Purposive 

     
Communication
 

Unit 1.1
Nature and Elements of
Communication
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Definition, Types, Elements and Process of Communication
 
1. Communication - is the exchange of information, ideas, or an emotion that happens between
two or more individuals.
 
-  a process by which information is exchanged between individuals
through a common system of symbols, signs, or behavior
 
2. Types of Communication According to Mode
 
a. Verbal Communication
 
- Verbal Communication is a type of communication where message is channeled
through words in oral or written. It can be in the form of face-to-face conversations,
speeches, SMS messaging, and electronic mail.
 
b. Non-Verbal Communication
- Non - Verbal Communication is a type of communication where a person uses hand
gestures, body language, facial expressions, and head, hair, and eye movements.
 
c. Visual Communication
- Visual communication is a type of communication where the message is perceived by
the recipient through the use of visuals such as signs, maps, signboards, and billboards.
 
3. Six Major Elements of Communication
 
a. Sender - The person who is conveying the message.
 
b. Message - The subject matter of the communication. This can be an idea, an information, or
and emotion.
 
c. Channel - The way the message is chosen to be transmitted from the sender to the receiver.
 
d. Receiver - The person who receives the message and the one the message is intended for.
 
e. NOback - It is the message sent by the receiver as a response to what he/she understood about
the message.
 
f. A - A hindrance in the communication process. It can be physical, physiological, syntactical,
and psychological.
 

 
 
 

Unit 1.2
 

Nature and Elements of

Communication (continuation)
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
**This material has an updated version of some of the contents of the previous material.
 
Types of Communication According to Mode
 
Verbal and Non-Verbal – Effective communication calls for the blending of these two types
where one cannot be separated from the other. When we say something (verbal), it must be
supported by a gesture or facial expression (non-verbal) appropriate to what we said. This will
create a more effective interaction between the sender and the receiver. (Refer to Material 1.1)
 
Visual – Is a type of communication that uses visuals to convey information and/messages.
Examples are signs, symbols, imagery, maps, graphs, charts, diagrams, pictograms, photographs,
drawings or illustrations, and various forms of electronic communication. Some examples of
electronic communication are emojis, emoticons, and animations to convey the encoder’s
emotions or ideas. This is the reason why visual communication is sometimes considered as non-
verbal communication. (Refer to Material 1.1)
 Interpretation of these symbols is very crucial because the receiver should be able
to fully understand the meaning and contextualize the information received to attain effective
communication.
 
 
 
Types of Communication According to Context
 
Context is the circumstances that form the setting for an event, statement, or idea, and in terms
of which it can be fully understood and assessed.
 
 
a. Intrapersonal Communication - Happens when a person communicates with
himself especially when thinking. The Sender in this type of communication is
also the Receiver.
 
b. Dyadic (between two) Communication / Interpersonal Communication -
Communication that happens between two people. The Sender sends the message
to the receiver and the receiver gives his feedback, which now makes him the
sender.
 
c. Small Group Communication - Two or more people are involved in this type of
communication. Everyone can be a sender as well as a receiver.
 
 
d. Public Communication - In this type of communication, there is only one
speaker communicating to a large number of audiences at the same time.
 
e. Mass Communication - Communication that uses a medium or technology to
relay information to a large number of people (not grouped together) at the same
time. Examples of media needed are newspaper, television, radio, and Internet.
 
f. Extended Communication – Extended communication involves the use of new
electronic media that was restricted before to just radio and television. Now,
extended communication can expand to tele, audio, or phone conferencing; video
conferencing; Skype calls; and other technological means.
 
g. Organizational Communication – In a professional organization, a set of rules
or standards for communication protocols are made clear to each member of the
organization so that interaction patterns are established. These standards are
 dependent to the organization’s ‘organizational culture’. Moreover, organizational
culture is based on organization’s history, development, statements, goals, and
objectives. It is the behavior expected from all the members of the organization. 
 
Types of Organizational Structure
 
1. Formal Structure – allows communication to take place via designated
channels of message flow between positions in the organization.
 
Four Approaches of Formal Structure
 Downward communication (Top-Down, Superior-
subordinates, President-employee)
 Upward communication (Bottom-up, Subordinates-
Superior/Boss)
 Horizontal communication - Lateral approach that takes
place among people belonging to the same level but
coming from different departments.
 Crosswise Communication- Is diagonal in nature as
employees from different units or departments working at
various levels communicate with each other. 
 
2. Informal Structure – Also known as the ‘grapevine' where messages are coming
from different levels of the organization usually baseless or gossips.
 
h. Intercultural Communication - Communication between or among people having
different gender, linguistics, religious, ethnic, social and professional backgrounds. Learning
and understanding intercultural communication is very important because it helps avoid
miscommunication between people of different background, language, and culture.
 
 
Types of Communication According to Purpose and Style
 
Formal Communication - Employs formal language delivered orally or in written form.
Examples are: lectures, public talks/speeches, research, and project proposals, reports, and
business letters.
 
Informal Communication – It does not employ formal language. It involves personal or
ordinary conversations with friends, family members, or acquaintances about anything under
the sun.  Examples are: everyday face-to-face talks and phone calls, personal notes or emails,
and text messages.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Language and
Communication
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
What is Language?
 
Language is the method of human communication, either spoken or written, consisting of the
use of words in a structured and conventional way. Linguists agree that a language can only
be called a language if it has a system of rules (grammar), a sound system (phonology),
and vocabulary (lexicon). These are requirements for identifying a means of communication
as a language.
 
 
Terminologies 
 
Speech Community - People in the same speech community tend to understand each other
because they share the same system of rules in the language system.
 
Language Acquisition – As we grow up, we acquire the language used by the people around
us. It can be our family members, neighborhood, or community. (Instinctive absorption of
language)  
 
Mother Tongues – The languages acquired while growing up are known as mother tongue
or first languages.
 
Lingua Franca - A language that is adopted as a common language between speakers whose
native languages are different.
 
Language Learning - Learning of language through formal (schools) or informal (self-
study) methods. (Conscious learning of language)
 
Second Languages - Languages learned due to people’s needs or reasons.
 
Language Contact – This happens when two people who have different native languages try
to understand and communicate with one another and slowly learning about each other’s
languages.
 
Language Change – Language change is the result of language contact. The attempt of two
people that have different native languages to learn about each other’s language produces a
new language (change) that is understandable to both.
 
 
 

Unit 1.3
Efficiency and Breakdown of
Communication
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Effectiveness and Breakdown of Communication
 
Seven C's of Effective Communication
 
According to the 7 Cs, communication needs to be:
 
a. Clear - The message should be clear for the person you are communicating with. There should
be no hidden/double meanings that may cause confusion to the receiver of the message. 
 
b. Concise - The sender should make the message brief and on point. Avoid unnecessary words,
fillers, and redundancy.
 
c. Concrete - Your message should be direct, solid, and detailed.
 
d. Correct - A correct communication is free from any kind of errors (grammatical errors)
 
e. Coherent - The message should be understandable. There should always be unity and
consistency of ideas that will make the message comprehensible.
 
f. Complete - The message is complete when it has all the elements that the receiver needs for
him to understand the message.
 
g. Courteous - A courteous communication is honest, polite, and friendly. There should be
common respect between the two communicators.
 
 
Non-Verbal Communication
 
a. Facial Expressions - Plays a huge part in nonverbal communication. A lot can be conveyed
with just our facial expressions. Facial expressions such as happiness, anger, sadness, and fear
are universal.
 
b. Gestures - Movements and signals are important ways in communicating meaning without the
use of words. Gestures include waving, pointing, and using fingers to indicate numeric amounts.
Other gestures can be different depending on a person’s culture and knowledge.
 
c. Paralinguistic - Includes factors such as tone of voice, loudness, inflection, and pitch.
 
d. Body Language and Posture - Posture and body movements say a great deal about what
kind of message we want to convey.
 
e. Proxemics - Proximity of a person to the other person or persons he is communicating with is
important in nonverbal communication. How near or how far a person's proximity to
another person determines the kind of communication two people are having.
 
f. Eye Gaze - Eye contact is a very important nonverbal communication. It tells a lot on how two
people connects to each other with the use of the eyes.
 
g. Haptic - Communication through touch is another important nonverbal communication. Like
proxemics, it determines the relationship between the communicators.
 
h. Appearance - Our appearance is also a nonverbal communication. How we dress, our,
haircut, and hygiene tells a lot on how we want our message to be perceived.
 
 
Types of Listening
 
Listening is one the most important interpersonal skills a person should have in achieving
effective communication. Effective listening is very often the foundation of strong relationships
with others, at home, socially, in education and in the workplace. 
 
 
General Listening Types:
 
a. Discriminative listening is first developed at a very early age – perhaps even
before birth, in the womb.  This is the most basic form of listening and does not
involve the understanding of the meaning of words or phrases but merely the
different sounds that are produced.  In early childhood, for example, a distinction
is made between the sounds of the voices of the parents – the voice of the father
sounds different to that of the mother. 

Discriminative listening develops through childhood and into adulthood.  As we grow

older and develop and gain more life experience, our ability to distinguish between
different sounds is improved. Not only can we recognize different voices, but we also
develop the ability to recognize subtle differences in the way that sounds are made – this
is fundamental to ultimately understanding what these sounds mean.  Differences include
many subtleties, recognizing foreign languages, distinguishing between regional accents
and clues to the emotions and feelings of the speaker.

Being able to distinguish the subtleties of sound made by somebody who is happy or sad,
angry or stressed, for example, ultimately adds value to what is actually being said and,
of course, does aid comprehension.  When discriminative listening skills are combined
with visual stimuli, the resulting ability to ‘listen’ to body-language enables us to begin to
understand the speaker more fully – for example recognizing somebody is sad despite
what they are saying or how they are saying it.

b. Comprehensive listening involves understanding the message or messages that

are being communicated.  Like discriminative listening, comprehensive listening
is fundamental to all listening sub-types.

In order to be able use comprehensive listening and therefore gain understanding the
listener first needs appropriate vocabulary and language skills. Using overly complicated
language or technical jargon, therefore, can be a barrier to comprehensive listening. 
Comprehensive listening is further complicated by the fact that two different people
listening to the same thing may understand the message in two different ways.  This
problem can be multiplied in a group setting, like a classroom or business meeting where
numerous different meanings can be derived from what has been said.
 Comprehensive listening is complimented by sub-messages from non-verbal
communication, such as the tone of voice, gestures and other body language.  These non-
verbal signals can greatly aid communication and comprehension but can also confuse
and potentially lead to misunderstanding. In many listening situations it is vital to seek
clarification and use skills such as reflection aid comprehension.

Specific Listening Types

a. Informational Listening
Whenever you listen to learn something, you are engaged in informational listening.  This is
true in many day-to-day situations, in education and at work, when you listen to the news,
watch a documentary, when a friend tells you a recipe or when you are talked-through a
technical problem with a computer – there are many other examples of informational
listening too.

Although all types of listening are ‘active’ – they require concentration and a conscious effort
to understand. Informational listening is less active than many of the other types of listening.
When we’re listening to learn or be instructed, we are taking in new information and facts,
we are not criticizing or analyzing.  Informational listening, especially in formal settings like
in work meetings or while in education, is often accompanied by note taking – a way of
recording key information so that it can be reviewed later. 

b. Critical Listening

We can be said to be engaged in critical listening when the goal is to evaluate or scrutinize

what is being said. Critical listening is a much more active behavior than informational
listening and usually involves some sort of problem solving or decision making.  Critical
listening is akin to critical reading; both involve analysis of the information being received
and alignment with what we already know or believe.  Whereas informational listening may
be mostly concerned with receiving facts and/or new information - critical listening is about
analyzing opinion and making a judgement.

When the word ‘critical’ is used to describe listening, reading or thinking it does not
necessarily mean that you are claiming that the information you are listening to is somehow
faulty or flawed.   Rather, critical listening means engaging in what you are listening to by
asking yourself questions such as, ‘what is the speaker trying to say?’ or ‘what is the main
argument being presented?’, ‘how does what I’m hearing differ from my beliefs, knowledge
or opinion?’.  Critical listening is, therefore, fundamental to true learning.

Many day-to-day decisions that we make are based on some form of ‘critical’ analysis,
whether it be critical listening, reading or thought.  Our opinions, values and beliefs are based
on our ability to process information and formulate our own feelings about the world around
us as well as weigh up the pros and cons to make an informed decision.  
 It is often important, when listening critically, to have an open-mind and not be biased by
stereotypes or preconceived ideas.  By doing this you will become a better listener and
broaden your knowledge and perception of other people and your relationships.

c. Therapeutic or Empathic Listening

Empathic listening involves attempting to understand the feelings and emotions of the
speaker – to put yourself into the speaker’s shoes and share their thoughts.

Empathy is a way of deeply connecting with another person and therapeutic or empathic
listening can be particularly challenging.  Empathy is not the same as sympathy, it involves
more than being compassionate or feeling sorry for somebody else – it involves a deeper
connection – a realization and understanding of another person’s point of view.  

Counsellors, therapists and some other professionals use therapeutic or empathic listening to
understand and ultimately help their clients.  This type of listening does not involve making
judgements or offering advice but gently encouraging the speaker to explain and elaborate on
their feelings and emotions.  Skills such as clarification and reflection are often used to help
avoid misunderstandings.

We are all capable of empathic listening and may practice it with friends, family and
colleagues.  Showing empathy is a desirable trait in many interpersonal relationships – you
may well feel more comfortable talking about your own feelings and emotions with a
particular person.  They are likely to be better at listening empathetically to you than others,
this is often based on similar perspectives, experiences, beliefs and values – a good friend,
your spouse, a parent or sibling for example.

 
 
 
 
 
 
Communicative Interference
 
a. Environmental Noise / Physical Noise
 
- Noise that comes from the environment that physically disrupts the communication process.
Loud sounds coming from vehicles, Videoke machines, etc. are examples of Environmental
Noise.
 
b. Physiological-Impairment Noise
 
- Physical conditions such as deafness or blindness can interfere with messages being clearly and
accurately received.
 
c. Semantic Noise
 
- Semantic noise refers to the sender and the receiver having difference in their interpretation of
the meaning of certain words.
 
d. Syntactical Noise
 
- Mistakes in grammar, such as sentence construction and verb tenses,
 
e. Organizational Noise
 
-Poorly structured messages can cause confusion to the receiver.
 
f. Cultural Noise
 
- Difference in culture, race or religion not only can cause confusion between the communicators
but also may cause conflict.
 
g. Psychological Noise
 
- Problems, emotional pains, and difficulties can cause an unsound mind which can be
considered as Psychological noise.
 
 
 
Communication Barriers
 
a. Perceptual and Language Differences: Perception is generally how each individual
interprets the world around him. All generally want to receive messages which are significant to
them. But any message which is against their values is not accepted. A same event may be taken
differently by different individuals. For example: A person is on leave for a month due to
personal reasons (family member being critical). The HR Manager might be in confusion
whether to retain that employee or not, the immediate manager might think of replacement
because his team’s productivity is being hampered, the family members might take him as an
emotional support.
 
The linguistic differences also lead to communication breakdown. Same word may mean
different to different individuals. For example: consider a word “value”.
 
What is the value of this Laptop?
I value our relation?
What is the value of learning technical skills?
 
“Value” means different in different sentences. Communication breakdown occurs if there is
wrong perception by the receiver.
 
b. Information Overload: Managers are surrounded with a pool of information. It is essential to
control this information flow else the information is likely to be misinterpreted or forgotten or
overlooked. As a result, communication is less effective.
 
 
c. Inattention: At times we just not listen, but only hear. For example, a traveler may pay
attention to one “NO PARKING” sign, but if such sign is put all over the city, he no longer
listens to it. Thus, repetitive messages should be ignored for effective communication. Similarly,
if a superior is engrossed in his paper work and his subordinate explains him his problem, the
superior may not get what he is saying and it leads to disappointment of subordinate.
 
d. Time Pressures: Often in organization the targets have to be achieved within a specified time
period, the failure of which has adverse consequences. In a haste to meet deadlines, the formal
channels of communication are shortened, or messages are partially given, i.e., not completely
transferred. Thus, sufficient time should be given for effective communication.
 
e. Distraction/Noise: Communication is also affected a lot by noise to distractions. Physical
distractions are also there such as, poor lightning, uncomfortable sitting, unhygienic room also
affects communication in a meeting. Similarly use of loud speakers interferes with
communication.
 
f. Emotions: Emotional state at a particular point of time also affects communication. If the
receiver feels that communicator is angry, he interprets that the information being sent is very
bad. While he takes it differently if the communicator is happy and jovial (in that case the
message is interpreted to be good and interesting).
 
g. Complexity in Organizational Structure: Greater the hierarchy in an organization (i.e. more
the number of managerial levels), more is the chances of communication getting destroyed. Only
the people at the top level can see the overall picture while the people at low level just have
knowledge about their own area and a little knowledge about other areas.
 
h. Poor retention: Human memory cannot function beyond a limit. One can’t always retain
what is being told specially if he is not interested or not attentive. This leads to communication
breakdown.