
correct? Who was the first Indian elected to the
(a) 1 only British House of Commons?
(b) 2 only (a) Dadabhai Naoroji
(c) Both 1 and 2 (b) Mahadev Govind
(d) Neither 1 nor 2 (c) Madan Mohan Malaviya
#UUGTVKQP
# Bhagvatism emerged fully (d) Mahatma Gandhi
in Gupta period. Who among the following Governor-Gen-
4GCUQP
4 Guptas were the followers of eral created the Covenanted Civil Service
Vishnu. of India which later came to be known as
(a) Assertion and reasoning are true the Indian Civil Service?
and reasoning is the correct way of (a) Warren Hastings
explaining (b) Wellesley
(b) (A) and (R) arc true but (R) is not (c) Cornwallis
correct explanation of (A) (d) William Bentinck
5.32 Model Set - V
Who among the following was the expo- 4GCUQP

4 Indians traded with Roman
nent of Visistadvaita philosophy? countries.
(a) Vallabhacharya (a) Assertion and reasoning are true
(b) Sankaracharya and reasoning is the correct way of
(c) Ramanujacharya explaining
(d) Madhvacharya (b) (A) and (R) arc true but (R) is not cor-
Match List I with List II and select the correct explanation of (A)
rect answer from the codes given below (c) (A) is true but (R) is false
the lists— (d) (A) is false but (R) is true
.KUV+ .KUV++ With reference to the period of Indian free-

dom struggle, which of the following was/
A. Stuart Piggot 1. Personality of India were recommended by the Nehru report?
B. Subbarao 2. The Birth of Indian 1. Complete Independence for India.
Civilization 2. Joint electorates for reservation of
C. B. and R. 3. Prehistoric India seats for minorities.
Alchin 3. Provision of fundamental rights for
the people of India in the constitution
D. H. D. Sankalia 4. Prehistory and
Protohistory of Select the correct answer using the codes
India and Pakistan given below:
(a) 1 only
%QFGU (b) 2 and 3 only
A B C D (c) 1 and 3 only
(a) 1 2 4 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3
(b) 3 1 2 4
(c) 1 2 3 4 Which of the statements about the trade
(d) 3 1 4 2 regulation in the Mauryan period is not
Why did Buddhism start declining in India correct?
in the early medieval times? (a) The state exercised control over the
1. Buddha was by that time considered as trade process and profit
one of the incarnations of Vishnu and (b) A levy of 1/10th was fi ed on
thus became a part of Vaishnavism. merchandise
2. The invading tribes from Central Asia (c) The state kept strict vigil on the sale of
till the time of last Gupta king adopted merchandise
Hinduism and persecuted Buddhists. (d) The state employed a few of the arti-
3. The Kings of Gupta dynasty were sans directly
strongly opposed to Buddhism. Among the following Presidents of India,
Which of the statements given above is/are who was also the Secretary General of
correct? Non-Aligned Movement for some period?
(a) 1 only (a) Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan
(b) 1 and 3 only (b) Varahagiri Venkatagiri
(c) 2 and 3 only (c) Giani Zail Singh
(d) 1, 2 and 3 (d) Dr. Shanker Dayal Sharma
#UUGTVKQP
# Tamralipti ceased to be a To which one of the following Sufi Silsi-
port in pre-Gupta period. lahs did shaikh Bhauddin Zakaria belong?
Model Set - V 5.33
(a) Qadriya From which period large scale land grants
(b) Naqshbandi were given to officers and other important
(c) Suhrawardi person?
(d) Chishti (a) Mauryan period
The foreign traveller who visited India (b) Kushan age
during the Mughal period and who left (c) Harsha’s Administration
us an expert’s description of the Peacock (d) Gupta period
Throne was— Historians are of the view that the British
(a) Geronimo Verroneo signed the Treaty of Bassien (1802) with a
(b) ‘Omrah’ Danishmand Khan ‘Cypher’. Who was this ‘Cypher’?
(c) Travernier (a) Baji Rao II
(d) Francisco Palsaert (b) Raghunath Rao
Consider the following statements: The (c) Nana Phadanvis
Cripps Proposals include the provision for (d) Daulat Rao Sindhia
1. Full independence for India. In 305 BC, which Maurya ruler defeated
2. Creation of Constitution-making body. Alexander’s general Seleucus Nicator
Which of the statements given above is/are and received the territories of Kabul and
correct? Balochistan?
(a) 1 only (a) Bindusara
(b) 2 only (b) Ashok the Great
(c) Both 1 and 2 (c) Chandragupta Maurya
(d) Neither 1 nor 2 (d) Dasharatha Maurya
Consider the following statements: #UUGTVKQP
# In the war of succession
1. The Cholas defeated Pandya and Aurangzeb killed Dara Shikoh.
Chera rulers and established their 4GCUQP
4 Dara was heretic.
domination over peninsular India in (a) Assertion and reasoning arc true
the early medieval times. and reasoning is the correct way of
2. The Cholas sent an expedition against explaining
Sailendra empire of South East Asia (b) A and R are true but R is not correct
and conquered some of the areas. explanation of A
Which of these statements is/are correct? (c) A is true but R is false
(a) Only 1 (d) A is false but R is true
(b) Only 2
(c) Both 1 and 2 Mahamastakabhisheka, a great religious
(d) Neither 1 nor 2 event, is associated with and done for
whom of the following?
19. During the Indian Freedom Struggle, (a) Bahubali (b) Buddha
why did Rowlatt Act arouse popular (c) Mahavir (d) Nataraja
indignation?
(a) It curtailed the freedom of religion. Panini, the first Grammarian of Sanskrit
(b) it suppressed the Indian traditional language in India, lived during the:
education (a) 2nd Century B. C.
(c) it authorized the government to (b) 6th–5th Century B. C.
imprison people without trial (c) 2nd Century A. D.
(d) it curbed the trade union activities (d) 5th–6th Century A. D.
5.34 Model Set - V
The Muslim League advocated a separate (c) Certain animal chimeras and their
Muslim State— anthropic figur
(a) At its birth in 1906 (d) Trees and their spirits
(b) During the Khilafat Movement As a prince where was Ashoka sent to
(c) In 1930, when it opposed the Civil suppress the revolt?
Disobedience Movement (a) Taxila
(d) At the Lahore Session of 1940 (b) Kalinga
The battle at Waihind in AD 1008–09 was (c) Ujjain
fought between (d) Deccan
(a) Mahmud of Ghazni and Jayapala The Sarvodaya Movement was started by
(b) Mahmud of Ghazni and Anandapala (a) Mahatma Gandhi
(c) Muhammad Ghori and Prithviraj (b) Jayprakash Narayan
(d) Muhammad Ghori and Jaichandra (c) Vinoba Bhave
The Arab conquest of Sindh took place in (d) Datta Dharmodhikari
AD 712 under the leadership of Amir Khusrau’s Khazain-ul-futuh gives an
(a) Muhammad bin Kasim account of the military campaign of—
(b) Qutub-ud-din (a) Malik Kafur in South India
(c) Subuktagin (b) Sultan Balban in the Mewat region
(d) Mahmud Ghaznavi (c) Muhammad Tughlaq in Gujarat
The depiction of the stones of the previous (d) Feroze Tughlaq in Orissa
lives of Gautama Buddha was first done in Which one of the following settlements
the art of comprised Zamindar as middleman to col-
(a) Sarnath Pillar of Asoka lect the land revenue?
(b) Bharhut Stupa (a) Mahalwari Settlement
(c) Ajanta Caves (b) Ryotwari Settlement
(d) Ellora Caves (c) Permanent Settlement
The era which is counted from AD 78 is (d) None of the above
the
#UUGTVKQP
# The battle of Talikota in
(a) Vikram era
1565 between Rama Raya and the Muslim
(b) Kollam era
rulers of Deccan occupies a significant
(c) Saka era
place in our History.
(d) Salivahana era
4GCUQP
4 (i) It brought the prestige of
Who was the first Englishman to preside Vijaya Nagar Empire very low.
over a Congress session? (ii) It also paved the way for Mughal pene-
(a) George Yule tration in south.
(b) Dufferin (a) Both A and R arc correct bur R (ii) is
(c) W. Wedderburn not correct explanation of A
(d) None of these (b) Both A and R arc correct and R (i) and
The Indus religion did not include the wor- (ii) are also correct
ship of (c) A is correct but R (i) and (ii) are
(a) Forces of Nature incorrect
(b) Mother Goddess (d) A is incorrect but R (i) and (ii) correct
Model Set - V 5.35
Which was the first National News Agency (c) Report of the Hunter Commission,
of India? 1862
(a) The Indian Review (d) Despatch of Sir Charles Wood,
(b) The Free Press of India Secretary of State, 1854
(c) The Associated Press of India Malik Kafur was whose General?
(d) None of the above (a) Balban
Who was the first Chief Justice of Supreme (b) Ala-ud-din khilji
Court of Calcutta? (c) Muhammad bin Tughluq
(a) Hyde (d) Firoz Shah Tughluq
(b) Elijah Impey
What is the correct chronological order in
(c) Lemaistre
which the following kings ruled in India?
(d) Monson
1. Bimbisara
Which one among the following is a Tamil 2. Mahapadma Nanda
grammatical treatise? 3. Kanishka I
(a) Pattupattu 4. Skandagupta
(b) Ettutogai Select the correct answer using the code
(c) Silappadikaram given below:
(d) Tolkappiam
%QFGU
Who was Francisco De Almeida?
(a) 1-2-3- 4
(a) Dutch Viceroy in India
(b) 4-3-2-1
(b) Portuguese Viceroy in India
(c) 2-3-4-1
(c) French Viceroy in India
(d) 3-1-4-2
(d) English Viceroy in India
Which of the following Socio-religious #UUGTVKQP
# Dr. Annie Besant organ-
Movements raised the slogan: ‘India for ised the Home Rule Movement against the
Indians’? British Rule.
(a) Prarthana Samaj 4GCUQP
4 She wanted to organise all
(b) Brahmo Samaj sections of Indian people on the basis of
(c) Arya Samaj a single political slogan above religious
(d) Satya Shodhak Samaj consideration.
Among the following, which Mughal (a) (A) is correct but (R) is not correct
Emperor introduced the policy of Sulh- (b) (A) is not correct but (R) is correct
i-kul? (c) (A) and (R) both are not correct
(a) Babar (d) (A) is correct and (R) is the correct
(b) Humayun explanation of (A)
(c) Akbar What were the ahdis of Akbar’s time?
(d) Shahjahan (a) Village level money-lenders
Which is called the ‘magna carta’ of west- (b) Village guards
ern education system in India? (c) Cashiers working in diwani
(a) The report of the Committee of Public (d) Foot-soldiers in the army
Instruction, 1823 Which one of the following is the cor-
(b) The Charter Act of 1833 rect chronological order of the invasions
5.36 Model Set - V
of north-west India after the fall of the Which one of the following is correctly
Mauryas? matched?
(a) Bactrian Greeks —Parthians— (a) Second Battle of Panipat—Akbar and
Kushans—Hunas Ibrahim Lodi
(b) Bactrian Greeks—Kushans— (b) Battle of Khanwa—Akbar and Rana
Parthians—Hunas Sanga
(c) Parthians—Bactrian (c) Battle of Chausa—Humayun and Sher
Greeks—Hunas—Kushans Shah
(d) Parthians—Hunas—Bactrian (d) First battle of Tarian—Mahmud
Greeks—Kushans Ghaznavi and Prithviraj Chauhan
Answers
1. (d) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (a) 29. (b) 30. (c) 31. (a) 32. (a)
5. (d) 6. (a) 7. (c) 8. (b) 33. (a) 34. (c) 35. (a) 36. (c)
9. (b) 10. (a) 11. (d) 12. (b) 37. (b) 38. (c) 39. (b) 40. (d)
13. (b) 14. (c) 15. (c) 16. (c) 41. (b) 42. (c) 43. (c) 44. (d)
17. (b) 18. (c) 19. (c) 20. (d) 45. (b) 46. (a) 47. (d) 48. (b)
21. (a) 22. (c) 23. (c) 24. (a) 49. (a) 50. (c)
25. (b) 26. (d) 27. (b) 28. (a)
Model Set - VI
Panini, the first Grammarian of Sanskrit property among his sons during his life
language in India, lived during the: time.
(a) 2nd Century BC 4GCUQP
4 The Mitakshara recognised
(b) 6th–5th Century BC the Sons’ right of ownership by birth in
(c) 2nd Century AD ancestral property.
(d) 5th–6th Century AD (a) Both A and R are true and R is the cor-
By a regulation in 1793, the District Col- rect explanation of A
lector was deprived of his judicial powers (b) Both A and R are true but R is not the
and made the collecting agent only. What correct explanation of A
was the reason for such regulation? (c) A is true but R is false
(a) Lord Cornwallis felt that the District (d) A is false but R is true
Collector’s efficien y of revenue col- The most important divinity in the Rig
lection would enormously increase Veda is
without the burden of other work. (a) Agni
(b) Lord Cornwallis felt that Judicial (b) Marut
power should compulsorily be in the (c) Varuna
hands of Europeans while Indians can (d) Indra
be given the job of revenue collection #UUGTVKQP
# With Kabir and Nanak the
in the districts. Bhakti movement took a new turn.
(c) Lord Cornwallis was alarmed at the 4GCUQP
4 (i) There was neither an
extent of power concentrated in the attempt to reform institutionalised Hindu-
District Collector and felt that such ism by attacking the system of worship.
absolute power was undesirable in one (ii) They did not consider it a means
person. of escape through submerging
(d) The judicial work demanded a deep consciousness in devotion.
knowledge of India and a good train- (a) (A) is correct but (R) (ii) is not correct
ing in law and Lord Cornwallis felt (b) (A) is not correct but (R) (i) and (ii) is
that District Collector should be only correct
a revenue collector? (c) (A) and (R) (i) and (ii) is correct
The main emphasis of Upnishads is on explanation to (A)
which aspect of philosophy? (d) (A) and (R) (i) and (ii) both incorrect
(a) Bhakti Which one of the following is correctly
(b) Gyan matched?
(c) Karma (a) Second Battle of Panipat—Akbar and
(d) Tapa Ibrahim Lodi
#UUGTVKQP
# According to the Mita- (b) Battle of Khanwa—Akbar and Rana
kshara school, a father could divide his Sanga
5.38 Model Set - VI
(c) Battle of Chausa—Humayun and Sher (c) Legislations

Shah (d) Liberal Education
(d) First battle of Tarian—Mahmud Which one of the following correctly
Ghaznavi and Prithviraj Chauhan matched?
The Temples at Khajuraho were build by (a) Prasenjit—Magadha
(a) Chandelas (b) Pallavas (b) Pradyota—Kosala
(c) Chalukyas (d) Qutubuddin (c) Kalasoka—Avanti
With reference to the Simon Commis- (d) Udayana—Vatsa
sion’s recommendations, which one of the Among the four dynasties listed below,
following statements is correct? which one minted coins made of lead?
(a) It recommended the replacement of (a) Mauryas
diarchy with responsible government (b) Satvahanas
in the province. (c) Western Kshatrapas
(b) It proposed the setting up of inter – (d) Guptas
provincial council under the Home Which one of the following is correctly
Department. matched?
(c) It suggested the abolition of bicameral (a) Brahmo Samaj–Annie Basant
legislature at the Centre. (b) Arya Samaj–Lala Lajpat Rai
(d) It recommended the creation of (c) Ram Krishna Mission–Keshab
Indian Police Service with a provi- Chandra Sen
sion for increased pay and allowances (d) Theosophical Society–Vivekananda
for British recruits and compared to According to Moreland, the Jarna signi-
Indian recruits. fied—
Put in correct chronological sequence, the (a) Total revenue assessment
successors of Shivaji (b) Total land revenue assessment
1. Sahu 2. Shivaji (c) Land revenue realised
3. Rajaram 4. Sambhaji (d) Net income of the ruling class
5. Ram Raja A new addition to social customs during
(a) 4, 3, 2, 1, 5 Rajput age was—
(b) 2, 1, 5, 3, 4 (a) Sati system
(c) 5, 4, 2, 1, 3 (b) Prostitution
(d) 1, 2, 3, 5, 4 (c) Child marriage
During the Civil Disobedience Movement, (d) Jauhar
who led the ‘Red Shirts’ of North-Western Give below are two statements—one
India? labelled as Assertion (A) and the other
(a) Abdul Kalam Azad labelled as Reason (R):
(b) Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan #UUGTVKQP
# There are instances of rural
(c) Mohammad Ali Jinnah resistance in early medieval Deccan and
(d) Shaukat Ali South India.
Which factor influenced most to eliminate 4GCUQP
4 Grants of agrahara and deva-
caste-system in India? dana rights to brahman as and temples
(a) Rationalism respectively undermined the rights of
(b) Job Opportunities villagers. In the context of the above two
Model Set - VI 5.39
statements, which one of the following is (d) Assignment of lands to officers for
correct ? their services.
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and R is the During the Gupta period of Indian history,
correct explanation of (A) the village affairs were managed by the
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true and R is not village headman with the assistance of
the correct explanation of (A) (a) Vishyapati
(c) (A) is true but (R) is false (b) Amatya
(d) (A) is false but (R) is true (c) Gopa
The Stone Age people had the first (d) Mahattara
domestic:
Match the Sufi Saints with the Silsilas
(a) asses
with which they were associated. Answer
(b) dogs
the questions on the basis of codes pro-
(c) horses
vided below:
(d) sheep
Match List I with List II and select the .KUV+ .KUV++
answer from the codes given below: A. Shaikh Nizamuddin 1. Qadiri
.KUV+ .KUV++ Auliya
A. Kumaraguptal 1. Vyaghra-bala B. Bahauddin Zakariya 2. Suhrawardi
parakrama C. Mian Mir 3. Chistiya
B. Chandragupta 2. Narendra-chandra D. Ahmad Sirhindi 4. Naqshbandi
C. Kachagupta 3. Sarvarajoch- %QFGU
chhetta A B C D
D. Samudragupta 4. Parakramanka (a) 3 4 2 1
(b) 3 2 1 4
%QFGU
(c) 2 1 3 4
A B C D
(d) 1 2 3 4
(a) 4 3 2 1
(b) 3 4 1 2 Which of the following events made the
(c) 2 1 4 3 English East India Company the legiti-
(d) 1 2 3 4 mate masters of the Bengal Subah ?
Which Saka ruler was responsible for (a) Battle of Buxar, 1764
important irrigation works in Saurashtra ? (b) Battle of Plassey, 1757
(a) Nahapana (c) Farrukh Siyar’s Farman, 1717
(b) None of these (d) Ibrahim Khan’s Farman, 1690
(c) Menander Which one of the following pairs is not
(d) Rudradaman correctly matched?
The Arthashastra is not concerned with
'ORGTQTU
0QDNGU
(a) Administration of tests of loyalty to
ministers. A. Babar 1. Tardi Beg
(b) Appointment of superintending B. Humayun 2. Bairam Khan
officers for industries C. Jahangir 3. Sawai Jai Singh
(c) Appointment of superintending
officers for a riculture D. Aurangzeb 4. Jaswant Singh
5.40 Model Set - VI
Krishnadevaraya maintained friendly rela- Which religious reformer of Western India
tions with the— was known as ‘Lokhitwadi’?
(a) French (a) Gopal Hari Dcshmukh
(b) British (b) R. G. Bhandarkar
(c) Portuguese (c) Mahadcv Govind Raiudc
(d) Dutch (d) B.G.Tilak
#UUGTVKQP
# Baji Rao-II took refuge Which one of the following pairs is not
with the British at Bassein and signed the correctly matched ?
subsidiary Alliance in 1802. (a) Gol Gumbaz : Hyderabad
4GCUQP
4 (i) Baji Rao’s Army was (b) Tomb of Itmad-ud-daula : Agra
completely defeated by Holkar’s Army, (c) Tomb of Shershah : Sasaram
(ii) Even the forces of Sindhia were routed. (d) Tomb of Rani Rupmati : Ahmedabad
(a) A is correct but R is not correct
(b) A is incorrect but R (i) and (ii) is During the Indian freedom struggle, what
correct accusation was made against Master Amir
(c) Both (i) and (ii) correct Chand, Awadh Bihari, Bal Mukund and
(d) Both A and R (i) & (ii) arc correct Basant Kumar Biswas ?
(a) Assassination of the Commissioner of
Which of the following treaties brought Poona
an end to the independent existence of (b) Throwing a bomb on ‘Viceroy’s pro-
Peshwa Baji Rao II ? cession in Delhi
(a) The Treaty of Purandhar (c) Attempt to shoot the Governor of
(b) Convention of Wadgaon Punjab
(c) Treaty of Bassein (d) Looting an armoury in Bengal
(d) Treaty of Salbai
Which type of ancient script did the Harap- Thesilver coinsof the Gupta period were
pans use ? known as
(a) Pictographic (a) Dinar
(b) Linear (b) Rupyaka
(c) Hieroglyphic (c) Satamana
(d) Symbolic (d) Karshapana
In collaboration with Dravid hare and What was the provocation behind the
Alexander Duff, who of the following demand of separate electorate etc. under
established Hindu College at Calcutta? fourteen points of Jinnah ?
(a) Henry Louis Vivian Derozio (a) Fear of the majority rule
(b) Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (b) Communal politics of Hindu
(c) Keshab Chandra Sen Mahasabha and Sikh League
(d) Raja Rammohan Roy (c) Disagreement with the proposals con-
tained in the Nehru report
The Indian National Congress was formed
(d) The challenge of the British gov-
during the Governor Generalship of—
ernment for drawing up an agreed
(a) Lord Ripon
Constitution of India
(b) Lord William Bentinck
(c) Lord Dufferin #UUGTVKQP
# Bhaga and Bali did not
(d) Lord Curzon feature in Post Gupta period.
Model Set - VI 5.41
4GCUQP
4 They were replaced by new (a) Mohammad Ali Jinnah
taxes. (b) Liaqat Ali Khan
(a) Assertion and reasoning are true (c) Nawab Salimullah
and reasoning is the correct way of (d) Shaukat Ali
explaining During Indian freedom struggle, which
(b) (A) and (R) arc true but (R) is not cor- one of the following happened earliest?
rect explanation of (A) (a) Simon Commission
(c) (A) is true but (R) is false (b) Gaya Session of Congress
(d) (A) is false but (R) is true (c) Tripuri Session of congress
When did the British pass a law making it (d) Gandhi-Irwin Pact
an offence to preach nationalism ? Which one of the following is the correct
(a) 1892 sequence of the victories of Babur?
(b) 1898 (a) Panipat, Chanderi, Ghaghara and
(c) 1900 Khanwah
(d) 1904 (b) Panipat, Ghaghara, Khanwah and
What was the reason for Mahatma Gandhi Chanderi
to organize a satyagraha on behalf of the (c) Panipat, Khanwah, Chanderi and
peasants of Kheda? Ghaghara
1. The Administration did not suspend (d) Ghaghara, Panipat, Khanwah and
the land revenue collection in spite of Chanderi
a drought The chronological order in which the fol-
2. The Administration proposed to lowing foreign travelers, viz:
introduce Permanent Settlement in 1. Nicolo Conti
Gujarat. 2. Abdur Razzaq
Which of the statements given above is/are 3. IbnBatuta
correct? 4. Barbosa
(a) 1 only Visited India is—
(b) 2 only (a) 1, 3, 4, 2
(c) Both 1 and 2 (b) 3, 1, 2, 4
(d) Neither 1 nor 2 (c) 3, 1, 4, 2
Which one of the following pairs is cor- (d) 1, 3, 2, 4
rectly matched? The official religion during the rule of the
(a) Vijayaditya–Invaded the Pallava king- Sunga dynasty was
dom three times (a) The Ajivika religion
(b) Kirtivarman II–Longest and most (b) Brahmanism
peaceful reign (c) Buddhism
(c) Vikramaditya I–Drove out the occupy- (d) Jainism
ing Pal lava forces from Badami Who was the founder of sultanate of
(d) Vikramaditya II–Last Badami Gujarat ?
Chalukya, overthrown by Dantidurga (a) Ahmad Shah
In the year 1946, who among the follow- (b) Muhammad Shah
ing joined the Viceroy’s Executive Council (c) Dilawar Khan
with the finance portfolio? (d) Zafar Khan
5.42 Model Set - VI
Match the following the Ottoman sultan as spiritual leader

of all Muslims
.KUV+ .KUV++ 2. The Khilafat committee was formed
A. Tughlaqabad 1. Alauddin Khilji in Bombay in March 1919 to defend
Fort the power of Khalifa.
B. Red Fort 2. Shah Jahan 3. Brother Muhammad Ali and And
(at Delhi) Shaukat Ali were two active Khilafat
leaders.
C. Hauz Khas 3. Firoz Shah Tughlaq
Which of the statements given above is/are
D. The City of 4. Ghiyasuddin correct?
Siri Tughlaq (a) 1 only
%QFGU (b) 2 only
A B C D (c) only 1 and 2
(a) 1 2 3 4 (d) 1, 2 and 3
(b) 4 2 3 1 Which one of the following officials
(c) 4 3 2 1 was not associated with Sher Shah’s
(d) 3 1 4 1 administration?
Consider the following statements in (a) Diwan-i-Saman
regard to Khilafat Movement’: (b) Diwan-i-Amir
1. ‘Khilafat Movement’, an organization (c) Diwan-i-Barid
that wanted to protect the position of (d) Diwan-i-Muhtasih
Answers
1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (b) 4. (a) 29. (a) 30. (a) 31. (d) 32. (c)
5. (c) 6. (a) 7. (c) 8. (a) 33. (a) 34. (a) 35. (b) 36. (b)
9. (a) 10. (a) 11. (b) 12. (a) 37. (c) 38. (a) 39. (b) 40. (a)
13. (d) 14. (b) 15. (b) 16. (b) 41. (c) 42. (b) 43. (a) 44. (c)
17. (c) 18. (a) 19. (d) 20. (d) 45. (b) 46. (b) 47. (d) 48. (b)
21. (d) 22. (d) 23. (a) 24. (b) 49. (d) 50. (b)
25. (c) 26. (c) 27. (c) 28. (a)
Part VI: Appendix
1
Appendix
Literary Feats of Ancient Period Samyutta Nikaya, Anguttara Nikaya,
and Khudduka Nikaya.
2GTKRNWU/CTKU'T[VJTGCG An anonymously (iii) #DJKFJCOOC 2KVCMC Deals with the
written maritime geography of east–west doctrines of the Buddha in a scholas-
trade during AD 80–115. tic manner. It contains seven texts.
/CPW 5OTKVK: Composed between 200 BC ¶� &JCOOCRCFC is a collection of 423 say-
and AD 200. ings of the Buddha.
-CNRCUWVTCU Written between c. 600 BC ¶� 6JGTCICVJC is a collection of poems
and 200 BC. They consist of Srautasutras, composed by the Buddhist monks.
Grihyasutras, Dharmasutras, and Sulva- 6JGTKICVJC is a collection of poems
sutras. composed by the Buddhist nuns.
The eighteen RWTCPCU are Brahma, Padma, ¶� $WFFJCŏXCOUC is a collection of legends
Vaishnava, Saivaor Vayavya, Bhagavata, depicting the twenty-four lives of the
Naradiya, Markandeya, Agneya, Bhav- Buddha.
ishya or Bhavisyat, Brahmavaivarta, Lainga ¶� 8KUWFFJKOCIIC Written by Buddha-
Varaha, Skanda, Vamana, Kaurma, Matsya, ghosha who lived in Ceylon in the fifth
Garuda, and Brahmanda. century AD.
Every RWTCPC deals with Sarga, Prati Sarga, ¶� &KRCXCOUCCPF/CJCXCOUC Chronicles
Vamsha, Manvantra, and Vamshachrita. of Ceylon, dating back to fourth and
Pali (Buddhist) canon is divided into three fifth century AD, respectively. These
2KVCMCU were continued as %WNCXCOUC (lesser
chronicles) by a succession of monks,
(i) 8KPC[C 2KVCMC Deals with the disci- till the fall of the kingdom of Kandy to
plinary rules and regulations for lead- the British at the beginning of the nine-
ing a monastic life. teenth century.
The texts comprises Sutta Vibhaga, ¶� .CNKVCXKUVCT CPF 8CKRWN[C 5WVTCU
Khandakas, and Parivara. Sanskrit works dealing with Buddhism.
(ii) 5WVVC 2KVCMC: The summary of the ¶� .CNKVCXKUVCTC The embellished story of
teachings of the Buddha. It includes the life of the Buddha. It is among the
Digha Nikaya, Majjihma Nikaya, earliest /CJC[CP texts. The text was
6.4 Appendix
utilized by Sir Edwin Arnold for his ¶� 2TCDCPFJC-QUJ: Written by

book, 6JG.KIJVQH#UKC Rajashekhara.
¶� 8CKRWN[C 5WVTCU Buddhist doctrines in ¶� *COOKTCOCF/CTFCPC Written by
nine books. Jaisimha
¶� The other important Mahayan scriptures ¶� 0CVWTCNKU *KUVQTKC Written by Ptolemy
are5CFFJCTOCRWPFCTKMC in AD 77 in Latin. It is about Indian ani-
8CLTCEJEJGFKMC5WMJCXCVKX[CJC mals, plants, and minerals.
-CTCPFCX[WJCand#UVCUCJC ¶� )GQITCRJ[QH+PFKC: Written by Ptolemy
UTKRTCLPCRCTOKVC in c. AD 150.
¶� 0GVVKRTCMCTCPC teachings of the ¶� *KUVQTKCE 2JKNKRRKECG Written by
Buddha, and RGVCMQRFGUJC, four noble Trogus Pompeius. Some prologues to
truths: Both these writings are consid- the chapters are preserved in 'RKVQOC
ered to be written by Maha Kachchana *KUVQTKCTWO 2JKNKRRKECTWO of Justinus.
(c. 487 BC). It throws light on the relations of
¶� #DJKFJCTOC-QUJCWritten by Seleucus with India and the Bactrian
Vasubandhu (fifth century AD). invasion of India.
¶� ,CVCMCU: Written during the second or ¶� )GQITCRJ[ QH +PFKC: Written by Pom-
third century BC. ponius Melas.
¶� /WFTCTCMUJCU Written by Vishakha ¶� *KUVQT[ QH $WFFJKUO: Written by
Datta during the Gupta period. Taranath, a Tibetan historian.
¶� /CJCDJCU[C Written by Patanjali. ¶� /CPK$MC$WO: It is the sacred history
He also wrote 8[CU$JCUJ[C (on Yoga of Tibet.
Sutra). ¶� $WUVQPUŏ%JQUŏ$[WP
DKTVJQHVJGNCY:
¶� #UJVCFJ[C[K: Written by Panini. It is in three parts, and gives information
¶� )CWFCXCJQ: Deals with the achievements about Indian history.
of Yasovarmana. Written by Vakapti. ¶� /QPWOGPVUQH%QWPVTKGU: Written by Al
¶� 8KMTCOCPMCFGXCEJCTKVC Written by Kazwin.
$KNJCP ¶� #+$QNFQP: Written by Al Beldori.
¶� 4COEJCTKV The story of King Rampal of ¶� &KEVKQPCT[ QH %QWPVTKGU: Written by
Bengal. Yakut and Atar al Bilad.
¶� -WOCTCRCNC %JCTKVC: Written by ¶� /CJCDJCTCVC: Shantiparva deals with
Jayasimha. Another book of the same TCL FJCTOC. 5CDJCRCTXC deals with the
title is written by Hemchandra. ideal of administration. #FKRCTXC jus-
¶� *COOKTC -CX[C Written by Naya tifies Machiavellian tactics in certain
Chandra, a Jain monk, in the fourteenth circumstances.
century. It is written in Sanskrit. ¶� #TVJCUCUVTC: An important law book;
¶� 0CXCUCJCUCPMC %JCTKVC Written by divided into fifteen parts. It is con-
Padmagupta cerned with the practical problems
¶� $JQLRTCDCPFJC: Written by Ballal. of government, describes its machin-
¶� 4CU/CNCand-KTVK-CWOWFK:Written by ery and functions (as is the case with
Someshwar. ‘Sukraniti’).
¶� 5WMTKVC5COMKTVCPCWritten byArisimha ¶� 0KVKUCUVTC: Written by Sukra.
¶� 2TCDCPFJC %JKPVCOCPK and 6JGTCXCNK ¶� 0KVKUCTC: Written by Kamandaka in the
Written by Merutunga KP HQWTVGGPVJ Gupta period. It is a metrical summary
EGPVWT[#& of Kautilya’s #TVJCUCUVTC.
Appendix 6.5
¶� 0KVKXCM[COTKVC: Written by Somadeva ¶� )CTIC5COJKVC: Written by Gargacharya.

Suri, a tenth century Jain writer; written The works from sixty-two to sixty-seven
in Sutra style. He also wrote -CVJC5CTKV belong to the post-Mauryan times (c.
5CICT. 187 BC–AD 320).
¶� 4CLPKVKMCNRCVCTW: Written by Laksmid- ¶� Rajsekhara was the author of
hara in c. AD 1125. -CX[COKPCUC and 2TCDCPFJMQUJC.
¶� ;WMVKMCNRCVCTW: Written by Bhoja in c. ¶� $TKJCVMCVJC 5NQMC5COITCJC: Written
AD 1025. by Buddhaswamin.
¶� 4CLPKVKMCPFC: Written by Devana Bhatta ¶� $TKJCMCVJC/CPLCTK: Written by
in c. AD 1300. Kshemandra.
¶� 4CLPKVKTCVPCMCTC: Written by Chandesh- ¶� -COCPFCMC0KVKUCTC: Written by Shikhar,
wara in c. AD 1326. prime minister of Chandragupta II.
¶� 0KVKOC[WMJC: Written by Nilkantha. ¶� 5GVWDCPFJCMCX[C: A RTCMTKV poem by
¶� 4CLPKVKRTCMCUJC: Written by Mitramishra. Pravarsena II, a Vakataka king (c. AD
¶� 2CTKUKUJVCRCTXCPC: Written by Hemch- 420–450).
andra in c. AD 1088. ¶� -CWOWFK /CJQVUCXC: A drama of five
¶� $TKJCV—-CVJC-QUJC: Written by Acts; written in AD 340 by Kisorika or
Harishena. Vijjika.
¶� $JCFTCDCJWō%JCTKVC: Written by ¶� 5TKPICTRTCMCUJ: Written by Bhopa.
Ratnananda. ¶� 0CV[CFCTRCPC: Written by Ramchandra.
¶� 8CLCUPG[KRTCVKUCMJ[C: It is a class of ¶� 0CVCMCNCMUJCPC4CVPCMQUJC: Written by
work designed to preserve the Vedic Sagarnandin.
texts correctly. Authored by Katyayan ¶� (QMWQMK
QT 4GEQTF QH $WFFJKUV
Vararuchi. -KPIFQOU: Written by Fa-hien.
¶� %JJCPFCJ5WVTCU: Written by Pingala. ¶� 6TKXCPFTWO 2NC[U: The oldest
¶� -COCUWVTC: Written by Vatsayana. complete plays—earlier than those
¶� 6JGTCXCNK: Written by Merutunga, a Jain of Kalidasa—written by Bhasa,
writer, in the fourteenth century. who lived in c. AD 300. They were:
¶� 5CVVCUCK
5CRVCUCVCMC: Written in /CFJ[COCX[C[QIC, &WVCXCM[C,
Sanskrit by the Satvahana ruler, Hala, $CNCEJCTKVTC, 2TCVKOC, #DJKUJGMC,
who ruled from AD 20 to AD 24. #XKOCTMC, 2TCVKLPC;QICPFJCTC[CP,
¶� -CVCPVTC: Written in Prakrit by 5XCRPC8CUCXFCVVC, %JCTWFCVVC, &WVC
Sarvavarman. )JCVQVMCEJ, -CTWCDJCTC, 7TWDJCPIC,
¶� 5XCRPC8CUCXFCVVC: A play written by and 2CPEJCTCVTC.
Bhasa, a poet and dramatist of Sanskrit, ¶� 8KUJPWUOTKVK and 8KUJPWRWTCPC were
during the Kanva rule. written in the Gupta period.
¶� Asvagosh was the author of ¶� /TKEMEJJCMCVKMC(or, the little clay cart):
$WFFJCEJCTKVC, 5CWPFCTCPCPFC -CX[C, A drama in Sanskrit, was written by
5CTKRWVTC 2TCMCTCP, 8CLTCUWEJK, and Sudraka, who flourished in the fourth
5WVTC-NCPMCT. century AD.
¶� 2TCLPC2CTOKVC5WVTC5CUVTC: Written by ¶� 4QOCMC5KFFJCVC: A work on astronomy
Nagarjuna, an exponent of Mahayana compiled during the Gupta period.
philosophy. ¶� -KTCVCTLWPK[CO: Written by Bhairavi.
¶� /CJCXKDJCUC5CUVTC: Written by ¶� 4CXCPXCFJC$JCVVKMCX[C: Authored
Vasumitra. by Bhatti, who was the court poet of
6.6 Appendix
Dharasena IV of Maitraka dynasty of ¶� &C[CDJCIC: A treatise on inheritance by

Vallabhi. Jimutavahan in twelfth century AD.
¶� 2CPEJCVCPVTC: Composed by ¶� 0[CU$JCUJ[C: Written by Vatsyatana.
Vishnusarman. ¶� %JCVWJUCVCMC: An authoritative work on
¶� 5CPM[CMCTKMC: A commentary on the Mahayanism by Aryadev.
Sankhya system of philosophy, written ¶� .KHG QH *KWGP 6UCPI: A biography of
by Ishwarkrishna in fourth century AD. Hiuen Tsang written by Hwui-li; trans-
¶� 2TCTVJCFJCTOC 5COITCJC: A work on lated by Beal.
Vaiseshika system of philosophy by ¶� -CUKMCXTKVVK: Commentary on the sutras,
Prashastapad (fifth century AD). written by the grammarian, Jayaditya.
¶� -CX[CFCTUC and &CUCMWOCTEJCPVC: ¶� $JCTVTKJCTK 5CUVTC: Composed by
Written by Dandin, a court poet of Nar- Bhartrihari, a contemporary of Dharm-
simhavarman II Pallava (AD 695–722). apala in seventh century AD.
¶� 2TCOCPC5COWF[C: Written by Dignaga, ¶� )CWFXCJQ: A Prakrit work by Vakpatiraja,
a follower of Yogachar school of the court poet of Yasovarman.
Mahayanism. ¶� Raja Bhoja of Dhara (c. AD 1025) wrote
¶� %JCPFTCX[CMCTCP: Written by Chandra- #[WTXGFC5CTXCUXC, 4CLCOTKICPMC, and
gomin in Gupta period. 8[CXCJCTC5COWEJ[C.
¶� 5WT[C 5KFFJCPVC: The true causes of
solar and lunar eclipses are given here. Officers in the ancient period
Written by Aryabhatta, the first Indian
astronomer to declare that the earth Rig Vedic Period
revolves in its axis. ¶� Rig Veda does not mention any officer
¶� $TKJCV 5COJKVC, 2CPEJC 5KFFJCPVKMC, for administering justice.
$TKJCLLCVCMC, and .CIJWLCVCMC: Written ¶� 8TCLCRCVK: Enjoyed authority over pas-
by Varahamihir during the Gupta period. ture grounds.
¶� *CUV[C[WTXGF: A work on veterinary sci- ¶� /CFJ[COCUK: Stands for ‘lying in the
ence by Palakapya. midst’; he arbitrated disputes in the Rig
¶� All the plays written in the Gupta period Vedic period.
were comedies. Women and Sudras fea- ¶� )TCO[CXCFKP: In later Taittiriya Samhita,
turing in these plays speak Prakrit. he was the village judge.
¶� From Gupta period onwards, greater ¶� #FJKRCVK: He was in charge of a thousand
emphasis is on verse than on prose. villages during the Epic Age.
¶� $JCIXCVIKVC: It was composed by Ved ¶� 5CXCPVC: A feudatory of Raja during the
Vyas in fourth century AD. age of &JCTOC5JCUVTCU.
¶� /KVCMUJCTC: A commentary on law ¶� After Vedic period, Ratnins were suc-
book of ;CLPCXCNM[C by Vijnaesvara, ceeded by Mantrins, Sachivas, and
who lived at the court of Vikramaditya Amatyas.
VI (Chalukya, c. AD 1075–1127). ¶� 5CODDCVVJCMC: Rajbhatas or high offi-
According to it, the partition of prop- cers, who were charged with general
erty might take place even without the affairs from (sixth to fourth century BC).
consent of paterfamilias, by agreement ¶� VQJCTKMCU/CJCOCVVCU: Judges (sixth to
among the sons. The right of the wife fourth century BC).
to inherit, if no sons were living, was ¶� /CJCOCVVCU: Officers who levied tithes
accepted. on produce (sixth to fourth century BC).
Appendix 6.7
Mauryan period ¶� The class of officers bringing news

of the people to the king is referred to
The chief officials according to #TVJCUCUVTC
by Asoka as the RCVKXGFKMCU whereas
were:
the views of the ministerial council are
¶� /CPVTKP: Chief Minister brought specifically by the OCJCOCVVCU
¶� 2WTQJKVC: Chief priest (Rock Edict VI).
¶� 5GPCRCVK: Commander-in-Chief
¶� ;WXCTCL: Crown Prince Satavahana period
The other fourteen chief officials or ¶� #OCEJCU: In charge of Anaras.
6KTVJCU mentioned in the #TVJCUCUVTC ¶� #OCV[C (civil governor) and /CJCUG
were: PCRCVK (military governor) were the
highest officials of a province. Other
¶� &CWXCTKMC: Chamberlain
functionaries of the Satavahana period
¶� #PVCTXGUKMC: Chief of the harem
were:
¶� #UCUVTK: Inspector-General of Prisons
¶� /CJCVCTCMC (great chamberlain),
¶� 5aOCJCTVC: Collector General
*GTCPKMCU (treasurers), 0KDC OCFJC
¶� 5CPPKFJCVC: Treasury Chief
MCTCU (officers in charge of registration
¶� 2TCFGUJVTK: Divisional Commissioner
of documents).
¶� 0C[CMC: City Constable
¶� )CWNOKMCU: The head of a military regi-
¶� 2CWTC: Governor of the Capital
ment consisting of nine chariots, nine
¶� 8[CXCJCTKMC: Chief Judge
elephants, five horses, and foot soldiers.
¶� -CTOCPVKMC: Chief of the Mines
¶� /CPVTK2CTKUJCVCFJ[CMUJC: President of
the Council Gupta period
¶� &XCTCRCNC: Chief of the Home Defence ¶� -WOCTCOCV[C: The minister in atten-
¶� #PVCRCNC: Chief of the Frontier Defence. dance on the royal governor.
In the Rock Edict III of Asoka, we find ¶� $CNCFJKMCTPKMC: Head of the army or the
new names of officials not found in the military.
Arhashastra, e.g., 2TCFGUKMCU 4CLWMCU, ¶� &CPFCRCUCFJKMCTPKMC: Chief of the
and ;WMVCU. police.
¶� 2TCFGUKMC: He was charged with the ¶� 4CPCDJCTKFCICTKMC: Chancellor of mili-
duties of revenue collection and police. tary exchequer.
¶� 4CLWMC: Performed a double function— ¶� 8KPC[CUVJKVK 5VCJRCMC: Minister of law
of the modern revenue and judicial and order.
officer. ¶� $JCVCUXCRCVK: Commandant of the infan-
¶� ;WMVCU: District treasury officers, who try and cavalry.
managed the king’s property, received ¶� /CJCRKNNWRCVK: Commandant of the ele-
and kept accounts of revenue. phant forces.
¶� 0CICNC8K[QJCNCMC: An officer men- ¶� 5CFJCPKMC: Dealt with debts and fines.
tioned in Kalinga Edict I. His duty was ¶� *KTCP[C5COWF[KMC: Currency officer.
similar to that of Paura-Vyavaharika of ¶� 6CFC[WMVCMC: Treasury officer.
Arthasastra, i.e., to administer justice in ¶� #WFTCPIKMC: Collector of the 7FTCPIC
district towns. tax.
¶� #PVCŌ/CJCOCVVCU: Mentioned by Asoka ¶� #WPC5VJCPKMC: Superintendent of silk
in his pillar Edict I. factories.
6.8 Appendix
¶� #ITCJCTKMC: Superintendent of the ¶� )TCOCMUJCRCVCNKMC: Village headman,

Agraharas. assisted by Karanikas.
¶� %JCWTQFFJCTCPKMC: Inspector General
of Police. Rashtrakuta period
8KUJC[CRCVK was assisted by Mahattaras ¶� 4CUJVTCRCVK: Head of a Rashtra. He
(village elders), )TCOKMC (village head- was equal to Uparika in Gupta admin-
man), 5CWKMKMCU (collectors of customs istration. His duty was to collect land
and tolls), )CWNOKMCU (officers in charge revenue; he could not alienate any rev-
of forests and forts), #ITCJCTKMCU enue without the permission of the king;
#UJVCMWNCFJKMCTCPKMCU &JTWXCFJKMC he could not appoint district and sub-
TCPKMCU (officers in charge of land rev- divisional officers.
enue), $JCPFCICTCFJKMTKVC (treasurer), ¶� -QUJVCRCNC or -QVYCN: Responsible
4CNCXCVCMC (accountant), etc. for law and order in towns and in their
¶� /CJCMUJCRCVCNKMC: Controlled Akshapa- immediate vicinity.
tala (record office of the district). ¶� 0CFICXWPFCU or &GUCITCOCMWVCU:
¶� -CTCPKMC: Officer in charge of documents. Hereditary revenue officers under
¶� 5CUC[KVTK-CTVTK: The officer who drafted Vishayapatis and Bhogapatis (in the
documents. Deccan); discharged the same functions
¶� -WNCRWVTCU: Checked corruption, worked as the ‘deshmukhs’ and ‘desh-pandes’ of
under Sarvadhya kshas. later times in Maharashtra.
¶� 2WTCRCNC7RCTKMC: Controlled the heads ¶� 8KUJC[COCJCVVCTCand4CUJVTC
of various cities. OCJCVVCTC: Elders of the district and
¶� #XCUVJKMC: Superintendent of elders of the province, respectively.
dharamsalas. ¶� 2TCFXKXCMC: The chief judge and legal
advisor (important in medieval Hindu
Harsha’s period kingdoms.).
¶� 5CTXCICVCJ: Probably, a member of the ¶� 'RKUEQRQK (overseers): Adhyakshas or
secret, service department. superintendents of #TVJCUCUVTC.
¶� %JCVCUCPF$JCVCU: Ordinary soldiers. ¶� #PVCRCNC: Responsible for the upkeep
¶� $TKJCFCUXCXTC: Cavalry officer. of roads and their safety, collected road
¶� $CNCFJKMTKVCU and /CJCDCNCFJKMTKVCU: tolls (#TVJCUCUVTC).
Infantry officers.
2
Appendix
ANCIENT INDIAN SOCIAL patience; kindness; purity of thought,
speech, and action; and will to do good
STRUCTURE to others.
The ancient Indian society had a particular sys- ¶� Kautilya says that Rajdharma requires
tematic structure of its own. The basis of this that a ruler should seek his welfare
social order is provided by the Rig Vedic con- in the welfare of his subjects. Manu
cept of 4KVCōcosmic order. Man and society emphasized that to protect Varna-
are integral parts of this cosmic order and have ashram, dharma is the integral part of
to be in tune with it. To achieve and maintain a Rajdharma.
social synthesis, man had to observe a number ¶� Manu and Yajnavalkya are the main
of social values which formed the basis of the advocates of the doctrine of three Rnas–
social order. Rsi Rna, Pitra Rna, and Deva Rna.
¶� An individual had to perform five
Mahayajnas everyday–Brahma, Pitra,
Important Facts to Remember Dev, Atithi, and Bhut yajna.
¶� The ancient Indian social order was ¶� Atithi yajna is referred to as Nra yajna in
based and regulated by Dharma. some works. Bhuta yajna is called Bali
¶� The objectives to be pursued by an Vaishva Deva yajna.
individual are Dharma, Artha, Kama, ¶� Pak yajna, Havir yajna, and Soma yajna
and Moksha. These are called four are special sacrifices performed by a
Purusharthas. householder.
¶� According to Yajnvalkya, the sources ¶� Vrihadaranyak Upanishad is the first
of Dharma are–Sruti, Dharmashastras, work to give a systematic description of
the practice of good, action agreeable Samskar.
to one’s resolve, and the desires arising ¶� Generally accepted Samskars are six-
from wholesome resolve. teen. But Asvalayan Grih Sutra refers
¶� Baudhayan mentions three sources of to eleven, Paraskar Sutra to thirteen,
Dharma–Veda, Smriti, and conduct of Vaikhanas to eighteen, and Gautam to
good persons. forty Samskars.
¶� Gautam lays down that Samanya dharma ¶� The first Samskar performed after the
consists of observance of virtues of birth of a child was Jaat Karma.
6.10 Appendix
¶� Upanayan Samskar marked the entrance ¶� According to Kautilya, a woman could

of boy into Brahmacharya Ashram. remarry if her husband’s family did not
Shudra could not perform Upanayan look after her and did not give mainte-
Samskar. nance allowance to her. Parashar lays
¶� Samavarthan Samskar marks the end down that a woman can remarry if her
of Brahmacharya and the beginning of husband is dead or impotent, or has
Grihastha Ashram. become Sanyasi. Narad adds two more
¶� One who devoted his whole life to study circumstances to these three. They are:
and did not enter Grihastha Ashram was if the husband has been outcast or is not
called Naishthika. Upakurvana was one traceable, a woman can remarry.
who became Grahastha after completing ¶� Of eight forms of marriage Brahma,
education. Daiva, Arsa, and Prajapatya are Dharma
¶� Baudhayan differentiates between forms. Asur, Gandharva, Rakshasa,
Grahastha having property (Saliua) and Pisach are Adharmaya forms. The
and one not having property (Yayavar). Stridhan of a woman who had entered
Vaikhanas Dharma Sutra puts Grahastha dharmay marriage was inherited by her
in four categories. husband. Otherwise, it was inherited by
¶� Pachmanakas were Vanprasthis cooking her father.
their own food. One taking uncooked ¶� When a man married a woman whose
food was called Apachamanak. Varna was lower than his own, the mar-
¶� Aitreya Brahman does not mention riage was called Anuloma Vivah.
Sanyas Ashram. ¶� If the bride was of higher Varna, the
¶� The marriage of the girl at an early age marriage was Pratiloma Vivah. Manu
had become a norm during the Smriti says that children of Pratiloma marriage
days. Manu advocates marriage of girl are Varna Samkar. Mahabharat declares
of twelve years and even of eight years. that children of Anuloma Vivah are also
While Mahabharat refers to marriage at Varna Samkar.
the age of ten. Baudhayana prescribes
that girl should be Nagnika.
Exercise
Which of the following constitutes What according to Yagyavalkya is not a
Dharma, according to Brihad Aranyaka? source of Dharma?
(a) Self-control (a) Vedas
(b) Charity (b) Sacred laws
(c) Kindness (c) King’s decrees
(d) All of the three (d) Practice of good
The term dvija, i.e., twice-born, was The proliferation of the Kshatriya class
given to the: took place because of the:
(a) Brahmins (a) Prevalence of polygamy amongst
(b) Brahmins and Kshatriyas them
(c) To the members of the first three varnas (b) Assimilation of foreigners as second-
(d) Learned Brahmins class Kshatriyas
Appendix 6.11
(c) Need to create a large warrior class According to Gautam, number of Sams-
(d) All of the above kar was
Which of the following were called five (a) Ten (b) Sixteen
Mahayajyas? (c) Twenty (d) Forty
(a) Rajsuya, Vajpeya, Purush, Asvamegh, The system of niyoga, approved of by
Brahma early Smriti writers like Manu, was:
(b) Rajsuya, Vajpeya, Asvamegh, (a) Marriage of a childless widow with a
Brahma, Pitra person approved by the family of the
(c) Vajpeya, Asvamegh, Brahma, Pitra, deceased husband
Atithi (b) Marriage of a childless widow with
(d) Brahma, Deva, Pitra, Atithi, Bhuta the brother or blood relation of her
Which of the following yajnas were per- deceased husband for the sake of
formed on special occasions? progeny
(A) Brahma, Deva, Atithi (c) Marriage of a virgin widow
(B) Faka, Havir, Soma (d) A custom by which the wives of dead
(C) Deva, Bhuta, Soma warriors jumped into the fir
(D) Deva, Paka, Havir The food or drink, which was completely
Jatis were different from varnas because: prohibited for the Brahmins was:
(a) Jati indicated a mere specialization in (a) Liquor
a particular art, craft, or profession (b) Meat
(b) Persons of a particular varna could (c) Both (a) and (b) above
change their professions (d) Food offered by the Shudras
(c) Both (a) and (b) above According to Manu, a bridegroom of
(d) Jatis were a mingling of varnas twenty-four should marry a girl of
The Samskar performed after completion (a) Sixteen years
of Brahmacharya stage was (b) Twelve years
(a) Keshant (c) Ten years
(b) Samavartan (d) Eight years
(c) Vivah For a bridegroom of thirty years, Mahab-
(d) Simantonnayan harat recommends a bride of
Which of the following samskaras or sac- (a) Eight years
raments was forbidden for women and (b) Ten years
Shudras? (c) Twelve years
(a) Chuda-karma (d) Fourteen years
(b) Upanayana The assimilation of foreigners into a
(c) Nishkramana caste-based society was a problem for
(d) Nama-dheya the social theorists. What was the status
Who gives the number of Samskars as assigned to the earlier foreign immi-
eighteen? grants by Manu?
(a) Manu (a) Kshatriyas
(b) Yajnavalkya (b) Fallen Kshatriyas
(c) Vaikhanas (c) Shudras
(d) Gautam (d) Mlechhas (untouchables)
6.12 Appendix
Who said that a wife can remarry if the %QFGU

husband is outcast? A B C D
(a) Kautilya (a) 3 2 4 1
(b) Manu (b) 3 4 2 1
(c) Parasar (c) 3 1 2 4
(d) Narad (d) 3 2 1 4
Which of the following authorities per- To which of the following traditional cat-
mits a young man to apply himself to win egories did the svayamvara (self-choice)
the girl of his choice by courtship or even form of marriage, which later became
by trickery and violence, under special popular among Kshatriyas, belong?
circumstances? (a) Brahma (b) Asura
(a) Manu (c) Gandharva (d) Arsa
(b) Kautilya In which form of marriage did the bride’s
(c) Vatsyayana father receive a pair of cows or oxen or a
(d) Baudhayana cow and an ox and gave the same to mar-
Two forms of marriage mentioned in ried couple?
Manav Grah Sutra are (a) Asur (b) Arsa
(a) Brahma and Arsa (c) Gandharva (d) Prajapatya
(b) Brahma and Shaulka Which of the following was not one of
(c) Shaulka and Arsa the more common instances of people
(d) Arsa and Daiva of one class adopting the profession of
According to Manu and Yajnavalkya, another class?
marriages could be performed: (a) Members of priestly and artisan
(a) in the same varna, but not in the same classes took to the profession of arms
gotra (b) Members of soldier caste figured as
(b) among men and women of the first merchants
three varnas (c) Vaishyas could be found officiating
(c) Both (a) and (b) above as purohitas
(d) between a man of a higher varna and (d) Vaishyas and Shudras became rulers
woman of a lower varna of mighty kingdoms
Match the following: Who according to Manu were Varna-
Shamkar?
.KUV+ .KUV++ (a) Mother varna was lower than father’s
A. Arsa 1. Girl marries a priest (b) Mother varna was higher than father’s
(c) Issues from Gandharva marriage
B. Gandharva 2. Girl’s father receives
(d) Issues from Pisach marriage
cows or money
The caste assigned to a cross between a
C. Asur 3. Girl’s father receives Brahmin and a Shudra female was:
and gives back cow/ (a) Kshatriya (b) Vaishya
oxen (c) Shudra (d) Nishada
D. Daiva 4. Marriage result- Who inherited Stridhan of a woman, who
ing from mutual entered Adharmany marriage?
attraction (a) Husband
Appendix 6.13
(b) Father The word Shudra appears in which Man-

(c) Mother dal of Rigveda?
(d) None of these (a) First
A widow could inherit the property of her (b) Fourth
deceased husband if: (c) Eighth
(a) She had no sons (d) None of these
(b) She had no male members in the Which of the following sects gave women
family an important place in their cult and insti-
(c) She had been divorced before the tuted orders of female ascetics?
death of her husband (a) Jains
(d) The deceased husband had a will to (b) Buddhists
this effect (c) Ajivikas
Which of the following is related to Ani- (d) Tantric sects
ravasita Shudra? Megasthenes divides Indian society into
(a) They engaged in Varta seven classes, of which the second class
(b) They did not engaged in Varta was that of:
(c) They could take food in the utensils (a) Merchants
of high varna (b) Farmers
(d) They could not take food in the uten- (c) Warriors
sils of high varna (d) Philosophers and teachers
The varna distinctions became pro- (A) Arrian says ‘none of Indian is slave’.
nounced in various spheres of life. In (R) Arrian’s description is based on Meg-
which of the following fields were these asthenese.
distinctions less rigid than earlier times? (a) (A) and (R) are correct and (R) is the
(a) Commensality correct explanation of (A)
(b) Craft-exclusiveness (b) (A) and (R) are correct but (R) is not
(c) Financial matters the correct explanation of (A)
(d) Judicial matters (c) (A) is correct but (R) is wrong
(d) (A) is wrong but (R) is correct
What was the primary social significance
.KUV+ .KUV++ of the caste system?
A. Keenas 1. One who studies (a) It helped in organizing the economic
and recites Vedas activity of the community
(b) It provided social security
B. Karmakar 2. Unpaid labour
(c) It helped in the maintenance of racial
C. Vishti 3. Wage worker purity
D. Brahmavadin 4. Shudra peasant (d) It controlled social tensions
%QFGU In ancient Indian social structure, the
A B C D term aniravasita related to
(a) 4 3 2 1 (a) Brahmanas and Kshatriyas
(b) 4 3 1 2 (b) Vaisyas and Sudras
(c) 2 1 3 4 (c) Shudras only
(d) 1 2 4 3 (d) People outside the varna classificatio
6.14 Appendix
The Yavanas, Shakas, and other foreign- (b) (A) and (R) are correct but (R) is not
ers were absorbed in the Indian society the correct explanation of (A)
as: (c) (A) is correct but (R) is wrong
(a) Mlechhas (b) Shudras (d) (A) is wrong but (R) is correct
(c) Sat-shudras (d) Kshatriyas The categories of persons temporarily
(A) Antyesti Samskar is not mentioned in enslaved were:
many Griha Sutras. (R) Death was not a (a) Enslavement by way of punishment
welcome event. (b) Prisoners of war
(a) (A) and (R) are correct and (R) is the (c) Enslavement of debtors
correct explanation of (A) (d) All of the above
Answer Keys
1. (d) 2. (c) 3. (c) 4. (b) 21. (b) 22. (c) 23. (b) 24. (c)
5. (d) 6. (b) 7. (c) 8. (b) 25. (b) 26. (d) 27. (b) 28. (a)
9. (b) 10. (c) 11. (d) 12. (b) 29. (c) 30. (b) 31. (a) 32. (a)
13. (a) 14. (d) 15. (b) 16. (b) 33. (d) 34. (b) 35. (a) 36. (b)
17. (d) 18. (c) 19. (b) 20. (c) 37. (c) 38. (d) 39. (a) 40. (d)
3
Appendix
Advent of Europeans in Pre-Modern Era
Exercise
Most European powers reached India The coming of the Europeans into India in
crossing the the late fifteenth and sixteenth centuries
(a) Red Sea was facilitated by their
(b) Pacific Ocea (a) geographical discoveries of the fi -
(c) Cape of Good Hope teenth century
(d) None of the above (b) superior naval power
Match the following: (c) the support of their home
governments
.KUV+ .KUV++ (d) All of the above
A. Portuguese 1. acquired zamindari of
villages of Sutanavti, Who laid the foundation for the Portu-
Kalikata, and Govin- guese in India?
dpur (a) Albuquerque
(b) Robert Clive
B. Danes 2. acquired Chander-
(c) France De Almaida
nagar in Bengal from
(d) Bussy
Mughal governor
Shajista Khan Who were the first rivals of the Portuguese
C. English 3. were more concerned traders?
about missionary (a) British
activities than trade (b) Arabians
D. French 4. introduced Cartaz (c) Indians
system (d) Dutch
%QFGU For how many years was the British com-
A B C D pany given the charter in 1620?
(a) 3 2 4 1 (a) Ten years
(b) 3 4 2 1 (b) Fifteen years
(c) 1 2 3 4 (c) Twenty years
(d) 4 3 2 1 (d) Thirty-fi e years
6.16 Appendix
In which chronological order did the Brit- (a) Cotton textile (b) Indigo
ish establish their factories at the follow- (c) Spices (d) All of the above
ing places in the seventeenth century? There was a triangular contest between
(1) Surat (2) Masulipatam the trading companies during the first half
(3) Madras (4) Bombay of the seventeenth century on account of
(5) Calicut their commercial rivalries. Which of the
(a) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 (b) 1, 3, 5, 4, 2 following did not take part in it?
(c) 1, 4, 2, 5, 3 (d) 1, 5, 4, 3, 2 (a) The English (b) The French
Who gave the East India Company the (c) The Dutch (d) The Portuguese
right to keep army? Which site was granted to French East
(a) Elizabeth (b) Charles II India Company in 1674 by Shaista Khan,
(c) James I (d) None captured by English East India Company
The East India Company began to use the during the Seven Years War, but was later
term, ‘Investments in India’ for restored to the French in 1763?
(a) their bullion imports to purchase (a) Pondicherry (b) Karaikkal
Indian goods (c) Chandernagore (d) Mahe
(b) the loot from Buxar for purchasing Match the following:
Indian goods
.KUV+ .KUV++
(c) the profits made from duty free inland
trade and the surplus from Diwani A. English East India 1. AD 1600
revenue Company
(d) the borrowed money from India mon- B. Dutch East India 2. AD 1602
eylenders for purchases in India Company
To get permission for trade English sent C. Danish Company 3. AD 1616
Captain Hawkins in 1608 to the court of
D. French East India 4. AD 1664
(a) Shahjahan (b) Jahangir
Company
(c) Aurangazeb (d) Bahadur Shah
%QFGU
Which of the following crops was intro-
A B C D
duced in India by the Portuguese?
(a) 1 2 3 4
(a) Coffee (b) Chilli plant
(b) 1 3 2 4
(c) Tobacco (d) Groundnut
(c) 2 4 1 3
Consider the following statements and (d) 2 1 4 3
mark the option which is correct. Which is the correct match?
(i) The first Portuguese governor was (a) Madras—Fransis De
Fransisco de Almedia. (b) Bombay—Job Charnock
(ii) The Portuguese established their first (c) Calcutta—Thomas Roe
factory at Calicut. (d) None
(iii) Goa was the early Portuguese capital
On the south–eastern coast, the English
in India, later on it was replaced by
established a factory at Masulipatam, in
Cochin.
1611, in order to
(a) iii (b) i and iii (a) Purchase the locally woven piece-
(c) All of the above (d) i and ii goods, which they exported to Persia
In which commodity did the Dutch trade at and Bantam.
Surat? (b) Gain control over the spice islands.
Appendix 6.17
(c) Build a small fort. (a) Misuse of dastaks by the English

(d) None of the above (b) Fortification of Fort William by the
English
In 1669, Marcara founded a French fac-
(c) Support to the claims of Ghasiti
tory at Masulipatam by securing a patent
Begum
from the ruler of
(d) Grant of English asylum to political
(a) Bjjapur (b) Golkunda
offenders from Bengal
(c) Ahmadnagar (d) Chandragiri
Which of the following was used by the
Which is incorrect?
Dutch for exchanging spices?
(a) Fransis De got Madras for the
(a) Silk (b) Cotton Textile
company
(c) Cardamom (d) Ivory
(b) The annual tax of Madras was 500
Pound Match the following factories of the Dutch
(c) In the eighteenth century, the popu- with the years of their formation in India
lation of Calcutta was more than the
.KUV+ .KUV++
population of Bombay
(d) Madras was given to the British as a A. Masulipalam 1. 1605
gift by the Nawab of Delhi B. Pulicat 2. 1610
The Danes founded a settlement at Tran- C. Surat 3. 1616
quebar in Tanjore district. They, however,
did not find a foothold in India and conse- D. Bimlipatam 4. 1641
quently sold their settlements in India to %QFGU
(a) The Portuguese (b) The Dutch A B C D
(c) The British (d) The French (a) 1 2 3 4
Danes established their trading centres at (b) 1 2 4 3
(a) Tranquibar (b) Srirampur (c) 2 1 3 4
(c) Tanjore (d) All the above (d) 2 4 1 3
What was the major factor for the British The Dutch transferred their headquar-
triumph over the French in India? ters from Pulicat to Negapatam in 1689
(a) Government support because
(b) Financial strength (a) Negapatam was close to Sri Lanka,
(c) British navy then a Dutch Island
(d) British diplomacy (b) Negapatam was a bigger and better
port
What were the reasons for the failure of (c) Strategically it was better located for
the Portuguese in comparison to success offering resistance to Mughal attacks
of the British? (d) All of the above
(a) Portuguese were intolerant and obsti-
Why was Bidera battle of 1759 important?
nate in religious matters
(a) It proved the superiority of the Dutch
(b) The position of traders in Portugal was
over the Portuguese
weak
(b) It led to an end of the rivalry of the
(c) They lagged behind in naval power
Dutch and the English
(c) It was the last effort of England to set-
What was the main cause of disputes between tle in South East Asia
the Nawab of Bengal and the English? (d) It ended the Portuguese trade
6.18 Appendix
Who were the interlopers? (c) British Parliament

(a) Mughal revenue official (d) Supreme Government in India
(b) Portuguese pirates in the Indian Ocean Which was the first presidency of East
(c) English merchants who, in spite of India Company in India?
the Company’s monopoly, traded (a) Hooghly (b) Bombay
independently (c) Surat (d) Calcutta
(d) Indian brokers through whom the
Europeans bought commodities from Which of the following statements about
India the battle of Wandiwash is correct?
(a) It was fought in 1760 between the
Which was the rival company to the East
English and the French.
India Company that failed in the end?
(b) In this battle, English General Eyre
(a) General Society
Coote defeated the French General
(b) Merchant Adventurers
Lally.
(c) English Company of Merchants
(c) Within a year, the French had lost all
(d) English Joint Stock Company
their possessions in India.
In 1534, the Portuguese secured permis- (d) All of the above
sion to build factories at Satgaon and Cli-
ittagong from the ruler of— The serial order of Portuguese settlement
(a) Agra (b) Bengal in India was
(c) Bijapur (d) Golkunda (a) Cochin, Goa, Diu, Bassien, Hooghly
(b) Cochin, Goa. Diu, Hooghly, Bassien
Who acquired Diu and Bassein from (c) Goa, Diu, Cochin, Hooghly, Bassien
Bahadurshah of Gujarat? (d) Goa, Cochin, Diu, Hooghly, Bassien
(a) Fransisco De Almeida
The French Company for the trade of the
(b) Nino da cunha
East India was founded in India by
(c) Alfonse de Albuqverque
(a) Colbert
(d) Alfonse de souza
(b) Francois Martin
In the clash between the Arabians and Por- (c) De la Haye
tuguese, in whose favour was Zamorin? (d) Francois Caron
(a) Portuguese
Who wrote to the Court of Directors that
(b) Arabians
‘the times now require you to manage
(c) He helped both
your general commerce with the sword in
(d) He remained neutral
your hands’?
In 1700, English factories in Bengal were (a) Gerald Aungier
placed under the separate control of (b) John Child
(a) A President and a Council (c) Josiah Child
(b) Board of Control (d) Job Charnock
Answer Keys
1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (d) 4. (a) 21. (c) 22. (d) 23. (c) 24. (d)
5. (b) 6. (b) 7. (a) 8. (b) 25. (b) 26. (b) 27. (a) 28. (d)
9. (c) 10. (b) 11. (c) 12. (d) 29. (b) 30. (c) 31. (c) 32. (b)
13. (b) 14. (b) 15. (c) 16. (a) 33. (b) 34. (b) 35. (a) 36. (c)
17. (a) 18. (a) 19. (b) 20. (d) 37. (d) 38. (b) 39. (a) 40. (a)
CHRONOLOGY OF INDIAN
HISTORY
Ancient India
BC Events
6000 Neolithic settlements in Baluchistan
4000–3000 Settlements in the Indus valley
3000–1500 Broad period of Indus civilization
3000–2500 Beginning/Early phase of Indus civilization
2700 Date of Indus seals found at Kish in Mesopotamia
2500–1750 Mature phase of Indus civilization; civilization of the great cities in the
Indus valley (Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa), in Punjab (Kalibangan) and
Gujarat (Lothal)
1750–1500 Later phase/Decline of Indus civilization; immigration of the Vedic Aryans
1500–1000 Early/Rig Vedic Period; settlement of the Aryans in Punjab and the western
Ganga–Yamuna Doab
1000 Iron in India
1000–600 Later Vedic Period; settlement of the Aryans in the central and eastern
Gangetic plains; emergence of janapadas or territorial kingdoms; Painted
Grey Ware (PGW) in the areas of Aryan settlement
817 Traditional date of the birth of Parsvanatha, the 23rd tirthankara
600 Beginning of Second Urbanization in India (eastern Gangetic valley); rise of
16 mahajanapadas
563–483 Hitherto accepted date of Buddha
542–413 Haryankas of Magadha
540–468 Hitherto accepted date of Mahavira
518 Gandhara and Sind satrapies of the Persian empire; Behistun inscription
of Darius 1
413–364 Sisunagas of Magadha
364–321 Nandas of Magadha
327–325 Alexander’s invasion of India
6.20 CHRONOLOGY OF INDIAN HISTORY
326 Battle of Hydaspes (Jhelum) and defeat of Porus (Purushottam) by

Alexander
321–184 Maurya Empire
305–303 Chandragupta Maurya’s war with Seleucus Nikator
272–268 War of succession between Asoka and his brothers
268–232 Asoka’s reign
260 Asoka’s conquest of Kalinga
257 Asoka’s conversion to Buddhism by Upagupta
250 Third Buddhist council at Pataliputra; Buddhist missions in South Asia and
the Hellenistic World
248 Independence of the Greeks in Bactria
232–184 Later Mauryas
184–75 Sungas (Pushyamitra-founder, Devabhumi-last Sunga)
182 Foundation of the Indo-Greek empire by Demetrius
166–150 Menander, the most important of the Indo-Greeks
141 Sakas conquer Bactria
94 Maues, Saka king in north-western India
75–28 Kanvas (Vasudeva – founder, Suserman – last Kanva)
58 Beginning of Vikrama samvat (era) by Vikramaditya of Ujjain; Axes I, the
second Saka ruler in north-western India
50 Emergence of Satavahanas in Deccan; King Kharavela of Kalinga
(Hathigumpha inscription)
2 Despatch of Buddhist missionaries from the Bactrian court to the Chinese
emperor
AD Events
20–46 Gondophernes, the greatest Indo-Parthian king in Taxila; St. Thomas in
India
45 Invasion of north-western India by the Yuechis under Kujula Kadphises, who
united the Yuechi tribes and established the Kushan empire
46 Discovery of monsoon winds by Hippalus, a Greek sailor
64 Chinese emperor Mingti sent agents to India for Buddhist texts
66 Arrival of Indian Buddhist monks, Kasyapa Matanga and Gobharana, in China
77 Pliny’s Natural History
78 Commencement of the Saka era by Kanishka
78–110 Reign of Kanishka; Heyday of the Kushana empire
continued...
CHRONOLOGY OF INDIAN HISTORY 6.21
AD Events
80–128 Resurgence of Satavahanas under Gautamiputra Satakarni and
Vasishtiputra Pulamayi
130–150 Rudradaman I, the greatest Sakasatrap in western India
226 Establishment of Sassanian dynasty in Persia
250 Disintegration of the Satavahana kingdom
320 Beginning of Gupta era by Chandragupta I
320–335 Reign of Chandragupta I
335–375 Reign of Samudragupta, known as Indian Napoleon for his military
conquests
360 Ceylonese embassy to Samudragupta’s court
375–413 Reign of Chandragupta II, westward expansion of the Guptas and peak of
Sanskrit literature
405–411 Fahien in India
413–455 Reign of Kumaragupta I; foundation of the Nalanda University
455–467 Reign of Skandagupta; first attack of the Hunas
467–540 Decline of the Gupta dynasty
500–527 Rule of the Hunas over North India under Toramana and Mihirakula
527 Defeat of Mihirakula by Yasodhamnan
543–755 Chalukyas of Badami (early Chalukyas)
547 Indikopleustes of Kosmas (Indicopleustes of Cosmas)
560–903 Great Pallavas of Kanchipuram
606–647 Harshavardhana’s reign
622 Commencement of hijra (Muslim) era
625 The embassy of Pulakesin II to the Persian king, Khusrau II
630 Harsha’s clash with Pulakesin II on the banks of the Narmada
630–643 Hiuen Tsang in India
630–1070 Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi
634 Aihole inscription of Pulakesin II
642 Conquest of Badami by Narasimha-varman I of Kanchi
643 Harsha’s quinquennial assembly at Prayag
648 Bhaskaravarman (king of Kamarupa) helped Wang Hiuen Tse (Chinese
ambassador) in restoring the successor of Harsha on the throne of Kanauj
675–685 Itsing at Nalanda University
continued...
AD Events
700–728 Reign of Narasimhavarman II of Kanchi; peak of prosperity and cultural activities
712 Arab conquest of Sind
743–789 Santarakshita and Padmasambhava (Buddhist monks) in Tibet
Medieval India
AD Events
753–973 Rashtrakutas of Deccan
760–1142 Palas of eastern India
770–8I0 Dharmapala, the greatest Pala, and founder of the Vikramasila University
783–1036 Gurjara-Pratiharas of northern India, founded by Vatsaraja of Rajasthan
788–820 Sankaracharya and his philosophy of Advaitavada
835–885 Bhoja of the Guijara-Pratihara dynasty; visit of Sulaiman, an Arab merchant,
to his kingdom
850 Capture of Tanjore by Vijayalayachola from the Pandyas
860 King Balaputra of Sumatra (Indonesia) establishes a monastery at Nalanda
871–1173 Imperial Cholas of Tanjore
883–1026 Hindu Shahis of Punjab and Kabul
915–927 Indra III, one of the greatest Rashtrakuta rulers; visit of al-Masudi (an Arab
traveller) to his kingdom
916–1203 Chandellas of Jejabhukti (Bundel khand); construction of Khajuraho temples
940–967 Krishna III, another great Rashtrakuta ruler, and his defeat of the Cholas
950–1195 Kalachuris of Tripuri in central India
973–1189 Chalukya dynasty of Kalyani (Later or Western Chalukyas)
973–1192 Chahamanas (Chaulians) of Sakambhari (Ajmer)
974–1233 Paramaras (Pawars) of Dhar (Malwa)
974–1238 Solankis (Gujarati Chalukyas) of Anhilwara (Kathiawar)
985–1014 Reign of Rajaraja chola; construction of the famous Siva or Brihadeesvara
temple at Tanjore
1000–1323 Kakatiyas of Warangal, Beta Raja I (founder), Prataparudradeva (last ruler)
1001 Battle of Waihind and defeat of Jaipal (Hindu Shahi ruler) by Mahmud of
Ghazni
1001–1026 Seventeen raids by Mahmud of Ghazni into India—sack of the Somnath
temple in the last raid
1014–1044 Reign of Rajendra Chola
1020–1030 Al-Beruni in India
continued...
AD Events
1022 Chola expedition to the Gangetic valley; defeat of the Somavamsas of Orissa
and the Palas of Bengal
1025 Chola naval expedition to Sri Vijaya and its conquest
1076 Merger of the Vengi kingdom with the Chola empire by Kulottunga I
1076–1435 Eastern Gangas of Orissa; construction of the Lingaraja and Jagannatha tem-
ples at Bhuvanesvar and Puri respectively by Anantavarman Choda Ganga
(founder); construction of the Sun temple at Konark in 1250 by Narasimha 1
(second Ganga)
1080–1194 Gahadvalas of Kanauj
1106–1141 Reign of Vishnuvardhana, Hoyasala ruler; his patronage of Ramanuja; con-
struction of the famous Hoysalesvara or Vishnu temple at Halebid
1118–1205 Senas of Bengal; Vijayasena (founder); Lakshmanasena (last ruler)
1175 Muhammad of Ghur’s conquest of the Punjab
1178 Muhammad’s defeat by Mularaja II, the Solanki ruler of Gujarat
1189–1311 Yadavas of Devagiri; founder – Bhillama; last ruler – Ramachandra
1191 First battle of Tarain and Prithviraj’s victory over Muhammad
1192 Second battle of Tarain and Muhammad’s victory over Prithviraj
1194 Battle of Chandwar and defeat and murder of Jayachandra (Gahadvala ruler
of Kanauj) by Muhammad
1202 Conquest of Bihar and Bengal by Bakhtiyar Khalji
1206 Death of Muhammad of Ghur and establishment of Delhi sultanate by Qutub-
ud-din Aibak
1206–1290 Slave Sultans of Delhi
1211–1236 Reign of Iltutmish and consolidation of Turkish rule in North India
1216–1323 Pandyas of Madurai
1221 Invasion of North-West India by Chengiz Khan
1228 Conquest of Kamarupa by Sukhapa, the first Ahom king
1231 Completion of the construction of Qutb Minar at Delhi
1266–1286 Reign of Balban
1288–1293 Marco Polo (the Venetian traveller) in India
1290–1320 Khaljis of the Delhi sultanate
1296–1316 Reign of Alauddin Khalji and his reforms and conquests
1296–1306 Mongol attacks and their repulsion by Alauddin
1309–1311 Malik Kafiir’s expedition into South India
1320–1414 Tughluqs of Delhi
1325–1351 Reign of Muhammad bin Tughluq
1327 Transfer of capital from Delhi to Daulatabad
continued...
AD Events
1329 Issue of copper token currency
1334–1337 Sultanate of Madurai
1336–1652 Vijayanagar empire
1336–1342 Ibn Battutah’s stay in India (Moroccan traveller)
1337 Muhammad bin Tughluq’s expedition to Karajal
1339–1561 Shahmiri dynasty of Kashmir
1345–1538 Ilyas Shahi dynasty of Bengal
1347–1518 Bahmani kingdom
1351–1388 Firoz Shah Tughluq’s reign
1361 Firoz Shah’s invasion of Orissa (Jajnagar)
1389–1601 Faruqi kingdom of Khartdesh
1394–1505 Sharqui kingdom of Jaunpur
1398 Timur’s invasion of India
1401–1436 Ghurid dynasty of Malwa
1407–1572 Kingdom of Gujarat under the Shahs
1414–1451 Sayyids of Delhi
1420 Visit of Nicolo de Conti (Venetian traveller to Vijaynagar)
1429 Transfer of Bahmani capital from Gulbarga to Bidar by Ahmad Shah Wali
1435–1542 Gajapatis of Orissa
1436–1531 Khalji Sultans of Malwa
1438–1468 Reign of Rana Kumbha in Mewar
1443 Abdur Razak’s (Persian) visit to India
1451–1526 Lodhi Sultans of Delhi
1469 Birth of Guru Nanak
1481 Murder of Muhammad Gawan, wazir (1463–81) of the Bahmani kingdom and
beginning of its disintegration
1490–1633 Nizam Shahis of Ahmadnagar
1490–1686 Adil Shahis of Bijapur
1490–1574 Imad Shahis of Berar
1498 Vasco da Gama in Calicut
1506 Transfer of capital from Delhi to Agra by Sikandar Lodhi
1509–1528 Reign of Rana Sanga in Mewar
1509–1529 Reign of Sri Krishna Deva Raya; visits of Paes and Barbosa (both
Portuguese) to Vijayanagar
1510 Conquest of Goa by the Portuguese
1518–1687 Qutb Shahis of Golconda
continued...
AD Events
1526 First battle of Panipat and defeat of Ibrahim Lodhi by Babur
1527 Battle of Khanwa and defeat of Rana Sanga by Babur
1528–1619 Barid Shahis of Bidar
1529 Battle of Ghagara and Babur’s defeat of Afghans under Muhammad Lodhi
1535 Visit of Nuniz (Portuguese) to Vijayanagar
1539 Battle of Chausa and first defeat of Humayun by Sher Shah
1540 Battle of Bilgram (or Kanauj) and second and final defeat of Humayun by
Sher Shah
1540–1555 Sur empire
1542 Birth of Akbar at Amarkot
1545 Battle of Kalinjar and death of Sher Shah Sur
1555 Reconquest of Delhi by Humayun
1556 Second battle of Panipat and defeat of Afghans under Hemu by Akbar
1556–1605 Akbar’s reign
1556–1560 Regency of Bairam Khan
1562 Akbar’s marriage with a princess of Amber
1564 Akbar’s abolition of the jizya and his victory over Rani Durgavati of
Garhkatanga
1565 Battle of Talikota and destruction of the city of Vijayanagar
1569 Birth of Akbar’s eldest son, Salim, with the blessings of Salim Chisti
1571 Foundation of Fatehpur Sikri
1573 Introduction of dagh and chahra by Akbar, construction of Buland Darwaza
at Fatehpur Sikri
1575 Battle of Tukaroi and defeat of Daud Khan of Bengal by Akbar
1576 Battle of Haldighati (or Gogunda) and defeat of Rana Pratap by the Mughals
under Raja Man Singh of Amber
1579 Introduction of the dahsala system in revenue administration; issue of the
mahjar or the so-called ‘infallibility decree’ by Akbar
1582 Proclamation of Tauhit-i-llahi or Din-i-Ilahi by Akbar
1589 Death of Todar Mal and Bhagwan Das
1595–1600 Defence of Ahmadnagar by Chand Bibi
1596 Introduction of the dual rank (mansab) of zat and sawar
1602 Murder of Abul Fazl by Bir Singh Bundela at the instigation of Prince Salim
1605–1627 Reign of Jahangir
1606 Rebellion of Prince Khusrau and execution of the fifth Sikh Guru Arjun by Jahangir
1608–1626 Prime ministership of Malik Ambar of Ahmadnagar; his military exploits and
administrative reforms
continued...
AD Events
1611 Nur Jahan’s marriage with Jahangir
1612 Annexation of Kooch Hajo to the Mughal empire
1615 Conclusion of peace with Mewar under Rana Amar Singh
1622–1624 Rebellion of Prince Khurram (Shah Jahan)
1626 Rebellion of Mahabat Khan and temporary arrest of Jahangir
1627–1658 Reign of Shah Jahan
1631 Death of Mumtaz Mahal
1636 Imposition of treaties on Bijapur and Golconda by Shah Jahan: appointment
of Aurangzeb as viceroy of the Deccan
1656 Annexation of Javli by Sivaji
1656–1658 War of succession among the four sons of Shah Jahan
1658 Battles of Dharmat (April) and Samugarh (May) in which Dara was defeated
by Aurangzeb; imprisonment of Shah Jahan by Aurangzeb (June) at Agra;
coronation of Aurangzeb
1658–1707 Aurangzeb’s reign
1659 Battles of Khajwah and Deorai in which Dara was finally defeated; capture
and execution of Dara; imprisonment of Murad (who was ultimately executed
in 1661); murder of Afzal Khan by Sivaji
1660 Expulsion of Shuja from Bengal to Arakan; appointment of Mir Jumla as
governor of Bengal
1661 Mughal capture of Cooch Behar
1662 Mir Jumla’s invasion of Assam and imposition of a treaty on Ahoms
1664 Sack of Surat by Sivaji
1665 Conclusion of the treaty of Purandhar between Sivaji and Jai Singh
1666 Death of Shah Jahan; Sivaji’s visit to Agra and escape
1668 Issue of new religious ordinances by Aurangzeb
1669 Revolt of the Jats under Gokia
1670 Second sack of Surat by Sivaji
1671 Revolt of Chatrasal Bundela
1672 Satnami rebellion; revolt of Afridis in the north-west
1674 Shivaji’s coronation and assumption of the title of chatrapati
1675 Execution of Guru Tegh Bahadur (ninth Guru of the Sikhs)
1678 Death of Raja Jaswant Singh of Marwar
1679 Reimposition of jizya by Aurangzeb; rebellion of Rathors of Marwar under
Durgadas and Marwar campaign by the Mughals
1680 Death of Sivaji; rebellion of Prince Akbar
1681 Aurangzeb’s arrival in Deccan in pursuit of his rebellious son, Akbar
continued...
AD Events
1686 Conquest and annexation of Bijapur
1687 Conquest and annexation of Golconda
1689 Capture and execution of Sambhaji by the Mughal commander Muqarrab
Khan at Sangamesvar; accession of Rajaram to the Maratha throne
1700 Death of Rajaram and accession of Sivaji II with Tarabai as regent
1707 Death of Aurangzeb at Aurangabad; release of Shahu from Mughal captivity;
beginning of civil war between Shahu and Tarabai
1708 Battle of Khed and occupation of Satara by Shahu; coronation of Shahu as
chatrapati and grant of title of senakarte to Balaji Viswanath by him
1713–1720 Peshwaship of Balaji Viswanath
1714 Final defeat and imprisonment of Tarabai by Shahu, thus bringing the civil
war to an end
1719 Conclusion of an agreement between Balaji Viswanath and the Sayyid
brothers
1720–1740 Peshwaship of Baji Rao I; beginning of the system of Maratha confederacy
and northward expansion of the Marathas
1740–1761 Peshwaship of Balaji Baji Rao (Nana Saheb); further expansion of Maratha
power and influence
1749 Death of Shahu and further strengthening of the position of the Peshwa
1761 Third battle of Panipat between Marathas and Afghans; death of Peshwa
Balaji Baji Rao
Modern India
AD Events
1707 Battle of Jajau, accession of Bahadur Shah I

1708 Death of Guru Gobind Singh
1712 Death of Bahadur Shah I, accession of Jahandar Shah
1713 Accession of Farukh Siyar, murder of Jahandar Shah
1714 Hussain Ali becomes viceroy of the Deccan, Treaty between Hussain Ali
and the Marathas
1716 Execution of Banda Bahadur, Surman Embassy to the Imperial Court
1717 Emperor Farukh Siyar’s firman to East India Company. Appointment of
Murshid Quli Khan as governor of Bengal
1719 Farukh Siyar put to death, accession and deposition of puppet emperors,
accession of Muhammad Shah
1720 Fall of the Sayyid brothers
continued...
AD Events
1724 Appointment of Saadat Khan as governor of Oudh, virtual independence
of the Nizam in the Deccan, appointment of Qamaruddin as wazir
1739 Nadir Shah took Delhi and sacked it, death of Shuja-ud-din and appoint-
ment of his son, Sarfaraz, as governor of Bengal, capture of Bassein and
Salsette by the Marathas
1740 Alivardi Khan defeated and killed Sarfaraz Khan and became Nawab of
Bengal
1742 Marathas invaded Bengal, appointment of Dupleix as governor of
Pondicherry
1744–1748 First Carnatic (Anglo–French) War
1745 Rohillas in occupation of Rohilkhand
1746 Capture of Madras by La Bourdonnais
1747 Invasion by Ahmad Shah Abdali
1748 Death of Nizam Chinquilich Khan, death of Emperor Muhammad Shah,
accession of Ahmad Shah
1749 Restoration of Madras to the English
1749–1754 Second Carnatic War
1750 Defeat and death of Nizam Nasir Jang, Muzaffar Jung became Nizam
1751 Capture and defence of Arcot by Robert Clive, death of Muzaffar Jang,
accession of Salabat Jang as Nizam, conclusion of treaty by Nawab
Alivardi Khan with the Marathas by surrendering Cuttack
1754 Recall of Dupleix, Godehu’s appointment as governor and his treaty with
the English, accession of Alamgir II
1756 Death of Alivardi Khan (21 April), accession of Siraj-ud-daula who cap-
tured Calcutta (20 June)
1757 Recovery of Calcutta by the English (2 January), Delhi and Mathura
sacked by Ahmad Shah Abdali (January), treaty of Alinagar between Siraj
and the English (9 February), capture of Chandernagore by the English
(March), battle of Plassey (23 June), Mir Jafar installed as Nawab (28
June), capture and execution of Siraj-ud-daula (2 July)
1758–1763 Third Carnatic War
1758 Arrival of Lally in India, occupation of Panjab by the Maratha,
Masulipatnam captured by Forde
1759 Battle of Bedara, Princc Ali Gauhar’s futile invasion of Bihar, Emperor
Alamgir II murdered by Ghazi-ud-din
1760 Battle of Wandiwash, battle of Udgir, installation of Mir Qasim as Nawab
of Bengal, Vansittart appointed governor in Bengal
1761 Third battle of Panipat (14 January), surrender of Pondicherry to the
English, accession of Ali Gauhar as Emperor Shah Alam II, appointment
of Shuja-ud-daula as wazir, Haider Ali king of Mysore
continued...
AD Events
1763 Mir Qasim driven out of Bengal and Bihar
1764 Battle of Buxar
1765 Death of Mir Jafar, second governorship of Clive in Bengal, treaty of
Allahabad, grant of the diwani of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa by Shah Alam
II to the Company
1766 Acquisition by the Company of the Northern Circars
1766–1769 First Mysore War
1767 Departure of Clive, Verelest, governor in Bengal
1770 The Great Bengal Famine
1772 Warren Hastings appointed governor of Bengal, death of Peshwa
Madhava Rao, accession and murder of Peshwa Narayan Rao
1773 Enactment of the Regulating Act, Peshwaship of Raghunath Rao or
Raghoba
1774 Accession of Narayan Rao as peshwa, the Rohilla War, Warren Hastings
installed as governor general, establishment of Supreme Court in
Calcutta
1775 Trial and execution of Nanda Kumar, commencement of the First Maratha
War, which continued till 1782
1776 Treaty of Purandhar
1779 Convention of Wadgaon
1780 Gwalior captured by General Popham, Second Mysore War (1780–1784)
1781 Deposition of Chait Singh, Amendment of the Regulating Act
1782 Affair of the Begums of Oudh, the treaty of Salbai, death of Haider Ali
1783 Fox’s India Bill
1784 Treaty of Mangalore closed the Second Mysore War, Pitt’s India Act
1785 Warren Hastings resigned from governor generalship
1786 Lord Cornwall is appointed governor general
1790 Commencement of the Third Mysore War (1790–1792)
1792 Treaty of Seringapatnam ended the Third Mysore War, Ranjit Singh
became the leader of a Sikh misl
1793 Permanent settlement of land revenue in Bengal, renewal of the
Company’s Charter, retirement of Lord Cornwallis, Sir John Shore made
governor general
1794 Death of Mahadji Sindhia
1795 The battle of Kharda or Khardla, death of Ahalya Bai
1796 Death of Peshwa Madhav Rao Narayan, Baji Rao II Peshwa
1797 Zaman Shah in Punjab, death of Nawab Asaf-ud-daula of Oudh
continued...
AD Events
1798 Lord Wellesley governor general; acceptance of Subsidiary Alliance by
the Nizam
1799 Fourth Mysore War, death of Tipu, fall of Seringapatnam, partition of
Mysore, installation of the Hindu Raja’s family in Mysore, Ranjit Singh
appointed governor of Lahore by Zaman Shah, Malcolm led English mis-
sion to Persia, opening of the Baptist Mission at Serampore by William
Carey
1800 Death of Nana Phadnis
1801 Carnatic annexed to the British empire
1802 The battle of Poona, Treaty of Bassein
1803 The Second Maratha War (1803–1805), capture of Aligarh, Battles of
Delhi, Assaye, Laswari and Argaon; treaty of Deogaon and cession of
Cuttack, treaty of Surji Arjungaon
1804 War with the Holkar, defeat of Monson, battle of Deeg
1805 Failure of the English siege of Bharatpur, recall of Lord Wellesley, second
term of Lord Cornwallis as governor general, death of Lord Cornwallis, Sir
George Barlow governor general, treaty with the Holkar
1806 Vellore Mutiny
1807 Lord Minto I appointed governor general (1807–1813)
1808 English missions under Malcolm to Persia and under Elphinstone to
Kabul
1809 Treaty of Amritsar between the English and Ranjit Singh
1813 Company’s Charter renewed, retirement of Lord Minto I, appointment of
Lord Hastings as governor general (1813–1823)
1814 Outbreak of War with Nepal (1814–1816)
1816 Treaty of Sagauli closed war with Nepal
1817–18 The Pindari war and the Third Maratha War, battles of Kirkee and
Sitabaldi, deposition of Appa Shaheb Bhonsle, battle of Mahidpur, treaty
with the Holkar
1818 Battle of Ashti, defence of Koregaon, surrender of Peshwa Baji Rao 11
1819 Capitulation of Asirgarh, abolition of the Peshwaship and retirement of
Baji Rao II to Bithur as a British pensioner, protective alliances with the
states of Raiputana, earthquakes
1820 Appointment of Sir Thomas Munro as governor of Madras (1820–1827)
1823 Departure of Lord Hastings, Adams acting governor general, Lord
Amherst governor general
1824 The first Burmese War (1824–1826), Barrackpore Mutiny
1826 Fall of Bharatpur, treaty of Yandabo, annexation of Assam, Arakan and
Tennasserim
continued...
AD Events
1827 The Enterprise, a man-of-war propelled by steam, lay off Madras
1828 Lord William Bentinck appointed governor general (1828–1836)
1829–1837 Suppression of Thuggee
1830 Annexation of Cachar, Raja Rammohan Roy visited England
1831 Deposition of the Raja of Mysore and assumption of its administration by
the English, journey of Burnes up the Indus, meeting at Rupar between
Ranjit Singh and Lord William Bentinck
1832 Annexation of Jaintia
1833 Renewal of the Company’s Charter, various reforms
1834 Annexation of Coorg, institution of law member in Supreme Council with
Lord Macaulay as the first incumbent
1835 Foundation of Calcutta Medical College, Education Resolution, retire-
ment of Lord William Bentinck, Sir Charles Metcalfe officiating governor
general, abolition of Press restrictions
1836 Appointment of Lord Auckland as governor general (1836–1842)
1837–1838 Famine in North India
1838 Tripartite treaty of the English with Shah Shuja and Ranjit Singh
1839 New treaty forced on the Amirs of Sind; death of Ranjit Singh, First
Afghan War (1839–1842), capture of Ghazni and occupation of Kabul
1840 Risings of Afghan tribes, deposition of Dost Muhammad
1841 Murder of Burnes and Macnaghten by the Afghans
1842 British disaster in Afghanistan, retirement to Jalalabad of Dr. Brydon
alone, Lord Ellenborough became governor general (1842–1844), relief of
Jalalabad, reoccupation of Kabul, restoration of Dost Muhammad, British
evacuation of Afghanistan
1843 War with the Amirs of Sind, battles of Miani and Dabo, annexation of
Sind, battle of Maharajpur, suppression of slavery
1844 Recall of Lord Ellenborough, Lord Hardinge became governor general
(1844–1848)
1845 The First Sikh War (1845–1846), battles of Mudki and Ferozpur
1846 Battles of Aliwal and Sobraon, Treaty of Lahore
1848 Lord Dalhousie became governor general (1848–1856), revolt of Mulraj,
the Second Sikh War (1848–1849), enunciation of the Doctrine of Lapse
and annexation of Satara
1849 Battles of Chillianwalla and Gujarat, annexation of the Punjab, Bethune
School for girls started in Calcutta, annexation of Jaitpur and Sambalpur
1850 Penal annexation of a part of Sikkim
1852 Second Burmese War, annexation of Pegu, death of ex-Peshwa Baji Rao
II and stoppage of his pension
continued...
AD Events
1853 Opening of first railway in India from Calcutta to Thana; laying of tele-
graph line from Calcutta to Agra, annexation of Nagpur and Jhansi, ces-
sion of Berar by the Nizam, renewal of the Company’s Charter, entrance
into ICS thrown open to competition
1854 Education despatch of Sir Charles Wood
1855 The Santal insurrection
1856 Annexation of Oudh, the Indian Universities Act, Religious Disabilities Act,
Hindu Widow’s Remarriage Act, departure of Lord Dalhousie and
appointment of Lord Canning as governor general, end of Crimean War,
General Service Order, Persian War, war in China (1856-60), introduction
of the Enfield rifle and greased cartridges
1857 Beginning of the Revolt or Sepoy Mutiny, foundation of Calcutta, Bombay
and Madras Universities
1858 Trial of Emperor Bahadur Shah (January–March), proclamation of peace
by Lord Canning (July), Act for the better government of India (August),
Queen’s Proclamation (Nov), Lord Canning appointed Viceroy (November)
1859 Withdrawal of Doctrine of Lapse, gradual restoration of order, indigo
disputes in Bengal (1859–1860)
1860 Enactment of Indian Penal Code
1861 Indian Councils Act, establishment of High Courts, Civil Service Act, fam-
ine in North-West India, enactment of the Code of Criminal Procedure
1862 Retirement of Lord Canning, Lord Elgin I appointed Viceroy (1862–1863),
amalgamation of Supreme and Sadar Courts into high courts
1864 Sir John Lawrence appointed viceroy Bhutan War
1865 Orissa famine (1865–1867), opening of telegraphic communication with
Europe
l868 Opening of railway from Ambala to Delhi
1869 Lord Mayo became Viceroy (1869–1872), visit of the Duke of Edinborough
1872 Murder of Lord Mayo, Lord Northbrook appointed viceroy (1872–1876)
1873 Famine in Bihar (1873–1874)
1875 Deposition of Malhar Rao Gaekwad, visit of Edward, Prince of Wales
1876 Retirement of Lord Northbrook, Lord Lytton I became viceroy
(1876–1880), the Royal Titles Act, occupation of Quetta, outbreak of
famine in the Deccan
1877 Delhi Durbar (1 January), Queen Victoria proclaimed empress of India
1878 Vernacular Press Act, Second Afghan War (1878–1880)
1880 Resignation of Lord Lytton I, Lord Ripon viceroy (1880–1884)
1881 Rendition of Mysore, first Factory Act, first general census
1882 Repeal of Vernacular Press Act, Hunter Commission
continued...
AD Events
1883 Beginning of legislation establishing local self-government in India, the
Ilbert Bill
1884 Resignation of Lord Ripon, Lord Dufferin viceroy
1885 Third Burmese War, First meeting of the Indian National Congress, Bengal
Local Self-Government Act
1886 Annexation of Upper Burma, restoration of Gwalior fort
1887 Queen Victoria’s Jubilee
1888 Resignation of Lord Dufferin and Lord Lansdowne became viceroy
(1888–1894)
1889 Second visit of Edward, Prince of Wales
1891 Second Factory Act, Age of Consent Act, Manipur Rebellion
1892 Indian Councils Act
1893 Durand’s Mission to Kabul, Vivekanada in USA
1894 Lord Elgin II Viceroy (1894–1899)
1896 Plague in Bombay (1896–1900), famine (1896–1897)
1897 Famine Commission
1899 Lord Curzon Viceroy (1899–1905)
1900 Famine, Land Alienation Act
1901 Death of Queen Victoria and accession of King Edward VII, North West
Frontier Province created
1903 Tibetan expedition (1903–1904)
1904 Indian Universities Act, Co-operative Society Act
1905 Partition of Bengal, Lord Minto II Viceroy (1905–1910), Morley Secretary
of State for India, Swadeshi and boycott
1906 Foundation of the Muslim League, Calcutta Congress, President
Dadabhai Naoroji declared ‘Swaraj’ as the goal of the Congress
1907 Anglo–Russian Convention, Congress split at Surat
1908 Newspapers Act
1909 Indian Councils Act (Morley–Minto Reforms), terrorists’ activities, first
Indian (S.R Sinha) appointed to the Viceroy’s Executive Council
1910 Lord Hardinge Viceroy (1910–1916)
1911 King George V and his Queen visited India, Delhi Durbar, Partition of
Bengal modified, transfer of capital from Calcutta to Delhi announced
1912 Removal of Imperial capital from Calcutta to Delhi, constitution of a separate
province of Bihar and Orissa, Lord Hardinge wounded by a bomb in Delhi
1913 Nobel Prize for Rabindranath Tagore
continued...
AD Events
1914 The First World War, Declaration of War (4 August), landing of Indian
troop in France (26 September)
1915 Defence of India Act
1916 Lord Chelmsford Viceroy (1916–1921), Saddler Commission, the
Lucknow Pact between the Congress and the League, foundation of the
Home Rule Leagues, foundation of the Women’s University at Poona
1917 Pronouncement by Montague, secretary of state, in the House of
Commons
1918 Indians declared eligible for King’s Commission, Indian National Liberal
Federation, publication of Montague–Chelmsford Report and debate on
the same in the Parliament, end of WWI
1919 Government of India Act, 1919, Punjab disturbances
1920 The Khilafat Movement, death of Bal Gangadhar Tilak, the Indian National
Congress under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi started the Non-
cooperation Movement, Lord Sinha appointed Governor of Bihar and
Orissa
1921 Continuance of Non-cooperation movement, Chamber of Princes,
Moplah rebellion, visit of Edward, Prince of Wales, General Census, Lord
Reading viceroy (1921–1926)
1922 Resignation of Montague, withdrawal of Non-cooperation Movement
1923 Foundation of Swaraj Party, certification of Salt Tax, decision to Indianize
command of certain regiments of the Indian army
1925 Death of C.R. Das, formation of the Inter-University Board, Lord Lytton II
officiated viceroy
1926 Lord Irwin Viceroy (1926–1931), devaluation of the rupee
1927 Appointment of Simon Commission, National Congress at its Madras
session adopted independence as the goal of Indian national aspirations
1928 All Parties Conference, the Nehru Report
1929 Lord Irwin’s announcement (31 October) that the natural issue of India’s
constitutional progress was the attainment of Dominion Status, the
Lahore Session and ‘Poorna Swaraj’ Resolution
1930 Civil Disobedience Movement started on 6 April, Report of Simon
Commission, rebellion in Burma, first session of the Round Table
Conference
1931 Irwin–Gandhi Pact (5 March), census of India, second session of
the Round Table Conference which Gandhiji attended (September–
December), Lord Wellingdon Viceroy (1931–1936)
1932 Imprisonment of Gandhiji (January), Congress proscribed, severe repres-
sion Communal Award (August), Gandhiji’s fast, Poona Pact, foundation
of the Indian Military Academy at Dehra Dun
continued...
AD Events
1933 White Paper on proposed reforms published, Joint Select Committee
1934 Civil Disobedience Movement called off, Bihar earthquake, Factories Act,
Royal Indian Navy created
1935 Government of India Act
1936 Death of King Emperor George V, accession and abdication of Edward
VIII, accession of George VI, Lord Linlithgow, Viceroy (1936)
1937 Provincial autonomy inaugurated (1 April), Interim Ministries, Viceregal
statement (June), Formation of Congress Ministries in six provinces (July),
Federal Court started
1939 WWII (3 September), Viceroy consulted Indian leaders, Congress demand
an immediate definition of War aims. Viceroy’s announcement (17
October) of Dominion Status to be the goal of constitutional develop-
ment after the war, resignation of the Provincial Congress Ministries
1940 Muslim League declares for Pakistan
1941 Subhas Bose jumped home internment and went over land to Germany
1942 British capitulation of Burma and evacuation leaving 90,000 Indian sol-
diers behind, Japan bombarded Vizag (April), Cripps Mission, Quit India
Movement started disturbances and repression, Bengal famine, imprison-
ment of Congress leaders
1943 The Bengal famine, Lord Wavell, governor general (1943–1947)
1944 Japanese invasion of Assam, INA, repulse of the Japanese and of the INA
near Kohima in Manipur
1945 Japan surrendered, general elections in India, Muslim League captured
majority of Muslim seats in all provinces, except NWFP, while the Congress
captured the majority of the general seats in all provinces and at the Centre
1946 Revolt of the RIN(18 February), Cabinet Mission in India, Direct Action
Day (16 August) observed by the Muslim League with bloody commu-
nal riots in Calcutta, communal riots in Dacca (20 August), formation of
the Interim government (2 September), communal riots in Noakhali and
Tipperah (14 October), communal riots in Bihar (25 October), Muslim
League joined the Interim government (26 October) first session of the
Constituent Assembly (9 December)
1947 Lord Mountbatten governor-general, communal riots in Punjab,
Mountbatten’s announcement of the grant of independence on the basis
of the partition of India into India and Pakistan (3 June), Independence of
India Act (15 August)
August 15, 1947 India obtains independence from the British; Jawaharlal Nehru becomes
the first Indian Prime Minister
October 1947 Maharaja of Kashmir accedes to Indian Sovereignty
continued...
AD Events
November 1947 John Mathai presents the first railway budget
January 1948 Reserve Bank of India nationalized
January 30, 1948 Assassination of Mahatma Gandhi in New Delhi
September 1948 Troops of Government of India enter Hyderabad state
November 1948 B.R. Ambedkar presents first Draft Constitution to Constituent Assembly
January 1, 1949 United Nations monitored cease fire takes effect in Kashmir
September 1949 Rupee devalued by approximately 31 per cent
November 26, New Constitution of India adopted and signed
1949
January 26, 1950 Constitution of India comes into force
March 1950 Planning Commission set up
July 1951 First Five year plan set in motion
October 25, 1951– First general election
February 21, 1952
1952 Atomic energy establishment set up in Bombay; Chandernagar incorpo-
rated with India
1953 Private airlines are nationalized; Chandigarh inaugurated as capital of
Punjab
December 29, States Reorganization Commission
1953
April 1954 India concludes treaty with China
July 1954 Nehru inaugurates Bhakhra Dam
December 1954 Imperial Bank renamed as State Bank of India
1955 Chinese troops enter India’s Garhwal district in Uttar Pradesh
May 18, 1955 Hindu Marriage Act is amended
June 1, 1955 Untouchability Act comes into force
1956 Second Five year Plan
January 1956 Nationalization of insurance companies
June 17, 1956 Hindu Succession Act
February 24–June Second general election held
9, 1957
September 1957 Wealth Tax Bill passed
February 1958 Finance minister T.T. Krishnamachari resigns following Mundhra LIC
share scandal
1959 Oil and Natural Gas Corporation set up; television transmission
introduced in New Delhi; Indo–Portuguese dispute
March 1959 Dalai Lama flees from Tibet to India
October 1959 Military confrontation with China in Aksai Chin
continued...
AD Events
April 19, 1960 Meeting of Afro–Asian Conference at New Delhi
1960 Bombay Presidency bifurcated into Maharashtra and Gujarat states
January 21, 1961 Arrival of Queen Elizabeth at New Delhi
December 19, Liberation of Goa
1961
February 16–June Third general election
6, 1962
October 1962 Indo–China war
January 1963 Gold Control Order comes into force
August 10, 1963 The Kamraj Plan
May 27, 1964 Jawaharlal Nehru dies
June 9, 1964 Lal Bahadur Shastri becomes Prime Minister
Ancient India Kumaragupta 1 414–455 CE

Skandagupta 455–467 CE
The Mauryas
Purugupta 467–468 CE
Chandragupta Maurya (Sandracotta)
Narasimhagupta 468–473 CE
(321–297)
Kumaragupta II 473–476 CE
Bindusara(Amitraghata) (297–272)
Budhagupta 476–495 CE
Asoka (Devanampriya Priyadarshin)
(268–232) Vainyagupta 495–510 CE
Bhanugupta 510–530 CE
Dasaratha (232–224)
Vishnugupta 530–533 CE
Samprati (224–215)
Salisuka (215–202) Pushyabhutis of Thanesar
Devavarman (202–195) Naravardhana
Satadhanvan (195–187) Rajyavardhana I
Brihadratha (187–180) Adityavardhana
Prabhakaravardhana
Imperial Guptas
Harshavardhana I
Sri Gupta 275–300 CE
Ghatotkacha 300–320 CE Early Pallavas
Chandragupta 1 320–329 CE Simhavarman I (A.D. 275–300)
Samudragupta 329–375 CE Skandavarman
Ramagupta 375 CE Buddhavarman
Chandragupta II 375–414 CE Buddyankura
Kumaravishnu I (350–70) Ayyavarman (450)

Skandavarman I (370–85) Krishnavarman (450)
Viravarman (385–400) Madhava II
Skandavarman II (400–36) Simhavarman (475)
Simhavarman I (436–60) Avinita (500)
Skandavarman III (460–80)
Nandivarman (480–510) Chalukyas of Badami (Early Chalukyas)
Kumaravishnu II (510–30)
Jayasimha I
Buddhavarman (530–40)
Ranaraga
Kumaravishnu III (540–50)
Pulakesin I (543–66)
Vishnukundins of Andhra Kirtivarman I (566–97)
Mangalesa (597–609)
Madhavavarman I (440–60)
Pulakesin II (609–42)
Vikramendravarman I (460–80)
Vikramaditya (654–81)
Indrabhattaraka (480–515)
Vinayaditya (681–96)
Vikramendra II (515–35)
Vijayaditya (696–733)
Govindavarman (535–56)
Vikramaditya II (733–45)
Madhavavarman II (556–616)
Kirtivarman II (745–55)
Manchanabhattaraka
Kadambas of Banavasi Great Pallavas (Kanchipuram)

Mayurasarman (345–60) Simhavarman (AD 550–60)
Kangavarman (360–85) Simhavishnu (555–90)
Bhagiratha (385–410) Mahendra (590–630)
Raghu (410–25) Narasimha I (630–68)
Kakusthavarman (425–50) Mahendra II (660–70)
Shantivarman (450–75) Paramesvara I (670–700)
Mrigeshavarman (470–88) Narasimha II (Rajasimha 700–28)
Mandhatrivarman (488–500) Mahendra III (728)
Ravivarman (500–38) Paramesvara II (728–31)
Harivarman (538–50) Nandivarman II (731–96)
Krishnavarman II (550–65) Dantivarman (796–847)
Nandivarman III (847–869)
Western Gangas (Mysore) Nripatunga (869–99)
Konganivarman (400) Aparajita (899–903)
Madhava I (425) Kampavarman (903–12)
Pandyas of Madurai Senas of Bengal

Kadungon(560–90) Vira Sena
Maravarman Avanisulamani (590–620) Samanta Sena
Seliyan Sendan (620–50) Hemanta Sena (AD 1070)
Arikesari Parankusa Maravarman (650–700) Vijaya Sena (AD 1096–1159)
Kocchadaiyan (700–30) Ballala Sena (AD 1159–1179)
Maravarman Rajasimha I (730–65) Lakshamana Sena (AD 1179–1206)
Jatila Parantaka Nedunjadaiyan (766–815) Vishvarupa Sena (AD 1206–1225)
Srimara Srivallabha (815–62) Keshava Sena (AD 1225–1230)
Varaguna II (862–85)
Rashtrakutas of Deccan
ParantakaViranarayana (860–905)
Dantivarman
Maravarman Rajasimha II (905–20)
Indra I
Medieval India Govindaraja I

Karka I
Palas of Bengal
Indra II
Dayitavishnu Dantidurga (AD 752–56)
Sri Vapyata Krishna I (756–75)
Gopala I (AD750–770) Govinda II (775–80)
Dharmapala (AD 770–810) Dhruva (780–92)
Devapala (AD 810–850)
Govinda III (792–814)
Shurapala/Mahendrapala (AD 850–854)
Amoghavarsha I (Sarva 814–80)
Vigrahapala (AD 854–855)
Krishna II (880–915)
Narayanapala (AD 855–908)
Indra III (915–27)
Rajyapala (AD 908–940)
Amoghavarsha II (927–30)
Gopala II (AD 940–960)
Govinda IV (930–34)
Vigrahapala II (AD 960–988)
Amoghavarsha III (934–39)
Mahipala (AD 988–1038)
Krishna III (939–68)
Nayapala (AD 1038–1055)
Khottiga (968–72)
Vigrahapala III (AD 1055–1070)
Mahipala II (AD 1070–1075) Karka (972–3)
Shurapala II (AD 1075–1077)

Imperial Cholas
Ramapala (AD 1077–1130)
Kumarapala (AD 1130–1140) Vijayalaya 848 – 871
Gopala III (AD 1140–1144) Aditya I 871–907
Madanapala (AD 1144–1162) Parantaka I .907–950
Govindapala (AD 1162–1174) Sundara or Parantaka II 957–93
Rajaraja I .. AD 985–1018. Bahram (1240–42)

Rajendra I 1018–1044. Ala-ud-din Masud (1242–46)
Rajadhiraja AD 1044–1053 Mahmud (1246–66)
Rajendra Deva II 1053–1063 Balban (1266–87)
Virarajendra 1063–1070 Kaiqubad (1287–90)
Adhirajendra. 1070
Khaljis
Kulotunga I 1070–1118
Vikrama 1118–1135 Jalal-ud-din (1290–96)
Kulothunga II 1135–1150 Rukn-ud-din (1296)
Rajaraja II 1150–1163 Ala-ud-din (1296–1316)
Rajadhiraja II ..1163–1178 Shihab-ud-din (Jan–April, 1316)
Kulotunga III. 1178–1218 Qutb-ud-din Mubarak (1316–20)
Rajaraja III. 1218–1256 Nasir-ud-din Khusrav (Usurper) (April–Sept.
1320)
Rajendra III. 1256–1279
Western Chalukyas Tughluqs
Taila II (AD 973–97) Ghiyas-ud-din (Ghazi Malik) (1320–25)
Satyasraya (997–1008) Muhammad bin (Jauna Khan) (1325–51)
Vikramaditya V (1008–15) Firuz Shah (1351–88)
Ayyana (1015) Ghiyas-ud-din (1388–9)
Jayasimha II (1015–42) Abu Baqr (1389–90)
Somesvara I (1042–68) Nasir-ud-din Muhammad Shah (1390–94)
Somesvara II (1060–76) Ala-ud-din (1394)
Vikramaditya VI (1076–1126) Nusrat Shah (1395–98)
Somesvara III (1126–38) Mahmud Shah (1399–1413)
Jagadekamalla II (1138–55)
Sayyids
Tailapa III (1150–63)
Jagadekamalla III (1163–83) Khizr Khan (1414–21)
Somesvara IV (1184–1200) Mubarak (1421–34)

Muhammad Shah (1434–45)
Slave Sultans Ala-ud-din Alam Shah (1445–51)
Qutb-ud-din Aibak (1206–10)
Lodis
Aram Baksh (1210)
Shams-ud-din Iltutmish (1210–36) Bahtul Lodi (1451–89)
Rukn-ud-din (May–Nov. 1236) Sikandar Lodi (Nizam Khan) (1489–1517)
Raziyya (1236–40) Ibrahim Lodi (1517–26)
Vijayanagara Dynasties Bahmanis

Sangama Ala-ud-din Bahman Shah (1347–58)
Harihara Raya I 1336–1356 Muhammad I (1358–77)
Bukka Raya I 1356–1377 Mujahid (1377–8)
Harihara Raya II 1377–1404 Daud (1378)
Virupaksha Raya 1404–1405 Muhammad II (1378–97)
Bukka Raya II 1405–1406 Ghiyas-ud-din (1397)
Deva Raya I 1406–1422 Shams-ud-din (1397)
Ramachandra Raya 1422 Firuz (1397–1422)
Vira Vijaya Bukka Raya 1422–1424 Ahmad (1422–35)
Deva Raya II 1424–1446 Ala-ud-din II (1436–58)
Mallikarjuna Raya 1446–1465 Humayun (1458–61)
Virupaksha Raya II 1465–1485 Nizam Shah (1461–3)
Praudha Raya 1485 Muhammad III (1463–82)
Mahmud (1482–1518)
Saluva
Ahmad (1518–21)
Saluva Narasimha Deva Raya 1485–1491 Ala-ud-din (1521)
Thimma Bhupala 1491 WaliUllah(1521–24)
Narasimha Raya II 1491–1505 Kalimullah (1524–7)
Tuluva Mughals
Tuluva Narasa Nayaka 1491–1503 Zahir-ud-din Babur (1526–30)
Viranarasimha Raya 1503–1509 Humayun (1550–56)
Krishna Deva Raya 1509–1529 Akbar (1556–1605)
Achyuta Deva Raya 1529–1542 Jahangir (1605–27)
Sadashiva Raya 1542–1570 Shah Jahan (1627–58)
Aurangazeb (1658–1701)
Aravidu
Muazzam/BahadurShnh I/ Shah Alam I
Aliya Rama Raya 1542–1565 (1707–12)
Tirumala Deva Raya 1565–1572 Jahandar Shah (1712–13)
Sriranga I 1572–1586 Farrukhsiyar (1713–19)
Venkata II 1586–1614 Rafi-ud-Darajat (1719)
Sriranga II 1614–1614 Rafi-ud-Daulah (1719)
Ramadeva 1617–1632 Muhammad Shah (1719–48)
Venkata III 1632–1642 Ahmad Shah (1748–54)
Sriranga III 1642–1646 Alamgir II (1754–59)
Shah Alam II (1759–1806) (binded in 1788) Madhavrao (1761–18 Nov.1772)

Akbar II (1806–37) Narayanrao Bajirao (13 Dec.1772–30
Bahadur Shah II (1037–58) (Died in 1862 at Aug.1773)
Rangoon) Raghunathrao (5 Dec.1773–1774)
Sawai Madhava Rao (1774–27 Oct.1795)
Bhonsles
Baji Rao II (6 Dec.1796 – 3 Jun.1818)
Satara
Nana Sahib (adopted) (1 Jul.1857–1858)
Shivaji (1630–1680)
Sambhaji (1657–1689)
Modern India
Rajaram (1670–1700)
NAWABS OF OUDH
Tarabai (1675–1761)
Shahu (1682–1749) (alias Shivaji II, son of Mir Muhammad Nasir
Chhatrapati Sambhaji) Baadat Khan Burhan-ul-Mulk (1722–1739)
Ramaraja (nominally, grandson of Safdar Jang (1739–54)
Chhatrapati Rajaram and Queen Tarabai)
Shuja-ud-Daulah (1754–75)
Kolhapur Asaf-ud-Daulah (1775–97)

Wazir Ali (1797–98)
Queen Tarabai (1675–1761) (wife of
Chhatrapati Rajaram) in the name of her Saadat Ali (1798–1814)
son Shivaji II Haidar (1814–27)
Shivaji II (1700–1714) Nasir-ud-din Haidar (1827–37)
Shivaji III (1760–1812) (adopted from the Ali Shah (1837–42)
family of Khanwilkar)
Amjad Ali Shah (1842–47)
Rajaram I (1866–1870) (adopted from the
Wazid Ali Shah (1847–56)
family of Patankar)
Brijis Qadr (1857)
Shivaji V (1870–1883)
Shahaji II (1883–1922) (adopted from the
Gaikwars of Baroda
family of Ghatge)
Rajaram II (1922–1940) Jhingoji
Shahoji II (1947–1949) Pilaji (1721–32)
Damaji II (1732–68)
Peshwas Govind Rao (1768–71)
Moropant Trimbak Pingle (1657–1683) Sayaji Rao I (1771–78)
Bahiroji Pingale (1708–1711) Fateh Singh (1778–89)
Balaji Vishwanath (1713–1720) Manaji (1789–93)
Bajirao I (1720–1740) Govind Rao (1793–1800) – Second Time
Balaji Bajirao (4 Jul.1740–23 Jun.1761) Anand Rao (1800–19)
Sayaji Rao II (1818–47) Jankoji (1759–61)

Ganpat Rao (1847–56) Madhava Rao (Mahadaji) (1761–94)
Khande Rao (1856–70) Daulat Rao (1794–1827)
Malhar Rao (1870–75) Jankoji Rao (1827–43)
Sayaji Rao III (Adopted) (1875–1939) Jayaji Rao (1843–86)
Madhava Rao II (1886–1925)
Holkars of Indore
Jivaji Rao (1925–?)
Cundajee
Malhar Rao I (1728–64) Nawabs of Arcot
Malle Rao (1764–66) Zulfiqar Ali Khan (1690–1703)
Ahalya Bai (1765–95), wife of Khande Rao Daud Khan (1703–10)
(killed in 1754)
Saadat-ullah Khan (1710–32)
Tukoji Holkar I (1795–97)
(Appointed commander by Ahalya Bai in Dost Ali Khan (1732–40)
1767) Safdar Ali Khan (1740–42)
Jaswant Rao I (1798–1811)
Saadat-ullah Khan (1742–44)
Malhar Rao II (1811–33)
Anwar-ud-din (1744–49)
Hari Rao (1834–43)
Muhammad Ali (1749–95)
Tukoji Rao II (1843–86)
Omdut-ul Umara (1795–1801)
Sivaji Rao (1886–1903)
Azim-ud-daulah (1801–19)
Tukoji Rao III (1903–26)
AzamJah (1819–25)
Jaswant Rao II (1926–?)
Azim Jah Bahadur (1867–74)
Bhonsles of Nagpur
Mudhoji
Nawabs of Be Ngal
Bapuji Murshid Quli Khan (1703–1727)
Bimbaji Shuja-ud-din (1727–39)
Raghuji I Sarfaraz Khan (1739–40)
Mudhoji Alivardi Khan (1740–56)
Raghuji II
Siraj-ud-Daulah (1756–57)
Paraoji
Mir Jafar (First time 1757–60)
Raghuji III
Mir Kasim (1760–63)
Sindhias of Gwalior Mir Jafar (Second time 1763–65)
Ranoji Sindhia (1726–50) Najm-ud-daulah (1765–66)

Jey Pat (1750–59) Saif-ud-daulah (1766–70)
Nizams of Hyderabad Sikandar Jah (1803–29)

Nizam-ul-mulk Asaf Jah (1724–48) Nasir-ud-daulah (1829–57)
Nasir Jang (1748–50) Afzul-ud-daulah (1867–69)
Muzafar Jang (1750–51) Mahbub Ali Khan (1869–1911)
Salabat Jang (1751–60) Usman Ali Khan (1911–)
Nizam Ali (1760–1803)

Amitava Chatterjee - History - UGC-NET - SET - JRF (Paper II and III) - Pearson India (2016)

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HISTORY

Copyright © 2014 Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd.

Part II: Medieval

Part III: Modern

Part V: Model Set Papers

Part VI: Appendix

Flandrian Interglacial Present–12 1 Holocene

Table 2 Subdivisions of the Quaternary System

System Series Stage Age (Ma)

in Israel; Ksar Akil in Lebanon; Teshik-Tash Triangle in 1997 by Tim White)*QOQHNQTG

Fossil Evidences of Terminology of the

(c) Rice and ground nuts (a) Rounded

(a) Food (b) Sacrific (a) Caste

%QFGU (c) Sir John Lubbock

The Harappans traded not only with other (KKK &TGUU

KK (QQF a fight. Toys must have been used to amuse the

Goddess of Earth. Oil or incense was burnt in Culture

Important Facts to Remember

(a) Wheeler  The animal picturised on most seals is—

 A citadel is not found in (c) Mohanjo-daro

of Indo-European languages. The extraor- by performing the Asvamedha sacrifice. This

A. Sapt-Sindhu 1. Dr. P. Giles B. Sama Veda 2. Hymns, aiming

(c) Yajur Veda %QFGU

Contribution of Jainism Tower in the fort of Chittor is another speci-

IV. Trishala, another D. Maternal (c) Sanchi

(a) Right exercise (d) Nigha Nikaya—Life story of Lord

 According to the Svetambara Jainas, the %QFGU

%QFGU  Match the following using codes:

According to the Jaina tradition (Parisist- Ashoka

Revenue Administration was Kumara. Mahamattas and a council of

According to Megasthenes, there were Terms of Ashoka’s Dhamma

Buddha or the Bodhisattvas, the great (iv) Milind Panho

Development of Art organs of body, i.e. the representation

 Which form of Prakrit was uniformly used (a) Dipavamsa

(a) i and iv  Match the following:

(c) Siva  The successors of Ashoka adopted

Took the title of ‘Maharajadhiraja’.

Existence of a number of charitable institu- Konark temple (Orissa, built by Narsimha

Religion Gupta Art and Architecture

Also defeated the Cholas, Cheras and Shifted capital to Monghyr.

Krishna I conquered the Gangas of Mysore 5QNCPMKU known as Chalukyas of Gujarat.

(c) Bhitari inscription (c) Matsya and Vayu Puranas

C. Gujaras 3. Bengal (a) Dandin—Nandivarman II

Rajendra-I Chola and thus succeeded in separating the

Policies and Temperament of 3. )GPGTQUKV[ VQ VJGŎVJWIUŏ CPF TQDDGTU

for the emergency, I do’. He did not allow any- $%QPSWGUVUQH&GEECPCPF5QWVJ+PFKC

Conquests of Ala-ud-din 1. To possess the wealth of the prosperous

Lodi Dynasty the Sultanat in the Punjab, Doab, Rohilkhand

Araghatta: ancient Indian noria that used  Wafa: yield

(c) None of the above (a) Iltutmish

(a) Balban (a) Muhammad of Ghur

 Who made army services as hereditary? (c) 2 1 3

%QFGU (c) Ala-ud-din Khalji

 Who was the author of Tabaqat-i-Nasiri? (a) Cosmology

(c) Ala-ud-din Khalji (c) (A) is true but (R) is false.

Sangama Kings written by his wife Gangambika. By 1374, he

Virupaksha Raya (1404–1405 CE) Ramachandra Raya (1422 CE)

Saluva Kings an army commander during a period of politi-

Sangama Dynasty Saluva Dynasty Tuluva Dynasty Aravidu Dynasty

Economy and Society August AD 1347, he was acclaimed by his col-

(c) Krishnadev Raya A B C D

(c) Third Usurpation (a) Krishna deva Singh

 What was class of ‘Virapanchal’ in (c) Mudrakarta—Inspector of toyal

in Israel; Ksar Akil in Lebanon; Teshik-Tash Triangle in 1997 by Tim White)*QOQHNQTG

%QFGU (c) Sir John Lubbock

The Harappans traded not only with other (KKK&TGUU

(a) Wheeler The animal picturised on most seals is—

A citadel is not found in (c) Mohanjo-daro

(c) Yajur Veda %QFGU

According to the Svetambara Jainas, the %QFGU

%QFGU Match the following using codes:

Which form of Prakrit was uniformly used (a) Dipavamsa

(a) i and iv Match the following:

(c) Siva The successors of Ashoka adopted

Policies and Temperament of 3. )GPGTQUKV[ VQ VJGŎVJWIUŏ CPF TQDDGTU

for the emergency, I do’. He did not allow any- $%QPSWGUVUQH&GEECPCPF5QWVJ+PFKC

Araghatta: ancient Indian noria that used Wafa: yield

Who made army services as hereditary? (c) 2 1 3

%QFGU (c) Ala-ud-din Khalji

Who was the author of Tabaqat-i-Nasiri? (a) Cosmology

What was class of ‘Virapanchal’ in (c) Mudrakarta—Inspector of toyal

Who amongst the following was a blind (a) Madhavacharya

The birthplace of Swami Vivekananda is (a) Chicago

The head of the provincial government %QFGU

Shah Jahan constructed magnificent edi- (c) Kangra style

(c) Har Gobind In recruitment of Hindus, to the public

Which of the following was not one of (c) Shivaji I

The Peshwa-controlled confederacy dis- (c) Sack of Surat

(c) Ramabai Ranade The magna carta of western education

Vernacular Press Act was promulgated in (c) Prakasam Pantulu

The implications of the policy of ceiling (a) October 2, 1951

%QFGU The Russian Social Democratic Party was

Which among the following is associated 4GCUQP

%QFGU Match List-I with List-II and select the

The Rishi 4JMTJMBI refers to an order of sufi 4GCUQP

Arrange the following in correct sequence: %QFGU

(iii) Bronze age .KUV+ .KUV++

%QFGU (c) Nasiruddin Qubacha, Ghazi Malik,

Which of the following concepts is PQV 4GCUQP

Arrange the following in chronological .KUV# .KUV$

Match List-I with List-II and choose your %QFGU

%QFGU (a) Lord Macaulay

Which Princely State resembled ‘Ramra- (a) Individualism

1. Which of the following is associated with %QFGU

Read the above statements and select %QFGU

(b) (ii) (iv) (i) (iii) %QFGU

%QFGU (i) Propagation of Vaishnavite Bhakti by