Mangrove Toolkit Final

Toolkit ffor
or establishing
Coastal Bioshield
V. Selvam
T. Ravishankar
V.M. Karunagaran
R. Ramasubramanian
P. Eganathan
A. K. Parida
M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation

Chennai
MSSRF/MA/05/26
M. S. Swaminathan Research Foundation

Centre for Research on Sustainable Agriculture and Rural Development
3rd Cross Street, Institutional Area
Taramani, Chennai - 600 113, INDIA
Tel: +91-44-2254 1229, 2254 1698
Fax: +91-44-2254 1319
[email protected]
www.mssrf.org
Design and Printing: AMM Screens, Chennai

Preface
Preface
Nature has provided biological mechanisms for protecting coastal communities

from the fury of cyclones, coastal storms, tidal waves and tsunamis. Mangrove forests
constitute one such mechanism for safeguarding concurrently the ecological security
of the coastal areas and the livelihood security of fisher and farm families living in
the coastal zone. This ecological, economic and social value will further increase, if a
rise in sea level taken place as a result of global warming and the melting of glaciers
and the artic and antarctic ice caps. The recent tsunami of December 26, 2004 also
highlighted the speed-breaking role of mangrove forests.
In addition to mangroves, which can grow only in estuarine environment, there

are many other tree species, which can constitute valuable components of coastal
shelterbelts. All such species confer in the short-term local economic and ecological
benefits and in the long-term global environmental benefits through carbon
sequestration. It is only calamities that open our eyes to the “friend in need” role
mangrove species play. The December 26th, 2004 tsunami has created a widespread
interest in the restoration of degraded mangrove forests, promotion of joint mangrove
management systems involving local communities, and in the raising bio-shields
and shelterbelts along the coastal zone.
Scientists of MSSRF led by Dr.V.Selvam have been working for over 12 years in the
area of conservation, restoration and sustainable management of mangrove forests.
Some of the early work has been summarized in a publication titled “The Mangrove
Decade and Beyond: Activities, Lessons and Challenges in Mangrove Conservation
and Management, 1990-2001”. The present toolkit has been prepared to help all
interested, government agencies, non-governmental organizations, academic
institutions and local fisher and faming communities to understand restoration of
degraded mangrove wetlands and expand mangrove coverage in all areas which are
vulnerable to coastal cyclones and to tidal inundation. Information is also given on
species useful for raising shelterbelts along the coast.
I hope this publication will be of value to all who are now working with coastal
communities in strengthening the coping mechanism for facing the challenge of the
fury of the sea and climate. I am grateful to Drs. V.Selvam, T.Ravishankar,
V.M.Karunagaran, R.Ramasubramaniam, P.Eganathan and Ajay Parida for their
painstaking efforts in compiling this publication designed to stimulate and sustain
action at the field level.
M. S. Swaminathan
4 M. S. Swaminathan Research Foundation

Content
Preface ............................................................................................................................ 3
1.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 7
Part I Mangrove Bioshield

2.1 Mangroves - an overview .................................................................................. 13
2.2 Mangrove wetlands of India ............................................................................. 17
2.3 Common mangrove plants ............................................................................... 22

2.4 Afforestation of mangroves ............................................................................... 27
2.5 Restoration of mangroves ................................................................................. 44
2.6 Mangrove nursery establishment and management ......................................... 53

Part II Non-Mangrove Bioshield
3.1 Non-mangrove: An overview ........................................................................... 66

3.2 Common plants in bioshields ........................................................................... 69
3.3 Nursery practices .............................................................................................. 74
3.4 Planting methods .............................................................................................. 79

Annexure I
Vegetative and micropropagation of mangroves and mangrove associate plants ................ 83
Toolkit for establishing Coastal Bioshield 5

1.0 Introduc
Introduc tion
oduction
Tsunami waves, triggered by an earthquake in the sea near Sumatra, struck the
southern and eastern coastal areas of India on 26th December 2004. Walls of water
as high as 10-metre (33 feet) crashed on the beach and penetrated upto 3 km inland,
causing extensive damage in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and the coastal districts
of Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh and Pondicherry. According to Government
reports about 10,880 people lost their lives and nearly 5800 people are still missing.
Almost 1,54,000 houses were either destroyed or damaged entailing losses of about
Rs.994 crore or USD 228.5 million. The tsunami destroyed or damaged nearly 75,300
fishing crafts including wooden catamarans, mechanized boats including trawlers
worth about Rs.935 crore (USD 215 million); fishing gears worth of Rs.65 crore
(USD 15 million) were also lost leading to loss of livelihood for thousands and
thousands of fishing families. Apart from these, standing crops of paddy, ground
nut, coconut, cashew, mango, banana, minor millets and vegetables were totally
destroyed in thousands of hectares and seawater intrusion rendered these productive
lands unfit for cultivation.
Even in this situation, it has been reported that damage in terms of loss of lives
and properties in the villages, which are behind mangrove wetlands and shelterbelt
plantations such as plantations of casuarina and of palm trees and other thick coastal
vegetation, was limited as the intensity of the tsunami was reduced by these natural
bioshields or biobarriers. It has been reported that in the Pichavaram mangrove
region of Tamil Nadu fishing and farming villages namely, T.S.Pettai, Vadakku
Pichavaram, Killai Fisher Colony, MGR Nagar and Kalaingar Nagar, which are under
direct physical coverage of the mangrove wetlands were protected from the fury of
the tsunami. These hamlets are located about 500 m to 2.5 km away from the sea
and 50 to 500m away from the mangrove forest. Fishers and farmers in these hamlets
narrated that mangrove trees along the first few rows bore the brunt of the tsunami
waves and the friction created by these trees and the trees of subsequent rows reduced
the speed of the water. According to the villagers, seawater flashed into the mangroves
by tsunami was distributed into lagoon, tidal creeks and canals associated with
mangrove wetland and therefore, the amount of water reaching a point was very
much reduced. This clearly indicates that both the mangrove forests and the associated
wetlands together played a crucial role in mitigating the impact of the tsunami.

Similar observations have also been made in Indonesia, Sri Lanka and Thailand. In
Hambanthota District of Southern Sri Lanka it was observed that undisturbed
mangrove stands in areas such as Rekawa, Kahanda and Kalametiya villages had
contributed to reduce the damage caused by the tsunami. Even local communities in
Rekawa and Kahanda said that their lives and properties were saved by the intact
mangrove stands. In areas where the mangrove stands were totally or partially cleared
in this district, the damage was high.
Mission statement
The National Commission on Farmers of Government of India under the
chairmanship of Dr.M.S.Swaminathan prepared a detailed action plan in January
2005 for an integrated psychological, ecological, agronomic and livelihood
rehabilitation programmes that can be taken up in the tsunami affected areas in
three time dimensions as given below:
A. Immediate (January - March, 2005)

Water, shelter, sanitation, health and revival of livelihoods.
Psychological rehabilitation
Repair of catamarans
Achieving convergence and synergy among all on-going programmes with
similar objectives (this is an urgent task)
B. Medium Term (2005-07)
Ecological rehabilitation
Agronomic rehabilitation
Economic rehabilitation
Disaster preparedness, mitigation and management
C. Long Term (2005-10)
Strengthening environmental defense systems
Enlarging opportunities for sustainable livelihoods based on a pro-nature,
pro-poor, pro-women orientation to technology development and
dissemination.
Improving the productivity, profitability and sustainability of agriculture and
fisheries.
The above plan emphasizes that strengthening the ecological foundations of the
coastal area should be taken up as one of the long-term rehabilitation efforts. This

ecological rehabilitation programme includes initiating a coastal bioshield movement
along coastal areas, including the raising of mangrove forests, plantations of casuarina,
palms, bamboo and other tree species and halophytes, which can grow near the sea.
They will serve as speed-breakers under conditions of coastal storms, cyclones and
tsunami. They will in addition serve as carbon sinks, since they will help to enhance
carbon sequestration and thereby contribute to reduce the growing imbalance between
carbon emissions and absorptions. Mangroves are very efficient in carbon
sequestration. Mangroves also promote sustainable fisheries by releasing nutrients
and acting as nursery ground for juveniles of commercially important species of fish,
crab and prawn. The coastal bioshields can also involve agro-forestry programmes
like the intercropping of casuarina with groundnut, red gram and other crops. As a
part of the bioshield programme community nurseries of mangroves and other trees
and vegetation can be raised, which will also provide livelihood to many families that
participate in the bioshield movement. Both mangrove and non-mangrove
components of bioshield can be integrated with livelihood options and eco-restoration
of coastal systems by developing different site-specific models. Thus, the community
based bioshield movement will provide multiple benefits to local communities as
well as to India as a whole. All these indicate the necessity for developing and
demonstrating models of community based bioshields with mangrove and other
coastal vegetation, which can be replicated in other suitable areas so as to mitigate
the impact of natural calamities such as cyclones, storm surges and tsunami.
M.S.Swaminathan Research Foundation is involved in research and management

of the mangrove wetlands for the past 12 years and made significant contribution to
restore and sustain mangrove wetlands in the east coast of India. It has developed a
comprehensive science-based, people-centred and process-oriented approach to restore
and conserve mangrove wetlands that was implemented in selected areas in six major
mangrove wetlands located all along the east coast of India including West Bengal,
Orissa, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu in partnership with the concerned State
Forest Department and local community with the support of the Canadian
International Development Agency and India-Canada Environment Facility. This
approach and methodology to restore degraded mangroves was evaluated by an expert
committee of the Ministry of Environment and Forest, Government of India and
included in its National Mangrove Action Plan. It has also established 45 Village
Mangrove Councils in the state of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Orissa through
which efforts were taken to restore 1500 ha of mangroves of which nearly 70% of the
areas have now been completely restored. About 6.8 million mangrove saplings were
planted in these areas. Innovative approaches have also been developed and

demonstrated to increase the economic stake of the user communities in mangrove
restoration and conservation. The present toolkit is prepared on the basis of the
above experiences. With reference to non-mangrove bioshield institutions such as
the State Forest Departments have been involved in raising shelterbelts such as
casuarina plantations for long time and has developed and refined the art and science
of creating and managing these shelterbelts.
It is to be mentioned that starting of non-mangrove bioshield such as casuarina

plantation right from the high tide line may have serious implications on the ecology
of the coastal areas, some times even on wildlife because many of the sandy beaches
are utilized by sea turtles as nesting grounds and it has been reported in many places
that raising of casuarina very close to the sea prevented nesting by sea turtles. Most
importantly, sandy beach supplies sand to littoral current, which run parallel to the
shoreline. This current system, in combination with wind-induced waves, takes away
sand from one place and deposits it in another area. Since this process takes place
simultaneously all along the coast, a balance is achieved between removal and supply
of sand in a given place and this balance avoids sea erosion. If shelterbelt plantations
are raised starting from the high tide line, then the supply of sand to the littoral
current would be reduced or stopped (due to sand binding property of the plantation)
and to compensate this, current and waves would remove large chunk of sand in
other areas, leading to sea erosion in those areas. In order to avoid such a problem
shelterbelt plantation should start at least 50 to 75m away from the high tide line.
10 M S Swaminathan Research Foundation

Part I
Mangrove Bioshield
Par
artt I
2.1 Mangr
Mangrooves - an oovver vie
ervie w
view
What are mangroves?

Mangroves are woody trees and shrubs that grow normally in places where river
water mixes with seawater. These places are otherwise called estuarine or brackish
water environment. Assemblages of mangrove woody trees and shrubs are called
mangrove forests. Since mangrove forests are located in the estuarine environment
they are intersected by a number of small tidal creeks and channels. In many cases
large open brackish water bodies are also found associated with mangrove forests.
Mangrove forest and associated tidal creeks and canals and water bodies together
constitute mangrove wetland. Mangrove wetlands are a characteristic feature of the
tropical coastal areas.
What are the factors that determine area, diversity and growth of
mangroves?
The health of the mangrove wetlands with reference to hydrological and soil
conditions and the wealth of the mangrove wetlands in terms of area, species diversity,
biomass and productivity are determined by
Degree of protection against high-energy waves
Quantity and duration of freshwater flow and sediment supply
Larger tidal amplitude and
Gently sloping coastal topography
Though mangrove trees are capable of withstanding the forces of cyclones, storms
and tsunami they grow only in coastal areas where wave energy is low or in places
where mangrove wetlands are protected by sand barriers against high-energy waves.
This protection is necessary for the seedlings of the mangrove plants to settle, establish
and grow. The coastline of the Muthupet region of the then combined Thanjavur
District of Tamil Nadu and that of Sunderbans in West Bengal are the best examples
of low-energy wave coasts where mangroves grow luxuriantly along the seashore. In
fact, in these areas mangrove forest is slowly growing into the sea! In areas like the
Godavari mangroves of Andhra Pradesh, a sand spit known as Hope Island and
Kakinada Bay provide protection to mangroves against high waves. In the case of the
Pichavaram mangroves of Tamil Nadu, a narrow sandy beach located between the
sea and the mangroves prevents exposure of forest directly to the high-energy waves.

Thus, this essential condition of protection against high waves during the early stage
of mangrove forest development rules out growing of mangroves all along the entire coast.
Most of the mangrove plants require low salinity condition for their growth and
reproduction. Hence, luxuriant mangrove forests can be seen only in the estuarine
regions where large amount of freshwater is discharged for longer period of time in a
year. For example, the Sunderbans mangrove forest of West Bengal, which receives
freshwater from the River Ganges and the Brahmaputra throughout the year, harbours
not only high number of mangrove plant species but also dense and tall mangrove
forest. Whereas in the Pichavaram and Muthupet mangroves of Tamil Nadu, which
receive only a low amount of freshwater and that too only for a few months in a year,
both number of plant species present as well as height of the tree is less.
The area of the mangrove wetlands is determined by the tidal amplitude and slope
of the coastline (tide is nothing but the temporary raise and fall of seawater due to
gravitational pull of the moon and the sun and tidal amplitude is the difference
between high tide and low tide). For example, tidal amplitude in the Sunderbans
mangroves is about 4.8 m and the slope of the coast is also very gentle. As a result,
seawater reaches up to 90 km inland and mangrove wetland is present up to this
point. The total area of the Indian part of the Sunderbans mangrove wetland is about
4, 26,000 ha (actual forest cover is about 2,12,500 ha). On the other hand, area of
the Pichavaram mangrove wetland of Tamil Nadu, where the tidal amplitude varies
from 0.40 to 0.65 m, is only about 1,400 ha (actual forest cover is only 700 ha).
What are the plants and animals in mangrove wetlands?

Plants
The plant community in mangrove environment is classified into two types namely,
true mangrove species and associate mangrove species. True mangrove species are
found only in the mangrove wetlands whereas associated species are found both in
the mangrove environment and in the nearby areas. Globally a total number of 69
plant species have been identified as true mangroves. All these species are able to
grow in saline water but only a few of them have the ability to tolerate high salinity.
For example, Avicennia marina can tolerate soil salinity as high as 90 grams per litre
but many of the mangrove plants grow luxuriantly only in places where salinity is
between 10 to 20 grams per litre.
What are the unique features of mangrove plants?

Mangrove plants posses a number of unique adaptive features to grow in saline
and oxygenless soil.

Breathing roots: The root systems, which are below ground, also require oxygen for
respiration. Mangrove soil is characterized by low or nil oxygen and mangrove plants
have adapted to survive in such unpromising environment. The most striking
adaptations are the aerial roots, which are otherwise called breathing roots. For
example, in the species of Avicennia small finger like roots branch out from the main
underground cable root and protrude out into the atmosphere. These roots have
small pores through which gaseous exchange takes place. Similarly, species like
Rhizophora posses specialized roots called stilt roots, which emerge out as much as
2m from the trunk and penetrate the soil some distance away from the main trunk.
These roots also have minute pores through which oxygen is taken into the roots and
carbon dioxide is expelled. Stilt roots provide additional support to trees. When
mangrove plants grow together these root systems create a complex mesh, which
dampen the speed of waves, cyclonic winds, tsunami and also avoid soil erosion.
Mangrove plants tolerate salinity of the soil and water by the following ways:
i) Salt excretion: Some mangrove plants take saline water as such through roots.
But in the tissues only water molecules and essential salts are retained. Excess
salts are excreted through salt glands that are present in the leaves.
ii) Salt exclusion: In some of the mangrove plants the roots possess an ultra
filtration mechanism called reverse osmosis by which water and salts in the
seawater are separated in the root zone itself and only water is taken inside
and the salts are rejected (reverse osmosis mechanism is widely used for
producing drinking water from seawater!).
iii) Salt accumulation: In this type of mangrove, plants posses neither salt glands
nor ultra-filtration system but these species have the capacity to accumulate
a large amount of salts in their leaves.
Another distinctive feature of most of the mangrove plants is vivipary, i.e. seedlings
grow when the seed is attached in the mother tree itself (generally, in terrestrial
plants seeds fall from the mother tree and grow into seedlings in the soil). The seedlings
of the mangroves that grow in the mother tree itself are called propagules. Since the
mangrove environment is harsh (saline condition and low or nil oxygen in soils)
most of the seeds falling from the trees might not survive and this would affect
propagation of the species. To avoid this, mangrove plants have the habit of producing
propagules during the monsoon season, when the salinity of the water and soil is
low. Propagules, which fall from the tree sometimes fix directly into the mud and
grow as trees or float in the water and fix themselves in suitable areas.
Animals
Almost all groups of animals are present in the mangrove environment but the
most striking ones are crabs, snails, bivalves and oysters. Interesting species among
crabs are leaf-eating crabs, tree-climbing crabs, fiddler crabs, hermit crabs, mud crabs,
mud lobsters, etc. Among them the most colourful is fiddler crabs. The male fiddler
crabs have one greatly enlarged claw, coloured in crimson, orange and intense blue,
used in social displays and in jousting with rival males. Crabs of the mangrove
environment are called ecosystem engineers since they facilitate air circulation in
the soil and thereby influence growth and productivity of the mangrove trees. Fish is
the major animal component of the mangrove environment. Many of the estuarine
species of fish, crab and prawn are found in mangroves and they constitute the
fishery resources of the mangrove wetlands.
Some of the mangrove wetlands harbour larger animals like salt-water crocodiles,
sea otters etc. and the Sunderbans mangroves is famous for Bengal Tiger. Many of
the mangrove wetlands also act as feeding and breeding grounds for a variety of
resident and migrant birds.
What are the uses of mangrove wetlands?

Mangrove wetlands comprise both mangrove forests and associated water bodies
and hence, their uses are manifold. The economic value of the mangrove wetlands
stems from
1. Availability of wood products like minor timber, poles and posts and firewood
2. Availability of non-wood produce such as fodder, honey, wax, tannin, dye
and plant materials for thatching
3. Availability of aquatic food ranging from fish, prawn, crabs, mussel, clam to
oysters; mangrove fishery resources ensure livelihood security of thousands
and thousands of assetless poor fishing families of the tropical areas
Apart from these, mangrove wetlands provide a variety of amenities to coastal
communities.
1. Mangroves mitigate the adverse impact of storms, cyclones and tsunami
2. They reduce coastal erosion
3. They act as nursery grounds for many of the commercially important prawns,
fish, crabs and molluscs
4. They enhance the fishery productivity in adjacent coastal waters by providing
them with large quantities of organic and inorganic nutrients
5. The root zone of the mangrove trees provide safe havens for young fish and
prawns
6. They provide habitats for diverse marine, estuarine and terrestrial wildlife
including migratory birds

2.2 Mangr
Mangroove wetlands of India
wetlands
Mangrove wetlands are present both along the east and west coast of the mainland
of India and in the coastal zone of Andaman and Nicobar Islands. According to
Forest Survey of India (1998), total area of the Indian mangrove forest is 487100 ha,
out of which nearly 56.7% (275800 ha) is present along the east coast, 23.5%
(114700ha) along the west coast and the remaining 19.8% (96600ha) is found in
the Andaman and Nicobar islands (Table 1).
Mangrove wetlands of the west coast of India is small in size, less in diversity and
less complicated in terms of tidal creek network. This is mainly because costal zone
of the west coast is narrow and steep in slope due to the presence of Western Ghats
and there is no major west-flowing river. On the other hand, mangrove wetlands of
the east coast are larger in area, high in diversity and water bodies associated with
mangroves are characterized by the presence of large brackish water bodies and
complex network of tidal creeks and canals. This is mainly due to presence of larger
delta created by east-flowing rivers and gentle slope of the coast.
Table 1: Mangrove wetlands of India (Forest Survey of India, 1998)

State Mangrove wetland Total area of the Actual forest
wetland (ha)* cover (ha)
East Coast
West Bengal Sunderbans 426000 212500
Orissa Mahanadi 67000 21500
Andhra Pradesh Godavari 33250 24100
Krishna 25000 15600
Tamil Nadu Pichavaram 1300 900
Muthupet 13000 1200
West Coast
Gujarat Gulf of Kachchh 58200 85400
Gulf of Cambay 53123 17700
Other mangroves - - 11600
Andaman and Andaman islands - 92900
Nicobar islands Nicobar islands 3700
Total 487100
* Records of the State Forest Departments

Area, species diversity and biomass of the mangrove forest of the east coast of
India reduce gradually from the Sunderbans in the north to mangroves of Tamil
Nadu in the south. Sunderbans and Orissa mangroves receive freshwater and alluvial
sediments in large quantities for longer period of time in a year. Tidal amplitude is
also very high in these regions. These factors along with gently sloping coast create
favourable environmental settings for mangrove plants to settle and grow luxuriantly.
Whereas in Tamil Nadu tidal amplitude is very low and inflow of freshwater is
restricted only to a few months. Hence, area of the mangroves and species diversity
are least in Tamil Nadu.
Mangrove wetlands of Tamil Nadu

Tamil Nadu has a coastline of about 950 km. Along the coastline major mangrove
wetlands are present in two areas: one at Pichavaram in the Cuddalore District and
the other in the Muthupet region in the Thiruvarur-Nagapattinam-Thanjavur
Districts. Small patches of mangroves are also present along the Palk Bay, particularly
in the Devipattinam region and also in some of the islands of the Gulf of Mannar in
Ramanathapuram District (Table 2).
Table 2: Major and minor mangrove wetlands of Tamil Nadu

Name of the Wetland Forested
Standort
mangroves area (ha)* area (ha)
Cuddalore District Pichavaram 1400 700
Uppanar Old
Coleroon region
Thanjavur-Thiruvarur Muthupet 12000 1885
DistrictsEstuarine region
of the distributaries
of Vennar
Ramanathapuram Devipattinam and in 700 Not known
District the mouth region of
small estuaries
Tuticorin District Tamirabarani estuary 148 Not known
Total 13400 -
* Approximate estimate
Almost all the above mangrove areas are under the management of the Tamil
Nadu Forest Department. In addition, large patches of mangroves, about 2 to 50 ha
in area, are present in many places along the coast of Tamil Nadu. These mangroves
are mostly present in the Revenue lands (lands owned by Revenue Department).

Mangrove Wetlands of Andhra Pradesh
Andhra Pradesh has a coast line of about 1030 km. Major mangrove wetlands are
located in the deltaic regions of Godavari and Krishna rivers and the total area of the
mangrove is about 58200 ha. The Godavari mangroves are located in the East Godavari
district and the Krishna mangroves are located in the Krishna and Guntur districts.
Apart from these, mangroves are also found in small patches in the coastal areas of
Vishakapatnam, West Godavari, Guntur, and Prakasam districts (Table 3). The
majority of the mangroves are under the management of the Andhra Pradesh Forest
Department and there are mangrove areas, which are in the lands owned by other
government agencies.
Table 3: Major and Minor mangrove wetlands of Andhra Pradesh

Name of the Wetland Area Forested Area
Standort
Mangrove (ha) (ha)
East Godavari District Godavari 33200 17000
Godavari Estuary (IRS LIS III- 2001)
Krishna and Guntur Krishna 24999 9500
Districts (IRS LIS III– 2001)
Krishna Estuary
Machilipatnam Machilipatnam 2825 2100
Krishna Estuary
Nizampatnam Nizampatnam 1220 900
Guntur District
Muthukuru Mandal Krishnapatnam 20 Not Known
Nellore District
Chillakuru Mandal - 50 Not Known
Nellore District
Alluru Mandal Pennar 1200 Not Known
Nellore District
Guduru and Tada Pulicat 2000 Not Known
Mandals
Nellore District
Chinaganjam Mandal Chinaganjam 65 Not Known
Prakasam District
Visakhapatnam Visakhapatnam 100 Not Known
Naval area
Vamsadhara estuary Vamsadhara estuary 35 25
Srikakulam District
Total 65714 -

Mangrove wetlands of Orissa
Orissa state has mangroves in about 24300 ha. The Bhitarkanika mangroves, which
is the major mangrove wetland of Orissa, occupies an area of about 15000 ha and
declared as a Wildlife Sanctuary. Among the Indian mangroves the highest diversity
of mangrove plants occurs in the Bhitarkanika and hence, it has been identified as
one of the important mangrove genetic resource centres of the world. The extent of
major and minor mangrove forests of Orissa is given in Table 4.
Table 4: Major and minor mangrove wetlands of Orissa
Location Name of the Mangrove Forested Area (ha)

Devi mouth Devi mouth 346
Mahanadi Mahanadi 5124
Bhitarkanika Bhitarkanika 14987
Dhamara mouth Dhamara 2935
Budha Balanga mouth 135
Subernareka 776
Total 24303
Mangrove wetlands of West Bengal

Mangroves of West Bengal and Bangladesh is together called as Sunderbans and it
is the largest mangrove wetland in the world. It covers an area of about 1 million ha,
of which 60% is located in Bangladesh and 40% in India. The total part of the Indian
Sunderbans is about 4,26,000 ha, of which 2,12,500 ha has thick mangrove forest
and 1,78,100 ha is water body. Like Bhitarkanika of Orissa, Sunderban mangrove is
also rich in species diversity and biomass.
Mangroves of Gujarat
It has been reported that the total mangrove area of the Gujarat is about 1,05,100
ha, of which nearly 77% is located in the Gulf of Kachchh region and remaining in
the Gulf of Khambhat area. Out of about 1 lakh ha of mangroves, mangrove forest is
found only in about 21,500 ha. Remaining area comprises of long stretches of mudflat
without any vegetation. The factors responsible for poor status of the mangroves of
Gujarat are the sub-desertic to arid climate with recurrent drought and very low
inflow of freshwater into the mangroves.
Small and discontinuous patches of mangrove forest are also present in Goa,
Maharashtra, Karnataka and Kerala.

Mangroves of Andaman and Nicobar Islands
The Andaman and Nicobar islands have mangrove forest of about 1,15,000 ha.
The climate of the islands is humid and annual rainfall varies from 2750 to 3080 m.
The tidal amplitude is also high, about 1.90 m. Due to all these favourable
environmental conditions mangroves of Andaman and Nicobar islands are gregarious,
dense and diverse in nature. Some of the mangrove areas in the Nicobar group of
islands still remain unexplored.
Map showing distribution of mangroves in India

2.3 CCommon
ommon mangr
mangroove plants
A mangrove plant is defined as “a tree, shrub, palm or ground fern, generally

exceeding more than half a metre in height, and which normally grows above mean
sea level in the intertidal zones of marine coastal environments, or estuarine margins”.
True mangrove species

In general, plants of the mangrove wetlands are divided into two groups namely,
a) true or exclusive mangrove and b) associate mangrove species. The following are
the characteristic features of true mangrove species:
a). True mangrove plants grow only in mangrove environment and do not extend
into terrestrial plant communities
b). They play a major role in determining structure of the plant community of
the mangrove wetland and ability to form pure stands
c). They are morphologically adapted to live in waterlogged condition – e.g. aerial
roots associated with gas exchange
d). They are physiologically adapted to live in saline environment
e). They have viviparous reproduction
f). They are taxonomically isolated from terrestrial relatives
About 69 species in 27 genera, belonging to 20 families are considered as true
mangrove species.
Mangrove plants of India
A total number 34 true mangrove plant species are present in the mangroves of
India, including mangroves of both the east and west coasts and that of Andaman
and Nicobar Islands. The mangrove wetlands of Orissa have the highest number of
species (about 30) followed by Sunderbans of West Bengal (about 27) and Andaman
and Nicobar Islands (about 24). The least number of species among the east coast
mangroves is present in Tamil Nadu (14) and out of this 14 species, two species
namely, Ceriops tagal and Pemphis acidula are present only in the Gulf of Mannar
islands. Analysis of the distribution of true mangrove species in different Indian
mangrove wetlands indicates that Acanthus ilicifolius, Aegiceras corniculatum, Avicennia
marina, Bruguiera cylindrica, Ceriops decandra, Ceriops tagal, Excoecaria agallocha,
Lumnitzera racemosa, Rhizophora apiculata and R. mucronata are common to all the
mangroves of India. On the other hand, species such as Pemphis acidula is endemic to
islands of Gulf of Mannar of Tamil Nadu, Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea to Godavari
mangroves of Andhra Pradesh. Similarly, Nypa fruticans has been reported to be present
only in Sunderbans of West Bengal. The Tamil Nadu mangrove is also characterized
by the presence of a natural hybrid of Rhizophora species.
Common plants used in mangrove plantation

The following mangroves species are commonly used in mangrove restoration
and afforestation:
Avicennia marina Avicennia officinalis
Bruguiera cylindrica Ceriops decandra
Ceriops tagal Excoecaria agallocha
Rhizophora apiculata Rhizophora mucronata
Sonneratia apetala Xylocarpus grantum
Identification of the common mangrove plants
Rhizophora apiculata and Rhizophora mucronata are glabrous evergreen trees,
typically found growing along the banks of tidal creeks and canals and can be easily
identified by their stilt roots. These roots arise from the main trunk, grow downwards
and penetrate deep into the mud and thereby provide additional support to the tree.
The presence of stilt roots helps Rhizophora spp. to withstand the fury of cyclones
and tsunamis and thereby helps in mitigating the impact of such natural calamities.
R. mucronata can be easily distinguished from R. apiculata, by a) broader leaves, b)
long propagules and c) longer peduncle of the flower.
Avicennia marina and Avicennia officinalis can be easily identified by their finger
like pneumatophores, which emerge as lateral branches from horizontal roots and
stand erect, upto 30 cm from the soil. Like stilt roots of Rhizophora species,
pneumatophores of Avicennia species act as breathing roots and provide additional
support to trees. The bark of A. marina is brilliant white (hence, called as white
mangroves) and smooth whereas the bark of A. officinalis is grey to black and hence
known as black mangroves.
Ceriops decandra and Ceriops tagal belong to Rhizhophoraceae family. They are
small evergreen trees but do not have elaborate stilt roots like Rhizophora species. The
propagules of Ceriops species are similar to Rhizophora species but are smaller. The
propagules of Ceriops decandra are about 15 cm in length and green to brown in color
and clearly ribbed from top to bottom; they are erect. On the other hand, propagules
of Ceriops tagal are about 20 cm in length and are drooping and smooth.

Avicennia marina
Avicennia officinalis
Bruguiera cylindrica
Ceriops decandra
Ceriops tagal

Excoecaria agallocha
Rhizophora apiculata
Rhizophora mucronata
Xylocarpus mekongensis

Bruguiera spp. grow mostly as a shrub of about 2 m tall; in some places where
there is more freshwater inflow, they grow to a height of about 6 m but with slender
trunk and branches. They normally grow in the Rhizophora zone, just behind
Rhizophora trees. Bruguiera species are distinguishable by their knee roots. The colour
of peeling bark is pinkish.
Excoecaria agallocha is a tree species of about 5 to 8 m tall, branched from base. In

some areas it grows as a shrub. Bark is grey in colour and smooth with prominent
lenticels. This is the only mangrove species that has latex, which is white and causes
irritation to skin. Lichens, variously coloured and shaped can be seen on the bark.
This plant is unisexual, male and female plants are separate.
Sonneratia apetala is a moderate sized evergreen tree with black smooth bark, wood
grey or reddish brown, soft. It has finger like aerial roots but larger than that of
Avicennia species.
Xylocarpus granatum is a moderate evergreen tree with grey bark and hard dark red
wood. It is used as a minor timber. Trunk smooth with flat buttress roots.

2.4 AAff
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orestation of mangr
estation mangrooves
Afforestation of mangrove means raising mangrove plantation in the areas where

mangrove was not present previously. However, when compared to terrestrial
plantation such as casuarina along the coast, mangroves are not normally raised as
plantations in new areas because mangrove plants require certain special
environmental condition to establish and grow. This chapter provides an outline of
the process and procedures to be followed in identifying suitable areas for mangrove
afforestation. It also provides details of planting techniques for various mangrove
species.
Where mangroves grow luxuriantly?

Mangrove species requires the following basic environmental conditions for their
luxuriant growth:
Wave energy along with shoreline should be low (otherwise seedlings would
be uprooted)
Substratum should be muddy or accumulated deposit of sediments
Salinity of the water should undergo constant variations due to freshwater
flow (mangroves require low saline condition for optimum growth and
reproduction)
Area should be regularly flushed by tidal water (for many reasons such as
maintenance of salinity, etc.)
Soil should be saturated with or covered by low saline water at some time
during the growing season of every year
Mangroves can be raised successfully only in the places where all the above-
mentioned environmental conditions exist.
Identification of mangrove afforestation site at macro level

One of the primary requirements for identifying mangrove afforestation sites at
the macro level is a map of the coastal zone that shows details of estuarine areas,
lagoon, backwater systems, mudflats etc (see Remote Sensing Imagery of Pitchavaram
area). At regional and state level, the above features can be demarcated using maps
published by the Survey of India (Toposheets, available both in 1:50000 and 1:25000
scale). Demarcated maps may also be available and these will provide overall

Vellar Estuary
Backwater area
Pichavaram
mangroves
Lagoon
Mudflat
Coleroon estuary
Remote Sensing imagery showing estuaries, mangrove wetland, lagoon and

backwater, tidal creek and mudflat areas; Areas such as mud flats may be suitable
to raise mangrove plantation and suitability of these sites can be identified by
analyzing biophysical conditions

information on location and extent of estuarine, brackish water and mudflats areas
available along the coastline. For example, Institute of Water Studies, Government
of Tamil Nadu has prepared such a detailed map (1:50000 scale) for the entire coastal
stretch of Tamil Nadu. These kinds of maps may also be available with the National
Remote Sensing Agencies, Hydrabad and Space Application Centre (SAC),
Ahamadabad or in the State Remote Sensing Agency (Kindly refer to the website
www.nrsa.gov.in; www.isro.org).
Preparation of field map

Before undertaking micro level analysis, a base map should be prepared using the
Survey of India toposheet, which will have only required details such as boundary of
the estuary, extent of mudflat, high tide line, low tide line and landmarks such as
settlement and roads. This base map can then be used for ground assessment as
described later. Details collected in the ground information should be transferred
onto these base maps with reference to landmarks for planning and monitoring.
Identification of mangrove afforestation sites at micro level

After identifying and demarcating estuarine, backwater, lagoon and other brackish
water areas using regional or state level maps, then it should be known whether an
estuary or any other brackish water system and its surrounding area shown in the
maps could support growth of mangrove plants. For this purpose environmental
factors such as nature of the substratum, tidal flushing pattern, soil properties, etc.,
should be analyzed thoroughly. Participation of local people is a must in this analysis
because they know their environment much better than outsiders. Data on what was
the condition of the environment in the past and how these conditions changed
with time can be collected from the local people.
Analysis of the substrate

The substrate is an important controlling factor in selecting an area for mangrove
afforestation. Type and thickness of substratum will help in deciding which species
of mangroves is suitable for a given area. Therefore, a thorough study on type of
substratum of the sites, which are selected for mangrove plantation, is essential.
Though presence of mangrove trees has been reported in sandy areas, muddy substrate
is the most suitable substrate for mangrove growth. The following problem may be
encountered in growing mangroves in sandy soils: a) shifting sands may be deposited
on aerial roots and kill young seedlings, b) roots of mangroves are of shallow type,
which may not find good grip in the sandy soil, c) less nutrient content and d) low
moisture keeping capacity. Muddy soil is the best soil for mangrove plantation. Mud
is best characterized as soft sediment composed of a combination of organic and

inorganic material; it may be as shallow as a few centimeters or as deep as a few
metres. The firmness of mud can vary from loose to hard. Plantation should be
avoided in loose soils because propagules or seedlings will be washed away during
high tidal currents. Plantation should also be avoided in very firm soils because the
root can penetrate deep into the soil, which in turn would affect survival and growth.
Mangrove plantation should be avoided in very acidic soil, which can be identified by
the foul smell like that of a rotten egg.
Analysis of tidal flushing pattern

What is tidal flushing?
Seawater rises and falls temporarily daily due to gravitation pull of the sun and
the moon. This temporary rise and fall of sea level is called tides. The rising tide is
called high tide and falling tide is called low tide and the difference between high tide
and low tide is called the tidal amplitude. When the seawater rises during high tide,
seawater enters into the estuary, backwater, tidal creeks, mudflats and spreads laterally.
When the tide falls during low tide, all the seawater that entered during high tide
goes back to the sea. Such phenomenon of covering an area with seawater during
high tide and moving out of that area during the low tide is called tidal flushing.
Only the area that is flushed by tidal water is suitable for mangrove plantation
(provided other factors are favorable). The area that is located between the high and
low tide is called the intertidal area (Fig.1).
Tidal flushing pattern of a given area is determined by a) tidal amplitude and b)

elevation of the ground level (otherwise called topography). Before going into the
details of measuring tidal flushing pattern some important aspects of tides are to be
understood.
Fig. 1: Intertidal area, which is flushed by tidal water regularly,

is the most suitable area to raise mangrove plantation
(provided other factors are favourable)
Daily tides
In many places there are two high tides and two low tides each day and each tide
continuing for about 6 hours (sometimes this time will vary!). The time of high tide
and low tide is determined by the position of the sun and the moon. On an average,
the high and low tides occur about 50 minutes later from one day to the next day. For
example, if the high tide occurs at about 6.00 am today it will occur at 6.50 am
tomorrow in the same spot. However, this is a just a rule of thumb as tides are very
complicated. Usually when there are two high and low tides, they will not be of the
same height. For example, it is normal for one high tide to be higher than the other.
The higher of the two high tides is called the Higher High Water (or HHW); the
lower of the two low tides is called Lower Low Water (or LLW).
Spring tides and neap tides

Tidal amplitude reaches peak around full moon and new moon days because during
these times the sun and the moon will be in the same line and work together to pull
the seawater higher. This is called spring tide. After the spring tide the high tidal level
will gradually decrease and reaches the lowest point during the 1st quarter and 2nd
quarter (after seven days of new and full moon) when the moon and the sun are at
right angles to each other (and thereby they loose their combined gravitational pull
on earth’s ocean). These lowest tides are called the neap tides.
Tide tables
Tide tables provide daily information on the time when high and low tide occurs
in a place and also the height of each high and low tide. Tide table is available for
only major coastal cities and ports. In Tamil Nadu, Tide table is available for Chennai,
Cuddalore, Nagapattinam and Tuticorin. The time and height of tides given in the
tide table is for the specific location (where observation is being made continuously
for a number of years) and therefore, time and height of tide at a point inside an
estuary or a backwater system will vary slightly. This time lag in tidal conditions
needs to be understood.
Measuring tidal flushing pattern

In order to measure the tidal flushing pattern of a selected area the date and time
of spring high tide that occur in nearby areas should be noted down from the tide
table. On a particular day a group of people should go to the selected site, be positioned
in different places like near the mouth of the estuary or mudflat, in the middle
portion of the estuary or mudflat etc., and should wait for the arrival of the spring
tidal water. The point at which the spring high tide reaches should be marked with a

staff. Similarly, where tidal water falls during the low tide should also be marked.
This will give an idea of the breadth of the intertidal area where mangrove plantation
can be undertaken. The difference in ground level between the point where spring
high tide reached and where spring low tide fell will give an idea of elevation of the
ground level with reference to low tide.
After locating the points where spring high tide reaches and spring low tide falls,
the intertidal area should be divided approximately into high tidal portion, mid tidal
portion and low tidal portion and number of times these areas are inundated by tidal
water should be monitored for a period of 15 days. The part of the intertidal area,
which is flushed by tidal water only during the spring high tide and one or two days
before and after spring tide should be measured, marked and designated as High
Tidal Area; similarly, the portion of the intertidal area, which is flushed by tidal
water for about 10 days within a period of 15 days should be measured, marked and
designated as Mid Tidal Flat. Areas that are flushed by tidal water daily should be
marked and designated as Low Tidal Flat (Fig. 2). In the regions where tidal amplitude
is very high mangrove plantation is normally undertaken only in the mid tidal flat
because saplings planted in the low tidal flat will be immersed in tidal water for
many days that would affect their survival. However, in regions with low tidal
amplitude like Tamil Nadu coast mangroves can be planted even in the low tidal flat.
Fig. 2: Three different portions of intertidal area; low tidal flat is flushed
by tidal water daily, mid-tidal flat is flushed for about 20 days in a month
(most suitable place for mangroves)
Analysis of salinity
Salinity is another important factor that decides the success of mangrove plantation.
Salinity of the tidal water, ground water and soil, are all important. Salinity of the
running water can be easily measured by “refractormeter or salinometer”, which is

commonly available in the market. In case of ground water salinity, pits can be made
in many places in the high, mid and low tidal area with auger and water collected
from the pits can be used to find out the salinity of the ground water. Soil salinity
may be determined with the help of soil testing laboratories.
Mangrove plants are capable of tolerating salinity ranging from 2‰ to 90‰

(salinity is measured as parts per thousand [ppt] means grams per litre, which is
indicated as ‰). However, field observations and laboratory experiments show that
mangrove plants attain maximum growth only in low saline condition and these
experiments showed that for most of the mangrove species the optimal soil salinity
ranges between 10 and 20‰. Some group of authors consider optimal salinity for
most of the mangroves lies between 4‰ and 15‰. In an experiment conducted it
was found out that Avicennia marina and Aegiceras corniculatum grew at salinities
from 0 to 35‰, but maximum growth occurred in salinity between 7 and 14‰. In
general, growth rate of mangrove trees falls by at least 50% with an increase in
salinity from 20 to 35‰ with a further significant decrease in growth rate at higher
salinities. Similarly rate of photosynthesis also reduces drastically in high salinity.
Growth rate of mangrove plants is affected at higher salinity mainly because the
rates of ion transport to the shoot of the mangrove plants saturates and as a result
shoot growth continues only with a reduction in growth rate. Similarly at higher salinity
regime photosynthetic capacity of the mangrove plants reduces drastically due to
high water loss through leaves, which create water imbalances in the leaves. Thirdly,
in high saline condition mangrove plants have to spend a lot of energy for maintenance
process, which in turn also affect the growth, and to some extent rate of
photosynthesis.
All these indicate that growth, productivity of mangrove plants is high in low
saline condition, and such low saline condition can be found only when estuarine
water, where mangrove plants grow, is diluted with large amount of freshwater for
longer period of time.
Analysis of freshwater flow

Mangrove plants require freshwater or low saline condition for reproduction and
during the time of the establishment of young plants. Hence, a study should be
conducted to find out whether the selected site is receiving freshwater and if yes,
duration of the freshwater flow (months) and how long low saline condition exists
in the area. This information can be collected with the help of the local community.
Almost all the mangrove species produce propagules and seeds only in low saline

condition. This can be considered as a natural phenomenon of the mangrove species
and it is related to their evolution. According to mangrove ecologists all the mangrove
plant species originally evolved in terrestrial environment. But they gradually migrated
to coastal saline areas to avoid competition from other plant species. During evolution
these mangrove species developed morphological characters and physiological mechanism
to live in saline condition but still they produce propagules only during the monsoon
season when the water and soil salinity is low or freshwater condition may exist which
provide suitable condition for the propagules to establish and grow fast.
On the basis of the salinity distribution five zones can be identified horizontally
in mangrove wetlands. They are euhaline, polyhaline, mesohaline, oligohaline and
limnatic zones. The range of salinity in these zones is given below:
Different salinity zones in an estuary

Zone Range of salinity
Euhaline zone 30 and 40‰ and more
Polyhaline zone 18 to 30‰,
Mesohaline zone 5 to 18‰
Oligohaline zone 0.5 to 5‰
Limnatic condition 0.5‰ (Freshwater)
It is observed that most of the mangrove species are absent in the euhaline condition
(due to higher annual average salinity) and limnatic zone because of its pure freshwater
nature. The other three salinity zones have their own group of mangrove species and
dominance of species in each of these three zones depends on the value of the average
salinity, whether it is on the higher side or lower side. The species commonly found
in the polyhaline zone belongs to the genus Rhizophora, Bruguiera, Ceriops, Avicennia
and Sonneratia. Species belonging to Acanthus, Aegiceras and Kandelia are common in
the mesohaline zone. Freshwater loving species such as Hertieria, Nypa fruticans etc.
dominate the oligohaline zone. Some species of the mangroves such as Avicennia
marina, which tolerate wide range of salinity, may be present in most of these zones.
All the above-described five zones can be found only in mangrove wetland, which
receives copious inflow of freshwater for longer period of time in a year. In these mangrove
wetlands the number of mangrove plant species present or diversity of mangrove species
will be high. Best examples are Sunderbans of West Bengal and Bhitarkanika of the
Orissa. On the other hand, such zonation may not be present conspicuously in mangrove
wetlands such as the Pichavaram and Muthupet of Tamil Nadu where the amount of

freshwater discharged is very low and only for a limited period of time. In these kinds of
mangrove wetlands the diversity of mangrove plants will also be less.
Preparation of treatment maps

After thorough analysis of the environmental condition of the area selected for
mangrove afforestation a treatment map of the plantation site should be prepared. A
treatment map of the plantation site, which may be of 10 to 15 ha in area, gives
details of what is going to be done and where. For example, a plantation site may be
divided and quantified into high tidal zone, mid tidal zone and low tidal zone. High
tidal zone is the area, which is flushed by tidal water 3 to 4 times once in 15 days; mid
tidal zone is the area which is flushed by tidal water 8 to 10 times once in 15 days and
low tidal zone is the zone which is flushed by tidal water daily. Such quantification
and demarcation would provide details of what kind of species should be planted
where and how much planting materials are required for each species. Area of the
plantation site may be measured using a chain link and this should be overlaid on
the base map described earlier. How to identify and demarcate high, mid and low
tidal zones is explained earlier.
Planting methods
This section describes, selection of species for plantation, method of planting of
mangrove seed, propagules and seedlings in the selected site.
Choice of species
Success of mangrove plantation largely depends on the choice of species. Normally
distribution pattern of the species with reference to tidal inundation and land elevation
in a nearby natural mangrove forests is taken as reference for selection of species for
planting in different tidal zones. For example, in Tamil Nadu Rhizophora spp., Bruguiera
spp. Ceriops spp. are planted in the low tidal zone, though the breadth of this zone is
very narrow ranging from 2 m to 10m. Avicennia officinalis is planted just a few feet
away from the low tidal zone whereas high saline tolerant Avicennia marina is planted
both in the mid tidal and high tidal regions. In countries like the Philippines species
are selected on the basis of the objectives of the planting, either for production purposes
such as firewood, charcoal, posts and piles etc or protection purposes such as shoreline
or road stabilization, sediment trapping etc.
Plan of planting operation

A plan of planting operation is necessary for efficient planting in terms of cost
and time and the following factors should be taken into consideration in the
preparation of the plan:

Availability of planting materials such as sufficient quantity of seeds,
propagules or potted seedlings (nursery grown seedlings).
Planting season: Better results can be achieved if planting is undertaken
immediately after the monsoon season when the salinity of the water and
soil is low but moisture is high. This will allow the seeds/propagules and
seedlings to settle and establish as quickly as possible.
Conditions of tide: In areas where tidal amplitude is more than a metre the
operation of planting is difficult during the high tide because during this
time the entire plantation site would be flooded with tidal water. Hence, it is
essential to calculate how many hours are available per day to carry out planting
for the entire planting season.
Quantity of planting materials: There should be exact quantification of how
many seeds/propagules or potted seedlings are required for planting during
available hours in a day and how much human resources are necessary for
transport and planting.
Participation of the local community: Community should be involved both
in mangrove afforestation and restoration activities from the beginning, i.e.
from planning to monitoring and evaluation. Since the local people know
the in and out of the environmental and social conditions of the planting site
much better than outsiders. Their participation is imperative in preparing
and implementing practically feasible planting operation plan.
Planting material
Propagules
Mangrove plants display a unique reproductive mechanism known as vivipary.
A distinctive feature of the majority of mangrove species is that they produce
unusually large propagating structures called propagules. This term is used because
in most mangrove species what leaves the parent tree is a seedling, not a seed or
fruit. After pollination the growing embryo remains attached to the parent tree
and grows into a propagule. This phenomenon is known as vivipary. Rhizophora
and other members of Rhizophora family such as Bruguiera, Ceriops and Kandelia
show the most advanced form of vivipary. In these species, after fertilization embryo
develops within a small fruit. As the embryonic axis or hypocotyl elongates, it bursts
through the seed coat and develops into a spindle-shaped structure. Unlike seeds
of terrestrial plants, there is no period of dormancy and growth of the propagules
continues. While still attached to the parent tree, the developing seedling
(propagule) develops chlorophyll and actively photosynthesizes. The parent tree
supplies the water and necessary nutrients. Eventually the hypocotyl detaches from
the residual fruit, leaving behind its cotyledons and falls from the parent tree.

Three pairs of leaves and associated stipule pairs are produced while the propagule
is still attached to the parent tree. The first pair of leaves aborts and persists only as
minute vestiges on the detached propagule so that the plumule is actually protected
by well-developed stipules. Lateral roots, visible on older seedlings as apical
protuberances, arise early during seedling development and delineate the
morphological root at the end of the hypocotyl. Salt concentration declines between
the pedicel and the cotyledons, and then again between cotyledons and hypocotyl
and decline still further towards the tip of the hypocotyl. Tissues of the propagules
are thus preserved from premature exposure to high salt levels. Matured propagules
are widely used in direct planting.
Aegiceras, Avicennia, Nypa and a number of other mangrove species show a more
or less similar form of reproduction, known as cryptovivipary. In cryptovivipary
germination and embryonic development take place on the parent tree itself as in
the case of Rhizophora spp. but developing hypocotyl fails to penetrate the pericarp
and the hypocotyl will not be long.
Seeds
The final group of mangroves reproduces and disperses by more or less conventional
seeds, ranging in size from a few millimeters in length to the massive fruits of
Xylocarpus granatum. Larger seeds such as of Xylocarpus granatum are directly used
for planting. In case of smaller seeds such as Sonneratia spp seedlings are raised in
nursery and these seedlings are used for plantation. The following table shows
viviparous, cryptoviviparous and non-viviparous mangrove species (Table 5).
Table 5: Viviparous, cryptoviviparous and non-viviparous mangrove species
Viviparous species Cryptoviviparous species Non-viviparous species

Rhizophora species Avicennia species Sonneratia species
Kandelia species Aegiceras species Excoecaria species
Bruguiera species Aegialitis species Scyphiphora species
Ceriops species Nypa species Lumnitzera species
Pelliciera species Xylocarpus species and others
Potted seedlings
Nursery raised or potted seedlings are also used for planting. Details of raising
mangrove nursery are discussed in Chapter 6.

Propagules/seed collecting season
For each mangrove wetland, a calendar showing the season and months during
which matured propagules/seeds can be collected in large numbers should be prepared
for efficient seed collection in terms of cost, time, quality and quantity. For small
scale planting it is possible to collect propagules/seeds throughout the year but for
large-scale plantation sufficient quantity of planting materials may be available only
during the fruiting season.
Propagules/seeds collection and selection methods

Seed collection and selection standards applied in Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh
for mangrove restoration are provided below, which may be applied in other areas
with suitable modification according to the local condition.
Avicennia marina
Avicennia marina is the species that is commonly planted in large-scale plantation
because of its capacity to withstand wide variations in salinity. It is also possible to
grow this species in all the tidal zones. Apart from these, propagules (from now
onwards called seeds) are also available in large quantities during seed collection
season. Mature seeds of A. marina can be easily distinguished by the light yellowish
colour of the seed coats, which are green in immature seeds. Large mature seeds can
be picked directly from mother trees but the following method is commonly practiced
in Tamil Nadu. During seed collection season, a rapid survey is conducted to identify
the areas where healthy and germinated seeds (also called sprouted seeds) of A. marina
are floating in large numbers. In these areas, fishing nets are placed at the mouth of
the tidal creek during the low tide. All the seeds that move out of the creeks along
with tidal water during the low tide are trapped and transported immediately to the
planting sites. In the planting sites, matured seeds and small sprouted seedlings,
which are damaged during transportation and also by insects, are rejected and disposed
off and the remaining seeds are used for planting. This operation is done daily and
for this a separate group of people is employed; they collect and transport the seeds
to the planting site much before the arrival of the group of people who are engaged
in planting.
Seed collection and selection process for Avicennia officinalis is more or less similar
to that of A. marina. In Tamil Nadu A. officinalis is planted only just a few feet away
from the tidal creeks and canals because it requires low saline condition and are less
tolerant to desiccation (loss of moisture from the soil).

Rhizophora spp.
Rhizophora apiculata and Rhizophora mucronata are commonly used for planting
along the fringe area of the planting site (low tidal area) because these areas are
flushed daily by tidal water and such a condition is favourable for the establishment
and growth of Rhizophora species. Mature propagules of Rhizophora spp. can be
easily distinguished by the colour of the cotyledons. In matured propagules, cotyledon
will be in yellow to pale green in colour whereas cotyledon of immature propagules is
green in color. It is advisable to pick mature propagules from the mother tree but
freshly fallen propagules may also be collected and propagules without physical damage
and insect attack should be used for planting.
Ceriops spp.
Ceriops tagal and Ceriops decandra are also used in planting in Tamil Nadu and
Andhra Pradesh but in small numbers. In Tamil Nadu one row of these species are
planted immediately next to Rhizophora spp. in selected places. Mature propagules of
Ceriops spp. can be easily distinguished by pale green to yellowish cotyledon. Mature
and undamaged propagules can be collected from mother trees and freshly fallen
propagules are also useful for planting.
Bruguiera spp.
Mature propagules of Bruguiera spp. have reddish brown or greenish red coloured
hypocotyls. Healthy and mature propagules can be collected from the mother tree
and freshly fallen propagules can also be used for planting. Like Ceriops spp. Bruguiera
is also planted out only in limited numbers in Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh.
Aegiceras corniculatum
Healthy and mature seeds of A. corniculatum should be collected only from the
mother tree. The mature seeds can be easily identified by the yellow or greenish
yellow colour of the seed coat.
Mostly young and healthy seedlings collected from the wild can be used for planting.
The seedlings should be collected from loose sediments without damaging the root
in the early morning hours and planted on the same day, as soon as possible.
Storage
Propagules/seeds must be stored in brackish water in a well-shaded place. They
must be regularly sprinkled with low saline water during the entire period of storage.
As shown below the effective storage duration varies from species to species (Table 6).

Table 6: Seed storage duration of different species
Species Place Period Remarks
A. marina and Cool and dark place, 10 days -
A. officinalis totally protected from
direct sunlight
R. apiculata Well protected from 5 days No soaking of calyx
direct sunlight. Soaked for long time
in brackishwater
R. mucronata -do- 10 days No soaking of calyx
for long time
Ceriops spp. and -do- 10 days Calyx should not be
Bruguiera spp. removed
Planting technique
The following are the commonly followed methods of planting mangrove species.
Direct planting
Propagules of Rhizophora, Ceriops and Bruguiera spp. and seeds of Avicennia marina
and A. officinalis are normally planted directly on the ground. This method is
economical with a high percentage of survival. The planting operation for these species
is simple and can be done by untrained hands. It involves inserting one-third of the
propagules into the soft and moist mud (as shown in Fig 3). One common practice
responsible for high mortality rates in mangrove planting is the sowing the propagules
to more than half of their length in the soil. This was done because people believed
that waves would dislodge the propagules if they were not planted deep enough.
Propagules, however, are covered with lenticels and if propagules are planted too
deep will render the lenticels useless, causing the slow death of the plants.
Mature seeds or sprouted seedlings of Avicennia spp. with a few numbers of roots
are widely used for direct planting. In this case, a small depression is made in the soft
mud and mature or sprouted seeds are sown into the depression. In order to avoid
washing of sown seeds, sides of the depression are filled with mud.
Planting of potted seedlings

Potted seedlings, i.e. seedlings grown in nursery are normally used for trees with
tiny seeds such as Sonneratia spp., Excoecaria agallocha, Aegiceras corniculatum etc.
Seedlings of Rhizophora, Bruguiera, Ceriops and Avicennia can also be raised in the
nursery but cost of plantation will become high. Potted seedlings can be planted in

Seeds of Avicennia Propagules of Planting method
officinalis Rhizophora apiculata
Fig. 3: Seeds and propagules used for direct planting:
Direct Planting - one third of the propagules should be inserted
into the mud for high rate of survival and better growth
holes of the same depth of the pot. Shallow planting holes may result in seedlings
toppling down or getting washed away by tides. Essentially, planting holes should be
of such a depth so as to locate the root collar of the seedling at ground level. Where
the soil is soft, holes can be made by scooping out mud by hand. In hard soil, shovel
can be used. It is necessary to remove pot (polythene bag) from seedlings before
planting. During removal of pot full attention should be paid to avoid causing any
physical damage to the roots of the seedlings. Seedlings with damaged roots are unlikely
to strike root and grow well.
Wildlings
Where there are not enough seeds or propagules, wildlings may be potted and
hardened in the nursery for a month. In uprooting/collecting wildlings, extra care
must be taken not to damage the root system. For some species wildlings can be
Fig 4: Planting of potted seedlings

directly planted without hardening in the nursery, provided the soil around the root
is intact.
Wilding of Avicennia marina

Planting organization and spacing
For protective planting, i.e. planting to protect coastlines, an inverted V spacing
with the point of the V facing the sea would be useful to deflect the impact of waves.
In this case spacing should be less than 0.5 m. In Cuba, planting has been done in
triangle formation with one of the corners of the triangle pointing seaward and
spacing is less than one metre. Normally in Tamil Nadu, planting is done in strips at
an interval of 1 m.
Fig. 5: Schematic diagram of inverted ‘V’- shaped plantation
Care and maintenance of plantations

During initial stages, plantation site should be visited daily during the low tide
and saplings should be checked for
1. Entanglement by debris and filamentous green algae such as Enteromorpha

and Cheatomorpha
2. Leaf-eating insects and moth larvae
3. Encrustation by sessile organisms like barnacles
Green algae and debris can be manually removed easily and they should be disposed
off beyond the high tidal region. If they are thrown out in nearby areas they will be
again transported to the plantation site by the tidal current.

Encrusted organisms like barnacles are common in plantation sites where water
salinity remains around seawater salinity (35 grams per litre) throughout the year.
These organisms do not tolerate low salinity and hence, this problem is normally not
encountered in areas where low saline condition exist for a considerable period of
time. Wherever this problem is encountered, all the encrusted organisms should be
removed by hand. To remove these organisms sharp edged instruments should not be
used, which may cause severe damage to the saplings, leading to the death of the
saplings.
Grazing organisms like insects and moth larvae should be removed by hand, kept
in a bag and disposed in the terrestrial areas.
If the problem of grazing by insects and moth larvae and encrustation by organisms
like barnacles is severe and affecting a large area of the plantation neem based
biopesticide can be used for complete eradication of these pests.
Normally, beyond a period of 2 years mangrove plantations require less care.

2.5 Restora
Restora tion of mangr
oration mangrooves
Restoration of mangrove means bringing back mangrove vegetation in the areas

where it existed in the past. As explained in Chapter 1, mangroves are specialized
ecosystems and its distribution in the coastal zone is restricted mainly to deltaic
regions. Hence, almost all the major mangrove wetlands of India have been declared
as Reserve Forests long time back, even before independence, and some of these
mangroves have been declared as Wildlife Sanctuaries recently. All the Reserve Forests
and Wildlife Sanctuaries are managed by the respective State Forest Departments.
M.S.Swaminathan Research Foundation has been working jointly with the State
Forest Departments of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Orissa for the last 8 to 14
years in restoring and conserving the mangrove wetlands. During the course of the
work it was found out that mangroves in these areas have been degraded in a large
scale due to one or a combination of the following factors:
a) Changes in biophysical condition due to coupe felling in the past (clear felling
as a part of the government management practice),
b) Reduction in freshwater flow,
c) Conversion of mangroves forest for other purposes and
d) Over use by local community
MSSRF and State Forest Departments have jointly developed and demonstrated
restoration techniques, which primarily address the issues relating to changes in the
biophysical condition resulting from the past management practices. This restoration
technique is followed mostly in Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh and recently it has
been tried in Orissa. Application of these techniques to restore degraded areas located
within the reserve forest requires permission from the State Forest Department. A
separate section discusses where the canal method will not yield good results.
Restoration technique
Canal method
This method is otherwise called trench method and is largely followed to restore
mangrove areas that are degraded due to clear felling in the past under coupe system
of management. It is also called fish bone canal method because canals designed like
a fish bone produce better results. In the mangrove Reserve Forests of Tamil Nadu

such as Pichavaram and Muthupet and of Andhra Pradesh such as Krishna and
Godavari, mangrove forests were clear felled in large areas for revenue generation by
various government agencies since the time of the British government. This system
of clear felling was called coupe felling and it was followed in 15 to 25 year rotation.
Because of large scale felling, soil water in the coupe felled areas evaporated (mangrove
soil contains 80% of water), which in turn caused subsidence of sediments in these
areas. As a result, smooth topography of the mangrove wetland has become trough
shaped and tidal water entering into these trough shaped areas stagnates (see Fig 6).
The evaporation of the stagnant water leads to hyper saline condition and that prevents
natural regeneration of mangroves in the coupe-felled areas.
Fig. 6a: Microtopography in healthy mangroves
6b: Trough shaped microtopography in degraded areas: formation of

trough shaped topography due to coupe felling where canal method
is the most suitable method of restoration
It was found out that these degraded patches could be restored by ensuring free
flow of tidal water in and out of the degraded area during the high tide and low tide
by digging canals and linking them to the nearby natural creeks. These man-made
canals also facilitate flooding of the degraded area with low saline or freshwater

during the monsoon season. These actions create suitable environmental condition
for the regeneration of mangrove species. The above technique was demonstrated
jointly by local community, Forest Department and MSSRF in about 1500 ha in the
states of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Orissa and it is currently being followed
by other agencies.
The following steps describe the technique and process to restore mangrove areas
that are degraded due to organized massive clear felling.
Step 1: Getting permission from the State Forest Department

As mentioned earlier all the major mangove wetlands are under the custody of the
respective State Forest Departments. Before undertaking any intervention in these
reserved areas necessary permission should be obtained from the Forest Department.
In this respect, first the District Forest Officer who is in charge of the area should be
consulted for necessary process to be followed to get the permission
Step 2: Identification and demarcation of degraded areas

Degraded area within the reserve forests can be identified with the help of the
field staff of the Forest Department and participating community. Once the areas
are identified and permission obtained, these areas may be demarcated as management
units for the participating village institutions to undertake restoration and
conservation activities.
Step 3: Measurement of microtopography

Fish bone canal method produces better results in small pockets of degraded areas
of about 10 to 15 ha in size and have trough shaped microtopography as shown in
Fig. 7. Microtopography is topographic variations in the wetland occurring at a small
spatial scale (say 1m or less) between elevations and depressions. It is assessed by
preparing contours at small vertical intervals.
Microtopography of the degraded areas can be easily measured by using a rope,

graduated scale and mercury level used by masons. To start with, a benchmark is
established at the edge of the low tidal level that is considered as zero. A scale of say
one metre height is fixed and reference point is fixed at 85 cm (Point A in Fig. 7).
Another scale is fixed at about 10 m distance using a tight rope and the level is
adjusted to be straight using a mercury level. The difference in ground level between
these two points is measured at 2 m interval. For example, if the height at first reference
point is 85 cm and second point (point B in the Fig. 7) is 55 cm, then the difference
is +30 cm, which is the height of the land at the second point from zero level. In this

way microtopography can be measured for the entire area, including degraded and
nearby healthy mangroves. This will give a clear picture of the microtopography of
the degraded areas, which will be used in designing the canals with varying depths
according to the contour levels of the degraded areas.
Fig. 7: Method of measuring microtopography in a

trough shaped degraded area.
Step 4: Designing of canals
Canal technique produces better results in areas, which are of about 10 to 15 ha
in size and where there is stagnation of tidal water. As shown in the figure below
(Fig.8) canals for restoration consist of main and feeder canals, which should be dug
in the form of a fish bone for better movement of water in and out of the degraded
area. Dimension of main and distributory canals are shown in Fig.8, which can be
Fig. 8: Aerial view of fish bone type of canal system normally followed in the
restoration of degraded areas in Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh

slightly increased or decreased according to condition in the site. One main canal is
necessary to restore about 10 to 12 ha of degraded areas. Length of the main canal
and number of feeder canal depends on the circumference of the restoration site.
On the basis of the experience gained by restoring about 1000 ha of degraded area
in the state of Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh, the following dimension is prescribed
for main canal: 3 m upper width x 1.0 m depth x 1.5 m lower width (Fig. 9a). In case
the ground level nearby the natural canal is slightly higher than the interior portion,
in these areas depth of the canal may be increased by about 30 to 50 cm. The feeder
canal can be of 1.5 m upper width x 0.75 m depth x 0.60 m lower width (Fig. 9b).
Distance between feeder canals varies from 2 to 4 m in Tamil Nadu (due to low tidal
amplitude) to 8 m in Andhra Pradesh (due to slightly high tidal amplitude and low
bulk density of the soil)
In microtidal environment (low tidal amplitude) such as Tamil Nadu and Andhra
Pradesh it is advisable to have the depth of the main canal always more than that of
the mean water level in the natural canal (it means if the mean water level is about
1 metre the depth of the main canal should be more than 1m). The mean water level
of the natural canal can be determined by measuring the maximum and minimum
water levels over a period of 24 hours using a graduated staff (help of oceanographers
or hydrological engineers may be taken, if necessary to determine the mean sea level).
The mean of these two levels is the Mean Water Level of the canal. This observation
should be made during the summer months, when there is no freshwater flow.
Measurement during the month of May should be avoided since there is chance of
measuring time coinciding with equinoctial tide.
Experiments need to be conducted to find out whether canal technique is necessary

for the restoration of degraded areas of macrotidal mangrove areas such as that of
Orissa, West Bengal and Gujarat.
Fig. 9: Dimension of main and feeder canals followed normally in

Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh
Fish bone type canal as dug in one of the restoration sites in
Pichavaram mangrove wetland of Tamil Nadu
Step 5: Organizing canal digging
Canals should be dug two to three months before the onset of the monsoon, so
that the salt in the soil and ground water could be leached and flushed out during
the monsoon. Secondly, canal digging should be undertaken during the summer
months particularly from March to May in Andhra Pradesh and March to August in
Tamil Nadu for the following reasons: a) during the summer months wetlands are
relatively exposed and slightly dry due to lack of freshwater inflow, which make
digging of canals little bit easier and b) during this period most of landless labourers
will be in need of employment opportunity and these labour forces can be used for
canal digging, which will provide wage employment to them.
Step 6: Canal digging

Responsibility of digging canals should be entrusted to village institutions, which
should develop a mechanism of mobilizing and organizing the required labour forces
for undertaking the preparatory or advance work. During canal digging the dug out
soil should be deposited only adjoining the canals like a bund. It should not be
distributed all over the degraded areas. The soil deposited along the bunds will subside
in the subsequent summer months when the water in it gets evaporated and bulk
density increases.

Canal digging and maintenance creates employment opportunity
for the landless poor
Step 7: Planting
Planting is of two types i) direct planting (dibbling) of propagules or seeds of
mangrove plants and ii) planting of nursery-raised saplings (pot seedlings). All the
details of planting and establihment of nursery are given in Chapter 4. Responsibility
of planting should be given to the village institutions and members of these institutions
should be sufficiently trained in seed collection, selection, storage and planting
methods.
Step 8: Maintenance of canals

In Tamil Nadu desilting of both main and feeder canals are done once in a year for
the first three years. Desilting is done only in the canal mouth region during the
summer. In Andhra Pradesh entire main and feeder canals are desilted once in a year
for the first three years. Village institutions should be organized to shoulder the
responsibility of maintaining the canals till the plantation establishes.
Step 9: Care and maintenance of plantation

See Chapter 4 for details
Where canal method should be applied?

Canal method should be applied to restore the following types of areas
Type 1 Area: Type 1 area refers to intertidal areas in the mangrove environment
where topography has become trough shaped due to massive clear felling of mangroves
(such as coupe felling), which led to stagnation of tidal water and development of
hyper saline condition. Development of hypersaline condition prevents natural

regeneration of mangrove plants in the trough shaped areas (Fig. 10). In these areas
ground level of the degraded portion will be below the Mean Water Level (MWL).
Hence, application of canal method will ensure tidal flushing, which in turn would
create biophysical condition for natural regeneration of mangroves.
Fig. 10: Type 1 Area: Trough shaped area degraded due to coupe felling
Type 2 Area: Type 2 area refers to areas, which have levee along the creek banks,
which prevents free movement of tidal water in and out of the mangrove forest
(Fig.11). As a result, environmental condition of the mangrove forest behind the
levee gradually deteriorates leading to degradation. In these areas, the ground level
might be equal or slightly above the MWL in the creeks. Hence, when canals are dug,
there will be free flow of water in the areas where ground level is equal to a slightly
higher to MWL. Given the elevation in the levee region, flushing can be ensured
only by multiple interconnections between the feeder canals.

Fig. 11: Type 2 Area: Degraded due to development of levee along
the banks of the tidal creeks
Where canal method should not be applied
This canal method should not be applied in areas beyond the boundary of the
high tidal zone, where there is no flow of tidal water. This point is being made
here because in some areas this canal method is being applied indiscriminately,
resulting in not only non-establishment of mangrove plantation but also
leading to disappearance of other existing vegetation. Figure 12 below shows
the area where this canal method should not be applied.
Fig. 12: Area not suitable for mangrove plantation

Canal method will not yield good results in sandy areas, whether sandy area
is below the mean water level or slightly above mean water level, because
canals will easily collapse during the monsoon season
Canal method will not work in accreting type coastal areas, which is prograding
due to deposition of sediments, which will cause silting up of the mouth
region of the canal and thereby preventing free flow of water.
Canal method will not work in open coastal sandy areas because sand laden
winds deposit sand all over the canals and cause siltation of canals.
Canal method should not be tried in areas that are close to agriculture lands
as this will cause salinization of agriculture lands

2.6 Mangr
Mangroove nurser
nurseryy establishment
and management
To restore the degraded areas, two types of plantings are followed i) direct dibbling
or direct planting and ii) planting of nursery-raised saplings or potted seedlings.
This chapter provides details of the following:
1. Designing mangrove nursery

2. Establishment and operation
3. Use of nursery stock for mangrove restoration and afforestation
4. Community participation in nursery raising and management
Mangroves regenerate naturally when the conditions are suitable for their
establishment and growth. These conditions prevail in places where the natural course
of tidal influx and river water flow occurs. Mangroves, like any other forest ecosystem,
regenerate as a cyclic phenomenon. Each species has its distinguished character of
regeneration: by seeds in the case of species such as Excoecaria agallocha, Sonneratia
apetala and by viviparous germination (through propagules) in the case of Rhizophora
apiculata, R. mucronata and Bruguiera gymnorrhiza. However, as explained elsewhere
in the manual, changes in geomorphological and hydrological conditions hinder the
natural regeneration of mangroves.

Need for mangrove nurseries
The season for flowering, fruiting and production of seeds and propagules are not
the same as the season of planting in degraded areas, except in some areas like Tamil
Nadu. The fruiting season of Avicennia marina and Avicennia officinalis, which are
mainly used in restoration and afforestation, is October to November. However,
months suitable for planting will be July to November (in Tamil Nadu suitable season
is from December to January) and thus, a period of three months of planting will be
lost if we rely only on natural sources for planting materials. Due to the above reason
there is a need for raising nurseries so that these seedlings can be utilized for plantation.
It is learnt through restoration activities from 1997 to 2003 that in some areas the
rate of survival of nursery-raised saplings is more when compared to direct dibbling.
This is due to the fact that nursery-raised saplings have a well-established root system
as they are maintained for 8 - 9 months in the nursery (from October to July) under
simulated conditions before being transplanted in the degraded areas that were under
high saline conditions for long periods. Apart from this, the casualty due to crab
eating the seeds and young seedlings can be avoided by using nursery-raised seedlings.
Above all, raising of mangrove nursery creates employment opportunity for rural
women and men. However, cost of raising mangrove plantation would escalate to
high level if only nursery raised seedlings are used for planting.
Selection of site for the mangrove nursery

The mangrove nursery site should be selected in the inter-tidal area, in close
proximity to creeks as well as near to plantation site. This site should have facility in
the form of canals to take in and drain out water periodically. Wherever necessary,
the nursery should be fenced to prevent grazing by feral cattle inhabiting the mangrove
forests. It should be connected by waterways, to reduce the cost of transportation of
seedlings from the nursery to the restoration site. Channels for inflow and outflow
of tidal water should be dug to facilitate natural inundation as shown in Fig. 13.
Common species for mangrove nurseries

Avicennia marina, Avicennia officinalis and Excoecaria agallocha are species used for
mangrove restoration and afforestation along with species Rhizophora, Bruguiera,
Xylocarpus, Sonneratia and Aegiceras spp. Seedlings of these species can be raised in
the nursery. Common species for mangrove nursery is given in Table 7.
Unlike in terrestrial vegetation, the mangroves are unique in producing different

types of planting materials, which range from seeds to propagules. The propagules
are produced by means of vivipary, which means that seed germinates while the fruit

Table 7: Details of mangrove species and nursery material
S.No Mangrove Species Nursery material
1. Aegiceras corniculatum (L.) Blanto Propagules
2. Avicennia marina (Forsk.) Vierh. Fruits
3. A. officinalis L. Fruits
4. Bruguiera gymnorrhiza (L.) Savigny Propagules
5. Excoecaria agallocha L. Young seedlings
6. Rhizophora apiculata Bl. Propagules
7. R. mucronata Lamk. Propagules
8. Sonneratia apetala Buch.-Ham. Seeds
9. Xylocarpus moluccensis (Lamk.) M.Roem. Seeds
is attached to the mother plant itself. These germinated seeds are normally called
propagules. Propagules are slender.
Collection of seed material and planting in the nursery

Mature and healthy fruits / propagules should be collected from the forest in the
morning. Local fishermen are knowledgeable about the availability of the seed material.
The fruiting season for a majority of the mangrove species is between September and
December. The collected seeds should be examined for incidence of diseases or pest
attack. Indicators for mature propagules and seeds for different species are given in
Table 8.
Ideal season for collecting the propagules is from September to December. However,
Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Rhizophora apiculata and R. mucronata bear fruits throughout
the year, though the peak fruiting season is August – November.
Seed germination and growth of seedling

The germination period, percentage of germination and average height of mangrove
saplings raised in the mangrove nursery is given in Table 9.
Viability of seed material

Viable seeds are essential for raising nurseries in order to ensure better germination
and survival rate of nursery raised saplings. The viability of the seeds depends on the
age of the tree. Age of the tree could also be determined with the help of elderly local
villagers. For e.g. Propagules of Rhizophora should be collected from the trees older

Table 8: Indicators for mature propagules and seeds for different species
Seed Indicators of Seed Seeds

Species collection maturity collection storage
(months) (criteria) (Max. Days)
Aegicerascorniculatum Aug – Oct Yellow Epicarp 5 to 6 cm long 15
Avicennia marina Oct – Nov Yellowish fruit Weight of
skin seeds > 1.5g. 10
Avicennia officinalis Oct – Nov Yellowish fruit Weight of
skin seeds > 5g 7
Bruguiera Jul – Sep Reddish brown >10 cm. long 10
gymnorrhiza or greenish red
hypocotyls
Excoecaria agallocha Sep – Oct Dark brown < 100 mg. 10
fruits
Rhizophora apiculata Jul – Sep Reddish >20 cm. long 5
cotyledon diameter
>14 mm
Rhizophora mucronata Jul – Sep Yellow cotyledon; >50 cm. long 10
green hypocotyls
Sonneratia apetala Jul – Sep Floats in water Fruit >15mm. 5
diameter
Xylocarpus moluccensis Sep – Nov Yellow to brown Weight of 10
fruit Floats in seeds > 30g.
water
than 5 years i.e. trees which are taller than 5-6 m. The viability period of the mangrove
seeds is very short once they are taken out of water and hence they are to be planted
immediately after collection (within 24 h). The salinity levels of the water that is
used for nursery plays an important role in the germination and survival and hence,
the saplings should be raised in low salinity initially (10 ppt).
Techniques in preparing the nursery

Soil
Muddy soil, which is clayey, should be used for preparing the nursery bags. The
soft clayey mud could be collected from the mud flats during low tide. Mud from
nearby creeks can also be used to fill the polythene bags. Any debris or hard material
should be removed before filling the bags with mud.
Table 9: Details of germination period, percentage of germination and

average height of mangrove saplings, which can be used for transplantation
Seed Germination Germination Average
Species material Period Percentage height after
8 months (cm)
Aegiceras corniculatum Fruit 35 80 70
Avicennia marina Fruit 6 95 75
Avicennia officinalis Fruit 6 95 75
Bruguiera gymnorrhiza Propagules 35 100 60
Excoecaria agallocha Young - 60 60
seedling
Rhizophora apiculata Propagules 40 100 70
Rhizophora mucronata Propagules 40 100 80
Sonneratia apetala Seed 30 20 80
Xylocarpus moluccensis Seed 20 90 80
Fig. 13: Mangrove Nursery Layout

Nursery bags
Polythene bags of 5 inches x 8 inches should be used to raise the mangrove saplings
in the nursery. Small holes should be made at the bottom of the bag in order to drain
excess water. The filled bags should be kept in the shade to harden.
Preparation of nursery beds
In the mangrove nursery, sunken beds (each bed can hold 1500 bags) of 10m
(length) x 1m (breadth) x 0.3 m (depth) should be prepared (Fig.13). Bamboo poles
could be placed horizontally at both the ends and also in the middle to keep the bags
intact. The nursery bags could be placed inside the beds, and should be flooded to a
depth of about 10 cm. The nursery sites and beds may be prepared according to the
number of seedlings. Care should be taken to provide facilities for inflow and outflow
of water, otherwise water stagnation would lead to causalities.
Sowing
Propagules of Rhizophora apiculata, Rhizophora mucronata and Bruguiera
gymnorrhiza could be planted directly in the bags placed in the beds. Similarly, wildlings
(about 2" height) of Excoecaria agallocha and seedlings of Sonneratia apetala from the
primary bed could be planted directly in the bags. However, the seeds of Avicennia
marina, Avicennia officinalis and Xylocarpus moluccensis should be sown in bags kept
outside and then transported to the nursery bed after germination.
The sapling bags should be shifted periodically to prevent rooting into the soil.
The seedlings should be periodically checked for pest or woodborer damage as the
sprouting seeds/propagules are susceptible to caterpillar damage. Seedlings with pest
attack should be removed. Water from the beds should be drained completely before
applying the pesticide in order to avoid the spread of pesticide residue to other areas.
Nursery techniques for different species

Nursery techniques differ from one species to another, depending on the salt
tolerance level and the ecological zone. In the following pages, guidelines that should
be followed for each species are described. Comprehensive details are given in Table 10.
1.0 Aegiceras corniculatum (L.) Blanto
Local Name: Guggilam (Telugu), Khrasi (Oriya), Narikandal (Tamil),

Khalsi (Bengali)
Collection of seeds
Healthy and mature seeds should be collected from the trees. The mature seeds

can be easily identified by the yellow or greenish-yellow colour of the seed coat. As in
the case of Avicennia, the seeds should be planted in polythene bags directly. While
storing the seeds, they should be kept in the shade for two to five days.
Sowing into nursery bags

The calyx region of the fruit should be inserted to a depth of about one third of the
length of the fruit. After the germination of the seedlings, they should be transported
to the beds and watered. Polythene bags filled with mud should be kept ready.
Specifications for selection of seedlings

The recommended specifications of the seedlings are as follows:
Height : 50 cm
No. of leaves : at least 10
Period : 8 months
2.0 Avicennia marina (Forsk.) Vierh.
Local Name: Tella Mada (Telugu), Singal Bani (Oriya), Venkandal (Tamil),
Peyara-ban, bain, bani (Bengali)
3.0 Avicennia officinalis L.
Local Name: Nalla Mada (Telugu), Bani (Oriya), Karukandal (Tamil),
Jat-ban, bain, bani (Bengali)
Collection and treatment of Avicennia seeds
Healthy and mature seeds of Avicennia marina and A. officinalis should be collected
Table 10: Details of nursery techniques for different species
Nursing
Species
Watering Pests
Aegiceras corniculatum Fully once a day Crabs caterpillars
Avicennia marina Fully once a day Crabs caterpillars
Avicennia officinalis Fully once a day Crabs caterpillars
Bruguiera gymnorrhiza At neap tide -
Excoecaria agallocha Fully once a day Crabs caterpillars
Rhizophora apiculata At neap tide -
Rhizophora mucronata At neap tide -
Sonneratia apetala Twice a day Rats, Crabs, caterpillars
Xylocarpus moluccensis Fully once a day Crabs

separately. The mature seeds can be easily distinguished by observing the light yellowish
colour of the seed coat with cracks on it.
Selection and processing of the seeds
Mature fruits should be selected and checked for insect borers. Seeds should be
soaked in brackish water overnight to remove the seed coats. This treatment reduces
the establishment time by two to three days. Only seeds without seed coats should
be used for sowing in the polythene bags. Normally seeds must be planted in the
polythene bags immediately after the removal of seed coats. In case of storing, the
seeds should be kept in the shade for one or two days with seed coat.
The polythene bags with soil must be allowed to harden by placing them outside
the beds. After hardening, the polythene bags containing mud should be watered.
The radicle part of the seeds must be gently pushed (1/3 of the seed) inside the soft
mud. Deeply buried seeds will not germinate and will rot.
Watering
During the initial stages, water should be sprinkled twice, using rose-water cans.
After germination, the polythene bags should be transported to the beds and watered
through canals.
Pest control
During the sprouting stages, crabs damage young seedlings. These damaged
seedlings should be replaced with fresh seed / seedlings. Caterpillars are the major
pests for Avicennia and when the attack is severe, neem based pesticide can be used.
Grading
To ensure raising of healthy seedlings, casualties should be replaced with seeds/
seedlings. The seedlings from the beds must be shifted periodically for three months
after sowing.
Height : 50 cm
Period : 8 months
4.0 Bruguiera gymnorrhiza (L.) Savigny
Local Name: Kandriga (Telugu), Bandari (Oriya), Kakra (Bengali)

Collection of propagules
Healthy and mature propagules should be collected in the creeks with the help of
fishing nets. The characteristic and visible indicator of mature propagules of Bruguiera
gymnorrhiza is the reddish brown or greenish red colour of the hypocotyle.
Selection of propagules
Mature propagules should be selected and checked for insect borers. The propagules
should then be planted in the polythene bags placed in the beds. In case the propagules
have to be stored, they should be kept in the shade for one or two days, without
exposing them to direct sunlight.
The hypocotyl of the propagules should be inserted to a depth of about 4 to 5 cm.
Polythene bags filled with mud should be kept ready.
The recommended specifications of the ideal seedlings for planting are as follows:
Height : 50 cm
Period : 8 months
5.0 Excoecaria agallocha L.
Local Name: Thilla (Telugu), Guan (Oriya), Tillai (Tamil), Gneoa (Bengali)
Collection of wildlings
Wildlings could be collected from the mangrove forest and used as planting
material. These wildlings should be collected in the morning and planted in the
nursery bed on the same day, as early as possible.

The recommended specifications of the seedlings for plantation are as follows:
Height : 40 cm
No. of leaves : at least 12 to 14
Period : 8 months
6.0 Rhizophora apiculata Bl. and 7.0 Rhizophora mucronata Lamk.
Local Name: Ponna (Telugu), Raai (Oriya), Surapunnai (Tamil), Garjan (Bengali)
Collection of propagules
Healthy and mature propagules should be collected from the tidal creeks, using
fishing nets. Characteristic indicators of mature propagules of Rhizophora mucronata

are pale green or yellow cotyledon and green hypocotyle. Propagules of Rhizophora
apiculata have red or yellow cotyledons. Propagules of Rhizophora mucronata are bigger
than Rhizophora apiculata.
Selection of propagules
Healthy propagules should be selected and checked for insect borers. The propagules
should then be planted immediately in the polythene bags placed in the beds. In case
of storing, the seeds should be kept in the shade for one or two days, without being
exposed to direct sunlight.
The hypocotyl of the propagule should be inserted to a depth of about one third of
the length. Small sticks are to be tied to the hypocotyl for providing support. Polythene
bags filled with mud should be kept ready.
Watering
Watering is to be done daily through the canals.
Grading
Initially, the casualties should be replaced with propagules. The seedlings from
the beds should be shifted periodically for a period of three months after sowing.
Height : 60 cm.
Period : 8 months
8.0 Sonneratia apetala Buch. - Ham
Local Name: Kalinga (Telugu), Keruan (Oriya), Marama maram (Tamil),
Keora (Bengali)
Collection of fruits
Healthy and mature fruits should be collected from the trees. The characteristic
indicators of mature fruits are deep green colour and sour taste of the mesocarp.
Collection of seeds from fruits and sowing

The mature, healthy fruits can be collected during September and October from
the trees located near the creeks and river mouth. The fruits should be kept in gunny
bags for 15 days, to allow the fleshy mesocarp of the fruits to rot. The fruits should
then be gently crushed and the seeds, along with debris, sown in a primary bed.
Periodical watering through canals is necessary. After 20 to 30 days, the seeds will
start sprouting.
Transplanting of young seedlings

Young seedlings of 30 days old should be transplanted from the primary bed to the
polythene bags and kept in beds. Polythene bags filled with mud should be kept ready.

Height : 50 cm
Period : 8 months
9.0 Xylocarpus moluccensis (Lamk.) M. Roem.
Local Name: Senuga (Telugu), Pitamari (Oriya), Komandry (Tamil),
Pasur (Bengali)
Collection of fruits and seeds
Healthy and mature fruits should be collected from the trees. The characteristic
indicators of mature fruits are yellow colour and a cracked pericarp. The seeds should
be removed from the fruits. The seeds available in the creeks can be harvested with
fishing nets. The seeds should be checked for insect / pest attack before planting.

Polythene bags containing hardened mud should be sprinkled with water. The
radicle side of the seeds should be placed gently in the polythene bags, ensuring that
the mud is soft. Polythene bags filled with mud should be kept ready.
Transporting of young seedlings to beds
Young seedlings of about ten days old should then be transferred to the nursery beds.

The recommended specifications of the seedlings for planting are as follows:
Height : 50 cm
No. of leaves : at least 12 to 14
Period : 8 months
Role of nurseries in participatory management
In participatory management the local community should be sufficiently involved
and made to own the resources. In this regard, the community mangrove nurseries
would help in the long term management of mangrove forest. As a first step,
fisherwomen and men and members of self help groups living in and nearby mangrove
wetlands should be trained in nursery raising techniques. The saplings thus raised by
them could be purchased and planted in the restoration and afforestation areas which
provides alternative employment and income generation.

Part II
Non-Mangrove Bioshield

Par
artt II
3.1 Non-mangr
Non-mangroove: An oovver vie
ervie w
view
Non-mangrove bioshield along the coastal zone is popularly known as shelterbelts.

Shelterbelts are strips of vegetation composed of trees and shrubs grown along the
coasts to protect coastal areas from high velocity winds and also from devastations
like the ones caused by recent Tsunami. They also serve the purpose of sand binders
and prevent sand erosion. Shelterbelts are also promoted as a means of reducing
wind speed and ameliorating the local microclimate. High wind speeds lead to chilling
of livestock and physical damage to crops through abrasion, drying and wind throw.
Well-placed and well-managed shelterbelts or bioshields can therefore be used to
increase agricultural productivity (Table 11). Bioshields can also serve as a source of
livelihood to the local communities if designed with that of view. Choice and mix of
species should be decided based on the height and depth of bioshield required to
make it effective at the proposed site. If commercial species are an option, with some
management (e.g. pruning and thinning), the bioshield can be sold for timber when
it has reached the end of its working life. The income will often be more than enough
to pay for the replanting of the bioshield.
Table 11: Benefits of bioshields for agriculture

Animals Crops Other
Reduced stock losses Less soil erosion and Protection for buildings
during breeding nutrient loss and work areas
Reduced energy for Conservation of soil water Reduced evaporation from
maintenance dams
Less winter feed Reduced need for irrigation Assist in grass fire control
requirements
Faster growth to target Extended growing season Habitat for wildlife and
weight predatory birds/insects
Reduced physical damage
In India, since 1970 the state forest departments have been raising shelterbelts in
the coastal areas. The forest department has mastered the technique of raising
shelterbelts, in which casuarina was extensively used. The massive shelterbelt raised
by the Tamil Nadu Forest Department for a distance of about 12 km from
Pudhupattinam to Thirumullaivayal in the coastal areas of Nagapattinam District

can be considered as a proven model casuarina shelterbelt. The maximum and
minimum width of this shelterbelt is about 1550 and 150m respectively. Raising of
this shelterbelt started in 1978, immediately after a severe cyclone hit this coastal
stretch in 1977. During the recent tsunami it played a critical role in mitigating the
impact along with other factors such as the proximity of villages to the sea and
elevation at which villages were located.
Compositions of shelterbelts
The difference in the proposed shelterbelt from the regular shelterbelt is that along
with casuarina other ecologically and economically important species can also be
grown taking into account the biophysical condition and available breadth and width
of the area selected for raising shelterbelts. It is recommended to include coastal
plant species of economical value to generate income to the local community who
will be involved in the bioshield movement.
Characteristics of plant species for multi-species shelterbelts

Properly established multi-species shelterbelts should be dense in their lower part
and more open in the middle and upper parts. While choosing species for raising
multi-species shelterbelts, the following criteria should be considered
The species should have a deep and well-spread root system.

It must have a small crown and light branching habit
It must be wind resistant
It should be easy to propagate and maintain
It should be able to coppice
Could provide economic benefit to local communities with food, fodder, etc.
Pointers for establishing bioshields
The bioshield strips should be more or less perpendicular to the main wind direction.
The number of rows in the strips largely depends on the velocity of the wind. The
higher the velocity of the wind, the broader the strips should be. Usually, a strip for
bioshield may contain 1-5 rows of vegetation as given in the figure below. The first
and last rows should be planted mainly with shrubs and the central rows should be
with a combination of tall and medium-sized trees. Triangular method or V shaped
method at 1-meter distance between tree/shrubs can be used. If necessary, space
between the plants may be reduced.

150
- 200
m
Fig.14: Diagrammatic view of a bioshield

What are the ecological benefits of multi-species shelterbelts?
Protection from soil erosion by reducing the wind velocity
The water loss due to evaporation of the soil moisture is greatly reduced.
Bioshields arrest the force of the blowing wind during cyclones and protects
against the entry of seawater into the main land during cyclones and tsunami.
What are the livelihood benefits of multi-species shelterbelts?
The biomass benefits in the form of firewood, fencing material, construction
material, fruits, fodder, etc. could accrue to the community if the multi-species
shelterbelts are developed jointly with the local community and are taken proper
care by the community. Before starting the multi-species shelterbelts activity, local
community should be involved and made partners, which will ensure proper care of
the multi-species shelterbelts and livelihood benefit to the community.
Bioshields as sources for carbon sequestration

Properly raised bioshields will also serve the purpose of sequestering carbon. The
bioshields can be used to derive benefits of carbon sequestration using the Kyoto
protocol for sustainable management of bioshields.

3.2 CCommon
ommon plants in bioshields
The plant species are chosen with the twin goal of raising the bioshields and deriving
livelihood benefits to the local communities. Following plant species could be
commonly raised in Bioshields.
Brief description for identification and uses of plants recommended for bioshields
Anacardium occidentale L. ANACARDIACEAE

Local Names: Kaju (Hindi); Jeedi Mamidi (Telugu); Mundhiri (Tamil);
Cashew nut tree (English)
Trees, evergreen up to 6 m tall. The canopy has a spread area of about 5 - 10
metres. Leaves simple, alternate, obovate-elliptic, glabrous, base attenuate, apex obtuse.
Flowers yellow with pink streaks, fragrant in terminal panicles. Nuts reniform, seated
on fleshy pedicel.
Uses: Fleshy pedicel and roasted kernel edible.

Flowering and fruiting: February - May.
Azadirachta indica A. Juss. MELIACEAE

Local names: Nim, Nimb (Hindi); Vepa (Telugu); Vembu (Tamil);
Neem tree (English)
Trees, up to 12 m tall. Leaves simple pinnate; leaflets lanceolate, serrate, base
oblique, apex acuminate. Flowers white, fragrant in axillary panicles. Drupes 1-
seeded, yellow.
Uses: Tender leaves and inflorescence along with jaggery (Saccharum officinarum)
consumed as a vegetable. Tender twigs used as toothbrush. Leaves fumigated as a
mosquito repellant. Leaf bits put into granaries as an insect repellent. Wood used for
house building. Leaf twigs kept in house premises to keep off evil spirits. Leaf twigs
and branches used in religious rituals and ceremonies. Local communities worship
the tree.
Flowering and Fruiting: February - July
Bambusa arundinacea (Retz.) Roxb. POACEAE

Local names: Kanta bans (Hindi); Mulla Veduru or Mulla bongu (Telugu);

Mullu Mungil, Periya Mungil (Tamil); Spiny or Thorny bamboo (English)
A long thorny bamboo, up to 40 m tall green or purplish green when young,

turning to golden yellow when it matures.
Uses: Poles used in house construction, basket and mat weaving, highly useful in
cottage industries and handicrafts. Poles used by fishermen in fishing.
Flowering and Fruiting: Once in 30 or 45 or 60 years
Bixa orellina L. BIXACEAE

Local names: Lotpan, Senduria (Hindi); Jafra (Telugu), Varagu manjal (Tamil);
Lipstick tree, Saffron (English)
Shrubs or small trees. Leaves simple. Flowers white or purplish in color. Fruits in
capsules, reddish brown in color.
Uses: Seeds as a source of natural dye. Used in dye industries

Flowering and Fruiting: September – November; December - February.
Borassus flabellifer L. ARECACEAE

Local names: Tad, Tal, Tar-ka-jhar (Hindi); Thati (Telugu); Panai (Tamil);
Palm tree (English)
Trees, dioecious, up to 20 m tall; trunk greyish-black. Leaves palmatifid, base
sheathing. Peduncles sheathed with spathes. Drupes subglobose, black when ripe.
Uses: Toddy tapped from the inflorescence. Boiled primary root, tender kernel
and fruit pulp edible. Trunks from 50 to 60 year old trees used for house building.
Leaves used for thatching, making baskets, mats and umbrellas. Fiber from petiole
used for making ropes.
Flowering and Fruiting: February; May.
Cassia fistula L. CAESALPINIACEAE

Local names: Amaltas, Bandarlauri (Hindi); Rela (Telugu);
Aavaram, Arakkuvadam (Tamil); Indian Laburnum (English)
Trees, up to 5 m tall; bark rough, dark brown. Leaves pinnate; leaflets opposite,
ovate or ovate-oblong, base cuneate, apex acute. Flowers yellow, in axillary lax racemes.
Fruits indehiscent, terete, brownish-black.
Uses: Inflorescence used as vegetable. And also kept along with unripened mangoes
for quick ripening. Bark used for extraction of dye. Wood used for making agricultural
implements.

Flowering and Fruiting: April – September.
Casuarina equisetifolia Forst. CASUARINACEAE

Local names: Jangli saru (Hindi); Sarugudu (Telugu); Savukku (Tamil);
Horse tail tree (English)
Tall trees up to 40 to 60 ft. Leaves in whorls of 6 to 8.
Uses: Poles used in scaffolding, fuel and construction material. Fishermen use
them as fishing poles. A good bioshield plant.
Flowering (twice a year): February-April and September - October
Fruiting: June and July – December.
Clerodendrum serratum (L.) Moon VERBENACEAE

Local names: Ciruteku (Telugu), Vadamadakki (Tamil)
Shrubs, up to 2 m tall; stems 4-angled. Leaves oblong-elliptic, coarsely serrate,

apex acute. Flowers bluish-purple, in long pyramidal panicles. Drupes broadly
obovoid, black.
Uses: Roots as well as the leaf twigs boiled in water and the water used for bathing
for rheumatic pains.
Flowering and Fruiting: May - September.
Cocos nucifera L. PALMAE

Local names: Nariyal (Hindi); Kobbera or Tenkaya (Telugu);
Thennai maram (Tamil); Coconut (English)
Tall trees, up to 40 to 80 ft. Leaves up to 15 ft. long. Fruit green or yellowish.
Uses: Trunks used in house construction. Leaves used for thatching. Toddy obtained.
Fruit edible and is a source of cooking oil. Coir used in micro-enterprises.
Flowering and Fruiting: Throughout the year
Hibiscus tiliaceus L. MALVACEAE

Local names: Bola, Chelwa (Hindi); Attakanara (Telugu);
Neer-Parutthi, Atthu Puvarasu (Tamil); Coast cotton tree (English)
Trees up to 4 meters tall; stems much branched, glabrous, close to ground level.
Leaves, orbicular crenulate, stellate beneath, acute or acuminate at apex, cordate at
base; stipules 2-3 cm long, subulate. Flowers 7-10 cm across, campanulate, bright
yellow with crimson eye in the centre, turning bright purple when old, solitary or

rarely two, on terminal peduncles; bracteoles 5-6, lanceolate. Capsules 3-5 cm across,
ovoid, closely tomentose, splitting into 5 mericarps. Seeds black with pale dots.
Flowering and Fruiting: June - July
Pongamia pinnata L. FABACEAE

Local names: Karanj, Karanja (Hindi); Kaanuga (Telugu); Pungam (Tamil);
Indian Beach tree (English)
Trees, up to 5m tall; bark soft, greyish-green. Leaves imparipinnate; leaflets
opposite, ovate-oblong, entire, base rounded or acute, apex acuminate. Flowers white
or pale rose, in axillary racemes. Pods obliquely oblong, compressed, 1-seeded.
Uses: Seed oil warmed and applied for skin diseases. Seed oil widely tried for bio-fuel
Flowering and Fruiting: March-August.
Salvadora persica L. SALVADORACEAE

Local Names: Jhak, Kharjal (Hindi); Varagogu (Telugu); Kalawa (Tamil);
Tooth Brush Tree (English)
Much branched, evergreen shrub or small tree. Leaf: elliptic ovate and slightly
succulent. Flower: greenish white or greenish yellow. Fruits: red when ripe.
Uses: Grows in wide range of soils; stem used as tooth brush, leaves used for
asthma and cough. Fruit: sweet and edible.
Sapindus emarginatus Vahl SAPINDACEAE

Local names: Retha (Hindi); Kunkudu (Telugu); Bunthikottai,
Puvamkottai (Tamil); Soap nut (English)
Trees, up to 10 m tall. Leaves paripinnate; leaflets coriaceous, elliptic obovate or

oblong, entire, apex emarginate. Flowers brownish-yellow, in terminal panicles.
Drupes ovoid, 3-lobed.
Uses: Fruit juice mixed with water, used as hair wash; fruits sold in market.
Flowering and Fruiting: September - March.
Thespesia populneoides (Roxb.) Kostel. MALVACEAE

Local names: Parsipu, Gajadanda (Hindi); Gangaraavi (Telugu);
Poovarasam (Tamil); Indian Tulip tree (English)
Trees, 3 - 6 m tall, young twigs covered with bronze-coloured lepidotes. Leaves
deltoid to cordate or subcordate; stipules early caducous. Flowers yellow, red in centre,

axially, solitary, recurved in fruits. Capsules 3 - 4 cm across, globes, exude deep
yellow latex when young, mature fruits dehiscing apically into two distinct layers.
Uses: Fruits and flowers yield yellow dye, which are useful for coloring the cloths.
Flowering and Fruiting: June - July
Vitex negundo L. VERBENACEAE

Local names: Sambhalu (Hindi); Vaayila (Telugu); Nochi (Tamil)
Shrubs, up to 3 m tall; bark thin, grey. Leaves 3-5 foliolate; leaflets elliptic-lanceolate
or lanceolate, entire, glabrous above, white tomentose beneath, base acute, apex
acuminate. Flowers blush-purple, in terminal panicles. Drupes subglobose, black
when ripe.
Uses: Leaf twigs put in hot water and taken bath for rheumatic pains.
Flowering and Fruiting: Throughout the year. Common; along hedges and waste places.

3.3 Nurser
Nurseryy prac tices
practices
Nursery practices for commonly used shelterbelt species such as casuarina is well
established by the respective State Forest Departments. The Forest Department can
be approached both for getting the saplings as well as training in raising and
establishing nurseries for shelterbelts. The multi-species shelterbelts being proposed
after the tsunami are included with the component of livelihood enhancement of
the local communities. In this respect nursery practices for some of the commercially
important species such as coconut have been standardized by the Agriculture
Department and they can be approached for saplings and getting training in
establishing nurseries.
The multi-species shelterbelts nursery practices vary from species to species

depending on their characteristics. The main aim of the nursery is to get healthy
seedlings, which are capable of establishing well in the plantation. Generally, the
nursery practices have two phases.
Germination of seed
Tending the seedlings in the containers/ secondary bed
Fig. 15: Different stages of establishing mangrove nurseries

Nursery Site
Nursery site plays an important role in afforestation. The topography of the selected
nursery sites should be flat or gently sloping. The soil also should be loamy. The
following should be the important criteria while selecting nursery site.

The site should have easy access and must be convenient for transporting the
seedlings to the planting site.
Good water source such as well, stream, river or pond with pumping facility
should be available or made available in the site for watering the saplings.
Size of the nursery and Site preparation
The size of the nursery should be decided dependent on the saplings requirement
and the area to be planted. The site should be cleared and the site could preferably be
ploughed. Stones and stumps should be removed and the area should be levelled.
Soil preparation
The soil used is a mixture of loamy soil (earth), river sand and farmyard manure
(FYM) in the ratio of 6:3:1. Vermi-compost could be used but the undecomposed
manure should not be used as it attracts termites and grubs. Inorganic fertilizers can
also be used but the quantity has to be determined carefully and it will vary with the
age and the species grown in the nursery. However, dilute spray of these fertilizers
and the vermi-wash help in getting healthy saplings.
Preparation of Primary Bed

Normally primary bed is prepared for small seeds like Casuarina. These primary
beds are usually 1.25 metres in width but the length may be decided given the area of
the nursery. The working space of about 0.5 metres should be created to carry out
the nursery operations like watering, weeding etc. The soil is mixed with the farmyard
manure before sowing the seeds. The seeds should be covered with soil to a proper
depth, normally equal to the diameter of the seed. Large seeds like the cashew could
be directly sown in poly bags. Pretreatment of seeds may be required for a few species
before sowing.
Time of Sowing
Seeds for raising the potted plants are normally grown between January and March.
While sowing in summer, the top layer of the seedbed should be soaked well before
the sowing operation starts.
Container Plants/ Poly bags

Saplings are grown in container (poly tubes) and poly bags in order to produce
hardened saplings and ensure sufficient supply during the plating season. Poly bags/
poly tubes are to be filled with mixture of good quality soil, sand and the farmyard
manure in the ratio of 2:1:1 or 1:1:1. The mixture should be sieved with a sieve of 2
mm size to remove stones and clods. If needed, inorganic fertilizers like

NPK (2 kg / cubic metre of the soil) can be added before filling the soil mixture in
the bags. The seedlings from the primary bed are transplanted to the polythene bags/
poly tubes.
Transplanting
The young seedlings from the primary bed are to be transplanted into the poly
bags / poly tubes containing the soil mixture, which is wet (saturated with water).
Small hole in the middle portion of the bag has to be made and the root up to the
collar should be inserted. Soil can be heaped around the seedling to cover the vacant
space. The plants should be watered and kept in shade for a day to recover. Then the
saplings can be arranged in open / shaded places according to the requirement.
Shading
Shading can be provided to some species like Eucalyptus. The shading should be
provided more for the young seedlings and gradually the shading should be reduced
in order to harden the plant.
Grading
The seedling can be graded according to its height. More attention should be paid
to smaller saplings that can be done by keeping them separately. This helps to get
good quality saplings for planting. The weak saplings can be planted later in the cycle
or in the next planting season after giving sufficient hardening treatment.
Hardening of seedlings
The nursery saplings must be hardened before planting. This will help the saplings
to survive better after planting. Normally in this process the watering should be
gradually reduced from daily to once in a week. This helps to develop better roots
and the base of the seedlings become stronger. It has been noticed that the hardened
saplings have better survival rate.
Pest Control
Termites, grasshoppers, nematodes and caterpillars are some of the pests that
damage the seedlings in the nursery. Care should be taken to control these pests in
the early stages using neem extract or other biopesticides available in the market.
Calendar of operations
Calendar with definite time sequence should be prepared so that all the activities
are handled within the stipulated timeframe. This will ensure better survival rate and
hence saves time, money and energy.

Nursery Practices for individual species
In this chapter an outline of the nursery practices for some suggested species for
multipurpose shelterbelts is given. For further information State Forest Department,
Horticulture Department and Agriculture Department can be approached. In addition,
enterprising farmers who have developed private nurseries can be approached.
Anacardium occidentale
The seeds could be collected from selected high yielding trees. The seeds should be
sown in polythene bags with the stalk end upwards. Germination will take 15 – 25
days and the saplings could be planted after 4 to 6 weeks after having been raised in
the nursery. Sapling should be raised in the nursery before 2 months of planting.
Azadirachta indica
The seeds could be collected from ripe fruits either from the tree or from the ground
under the tree. The seeds should be sown within 10 days in poly bags of 10 cm X 15 cm.
The seeds lose their viability if sown very late after collecting from the fruits. Nursery
can be raised during the onset of the rainy season and the plantation could be done
later. Though it can be easily raised through nurseries, plantations with direct sowing
of seeds proved to yield better results. The seedlings should be changed to bigger bags
(20 cm X 30 cm) after three months of sowing. The saplings should be grown for
another eight months; during that period the saplings will attain a height of 1 m.
Bambusa arundinacea
Seeds could be collected from the panicles and sown in nursery and should be
grown for nine months. Germination period is normally 12 to 15 days. About 30 –
60 % of seeds will germinate. The seeds should be soaked in water for at least 12
hours before sowing. Vegetative propagation through stem/rhizome cutting is also possible.
Bixa orellina
The seeds should be soaked in cold water for 24 hrs. Then they should be either
sown directly into the polythene bags or in primary beds during June - July. The
seedlings should be kept in the nursery for 4-5 months before planting.
Cassia fistula
The seeds could be obtained by breaking the pods, which can be collected form the
ground. The germination period is between 6 and 52 days and about 20 – 50 % of the
seeds will germinate. The seeds need pre-treatments such as soaking in sulphuric
acid or boiling water for 5 minutes or stratified or must be scarified to remove the
seed coat. The seeds should be sown 25 cm apart in the prepared seedbeds and regularly
watered. The seedlings are indifferent to shade or open conditions in the nursery.
Saplings should be in the nursery for at least 1 – 2 years and the sapling height
should be 20 – 30 cm while planting.
Casuarina equisetifolia
Seeds could be collected from trees, which are 10-15 year old. The old trees provide
good viable seeds. The ripe cones could be collected from the trees. They should be
spread in the shade and covered with gunny bags. After 3 – 4 days the cones will open
and brown seeds with light yellow wings could be collected and used immediately.
If the seeds should be stored, they should be mixed with ash and stored in earthen
pots for about 2 months. Seeds will germinate in 10 –20 days. The germinated seedlings
could be transplanted into polythene bags and should be grown in the nursery for
5 – 6 months.
Cocos nucifera
Fully matured nuts should be selected and sown 30 cm apart (center to center) in
raised nursery beds. Germination period is between 3 – 6 months and the saplings
should be grown for 12 – 18 months.
Pongamia pinnata
The pods are generally collected between March and May and the seeds should be
sown within a month to have better survival. The root/stem cuttings could also be
used for raising plantations.
Salvadora persica
Seeds collected from trees could be used for raising the nursery. Since it is slow growing
plant, the saplings have to be raised for at least 3 years in the nursery before planting.
Sapindus emarginatus
The seeds should be collected from better yielding trees.The seeds collected from
the fruits should be immersed in hot water for 5 minutes and then soaked in cold
water for 48 hrs to hasten the process of germination. The saplings should be grown
in the nursery for 8 – 9 months (about 30 to 40 cm).
Thespesia populneoides
Seeds should be collected from healthy trees for growing in the nurseries. The
germination of the seeds ranges from 30 – 60%. They also could be regenerated
through stem cuttings but propagation through seed has advantage of getting knot-
free straight poles, which will be useful as timber.

3.4 Planting methods
General Rules for Planting

Before rains set in, the seedlings should be lifted carefully from the nursery
to the plantation site.
The polythene bag should be cut open and the seedling along with the sod of
earth should be planted.
The empty poly tubes or poly bags should be removed from the site.
The tall seedlings should be planted in the dry areas.
The soil round the plant should be carefully pressed down to bring it in close
contact with the roots.
The collar of the seedling should be in the same position while planting as in
the nursery.
Centre of the pit should be slightly elevated.
Planting should be done preferably in the morning.
Preparation of the Planting site
The usual spacing for all plants in the bioshields is 2.5 m x 2.5 m. However, in the
Casuarina plantation grown for the bioshields, the espacement should be 1.5 x 1.5 m
for the first 20 rows from the sea and 2 x 2 m for the next 60 rows.
Number of saplings planted with different spacing in 1 ha. is given below.
Spacing Plants per hectare

1.5 m x 1.5 m 4360
2.0 m x 2.0 m 2500
2.5 m x 2.5 m 1600
3.0 m x 3.0 m 1111
5.0 m x 5.0 m 400
6.0 m x 6.0 m 278
8.0 m x 8.0 m 156
Pitting
Pits should be wide and deep enough to hold the ball of the earth in the polythene
bag holding the seedling. Pitting should be dug at the time of planting and not
before since sand will collapse.
Transporting of nursery stock to the planting site and planting of saplings
Light wooden or wire trays are available for transporting the saplings to the planting
sites. The ball of the earth should not be broken while transporting. While planting
Casuarina and other species water should be provided immediately if there is no rain.
Watering should be continued once in 4 days if there is no rain.
Replacing the causalities

The entire plantation area should be examined for causality. They should be
replaced and normally it will be combined with first weeding. Healthy and good
quality seedlings should be used for causality replacement.
Manuring
Organic manures can be applied while filling the pit along with the soil. However,
while applying inorganic fertilizers, care should be taken to avoid direct contact of
the salts with the plant especially the root portion. Always watering should be followed
immediately after adding the inorganic fertilizer. Only super phosphate, muriate of
potash, and magnesium sulphate should be added for Casuarina plantation.
Watering and Fencing

Plantations raised on the sand should be watered weekly during summer up to 2
years. Live hedges could be used for fencing. Species like Acacia nilotica, Jatropha,
Agave are some of the live fencing which will be effective and long lasting.
Planting methods for individual species

Anacardium occidentale
Pits of 0.3 cubic meters should be dug and the nursery-raised saplings should be
planted during the commencement of monsoon. Either 8 m x 8 m or 10 m x 10 m
espacement should be followed for this species. Casuality replacement and proper
care should be taken of the plantation. The trees will start bearing fruits from fifth
year onwards.
Azadirachta indica
The nursery raised saplings as well as seeds could be used for raising plantation.
The pits measuring 0.3 cubic metre should be dug at an interval of 5m X 5m. The
saplings along with the soil should be planted. Watering during the initial stages of
planting and in summer for the first 2 years is a must and helps in successful
establishment of the plantation.
Bambusa arundinacea
Pits of 60 cm x 30 cm x 30 cm dimension should be dug at an interval of 8 m x 8
m or 10 m x 7 m. These saplings should be transplanted in the pits during the monsoon
season. Adding ammonium sulphate or calcium ammonium nitrate (200 gms.) and
super phosphate (200 gms.) would enhance the growth of the saplings. Intercropping
could be done with a row of subabul or Eucalyptus in the middle.
Bixa orellina
The nursery-raised saplings should be planted at an espacement of 4 m x 4 m. Pits
of 0.30 cubic meters should be dug and the sapling along with the mud should be
planted. Watering should be provided during summer months during the first year.
Borassus flabellifer
Direct sowing of seeds in the early monsoon season could help in establishment
of plantation. It requires very little attention. It can be cultivated on every type of
wasteland.
Cassia fistula
Planting is done by either direct sowing or through nursery-raised saplings or
stump planting. Root suckers could also be used for regeneration. Saplings should be
in the nursery for at least 1 – 2 years and the sapling height should be 20 – 30 cm
while planting. Pits of 0.30 cubic meters should be dug and the sapling along with
the mud should be planted with an espacement of 6 m x 6 m. The seedlings are
sensitive to weeds and hence weeding is very important. Roots suckers could also be
used for regeneration.
Casuarina equisetifolia
Small pits of 0.3 cubic meters should be dug and the sapling should be planted at
1x 1 or 2 x 2 m interval. Intercropping with groundnut or pulses is normally practiced.
Irrigation is required in the first year.
Cocos nucifera
One cubic meter pits with an interval of 7 – 9 m should be dug and the dugout soil
should be mixed with organic manure. The sapling is planted and mulched. Manuring
and watering are important for sustainable yield.
Hibiscus tiliaceus
Seeds and cuttings could be used for raising planting material
Pongamia pinnata
The trees are grown in variety of soils ranging from sandy to black cotton soil. But
they establish very well in properly-drained alluvium soils. The seeds could be directly
sown or nursery raised saplings could be used to raise the plantation. One-year-old
saplings should be planted in 0.3 cubic meter pits with an interval of 5 m X 5 m.
Salvadora persica
The saplings should be planted at an interval of 5 m x 5 m. The pits should be dug
for 0.3 cubic meters.
Sapindus emarginatus
Pits measuring about 0.30 cubic meters should be dug at an interval of 6 m x 6 m.
The saplings should be planted during the onset of the monsoon and if required
watering should be done in summer for the first year.
Thespesia populneoides
Nursery raised saplings grown for 6 - 8 months and stem cuttings could be planted.
The pits should be dug with the dimension of about 0.30 cubic meters. Saplings
should be planted at an interval of 5 m x 5 m.
Vitex negundo
The stem cuttings and the root suckers could be used as planting material for
raising the plantations.

Annexur
xuree I
Annexur
Vegetativ
tivee and micr
egetativ opr
micropr opaga
opropaga tion of mangr
opagation mangrooves
and mangr
mangroove associa
associatte plants

1.0 Vegetativ
tivee pr
egetativ opaga
propaga tion
opagation
Introduction
Definition
Vegetative propagation is a method of producing plants identical in genotype with
the mother plant. It is a method of producing large number of plants from the
vegetative part of mother plant. Any part of the plant such as stem, leaf, propagule
and root can be used to produce plants through vegetative propagation. It is an asexual
method of propagation. The vegetative propagation forms an integral part of tree
improvement programme. In this approach, the best planting stock with highest
genetic equality can be obtained, which is not always possibel with the sexually
propagated progenies. Another advantage is that, by this technique, plants can be
raised almost throughout the year and the palatable stock for some species can be
obtained in shorter time that htose raised through seeds.
Need for vegetative propagation

Vast areas of coastal wetlands potential for mangrove growth could be covered
with mangrove vegetation for domestic and commercial utility. To achieve
this, large scale production of planting materials could be produced through
vegetative propagation.
In many mangrove ecosystems planting season does not coincide with the
reproductive season of the mangrove plants and in such situations, vegetative
propagation would be ideal to supply planting material round the year.
Endangered species can be easily multiplied though vegetative propagation
Propagation of sterile hybrids is possible mainly through vegetative propagation
Advantages and limitations of vegetative propagation
Advantages
Single stock can provide large number of plants
The clones offer the advantages of genetic uniformity
Seedlings produced through vegetative propagation take lesser time to develop,
therefore, it is normally quicker and cheaper
Multiplication of desired hybrids is easier without loss of desirable genes
Helps to utilize maximum genetic gain of potential species in a shortest time
Commercialization of planting materials is made attractive

Disadvantages
Only a few species are amenable for vegetative propagation
Standardization of methodology is time consuming and sometimes expensive
Vegetative propagation is easier with young rather than old trees
Types of Vegetative Propagation
Vegetative propagation consists of three major types namely, 1.Stem cutting.
2.Propagule cutting and 3. Air layering.
Stem cutting:
Production of saplings from stems and/or branches of plants is called vegetative
propagation by stem cuttings. Stem and/or branches of plants cut into small pieces
ranging from 12 to 20 cm in length with 3 to 5 or several nodes are known as “stem
cuttings”. Stem cuttings are divided into three categories namley, i) soft wood (tender
branches), ii) semi-soft wood (intermediate of softwood and hardwood) and iii)
hard wood (tertiary or secondary branches).
Propagule cutting
A propagule (hypocotyl) is a seed germinated in the mother tree itself. It is an
unique feature of mangrove plants. A propagule contains different parts such as
pedicel, fruit, collar and radicle. In a ripened propagule, plumules can be seen when
the fruit is removed. Viviparous propagules are produced in all the Rhizophoraceae
species of mangroves. The mature viviparous propagule (black or brown or mixture
of both) can be collected from the mother tree and cut into small pieces of 2 to 7 cm.
This is called “propagule cutting”, which could be used for vegetative propagation.
Air layering
Air layering is another method of vegetative propagation popularly called as
“Chinese Layering” . In this method, roots are produced in small branches by applying
rood producing hormones and rooting media. This method can be followed for tertiary
branches without much damage to the mother plant.
A. Vegetative propagation of species of Rhizophoraceae
The species under the family to Rihizophoraceae are one of the important
compoenents in mangrove ecosystem. The genus Rhizophora encompasses evergreen
trees having strong stilt roots and long propagules. The stilt roots of Rhizophora spread
laterally and are buried deep in the mud, providing additional support to the tree. In
view of this character, these trees are able to withstand high cyclones. Secondly, the
root zones provide microhabitat for the juveniles of fish and prawn to grow. In the
Pichavaram mangrove wetlands three species of Rhizophora namely, Rhizophora

apiculata, Rhizophora apiculata and a Rhizophora hybrid are present. Generally, the
maternal and paternal parents of the sterile hybrids are R. mucronata and R. apiculata
respectively.
Propagule cutting
Materials
Mature propagules, distilled water, solution to remove phenolics, growth hormones,
refrigerator, knife, mist chamber, humidiffer and mud filled polythene bags.
Method
Step1. Collection of propagules
Collect mature propagules from the plus trees. Good propagules are fleshy, shining
with red colored collar.
Step 2. Cutting of propagules
Cut the collected propagules into 2 to 5 cm pieces using a clean and sharp knife.
The entire propagule can be used for cutting (Plate 1 A)
Step 3. Removal of phenolic compounds
Phenolics are a group of compounds present mostly in the bark and wood of
almost all the mangrove species. Phenolics are essential compounds for the survival
of mangrove plants in extreme environmental conditions, since they regulate growth
and other physiological functions. However, in vegetative propagation they act as
inhibitors in the formation of roots and shoots and hence, phenolics from propagule
cuttings are to be removed before further processing.
The following method describes the preparation of solutions and treatment methods
to remove the phenolic compounds. Removal of phenolic compounds involves short-
term and long-term treatments
Preparation of stock solution: Take 20 g of Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3)
and 20g of Sodium tungstate (Na2WO4.2H2O), dissolve successively in 80 ml
distilled water and make up the final volume to 100 ml. It is a 20% stock solution
Preparation of working solution (10% and 5%): Take 50 ml from the
20% stock solution and add 50ml of distilled water. This gives a 10% working
solution. Take another 25ml of stock solution and add 75ml of distilled water.
This gives a 25% working solution.
Sort-term treatment to remove phenolic compounds: Take 10% solution
in small cups. Keep the basal portion of the cuttings immersed in the solutions
for 5 to 10 minutes. Wash the treated cuttings in distilled water two to three
times. Now the propagule cutting is ready for hormone treatment.

Step 4. Hormone treatment
Hormone treatment is necessary to induce root formation. Indole Butyric Acid
(IBA) and Naphthalene Acetic Acid (NAA) are commonly used as root promoters.
These promoters are a available in many of the agro shops in powder form.
Preparation of hormone stock solution: Take 1g of IBA (Himedia,
Mumbai) and add little drops of IN NaOH until it dissolves, and make it up
with distilled water to 100ml. The strength of this stock solution is 10,000ppm
Preparation of hormone treatment solution: The following table (Table
A-1) shows the method of preparing treatment solutions of different
concentrations from the stock solution.
Table A-1: Preparation of hormone treatment solutions of
different concentrations
Quantity of stock Quantity of Concentrations
solution (ml) Distilled water (ml) (ppm)
10 90 1000
15 85 1500
20 80 2000
25 75 2500
Hormone treatment of the cuttings: Propagule cutting treated to remove

phenolics are again dipped in root promoting IBA hormone for 10 to 30
minutes. Since the concentration of IBA required for root promotion differs
from species to species, propagule cuttings should be dipped in solutions of
different concentrations as shown in Table A-2.
Table A-2: Optimum concentration of root promoting hormones for
maximum root initiation
Species Growth Hormone Concentration (ppm) Rooting
Bruguiera cylindrical IBA 500 83
Bruguiera gymonorrhiza IBA 700 75
Bruguiera parviflora IBA 500 90
Bruguiera sexangula IBA 500 93
Ceriops decandra IBA + NAA 500 + 200 79
Kandelia candel IBA + NAA 1000 + 500 95
Rhizophora apicuata IBA 1500 93
Rhizophora mucronata IBA 2000 89
Rhizophora x hybrid IBA 1500 75

Step 5. Planting propagules in poly-bags / plastic pots
After hormone treatment, cuttings are planted in ploy-bags containing sand and
clay at the ratio of 2:8. Keep planted cuttings in the mist chamber at 28 ± 2ºC and
70-80% relative humidity.
Step 6. Hardening the cutting in mist chamber
Cuttings are continuously monitored and maintained in controlled environment
in the mist chamber. Roots will from after 20 to 25 days and shoots will form after
30 to 35 days (Plate 2). Water is sprayed 3 to 5 times / day inside the chambers to
maintain the humidity and temperature.
Step 7. Hardening the saplings in nursery
After 2 months, successfully established saplings should be kept under shady areas
in nursery for 3-4months. Before 25 days of field transfer treat the saplings with saline
water with maximum salinity level of 20 ppt of diluted sea water, or mangrove water
itself or water in which common salt is dissolved for desired concentration (Plate 3)
Step 8. Planting in the field
After successful hardening, saplings are ready for planning. At the end of the
monsoon, transfer and plant the saplings in the prepared field.
Air-Layering
Materials
Growth hormones, distilled water, knife, syringe with needle, brush, sphagnum
moss, rooting medium (clay : sand : soil), threads, and polythene,
Methods
Step 1. Selection of braches
Select semi-hard wood and hard wood branches of plus trees. Avoid selecting
branches that are drooping too much and twigs that are very young or tender.
Step 2. Removal of bark of selected branches
Remove the outer bark of the selected branch at 2 to 5 cm below the node. The
portion of the branch where the bard is removed is called, wounded portion. Make a
bridge of bark or 2 to 4mm thickness to connect the upper end of the mother plant
and the lower end of the daughter plant (offspring) to be produced. This bridge is
necessary for the maintenance of some of the important physiological functions,
since in mangrove species formation of roots is very slow.

Step 3. Preparation of root promoting hormone
Method is explained in Step 4 Hormone Treatment in Section Propagule Cutting
of vegetative propagation of species of Rhizophoraceae.
Step 4. Applying root – promoting hormone
Apply the hormone all around the wounded portion using a fine brush. Hormone
should be applied twice. Different concentrations of hormone are used for different
species as shown in Table A-3.
Step 5. Applying rooting medium
Prepare a mixture of sand and clay at 3:7 ratio and wet it with nearby mangrove water.
This forms the first layer of the rooting medium. This first layer of rooting medium is
followed by a layer of wet sphagnum mass (to retain moisture). Apply this medium of
two layers around the wounded portion and finally cover it with a polythene cover and
tie both the ends as shown in Plate 4. If shoot portion droops, the branch should be tied
with nearby one to avoid drooping. Step 2 to step 5 are shown in plate 4 A to E.
Step 6. Monitoring the air layering
Periodically check the layered portion and whenever necessary, inject tap water
through a syringe. Roots will be visible after 40-60 days.
Step 7. Hardening in growth chamber

After the root system is well established, separate the rooted sapling from the
mother plant using a sharp knife. Keep rooted saplings under mist chamber in the
field nursery at 28ºC and 70% relative humidity for 2 to 3 months. The procedure
followed in hardening the saplings produced through propagule cuttings can be
followed for hardening the saplings produced through air layering also.

After 2 to 3 months, successfully established saplings should be treated with saline
water of maximum salinity upto 20ppt. Diluted seawater, or mangrove water itself or
water in which common salt is dissolved for desired concentration could be used.

Table A-3: Optimum concentration of root-promoting hormone used in
air-layering in different mangrove species for maximum rooting.
Species Hormone Concentration (ppm) Rooting%

Amoora cucullata IBA + NAA 500 + 200 59
Avicennia marina IBA 2500 42
Avicennia officinalis IBA 2000 54
Cerbera manghas IBA + NAA 1000 + 2000 61
Cerbera odollam IBA 1000 55
Excoecaria agallocha IBA 2000 48
Heritiera fomes IBA 2500 55
Heritiera littoralis IBA 2000 51
Intsia bijiuga IBA 2000 46
Rhizophora apiculata IBA 2000 48
Rhizophora mucronata IBA 2500 52
Rhizophora x hybrid IBA + NAA 1000 + 500 46
Sonneratia apetala IBA 1500 45
Xylocarpus granatum IBA 2000 46
Xylocarpus mekongensis IBA 1500 64
Xylocarpus moluccenensis IBA 1000 60
B. Vegetative propagation of other species of mangroves

This method described hereunder is applicable to the following species: Acanthus
ilicifolius, Amoora cucullata, Avicennia marina, Cerbera manghas, Excoecaria agallocha,
Heritiera fomes, Heritiera littoralis, Intsia bijuga, Lumnitzera racemosa, Sonneratia apetala
and XyIocarpus granatum.
Stem cutting
Materials
Tree twigs, solution to remove phenolics, growth hormones, refrigerator, knife,
mist chamber, humidifier and mud filled polythene bags.
Methods
Step 1. Collection of branches / stems
Collect narrow / straight twigs from plus trees.

Step 2. Cutting of stems
Select and cut stems of different types such as soft wood, semi- hard wood and
hard wood. Length of the cut stems may vary from 15 to 20 cm (plate7A).
Step 3. Removal of phenolic compounds
The following method describes the preparation of solutions and treatment methods
to remove the phenolic compounds. Removal of phenolic compounds involves short-
term and long – term treatments.
Preparation of stock solution: Take 20g of Sodium carbonate and 20g of
Sodium tungstate, dissole successively in 80 ml distilled water, and make up
the final volume to 100 ml. It is a 20% stock solution.
Preparation of working solution (10% and 5%): Take 50 ml from the
20% stock solution, and 50 ml of distilled water. This gives a 10 % working
solution. Take another 25 ml of stock solution and add 75 ml of distilled
water. It is a 5% working solution.
Short-term treatment to remove phenolic compounds: Take 10 %
solution in small cups. Keep the basal portion of the cuttings immersed in
the solution for 5-10 minutes. Wash the treated cuttings two to three times
in distilled water.
Long –term treatment to remove phenolic compounds: Keep the cuttings
treated in 10% solution for about 20-30 minutes in 5% working solution for
final treatment. Wash the treated cuttings two to three times in distilled water.
Now the stem cutting is ready for hormone treatment.
Step 4. Hormone treatment
Hormone treatment is necessary to induce root formation. Indole Acidic Acid
(IAA), Indole Butyric Acid (IBA) and Naphthalene Acetic Acid (NAA) are commonly
used as root promoters. These promoters are available in most of the agro shops in
the form of powder.
Preparation of hormone stock solution: Take 1g of IBA (Himedia,
Mumbai) and add little drops of 1N NaOH until it dissolves, and make it up
with distilled water to 100ml. The strength of thes stock solution is 10,000
ppm.
Preparation of hormone treatment solution: The following table (Table A-4.)
shows the method of preparing treatment solutions of different concentrations
from the stock solution.

Table A-4: Preparation of hormone treatment solutions of
different concentrations
Quantity of Quantity of Concentration
stock solution (ml) distilled water (ml) (ppm)
10 90 1000
15 85 1500
20 80 2000
25 75 2500
Hormone treatment of the cuttings: Stem cuttings treated to remove phenolics

are again dipped in root promoting IBA hormone for 10-30 minutes. Since the
concentration of IBA required for root promotion differs from species to species,
stem cuttings should be dipped in solutions of different concentrations as shown in
Plate 7 B. Table A-5 shows the optimum concentration of the hormones for maximum
rooting in the stem cuttings of different mangrove plants.
Table A-5: Optimum concentration of hormones for maximum rooting in

the stem cutting of different mangrove species
Species Hormone Concentration (ppm) Rooting (%)
Acanthus illicifolius IBA + INNA 500+1000 83
Amoora cullata IBA 1500 75
Avicennea marina IBA 2000 56
Cerbera manghas IAB 1500 63
Cerbera odollam IBA 1000 69
Excoecaria agallocha IBA 2000 68
Heritiera fomes IBA 2500 72
Heritiera fomes IBA + NAA 1500+500 64
Intsia bijuga IBA 2000 68
Xylocarpus granatum IBA 2500 85
Step 5. Planting stem cuttings in poly-bags/plastic pots

After the treatment, plant the cuttings in poly bags containing sand and clay.
Keep planted cuttings under the mist chamber at 28±2°C and 70-80% relative
humidity.

Step 6. Hardening the cuttings in mist chamber
Monitor the cuttings continuously and maintain controlled environment. Roots
can be seen after 20 to 25 days and shoots can be seen after 30 to 35 days. Spray
water inside the mist chamber 3 to 5 times/day, using hand sprayer, to maintain the
humidity and temperature (Plate 7 C). Plate 8 and 9 show the rooting from stem
cuttings in different mangrove species.
Step 7. Harding the saplings in nursery

After 2 months, keep the successfully established saplings under shady areas in
the nursery for 3-4 months. Treat the established sapling with salt water up to 20 ppt
for 25 days.

After successful hardening, saplings are ready for planting. Immediately after the
monsoon season, transfer and plant the saplings in the selected field.

2.0 Micropr
Micropr opaga
opropagation
opagation
Development of micro propagation protocols for mangrove plants

Micropropagation or plant tissue culture is a technology of growing isolated plant
cells, tissues, organs or whole plants on semisolid or liquid synthetic nutrient media
under aseptic and controlled environment. It is the most useful and widely used
technology in tree improvement programmes. Mangroves are classical examples of
plants, which have adapted to the shifting, saline and muddy environment. To fully
adapt to this environment, mangroves have acquired a number of unique morphological,
ecological and physiological characteristics. However, these special adaptive features
make the mangrove plants recalcitrant to in vitro culture. There have been several
inherent problems in the tissue culture of these species and hence, there has been only
a few attempts as of now to propagate them through micro propagation. They are
highly recalcitrant to the time tested media like Murashige and Skoog (1962) and
Lloyd and McKown (1981). The tissue browning occurs within few hours of inoculation,
which limits the chance of survival of the explant tissue. There has been a high degree
of contamination due to several microbial and fungal endophytes and the growth is
very slow in the culture. The M.S.Swaminathan Research Foundation over came these
problems and has established protocols for the first time for three species of mangroves
viz., Excoecaria agallacha, Aicennia officinalis and Acanthus ilicifolius.
The micro propagation protocol developed for mangrove plants by the

M.S.Swaminathan Research Foundation consists of a unique combination of macro
nutrients while micro nutrient and vitamin composition are similar to regular MS
media (Rao. et al., 1998). The protocol is useful in propagating the plus tree of
mangrove plants for ongoing mangrove afforestation programmes, keeping in view
the alarming rate of mangrove forest degradation throughout the world.
Types of Micropropagation
There are two types of Micropropagation techniques namely, a) Direct
organogenesis and b) Indirect organogenesis. In direct organogenesis, stems with
internodes are grown in culture media to produce multiple shoots and these shoots
are removed and grown in rooting media. Once the rooting is established, the explants,
which are now called as saplings, will be hardened in growth chamber, field nursery
and then transferred to the field.

Production of saplings through indirect organogenesis involves the following steps.
In the first step, a mass of undifferentiated cells is obtained from living tissues of
plants in a culture medium. This mass of cells is called “callus”. The callus is removed
from the medium and grown in another medium to individual shoots, and shoots.
The next step involves the removal and isolation of individual shoots, and growing
them in a rooting medium. Finally the rooted saplings are hardened in growth
chamber, nursery and then transferred to the field.
Advantages and limitations in Micropropagation
Advantages
It is useful in raped multiplication of plant material and can be used to produce
both asexually (through plant parts) and sexually propagated (through seeds) plants.
Small pieces of plants (explants) can be used to produce a large number of
plantlets in a small space.
Tissue culture provides a high degree of phenotypic uniformity.
Plantlets can be stored in vitro in a small space and less labour is required for
maintenance of stock plants.
Plantlets produced through Micropropagation are usually free from infection
by bacteria, fungi and viruses.
Nutrient levels, light, temperature and other factors can be precisely controlled
to accelerate vegetative multiplication and regeneration.
Tissue culture is independent of seasons. Tissue culture could be carried out
round the year.
Plants in vitro require minimal attention between subcultures. Therefore, only
limited labour and materials are required.
Disadvantages
Chemicals used in medium preparation are expensive and less available.
High phenolics in mangrove plants delay the growth and thus the process
becomes time consuming.
Growth in the culture medium is slow.
Entophytic fungal contamination is high in mangrove species.
Media used in micropropagation
The following are the culture media used in tissue culture: i) Murashige and Skoog
(1968) medium or MS medium, ii) Woody Plan Medium or WPM medium (Lloyd
and McKown, 1981), and iii) Schank and Hilderbrandt medium (1972) or SH
medium. Apart from these, M.S.Swaminathan Research Foundation has developed a
medium, for the tissue culture of mangrove plants, which is designated in the manual
as X medium.
Composition of different culture media
The following table (Table A-6) shows the nutrient composition of the different
culture media used in the Micropropagation of mangrove plants. In all the three
species of mangroves for which protocols have been developed, cultures are initiated
in the X medium developed by the M.S.Swamminathan Research Foundation. MS
medium can be used for the subculture of Avicennia officinalis and Excoecaria agallocha
from second subculture onwards. SH medium can be used for shoot elongation in
Acanthus ilicifolius and Excoecaria agallocha.
Table A-6: Nutrient composition of different culture media
Nutrient composition MS (1962) WPM (1981) mg/l SH (1972) X (1998)
Major Nutrients
NH4NO3 1650 400 0 0
(NH4) 2SO4 0 0 320 500
KNO3 1900 0 2500 525
Ca(NO3) 2.4H2O 0 556 0 0
MgSO4.7H2O 370 370 400 0
CaCl2.2H2O 440 96 200 200
KH2PO4 170 170 0 250
K2SO4 0 900 0 0
Iron stock
FeSO4.7H2O 27.8 27.8 15 27.8
Na2EDTA.2H2O 37.3 37.3 20 37.3
Minor Nutrients
MnSO4.4H2O 22.3 22.3 13.2 22.3
ZnSO4.7H2O 8.6 8.6 1 8.6
H3BO3 6.3 6.2 5.0 6.3
KI 0.83 0 1.0 0.83
Na2MoO4.2H2O 0.25 0.25 0.1 0.1
CuSO4.5H2O 0.025 0.025 0.2 0.2
CoCl2.6H2O 0.025 0 0.1 0.1
Vitamins
Inositol 100 100 100 100
Glycine 10 2 0 10
Thiamine.HCL 1 1 5 1
Nicotinic acid 1 0.5 5 1
Pyridoxine.HCL 1 0.5 5 1
Sucrose (g/l) 30 30 30 30
Agar (g/l) 8 8 8 8

Preparation of stock solution
In order to avoid delay in the preparation of the culture media, stock solution of
major and minor nutrients, iron and vitamins are prepared separately. These stock
solutions can be stored at 4º C for about 6 months. Needed quantity of culture
media is prepared whenever necessary by mixing these stock solutions and diluting
them with double distilled water to get original concentration.
Preparation of 20X major nutrient solution

To prepare 20X stock solution of major nutrients, dissolve all the chemicals exept
CaCl2.2H2O one by one in about 500 ml of double distilled water as shown in
Table A-7. Stir the solution using a magnetic stirrer and ensure that all the chemicals
are dissolved completely. Finally, add CaCl2.2H2O and stir the solution till it is
completely dissolved and make up the volume to 1000ml.
Table A-7: Composition of Stock solution of 20X major nutrients
Nutrient composition MS (1962) WPM (1981) SH (1972) X (1998)
(g/l)
NH4NO3 33 8 0 0
NH4) 2SO4 0 0 6 10
KNO3 30 0 50 10.5
Ca (NO3) 2.4H2O 0 11.12 0 0
MgSO4.7H2O 7.4 7.4 8 0
KCaCl2.2H2O 8.8 1.92 4 4
KH2PO4 3.4 3.4 0 5
K2SO4 0 19.8 0 0
2.4 Preparation of 200X minor nutrient solution

To prepare 200X stock solution of minor nutrients, dissolve all the chemicals one
by one in about 500 ml of double distilled water as shown in Table A-8. Stir the
solution using a magnetic stirrer and ensure that all the chemicals are dissolved
completely and make up the final volume to 1000ml
Preparation of 200X iron stock solution

Table A-9 gives the composition of the 200X iron stock solution. To prepare 500ml
of iron stock solution, first dissolve FeSO4.7H2O in about 400ml double distilled hot
water. After ensuring that FeSO4 7H2 O is completely dissolved, add Na2 EDTA.2H2O,
Stir the solution and make up the volume to 500ml. It is advisable to prepare only

low quantity of iron stock solution since it will easily get contaminated. Discard the
prepared solution if turbidity or precipitate is seen in the solution.
Table A-8: Composition of stock solution of 200X minor nutrients
Nutrient composition MS (1962) WPM (1981) SH (1972) X (1998)

(g/l)
MnSO4.4H2O 4.46 4.46 2.64 4.46
ZnSO4.7H2O 1.72 1.72 0.200 1.72
H3BO3 1.26 1.24 1.0 1.26
KI 0.166 0 0.200 0.166
Na2MoO4.2H2O 0.050 0.050 0.020 0.020
CuSO4.5H2O 0.005 0.005 0.040 0.040
CoCl2.6H2O 0.005 0 0.020 0.020
Table A-9: Composition of 200X iron stock solution

Iron Stock MS (1962) WPM (1981) SH (1972) X (1998)
(g/500ml)
Fe SO4 . 7H2 O in grams 2.78 2.78 1.5 2.78
Na2 EDTA.2H2 O in grams 3.73 3.73 2.0 3.73
Preparation of 1000X vitamin stock solution

Table A-10 gives the composition of 1000X vitamin stock solution. Weight the
vitamins accurately and dissolve them one by one in 80 ml of double distilled water.
Once the vitamins are completely dissolved, make the final volume to 100 ml. Like
iron stock solution should also be prepared in less quantity, since it will also be easily
contaminated. The stock solution should be used as early as possible.
Table A-10: Composition of vitamin stock solution
Vitamins MS (1962) WPM (1981) SH (1972) X (1998)

(g/100ml)
Glycine 1000 200 0 1000
Thiamine. HCI 100 100 500 100
Nicotinic acid 100 50 500 100
Pyridoxine. HCl 100 50 500 100

Other Chemicals
The following chemicals can be directly added to the culture medium:
i.) Inositol 100mg / 1
ii.) Sucrose 30g/l
iii.) Agar 8g/ l or Phytagl 2g/l
Preparation of X culture medium
To prepare 1 liter of X culture medium, take 600ml of double distilled water and
add 50 ml of the 20X stock solution of major nutrients, 5 ml of 200X stock solution
of micro nutrients, 5 ml of 200X iron stock solution, 1 ml of 1000X vitamin stock
solution in succession and ensure that they are completely mixed. Add 100mg of
Myo-inositol and 30 g of sucrose. Mix well using a magnetic stirrer until a clear
solution is obtained. Ass appropriate quantity of growth hormones such as IAA, IBA,
NAA, Kn, BA and 2,4-D as shown in Table 14. Adjust pH to 5.75 to 5.85. by adding
1N NaOH or 1 N HCL. Make the final volume to 1000ml. Add 8 g of agar or 2g of
Phytagel. Cook the media on a hot plate until the agar or Phytagel is completely
dissolved. Pour 3 to 5 ml of the cooked media into sterilized test tubes. Close the
mouth of the test tube with sterilized cotton plug. Autoclave the test tubes for about
15 minutes at 121ºC under 15 lb pressure. After autoclaving, keep the test tubes in a
slanting position inside a sterile chamber.
Addition of growth hormones in culture media

The experiments conducted in the M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation showed
that for successful shoot and root formation, different mangrove species require
different growth hormones as shown in Table A-11. These combinations and
concentrations of growth hormones should be added to the culture and sub-culture
media.
Methods of micropropagation
Materials
Stock solution of MS, WPM, SH and X media, explants, glassware, inoculation
chamber, sterilized culture racks, growth chamber.
Methods
Step 1. Collect explants, preferably shoot portion, from the field or mist chamber
or nursery. The explant material may be leaf segments, uninodal and bimodal segments
from mature trees as well as seedlings.

Table A-11: Combination and concentration of growth hormones to be
used in culture and sub-culture media:
Growth hormone (ppm)
Species
BA Zealtin IBA 2ip IAA
E. agallocha
Shoot induction (1st culture) 3 1 - - -
Shoot elongation (1st sub culture) 3 - 0.5 - -
Rooting (2nd subculture) - - 0.5 - -
Shoot induction (1st culture) 1 - 0.5 - -
Shoot elongation (1st sub culture) - - - - -
Rooting (2nd subculture) - - 0.5 - -
Acanthus ilicifolius
Shoot induction (1st culture) 0.5 - - 0.2 1.0
Shoot elongation (1st sub culture) - - 0.5 - -
Step 2. Wash the explants in running tap water for 1 hour. This is necessary to
remove the exudates (Phenolics, tannins, and mucilage) present within the tissue.
Step 3. Again wash the explants with Tween 20 (2% , V/V) and rinse until traces of
soap are removed. Take the explants to a sterile laminar flow and surface sterilize the
explants with HgCl2 (0.1%, W/V) followed by three washes with sterile distilled water.
Step 4. Trim the explants with sterilized knife and cut them into small pieces of
leaf, uninodal and bimodal segments. Cut the lower portion of the nodal explants at
an angle of 20 to 30 degrees to get a slanting basal portion, which facilitates in
effective absorption of nutrition from the medium.
Step 5. Transfer the trimmed explants to the culture media.
Step 6. Incubate the culture at 24±2ºC and 60 % relative humidity under a

16-hour/day photoperiod. Provide light intensity of 50 µ Mol m-2 s-1 using a cool
white fluorescent light.
Step 7. After shoot initiation, sub-culture the explants for shoot elongation and
multiplication. For this purpose use different combinations and concentrations of
growth hormones.

Step 8. After shoot elongation, remove the explants, cut the shoots in a sterile
inoculation chamber, and transfer the shoots to rooting media for root initiation.
Transfer the well established rooted plants into a growth chamber.
Step 9. Harden the rooted plants in growth chamber (e.g. N.K. System LP-1PH)
at 80 % relative humidity and 26 ºC for a period of three weeks.
Step 10. Transfer the hardened plants to the mangrove nursery and after hardening
for about 2 to 5 months, treat them with different salinities ranging from 5 to 20 ppt.
Step 11. Transfer the hardened plants to the selected for plantation.
Micropropagation of Excoecaria agallocha

Binodal segments respond well in X medium with a combination of BA, Zeatin
and IBA.
The X medium has an overall low mineral content with relatively high
concentrations of SO42-, NH4+, PO4 and K + ions. Auxiliary shoot induction
is high in this medium compared to MS and WPM media.
Per cent shoot induction and mean shoot length is maximum (52%) when
the X medium has BA, Zentin and IBA. Addition of Zeatin in the culture
medium (up to 1ppm) futher increases shoot induction of response (72%)
with no significant effect on shoot length.
Binodal segments give a better shoot induction over uninodal segments. The
shoot elongation rate enhances from the second subculture onwards (Plate 10A).
Micropropagation of Avicennia officinalis
Uninodal explants of A. officinalis responded well in the X medium with a
combination of BA and IBA.
There is an increase in the shoot induction response with the increase BA and
IBA concentrations to 1.0ppm and 0.5ppm repetitively.
Rooting response is good when the regenerated shoots of 5 cm length are
transferred to the X medium supplemented with 0.5 ppm IBA.
After 2 weeks of rooting in the growth chamber, the plantlets can be
transferred to the potting medium consisting of 1:1 garden soil and sand
mixture. A high humidity condition is to be maintained for another 4 weeks
(Plate 10B).
Micropropagation of Acanthus ilicifolius
Uninidal explants of Acanthus ilicifolius culture on SH Medium supplemented
with BA (0.5ppm), 2ip (0.2 ppm) and IAA (1ppm) show maximum shoot
induction.

Shoot elongation can be achieved when the shoots are divided and sub cultured
on the SH basal medium supplemented with half of the above concentrations
of hormones.
The individual elongated shoots subcultured on the ½ SH medium
supplemented with 0.5 ppm IBA produce healthy roots.
The rooted plants can be grown in pots with vermiculite in the growth chamber
with 75% relative humidity and 26ºC, to get maximum survival (Plate 11).
In the experiments conducted in the M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation,
95 % of the plantlets survived in the hardening chamber when the above
procedures were followed.

3.0 Propaga
Propaga tion of mangr
opagation mangroove associa
associattes
Atriplex lentiformis (Saltbush)

The plant prefers light (sandy) and medium (loamy) soils, requires well-drained
soil and can grow in nutritionally poor soil. The plant prefers acid, neutral and basic
(alkaline) soils and can grow in very alkaline and saline soils. It cannot grow in the
shade. It requires dry or moist soil and can tolerate drought.
Importance: Seed cooked (Kunkel, 1984 and Moerman 1998) reported it could
be used as a pinole or be ground into a meal and used as porridge, a thickener in
soups or added to flour for making bread and the seed is rather small and fiddly to
use. He reported the fresh leaves can be chewed, or the dried leaves smoked, in the
treatment of head colds and the crushed flowers, stems and leaves can be steamed
and inhaled to treat nasal congestion and a poultice of the powdered roots has been
applied to sores.
Propagation
Seed and nursery: Seed - sow April/May in a cold frame in a compost of peat and sand.
Vegetative propagation: Cuttings of mature wood of the current season’s growth,

November/December in a frame. Pot up in early spring and plant out in their
permanent position in early summer.
Tissue culture: Mei et al. (19970 reported shoot organogenesis (265 shoots)
from leaf disc explants was accomplished at rates of 12.3 shoots/disc or 1.7 shoots/
mm2 of leaf disc explants. Root organogenesis was induced in 63% (168) of the
shoots, using indolebutyric acid (IBA, 0.5 mg liter-1) and gibberellic acid (GA3, 0.1
mg-1 liter) in a Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium.
Cultivation: Huxley (1992) reported plants require a position in full sun in any
well-drained but not too fertile soil. Tolerates saline and very alkaline soils. Succeeds
in a hot dry position.
Salicornia brachiata (Glasswort)

Importance: Salicornia spp. (Chenopodiaceae) grows in most coastal marine
environments throughout the world, from warm tropical to cold temperate zones. It
is perhaps the most promising of all halophytes currently under commercial

cultivation; common names for this annual salt marsh succulent include sea
asparagus, pickleweed, glasswort, and samphire. The high protein edible oil has a
fatty acid composition similar to safflower, with a nutty taste and the texture of olive
oil. When mixed with traditional fodder, the residual meal makes for an excellent
feed supplement. Select varieties of S. brachiata are now being cultivated in the deserts
of India where value-added by-products like vegetable salt are being test marketed. S.
brachiata crop can be used as vegetable, salad, oil extraction, salt extraction, animal
fodder.
Propagation
Seed and nursery: Eganathan (2002) reported the best seed germination (84%)
was observed when seeds treated with a combination of GA3 + KN (25 + 40 ppm).
These seedlings were established well in the natural environment.
Explants Purpose Growth regulators (mg/l)

BA IAA NAA GA3 KN IBA
Nodal Shoot
induction 0.5-5.0 1.0-1.5 - - 0.1-0.5 -
Shoot Multiple shoot 0.2-0.8 0.2-1.0 - - 0.1-0.3 -
Multiple Elongation 0.2-0.7 - - 0.2-1.5 - -
Shoot
Elongated Rooting - - 0.1-0.5 0.1-1.0 - 0.5-2.0
Shoot
Vegetative propagation: Not recommended

Tissue culture: MS medium
Plantation
The seed sowing is done in April to June. The following lands can be utilized for
Salicornia cultivation - degraded coastal zones, hyper saline areas. Pretreated seeds
could be cultivating on broad casting methods and tissue culture plants spacing of 1
foot is found most suitable. Traditionally burned for soda ash used in glass and soap
making, it is now being seriously considered for its oil (30%) production with yields
that exceed many freshwater oilseed crops. Commercial cultivars of Salicornia bigelovii
have demonstrated seed yields of 2-3 tons/ha with an overall biomass production of
20 tons/ha.

Salvadora persica
Importance: Salvadora persica, a facultative halophyte and a good source of seed
oil have been found to be highly salt tolerant (Rao et al. 2004). Leaves make good
fodder as they have a high water content (15 to 36%) and are rich in minerals (FAO
1986). The leaves are readily consumed by goats and cattle and the fodder is available
during the dry season. Adapted to alkaline or very saline soils, usually clay-rich, and
soils without salt. It prefers clays, but is found on loams, black soils, and sand (FAO
1988).
Propagation
Seed and nursery: Fruits are small, round, and pea-sized, bearing 1 seed per
fruit. Seeds turn from white to pink or purple-red and are semitransparent when
mature. Pretreatment is not necessary (RSCU 1992). Seeds exhibit no dormancy but
the fruit pulp contains germination inhibitors which should be removed before sowing.
Seed can be stored for about 1 month.
Vegetative propagation
Tissue culture: Mathur et al (2002) reported maximum shoot proliferation from
single explants was obtained on MS medium incorporated with BAP (4.0 mg/l), IAA
(0.5 mg/l), adenine sulphate (40 mg/l), glutamine (100 mg/l) and thiamine HCl
(10 mg/l). In vitro produced shoots were induced to root on a range of IBA
concentrations (0.5-5.0 mg/l) supplemented to half strength MS medium. The highest
frequency of root proliferation was on half strength MS medium supplemented with
3.0 mg/l IBA.
Plantation: Alluvial plains but soils are moderately saline.
Porteresia coarctata
Importance: Porteresia is a halophytic species, which can withstand total
submergence in seawater and taxonomically related to rice. Land soil builder, control
soil erosion rive banks of mangrove areas.
Propagation
Seed and Nursery: seed can be collected from October to December from mother
plants. It is germinate other non-vegetated riverbank areas.
Vegetative propagation: clum cuttings and nodal cuttings can be achieved in

monsoon seasons.

Micropropagation
Woody Plant (WP) medium supplemented with benzyladenine (5.5 microm) and
kinetin (2.3 microm) gave the greatest response to initiation and multiplication.
The multiplication rate of 11 shoots/explant with an average shoot length of 3.5 cm
was observed after 8 weeks of culture period. The rooting response was observed
simultaneously in the multiplication media, but subsequent establishment was poor.
When the in vitro raised shoots were transferred to optimal 1/2 WP and 1/2 MS
media with 10.7 microm alpha-naphthaleneacetic acid, the rooting response was
enhanced.
Plantation: Exposed mangrove saline soil containing riverbank is ideal for

cultivation of Porteresia. A spacing 0.5 x 0.5 m and depth 2 to 3 cm.
Sesuvium portulacastrum
Importance: It is a very good nutritious green vegetable, fodder, and good soil
creeper.
Propagation
Seed and Nursery: Nursery can be established for rapid multiplication from elite
clones for supply saplings to farmers.
Vegetative propagation: Sea purlane can be propagated from rooted stem cuttings
taken from established plants. IBA and NAA treated plants give better rooting and
shoot development, shoot tip is compare to other portion of plants give better response
and growth.
Tissue culture: Multiple shoot was achieved from uninodal explants in X medium
combination of BA, NAA, Kn (Eganathan, 2002) and callus induction found in X
medium with 2,4-D, NAA, Kn and differentiation was achieved in X medium with
0.5 IBA.
Cultivation: Saline lands can be utilized for cultivation of Sesuvium. Moonsoon

season is ideal for trans planting saplings. Spacing is 0.5 to 1 m enough it will grow
rapidly. All new shoots and young shoots can be harvest periodically for domestic use.

Abbreviations
(NH4) 2 SO4 - Ammonium Sulphate
10% - 10 g of Sodium carbonate (Na2 dissolved in 80 ml
distilled water and up to 100ml
1N HCL - 8.77ml of 35% HCL (Generally Available) made up to 100 ml
using double distilled water.
1N NaOH - 4g of Sodium hydroxide in 80 ml of double distilled water and
made up to 100 ml
2ip - 6-(g, g - Dimethyl allyl-Amino) purine Riboside
Agar and Phytagel - Used for solidification of tissu culture media
BA - Benzyl Adenine
Ca (NO3) 2.4H2O - Calcium Nitrate Tetrahydrate
CaCl2.2H2O - Calcium Chloride Dihydrate
CoCl2.6H2O - Cobalt Chloride Hexahydrate
CuSO4.5H2O - Copper Sulphate Pentahydrate
Explant - Any plant part used in tissue culture
FeSO4.7H2O - Ferrous Sulphate Heptahydrate
H3BO3 - Boric Acid
HgCl2 - Mercuric Chloride
Hormone - Growth regulating substance in plants
Humidifier - Mist forming instrument in mist chambers
IAA - Indole Acidic Acid
IBA - Indole Butyric Acid
K2SO4 - Potassium Sulphate
KH2PO4 - Potassium Dihydrogen Phosphate
KI - Potassium Iodide
KNO3 - Potassium Nitrate
MgSO4.7H2O - Megnesium Sulphate Heptahydrate
MnSO4.4H2O - Manganous Sulphate Tetrahydrate
Na2CO3 - Sodium Carbonate
Na2EDTA.2H2O - Ethylene Diamine Tetra Aceticacid Disodium Salt
Na2MoO4.2H2O - Sodium Molybdate dihydrate
Na2WO4.2H2O - Sodium Tungstate
NAA - Naphthalene Acetic Acid
NH4NO3 - Ammonium Nitrate
pH (-log {H+}) - Denotes the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution
ppm - parts per million
Sphagnum moss - A plant body creeping of the surface of a rock/soil in hilly areas
Tween-20 - Surfactant used for surface sterilization of explants
v/v - Volume by volume
w/v - Weight by volume
ZnSO4.7H2O - Zinc Sulphate Heptahydrate
21
Plate 1 : Propagules of different species of Rhizophoraceae
i. Rhizophora mucronata ii. Rhizophora apiculata

iii. Rhizophora hybrid iv. Bruguiera cylindrica
v. Ceriops decandra vi. Kandelia candel
A. Propagule cutting - Bruguiera cylindrica B. Hormone treatment

Plate 2: Root and shoot development in propagule cuttings
A. Bruguiera cylindrica B. Ceriops decandra
C. Kandelia candel D. Rhizophora mucronata
E. Rhizophora apiculata F. Rhizophora hybrid
16
Plate 3: Development and hardening
of propagated plants in the nursery
and mist chamber
A. General view of the field nursery with
mist chamber
B. Stem cuttings of the Acanthus ilicifolius
C. Inside view of the mist chamber
D. Flow of mist inside the mist chamber
Plate 4: Air-layering in Excoecaria

agallocha in the field
A. Removal of bark
B. Application of root promoting hormone
C. Application of rooting media
D. Wrapping with polythene sheet
E. Closing the end of the wrapping
F. Air-layering

Plate 5: Rooting through air-layering in different mangrove species
A. Heritiera fomes B. Excoecaria agallocha C. Xylocarpus moluccensis
D. Rhizophora hybrid E. Sonneratia apetala
Plate 6: Rooting through air-layering in different mangrove species

A. Avicennia officinalis B. Avicennia marina C. Intsia bijuga
D. Heritiera littoralis E. Xylocarpus granatum

Plate 7 : Stem cuttings in
A. Cutting of stem
B. Treating the stem cuttings with hormone
C. Development of stem cuttings into sapling
Plate 8 : Rooting in stem cuttings in different mangrove species

A. Acanthus ilicifolius B. Avicennia marina
C. Excoecaria agallocha D. Heritiera littoralis

Plate 9 : Rooting in stem cuttings in different mangrove species
A. Heritiera fomes B. Amoora cucullata
C. Cerbera manghas D. Intsia bijuga
E. Lumnitzera racemosa F. Xylocarpus granatum

Plate 10A: Micropropagation of Excoecaria agallocha
A. Uninodal explant B. Binodal explant
C. Rooting of shootings D. Hardening plants
E. Field transfer plant
B. Micropropagation of Avicennia officinalis

A. Uninodal explant shoot initiation B. Shoot elongation
C. Rooting of shoots D. Field transferred plant

Plate 11 : Micropropagation of Acanthus ilicifolius
A. Uninodal with shoot initiation B. Rooting of shoots
C. Field transferred plant

References
Eganathan (2002). Studies on conservation, clonal propagation and assessment of

economic characters in three members of the mangrove ecosystem. University
of Madras, Chennai. PhD thesis
FAO. 1988.Non-Timber Uses of Selected Arid Zone Trees and Shrubs in Africa.
Conservation Guide 19. FAO, Rome.
FAO. 1986.Databook on Endangered Tree and Shrub Species and Provenances. FAO,
Rome.
Huxley. A. 1992. The New RHS Dictionary of Gardening. MacMillan Press, London
Kunkel. G. 1984. Plants for Human Consumption. Koeltz Scientific Books, D-6240
Koenigsten, Germany.
Lloyd, G and B. McKnown. 1981. Commercially feasible micropropagation of
mountain laurel Kalmia latifolia by use of shoot tip cultures. In
Plant.Soc.Proc.30: 421-427.
Mathur, S., G. S. Shekhawat and A. Batra. 2002. Micropropagation of Salvadora
persica Linn. via Cotyledonary Nodes. Indian Journal of Biotechnology. 1 (2):
197-200.
Murashige, T and F. Skoog. 19662. A revised medium for rapid growth and bioassays
with tobocco tissue cultures. Physiol.Plant. 15: 473-497
Mei, B., E.G. No, E.L. Mcwilliams, J.H. Gould, and R.J. Newton. 1997. In vitro
regeneration of fourwing saltbush [Atriplex canescens (Pursh) Nutt.]. Journal
of Range Management. 50: 413-418.
Moerman. D. E. 1998. Native American Ethnobotany Timber Press. Portland, Oregon.
Rao,C.S, P.Eganathan, A.Anand, P.Balakrishna and T.P Reddy. 1998. Protocol for in
vitro propagation of Excoecaria agallocha L. a medicinally important mangrove
species. Plant Cell Reports 17: 861-865
Rao, G., A. Nayak, A.Chinchmalatpure, A. Nath and V. Babu. 2004. Growth and
Yield of Salvadora persica, A Facultative Halophyte Grown on Saline Black Soil
(Vertic Haplustept). Arid Land Research and Management. 18: 51-61

Regional Soil Conservation Unit (RSCU). 1992.A Selection of Useful Trees. and Shrubs
for Tanzania. Draft. Nairobi.
Schank, R.V. and A.C.Hilderbrandt. 1972. Medium and techniques for induction
and growth of monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous plant cell cultures.
Can.J.Bot.50: 199-204.
Further reading
Bhat, D.M., V.S. Swamy and N.H. Ravindranath 2003. Nursery manual for forest
tree species, Universities Press (India) Pvt. Ltd., Hyderabad, India. pp – 320.
Rai, S.N. 1999. Nursery and planting techniques of forest trees in tropical South
Asia. Punarvasu Publications, Dharwad pp – 217.
Rao, A.L. 1991. Guidelines for tree planting in Andhra Pradesh, Society for promotion
of wasteland development, New Delhi pp – 215.
Sastry, T.C.S. and K.Y. Kavathekar 1997. Plants for reclamation of wastelands. National
Institute of Science communications, CSIR, New Delhi pp – 684.
Siyag, P.R. 1998. The Afforestation Manual – Techniques and management, Tree
Craft Communication, Jhotwava, Jaipur pp - 585.

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M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation

M. S. Swaminathan Research Foundation

Design and Printing: AMM Screens, Chennai

Nature has provided biological mechanisms for protecting coastal communities

In addition to mangroves, which can grow only in estuarine environment, there

4 M. S. Swaminathan Research Foundation

1.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 7

Part I Mangrove Bioshield

2.2 Mangrove wetlands of India ............................................................................. 17

2.3 Common mangrove plants ............................................................................... 22

2.5 Restoration of mangroves ................................................................................. 44

2.6 Mangrove nursery establishment and management ......................................... 53

3.1 Non-mangrove: An overview ........................................................................... 66

3.3 Nursery practices .............................................................................................. 74

3.4 Planting methods .............................................................................................. 79

Vegetative and micropropagation of mangroves and mangrove associate plants ................ 83

Toolkit for establishing Coastal Bioshield 5

Toolkit for establishing Coastal Bioshield 7

A. Immediate (January - March, 2005)

8 M. S. Swaminathan Research Foundation

M.S.Swaminathan Research Foundation is involved in research and management

Toolkit for establishing Coastal Bioshield 9

It is to be mentioned that starting of non-mangrove bioshield such as casuarina

10 M S Swaminathan Research Foundation

What are mangroves?

Toolkit for establishing Coastal Bioshield 13

What are the plants and animals in mangrove wetlands?

What are the unique features of mangrove plants?

14 M. S. Swaminathan Research Foundation

What are the uses of mangrove wetlands?

16 M. S. Swaminathan Research Foundation

Table 1: Mangrove wetlands of India (Forest Survey of India, 1998)

Toolkit for establishing Coastal Bioshield 17

Mangrove wetlands of Tamil Nadu

Table 2: Major and minor mangrove wetlands of Tamil Nadu

18 M. S. Swaminathan Research Foundation

Table 3: Major and Minor mangrove wetlands of Andhra Pradesh

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Table 4: Major and minor mangrove wetlands of Orissa

Location Name of the Mangrove Forested Area (ha)

Mangrove wetlands of West Bengal

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Map showing distribution of mangroves in India

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A mangrove plant is defined as “a tree, shrub, palm or ground fern, generally

True mangrove species

Common plants used in mangrove plantation

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Excoecaria agallocha is a tree species of about 5 to 8 m tall, branched from base. In

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Afforestation of mangrove means raising mangrove plantation in the areas where

Where mangroves grow luxuriantly?

Identification of mangrove afforestation site at macro level

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Remote Sensing imagery showing estuaries, mangrove wetland, lagoon and

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Preparation of field map

Identification of mangrove afforestation sites at micro level

Analysis of the substrate

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