Mythras - Mythic Rome

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Mythic Rome
Developed and Written By
Pete Nash
Additional Material By
Lawrence Whitaker
Latin Corrections
Henri de Marcellus, D.Phil (Oxford)
Editing
Brian Pivik
Proofing
Charlotte Law
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The Design Mechanism
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David Benzal, Dan MacKinnon, Colin Driver
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Mythic Rome: Contents
Contents
Introduction 4 Education 24 Snails & Shellfish 45
About This Book 4 Marriage and Weddings 25 Wine 46
Historical Flavour 5 Wedding Ceremonies 26 The City 47
Quick Latin Guide 5 Death and Funerals 26 The City During the Monarchy 47
Society 6 Culture 28 The City During the Republic 48
Social Structure 6 Leisure 28 Hills and Districts 49
The Family 6 Performance Arts 28 The Tiber River 49
The Clan 6 Music 28 Bridges 49
Client System 7 Singing 29 The Streets 49
The Census 7 Dancing 30 Temples 50
Guilds 7 Theatre 30 Forums 51
The Populace 8 Poetry 31 Basilica 52
Patricians 8 The Games 31 Curia 52
Plebeians 8 Prostitution 31 The Circus 52
Women 8 Sports and Exercise 33 Theatres and Amphitheatres 54
Freedmen 9 Board Games 34 Houses 56
Slaves 9 Bathing 35 Tenements 57
Foreigners 10 Art 36 Villas 58
The Roman Way 10 Sculpture 37 Interior Decoration 59
Roman Nobility 10 Painting 37 Shops 60
The Importance of Honour 11 Architecture 37 Tombs and Necropolises 61
The Virtues 11 Mosaics 38 Aqueducts 62
Suicide 13 Literature 38 Fountains 63
Government and Politics 13 Fashion 38 Sewers 63
The Evolution of Roman Government 13 Fabrics 38 Baths 64
Structure of Republican Government 15 Dyeing and Cleaning 39 Hazards of City Life 65
The Senate 16 Clothing 40 Riots 65
Magistrates 16 Men’s Clothing 40 Fires 68
Consuls 17 Women’s Clothing 40 Floods 69
Prætors 17 Footwear 41 Disease 70
Ædiles 18 Head-wear and Cloaks 41 The Games 75
Quæstors 18 Jewellery 42 Processions 76
Tribunes 18 Hair Styles 42 Animal Shows 77
Military Tribunes 18 Cosmetics 43 Athletics 78
Censors 19 Food and Drink 43 Chariot Races 78
Interrex 19 Meal Times 44 Running a Chariot Race 80
Dictator 19 Meal Etiquette 44 Gladiatorial Combats 81
Lesser Officials 19 Vegetables 44 Gladiators 81
Law and Order 19 Grains & Bread 44 Training Schools 82
Law Enforcement 20 Fruits & Nuts 44 A Day at the Munera 82
Roman Laws 21 Cheeses 44 Types of Gladiators 84
Trials 22 Meats 45 Naval Battles 85
Punishment 23 Fish 45 Race & Gladiatorial Plot Hooks 85
2
Mythic Rome: Contents
The Army 88 Services 134 Lamia 160
The Army During the Monarchy 89 Food 135 Lemures 161
The Army During the Early Republic 90 Clothing and Fabric 135 Leucrocota 162
The Army during the Mid-Republic 95 Slaves and Livestock 135 Mantichora 162
Roman Military Discipline 99 Transport 135 Neades 162
Wages, Expenses & Plunder 101 General Paraphernalia 135 Ophies 163
Decorations and Rewards 102 Arms and Armour 135 Pegasi 164
Triumphs and Ovations 103 Accommodation & Property 136 Sphinxes 164
Legionary Standards 105 General Expenses 136 Strix 165
Army Plot Hooks 105 Price and Value Lists 136 Sylvan Daemones 165
Religion 107 Magic & Superstition 139 Unicornis 166
Spirits of the Home 107 The Legality of Magic 139 Werewolf 167
Ancestor Worship 108 Types of Magicians 140 Campaigns 168
Animistic Deities 108 Theology 140 Designing a Roman Campaign 168
Deified Abstract Concepts 109 Divination 141 Family 168
The Priesthood 109 Cursing 143 Assassination and Murder 169
Superstition 111 Necromancy 144 Civic Order 169
Prayers, Sacrifices and Thanksgiving 112 Pharmacy 145 Combat 170
Human Sacrifice 113 Shape-Shifting 147 Politics 170
Roman Festivals 115 Plot Hooks 148 Magic 170
The Cycle of the Dead 115 Creatures 149 Supernatural Creatures 171
The Cycle of War 115 Animals 149 Disasters 171
The Agrarian Cycle 116 Bears 149 Period 171
Forbidden Religions and Rites 117 Bulls 149 Inviolate History 172
Philosophy 118 Boars 150 Alternate Campaign Styles 172
Stoicism 118 Crocodiles 150 Pax Cthulhu 172
Epicureanism 119 Dogs 150 Tempus Ambulatus 172
Skepticism 119 Elephants 150 Fantasy Rome 173
Pythagoreanism 119 Hippopotami 150 High Sci-Fi 173
Time 120 Horses 150 Alternate Timeline 173
Hours of the Day 120 Hyenas 151 Carry On Up the Tiber 173
Length of the Week 120 Lions 151 A Century of Plot Seeds 173
Months & Dates 120 Panthers 151 Gladiatorial Scenarios 173
Marking the Years 121 Rhinos 152 Charioteering Scenarios 174
Calendars 121 Scorpions 152 Religious Scenarios 174
Festivals 122 Snakes 152 Legion Scenarios 175
Religious Plot Hooks 122 Wolves 153 Crime Scenarios 175
Characters 123 Mythological Creatures 153 Animal Scenarios 176
Roman Characteristics 123 Aithiopian Bulls 153 Disaster Scenarios 176
Names 123 Amphisbaena 154 Supernatural Scenarios 177
Social Class 123 Basilisk 155 Patron Scenarios 177
Roman Culture 123 Cacus 155 Political Scenarios 178
Professions 125 Catoblepas 156 A Cast of Characters 178
Skills 130 Cetos 157 Romans 181
Uncommon Skills 132 Dragons 157 Timeline 195
Passions 132 Eale 157 Appendices 225
Money and Possessions 133 Etruscan Daemones 157 Appendix I - Bibliography 225
The Value Of Goods And Services 134 Grypes 158 Appendix II - Latin Profanity 227
Availability of Goods and Services 134 Harpy 159 Appendix III - The Twelve Tables 228
Starting Equipment 134 Jaculus 159 Appendix IV - Minor Roman Deities 231
Kynoprosopoi 159
3
Mythic Rome: Introduction
Introduction
SPQR R
ome is the longest enduring civilisation in western European
history. It is synonymous with empire, legions, dictators,
gladiators and decadence. The Romans have been an ines-
Senatus Populusque Romanus
capable influence on our lives. Much of modern law, European lan-
guages, and even some political systems, are based upon their legacy.
“Ilia the fair, a priestess and a queen,
The efforts of this once mighty nation still echo in our psyche,
Who, full of Mars, in time, with kindly throes,
making Rome a perfect setting for role -playing campaigns. Whether
Shall at a birth two goodly boys disclose.
The royal babes a tawny wolf shall drain:
you prefer the gritty underhanded corruption of Roman politics,
Then Romulus his grandsire’s throne shall gain, fighting great battles against Rome’s enemies, or participating in the
Of martial towers the founder shall become, spectacular excitements of chariot racing and gladiatorial combat,
The people Romans call, the city Rome. ancient Rome can cater to your needs.
To them no bounds of empire I assign, In its own peculiar way, Rome is the archetypal metropolis, the
Nor term of years to their immortal line original upon which our modern cultures are but a pale shadow.
Even haughty Juno, who, with endless broils, Welcome to the Eternal City and its treacherous depths...
Earth, seas, and heaven, and Jove himself turmoils;
At length atoned, her friendly power shall join,
To cherish and advance the Trojan line
The subject world shall Rome’s dominion own, About This Book
This book contains setting information for role-playing in Rome
And, prostrate, shall adore the nation of the gown.
An age is ripening in revolving fate during its Monarchy and Republic. Although it includes some com-
When Troy shall overturn the Grecian state, plementary rules and skills it is not a game in its own right and is
And sweet revenge her conquering sons shall call, designed for use with Design Mechanism’s Mythras system for
To crush the people that conspired her fall play – although it should be easy to use with any percentile based
Then Cæsar from the Julian stock shall rise, role-playing game.
Whose empire ocean, and whose fame the skies The content focuses on the city and culture of Rome from its
Alone shall bound; whom, fraught with eastern spoils, legendary founding in 753 BC to the end of the Republic in 27 BC.
Our heaven, the just reward of human toils, 700 years is an incredible length of time, which makes it difficult
Securely shall repay with rites divine; to cover the period in any detail. Imagine how much modern soci-
And incense shall ascend before his sacred shrine ety has changed in the last 100 years... women’s suffrage, economic
Then dire debate and impious war shall cease, reforms, the rise and fall of communism, fashion, entertainment; the
And the stern age be softened into peace:
transformations have been profound. Although readers may find the
Then banished Faith shall once again return,
following contents more comprehensive than any previous role-play-
And Vestal fires in hallowed temples burn;
ing supplement on the era, it still only scratches the surface.
And Remus with Quirinus shall sustain
Despite the focus on the city itself – rather than its burgeoning
The righteous laws, and fraud and force restrain.
empire – Games Masters should bear in mind that to a Roman,
Janus himself before his fane shall wait,
And keep the dreadful issues of his gate,
Rome was the centre of the world and the provinces merely places
With bolts and iron bars: within remains to conquer and reap taxes from. On a more practical level, there was
Imprisoned Fury, bound in brazen chains; simply not room to add any additional material covering the regions
High on a trophy raised, of useless arms, and enemies of the empire.
He sits, and threats the world with vain alarms.” Most of this book contains dates and periods to indicate when
certain historical events occurred. The author has used the follow-
Virgil, The Aeneid ing generalisations to break the era into four parts and utilises BC
4 A cane non magno saepe tenetur aper – A boar is often held by a not-so-large dog (Ovid)
Mythic Rome: Introduction
instead of BCE out of old fashioned familiarity. For those who desire Quick Latin Guide
to use the more authentic Roman dating system of AUC ab urbe Singular Ending Plural Ending
condita (from the founding of Rome), simply subtract the BC year
-a (lupa) -ae (lupae)
from the value of 753 and add one.
-us (gladius) usually: -i (gladii), but sometimes -us (.)
ΩΩ The Monarchy, 753-509 BC – The founding of the city to the -um (templum) -a (templa)
overthrow of the Monarchy
-is (inauris) -es (inaures)
ΩΩ The Early Republic, 509-264 BC – The start of the Republic
and conquering of Italy -e (monile) -ia (monilia)
ΩΩ The Middle Republic, 264-133 BC – The Punic Wars to the -io (pugio) -iones (pugiones)
Gracchi reforms
ΩΩ The Late Republic, 133-27 BC – Political instability and civil
wars leading the end of the Republic
Historical Flavour
Since this is an historical setting, most of the information has
been carefully researched to be as accurate as possible, drawing on
the archaeological and historical theories current at the time of pub-
lication. Many of the cultural conventions described may seem odd,
or even wrong, but where space permits their accuracy has been
illustrated using quotes from Roman and Greek authors contempo-
rary to the time or within a few generations of the period. Due to
the dearth of written material surviving from earlier times, most of
the information is skewed towards the lifestyle and culture at end of
the Republic and, at best, are only generalisations.
Although primarily a historical guide to early Roman life, some
supernatural and mythological elements are included in the Magic
and Creatures chapters to provide for Games Masters desiring a
mythic campaign. These aspects are more subtle than their earlier
archaic Greek counterparts and demonstrate Roman superstition
prevalent at the time.
The layout of the book places the cultural sections first, leaving
the majority of chapters involving game mechanics and campaigns
to the latter half.
Quick Latin Guide

Included throughout the book are Latin translations for com-
monplace objects, ideas or acts. These have been added to show the
original source of many English words and it is hoped that, if used
in play, the vocabulary will provide players with an increased level
of immersion.
It should also be noted that although the author spells some
Roman names and words with the letter ‘J’, the Romans used the
letter ‘I’ instead.
In Latin, changing a word from singular to plural was not as
straightforward as adding an ‘s’. Different kinds of words formed
the plural in different ways. Here is a simplified table for those who
need it:
Acquiris quodcumque rapis - You acquire what you reap [or take by force]
5
Mythic Rome: Society
Society
T
o be Roman was to be a member of a vibrant urban society;
an expanding, conquering civilisation which gained author- “As tribune of the people, Spurius Cassius was the first to propose laws
ity over its neighbours – confident in its power, arrogant in redistributing land and gained great popularity through actions that pleased
its politics and egocentric in its laws and social divisions. A Roman the masses. After he had stood down from office, his father Cassius followed
separated from their city was akin to a fish out of water, seeing only the precedent of Brutus and called a meeting of friends and relatives. He con-
barbarism or decadence about them. demned his son before the household for having tried to set up a tyranny, ordered
Although many Romans were sophisticated enough to survive in him to be scourged and executed, and gave his wealth to the goddess Ceres.”
foreign lands, or even briefly sojourn to the countryside, they were Valerius Maximus - Memorabilia
never wholly content there. A true Roman craved society, culture,
gossip, wealth and promotion. Where else could this be found save The paterfamilias was the representative for the family in all things
Rome itself ? religious and in relations with the community. He led the rituals and
The following chapter attempts to describe the richly complex sacrifices to the family ancestors and household gods. No matter
structure of Roman society. their rank or status, Romans were expected to live up to the expec-
tations of the head of the family.
The autocratic rights of a paterfamilias continued to hold sway
Social Structure over their own sons, despite the fact they may be adults or even
grandfathers. Freedom from this authority only occurred when
(Mos Maiorum)
Towards the end of the Monarchy, the population of Rome was
their father died, promoting each of the next generation of males to
patres familiarum in their own right.
Normally however, once sons reached adulthood they were gen-
estimated to be 100,000 people. By the end of the Republic, it had erally granted some independence by the paterfamilias so that they
grown to a staggering metropolis of nearly 1,000,000 souls, com- might own property or pursue careers free from the necessity of
prising of people divided into different layers of rank and status. requiring their father’s authority to enter into contracts.
These divisions defined social interaction, responsibility and access Children (and even adults) unrelated by blood could be brought
to legal rights. into the family by the paterfamilias. Once legally adopted, from that
A number of key fundamental ideas tied the populace together, point onwards the child was considered a full member of the familia.
maintaining social order.
The Family (Familia) The Clan (Gens)

The gentes were groups of families who could all trace their
The basic unit of Roman society is the family. A familia com- descent back to a common ancestor. They were related by their
prised of an entire household from the eldest living male, includ- gentile name (nomen) and acted like a clan. Since it is difficult to
ing all his offspring and their own families, down to even the slaves. differentiate between the many members of the gentes by only their
Thus a home could contain an extensive number of people, which personal name (praenomen), it was sometimes necessary to add a
was the normal and accepted way to live. further sub name (cognomen) to differentiate between individual
The head of the household was the eldest living father, the Pater- families (stirpes) in the same gens. For example Caius Julius Caesar
familias, who has absolute authority over all his descendants. This would be Caius of the Caesarian stirps of the gens Julii (see Roman
power (patria potestas) included the right to kill family members or Names page 123).
even sell them into slavery, subject to the contemporary morals and Many of the gens practicee their own unique religious rituals,
customs at the time. festivals and customs, which strengthened the clan bonds between
them, often allowing an entire gens to act in concert during times of
6 Adde parvum parvo magnus acervus erit – Add little to little and there will be a big pile (Ovid)
war or political unease. At these times the gens was led by the lead-
ing paterfamilias of its comprising families. If a paterfamilias died Comprehending Cultural Differences
without an heir, then their property was left to the gens. Although much of Roman life and law has been passed down to us
Membership in a particular gens conferred no nobility or author- in the western world, some of the following concepts are rather odd or
ity. To gain this one must have served in high office, not be born even completely alien to our modern preconceptions, so Games Masters
or adopted to it. Indeed, even enfranchised slaves could become a should spend time to completely familiarise themselves with them. All
member of a gens, since a freed man adopts the praenomen and Roman social interaction was based on these ideas and they should be
nomen of their former master. enforced to give a true Roman flavour to their campaigns.
For those who are having problems understanding Roman social
conventions or portraying them to their players should try watching the
Client System HBO TV series ‘Rome’, which is a reasonable introduction to Roman

family structure and the dictatorial authority of the father. Another good
(Clientela)
The client system was an exclusive relationship where a patron
insight is the introductory sequence in the movie ‘The Godfather’, which
gives an entertaining illustration of the Client-Patron system.
offered protection and aid in exchange for the client’s support and
services. The tie was a moral rather than legal bond, where a free as a free man. Even employers had to declare the freedmen who
man was accepted into the ‘good faith’ (fides) of the patron. work for them. The results of a census enabled the city to count its
The association, and the respect it involved, was two-way; a number of citizens, thereby predicting potential tax revenues and
patron would not offer a favour to those who could not reciprocate, the manpower available for military service.
and in like manner a client would not continue in a relationship Each census was coordinated by two censors of senatorial class –
where the patron did not act on their behalf. ex-consuls deemed incorruptible. Much status relied on the opinion
In the monarchic period, the system was originally based upon of the censors and those of higher rank had their moral behaviour
agriculture; clients (clientes) would farm small parcels of land for the in both private and public life closely scrutinised. Anyone thought
patron in return for their livelihood. However, over the course of the lacking could be demoted from the Senate for such things as perjury,
republican era these services evolved into personal attendance upon having an adulterous wife, failing to father children, not cultivating
the patron, primarily for protection and political support. his lands correctly or even for appearing on the stage.
A faithful client resident in the city was expected to arrive at the
residence of his patron every morning to see if their services are
required. In return the patron might gift the client with a few coins,
some cast-off clothing, old household goods, or at the very least one
good meal, depending on their rank or financial status.
Guilds (Collegia)
King Numa Pompilius was reputed to be the ruler who first insti-
Successful client-patron bonds could become hereditary and tuted Rome’s work-related guilds in order to reduce the discontent
were passed on to the sons on both sides of the relationship. The sys- between competing craftsmen of differing ethnic origin.
tem was extremely important in a city where there was no state-sup-
ported protection from crime or law (see Law page 19). However, by “So, distinguishing the whole people by the several arts and trades, he
the end of the Republic, this sense of duty had eroded to the point formed companies of musicians, goldsmiths, carpenters, dyers, shoemakers,
where some clients served several different patrons. skinners, braziers, and potters; and all other handicraftsmen he composed and
In general it is the members of the Roman aristocracy who reduced into a single company, appointing everyone their proper courts, coun-
granted their patronage to clients; although one need not be of cils, and religious observances.”
higher status to offer such a relationship. Many gentes had great Plutarch - Life of Numa
influence and power primarily because of their large numbers of
dependent clients. These occupational guilds (collegiae opificum) became an
important aspect of Roman life, giving craftsmen a chance to pro-
tect their members and further their livelihoods. Members would
The Census (Census)

The cornerstone of Roman civilisation, the census was the scru-
pay a contribution to the guild’s communal fund, which went to
pay for renting their headquarters, the occasional celebratory feast
and possibly legal fees if a guild member, or the guild itself, suffered
tiny of each citizen’s personal wealth, which differentiated their rank litigation.
in early Roman society, their voting block in the Comitia Centuriata Eventually the number of guilds grew to cover more professions,
(see The Assemblies page 15) and in turn their position in the army including cooks, doctors, teachers, engravers, painters, weavers and
(see The Army during the Monarchy page 89). It also governed cor- even poets. However, by the late Republic many guilds had devolved
rect social behaviour, reinforcing Roman traditions and conformity. into political clubs (collegia sodalicia) which used their member-
The census was held in Rome every fifth year and each male ship to influence the election of magistrates, often using violence or
Roman citizen was forced to register his family members, posses- intimidation to affect changes. Eventually they were suppressed for
sions and slaves; else have them confiscated and be sold into slavery, six years, starting in 64 BC and later, in 56 BC, abolished altogether
including even himself. by Julius Caesar for being politically subversive.
Despite the aggravation of registration, the census defined free-
dom. Being listed as a citizen (civis) ensured one’s identity and status
Aequam memento rebus in arduis servare mentem – Remember to keep a clear head in difficult times (Horace)
7
The Populace risen to 35, growing as Rome conquered more territories. Of these,
only four were urban tribes actually based in the city of Rome (see
(Populus) The Hills and Districts page 49). The tribes and curiae were used
for administration purposes and electoral voting (See Government
and Politics page 13).
“Nothing is so unequal than equality” Plebeians had their own class subdivision based on wealth.
Pliny the Younger During military service in the Monarchic and early Republican
periods, those plebs wealthy enough to provide their own horses
Class and status is all-important in Roman life. Not only were were permitted to join the cavalry (equites). However, as time passed
Romans vehemently status conscious but it defined who one could the equestrians lost their military aspect, becoming a social class in
interact with socially, what protection they could claim from the law, their own right, and gained many civic privileges. By the end of
personal freedom and even the type of punishment one can expect the Republic, only those citizens whose wealth was at least 400,000
if they performed a criminal deed. Although changing rank was pos- sesterces were permitted to be members of the equestrian class and
sible, it was a rare thing, requiring wealth or patronage to achieve. if the family lost its fortune it could be expelled.
The populace can be roughly categorised as citizens and
non-citizens.
The citizens (cives) of Rome are divided between the patri-
Women (Feminae)
cians and the plebeians. Both eventually have equal rights under
“Our ancestors, in their wisdom, considered that all women, because of
citizen’s law (ius civile) but in practice the poor still depended upon
their innate weakness, should be under the control of guardians.”
the patronage of the rich or powerful for protection. Only males
Cicero
could be citizens and only a citizen may wear the toga, which char-
acterised their status. Citizens also wore rings denoting their status,
As previously mentioned, women were not considered Roman
usually made of iron but sometimes of more valuable metals in the
citizens and, until the end of the republic, Roman women were
higher social classes.
always under the authority of a male family member. This was usu-
ally either their father or husband according to marital status. If a
Roman Citizenship woman was left with no male family members, then she was assigned
Roman citizenship evolved over a long period of time, and included a new guardian, according to the wishes left in her previous guard-
many minute details. Its most important aspects were gathered under ian’s will. The only women free of such authority were the six Vestal
two categories. Political rights, including those of voting (ius suffragii) Virgins.
and holding office (ius honorum); and civil rights, those of appeal (ius Despite this apparent draconian authority, Roman women
provocationis), trade (ius commercii), intermarriage (ius connubii) and enjoyed the most liberal lifestyle of any Mediterranean culture of
making a will (ius testamenti). the time (even the Greeks kept their women as virtual prisoners at
home). Girls of sufficiently wealthy families were granted a similar,
if not equal education as boys but specialising in literature, music,
and dance. Although young women remained closely chaperoned
Non-citizens included all women, freedmen, slaves and foreign-
until wed to ensure fidelity, they were permitted freedom to visit
ers. They were prohibited some, or all, of the rights of ius civile and
friends, shop and even watch the religious games. Once married, a
forbidden the wearing of togas and holding of public office.
woman was expected to socialise and entertain in order to support
her husband’s career.
Patricians (Patricii) Despite being allowed to be present during banquets and parties,
A patrician was a descendent from one of the 100 founding which was seen as scandalous by Hellenic nations, women until the
fathers, the patriarchs, chosen to form the first Senate. Originally very end of the Republic were forbidden to consume wine or even
only a patrician could hold magisterial office or priesthood. How- recline, forced instead to drink grape juice and sit upright on chairs.
ever, by the mid-Republic, these privileges had been worn away so
that only certain priesthoods necessitated patrician status. “Egnatius Metennius beat his wife with a cudgel and killed her because
Although Rome started with 100 patrician families, time, war, she had drunk some wine, and not only did no one accuse him in court because
and the fates of childbirth eroded their numbers. By the end of the of this act, but he was not even criticized, for all men of good character
republic, only 14 patrician gens remain. believed that she had deserved the punishment for violating temperance, and
indeed any woman who has an excessive desire for the drinking of wine closes
Plebeians (Plebeii) the door to all virtues and opens it to vices.”
Valerius Maximus - Memorabilia
Quite simply, a plebeian is a citizen who is not of patrician status.
Although prevented from gaining the highest positions in Rome due
to the lack of patrician blood, there were many offices which could Roman women usually ran the slaves within the household and
only be held by those of plebeian status. were free to leave home as they willed. As time went on, the hard
During antiquity, the plebeians were divided into three tribes (tri- working duties of cooking, shopping, housekeeping, spinning thread
bus) each of which are subdivided into 10 units called curiae. This and weaving clothes were slowly assumed by slaves, leaving wealth-
early classification system was based upon which region the citizen ier women with little to do with their free time other than socialise.
resided in, and by the end of the Republic the number of tribes had
8 Alea iacta est – The die is cast (Julius Caesar)

Although women were forbidden from voting or holding public
office, they could still possess property in their own right. Slavery
It should be stressed that several modern-day views of slavery do not
Freedmen (Libertini) apply to Roman society.
First and foremost slavery was simply a question of status. It
A freedman is a person who has been released from slavery.
was a social class for people technically regarded as ‘dead, or should
Although loosed from his bondage, a freedman’s social stigma was
be dead’. A slave could quite legitimately achieve freedom and rise to
barely above that of slave and most continued an obligatory cli-
greater things, whilst conversely a wealthy citizen brought to his knees
ent-patron relationship with their former masters, taking their mas-
by poverty or participating in rebellious acts could lose their class status
ter’s name as their own.
and be demoted to slave-hood. Slave themselves had their own hierarchy
Freedmen were forbidden from holding magisterial office but
of status.
other than that limitation, they were deemed to have the full rights
Secondly, slavery is not based on ethnic background. A Roman did
of citizens. Only those slaves granted a full formal manumission
not judge a person’s status by their colour or race. He makes a judgement
could pass on citizenship to their children. During the late Republic,
by the type of clothing they wear. Many Latin, Italian and Greek slaves
those granted their freedom via manumissio inter amicos and manu-
would be indistinguishable from their masters, if they wore the same
missio per epistula lived free but died as slaves, preventing their chil-
clothing. Hence the legal restriction of wearing the toga to citizens.
dren from being granted full citizen status and allowing their patron
Thirdly, slavery was not simply the mass exploitation of labour.
to claim any property belonging to the freedman.
Freeborn Romans worked side by side with slaves in many different
types of work, even the most degrading manual labour. In fact many
Slaves (Servi) slaves were better skilled or educated than their free work companions.
Slavery was common throughout the ancient world as a method Lastly, the concepts of equality and the liberation of all men were
of using those vanquished by conquest as cheap labour. In fact the totally foreign to Roman (and indeed all Mediterranean) thought.
Latin word for slave – servi – literally means ‘spared person’, i.e. Nobody, not even freed slaves themselves, ever considered such a thing.
prisoners of war. Citizens in the Republic who talk about universal suffrage are consid-
At the birth of Rome, the numbers of slaves were minimal but ered insane, since slavery is simply a question of status, and by changing
by the end of the Republic there are so many slaves that free citi- the status of one class in society you are effectively threatening all the
zens found it difficult to find employment. Indeed the undermining classes.
of Roman society by the late Republic was caused in part by its
massive slave workforce, which put many smallholding farmers and
escapes. Conversely those slaves allocated to herding were granted
craftsmen out of business, thus swelling the dispossessed populace
a great deal of freedom necessary to guide ranging flocks of sheep
of plebeians in Rome and leading to increased crime and unrest.
and goats.
However, many foreign slaves were actually better educated than the
Household slaves had a somewhat more sheltered life; unlikely to
average citizen and the administration of the city was maintained by
face injury or death from their work, especially those in the homes
slave clerks and scribes.
of the rich. Yet being constantly under the eyes of their masters they
A slave had no legal standing, could not get married (although
had a greater chance of facing punishment from mistakes or experi-
male slaves could be rewarded with the right of contubernium –
encing sexual coercion.
i.e. choose a female household slave to sleep with) and any children
Educated slaves who possessed great learning or valued skills
produced from sexual union would also be slaves, even if the other
were always in great demand and could bring fabulous prices in the
parent was a free citizen. Technically they could be killed at a whim,
market. In fact, some owners deliberately had their slaves educated
tortured or ill-treated with no right to defend themselves. However,
to raise their value. An intelligent slave was valuable because they
masters who treated their slaves badly were ostracised or even cen-
could work independently from their master and would not require
sured for such behaviour.
constant supervision. Beauty was also highly prized and many slaves
were specifically purchased for their appearance.
“He [Crassus] owned many silver mines, much valuable land and slaves
Although the common view of Rome is of cruelty and abuse
to work it, yet one could think that this wealth counted for nothing compared
towards slaves, few were maltreated, since slaves were property and
to the value of his slaves; so many did he have, and of such quality, readers,
had inherent value. Deliberate cruelty was frowned upon by Roman
secretaries, silversmiths, business managers, waiters. He used to be in charge
society in which slaves were still recognised as human beings. Slavery
of their education, and take part himself in teaching them, holding the general
is considered more as a difference in status but despite this they were
view that an owner should pay particular attention to the care of his slaves,
still looked down upon.
as they were the living tools for household management. He was right about
this...”
“But let us remember that we must have regard for justice even towards
Plutarch - Life of Crassus
the humblest. Now the humblest station and the poorest fortune are those of
slaves; and they give us no bad rule who bid us treat our slaves as we should
The lot of a slave depended entirely on the master and type of
our employees: they must be required to work; they must be given their dues”
work they were assigned to. The worst fate an uneducated slave
Cicero - De Officiis
could face was to be assigned to the mines or the galleys. Both pro-
fessions faced a very short and hard life. Farm work was also hard,
backbreaking labour and many farm slaves were chained together
in the fields and placed in guarded barracks at night to prevent
Amare et sapere vix deo conceditur – Even a god finds it hard to love and be wise at the same time (Publius Syrus)
9
Conversely, treating slaves with overt kindness was considered a
sign of weakness in Roman society, yet a good master who treated his Unwanted Children
slaves well was rewarded by greater loyalty and higher productivity. Many infants were abandoned in Rome for a plethora of reasons.
Two hopes remained to a slave. Firstly that after many years of The family could be burdened by poverty, unable to feed an extra mouth.
good, faithful service that their master would grant them freedom; The child might have been born deformed or sickly. It may be the result
and manumit them. Secondly, although slaves were forbidden to of an illicit affair or even refused and cast out by the paterfamilias.
own property, they were allowed to save money to buy their free- Such abandoning was not illegal and carried no social stigma – since
dom (peculium). Even though slaves were never paid wages, some life was hard and caring for an extra babe could mean life or death for
managed to find additional employment to earn this money. This the rest of the family.
process was not granted out of kindness of their master but was an Whatever the reason, such babies were sometimes given to friends
act of economic expediency. The money raised by a slave to buy (since child mortality often left openings for a healthy child) or, if com-
freedom would go to purchase a younger, fitter replacement. In fact, pletely unwanted, simply abandoned to the elements in a public place.
some slaves used their savings to purchase their own slaves to act as Some died from hypothermia or were even eaten by scavenging packs of
substitutes for them. wild dogs, which haunted the streets. But often such foundlings (expositi)
were rescued by passers-by. Favourite places for abandoning infants were
Foreigners (Peregrini) the Velabrum, a well-travelled street where oil and cheese merchants
clustered, or the vegetable market in the Forum Romanum near the ‘nurs-
Foreigners were not favoured in Rome. Romans tended to view
ing column’ (columna lactaria).
foreigners as less cultured, or having strange and unwholesome hab-
Foundlings could be legally claimed by anyone who desired them.
its. The most loathed were those of eastern civilisations such as Par-
Commonly they were raised as slaves, playmates for other children or
thians, Selucids, and Egyptians. As such, whenever civil strife erupts,
even prostitutes. The hope of all parents who abandoned their child was
it was usually the foreigners who were first targeted for reprisals as
that it would be discovered by a wealthy person and adopted into that
a matter of course.
family. Indeed, many comedies and farces of the period are based on the
The majority of foreigners were merchants drawn to the metrop-
premise that the hero is an unwitting foundling from a wealthy family,
olis by its wealth. Romans viewed commerce as vaguely disrepu-
who is eventually located by the remorseful father or grandfather seeking
table, as decent wealth only came from land ownership, agricul-
their long lost progeny.
ture,and warfare.
A foreigner could not own property within Rome, and had to be
sponsored by a citizen of good standing to set up a business. For-
eigners were unable to vote during elections and lacked the legal Roman Nobility (Nobilitas)
rights of a citizen. They also had a separate series of laws to control The ideal of nobility was based upon the concept of familial
their dealings with citizens, the law of nations (Ius Gentium). In a obligation to the city. Nobility was not awarded simply by birth. It
perverse way, a foreign slave was actually better regarded than a had to be won (and maintained) with public duty, by serving as a
foreigner who was a freeman. A slave belonged, whereas a foreigner senior magistrate. To be regarded as truly noble, one had to have
did not. three consecutive generations of fathers who have served in a curule
magisterial position (see Magistrates page 16). Any interruption in
this obligation caused the family to lose noble rank, dooming the
The Roman Way

next three generations to indignity.
Nobility is a burden of responsibilities, yet by following both legal
(Via Romana)
The Romans had many well-defined morals which were regarded
and social duties, one could win respect from one’s fellows. A Roman
should display the correct virtues. Not only that, but the more distin-
guished one’s ancestry, the greater their achievements should be in
as vital for respectable members of society. A citizen’s public image order to live up to expectations.
– and thus their place in the order of things – depended upon how A young nobleman’s career usually began with military service.
well they demonstrated these ideals. As a teenager, a senatorial son usually served as a military tribune on
Because city life is by definition social, a person’s worth was rated the staff of a legionary commander, generally someone who was a
by how much they contributed to the well-being of the city (and the relative or close friend of the family. During this time their conduct
state) as a whole. Individualism was questionable, since it contrib- was tested for character flaws such as being tempted by foreign hab-
uted little towards society; thus the cardinal virtues are social and its, cruelty or displaying cowardliness.
political in nature, tending towards the very stern and austere. After the conclusion of their military path, a nobleman must
The significance of these virtues is so great that many of them then undertake a civilian career. As dangerous as army life might be,
are worshipped as divinities in their own right (see Minor Roman the web of feuds between noble families were far worse, promising
Deities page 231). To reinforce their importance, many of the vir- to bring disaster on one’s own family. Sons were expected to avenge
tues were also minted on coins too, which not only educated the disgrace or humiliation inflicted by political enemies, generally in
literate populace but also served as propaganda towards the other the courtroom. After the age of 30 or thereabouts, a nobleman who
nations in the ancient world. had served in the lower offices then stood a chance at being elected
to a high magisterial position (see Political Power Games page 18).
10 Amicus certus in re incerta cernitur – A true friend is discerned during an uncertain matter (Cicero)
The Importance of Honour However, in a society in which so much depends on the light in
which others see you, their opinion can not only elevate you but it
can also destroy you. News and gossip were the lifeblood of Roman
“Men no longer aspire to win praise for noble deeds, but think only of society. Public baths, inns, shop fronts and forums were all centres
profit, profit, profit. Clutching their purses, always looking for more, too stingy for conversation. Other media were available for those seeking to
to give away the tarnish that comes off their coins.” deride or extol, including composing ribald songs or scrawling graf-
Theocritus fiti on the nearest walls. Even actors at the theatres regularly praised
or ridiculed public figures.
A Roman’s honour (honos) was based upon his public reputa-
tion; an honourable man is one thought honourable by others. Thus
a Roman sought confirmation of his ability and identity from the The Virtues (Genera Bonitatis)
elders of their family, their patron, their clients, army comrades, or There were a great many different virtues thought to be import-
even – in an election – the general populace of Rome. No Roman ant by the citizens of Rome. Some were more dutifully followed than
could be his own judge but must see himself (and his virtues) only others but the following are those held in greatest regard:
through the eyes of others.
Since the only use of glory and honour was to rise higher in soci- “Marius said, ‘I learned from my father and other righteous men that
ety, any recognition gleaned from public opinion should immediately elegance is proper to women but toil to men, that all virtuous men and women
be used to further one’s political fortunes, in the hope of achieving ought to have more fame than riches, and that arms, not furniture, confer
a seat in the Roman Senate. Therefore any success or achievement, honour’”
whether in war or politics, was boasted widely to ensure that every- Sallust - Jugurtha
one knew about it. Ironically, since bragging was considered undig-
nified, most found or paid other people to do it for them.
Anguis in herba – A snake in the grass (Virgil)

11
ΩΩ Industria – industriousness, quite simply is the dedication
Honourable Professions towards any form of unremitting hard work, not necessarily
In Roman eyes, the only truly honourable ways of making money just physical labour.
were by farming, renting land or earning plunder during war. Highly ΩΩ Patientia – patience and endurance, to weather adversity
educated professionals such as architects, teachers or large scale business- and crisis.
men were considered acceptable. Labourers and entertainers were deemed ΩΩ Pietas – piety is the sense of duty and devotion to one’s fam-
to be barely better than selling themselves as slaves. However, the most ily, the State and the gods. It demonstrates a willingness to
despised careers were the tax collectors and money lenders. perform an act for the greater good, at the expense of oneself.
Family honour is inherently tied to ancestor worship, since
“It is true that it might sometimes be better to try to gain wealth the dead are always watching and judging their descendants.
through trade, if it were not so risky, or again, to lend money at interest, ΩΩ Prudentia – prudence, the maintenance of personal
if it were as honourable. But our ancestors took the view, and enacted discretion.
it in a law, that while a thief was compelled to repay double, one who ΩΩ Salubritas – health, cleanliness and a wholesome way of life.
loaned at interest had to repay four times. From this one can judge how ΩΩ Severitas – severity, or strictness, is the enforcement of per-
much worse than a common thief they considered the fellow citizen who sonal judgement, even though it might pain you emotionally
lent at interest. And when they were trying to praise a good man they or financially.
called him a good farmer and a good tiller of the soil, and the one who ΩΩ Veritas – truthfulness and honesty when dealing with others.
received this compliment was thought to have received the highest praise. ΩΩ Virtus – from which we gain the word virtue, possessed a
The trader is an enterprising man, enthusiastic for making money, but, slightly different meaning in Roman times. It basically means
as I said above, the activity is risky and prone to disaster. Moreover, it ‘manliness’ and combines strength, courage and self-control.
is from the farmers that the bravest men and keenest soldiers come, and
There were several other virtues that were regarded as dou-
the wealth they make from agriculture is the most blameless of all, the
ble-edged, depending on popular views at the time. If exhorted
most secure, and the least likely to incur envy, and the men engaged in
by a man of great honour or status they can be seen as advanta-
this pursuit are least likely to be discontented.”
geous quirks. However, they were more often seen as a sign of social
Cato - De Re Rustica
Personality Traits
Since some ancient Roman values are somewhat different to modern
ΩΩ Dignitas – or dignity, is the idea of self-worth. A Roman day ones, using them as a guideline can be an invaluable aid to portray
a character realistically.
should cultivate a sense of personal pride when performing
As an optional rule, characters can choose one or more of these traits
their duties.
ΩΩ Fides – faith in the family, the State, patrons, clients and mer- as some of their Passions (page 132). The following table lists each
Roman virtue along with its opposite aspect. Games Masters can also
cantile dealings. It can be thought of as a sense of loyalty. A
use this table to randomly generate key personality traits for non-player
man with fides is worthy of the public trust.
ΩΩ Firmitas – firmness of mind. To be decisive and stick to characters, in which case roll a d20 the find the base virtue, then a d6
to determine whether the passion is positive (1-3) or negative (4-6).
one’s purpose once chosen.
ΩΩ Frugalitas – frugality, the ability to be thrifty without appear-
ing miserly; to live simply without ostentation or waste. Fla- d20 Virtue Positive Negative
grant displays of wealth are publicly condemned and often 1 Clementia Clemens Immitis
restricted by law. 2 Comitas Comis Taetricus
3 Dignitas Dignus Indignus

“The same, too, with the instance of Catus Aelius, who, when consul, 4 Fides Fidelis Perfidus
after being found by the Aetolian ambassadors taking his morning meal off of 5 Firmitas Firmus Infirmus
common earthenware, refused to receive the silver vessels which they sent him;
6 Frugalitas Temperans Prodigus
and, indeed, was never in possession, to the last day of his life, of any silver at
7 Gravitas Gravis Levis
all, with the exception of two drinking-cups, which had been presented to him
8 Honestas Honestus Infamis
as the reward of his valour, by L. Paulus, his father-in-law, on the conquest
9 Humanitas Urbanus Infacetus
of King Perseus.”
10 Industria Industrius Ignavus
Pliny the Elder - Naturalis Historia
11 Misericordia Misericors Durus
ΩΩ Gravitas – denotes a seriousness of purpose and sense of 12 Patientia Patiens Impatiens
responsibility. Romans with gravitas fail to be diverted by friv- 13 Pietas Pious Impius
olous acts or trivial circumstances. 14 Prudentia Prudens Imprudens
ΩΩ Honestas – the image that one presents as a respectable 15 Salubritas Sanus Morbosus
member of society, or more specifically, the virtue of acting 16 Severitas Severus Remissus
according to one’s rank. To assume airs above one’s station 17 Veritas Verus Falsus
is pompous and to lower one’s self by crassness is unseemly. 18 Virtus Fortis Enervatus
19-20 Choose or Roll Again
12 Aquila non captat muscas – The eagle doesn’t capture flies
degeneracy, the antithesis of the originally harsh and stern Roman
way of life. Government and
ΩΩ Clementia – clemency, the virtue of mercy and forgive-
ness. This was deemed a sign of weakness by the majority of
Politics (Respublica)
Rome’s form of government was subtly unique in the classical
republican Romans, who held that a proven enemy should be world. Starting from the traditional monarchy and progressing to an
crushed or killed in order to prevent them from turning upon elected government, it grew and evolved from the constant political
you again; a case proven in point by the eventual assassination struggle between the oligarchic nobility and the common people.
of Caius Julius Caesar, who was famed for his clementia. This in turn led to the development of the Roman passion for polit-
ΩΩ Comitas – courtesy, openness, friendliness and good humour. ical affairs.
Comitas could sometimes be seen as improper, undermining
a person’s Honestas and Gravitas, or making them vulnerable “For who is so worthless or indolent as not to wish to know by what
to those who would abuse their friendship. Many Romans in means and under what system of polity the Romans in less than fifty-three
the early Republic are dour by nature. years have succeeded in subjecting nearly the whole inhabited world to their sole
ΩΩ Humanitas – humanity, or more precisely, learning and cul- government – a thing unique in history?”
ture. Although favoured as a virtue towards the end of the Polybius - Histories
republican period, humanitas was originally regarded as an
effeminate corruption introduced by the Greeks, a threat to
the austere, simple life of the Roman gentiles. Over time how-
ever, the advantages of a broader education and imported The Evolution of
foreign culture changed attitudes.
ΩΩ Misericordia – is a combination of pity and compassion Roman Government
Before the creation of the great city in 753 BC, the site of Rome
towards one’s fellow human beings. This was also regarded as
was occupied by several independent villages that were either
a moral weakness in the turbulent times leading up to the fall
self-governed or under the authority of Alba Longa, the closest city
of republic. Compassion for your fellow men was an insidious
state. Once Rome was founded, it was initially controlled by a suc-
danger in a society so heavily reliant upon slavery, and had
cession of kings. With the first sovereign also came the first Senate, a
no place in either the politics of the forum, or amongst the
100 fathers chosen to offer their wisdom and advice to the king. The
desperately poor of the streets.
descendants of the 100 fathers became the patricians. The rest of
“I have nothing more to write to you about, and I am actually rather the populace were divided up into three tribes, the Ramnes, Tities,
disturbed as I write. The reason is that the handsome boy Sositheus, my lector, and Luceres, each of which were further subdivided into 10 smaller
has died, and this has moved me more than the death of a slave seems to be units called Curiae. The Curiae formed the basis of an early form
supposed to do. I hope you will write to me often.” of assembly (Comitia Curiata) and were also used to raise men for
Cicero - Letters to Atticus military service.
Each king ruled autocratically but was himself chosen by pop-
Many other virtues, albeit of lesser importance were also ular support. The monarchy was not inherited and potential can-
practiced. didates selected by the Senate had to be vetted by the gods. This
essential test was performed by priestly diviners (augures) who
Suicide (Suicidium) looked for favourable religious signs (auspices). Only then was a king
inaugurated, after which his position was confirmed by the vote of
Roman citizens of high birth valued honour more than life itself.
the Comitia Curiata.
Not only was it the basis of their political careers and social circles,
The king had power over all aspects of life; military, judicial,
more importantly their acts also reflected upon their families. A dis-
political and religious. This authority was called Imperium and was
graced Roman was left with few choices, namely exile or suicide.
considered a divine right. Although the Senate could only advise
Suicide was the socially accepted way of dealing with dishonour.
the king, the fathers were considered to possess auctoritas, a reli-
Although it did little to cleanse the reputation of the discredited cit-
gious prestige which was used to ratify issues raised by the Comitia
izen, it did however redeem the damage done to the family’s name,
Curiata.
allowing other relations to continue their lives without ostracism.
When the king died, power was passed to the Senate, one of
Such was the value placed on personal honour that many high
whom was raised to the position of Interrex (literally meaning
ranking Romans were destroyed by having false accusations placed
‘between kings’). Each Interrex held the reins of power for only five
against them; an event which occurred ever more regularly towards
days before passing on the office to the next senator. This continued
the end of the Republic. Many Romans would rather commit sui-
until a new monarch could be found. It was the Senate who scru-
cide than legally disprove such slander in court, which never totally
tinised the next king and nominated him via the current Interrex.
obliterated the stains left by such allegations.
By the end of the regal period of Rome’s history, the kings had
The best method for a Roman man to commit suicide was by
subverted the power of the Senate and grasped power, ignoring the
falling upon his own sword, although slitting the wrists was an
requirements of the auspices and the vote of the Comitia Curiata.
acceptable alternative for those lacking such weapons (or experience
The last king of Rome even went so far as to ignore the advice of the
in their use). The latter was utilised more often by female Romans.
Senate and executed its more important members.
Poisons were more often used by non-Romans and were considered
effeminate in contrast.
Ars longa, vita brevis – The skill of medicine is long, the life of a doctor short (Hippocrates)
13
autocracy. Indeed, the first 50
years of the Republic was rife
with turmoil and chaos whilst
powerful individuals, supported
by small armies of clients, com-
peted to fill the power vacuum
that had been left behind with
the fall of centralised authority.
Patrician senators con-
trolled most aspects of the State
and held a virtual monopoly
over the magisterial offices.
This disproportionate balance
of power started the strug-
gle between the order of the
patricians and the plebeians.
In 494 BC, the plebeians, who
accounted for approximately
90% of the populace, threat-
ened to leave Rome and start
their own State, seeking pro-
tection from the capricious
and unjust acts of the Senate
and consuls. The Senate acqui-
In 509 BC the final king was overthrown for his despotic acts, esced, allowing the plebeians to
and was replaced by a Republican government. After this time the form a political organisation of their own, the Assembly of Tribes
very idea of kingship (regnum) was vile and members of the ruling (Concilium Plebis) and choose their own officials, the Tribunes.
oligarchy were required to swear an oath to “Never allow any man Originally there were but two tribunes in mimicry of the con-
to be king in Rome and to legislate against any who would aspire sulships but in 450 BC this number increased to 10. The plebeians
to it”. These backlashes against monarchy led to a great deal of swore an oath to protect their tribunes, making them sacrosanct
distrust between the ruling ‘noble’ families who disliked the thought (sacrosanctitas) – any person who harmed a tribune faced being
that one of their peers would elevate themselves above the others, killed by the plebeians; a direct warning to the patricians to leave
by currying support from the lower classes. Thus the nobility began their representatives alone.
not only to fear those who would be king but also the plebeians who Although the tribunes had no right of Imperium, they possessed
could place one above them. the power of potestas, which effectively enabled them to act as if
The new government took the form of a collegiate magistracy. they were magistrates and enforce their will by coercion (coercitio).
Two men held the yearlong office of Consul (which was originally Anybody interfering in the tribune’s duties was subject to capital
named Prætor) and were forbidden to be re-elected for consecutive punishment, up to and including death. Later on they gained the
terms. The candidate was required to be accepted by the Comitia power of intercession (ius intercessio) to veto magisterial acts or pro-
Curiata as the kings had before them. In return the consuls held the posals, relying on their inviolate status to protect them against the
power of Imperium, but were required to alternate the authority State. The tribunes could only be elected by the Concilium Plebis
on a daily basis. If a dispute formed between the two, then the neg- and were required to be members of the plebeian class. Also their
ative view should prevail. The Senate remained an advisory body authority only existed within the city of Rome itself.
but held great sway over the consuls, since most of the influential The tribunes won several important concessions from the Senate.
members had held the office themselves. Soon it was the Senate who Firstly in 450 BC, the civic laws of the Roman State were codified
governed Rome and the consuls were its executive officers. and published, granting the plebeians equal rights of citizenship.
In 500 BC a new office was formed, that of Dictatorship. This However it also introduced a new law forbidding marriage between
was instituted so that in times of emergency a dictator could be patricians and plebeians. But in 445 BC, the tribunes repealed this
elected by the consuls and had absolute authority over the State. law in the Lex Canuleia. This was important as it allowed for social
His wishes could not be appealed and it was forbidden to hamper mobility for those wealthy enough and also permitted plebeians to
his acts. However, a dictatorship had a duration of only six months, hold magisterial office.
which was considered sufficient to handle any disaster. The next political triumph won by the tribunes was in 365 BC
After this, new magisterial positions were formed to assist the which demanded that one consulship each year must be held by a
consuls with their work. All of the new offices required popular elec- plebeian. This act also created the new magisterial office of Prætor,
tion. First came the Quæstors in 447 BC, closely followed by the a kind of assistant-consul, which initially could only be held by a
Censors in 443 BC. patrician, to make up for the loss of one consulship.
Despite the sophistication of the early republican government,
its aim was not to rule efficiently but rather to prevent a return to
14 Audi, vide, tace, si tu vis vivere – Hear, see, be silent, if you wish to live
Finally, in 287 BC, a law was passed that made the decisions of
the Concilium Plebis binding on the whole state without action by Political Presence
any other body (the Lex Hortensia). A critical aspect of Roman government is that anybody who wished
Towards the later days of the Republic after a series of success- to vote, present a decree for legislation or enforce their magisterial author-
ful conquests of foreign provinces, the freedom granted by the Lex ity must be present in person. A Roman could not do anything by proxy.
Canuleia had the effect of expanding the senatorial class in num- This fundamental requirement was abused in later years when mag-
bers. The wars had brought vast wealth into Rome but at the same istrates were prevented from attending comitia, courts or the Senate by
time the many thousands of men who fought in the legions (at that the simple expedient of physically blocking their progress to the meeting
time only land owners could join the army) lost their farms to debt or intimidating them from leaving their own homes. Even if they did
whilst they were forced to serve in years-long campaigns overseas. arrive at the place required for speaking, they could be shouted down or
This led to a crisis within the republic, the senatorial classes self- discommoded by crowds of partisans…
ishly wishing to consolidate their position and power, leaving the
plebeians who were now divorced from the land desperately selling “As he finished his speech [which had been delivered with compo-
their voting allegiance to the highest bidder. sure]… Clodius got up. There was such shouting at him from our side
By 133 BC the situation resulted in the establishment of two fac- (it was nice to return the favor.) that he was able to keep neither wits
tions in the Senate, the Optimates ‘the better people’ whose primary nor speech nor countenance about him. This took place from noon, when
interest lay in accumulating wealth and maintaining the status quo, Pompey had just stopped speaking, right until two, when all kinds of
and the Populares, the defenders of the depressed plebeians who curses and in the end the most obscene ditties were being said about
wanted publicly owned land redistributed amongst the poor along Clodius and his sister Clodia. He, furious and blanched, kept asking
with reforms of the magisterial voting system. These factions were his supporters during the shouting who it was who were starving the
not political parties but simply fluid groupings of individuals who plebeians… At about three o’clock, as though responding to a signal,
shared the same opinion on a specific matter. Clodius’ people began to spit at our side. Tempers flared. They started
to try to shove us out of there. Our side charged, and his gang retreated
“There have always been in this state two classes of men who have Clodius was kicked off the podium, and at that point even I fled in case
worked hard to participate in public life, and to conduct themselves more suc- something were to happen in the crowd”
cessfully in it: one class wished to be held to be, and to be, populares, the other Cicero - Ad Quintum Fratrem
optimates. Those who wished their actions and words to be pleasing to the
mass of people were the populares; those who conducted themselves so that
their policies were approved by all the best people were the optimates.” The Assemblies (Comitia)
Cicero - Pro Sestius In theory the assemblies were the source of authority in Rome.
They elected the magistrates, accepted or rejected laws proposed
Although fewer in number, the Optimates maintained a strangle- by the magistrates and reviewed appeals against magisterial deci-
hold on political power; in the following decade two highly popular sions. In reality however, their power was eventually undermined or
tribunes (the Gracchi brothers) were murdered by the Senate, which abused by demagogic leaders. The following assemblies existed in
feared both the reforms that had been passed into law by these pop- Rome, each controlling a different aspect of government.
ular men and the threat of their planned future legislation.
The last century of the Republic maintained the oligarchic polit- Comitia Curiata
ical structure but became increasing unstable, with many magis- The first assembly formed during the time of kings, it was pre-
trates twisting the basic rules of appointment and re-election. Even- sided over by the Pontifex Maximus. In its early days it would con-
tually a third political body came into being, in the form of the army fer Imperium over military, civil and judicial matters by confirming
who were inclined to offer their loyalties to their military leaders. the election of an inaugurated king and after the beginning of the
The greed and personal ambition of both senators and plebeians Republic, the consuls. By the mid-Republic these civic duties were
resulted in a succession of civil wars, unconstitutional dictators and simply ceremonies performed pro forma.
civic unrest. The aftermath was ironically a return to monarchic
Comitia Centuriata
rule, under the first of the Roman Emperors, Imperator Caesar
Formed from the 193 voting centuries derived from early military
Augustus.
class structure, participation in the Comitia Centuriata depended on
army service and land ownership. Membership to which class a citi-
The Structure of zen belonged was decided by personal wealth each census, that ulti-
Republican Government mately meant the richer citizens had more power over the assembly,
thus biasing its vote. The Comitia Centuriata subsumed the duties
Roman political power is divided between the assemblies, the of the Comitia Curiata, electing the major magistrates who held
Senate and the magistrates. Each of these had a fundamental aspect Imperium – consuls, prætors and censors; and it also had the power
to play in preserving a balance of power and preventing an autoc- to declare an offensive war. Originally being a military comitia, it
racy from dominating the State. met outside the walls of Rome in the Saepta on the Campus Martius
(the only area large enough to hold everyone) but was forbidden to
convene on holidays (dies nefasti) or days set aside for court meetings
(dies fasti).
Audiatur et altera pars! – Let us hear the opposite side!

15
tribunes. It also could legislate upon anything except the declaration
Governmental Procedure of an offensive war.
To get a law passed in the Republic normally involved the following
procedure: “He who orders to assemble not the whole of the people but a certain
part, ought to call not a comitia but a concilium... When the voting is carried
1. A proposed bill is placed before the Senate out according to families, this is the comitia curiata, when it is according to
2. After debate the Senate issues an advisory decree property and age it is the comitia centuriata, when according to regions and
3. The decree is presented to the Comitia Tributa by a tribune neighbourhoods it is the comitia tributa. However, it is forbidden for the comi-
4. A vote is taken, each tribe voting as a single block tia centuriata to meet within the city boundary (Pomerium) because the army
5. If the proposed decree achieves a majority of 18 votes it is passed must be assembled outside the city and it is not lawful for it to be assembled
into law within the city.”
Aulus Gellius - Attic Nights
However, accepted procedural boundaries began to be undermined
in the late Republic, as the tribunes and magistrates began abusing their
powers: such as tribunes expelling other tribunes, excessive use of the
The Senate (Senatus)

veto, or circumnavigating the Senate entirely.
This famous example shows the legislative weakness of the Senate
and the legal tools available to clever officials… The Senate was supposedly the advisory council of the State,
which existed to advise and give counsel to the magistrates. In reality,
“[After the Senate, led by Cato, had refused to approve his land it usurped authority and became the chief governing power of the
bill]. Caesar after this brought no further measures before the Senate in Republic, despite the fact it actually possessed no power to actually
his year of office, but took everything he wanted directly to the people. pass legislation in its own right.
Even then wishing to win the support of some of the leading men.... At the beginning of the Republic it roughly numbered about
he began with his fellow-consul, and asked whether he disapproved of 300 men, normally ex-magistrates, who were appointed by the cen-
the law’s provisions. Bibulus gave no answer except that he would not sors. However, during Sulla’s reforms he increased membership to
accept any innovations in his year of office, and Caesar supplicated 600 and instituted the policy that all ex-magistrates automatically
him, and invited to people to join him in seeking to persuade Bibulus, entered its ranks. This remained its de-facto size until a brief period
saying: “You’ll have the law, if he is willing”. Bibulus shouted in reply when Julius Caesar increased its numbers to 900. Towards the end
that “You’ll not have the law this year, even if you all want it”, and of the Republic, entry into the Senate was restricted to only those
then left. Bibulus did not give in even then, but after winning the support who’d held a major magistracy.
of three tribunes he kept obstructing the bill. Finally, when no further The powers of the Senate were:
excuse for delay was open to him, he [as an augur] proclaimed a sacred
period for each and every remaining day of the year, during which it ΩΩ Discussion (and restriction) of new legislation before it was
would not be lawful for the people to meet in assembly.” proposed as a decree to the assemblies
Cassius Dio - Roman History ΩΩ Revision of the list of candidates for magisterial office
ΩΩ Suspension of ordinary law in times of emergency (Senatus
Consultum Ultimum), i.e. martial law
Minimum Property ΩΩ Control of finances, taxation, and state religion
Military Class No. of Centuries
Qualification ΩΩ Management of provinces and foreign affairs
Equites 18 Cavalry horse
As can be seen, these powers gave the Senate a huge degree of
Infantry Class 1 80 100,000 asses
authority.
Infantry Class 4
Infantry Class 5
20
30
25,000 asses
11,000 asses Magistrates
Army Engineers
Musicians
2
2
11,000 asses
11,000 asses
(Magistratus)
The Roman sense of duty, honour and the achievement of nobil-
Proletarii (head count) 1 Ineligible for the legions
ity was based on the concept of civic service. This was achieved
Comitia Tributa by holding a magisterial position, a limited number of which were
An assembly that voted by tribes, it met in the Forum Roma- available each year.
num and elected curule ædiles, quæstors and all lower magistrates. It Certain magisterial offices could only be achieved by progres-
could legislate on all matters related to law and government. sion through the ladder of previous lesser offices. This gave rise to
the name Cursus Honorum (the course of honours), since by the
Concilium Plebis late Republic, admittance to the Senate was restricted to those who
Similar to the Comitia Tributa but differed in the fact that only had served in a major magistracy… and the ultimate objective of all
plebeians could vote in it. This assembly elected plebeian ædiles and Roman politicians was to become a senator.
16 Auri sacra fames - The accursed hunger for gold (Seneca)
No magistrate actually earned a wage. In fact most magisterial In general, the higher the office, the greater number of lictors it
positions actually required the magistrate to pay for his own run- granted. The prætors had six (only two within the city), consuls had
ning costs and some were virtually guaranteed to bankrupt even the 12 and a dictator had 24.
wealthiest patricians. A magistrate’s family usually helped to fund Unlike modern elections, the magistrates took office at differing
their assignment. Indeed the costs were so high that few magistrates times of the year, possibly to smooth any disruption caused by the
were beyond the temptation of accepting bribes to overlook law handing over from old to new. Quæstors took office on December the
infractions or propose new policies in order to help pay for their 5th, tribunes on December the 10th and lastly consuls, prætors,and
term in office. ædiles on January the 1st (the Roman year started in March – see
The general guidelines for political appointment ran as follows, Months & Dates page 120).
however there were many exceptions and the precise regulations During their term of office, no magistrate could be legally pros-
continuously changed throughout the span of the Republic. ecuted, no matter their crime. However, once they stepped down
from office, those who had abused their position could be charged
ΩΩ Each appointment was by popular election
with malfeasance. Thus the temptation for abuse was effectively
ΩΩ Each political office had a term of one year
self-regulated, out of fear of reprisals by their peers. However,
ΩΩ After completing an office, a candidate must wait for 2-3
towards the end of the Republic, post-term legal charges brought
years before attempting election to the next office in the Cur-
by young up-and-coming men (who wished to make a name for
sus Honorum
themselves) became increasingly common, in part due to the greater
ΩΩ A candidate seeking re-election to the same office must wait
excesses inflicted by corrupt governors on their provinces.
at least 10 years
ΩΩ Appointment to the Senate was limited to ex-magistrates
who had completed the first step of the Cursus Honorum Consuls
as quæstor The commanders in chief of the Republic, called at first prætors
(‘leaders’) during the very beginning of the Republic but soon after
The progression of the Cursus Honorum was from lowest to renamed as consuls (‘colleagues’), two were elected each year by the
highest: quæstor, ædile (although strictly not needed, it was the best Comitia Centuriata. Each had the power to veto any act performed
way to muster popular support for the next step), prætor and consul. by their colleague and for the majority of the Republic the consuls
Most senators only ever satisfied the position of quæstor. would also take the field, commanding the legions.
The offices were also categorised as Major, Minor, Curule and They held full Imperium allowing them to:
Extraordinary magistrates.
The major magistracies were the offices of prætor, consul and ΩΩ Take the auspices
censor. The minor magistracies were those of quæstor, ædile and ΩΩ Command the army and navy
tribune. ΩΩ Control civil and criminal jurisdiction (eventually ceded to
Curule magistracies were those offices ranked above quæstor, the prætors)
including curule ædiles but not plebeian ædiles. They were entitled ΩΩ Issue edicts and proclamations
to sit on ivory curule stools (sella curulis). The first man in a family to ΩΩ Summon and act as chairmen over the Senate or Assemblies
hold a curule magistracy was known as a novus homo (‘new man’).
Their duties included presiding over the Centuriata during bal-
Families which held curule offices for three successive generations
lots. If the ultimate decree was passed by the Senate, then the con-
were considered nobilitas.
suls would grant dictatorial powers to a selected individual during
Extraordinary magistracies were elected for a specific purpose
emergencies.
and were therefore exempt from the normal fixed term of duration.
Once Rome began to expand her borders, those who survived
As a sign of their authority, all magistrates wore the toga præ-
their term as consul would be made proconsuls and granted a gover-
texta, which possessed a purple stripe. The higher offices also
norship of a proconsular province, over which he would enjoy abso-
granted the magistrate a small body of lictors – men who served
lute authority. The normal trend would then be to milk the province
as secretaries, messengers, heralds and personal bodyguards. They
for taxes in an attempt to recover monies spent climbing the Cursus
were identified by the fasces – a bundle of rods tied with red rib-
Honorum and perhaps increase the size of their family fortune.
bons, which stood out as a symbol of strength through unity (one
rod might break but many together will only bend). When outside
the Pomerium (the ancient city boundary), the lictors would add an Prætors
axe (securis) to the centre of the bundle, indicating the magistrate’s Prætors were judges who administered the courts of justice. They
authority over life and death. Only a dictator was permitted to bear numbered six for most of the Republic but the number was eventu-
the full fasces within the city proper. ally raised to eight by Sulla. They too could command armies and
ex-prætors would be granted proprætorian provinces to govern just
“When, for the first time, a Dictator was created in Rome, a great fear fell like consuls, which they too generally extorted.
on the people, after they saw the axes borne before him, and consequently they The highest ranked was the Prætor Urbanus, who heard civil
were more careful to obey his orders. For there was not, as in the case of the cases between citizens. By default he became the chief magistrate
consuls, each of whom possessed the same authority, any chance of securing when the consuls left the city. The Prætor Peregrinus had jurisdiction
the aid of one against the other, nor was there any right of appeal, nor in short over cases where one or both parties were foreigners. The remain-
was there any safety anywhere except in punctilious obedience.” ing prætors presided over the permanent courts and heard criminal
Livy - Ab Urbe Condita
Aut disce aut discede – Either learn or leave

17
cases. The allocation of which prætorial assignments were received
by the elected magistrates was made by drawn lot after their election. Political Power Games
During their terms in office, the prætors created forms of pro- At first glance, the Roman magistracies are a bewildering number
cedure and ruling, which was often included into Roman civil and of ranks with odd titles and associated responsibilities. However, if a
criminal law. Games Master spends a little time clarifying the politics to their players,
a sense of its possibilities becomes apparent.
Ædiles The Romans were fiercely competitive for political power, initially
more for the respect and status it provided than any indirect financial
These magistrates supervised and maintained the public places
gain it could be milked for. As such, the Cursus Honorum is perfect
of the city – managing streets, baths, sewers, market places, and
for political campaigns, since striving for the ultimate honour of being
temples. They were also in charge of the grain supply and the public
elected censor can be a powerful motive for players.
games.
In politically orientated campaigns, the character skills of ‘Status’
Each year four ædiles were elected: two Plebeian Ædiles by the
and ‘Politics’ are paramount and should be limited by the highest posi-
Concilium Plebis and two Curule Ædiles by the Comitia Tributa
tion the character has held on the social ladder of class and office. The
(whom could be either plebeians or patricians). The plebeian ædiles
following tables represent the maximum value that particular skill can
could levy fines on people for infractions against (or in) public places,
be raised to, according to familial and political rank. These skills reflect
whereas the curule ædiles could sit in judgement over civil cases
not only contacts within society but the influence they user can bring to
involving markets and currency.
bear upon others.
Since the stipend from the Senate to complete all of these tasks
was laughably small, it cost the ædile a great deal of personal wealth Av. Wealth
Value Social Class Wealth Cap
just to complete their basic duties. If however they wished to muster Rating
popularity for future election to prætor, they would normally borrow 01-10 Foreigner Any Wealthy
huge amounts of money to put on a spectacular series of games. 11-25 Slave Destitute Poor
26-40 Freedman Poor Affluent
Quæstors 41-75 Plebeian Average Affluent
The lowest elective office, quæstors were the administrators, 76-90 Equestrian Affluent Wealthy
bookkeepers and paymasters for the treasury, grain office, and pro- 91-00 Patrician Wealthy Wealthy
vincial governors.
*Women use the Social Class of their family until married, whereupon they use the Class
Of the 20 elected each year, only two remained in Rome, attached
of their husband
to the aerarium – the state treasury in the Temple of Saturn.
Value Highest Previously Held Office
Tribunes 01-15 Lesser Official
Although not strictly magistrates themselves, the original pur- 16-35 Military Tribune
pose of the tribunes was the protection of plebeian political rights 36-55 Quæstor
against arbitrary magisterial autocracy. 10 were elected each year by 56-65 Plebeian Ædile
the Concilium Plebis and only plebeians could hold the office. 66-75 Curule Ædile
They had the right of intercession over all magistrates by vetoing 76-85 Prætor / Tribune
any of their decisions. Those who refused to obey the veto could be 86-90 Consul
sentenced to capital punishment. Tribunes were considered sacro-
91-95 Censor
sanct and could not be harmed for fear of excessively violent repri-
96-00 Dictator
sals by the plebs.
The tribunes were permitted access to the meetings of the Sen- As can be inferred from the tables, once a character initially achieves
ate, in order to ensure no laws were made which harmed their a particular class or office, their skill is automatically raised to the
wards. As the chief representatives of the Roman plebeians, during minimum possible value for that rank.
their term of office they were forbidden to travel more than a mile Since neither the Status nor Politics skill can be raised with normal
from the city walls and the doors to a tribune’s house were required Improvement Rolls, these skills can only be improved by performing
to be open to all at all times, day or night, so that supplicants could some deed which brings victory or achieves a particular purpose relevant
come to them. to Rome. Conversely, dishonour can lower the value of the skill to below
During the late Republic, the office of tribune became gradually the minimum value until the character can clear their name or wash
more corrupt as they accepted bribes from senators to derail the away the disgrace by some further achievement. Penalties can also be
political manoeuvres of their opponents, till they effectively reduced applied for the source of the character’s personal wealth (see Honourable
themselves to merely tools in the hands of wealthy politicians. Professions page 12) or bonuses added for the number and quality of
the character’s clients.
Military Tribunes Those Games Masters who wish to allow starting characters free-
dom to select their own social class (or even hold office), may permit
Military tribunes were elected from the young men of senatorial
or equestrian rank as assistants to generals. Although they were not players to spend some of their starting points on purchasing these skills.
true magistrates either, the election to military tribune was usually However, care should be taken to limit or cap the highest possible values
allowed.
18 Aut inveniam viam aut faciam – I will either find a way or I will make one
the first step of a Roman’s political career (see The Army during the “[After defeating the Aequi and averting a military disaster] Quinctius
Mid-Republic page 95) Cincinnatus resigned on the sixteenth day the dictatorship which had been
conferred upon him for six months.”
Censors Livy - Ab Urbe Condita
Censors were originally the magistrates responsible for civic mor-
Unlike all other officials, the dictator was unaccountable for his
als and management of public finances. Unlike other magistracies,
acts during the term of office. He could not be prosecuted in hind-
each pair of censors (usually ex-consuls) were elected by the Comi-
sight for performing extreme deeds considered necessary at the time.
tia Centuriata once every five years and remained in office for 18
months.
Their primary concern was the five-yearly censuses, which Lesser Officials
assessed the wealth and holdings of each citizen and assigned them A number of lesser officials existed in Rome, overseeing import-
to the correct tribes, classes and centuries for the purpose of military ant duties. They were collectively known as the Viginti Sex Viri – the
service and taxation. They also could expel members of the Senate college of 26.
for incorrect behaviour.
ΩΩ Decemviri Stlitbus Iudicandis – 10 men who debated and
They also granted contracts for tax farming and the construc-
passed on questions concerning citizenship to the Senate.
tion of public works such as paving streets, building aqueducts and
ΩΩ Quattuor Praefecti Capuam Cumas – four judges who served
the like. With their ability to elevate or reduce the social class of
the prætor in Campania, the favourite summer holiday loca-
citizens, they were granted a great deal of respect and only those
tion for Rome’s rich.
men deemed incorruptible were permitted to run for this office,
ΩΩ Triumviri Capitales – a body of three men who served as
which was considered to be the capstone of a political career. How-
police magistrates. They were under the authority of the
ever, by the very end of the Republic, the office had lost most of its
ædiles and charged with maintaining order in the city, arrest-
importance.
ing criminals and securing evidence against those under
indictment.
“The censors will record the ages, children, slaves, and property value of
ΩΩ Triumviri Monetales – three officials who ran the mint, the
all citizens. They will undertake the building of temples, roads and aqueducts
place where coinage was struck.
in the city, and will oversee the records of the public treasury. They will divide
ΩΩ Quattuorviri Viis in Urbe Purgandis – four officials who
the citizens into tribes; they will also divide according to wealth, age, and sta-
supervised the cleaning of the city streets within Rome’s walls.
tus. They will enlist young men in the cavalry and infantry. They will control
ΩΩ Duumviri Viis extra Urbem Purgandis – two more officials
the morals of the people and will not allow anybody guilty of wicked deeds to
who administered the cleaning of the streets outside the city.
remain in the Senate...”
Cicero
Interrex Law and Order (Ius)

The interrex was a provisional chief magistrate appointed by the
Senate to hold consular elections if one of the consuls died during
“There always will be homicides, tyrants, thieves, adulterers, ravishers,
his term or if civil unrest prevented the normal consular election.
sacrilegious, traitors: worse than all these is the ungrateful man, except we
Just like their duty during the monarchic period, an interrex served
consider that all these crimes flow from ingratitude, without which hardly any
only five days before passing on the responsibility to his appointed
great wickedness has ever grown to full stature”
successor. This continued until the replacement consul had been
Seneca - De Beneficiis
elected.
One of the most difficult concepts to grasp about ancient Repub-
Dictator lican Rome is its lack of any official police force. Civic order was
The Romans understood that their government, although simply maintained by mutual consent and enforced by application
designed to prevent any single man from usurping power over the of the client-patron relationship. It is somewhat ironic that the mod-
State, made it vulnerable in times of emergency when decisive ern day evolution of this system has led to the development of fam-
action could not be agreed upon. Their solution was the extraor- ilies oriented towards crime (i.e. the mafia), rather than the original
dinary office of dictator, a supreme commander appointed by the suppression of it.
consuls in times of extreme crisis. He was granted total authority With no organised force to prevent felonies, it was effectively up
over the entire Republic and not even the tribunes could intercede to the man on the street to protect himself. Hired gladiators or slaves
against his decisions. were used as bodyguards and sentries over homes and property,
Each dictator chose a subordinate called the magister equitum and local communities organised themselves into neighbourhood
(master of horse) who was his second in command should he perish watches to keep out known miscreants. This eventually led to the
during the catastrophe. Normally the rank was limited for the period formation of street gangs, each guarding their own ward and, in
of the crisis or a maximum of six months. time, often charging residents for the protection.
If a Roman fell victim to a crime, he had little recourse, other
than taking matters into his own hands, petitioning the gods (see
Curse Tablets page 143) or asking his patron for aid. A patron could
Ave Caesar morituri te salutant! - Hail, Caesar, those who are about to die salute you!
19
use his contacts to try to find the person responsible or, if known,
politely request recompense from the criminal’s own patron. At the “It was a common expression among the Romans, for a person, “to be
street level, such justice was swift, brutal and unofficial. However, if dragged to the prætor with his neck wrenched”; and we meet with it repeatedly
the perpetrator was a wealthier citizen using legal methods to extort in the writings of Plautus. It would appear that it was customary for the lic-
or obfuscate, then they would be countered at the law courts. tors or officers of justice to seize criminals in a peculiar manner, perhaps with
Thus justice is only available to those who can muster the correct a rope, and with the exercise of great violence, whatever their rank.”
contacts. Pliny the Elder - Naturalis Historia
Law Enforcement However, once caught (and possibly restrained), the accused
could be brought before a prætor and charged by his accuser.
(Comprehensio) Since legal procedure was in effect a spectator sport for the average
Roman, there were always plenty of people willing to help drag an
Since armed soldiers were forbidden within the city walls, and
neither the Praetorian Guard nor the Vigiles existed until their accused man to the courts.
instigation by the first Emperor Augustus, the arrest of criminals Depending on the social class of the accused and if the case did
was fraught with difficulty. In reality, criminals were only caught by not require summarily sentencing, then the indicted man was placed
either a throng of civic minded citizens mobbing or besieging the under house arrest in the home of a friend who guaranteed his cus-
accused in their home, borrowing a gang of tough slaves or clients tody or was put in prison to await trial.
from a patron to aid a seizure or sending lictors to intimidate the Rome possessed only one prison, known as the Tullianum. Nor-
criminal into submission... The respect given to the bearers of the mally only the very worst criminals and foreign enemies of the State
fasces was indoctrinated into all Romans. were incarcerated there. It was reputedly connected to the main
sewer, Cloaca Maxima, by a door for the disposal of dead inmates.
In Rome, imprisoning was only used to hold people awaiting trial or
execution – imprisonment was never used as a punishment in itself.
20 Bene diagnoscitur, bene curatur – Something diagnosed well can be cured well
The following chronological list indicates some of the most inter-
“There is a place called the Tullianum, about twelve feet below the surface esting and important statutes; and gives a rough overview of their
of the ground. It is enclosed on all sides by walls, and above it is a chamber purpose.
with a vaulted roof of stone. Neglect, darkness, and stench make it hideous
ΩΩ 451-448 BC Law of the Twelve Tables
and fearsome to behold.”
ΩΩ 449 BC Leges Valeriae Horatiae, granted inviolability to
Sallust - War with Catiline
serving tribunes and resolutions (plebiscita) of the Concilium
Plebis to be entered into law
ΩΩ 445 BC Lex Canuleia, legalised marriages between Patricians
Roman Laws (Leges) and Plebeians and permitted plebeians to hold the new office
In the monarchic period, the kings of Rome ruled by ancient of military tribune, which temporarily replaced the consuls
codes called the Leges Regiae, a collection of religious ordinances, ΩΩ 367 BC Lex Liciniae Sextiae, restored the Consulship, reserv-
fashioned and subjectively applied by each king who technically ing one of the two seats for plebeians; and also limited the
acted as the chief priest of the gods. These rulings continued to be amount of public land any man might farm
used in the early Republic, guiding the legal decisions of the consuls. ΩΩ 313 BC Lex Poetelia, prevented indebted citizens from being
However, plebeian discontent of this arbitrary and often capri- sold as slaves to pay off their indentured bond
cious system forced the Senate to codify the laws and a commission ΩΩ 300 BC Lex Ogulnia, admitted Plebeians to the priestly col-
was sent to Athens and various Hellenic city states in order to gain leges. Lex Valeria, granted the legal right to appeal against
inspiration in the matter. The original religious laws (fas) were com- any capital sentence passed on a Roman citizen
bined with secular laws (ius) and eventually published as the Twelve ΩΩ 287 BC Lex Hortensia, enforced decisions of the Concilium
Tables in the middle of the 5th Century BC. They contained ordi- Plebis to be binding on the whole state, not just the plebeians
nances on all the three branches of legal rights; civil, criminal and ΩΩ 286 BC Lex Aquilia, provided compensation to the owners of
constitutional. property, including slaves and herd animals, injured as a result
of someone’s fault
“It is not easy to resist a powerful people, if you allow them no rights, or ΩΩ 218 BC Lex Claudia, prohibited senators from engaging in
next to none.” commerce and owning vessels with the ability to be launched
Cicero - The Commonwealth at sea
ΩΩ 215 BC Lex Oppia, restricted both women’s wealth and the
Roman law was strict and originally orientated towards the display of it
protection of property and class privileges. Over the period of the ΩΩ • 204 BC Lex Cincia, prohibited (magistrates) accepting
Republic, it oscillated between granting more rights to the plebeian gifts above a certain amount
class and protecting the benefits of the patricians and Senate. ΩΩ pre 186 BC Lex Plætoria protected young men (minores)
from fraud (dolus) by money-lenders, transgressors being sub-
ject to criminal prosecution
ΩΩ 170-150 BC Lex Aebutia, revised legal procedure in court
cases
Slaves and Trials ΩΩ 169 BC Lex Voconia, prohibited woman from inheriting
A terrible legal precedent existed in the Republic, which declared property to the value of more than 100,000 sesterces
that evidence given by a slave was not legitimate unless they had been ΩΩ 146 BC Leges Provinciae, set the constitution and laws for
tortured first. Although to the Romans it was obvious that the word of a each province
slave was inherently untrustworthy, such examinations were mandatory ΩΩ 131 BC Leges Tabellariae, allowed secret balloting in Rome
and often led to the dreadful injuries, crippling hitherto valuable slaves. for the first time
Thus slaves were rarely called upon as material witnesses unless the ΩΩ 90 BC Lex Julia de Civitate Latinus, gave the citizenship to
crime was particularly serious. Indeed, in cases where the defendant was Italians who had not taken up arms against Rome
guilty, they ensured the silence of their slaves by having them sent off to ΩΩ 89 BC Leges Corneliae, returned power to the Senate by forc-
be hidden in distant holdings or more ruthless masters could sell them to ing all new laws to pass through them first
the galleys or mines where they would probably die before being located. ΩΩ 70 BC Lex Aurelia, divided jury service between senators and
Note that the necessity of torture only applied to witnesses. If the equestrians
legal case had been brought forwards by the slave themselves, then they ΩΩ 67 BC Lex Acilia, imposed a fine on those guilty of bribery
were not tortured but could face a dreadful punishment if the case went or corruption, with the additional penalty of exclusion from
against them. In fact many plots against Rome were brought forwards the Senate and all public offices. Lex Roscia Theatralis, gave
by slaves, who were often rewarded with freedom and sometimes even a the equestrians a special place at the spectacles, namely, the
little wealth, for their loyalty to the city. 14 rows of seats behind those of the senators
ΩΩ 45 BC Lex Julia Municipalis, instituted rules concerning city
maintenance and the responsibility of property owners
ΩΩ 40 BC Lex Falcidia, by which heirs to inheritances could, if
burdened by excessive debt, secure a fourth of the property
bequeathed them by surrendering the rest
Bene qui latuit, bene vixit – One who has lived well has lived unnoticed (Ovid)
21
Referenda enacted by the popular assemblies (comitiae) were Only reputable Roman citizens claiming innocence could request
originally called Plebiscites but, after the Lex Hortensia in 287 BC, a trial. If they admitted guilt or were caught red-handed, then they
they became known as Leges and named after the tribunes by whom could be summarily punished.
they were carried – just like those carried by magistrates. For exam- An odd feature of Roman court cases was the method with
ple the Lex Canuleia, Lex Valeria, Lex Aquilia and Lex Oppia were which the accused was defended. With the absence of forensic sci-
plebiscites named after tribunes, while the Lex Valeria Horatia was ence, the majority of evidence was either questionable documents
named after two consuls, the Lex Publilia and Lex Hortensia were or eye witness recounts. Of course, both of these could often be
named after dictators and the Lex Aurelia after a prætor. less than reliable, which explains why forgery and false witness were
Another strange form of Roman law was a privilege (privile- considered heinous crimes.
gium), which gave a temporary command or honour to a single
recipient. These did not extend in perpetuity but instead lasted for a “Our laws of the Twelve Tables, on the contrary – so careful to attach
specified period of time, such as the Lex Curiata de Imperio, which capital punishment to a very few crimes only – have included in this class of
conferred the right of commanding an army to a dictator, magister capital offences, the offence of composing or publicly reciting verses of libel,
equitum, consul or prætor. slander, and defamation, in order to cast dishonour and infamy on a fellow
Some examples of interesting Roman Laws are: citizen. And they have decided wisely; for our life and character should, if
suspected, be submitted to the sentence of judicial tribunals, and the legal
ΩΩ If one admitted to stealing or killing an animal or slave, he
investigations of our magistrates, and not to the whims and fancies of poets.”
must pay the rightful owner the value of the property. If he
Cicero - The Commonwealth
denied the action and was found guilty, he would then be
required to pay double the value.
Thus the majority of a trial was based on simply waxing lyrical
ΩΩ If a master of a household is killed by one of his slaves, then
upon the public reputation of those involved. Indeed, most trials
ALL the slaves belonging to that family shall be put to death.
turned into mud flinging exercises slandering the opposition with
ΩΩ A thief caught in the night could be killed, provided the thief
everything from witchcraft to paedophilia, whilst puffing up the
had been forewarned by a shout.
honour and standing of their own client; which was why such spec-
ΩΩ One might legally kill to defend oneself.
tacles were a primary source of public entertainment.
ΩΩ A father might recover the amount of his loss of prospective
Of course, some cases were sometimes won by sheer overwhelm-
profit from his son’s services should the son be maimed.
ing quantities of first-hand witnesses and noticeable changes in the
ΩΩ Excessive brutality on the part of a teacher is culpable.
personal wealth and possessions of the accused. However in the end,
ΩΩ Should one slip while carrying a heavy burden and that bur-
many trials were simply won by whoever hired the best orator to
den do harm to another, the 1st party is culpable since he
defend them, or just bribing the jury – thereby undermining justice
should not have over-burdened himself nor been so negligent
by the application of wealth.
as to walk on a slippery surface.
The actual procedure of a court case changed greatly from the
ΩΩ If one dies from a drug administered by another, the adminis-
founding of Rome. Originally all legal judgements resided with the
tering person is culpable. If the drug is given to the victim to
king but, with the advent of the Republic, the responsibility trans-
take himself and he dies, he himself is at fault.
ferred to the consuls. In turn, the increasing burden of their duties
ΩΩ If anyone mutilates another’s limb, he should suffer the
(along with the growing population) eventually forced the adoption
same unless he comes to a friendly understanding with the
of prætors to take over the consul’s legal obligations.
wounded one.
Initially those cases brought before a court were first judged by
ΩΩ Arsonists should be killed by fire.
the magistrate, who would decide if the plaintiff had a valid case.
ΩΩ It is illegal for a freedman to claim to be freeborn.
If so, the magistrate would issue a bill to enact a valid punishment
ΩΩ Paterfamilias could put his children and his slaves to death for
against the defendant, who in turn was be given notice of their
any act of disobedience or disloyalty.
forthcoming trial; i.e. the punishment was declared before the trial.
By the end of the Republic, Roman law was both fascinating If the case was a capital one (concerning the life or status of a
and complex. Unfortunately it is not possible to cover it in any citizen), the defendant could invoke his right of appeal and have the
great depth but the reconstructed remnants of the Twelve Tables trial held before the Comitia Centuriata (summoned specifically for
(as known to modern scholars) is reproduced in Appendix III. It is the hearing) who decided the final outcome and either passed or
an excellent source for odd laws and plot ideas with which Games rejected the bill. If the case only involved a fine, it was tried instead
Masters can confound their players. before the Comitia Tributa.
Trials (Iudicia) “It is the people, then, who in many cases give verdicts in trials where the
offence is punishable by a heavy fine, and especially when the accused have
held the highest offices; only they can impose a capital sentence. In relation to
“In trials it is always a juror’s duty to pursue the truth; the defence advo- such trials, they have a practice which is worthy of praise and record. This
cate’s is sometimes to protect his client by means of the plausible, even if it allows those on trial on capital charges, when they are in the process of being
is less true.” condemned, the freedom to leave openly, thus imposing voluntary exile upon
Cicero - De Officiis themselves, if even just one of the tribes that pronounce the verdict has not
yet voted.”
Polybius
22 Bis dat qui cito dat – He who gives quickly gives twice (Publilius Syrus)
By the time of Sulla, these time consuming methods of trial (for crime, or in more extreme cases given a less horrific manner of
the citizens of the comitia) were superseded by the establishment of death (see The Legality of Magic page 139).
standing courts (quaestiones perpetuae), although the archaic system One benefit held by Roman citizens was they could not be put to
was sometimes revived for special occasions. These were bodies of death, flogged, tortured or put in chains by verdict of a court in the
men who instead of being informally summoned to hear extraordi- provinces. Instead they could petition to be sent to Rome for their
nary cases, were on permanent duty judging cases. trial. Even if found guilty of a capital crime, Roman citizens were
Each of these courts handled specific types of cases and the immune from death by crucifixion… although considering the other
criminal ones were presided over by those prætors other than the horrific forms of death sentence in existence at the time, suicide was
Prætor Urbanus and Prætor Peregrinus who dealt with civil and for- often the best way out.
eign cases respectively. The criminal courts were:
“Then Tullus said: “Mettius Fufetius. if you could have learnt to keep
ΩΩ Extortion (Repetundae)
your word and respect treaties, I would have given you that instruction in your
ΩΩ Bribery (Ambitus)
lifetime, but now, since your character is past cure, do at least teach mankind
ΩΩ Embezzlement (Peculatus)
by your punishment to hold those things as sacred which have been outraged
ΩΩ Treason (Maiestas)
by you. As yesterday your interest was divided between the Fidenates and the
ΩΩ Murder and Poisoning (de Sicariis et Veneficis)
Romans, so now you shall give up your body to be divided and dismembered.”
ΩΩ Counterfeiting and Fraud (Falsi)
Thereupon two four-horse chariots were brought up, and Mettius was bound
Each court consisted of the presiding magistrate who called for a at full length to each, the horses were driven in opposite directions, carrying
jury (iudices) to be sworn in to judge the case. The juries were drawn off parts of the body in each chariot, where the limbs had been secured by
by lot from a standing body (iudices selecti) that were originally mus- the cords.”
tered from the senatorial class. The precise number of jurors varied Livy - Ab Urbe Condita
from court to court (and over time) but, for example, in extortion
cases the number was 50, drawn from a standing body of 450. Both There were few set methods of punishment specific to a par-
the prosecution and defence had the right to refuse a certain number ticular crime in the history of the Republic; traditions constantly
of proposed jurors for lack of impartiality. changed. However, a few of the more notable ones were unchaste
Unfortunately there was inherent bias in the system, since a sen- Vestal Virgins being buried alive, parricides being sewn into a leather
atorial jury were likely to find in favour of members of their own sack and thrown into the River Tiber or the sea (sometimes with a
class. A law passed by C. Gracchus in 123 BC forced the jurors to dog, a cock, a viper and an ape sharing the sack) or being thrown
be selected from the equestrian order instead. However, this was from the Tarpeian Rock for a multitude of different sins from trea-
overturned by Sulla in 80 BC, who returned the privilege of jury son to disloyalty…
service to the senators. Ten years later the Lex Aurelia found a bal-
ance between the two, declaring that one third of jurors should be “When this affair became known, Marcus was thrust between two hides
senators and two thirds equestrians. sewn together and drowned, in order that neither earth nor water nor sun might
The magistrate of the trial had no say in the final verdict, he be defiled by his death; and beginning with him, this punishment has ever since
merely controlled proceedings. It was the jury who decided the out- prevailed in the case of parricides.”
come by writing in a ballot either ‘A’ (absolvo) for acquittal or ‘C’ Cassius Dio - Roman History
(condemno) for conviction. The majority vote decided the trial.
The death sentence was given for a large number of crimes –
Punishment (Poena) false witness; adultery; forgery; murder; inciting riot; sorcery; arson;
carrying weapons (within the Pomerium) with criminal intent; pos-
session, purchase or sale of poison and many others. Most capital
“Then, when the concealed swords were produced from every corner of punishments normally involved scourging, decapitation, stoning,
his lodgings, the matter appeared only too certain and Turnus was thrown being beaten to death with sticks, burning alive, thrown to the beasts
into chains. Amidst great excitement a council of the people was at once sum- or in the case of slaves, crucifixion.
moned. The sight of the swords, placed in the midst, aroused such furious Civil punishments were primarily settled with compensatory
resentment that he was condemned, without being heard in his defence, to an fines or exile. Conviction of theft or damage inflicted by negligence
unprecedented mode of death. He was thrown into the fountain of Ferentina required damages of double the original value lost. Money-lending
and drowned by a hurdle weighted with stones being placed over him.” (usury) at excessive interest required reimbursement of four times
Livy - Ab Urbe Condita the original amount.
However, some fines could be as large as half, or all, of the guilty
Punishment for crimes in Rome was extremely harsh. It was man’s wealth depending on the extent of the crime. For example,
designed to prevent repetition of serious misdemeanours and Quintus Servilius Caepio was famously convicted for the negligent
strongly followed the concept of ‘an eye for an eye’, sometimes liter- loss of his army against the Cimbrians.
ally. For example, in the case of a slave who killed their master, all of
their fellow slaves in the household were put to death for their act.
However, favouritism was shown in the severity of the punish-
ment according to the class of the guilty party. Whereas a poor ple-
beian might receive the death penalty, someone from the equestrian
or senatorial class might be sentenced to exile instead for the same
Bona valetudo melior est quam maximae divitiae – Good health is worth more than the greatest wealth
23
Roman citizens lacking any trade took up the profession of school-
“Caepio, who had caused the defeat by his rashness, was convicted; his teacher too. Such schools were simply hired shops (tabernae) open to
possessions were confiscated (for the first time since king Tarquinius) and his the street where the teacher would hold his classes and the children
powers abrogated.” sit on benches.
Livy - Periochae
“It was a long time before they began to teach for pay, and the first to open
an elementary school was Spurius Carvilius, a freedman of the Carvilius”
Education (Eruditio)
Up until Rome began involving herself with the policing (and
Plutarch - Roman Questions
Elementary schools (ludi) simply taught reading, writing and

eventual conquest) of the Hellenic nations, Roman children were basic arithmetic, presumably to a higher standard than that offered
taught by their parents and extended families; boys by fathers and by normal parenting but with a bias towards literature. Such schools
girls by mothers. were often divided by sex but only wealthier families tended to spend
The skills learned were rudimentary. Boys for instance were money to educate daughters – who tended not to continue their
given a primarily physical education in preparation for military ser- education much beyond puberty, since they were often married off
vice, learning how to ride, swim and fight. However upon reaching at that age. The richest avoided the necessity of attending school
maturity (after puberty), they would receive their toga virilis and also entirely and merely hired private tutors.
accompany their father on his daily business. In effect they would Since lessons at schools required money, many of the poorer
undertake an apprenticeship, gaining the morals, contacts and social families in Rome could not afford to educate their children beyond
skills necessary for their future profession. The adoption of reading, the age of puberty (if at all), whereas in the agrarian regions of
writing and counting was basic, and only mastered by those who the countryside, and less densely populated suburbia, life could be a
required such skills. little easier. Indeed many of the most famous Roman authors were
born and raised outside of Rome, gaining their fundamental educa-
“With regard, then, to the senators and the knights, this is the advice tion in provincial schools.
I have to give you, yes, and this also, that while they are still children they
should attend the schools, and when they come out of childhood into youth they “I owe it to my father, who, though poor,
should turn their minds to horses and arms, and have paid public teachers in Passed by the village school at his own door,
each of these departments. In this way from their very boyhood they will have The school where great tall urchins in a row,
had both instruction and practice in all that they will themselves be required Sons of great tall centurions, used to go,
to do on reaching manhood, and will thus prove more serviceable to you for With slate and satchel on their backs, to pay
every undertaking.” Their monthly quota punctual to the day,
Cassius Dio – Roman History And took his boy to Rome, to learn the arts
Which knight or senator to his imparts.”
Yet the slowly growing numbers of Greek slaves imported, at first Horace - Satires
from occupation of the city states in southern Italy and then in ever
growing numbers from the subjugation of the Hellenic world, had a After the age of maturity, schools focussed on teaching Latin and
profound effect on Roman learning. Greek literature and most importantly, rhetoric – the art of public
speaking and influence. However, they did not stop there but intro-
“For the first time at this period, Rome appears to have become studious of duced lessons on music, dance and eventually others which were
foreign literature. It was no longer a little rivulet, flowing from Greece towards considered frivolous subjects by more traditional Romans of the mid
the walls of our city; but an overflowing river of Grecian sciences and arts.” and late Republic.
Cicero - The Commonwealth
“For that there are to this day schools for rhetoricians and, as I have said,
Many Greek slaves were educated to a far higher degree than for mathematicians and musicians, or, what is more to be wondered at, train-
their masters and in consideration of this were utilised as teachers of ing schools for the most contemptible vices – the seasoning of food to promote
children. Eventually schools opened, at first these were run by Greek gluttony and the more extravagant serving of courses, and dressers of the head
freedmen in imitation of Hellenic schools but in time educated and hair – I have not only heard but have even seen with my own eyes; but of
agriculture I know neither self-professed teachers nor pupils.”
Columella - De Re Rustica
Kissing in Roman Society
It appears in the writings of authors of the period, that public kiss-
Most families who could afford to educate their children pos-
ing (osculatio) in Roman society was far more common between men,
sessed a paedagogus, a slave whose duty it was to guard his master’s
than between the sexes. A kiss to the cheek was a sign of salutation – an
children, escort them to school and perhaps give some elementary
indication of equality between friends, companions or respect to an elder;
instruction at home.
whereas a kiss to the hand placed the kisser in an inferior position, some-
During the late Republic a liberal education began to include a
thing Romans of the Republic were loath to do. Kissing on the lips was
period of further learning by sending young men to Hellenic cities to
only socially permitted between males and females of the same family.
enrol themselves into various schools of philosophy. Such philosophic
24 Boni pastoris est tondere pecus, non deglubere – A good shepherd shears his sheep, he doesn’t flay them (Tiberius)
training was considered the epitome of education, although still held sign of their manliness but also to ensure the family survived so that
lesser status than the more practical arts of rhetoric. the ancestors (and they themselves after death) would continue to
be provided for in the afterlife. In fact in the designation of wed-
“At Rome I had my schooling, and was taught lock under Roman law was ‘marriage concluded for the obtaining
Achilles’ wrath, and all the woes it brought; of lawful children’.
At classic Athens, where I went erelong,
I learnt to draw the line ‘twixt right and wrong, “Since you know your husband’s life and fidelity belong to you, [my wife,]
And search for truth, if so she might be seen, and no other woman presses or threatens your marriage bed, why do you torture
In academic groves of blissful green” yourself foolishly because of servants as though they were mistresses? Love
Horace - Satires with them is both brief and fleeting.”
Martial - Epigrams
Marriage and Children produced by marriage inherited the social class of

the father. However, a father would first have to accept the child,
Weddings (Coniugium)
Roman marriage was essentially a contractual affair used to link
which he did by picking up the baby. Failure to recognise the child
in this way condemned it to illegitimacy or to being abandoned as
a foundling.
two families more closely together for economic or political advan- Since most marriages were arranged by the paterfamilias, love
tage. Such marriages were usually arranged when girls were still was rarely part of the relationship. In fact, overt public displays
young, leading to long betrothals (sponsus) lasting many years. of affection between husband and wife during the Republic was
Due to these customs, most young ladies were forced to lead frowned upon, since it gave the appearance of weakness – some-
somewhat retiring lives or always be accompanied by a matron who thing which even famous generals like Pompey and Marc Antony
chaperoned their wards to ensure no untoward contact was made were accused of.
with members of the opposite sex. A betrothed girl who engaged
in flirtatious behaviour could invalidate long-standing marriage “Cato tells us that it was the usage for the male relatives to give the females
promises, potentially causing the paterfamilias to lose face, pay out a kiss, in order to ascertain whether they smelt of ‘temetum’; for it was by that
a compensatory fine for breaking the contract and perhaps even name that wine was then known”
cause a rift between the two families. Only those who had completed Pliny the Elder - Naturalis Historia
puberty were legally able to marry. Once married however, the wife
gained a considerable amount of personal freedom. Fidelity in marriage was one sided. Men could openly seek sexual
There were two forms of marriage. The first was marriage ‘by gratification outside the relationship, whereas women were forbid-
the hand’ (in manu), in which the father literally placed control of den to do so, presumably since it called into question the patrimony
his daughter into her husband’s hand at the time of the wedding. of any children produced.
This transferred the father’s rights and power to the husband, sever-
ing all kinship and transferring her completely into the authority of “If you should catch your wife in adultery, you may with impunity put her
the new family. Although this prevented the return of the woman to to death without a trial; but if you should commit adultery or indecency, she
her original family if she was divorced, it conversely allowed her to must not presume to lay a finger on you, nor does the law allow it.”
inherit part of her husband’s estate on his death. In manu marriage Cato - On the Dowry
could be performed as Confarreatio, an elaborate religious cere-
mony with 10 witnesses, the Flamen Dialis and Pontifex Maximus Despite the dangers however, the pursuit of adulterous affairs
in attendance; Coemptio, where the wife carried a dowry into the (stuprum) became ever more frequent with the erosion of Roman
marriage but was ceremoniously bought by her husband in front of morals towards the end of the Republic.
at least five witnesses; or Usus which after a year’s cohabitation, the Divorce was normally initiated by the husband and could only
woman by default came under her husband’s hand. be legitimately claimed on the grounds of adultery, poisoning the
The second, far less common form was sine manu, meaning husband’s children or counterfeiting his keys. However, divorce
that the women retained her connection with her family, remaining necessitated the return of the dowry, less some small deductions for
under the authority of her original paterfamilias. This prevented the education of any children produced, which without exception
the husband from excessive punishment without gaining permission remained with the father.
from the head of her family first (which was not necessarily withheld
depending on the crime performed by the wife). “Friend, I have not much to stay, stop and read it. This tomb, which is not
Marriages always involved a dowry, normally in the form of fair, is for a fair woman. Her parents gave her the name Claudia. She loved
income earning farmland, property or businesses, which was negoti- her husband in her heart. She bore two sons, one of whom she left on earth, the
ated as part of the contract and sized to attract a prospective spouse other beneath it. She was pleasant to talk with. She walked with grace. She
of the correct social standing. The husband gained full control over kept the house. She worked in wool. That is all. You may go.”
the dowry and could do what he liked with it. However, if the mar- Anonymous Epitaph
riage ever failed, then the dowry, or its equivalent financial value,
was legally required to be returned.
The duties of a wife were to procreate and support her husband’s
career. Children were all-important to Roman men, not only as a
Bonitas non est pessimis esse meliorem – It is not good to be better than the worst (Seneca)
25
Wedding Ceremonies (Nuptiae) is under constraint and not of their own desire that they enter a dwelling where
they are about to lose their virginity?”
Weddings were usually held at the home of the bride’s father. Plutarch - Roman Questions
Other than the witnesses and priest necessary for the ceremony,
members of both families, friends, patrons, clients and even business Finally the bride was escorted to the marriage bed set up in the
or political associates would be invited. Days not suitable for enter- atrium, where the matron of honour helped her disrobe and prepare
ing matrimony were the Calends, Nones and Ides of every month, for the nuptials. In the morning she would dress as a matron in her
all dies atri and the whole months of May and February (see Months own right and make sacrifices to the lares and penates of the house-
& Dates page 120). hold (the spirits of the family and of the larder).
If her family could afford it, the bride would be dressed in yel- It should be noted that it was not actually necessary for the hus-
low slippers (socci), a white tunic with a purple fringe (tunica recta), band to be present at the wedding at all. He could simply send a
bound with a belt (cingulum) tied in a ceremonial protective knot letter with his part of any verbal exchange.
(nodus Herculaneus), a yellow dyed hairnet (reticulum) and most
importantly a saffron dyed bridal veil (flammeum) (see Dyeing and
Death and Funerals

Cleaning page 39).
“Why do they part the hair of brides with the point of a spear? Does this
symbolize the marriage of the first Roman wives by violence with attendant
war, or do the wives thus learn, now that they are mated to brave and warlike
(Funus)
Death, as in life, was a family affair. A Roman known to be dying
men, to welcome an unaffected, unfeminine, and simple mode of beautifica- was attended by their relations for exchanges of last wishes and fare-
tion? …Or does this procedure hint at the manner of their separation, that wells. At the point of death a close family member would catch the
with steel alone can their marriage be dissolved?” final breath with their mouth, before closing the deceased’s eyes and
Plutarch - Roman Questions taking their ring. Then those others present would loudly call out the
person’s name (conclamatio) in an expression of sorrow.
She would be accompanied by a matron of honour (pronuba) After the initial grieving, the dead body would be washed by
who had only married once. The ceremony began with a sacrifice the women of the household, then anointed with perfumes or oils,
of a pig or spelt wheat cakes to Jupiter and the auspices being taken embalmed and finally dressed in the deceased’s best clothes. A coin
by a priest. The bride consented to the marriage with the formulaic was placed under the tongue to pay Charon to ferry their soul across
chant of “where you are Gaius, I then am Gaia”, then the matron the River Styx to the underworld. The body was then placed in state
of honour took the right hands of the couple and placed them in in the atrium of the house, so that extended family, friends, clients
each other, indicating the handing over of authority. After which and patrons could pay their respects. The more popular and import-
the marriage contract (tabulae nuptiales) was signed by the requisite ant the person, the longer the corpse remained on display. However,
number of witnesses. the oppressive heat of summer often curtailed this period of mourn-
After congratulations from friends and family, and the presenta- ing due to rapid decomposition.
tion of gifts, a wedding banquet was given for the guests; that ended Subsequent to this was the funeral procession (pompa funebris),
with the two families enacting a mock kidnapping in memory of which in the cases of the poor and children were traditionally per-
the Rape of the Sabine Women, by stealing the bride away from formed at night. Conversely, funerals of important persons could
her mother’s arms. She was escorted to her husband’s house in a be elaborate ceremonial events held during the day and were often
procession, accompanied by three boys, one of whom would lead announced publicly in advance by heralds.
the way carrying a lighted torch, lit from the bride’s hearth. The Wealthy processions were preceded by musicians, followed by
escorting guests would throw walnuts, along with obscene jokes to torch bearers and professional female mourners (praeficae) who
aid fertility in the marriage. She herself carried a distaff and spindle screamed and wailed in grief for the departed. The procession
which represented her role to weave as a faithful wife and the whole might even include dancers or clowns depending on the impression
procession would dance and sing on the way, often with musical the family wished to make.
accompaniment. The most important participants were mimes who would wear
The husband ventured ahead in his own procession to reach his the wax masks of previously deceased family members and imitate
home first, singing rude songs (versus fescennini). When the bride the physical mannerisms of those honoured ancestors (see Ances-
reached the house she would smear oil and fat on the door and wind tor Worship page 108). Each accompanying ‘predecessor’ wore
wool around the door posts. Then the groom helped his bride across the clothing and insignia due their rank and awards they had won
the threshold (sometimes by carrying) to prevent any ill-fortune if during their careers, and were borne along on carried couches, or in
she tripped on entering. Once inside, she would light the hearth with later days, chariots.
her torch, the charred remnants of which was thrown to the guests After this came men who bore the figurines of the household
for good luck. gods, in advance of the corpse carried aloft on a bier. At the rear
would follow the family, friends and clients of the departed, which
“Why do they not allow the bride to cross the threshold of her home her- could accumulate to a significant crowd. All would wear black or
self, but those who are escorting her lift her over? Is it because they carried off dark clothing, men would cease to shave or cut their hair and cov-
by force also the first Roman brides and bore them in, in this manner, and the ered their heads with their togas, whereas women would leave their
women did not enter of their own accord? Or do they wish it to appear that it hair uncovered and unbound.
26 Caeci caecos ducentes – Blind are led by the blind

If the deceased was a public figure, the funeral procession would grave. Wealthier cremations involved larger pyres of sweet smelling
stop in the Forum Romanum, where the son, or father, would make woods, onto which was cast incense and oils to honour the departed.
a speech lauding the departed. Normally this aspect only applied Often included were objects the dead person valued in life which
to dead males of magisterial achievement but a few women were would be taken with the soul to the underworld.
similarly recognised during the Republic.
“Aviola, a man of consular rank, came to life again when on the funeral
“He even delivered a funeral oration in his honour, which was so admired pile; but, by reason of the violence of the flames, no assistance could be ren-
by the Romans and won such favour that from that time on, when their great dered him, in consequence of which he was burnt alive”
and good men died, encomiums were pronounced upon them by the most dis- Pliny the Elder - Naturalis Historia
tinguished citizens.”
Plutarch - Life of Publicola It normally fell to a close family member or friend to light the
fire. Attendees would remain at the pyre until it burned down,
After this public display, which served to promote the reputation whereupon it was doused with wine and a relative would collect
and importance of the deceased’s family and ancestors, the proces- the remaining bones and place them in an urn; which in turn was
sion would travel beyond the city walls where the body would either inhumed into a monument or family mausoleum in one of the
be buried or cremated; funerals being forbidden within the city. Cre- necropolises. After this the attendees were free to depart, or even
mation was the more popular form of disposal in the later Republic. seek solace in the arms of one of the mourners or busturiae who
frequented funerals (see Prostitution page 31).
“The burning of the body after death, among the Romans, is not a very In later times, most funerals, even those of the poor, were
ancient usage; for formerly, they interred it. After it had been ascertained, how- entrusted to undertakers who performed most of the duties whilst
ever, in the foreign wars, that bodies which had been buried were sometimes the family grieved. The differing employees were the pollinctores
disinterred, the custom of burning them was adopted. Many families, how- who washed, anointed and embalmed the body, vespillones who
ever, still observed the ancient rites, as, for example, the Cornelian family, no placed the corpse on the bier and carried it to the grave or pyre and
member of which had his body burnt before Sulla, the Dictator; who directed the dissignatores who arranged and directed the funeral procession.
this to be done, because, having previously disinterred the dead body of Caius The dead were paid great respect by the remaining family, who
Marius, he was afraid that others might retaliate on his own.” would visit the mausoleums during Parentalia each year (see Roman
Pliny the Elder - Naturalis Historia Festivals page 115). Those who violated a sepulchre or dared to
remove the bodies or bones were punished by death or condemna-
The poor were generally buried in the great pits on the Esqui- tion to the mines.
line Hill, sometimes after being cremated on a small pyre filling the
Cave ab homine unius libri - Beware the man of one book

27
Mythic Rome: Culture
Culture
A
s the city of Rome grew in size and prosperity, the wealth- More than fifty boys and girls, one of them, I am ashamed to say, the son of
ier populace found it less necessary to work so hard, the a candidate for office, a boy wearing the golden boss, a lad not less than twelve
majority of their labours being taken over by the rising years of age. He was jingling a pair of castanets and dancing a step which an
numbers of slaves and impoverished plebians. Of course, it was the immodest slave could not dance with decency.”
higher classes who led the development of, and gave patronage to, Macrobius – The Saturnalia
many pursuits; but even the plebeians had time on their hands and
often money to spend. After Scipio Aemilianus’s denunciation, the Republic experi-
enced a backlash against the perceived effeminacy of Greek culture
and the training of such performance arts was abandoned, being
Leisure (Otium)
Leisure was helped by the ever increasing number of festival
replaced by a return to stoic asceticism. Thereafter the profession of
musician, actor or dancer were considered despicable jobs. Usually
only slaves or foreigners took up the role of performers and, despite
days (dies festi) the Romans introduced into their calendar, each occasional famous actors gaining wealth, the majority found it a sub-
one showing devotion a particular god or celebrating an historical sistence form of employment.
event (see Roman Festivals page 115). The majority of these festi-
vals were holidays (holy days) upon which legal or political business “And now let me speak at once of the race which is most dear to our rich
was technically forbidden. Eventually the number of festival days men, and which I avoid above all others; no shyness shall stand in my way. I
surpassed the number of working days, giving the average Roman cannot abide, Quirites, a Rome of Greeks; and yet what fraction of our dregs
a large amount of spare time, once religious observances had been comes from Greece? The Syrian Orontes has long since poured into the Tiber,
completed. bringing with it its lingo and its manners, its flutes and its slanting harp-
On top of this, the Roman citizen’s workday, although beginning strings; bringing too the timbrels of the breed, and the trulls who are bidden
at sunrise, ended very shortly after midday, leaving them the entire ply their trade at the Circus.”
afternoon for their own pursuits. Juvenal – Saturae
So how did Romans spend their free time?
Within Rome most public entertainment was free to the masses
Performance Arts (Artes) with no concept of a theatre with paid admittance. Public perfor-
Although most Romans loved the performance arts, their actual mances were supervised by state magistrates (the ædiles) but actually
practice is considered beneath their dignity. A ‘proper’ Roman sponsored by private individuals. By the end of the republic the two
would never sing, dance or play a musical instrument in public and, positions were often combined.
indeed, the learning of such skills was frowned upon. A brief renais- Owing to the rather poor quality of Roman light-sources, most
sance occurred half way through the Republic when the hiring of public entertainments were presented during the daytime, just after
Greek dancing and singing masters came into vogue; however, a noon during the early Republic but moving to just before noon by
famed general spoke out in indignation against the social iniquity the middle Republic.
of such pastimes.
“Hence the picture which Scipio Aemilianus, sane Hellenist and stout
Music (Musica)
Music in republican Rome was prevalent amongst all aspects of
Roman, gazed at with astonished eyes and described in the vigorous and everyday life. Musical education was regarded by the elite as deca-
uncompromising language suited to a former censor.” I was told,” he said, dent and amateur performances were discouraged. Yet public music
“that free-born boys and girls went to a dancing school and moved amidst was performed as part of religious ceremonies, funerals, stage pro-
disreputable professors of the art. I could not bring my mind to believe it; but ductions, festivals and the games.
I was taken to such a school myself, and Good Heavens. What did I see there.
28 Cave canem - Beware the dog

“In processions, tightly stretched drums thunder out as they are struck by including the Phrygian Tibia which has an animal horn
the hands of her attendants. Curved cymbals clash, and horns threaten with mounted on the end to amplify its sound.
their harsh wailing. And the hollow flute stirs the heart with Phrygian Tune.” ΩΩ Aulos (double oboe) – Another wooden instrument, unusual
Lucretius – description of a procession in honour of Cybele in the fact that there are two separate double-reed pipes
attached together near the mouthpieces. Each hand plays a
Music was also enjoyed in homes or taverns, the richest families separate melody on the two halves.
providing private performances during meals for example. Ambient ΩΩ Ascaules (bagpipe) – In all probability the ascaules is in fact an
music was not only accompaniment for the meal itself but also whilst aulos connected to a leather wind bag, allowing the player to
the food was prepared and afterwards during the cordial drinking sing in accompaniment with the music if desired.
sessions. Such music was called a symposium. ΩΩ Fistula Panis (pan pipes) – A Greek instrument constructed
from multiple hollow reed tubes of increasing lengths,
“We were about halfway through some very elegant hors d’oeuvres when strapped or glued together.
Trimalchio himself was carried in to the sound of orchestra music and placed ΩΩ Hydraulus (water powered organ) – Although the Organum
on a pile of pillows. This spectacle surprised us and made us laugh.” was first designed and built by the Greeks in the third century
Petronius – The Satyricon BC, and is mentioned by Cicero in 50 BC, it is not definitively
found in Rome until the Imperial period, where its volume
Romans did not place any great artistic value on music but was used during games or processions at the amphitheatres.
inherited its development, as with most other things, from Greek However some Games Masters might wish to include it into
and Etruscan culture. Although knowledge of music was consid- their late republic period campaigns.
ered a sign of learning, in reality the profession of all but the most
accomplished musician was looked down upon and generally only “If a dear friend is overcome with grief, would you offer him a sturgeon
provided by slaves or plebeians. rather than a treatise by Socrates? Would you urge him to listen to a hydraulus
Many mosaics show small groups of musicians playing together playing rather than to Plato discoursing?”
with combinations of pipes, strings and percussion instruments. At Cicero – Tusculan Orations
the games or during large festivals, hundreds of musicians some-
Plucked Instruments
times combined to provide lavish musical entertainment. Roman
music has a very steady beat and listeners often accompanied the ΩΩ Lyra (lyre) – Another Greek instrument, originally formed
rhythm by stamping or clapping. The melodies were simple and from a tortoise shell and possessing seven strings attached to a
involved following an elaborate series of modes which lended the crossbar. It is plucked using a plectrum. A folk instrument, the
music different emotional qualities. lyra was eventually superseded by the kithara.
ΩΩ Kithara (zither) – A larger and heavier version of the lyra,
“The musical modes differ essentially from one another, and those who it was formed from a deep wooden sounding box with two
hear them are differently affected by each. Some of them make men sad and extended arms ending in a crossbar, between which ran the
grave, like the so called Mixolydian; others enfeeble the mind, like the relaxed strings. The kithara is the most popular instrument of ancient
modes; another, again, produces a moderate or settled temper, which appears to Rome used by later professional musicians.
be the peculiar effect of the Dorian; and the Phrygian inspires enthusiasm.” ΩΩ Trigonum (harp) – A three sided lap harp, which originated
Aristotle – Politics from Egypt and the Middle East.
Roman musical instruments are categorised as either wind,

Percussion Instruments
plucked or percussion. Some examples follow.
ΩΩ Drums – A versatile instrument, drums are used by the mil-
Wind Instruments itary, during hunts to drive prey and even by bee keepers to
ΩΩ Tuba (trumpet) – A long, straight trumpet-like instrument sooth the inhabitants of their apiaries. Drums come in a mul-
made of bronze. Inherited from the Etruscans, the tuba is titude of shapes and sizes.
ΩΩ Tympanum (tambourine) – Part drum and part cymbals, a
primarily used for military signalling but is also used during
interludes at gladiatorial contests or large festivals. tympanum is played by beating and shaking.
ΩΩ Cornu (horn) – A bronze Etruscan instrument, similar to a ΩΩ Sistra (rattle) – Made by stringing metal rings across the cross-
tuba except that it is curved and sometimes possesses a fan- bars of a wooden or bronze frame and attached to a handle.
ΩΩ Crotalum (castanets)
cifully decorated flared bell in monstrous or animal shapes.
ΩΩ Cymbalum (small bronze cymbals)
Buccinae are larger versions of Cornu.
ΩΩ Lituus (trumpet) – An Etruscan J-shaped instrument. Its ΩΩ Tintinnabulum (bell)
inspiration, visible in its earliest examples, was a simple hol-
low cane with a cow horn for a bell.
ΩΩ Fistula Obliqua (flute) – A wooden instrument very similar to Singing (Cantus)
the modern flute. From the time of kings it was common that ballads praising
ΩΩ Tibia (pipes) – Usually a simple single-reed pipe akin to a famous men were sung at banquets, each guest singing in turn
clarinet but smaller. Several versions of this instrument exist, accompanied by a piper. This tradition was replaced in the early
Republic by young boys singing ancient ballads celebrating heroes
Cedant arma togae – Let armaments yield to the toga

29
of former times instead. However, this too fell from favour when
singing boys gained an immoral reputation.
“Would that we still had the old ballads of which Cato (the Censor)
speaks.’’
Cicero
By the mid-Republic, just as with the playing of musical instru-

ments, Romans appreciated singing yet did not often practice it
themselves. The higher classes never publicly sang, save where it
was a necessary part of religious duties, the only situation where it
reinforced decorum. Choral singing was rare, occurring only during
religious celebrations or as a part of theatrical performances.
“…Flutes and pipes and piccolos sounded a very soothing harmony. An

attractive choir of carefully chosen boys, radiant in their white Vestments,
followed, singing a hymn which had been composed by a skilful poet, inspired
by the Muses, and which explained the processional rites of this important
ceremony. Then came the pipe players dedicated to the cult of mighty Serapis.
Holding their pipes out to the side, toward their right ears, they played a tune
usually heard in a temple, by the god.”
Apuleius – The Golden Ass
However singing was often a common pastime amongst for-

eigners or slaves during manual labour. It also occured in wine bars
where inebriation and song seemed to live hand in hand, much to
the despair of those living along the streets where groups of drunks
passed on the way home. to honour Faunus and dance was a prime part of worshiping other
gods such as the Cybele or Bacchus.
Dancing (Saltatio) “To the Phrygian home of Cybele, to the forest of the goddess, where the
Dancing was originally introduced from the Etruscans, its first
Phrygian player sounds a low note on his curving horn, where voice of cym-
recorded example being in 364 B.C.E. when Rome was struck by a
bals clash, where the drums resound, where women wearing ivy wreath toss
devastating plague. The inhabitants paid for professional Etruscan
their heads in ecstasy, with sharp screams performing the holy rites of Our
dancers to come and placate the gods, whose anger they believed
Lady. There the wandering band of Our Lady is forever fleeting”
they were suffering. Yet, despite their neighbouring culture’s love of
Catullus – Attis
dancing, within Rome dance was scrupulously avoided by the higher
classes or those imitating polite society, being considered uncouth
and undermining gravitas. Indeed, dancing by women was regarded
as the first step towards prostitution. Theatre (Theatrum)
Roman theatre can be divided into several categories, comedies
“Generally nobody sane dances, unless very mad.” (comoediae), tragedies (tragoediae), farces (mimi) and pantomimes
Cicero (pantomimi). Both comedies and tragedies were usually transcribed
from Greek works by writers such as Livius Andronicus and Gnaeus
Professional dancers did not seem to exist before the late Repub- Naevius, using the native stories, settings, costumes (fabulae pallia-
lic, save as part of pantomime and other theatre performances. tae) and masks but performed in Latin. These performances took
Dancing girls were sometimes used as entertainments at private the form of musical drama and included dance too.
parties but these dancers were always foreign slaves and usually per- Tragic drama never received much popularity in Rome and by
formed as prostitutes too. Although most citizens forswore dance the middle Republican period, only the more effusive comedies,
there were certain situations where dancing was permitted, for such as those written by Plautus and Terence, gained any favour.
example during festivals, at funerals or simply when inebriated. However farces and pantomimes, originally short skits used as inter-
Religion and dance are irrevocably entwined in Roman culture ludes during breaks between other performances, quickly grew in
with many cults performing dance as part of their worship. The Salii popularity and by the end of the late Republic had surpassed the
were young patrician males who, carrying spears and sacred shields traditional comedies. The two most famous actors in the late Repub-
(the ancilia, one of which is said to have fallen from the heavens lic were Roscius and Aesopus who came to epitomise comedy and
during King Numa’s reign), sang and danced their way through the tragedy respectively.
city. Farces (also known as mimes) and pantomimes were beloved by
Other faiths encouraged their worshippers to participate in the lower classes since their mimicry, dance and acrobatics required
dance. The lupercalia, was a fertility festival which involved dancing little education to understand. Either form could be serious or
30 Ceterum censeo Carthaginem delendam esse – And in conclusion, Carthage ought to be destroyed (Cato the Elder)
satirical. If serious, the performance usually leaned towards histor- Epics are narratives concerning heroes and mythology, such as
ical stories or mythology. Satires (saturæ) usually depicted tales of Virgil’s Aeneid. They are long and performed with a heavy, serious
depravity and buffoonery, often insulting those politicians, states- metre.
men and women who were the centre of gossip at the time. Its crass Epigrams are short witty poems originally created for funerals
humour eventually grew so indecent that it became offensive to and as inscriptions on tombs or shrines. Often satirical, they were
polite society. also scrawled as part of the ubiquitous graffiti that covered the walls
Mimes involved several actors, were spoken in nature, foreswore of the city. By the late Republic they became so popular that a well-
the use of masks and often depicted literal enactments of sex and crafted epigram could be given as a gift for a respected patron or
violence. Pantomimes on the other hand were performed by a used as published verse for entertainment. Domitius Marsus, Lucan
masked solo dancer who did not speak and was accompanied only and Martial were considered masters of the style.
by music and occasionally, a chorus. Lyrics take their name from being accompanied by a lyre. This
Most plays were free public entertainments, usually held as part form of poetry is performed in the first person, portraying the poet’s
of religious games (ludi). The actors were exclusively men, either own feelings and perceptions. Horace wrote much of his works in
slaves or foreigners, since the Roman sense of propriety forbade lyrical form.
public performance in such a demeaning environment. Indeed, one Elegies are epigrams specifically concerning love and eroticism.
member of the equestrian order was demoted to plebeian status for Catullus, Propertius, Tibullus and Ovid were especially known for
indecency after performing on the stage at the request of Julius Cae- their elegies.
sar. Although reinstated to equestrian rank, he never recovered his
status in the eyes of his fellow citizens. “I hate and I love. Perhaps you’re asking why I do this? I don’t know, but
The number of performers (histriones) in an acting troop (grex) I feel it happening, and its torture.”
was kept to a minimum, primarily due to cost. The actors used wigs Catullus
and robes to differentiate between their various roles. This led to a
convention of assigning explicit colours to specific characters. For Prose lacks a rhythmic metrical structure and is strictly not a
example, black wigs for young men, purple robes for rich men, grey form of poetry. However, Roman prose does contain subtle arrhyth-
wigs or white robes for old men and red wigs for slaves. Men playing mic patterns, which tailored it for public oratory and the retelling of
the part of women wore yellow robes and used cosmetics to dis- history. Thus it is closely associated with more classical poetry and
guise their faces. This colour coding had the added benefit of aid- many authors specialised in writing in both styles. Over time the
ing comprehension since audiences were excessively noisy, a rough subtleties of such rhetoric eventually displaced poetry as the leading
confusion of pushing, booing and shouted insults. They became so form of entertainment.
rowdy that members of the aristocracy withdrew their attendance,
which helped lead to a general over-simplification of plays for the
uncouth crowds.
The Games (Ludi Circenses)
The Romans’ love of chariot racing and gladiatorial combat is
Up to the end of the middle Republic, plays were performed in
covered in The Games chapter, starting on page 75.
the open, on a specially built wooden platform set at the foot of a
hillside or in one of the forums. The audience would lay, sit or stand
as desired and often caused overcrowding near the stage, contribut- Prostitution (Meretricia)
ing to arguments and tussles in the already noisy environment.
By the 2nd Century BC, the aristocracy benefited from pur- “we have courtesans for pleasure, and concubines for the daily service of
pose-built, segregated seating closest to the stage, so that they could our bodies, but wives for the production of legitimate offspring and to have
view the plays without being disturbed by the lower classes. These reliable guardians of our household property”
theatres were dismantled on the orders of the Senate once the Apollodoros – Against Neaira
scheduled performances were over, probably to recover the cost of
the timber involved in its construction, and thereafter it became cus- Prostitution was an inherent part of every Mediterranean culture
tom to construct a new theatre for each set of public games. and Rome was no exception. Indeed, the legendary twin founders of
It was not until 55 BC that the first permanent theatre was built the city, Romulus and Remus were supposedly suckled by the ‘she-
from stone by Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus in the Campus Martius. wolf ’ (lupa), which at the time was a euphemism for a female pros-
Able to seat 40,000 spectators, it was still dwarfed by the 100,000 titute. A brothel (lupanar) is literally translated as ‘wolf den’. Prosti-
capacity which could fit into the Circus Maximus (see Theatres and tution was an accepted part of life,and so commonplace that based
Amphitheatres page 54). upon the 22 establishments located in Pompeii, there was probably
at least one official brothel for every 1,000 inhabitants.
Poetry (Poetice) Prostitution also occurred under the arches (fornix) of public
buildings, the baths (balneae), inns (stabulae), lodging houses (diver-
Of all the performance arts, poetry was held in the highest
soria), the crude huts of slum areas (tuguria), temples (templa) and,
esteem. Many Romans of high status wrote poetry and it was com-
perhaps most strange of all, bakery shops (tabernae).
mon to have poetry performed at dinner parties or feasts, usually by
one of the guests. Poetry came in several different forms, differenti-
“As time went on, the owners of these turned the public corn mills into
ated by the metre with which they were pronounced. They can be
pernicious frauds. For, as the mill stones were fixed in places under ground,
split into the following general definitions.
they set up booths on either side of these chambers and caused harlots to stand
for hire in them, so that by these means they deceived very many, -- some that
Civis Romanus sum – I am a Roman citizen (Cicero)

31
came for bread, others that hastened thither for the base gratification of their
wantonness.” The Dangers of Prostitution
Paulus Diaconus Prostitution has many associated hazards. First and foremost is the
chance that the prostitute is simply a lure for a waiting gang of ruffians
Lupanaria for soliciting males were often called dove cotes (turtu- or perhaps that the prostitutes are thieves themselves.
rillae) from ‘turtur’ a euphemism for penis. Second is the social stigma associated with visiting a prostitute.
Prostitutes were both males and females, with many raised into Whilst young men are given some leeway for disrespectful conduct in
the trade from abandoned infants (expositi) or being purchased as their youth, a politician or person of high status can lose much of their
slaves. Prostitutes were required to register themselves with the ædile dignitas from being caught in purchased company. A common form of
responsible for their trade, whereupon they gave their name, age, election slander is to be accused of consorting with prostitutes.
place of birth, the pseudonym they intended to work under and the Third is the risk of venereal disease (morbus indecens). Roman
price they would charge. They were then entered into the official doctors refused treatment for such infections, considering it an indecency.
lists and issued with a licence (licentia stupri). Women suffering from venereal disease could only pray to Juno and
other goddesses for help or visit wise women for herbal medications,
“for Visitilia, born of a family of prætorian rank, had publicly notified despite the fact that they may have legitimately caught such poxes from
before the ædiles, a permit for fornication...” their husbands.
Tacitus
whilst waiting for their chosen consort to become available. The
Registered prostitutes were called ‘meretrices’ while the unreg-
doorway to each cell would bear a tablet (titulus) advertising the
istered ones ‘prostibulae’. Once registered, a prostitute could never
name and price charged by the occupant. Its reverse bore the word
remove their name from the official lists and were forbidden from
‘occupata’ and would be turned when the prostitute was engaged
marrying into respectable families. If an unlicensed prostitute was
within.
caught practicing the trade, then they were sometimes fined but
Although prostitution was an everyday fact of life, it did attach
most often scourged and, at worst, exiled. However, unregistered
some degree of social stigma, not only to the courtesan themselves
courtesans servicing the higher classes often used the influence of
but also to those who utilised their services.
their customers to avoid prosecution.
Female prostitutes were forbidden by law from wearing the stola
“If there is anyone who holds the opinion that young men should be inter-
(see Women’s Clothing page 40), the normal dress of a free woman,
dicted from intrigues with the women of the town, he is indeed austere. That,
thus emphasising their lack of decency. Nor were they permitted
ethically, he is in the right, I cannot deny: but nevertheless, he is at loggerheads
shoes, jewellery, cloth of purple or hair ties (vittae). Instead they
not only with the licence of the present age, but even with the habits of our
were supposed to wear rough togas and sandals, which although
ancestors and what they permitted themselves. For when was this NOT done?
respectable for men, had the opposite effect when donned by a
When was it rebuked? When found fault with?”
woman. Female courtesans ought to have dyed their hair too but the
Cicero – Pro Coelio
regulations were often ignored. Instead many prostitutes flaunted
such rules and wore vividly coloured or patterned togas, or licen-
Prostitution garnered some degree of respectability from the
tious robes of gauze or silk. Sometimes a prostitute might eschew
annual flower festival of Floralia, annually celebrated from the
clothing entirely, simply sitting naked outside their place of work.
time of the monarchy. It was supposedly funded by a famous and
successful courtesan, known either as Acca Lorentia or Flora, who
“You stood with the harlots, you stood decked out to please the public,
bequeathed her immense wealth back to the people in the form of an
wearing the costume the pimp had furnished you”
endowment, the income of which was used to celebrate her birthday
Seneca the Elder – Controversiae
and the goddess each year. These festivals primarily involved erotic
dancing and were incredibly popular with the populace. Although
Most prostitution was organised and run from brothels.
the more conservative members of the senate occasionally banned
Lupanaria came in two types, those which were staffed with slaves
such exhibitions, they were always brought back.
as the prostitutes and those which rented rooms out to independent
whores. The owners of such establishments were known as lupanars
“Now how great must that immortality be thought which is attained even
and hired male pimps (adductores or leno) and female procurers
by harlots. Flora, having obtained great wealth by this practice, made the
(conciliatrices or lenae). The profession of pandering (lenocinium)
people her heir, and left a fixed sum of money, from the annual proceeds
was used to attract and negotiate with potential customers.
of which her birthday might be celebrated by public celebrations, which they
Most brothels advertised their location by displaying images of
called Floralia.”
Priapus (a fertility god) or more often his symbol, a phallus carved
Lactantius – Divinae Institutiones
in wood or stone, above their doors. The size of the carving was
often of epic proportions, frequently painted to be more lifelike and
However, the free availability of courtesans was seen to threaten
accompanied by the inscription ‘here dwells happiness’ (hic habitat
the very lineage of citizenship, prompting one of the laws of the
felicita). Such establishments sometimes paraded their courtesans
Twelve Tables (see page 228), the ‘Coelebes Prohibito’. This com-
upon balconies (pergulae) overlooking the street.
pelled citizens of manly vigour to satisfy their sexual desire in the
The better brothels generally comprised of an open courtyard
arms of a lawful wife, thus ensuring the continuance of his family
with small cells leading from it. The clientele would wait in the por-
line.
tico with their heads covered (probably to disguise their identity),
32 Clara pacta, boni amici – Clear agreements, good friends

Vivre sa Vie
There are many different types of prostitutes, categorised according to expense or location of business.
ΩΩ Aelicariae – Bakers’ girls, whom entertain those waiting for their grain to be milled or bread to be baked.
ΩΩ Amasia – A female lover.
ΩΩ Amatrix – A female lover who takes the part of a male.
ΩΩ Ambubiae – Singing girls, who were commonly prostitutes.
ΩΩ Amica – A tribade lover.
ΩΩ Blitidae – Low class women named for a cheap drink sold in the taverns they frequented.
ΩΩ Busturiae – ‘Grave watchers’. Frequenters of cemeteries who cater to the emotionally distraught, sometimes within the tombs themselves. They often hired
themselves out as mourners at funerals.
ΩΩ Citharistriae – Harpists. Like ambubiae, they were almost invariably prostitutes.
ΩΩ Copae – Bar maids. A bar maid could not be convicted for unlicensed prostitution, since they were by default considered prostitutes.
ΩΩ Cymbalistriae – Cymbal players. Like most other female musicians and dancers, they were usually prostitutes.
ΩΩ Delicatae – Kept mistresses of high class, normally unlicensed and expensive. They were considered courtesans rather than prostitutes.
ΩΩ Diobolares – Two obol girls, named for the price of their services.
ΩΩ Dores – Prostitutes of great beauty who wore no clothing.
ΩΩ Famosae – Courtesans who were fallen women from respectable families, usually selling themselves for extra money or using their sex to influence powerful
men. Expensive and high classed.
ΩΩ Forariae – Countryside girls who frequented roadsides to solicit travellers.
ΩΩ Gallinae – Thieving prostitutes who rob their customers.
ΩΩ Lupae – She wolves, believed to be so named because they solicited by use of a peculiar wolflike cry to attract custom or from their bestial rapacity during
the act.
ΩΩ Mimae – Mime players. As with other artistic performers, they also acted as prostitutes.
ΩΩ Noctiluae – Night walkers.
ΩΩ Quadrantariae – Harlots who from age or disease no longer possessed beauty or charm… the lowest class of prostitute.
ΩΩ Saltatrix tonsa – Shaved dancing girl.
ΩΩ Scorta erratica – ‘Wandering sluts’. Clandestine prostitutes who walked the streets, possibly due to the lack of legitimate registration or a place of business.
ΩΩ Scortum – As Scorta erratica above.
Sports and Exercise There were several places to exercise oneself in Rome. The most
important was the Campus Martius, a flat open area which lay to the
(Lusus et Exercitatio)
Although the Romans inherited the practice of athletics from
west of the city, outside its walls. This was originally the place where
the militia trained but over time was used for other entertainments.
It was here that the city’s young men came to play sports or practice
the Greeks and Etruscans, their attitude towards sport and training their martial skills (the Campus was originally off-limits to women).
was markedly different. Whereas the Greeks were ferociously com- Activities included foot racing, jumping, throwing, wrestling, boxing,
petitive, the Romans instead sought the ‘recreational, health-pro- swimming, riding and sword fighting. After a hard training session,
moting and military usefulness’ of such activities. While a Greek men swam in the Tiber, or relaxed at the baths back in the city.
would throw a javelin for distance, a Roman would instead throw
at a target. “No hand-ball, no bladder-ball, no feather-stuffed ball makes you ready
for the warm bath, nor the blunted sword-stroke upon the unarmed stump; nor
“A healthy mind in a healthy body” do you stretch forth squared arms besmeared with oil, nor, darting to and fro,
Juvenal snatch the dusty scrimmage-ball, but you run only by the clear Virgin water
[Acqua Virgo aqueduct]”
Health and physical fitness were an important part of daily life. Martial
Whilst most Romans gained plenty of exercise simply walking up
and down the hills of the city, it was considered important for both The gymnasium (palaestra) of the public baths was the other
men and women to keep one’s body strong and vigorous. Those who popular option, where all kinds of callisthenics were available,
failed to maintain their personal fitness were considered to lack self including training with weights and ball games. The palaestra were
discipline and Romans knew that many disorders of the body and popular both with more mature men, who could ill afford to spend
mind were the result of slovenly living. time at the Campus Martius to train, and women who were forbid-
den to do so.
“A person should put aside some part of the day for the care of his body.
He should always make sure that he gets enough exercise especially before a “I am living near a bath: sounds are heard on all sides. Just imagine for
meal.” yourself every conceivable kind of noise that can offend the ear. The men of
Celsus more sturdy muscle go through their exercises, and swing their hands heavily
Claude os, aperi oculos! - Shut your mouth, open your eyes
33
weighted with lead; I hear their groans when they strain themselves, or the had been recaptured from the opponents and successfully carried or
whistling of laboured breath when they breathe out after having held in... If a passed back into your own half. The ball is not allowed to touch the
ballplayer begins to play and to count his throws, it’s all up for the time being.” ground but can be passed or thrown. Physical tackling is allowed but
Seneca only on the bearer of the ball. If the ball touches the ground or is
carried out of bounds then ownership of the ball passes to the team
Romans also loved to play ball games (pilares lusiones). Some of opposite to that which last touched it.
these required special fields (palaestrae) or ball-courts (sphaeristae),
which were sometimes provided at the baths. “Harpastum, which used to be called Phaininda, is the game I like most
of all. Great are the exertion and fatigue attendant upon contests of ball-play-
“Over the undressing room is built the ball-court, which is large enough to ing, and violent twisting and turning of the neck. Hence Antiphanes, ‘Damn
admit of several different kinds of games being played at once, each with its it, what a pain in the neck I’ve got.’ He describes the game thus: ‘He seized
own circle of spectators.” the ball and passed it to a team-mate while dodging another and laughing. He
Pliny pushed it out of the way of another. Another fellow player he raised to his
feet. All the while the crowd resounded with shouts of Out of bounds, Too
Other ball games simply needed an open space. One record from far, Right beside him, Over his head, On the ground, Up in the air, Too short,
Roman law implies an incident where a man being shaved outside Pass it back in the scrum.’”
was killed when a ball struck the barber – suggesting that ball games Atheneaus
were played in the very streets of the city, probably much to the
irritation of pedestrians and those plying their trades on the narrow
avenues. Pila
Other than the ubiquitous games of catch and football (which The general term Pila (ball game) is often used to describe this
allowed the ball to be carried and goals were scored by kicking the specific game. It is played by a number of participants standing in a
ball into a barrel), there were other ball games, which included: circle, within which is a single runner. The objective is for the run-
ner to intercept or capture the ball from the surrounding players
Expulsim Ludere who toss the ball to one another, somewhat like the English game
A form of handball akin to the modern game of squash, where of ‘piggy in the middle’. There are a few rules to make it slightly
the ball is bounced off one wall and struck with the hand (often more interesting: the ball may not be thrown to an immediately
protected with a glove) when rebounding from the ground. Although adjacent player in the circle and the runner in the middle may phys-
handball courts existed at many baths and private villas, the game ically tackle (catastropha) the recipient of the ball. However, if the
could be played against any usable wall. ball is passed before the tackle is made, then the runner has to twist
away sometimes resulting in a bad fall (ruinosus flexus). If the ball is
“If a small (pila), they drove it with the hand, armed with a kind of dropped or dislodged, then the player who loses it replaces the run-
gauntlet, hence called the follis pugillatorius” ner in the middle. If the ball is intercepted during mid throw, then
Plautus the thrower instead must go into the circle.
“Here the illustrious Philomathius resolutely plunged into the ranks of the
Trigon ball-players. He had been a fine player, but that was when still quite young.
A three player game, Trigon requires each participant to stand at Now he was repeatedly pushed by the inside runner from his place in the
the corner of a triangle. The object of the game is to throw a small, standing circle, then again, being brought to inside the ring, he failed alike to
hard ball (also known as a trigon and sometimes made of coloured cut across or to dodge the path of the ball on its course, as it flew close to his
glass) at another player so that they fail to catch it. Using feints to face or was flung over his head; and he would often bend low in a flying tackle
confuse your opponents was a major part of play and sometimes two and then scarcely manage to recover from his staggering swerve. So he was the
balls were used simultaneously. Players could catch the ball in either first to retire from the stress and strain of the game, puffing and blowing in a
hand – necessary when playing with two balls and batting the ball state of internal inflammation”
back without catching it first was considered skilful. Missing a catch Sidonius
or being struck by the ball was a score for the opponent. A score-
keeper (pilicrepus) was used to keep count and ensure that scoring
throws were possible of being caught.
Board Games (Aleae)
The Romans played a variety of board games and games of
“...the person who had the ball seemed to aim at one, but struck another”
chance. Since most involved wagering, they were called Alea, which
Plautus
means ‘gambling’. Playing such games was considered disreputa-
ble in Rome and by the late Republic, gambling on board games
Harpastum became so rife that it was banned by law save for during the festival
An ancient version of rugby, harpastum is a team game played of Saturnalia.
on a rectangular field divided in half by a single line. The objective The fine for gambling is four times the amount wagered, so most
is to keep the ball in your own team’s half, preventing the opposing players attempt to avoid the law by avoiding coins, instead using
team from seizing it. The actual method of scoring has been lost but chips or roundels made from bone, carved with a numeral indicating
the most obvious method would be gaining a point when the ball its potential value, such as I, V, or X. Often these had the name of
34 Concordia civium murus urbium – Harmony of citizens is the wall of cities
the owner inscribed on the reverse so that they could be used as a
marker for future reimbursement. Sentis Sanctus, Punk?
Games Masters who want to add board games into their adven-
Tali (Rolled Knucklebones) tures have two choices. For fun they can play out games for real, using
Played with actual knucklebones, or elongated dice (tali) which the rules given above. However some players may find this tedious and
mimic the elongated shape of the bones, which give one of four boring, and so the result of a board game can simply be abstracted to a
possible results. The sides were marked with the numerals 1, 3, 4, or simple opposed roll between the Gambling skills of the two characters.
6. Dice could be made from bone, wood, glass, ivory, marble, brass,
silver, gold or even gemstones. Played with four bones, the objective Gambling with dice is simply a question of luck, unless the char-
of the game is to roll the highest possible value. There are several acter wishes to cheat. To resolve an honest dice game, every participant
combinations which gave a better result, listed below in descending simply makes a d100 roll and the highest result wins, although charac-
superiority; ters may influence the result using Luck Points as normal.
ΩΩ Attempting to cheat requires the player to roll against their Sleight

Venus (6, 4, 3, 1)
ΩΩ skill to substitute dice or bones.
Senio (6, X, X, X) A single 6 and any other combination
ΩΩ Vultures (6, 6, 6, 6) ΩΩ Critical – As a Success but the switch is undetectable.
ΩΩ Vultures (4, 4, 4, 4) ΩΩ Success – The character may make two rolls in the game and
ΩΩ Vultures (3, 3, 3, 3) chose the better result.
ΩΩ Dogs (1, 1, 1, 1) ΩΩ Failure – No effect.
ΩΩ Highest Total ΩΩ Fumble – The character openly drops the substitute dice, auto-
matically revealing his perfidy.
Tropa (Thrown Knucklebones) Trying to spot cheating requires the observer to make an opposed test
Similar in all ways to the game of Tali but adds an element of of his Perception skill against the cheater’s Sleight roll.
skill as the dice must be cast at a distance into the narrow neck of a
transparent glass bottle or jar.
the objective was to move your 15 counters from the first square on
Tesserae (Dice) your side, around the board to the opposite (and final) square. Three
Similar to Tali, this game was played with cubic six sided dice. knucklebones (see Tali, previous) are rolled from a cup and a counter
Only two dice were used and presumably the highest roll wins, moved a number of spaces according to the face value of each bone.
although many Romans had their own conventions about which Landing in a square occupied by a single counter belonging to the
rolls mean what. opponent returned that piece back to his first square. Winning
occurred when you had moved all your counters to the final square.
Calculi (Five in a Row)
Called ‘Stones’ or ‘Pebbles’ in Latin, this game is similar to Tabula (Backgammon)
Noughts and Crosses but played on an 8x8 board. The objective Just like Duodecim Scripta but it used six sided dice instead and
is to get five pieces in an orthogonal (i.e. vertical or horizontal) or added a few more the rules. The widespread popularity of Tabula
diagonal row. If the board is filled without this happening then the was the direct reason that several laws against gambling were passed
game is a draw. in the late Republic.
Latrunculi (Draughts) Felix Sex (Advanced Backgammon)

Known as ‘Robber-Soldiers’ or ‘Mercenaries’, Latrunculi was a Although historically this game was also called Tabula or Duo-
very popular game in Rome. The boards are usually 8x8 or 8x12 decim Scripta, it has since been renamed ‘Lucky Sixes’ for the pur-
and each player has a single row of counters along the longest edge. pose of distinguishing it from its earlier counterparts. It was similar
Pieces can only be moved in an orthogonal manner, akin to a rook in to Tabula, save that the playing board was three rows of 12 squares.
modern chess, and the game is won when all the opponent’s pieces
are captured, or if all his pieces are immobilised by being trapped
against the edge of the board or within a ring of enemy counters.
Bathing (Lavatio)
Public baths were the centre of social life and Rome had hun-
“The game played with many pieces is a board with spaces disposed
among lines: the board is called the ‘city’ and each piece is called a ‘dog’; the dreds. They were the place to go to clean, to shave, exercise, relax,
pieces are of two colours, and the art of the game consists in taking a piece of exchange gossip, arrange business deals, practice politics, attend the
one colour by enclosing it between two of the other colour.” lectures of philosophers – and even to pick up a prostitute.
Pollux – Onomasticon In the early days of the Republic, Romans were recommended
to bathe infrequently on holidays, cleaning themselves otherwise by
washing their limbs from bowls of water. By the end of the Republic
Duodecim Scripta (Early Backgammon) bathing had become a daily ritual.
The game of ‘Twelve Lines’ is an obvious predecessor to back-
gammon. The board was laid out in two rows of 12 squares and
Consuetudinis magna vis est – The power of habit is great (Cicero)

35
“…it is important also that there be such places in which the household or loincloth (subligaculum), if female a breastcloth (strophium or
may bathe – but only on holidays; for the frequent use of baths is not condu- mamillare) too and be rubbed with oil.
cive to physical vigour.”
Columella – De Re Rustica “In our ancient laws, young men were prohibited from appearing naked
in the public baths – so highly were the principles of modesty esteemed by our
As the influence and wealth of women grew, many baths (bal- ancestors.”
neae) became segregated. Later as baths grew in size and to keep Cicero – Commonwealth
the rooms more spacious, bathhouse owners (balnatores) kept the
rooms communal but segregated use on a basis of time, the women Once on the exercise ground you could indulge in some physical
getting the less desirable morning slot and men having the afternoon training, compete in a sport, play a board game in the shade of the
one. Baths were normally only ever open in the hours of daylight, portico, or simply watch other people working up a sweat. Following
since travelling in Rome after dark was dangerous. Occasionally a that you could then swim in the outdoor pool (natatio).
bath could be kept open after dark for some special event but it was After completing your workout, you would return inside and
expensive to illuminate such buildings after dark, requiring hun- collect your body slave (capsarius) who was carrying your scraper
dreds of lamps and pints of oil. (strigil), perfumed oils (unguenta) and towel (linteum). You then had
him scrape off the post-exercise sweat, oil and dead skin with the
strigil and, once relatively clean, head off to the various chambers,
each one having a pool of water at a different temperature, which
you could move between at your own leisure.
“We see the more prudent among those who are given to this habit have
themselves parboiled in hot-baths, from whence they are carried away half
dead. Others there are, again, who cannot wait till they have got to the ban-
queting couch, no, not so much as till they have got their shirt on, but all
naked and panting as they are, the instant they leave the bath they seize hold
of large vessels filled with wine, to show of, as it were, their mighty powers,
and so gulp down the whole of the contents only to vomit them up again the
very next moment.”
Pliny the Elder – Naturalis Historia
Once nicely relaxed you could seek the services of a masseur

(iatralipta), using your perfumed oils to knead your body and then
be strigilled clean again.
“Many persons quite pride themselves on enduring the heat of mineral

Bathing cost money. The cheapest charged a fee of 1 Quadrans waters for many hours together; a most pernicious practice, however, as they
(the smallest possible coin) to enter but most averaged ½ an As (2 should be used but very little longer than the ordinary bath, after which the
Quadrans). Unusually, despite having to attend the baths at a less bather should be shampooed with cold water, and not leave the bath without
desirable time, women were also forced to pay double the rate for being rubbed with oil.”
men. More exclusive baths with luxurious facilities were the preserve Pliny the Elder – Naturalis Historia
of richer patrons and could be prohibitively expensive for any plebe-
ian to regularly enter. Despite the temptation of exclusivity, higher Finally, after several pleasant hours of socialising in the pools
rank Romans preferred to been seen by the plebeian masses and with neighbours, friends and business acquaintances, you would be
shared baths specifically to raise their public profile and meet clients. towelled dry, dress in (hopefully fresh) clothes and return home in
Occasionally, wealthy individuals would purchase sole use of a time for the evening meal. ‘Bene lava.’... ‘Have a good bath.’ was a
bathhouse for a period of time (an hour at midday, a day, a week and familiar greeting.
so forth) and throw it open for anyone to use free of charge. More
often than not, this was a method of ‘influencing’ popular support
for future elections, rather than simple philanthropy.
The average Roman spent at least a couple of hours at the baths, Art (Ars)
Roman art was originally influenced by Etruscan and then Greek
generally arriving from the eighth or ninth hour (see Hours of the
Day page 120) and leaving before sunset. culture. But as time passed it slowly developed its own styles and
First, after paying the entrance fee, you woul go to the changing media. Possessing fine art in Rome was both a sign of status and an
rooms (apodyteria) and place your clothes in a cubby-hole or niche. indication of refinement,but also demonstrated the slow erosion of
If rich, you would leave a slave here to guard your belongings (theft the austere values of the original Republic.
is rife) or, if poor, you could pay an attendant to look after them
for you. Since it was uncouth to exercise naked, those intending to “As the fortune of the Republic grows better and more blessed every day
visit the exercise ground (palaestra) would strip down to their shorts – now we have already crossed into Greece and Asia and dragged back the
treasures of kings stuffed with all the enticements of desire – so I fear all the
36 Contra vim mortis non est medicamen in hortis – There’s no herb against the power of death
more lest those things have taken us captive rather than we them. Trust me; erected in an elevated spot, so as to be seen, and the inscriptions reciting their
those statues brought from Syracuse are perilous to the city. Already I have honours read.”
heard too many men praising and wondering at the ornaments of Corinth and Pliny the Elder – Naturalis Historia
Athens and laughing at the terra-cotta antefixes of the Roman gods. I prefer
the latter, the propitious gods, and so I hope they will be if we leave them in Other types of painting included statues to make them appear
their places.” lifelike and wax funerary masks for the same purpose. Yet although
Cato the Elder paintings were highly regarded as art, by the start of the late Repub-
lic, the profession of painter was not.
Romans prized many forms of artwork, the primary being sculp-
ture, painting, architecture, mosaics, poetry and literature. “Next in celebrity were the paintings of the poet Pacuvius, in the Temple
of Hercules, situated in the Cattle Market: he was a son of the sister of
Sculpture (Statuaria) Ennius, and the fame of the art was enhanced at Rome by the success of the
artist on the stage. After this period, the art was no longer practised by men
Sculpture in Republican Rome was initially absorbed from their
of rank…”
Etruscan neighbours. Etruscan statuary was heavily biased towards
funerary art, temple decoration and votive offerings. Most were
crafted from terra-cotta, bronze or alabaster.
Despite this, the price of individual paintings could reach astro-
The sack of Syracuse in the second Punic War brought into
nomical proportions. Even foreign paintings were highly regarded.
Rome a vast amount of beautiful Hellenic sculpture and a taste for
marble. The magnificent artworks soon displaced Etruscan statuary
“For upon the sale of the spoil on that occasion, King Attalus having
and became in such demand that workshops were created to copy
purchased, at the price of six thousand denarii, a painting of Father Liber by
the most popular pieces. This led to the disreputable pillaging of the
Aristides, Mummius, feeling surprised at the price, and suspecting that there
Greek provinces once they became absorbed into the burgeoning
might be some merit in it of which he himself was unaware, in spite of the
empire.
complaints of Attalus, broke off the bargain, and had the picture placed in
Rome took the Etruscan and Hellenic skills and developed their
the Temple of Ceres; the first instance, I conceive, of a foreign painting being
own style, slowly changing idealistic classical proportions for down-
publicly exhibited at Rome.”
to-earth ones. Indeed, many busts and statues are quite unflattering
in their realism.
Whereas Greek sculpture focussed mainly on mythological sub-
Roman painting during the Republic comprised of two styles.
jects, Romans used it for self-aggrandisement. Statues were erected
The earliest portrayed the subject matter, often mythological char-
celebrating leaders, victories and the ideas of the state. Eventually
acters, as if it was composed from marble or masonry. The second,
this developed into portraiture, i.e. models of the head and features.
later style was the Roman application of perspective (originally
Note that all statuary was painted with vibrant colours to make
developed by the Greeks in the 5th C.); realistically depicting three
it look realistic and was an inherent part of its artistic value. Statues
dimensional buildings and landscapes. The style was an understand-
which were displayed in the open often needed repainting to repair
able development when considering the lack of both views and
the damage caused by weathering or the droppings of birds.
external windows in many Roman homes.
Painting (Pictura) Architecture (Architectura)

Roman painting first rose to prominence in the early Repub-
For the majority of the Republican period, Roman architecture
lic, with the decoration of the Temple of Salus by the founder of
matched that of the Etruscans and Greeks; small buildings with only
the patrician Fabii family, from which they gained the cognomen
a couple of floors and the column as the primary support of ceilings
‘Pictor’.
in larger public buildings. In the late Republic, as the population
Two primary media used during the Republic stand out. The
density of Rome grew to levels previously unseen, the Romans were
first are frescoes, where paint is applied to wet wall plaster, leaving it
forced to discover new architectural solutions to their residential
effectively imperishable once the plaster dries. The second is wood
problems. Their greatest innovations were those of the arch, the
(the first documented painting on canvas did not occur until the time
vault and concrete, which led to the construction of buildings and
of Nero). Wooden paintings looked just like modern ones and were
structures previously inconceivable.
hung on the walls of homes and public buildings. For example, the
The distinctive arch replaced Hellenistic columns and archi-
senate house was hung with many paintings, as were the temples.
traves, although colonnades continued to be used for decorative
However, wooden painting diminished in popularity by the end of
purposes. Brick and concrete rapidly rendered construction using
the Republic.
cut stone uneconomic; save for ostentatious public buildings, which
It is thought that the concept of painting on wood may have
continued to use marble for its varied colouring and its ability to be
come from the decoration of war shields (clypei) and led to the art
decoratively carved. Roman architecture was not only idiosyncratic
of painted, rather than sculpted, portraiture.
due to the prevalence of the arch, but also from the size and colour-
ing of its buildings. (See The City page 47 onwards.)
“So far as I can learn, Appius Claudius, who was consul with P. Servi-
lius, in the Year of the City 259, was the first to dedicate shields in honour
of his own family in a sacred or public place. For he placed representations
of his ancestors in the Temple of Bellona, and desired that they might be
Corruptissima re publica plurimae leges – The greater the degeneration of the republic, the more its laws (Tacitus)
37
Mosaics (Emblemata) Poetry was the favoured literary form, which was read as much
as it was performed. It was the equivalent of the paperback novel,
A mosaic is a type of decoration formed from the setting of small encompassing a huge range of topics, from daily life to mythological
coloured pieces of stone or ceramic (tesserae) into the concrete of tales and from political satire to love. Tragedy and comedy survive
the floor or walls, to provide an overall image or pattern. Mosaics mostly in the form of plays. These too were certainly read as well
were brought back from Greece by Sulla during the late Republic, as watched and became widely popular. Histories, including annals,
where they had been used to embellish buildings for centuries. They biographies and works on natural history, were less common. Often
became increasingly popular and thereafter Romans rich enough to biased to frame the ancestors of the author’s patron in a better light,
afford them installed mosaics almost everywhere. they were often criticised for their inaccuracies and political lean-
Different colours could be produced from the materials used to ings. Many authors became rich from sales of their poetry and plays.
make the tesserae. Reds and browns from ironstone, yellows and Although some lost their fortunes, or were exiled due to the public
lighter browns from limestone and sandstone, blues and blacks from commentary their work contained.
slate and whites from chalk. Towards the end of the Republic, the art of rhetoric became
By the end of the Republic, mosaics could be purchased at shops increasingly fashionable as entertainment. Eventually it grew to such
where the customer selected his desire from scrolls of standard popularity that speeches and debates were recorded and published
designs, usually depicting geometric patterns or mythological scenes. as prose. Even the private papers of dead writers were collected to
Some craftsmen offered their services to design and lay unique pat- be sold due to the elegance, wit and passion of the author’s words.
terns but this was a far more costly prospect than the already expen- It is interesting to note that whilst women were barred from other
sive prices of laying even a basic mosaic. arts, they could still find equality in writing literature. In fact, as the
Republic progressed and education was granted to both sexes, it was
Literature (Litterae) the women who pursued literature to a greater depth, being barred
Within Rome, the written word was an important medium for the from studying other subjects which were considered masculine. A
exchange of ideas and ideals. It not only was a method of recording Roman man’s education did not normally stretch to covering liter-
knowledge but also a source of artistic entertainment. ature beyond that required for rhetoric and military theory. Indeed,
Literacy was widespread in Republican Rome, as can be inferred most of the greatest Roman male authors were originally citizens of
by the vast number of monument and funerary inscriptions, elec- other cities or manumitted foreign slaves.
toral posters and the inescapable amount of graffiti scrawled on
walls – inscribed by prostitutes, common labourers and even gladi-
ators. The widespread ability to read eventually led to the establish-
ment of public libraries. Fashion (Habitus)
What you wear in ancient Rome is in effect the public advertise-
“This practice of grouping portraits was first introduced at Rome by ment of your social status. Clothing differentiates your class and the
Asinius Pollio, who was also the first to establish a public library, and so make degree of its ostentation designates your standing in that class.
the works of genius the property of the public.” Fashion can be roughly divided into several categories: fabrics,
Pliny the Elder – Naturalis Historia clothing, hair styles, cosmetics and jewellery. Like many other aspects
of Roman life, fashion was continuously at war between the princi-
The large number of literate Romans supported a massive pub- ple of asceticism and the desire to demonstrate success via wealth.
lishing industry, utilising slaves to transcribe popular works onto
scrolls (scapi) by hand. Scrolls could be made from either papyrus “You have often heard me complain of the expensive habits of women and
(charta) or parchment (membrana). The trade was so lucrative that often, too, of those of men, not only private citizens but even magistrates, and
Rome sported dedicated booksellers (librarii or bibliopolae), at I have often said that the community suffers from two opposite vices – avarice
whose shops one could purchase a scroll off the shelf or request a and luxury – pestilential diseases which have proved the ruin of all great
copy to be made of an existing work. Eventually it became a sign of empires.”
conspicuous wealth to possess a private library of scrolls… even if Cato the Elder – Speech in defence of the Lex Oppia
you did not actually read them.
The literature of the Republic is notable for its style. Elegant
use of language was highly regarded, especially when it came to Fabrics (Texta)
pronunciation and metre, since during this period all Romans read Fabric in the Roman world was an expensive commodity. Fibres
aloud (written Latin lacks punctuation, which makes it very difficult must be spun by hand and cloth woven on looms. Originally, all
to comprehend without verbal intonation). fabric was woven by the women of the household and this tradition
continued right up until the end of the Republic. Yet as time passed,
“Having obtained ten assistants from the senate, he compelled each knight women of upper class families passed these tasks to domestic slaves
to render an account of his life, punishing some of those whose conduct was or even began purchasing fabric commercially.
scandalous and degrading others; but the greater part he reprimanded with Four types of material were available as thread or cloth.
varying degrees of severity. The mildest form of reprimand was to hand them
a pair of tablets publicly, which they were to read in silence on the spot.” Wool (lana)
Suetonius – The Life of Augustus At the beginning of the Republic, almost all garments were made
of wool. The best wools came from southern Italy, from Calabria,
38 Crede quod habes, et habes – Believe that you have it, and you have it
Apulia and the finest from Tarentum. Wool dyes easily and it is golden yellow; ‘tis the colour of the ram which once on a time saved Phryxus
available in a variety of different natural colours; red tinged brown and Helle from the snares of Ino. That green is called water-green from the
from Canusium, pale yellow from Baetica in Spain, light grey from colour that it imitates; I could easily imagine that the Nymphs were clothed
Mutina and dark grey or black from Pollentia in Liguria. in such apparel. This hue resembles saffron; it is the colour wherein. Aurora
arrays herself when, moist with dew, she yokes her shining coursers to her car.
Linen (linum) There you will recognise the colour of the myrtle of Paphos; here the purple
A durable fabric, linen is often coarse and textured like wool. amethyst, the whitening rose, or the Thracian stork; and here again the colour
Although flax was grown in Italy, the best linens were imported. of thy chestnuts, Amaryllis, or thy almonds, or the colour of that stuff to
Spanish linen (saetabis) has a fine texture; Egyptian linen (byssus) which wax has given its name. As numerous as the flowers which blow when
has the highest regard due to its softness and gossamer weave. sluggish Winter hath departed, and when beneath the Spring’s soft breath, the
vine puts forth its buds, so many and more are the hues that wool receives from
“The flax of Egypt, though the least strong of all as a tissue, is that from all its many dyes.”
which the greatest profits are derived… There is no tissue known, that is supe- Ovid – Artis Amatoriae
rior to those made from this thread, either for whiteness, softness, or dressing:
the most esteemed vestments worn by the priests of Egypt are made of it.” The most valuable dyes were saffron (crocum) and purple (pur-
Pliny the Elder – Naturalis Historia pura), both of which were worth many times their weight in gold.
Saffron, came from crocus flowers and was imported from the
Cotton (carbasus) Greek island of Thera. Yellow Saffron dyed garments (vestes cro-
Imported from Mesopotamia, it is often woven with linen to form catae) were so expensive that it was normally reserved for wedding
a slightly softer and less expensive fabric (carbasus lina), more suit- dresses and the clothing of the Vestal Virgins. Some infamous high-
able for clothing. class courtesans also wore saffron robes as a matter of luxurious
taste.
Silk (coa vestis)
True Asian silk (sericum) was unknown in Rome until the close
“And there are the dealers in flounces and underclothes and bridal veils, in
of the Republic. Instead, ‘silk’ was imported from the Greek island
violet dyes and yellow dyes, or muffs, or balsam scented foot-gear; and then the
of Cos. The material was so shear as to be almost transparent, giv-
lingerie people drop in on you, along with shoemakers and squatting cobblers
ing rise to the opinion that women who wore it were dissolute. The
and slipper and sandal merchants and dealers in mallow dyes; and the belt
material was so expensive, that Cos silk cost more than gold.
makers flock around, and the girdle makers along with ‘em. And now you
may think you’ve them all paid off. Then up come weavers and lace men and
“Let her be clad in silk some woman of Cos has woven, diaphanous,
cabinet-makers – hundreds of ‘em – who plant themselves like jailers in your
shot through with golden rays.
halls and want you to settle up. You bring ‘em in and square accounts. “All
Let swarthy slaves attend her, seared by India’s heat, stained by the fires of
paid off now, anyway,” you may be thinking, when in march the fellows who
the Sun’s low-flying steeds.
do the saffron dyeing…”
Let Earth’s far reaches vie to give her splendid hues: Afric crimson, roy-
Plautus – Aulularia
al-blue of Tyre.”
Tibullus – Elegies
Tyrian Purple (purpura) was the most precious dye, which
uniquely did not fade or wash out. It came from two different spe-
Two other types of cloth were known to Republican Rome, that
cies of sea snail (Purpura pelagia and Purpura lapillus), the former
being hair cloth (cilicium) made from goat or camel hair, sometimes
producing a purple red colour, the latter a purple blue. Thousands
used for cloaks and shoes due to its resistance to water and ramie, a
of snails were rendered down in lead cauldrons to produce a few
nettle fibre, which sometimes substituted for fine linen.
pounds of dye.
Purple came in a number of different hues. According to Pliny,
Dyeing and Cleaning these are amethyst (mauve), tyrian (deep purple), hysginian (royal
(Tinctus et Fullonica) blue) and crimson. Lighter shades were made by using less dye. The
exact tint of purple that was in vogue changed throughout the his-
Romans had access to a very wide range of colours for their fab- tory of the Republic. Because Tyrian purple was indelible, it was the
rics, practically the entire range of the rainbow. However, men nor- only colour which could be combined with another less permanent
mally wore undyed clothing, decorated only with bands of purple dye, allowing cloth to be woven with stripes, or clothes to be deco-
if they were entitled. It was the women who wore brightly coloured rated with borders.
fabrics. Dyeing was a lucrative trade but required the use of noxious sub-
Unfortunately it was very difficult to fix dyes permanently to tex- stances to act as mordants to fix colours into raw fibres. The smell
tiles, so dye tended to run when it became wet; whether from wash- of these compounds was so obscene that dyers were usually exiled
ing, rain or perspiration. Because of this, garments could normally to the edge of towns and cities along with tanners. Two of the most
only be dyed a single hue. Most dyes also faded in sunlight. effective mordants were alum (alumen) and stale urine.
“I care not for those golden flounces, or wool twice dipped in Tyrian “…the white liquid alumen being employed for dyeing wool of bright
purple. There are so many other colours that cost less money. Why carry all colours”
your fortune on your back? Look at this azure blue like a clear sky when the Pliny the Elder – Naturalis Historia
wind has ceased to herd the rain clouds from the South. Now look, too, at this
Crudelius est quam mori semper timere mortem – It is crueller to be always afraid of dying than to die (Seneca)
39
Laundries (fullonicae) were common throughout Rome since As with tunics, the decoration and colour of a toga was used to
nobody washed their own garments at home. Fullers (fullones) determine the social status of the wearer.
cleaned clothes in tubs of water and urine – which acted as a solvent
ΩΩ Toga Virilis – An unadorned toga the natural cream colour
for dirt, and scrubbed with fuller’s earth to scour grease from the
of undyed wool. Also known as a Toga Pura.
fabric.
ΩΩ Toga Praetexta – An off-white toga with a broad purple stripe
The value of urine was so great, being used by both laundries
along its outer edge. Only curule magistrates could wear it.
and dyers, that it was collected in clay pots at home, in the lavatories
ΩΩ Toga Pulla – A dark grey or black toga worn during periods
(latrinae) of the public baths and even in pots at the fullers’ premises.
of mourning.
Professional collectors walked up and down the streets crying out
ΩΩ Toga Candida – A white toga, bleached and artificially whit-
and paying for urine. This was not only beneficial for the seller but
ened by the application of chalk dust. Worn by candidates
for their neighbours too since it prevented such fluids from simply
seeking political office.
being thrown out into the road.
ΩΩ Toga Picta – The fully purple toga embroidered with gold
After washing, clothes were hung in the streets outside the doors
thread, worn by a general celebrating a triumph.
of the laundry to dry. Undyed clothes would then be draped over
ΩΩ Trabea – A type of toga which was coloured either wholly
pots of sulphur to whiten the fabric. Once dried woollen clothes
purple, it was sacred to the gods and worn by their statues;
would be brushed and carded to restore the nap of the fabric.
with purple and white stripes, worn by the early kings of
Rome; or with purple and saffron stripes, which was worn
Clothing (Vestis)
by augurs.
A dirty toga was called a sordida and its wearer sordidatus. This
Roman clothing can be separated into two classes; undergar-
was sometimes done deliberately by accused persons at court to elicit
ments (indutus) and outer garments (amictus). A Roman wearing
sympathy.
only undergarments is considered naked (nudus). Whilst this is fine
for bathing or labouring, a citizen or matron should, depending on
their sex, wear a chlamys, pallium, laena or toga if presenting them- Women’s Clothing
selves in a formal setting. Women’s garb comprises the tunic (tunica interior), the girdle
(strophium) or bra (mamillare), an overdress (stola),and shawl (palla).
Men’s Clothing The tunic (tunica), or chemise, was the first layer worn next to
the skin. It had three quarter or full length sleeves and extended
Men’s garb is comprised of the loincloth (subligar), tunic (tunica)
down to the knees. Tunics were commonly made of fine linen and
and if a citizen, the toga.
sometimes embroidered. If the woman was wealthy enough, it could
Loincloths were either pieces of cotton or linen, wrapped about
be of Coan silk. A chemise can be any colour but unless new its
the loins, or sewn underpants made from soft leather. Not all Roman
brightness was usually faded.
men wore a loincloth since it was difficult to extract oneself to uri-
nate, if also trying to support a toga at the same time. Of course,
“If you want to keep your mistress’s love, you must make her think you’re
this was only acceptable if the lack was disguised by wearing a tunic.
dazzled with her charms. If she wears a dress of Tyrian purple, tell her
Tunics are made from wool, linen, or cotton. They extend to just
there’s nothing like Tyrian purple. If she’s wearing a gown of Coan stuff, tell
above the knee and were sleeveless for the majority of the Republic.
her that there’s nothing becomes her so enchantingly.”
Tunics which reached the ankles, or those with sleeves, were known
Ovid – Artis Amatoriae
by the late Republic but considered effeminate. Usually two were
worn, a figure-fitting under-tunic and a looser over-tunic, but when
Made from linen or leather, a girdle was normally worn over the
it was cold, multiple layers were worn. Whilst relaxing at home,
chemise, tied under the breasts to support them; whereas bras were
tunics were worn without a belt (cingulum).
worn under the chemise fastened across the bust to constrain the
Male tunics are undyed. However, the tunic of an equestrian
breasts. A bra was always worn when exercising at the baths.
(tunica angusticlavia) and that of a senator (tunica laticlavia) are
decorated with two narrow bands or stripes (clavi) of purple run-
“If you have too full a bust, contain it with a brassière.”
ning from the bottom of the tunic over the shoulder and back down
again. The senatorial stripes are distinguished by their greater width.
Togas were large, oval or semicircular pieces of cloth always
The stola is an overdress which denotes the status of matron or
made of wool. They were worn by being draped about the body,and
married woman. It is worn full length and fastened over the shoul-
held in place with the left arm. It usually requires a slave to help don
ders with broaches. The length of the garment is usually longer than
the garment correctly. Because of their size and potential decora-
the woman is tall and bloused up over the belt (zona) to form a small
tion, togas were very expensive.
pouch overhanging the waist. It is open at the sides above the belt
The toga was forbidden to anyone but citizens. As such, its lack
and has sleeves if the chemise is sleeveless. Stolae are coloured too
can be used to differentiate slaves and foreigners. It was a badge of
and when worn they are normally a different hue than the chemise
respect for a man but the mark of disgrace for a woman, with pros-
to emphasise the contrast of colours.
titutes and women convicted of adultery forced to wear it in public
A palla is a shawl which wraps about the body, in a similar man-
(see Prostitution, page 31).
ner to a toga. It is a rectangular section of fabric, usually of wool,
although flax or cotton can also be used when it is warm. Outside
40 Cuivis dolori remedium est patientia – Patience is the cure for all suffering
the home, it is considered unseemly for a Roman woman not to wear thongs too. Sandals are only used for indoor wear. Baxae are slippers
a palla. Palla are sometimes decorated with embroidered, coloured made from woven vegetable fibre, instead of leather.
or tasselled borders. Socci are indoor slippers.
Sculponaeae were wooden or cork soled clogs, used by slaves
Footwear (Calceamenta) or the very poor.
Romans wore a variety of different footwear. Shoes and boots
were only worn outside and changed for sandals and slippers within Head-wear and Cloaks
the home. Slaves and poorer plebeians often went barefoot instead.
Women’s footwear tended to be more colourful and decorated (Tegumenta et Amictus)
than men’s, the level of ornamentation increasing with the wealth Hats were used to ward off the sun from those exposed to it all
of the individual. day, thus they were not used much within the city. Protection from
Calcei are shoes for wearing outside. They completely encom- rain could be gained instead by pulling up the hood of a cloak or
pass the foot and are fastened by straps wrapped about the lower leg. toga.
They are considered de rigueur for wearing with the toga. Calceus Hats were made of felt and come in two types: the conical skull
Senatorius are special shoes reserved for members of the senatorial cap (pilleus) worn by farmers and labourers and the broad brimmed
class and often have built up soles to elevate the wearer’s height. hat (causea or petasus) worn by shepherds, travellers or people sit-
Mullei are the same design but coloured red with crescent moon ting in the theatre.
toggles at the ankles. Only patricians are allowed to wear them. Only men wore hats. Women were expected to shield themselves
Caligae are the boots of soldiers and labourers. Made from a using parasols (umbraculum) instead. As fashion accessories, women
single-piece upper and a separate inner and outer sole, the latter is also wore veils (vela) and headbands (vittae).
heavily hobnailed to increase their lifespan. The upper forms a web Cloaks were normally made from wool and could be dyed for
of open straps which allow the foot to breathe. certain official positions.
Crepidae are half-shoes with thick soles to which an upper of Lacernae are short lightweight capes fastened at the shoulder
leather is attached, enclosing the heel and the sides of the foot and with a broach or buckle. First used by soldiers and plebeians, they
are fastened across the instep by straps or bands laced through holes were eventually adopted by members of the equestrian and senato-
set in the side pieces. rial class towards the end of the Republic. If supplied with a hood,
Carbatinae are worn by rustics such as farmers, herders and it was named a cucullus instead.
hunters. They are made from a single piece of untanned leather, Trabeae and saga are heavy fabric cloaks, worn by soldiers
unlike shoes which had a separate sole. They take the form of low which could double as bedrolls. When dyed purple they are called
shoes (gallicae) and calf length boots (cothurni). paludamentum which are worn by generals.
Soleae are sandals comprising simply of a sole of leather
attached to the foot by a thong between the toes or sometimes ankle
Culpam poena premit comes – Punishment closely follows crime as its companion (Horace)
41
Paenulae are travelling cloaks designed for harsh climates and pins (acus) and broaches (fibulae)… all kept within her jewellery box
resemble a hooded poncho. They are made from wool, leather or (pyxis).
even fur. Gold was the most highly prized metal for jewellery, because of
Abollae are very loose cloaks worn by soldiers or philosophers. its immunity to tarnishing but silver was also very common. Poorer
women had to put up with polished brass or copper. Often jewel-
Jewellery (Ornamenta) lery was emphasised with gems. Settings incorporated vibrantly
coloured glass or stones, the most popular being garnets, cornelian,
The wearing of jewellery by Roman men was, for the majority of
rock crystal, chalcedony and sardonyix. In lesser pieces, beads were
the Republic, considered overt and ostentatious. By law, only a citi-
frequently used, made from dyed bone, glass and painted pottery.
zen could wear a ring (annulus), originally made of iron. However,
The most highly prized precious gems were pearls, emeralds
as time passed and wealth poured into Rome from her conquests,
(smaragdi) and adamas. The latter is an unknown crystal of incred-
rings began to be made from more precious metals and included
ible hardness from which we get the word adamant (they were not
a setting, usually of coloured glass or a precious stone. Signet rings
diamonds, which were actually unknown in the classical world).
worn by the paterfamilias bore a unique design cut into the stone by
a skilled gem-cutter (lapidarius).
“These stones are tested upon the anvil, and will resist the blow to such
an extent, as to make the iron rebound and the very anvil split asunder. Indeed
“The Dictator Sylla, it is said, always made use of a seal which rep-
its hardness is beyond all expression, while at the same time it quite sets fire at
resented the surrender of Jugurtha. Authors inform us also, that the native
defiance and is incapable of being heated; owing to which indomitable powers
of Intercatia, whose father challenged Scipio Æmilianus, and was slain by
it is, that it has received the name which it derives from the Greek.”
him, was in the habit of using a signet with a representation of this combat
engraved upon it; a circumstance which gave rise to the well-known joke of
Stilo Præconinus, who naively enquired, what he would have done if Scipio
Female jewellery was often decorated by filigree and granulation,
had been the person slain?”
with such motifs as the knot of Herakles, the crown of Isis, Eros and
various animal heads. These designs were believed to act as amulets
to ward off evil.
Boys wore a neck chain that supported a circular shaped locket
Towards the end of the Republic, many matrons vied for status
(bulla) which contained protective amulets. The higher the social
with ever more ostentatious ornaments and precious stones. Even
class of the boy, the more valuable the materials the bulla and its
men began collecting such jewels, to either court ladies who are
chain would be made of – sometimes even gold. Boys could also
desirous of such things, or simply as a method of showing off.
wear small rings carved with the sign of a phallus for good luck.
Women had few restrictions on the jewellery they could wear,
“A collection of precious stones bears the foreign name of “dactyliotheca.”
save for some sumptuary laws passed during the second Punic war
The first person who possessed one at Rome was Scaurus, the step-son of
(Lex Oppia), which restricted them to possessing no more than half
Sylla; and, for a long time, there was no other such collection there, until at
an ounce of gold.
length Pompeius Magnus consecrated in the Capitol, among other donations,
one that had belonged to King Mithridates; and which, as M. Varro and other
“The wealthy woman says, ‘This levelling down is just what I do not
authors of that period assure us, was greatly superior to that of Scaurus.
tolerate. Why am I not to be admired and looked at for my gold and purple?
Following his example, the Dictator Cæsar consecrated six dactyliothecæ in the
Why is the poverty of others disguised under this appearance of law so that
Temple of Venus Genetrix; and Marcellus, the son of Octavia, presented one
they may be thought to have possessed, had the law allowed it, what it was
to the Temple of the Palatine Apollo.”
quite out of their power to possess?’”
Cato the Elder – Speech in defence of the Lex Oppia
The Oppian law was eventually repealed under the pressure of

wives blocking the streets leading to the Forum Romanum and heck- Hair Styles (Comae)
ling both their husbands and the city’s magistrates for the restoration Until the 3rd century BC, Roman men allowed their hair and
of a matron’s right to ornamentation. beards to grow as they will. Even after the introduction of barbers,
it was not until the start of the late Republic that it became fashion-
“What kind of behaviour is this? Running around in public, blocking able to be clean shaven and with short-cut hair.
streets, and speaking to other women’s husbands? Could you not have asked
your own husbands the same thing at home? Are you more charming in public “…was the employment of barbers. The Romans, however, were more
with others’ husbands than at home with your own? And yet, it is not fitting tardy in the adoption of their services. According to Varro, they were intro-
even at home for you to concern yourselves with what laws are passed or duced into Italy from Sicily, in the year of Rome 454, having been brought
repealed here.” over by P. Titinius Mena: before which time the Romans did not cut the hair.
Cato the Elder – Speech in defence of the Lex Oppia The younger Africanus was the first who adopted the custom of shaving every
day.”
After this, Roman women were free to vaunt their wealth with Pliny the Elder – Naturalis Historia
a plethora of different items of jewellery. Earrings (inaures), brace-
lets (armillae), chains (catenae), necklaces (monilia), hairnets, hair Shaving (rasura) was a painful and potentially dangerous expe-
rience. Eventually at the end of the Republic shaving with a razor
42 Cum recte vivis, ne cures verba malorum – If you live properly, don’t worry about what the evil ones say (Cato the younger)
(novacula) was briefly displaced by plucking, despite the fact it was olive oils. These would be placed in small ceramic bottles (ampullae
considered effeminate. cosmianae) or alabaster jars (alabastron).
Ornatrices applied makeup to their mistresses. Traditional
“He was somewhat overnice in the care of his person, being not only makeup used a white powder or paint to lighten the skin, rouge to
carefully trimmed and shaved, but even having superfluous hair plucked out, redden the cheeks and lip gloss to redden the lips. Eyebrows and eye-
as some have charged” lashes were blackened and coloured eye shadow applied. The appli-
Suetonius – Divus Julius cation would be examined in small polished metal mirrors (specula),
those of pure silver being the best.
Roman women also practiced plucking but from the body and Roman cosmetics had the unfortunate property of running when
eyebrows rather than the chin. Much more effort was invested in the wearer perspired or got wet.
hairdressing; although for most of the Republic female hairstyles
followed those of their Greek contemporaries. By the late Republic, “The art that adorns you should be unsuspected. Who but would feel a
Roman women began developing their own, increasingly complex sensation of disgust if the paint on your face were so thick that it oozed down
fashions, using all manner of devices (pins, hairnets, egg-white gels on to your breasts? What words could describe the sickening smell of the
and curling irons) to hold their locks in exotic coiffures. œsypum although it comes from Athens; that oily juice which they extract from
the fleece of sheep. I should also disapprove of your using stag’s marrow, or
“Long features demand that the hair should be simply parted on the fore- of your cleaning your teeth when anyone is there to see. I know all that would
head. Such was the style of Laodamia. Women with round faces should wear enhance your charms, but the sight would be none the less disagreeable.”
their hair lightly twisted into a knot on the top of the head, leaving the ears Ovid – Artis Amatoriae
exposed. One woman will let her hair fall loose on either shoulder, like Apollo
when he holds his dulcet lyre. Another must needs have her hair tied up behind, Women often used perfumes to scent the water in which they
like Diana when she pursueth the wild beasts in the forests. One delights us washed. However, they were not only used for personal adornment
with her loose flowing ringlets, another by wearing her hair closely patted but could also be rubbed on statues or used to retard inebriation at
down upon her temples. Some women like to adorn their hair with the shell banquets. New perfumes were always becoming fashionable.
of the Cyllenian tortoise, others to wear it in towering waves. But there are
not more acorns on an oak tree, more bees on Hybla, or wild beasts on the “The perfume of iris, from Corinth, was long held in the highest esteem,
mountains, than there are modes of doing a woman’s hair, and new ones are till that of Cyzicus came into fashion. It was the same, too, with the perfume
invented every day.” of roses, from Phaselis, the repute of which was afterwards eclipsed by those
Ovid – Artis Amatoriae of Neapolis, Capua, and Præneste. Oil of saffron, from Soli in Cilicia, was
for a long time held in repute beyond any other, and then that from Rhodes;
Fashions also included bleaching or dyeing hair in varying after which perfume of oenanthe, from Cyprus, came into fashion, and then
colours, which often resulted in the treated locks falling out, forcing that of Egypt was preferred. At a later period that of Adramytteum came into
the women to resort to wigs (capillamenta) to hide their shame. vogue, and then was supplanted by unguent of marjoram, from Cos, which
in its turn was superseded by quince blossom unguent from the same place. As
“I told you to stop using that rinse, and now you’ve no hair left to tint. to perfume of Cyprus, that from the island of Cyprus was at first preferred,
Why couldn’t you let it be? You’ve only yourself to blame. You were asking for and then that of Egypt; when all on a sudden the unguents of Mendes and
trouble applying that concoction. But thanks to our German triumph you’re Metopium rose into esteem.”
quite safe. One of the women prisoners can send you hers.” Pliny the Elder – Naturalis Historia
Whereas men visited barbers, women employed dedicated ward-

robe slaves (ornatrices) to dress their hair for them, washing, dyeing,
plucking, combing, crimping and styling, and also decorating it with Food and Drink
ribbons, false hair pieces,and hair nets.
(Alimenta)
Nothing like the fabled excesses of Imperial Rome, food and
Cosmetics (Medicamenta) drink during the Republic was basic and down to earth. The major-
During the latter half of the Republic, Roman women utilised ity of the populace of Rome consumed a remarkably vegetarian
cosmetics to emphasise, or regain, their beauty. diet, since meat was expensive and local fish stocks were low off the
western shore of Italy. Not only were consumables expensive (see
“Curls, makeup, cosmetics, greasepaint, and teeth you could buy, and with Food prices page 136) but difficult to purchase fresh. Most fruits
the same money you could have even purchased a new face.” and vegetables were seasonal and preserved by pickling or drying to
Lucilius – Saturae extend their shelf life.
Cosmetics came in several varieties: face paints and powders

(fuci), which included eye liner, eye shadow and lip stain; moisturis- Meal Times (Mensae)
ing creams, toothpowder (dentifricium) and perfume (unguentum). In Rome the meal times were roughly broken into breakfast,
Cosmetic makers (cosmetae and unguentarii) manufactured their lunch and dinner.
wares by adding exotic materials, often poisonous, to lanolin and
Cum tacent, clamant – When they are silent, they cry out (Cicero)
43
Breakfast (ientaculum) when eaten, was consumed immediately dining manners loosened, and to which dancers (i.e. prostitutes)
after rising. It normally comprised of emmer bread, often dipped in were sometimes invited.
wine or oil, with cheese, dried fruit or olives.
Luncheon (prandium) was eaten at midday. Like breakfast, it was ‘Be friendly and don’t quarrel. If you can’t, go home.’
a light meal, comprising of a slightly broader range of foods, usually Dining room graffiti, Pompeii
leftovers from the day before; bread, cheese, cold meats, salad, fruits,
nuts or olives. Romans who could afford it purchased warm food,
fried or baked, from street vendors. After eating, most people retired
for a quick nap.
Vegetables (Holera)
The bulk of foods eaten by Romans were vegetables. These were
Dinner (cena) started sometime between mid and late afternoon.
frequently pickled or dried to preserve them for winter months.
This was the main meal of the day and the centre of social life, since
Pulses (legumina) – broad beans, chick peas, lentils, lupin beans
friends and guests were often invited. For the lower classes, cena was
and peas.
comprised of a porridge (puls or pulenta) made from cold soaked
Salads – chicory leaves, cress, fennel, lettuces, mallow leaves and
cereals or beans, salt and fat, and also included olive oil and vegeta-
vine leaves. Also boiled and spiced elder, fenugreek, mallow, nettle,
bles. If wealthy enough, the puls was eaten with eggs, cheese, honey
orache and sorrel leaves.
or very rarely, meat or fish.
Vegetables – artichokes, asparagus, beets, broccoli, capers, car-
rots, cauliflower, courgettes, cucumbers, leeks, marrows, onions,
Meal Etiquette parsnips, radishes and turnips.
Fungi – mushrooms and truffles.
(Elegantia Morum)
Amongst the poor, cena was eaten whilst sitting upon benches
or chairs about the table. The only cutlery was fingers and spoons
Grains & Bread (Panis)
Grain was a staple foodstuff. In the early days of Rome it was the
(ligulae) and dinnerware was made from pottery or wood.
women of the house who milled their own grain and baked bread
During the early Republic, the higher classes ate no differently
– tough backbreaking work. It was not until 173 BC that the trade
from the lesser privileged. They continued to eat frugally and food
of baker became common and people began taking their grain to
was still prepared by the materfamilias. Even the wealthiest families
commercial bakeries (pistrina) to be milled into flour (farina) and
had no specifically trained cooks, although experts could be hired for
baked into bread. Most people lack their own bread ovens due to the
important occasions.
risk of fires and the expense of charcoal.
It was not until the last two centuries of the Republic that well-
By the late Republic, the milling operation and baking merged
off Romans changed from sitting at the table to the Greek custom of
into a single occupation, using animals or water wheels for motive
reclining for meals. The cena became more formal and was split into
power.
initially two and then three different courses; starters (promulsis or
gustatio), main course (cena or primae mensae) and dessert (bellaria
or secunda mensae). Fruits (Fructus) &
The first course was designed to stimulate appetite, serving only
simple light dishes including such things as eggs, salads, molluscs, Nuts (Nuces)
mushrooms and clams. The main course was comprised of meat Desserts were primarily comprised of fruit. Most fruits were cul-
or fish with vegetables. Dessert was usually fruits, nuts and sweet tivated and some were purposefully dried for preservation. Some
pastries. Roman bakers specialised in tantalising varieties of breads, tarts,
Between the main course and dessert, a small offering of wine sweet buns and cakes blended with fruits and nuts.
and cakes was made to the spirits of the home and hearth (lares). Fruits – apples, apricots, blackberries, cherries, currants, dates,
Guests reclined on large, broad couches (lecti triclinares), which figs, grapes, hawthorn berries, melons, olives, peaches, pears, plums,
were arranged about the dining area, in a horseshoe shape about pomegranates and quinces.
the central table (mensa). Three couches were the norm and a max- Nuts – almonds, chestnuts, hazelnuts, pine nuts and walnuts.
imum of three people could sprawl on each, although for most of
the Republican period, women were forbidden to recline and were
forced by decorum to sit on chairs.
Cheeses (Casea)
Roman cheese was made from sheep or goat milk and was gen-
Before reclining, diners would remove their sandals and wash erally sour and crumbly in texture. Cheeses came in two forms. Soft
their hands and feet in bowls of water. Between courses, the fingers cheese was very fresh and had to be eaten soon after manufacture.
would be washed again and the mouth cleaned on napkins (map- Hard cheese was salted for preservation, desiccating it and adding to
pae). Guests were welcome to take home any uneaten leftovers in the taste. Cheeses were further flavoured with herbs or by smoking.
their own personal napkins, which often ended up as treats for the Milk was not drunk by Romans – save as a medicinal treatment.
household slaves. Nor did they eat butter, preferring to dip bread in olive oil.
Dinner conversation was the primary objective of a formal cena
with guests. But if it was a special occasion, the courses might be
interspersed or accompanied by other entertainments, for exam- Meats (Carnes)
ple poetry, musicians or acrobats. Such meals could last late into Meat was a very small part of the Roman diet, even in the upper
the night and be followed by a drinking session (comissatio) where echelons of society. It was both expensive and difficult to keep fresh
44 Curæ pii Diis sunt – The pious are in the care of the gods
in a world lacking refrigeration. Most meats were preserved by salt- sauce was often mixed with other ingredients such as spices to gen-
ing, smoking or desiccating in air. Sausages (farcimina) were very erate unique and subtle flavours.
well-liked, made from combinations of meats and herbs. Country-
side-made pork sausages (lucanicae) and blood sausages (botuli) were “Another liquid, too, of a very exquisite nature, is that known as ‘garum’
the favourite. it is prepared from the intestines of fish and various parts which would oth-
erwise be thrown away, macerated in salt; so that it is, in fact, the result of
“Pound pepper, cumin, savory, rue, parsley, mixed herbs, laurel berries, their putrefaction.”
and liquamen, and mix with this well-beaten meat, pounding it again with Pliny the Elder – Naturalis Historia
the ground spice mixture. Work in liquanum, peppercorns, plenty of pate and
pine-kernels, insert into an intestine, drawn out very thickly, and hang in the Purchased in small one handled amphorae (congii), a jar of
smoke.” garum could be very expensive. The best kind was made from mack-
A recipe for Roman Lucanica sausage erel. Muria, a sauce of lesser quality, came from tuna.
Pork was the most popular commonly available meat, coming

both from wild boars and farm raised pigs. Whole roasted pigs,
Snails & Shellfish
stuffed with fruit, sausages and other meats, were reserved for large
feasts or public festivals and only started appearing at the end of the
(Cochlea et Crustata)
Romans had a great love for snails, mussels and oysters. By the
Republic. end of the Republic, many farms were established to commercially
The most expensive meats came from fowl, generally geese and breed them. The earliest reference to eating snails was in the form
ducks, which were often force-fed to fatten them. Chickens were of a tasty medicine.
more expensive than ducks. Since they provided a regular supply
of eggs, they were another luxury food in the city, although less so “Take a pot and pour into it six sextarii of water and add the hock of a
in the countryside. Pigeons were raised for food also. Less common ham, or, if you have no hock, a half-pound of ham-scraps with as little fat
were game birds which had to be hunted, such as pheasants, grouse, as possible. Just as it comes to a boil, add two cabbage leaves, two beet plants
peacocks and swans. with the roots, a shoot of fern, a bit of the mercury-plant, two pounds of
Whereas pigs and birds were raised specifically for meat, goats mussels, a capito fish and one scorpion, six snails, and a handful of lentils…
and sheep were eaten after the animal had lived out its productive it is an excellent purgative, and, besides, it is agreeable.”
life; goats producing milk for cheese and sheep providing wool. Cato, Recipe for a purgative – De Agricultura
The meat of these creatures was cheaper than pork and decidedly
tougher. A native edible snail lived on vine leaves, so collecting them was
Beef was not appreciated by Republican Romans. Cattle were not only vital for vintners but was a welcome source of protein. The
raised only as work animals pulling carts and ploughs, or as temple best snails were imported from overseas…
offerings. Their milk was not drunk or even used for cheese. When a
beast died, its meat is not wasted, although it could be tougher even “The white ones were those that are produced in the district of Reate;
than mutton if not specifically bred as a sacrifice. those of Illyria were remarkable for the largeness of their size; while those
Hare meat was considered a delicacy and dedicated preserves from Africa were the most prolific;”
were kept by the rich for hunting them. Pliny the Elder – Naturalis Historia
Fish (Pisces) With the establishment of Rome’s major port at Ostia, shell-
The regular consumption of fish in Rome did not begin until fish were regularly brought up the Tiber for consumption. Rising
the late Republic. Fish was expensive – far more so than meat and demand eventually exhausted local beds in the late Republic, so
was difficult to get to the city in fresh condition. Once the higher enterprising businessmen started purposely farming shellfish.
classes developed a taste for fish, they began excavating ponds on
their estates to breed them. “The first person who formed artificial oyster-beds was Sergius Orata,
who established them at Baiæ, in the time of L. Crassus, the orator, just before
“In the same age, also, Licinius Murena was the first to form preserves the Marsic War. This was done by him, not for the gratification of gluttony,
for other fish; and his example was soon followed by the noble families of the but of avarice, as he contrived to make a large income by this exercise of his
Philippi and the Hortensii. Lucullus had a mountain pierced near Naples, at ingenuity.”
a greater outlay even, than that which had been expended on his villa; and Pliny the Elder – Naturalis Historia
here he formed a channel, and admitted the sea to his preserves; it was for this
reason that Pompeius Magnus gave him the name of “ Xerxes in a toga.”
After his death, the fish in his preserves was sold for the sum of four million
sesterces.”
More important than fish was garum, a type of salty sauce used
as a condiment to flavour food. Made from the salted innards of
small fish allowed to ferment for several weeks under the sun, the
Damnant quod non intelligunt – They condemn what they do not understand
45
Wine (Vinum) dangerous streets at night, revelling loudly and drunkenly, much to
the irritation of their neighbours.
The universal drink of the Romans was wine. Wine was normally Whereas the Greeks added pine tree resin to their wines to
drunk diluted with water to help stave off immediate drunkenness. prevent bacteria turning it into vinegar, by the mid-Republic the
Romans began to use a preservative syrup called sapa, which was a
Not large my cups, nor rich my cheer, boiled down concentrate of grape juice (also known as ‘must’).
This Sabine wine, which erst I sealed,
That day the applauding theatre “To coat the brim of wine jars, so as to give a good odour and to keep
Your welcome pealed, any blemish from the wine: Put 6 congii of the best boiled must in a copper
Dear knight Maecenas. as ‘twere fain or lead vessel... Boil the whole over a slow fire of faggots, stirring constantly
That your paternal river’s banks, to prevent scorching; continue the boiling, until you have boiled off a half.”
And Vatican, in sportive strain, Cato the Elder – De Agricultura
Should echo thanks.
For you Calenian grapes are pressed, Sapa produced in lead kettles tasted very sweet due to the high
And Caecuban; these cups of mine acidity of the boiling grape juice dissolving large quantities of the
Falernum’s bounty ne’er has blessed, metal from the vessel. This produced lead acetate, which had the
Nor Formian vine. unusual effect of increasing the sweetness of the syrup’s flavour.
Horace – Vile Potabis, Odes Thus sapa was popular as both a preservative and a condiment but
became the major source of lead poisoning in Roman society.
Since wine was made throughout all the lands bordering the Mulled wine (calida) was drunk when the weather was cold. It
Mediterranean sea, it was often imported into Rome, albeit at was a mixture of wine, water and spices, which was warmed in a
high expense. Amongst those held in highest regard were Coan metal urn (authepsa), some of which possessed taps. It was also sold
(from Cos), Corinthian, Lesbian (from Lesbos), Cretan, Judean and at taverns called thermopolia.
Mamertine (from Messana in Sicily). Honeyed wine (mulsum) was made from mixing four parts wine
By the late Republic, Italian wine had come into its own and to one part honey. It was normally the first drink of a dinner, served
claimed a superior quality. The most lauded were the Caecuban, just after the appetisers (hence the name promulsis).
Fundanian, Setinian, Falernian, Alban and Statinian. Of these
Falernian was considered king but vintages could vary in quality “There is a wine also made solely of honey and water. For this purpose
from year to year depending on the weather and climate. it is recommended that rain-water should be kept for a period of five years.
Drunkenness was looked down upon by polite society and could Those who eschew greater skill, content themselves with taking the water just
cause the loss of dignitas if improper behaviour is witnessed. Unfor- after it has fallen, and boiling it down to one third, to which they then add one
tunately the increase of wealth as the Republic neared its end con- third in quantity of old honey, and keep the mixture exposed to the rays of a
tributed towards public inebriation amongst the increasingly vulgar hot sun for forty days after the rising of the Dog-star; others, however, rack it
plebeian, equestrian and patrician classes. off in the course of ten days, and tightly cork the vessels in which it is kept.
This beverage is known as hydromeli, and with age acquires the flavour of
“Thus we see wines quaffed out of impurities, and inebriety invited even wine. It is nowhere more highly esteemed than Phrygia”
by the hope of a reward – invited, did I say? – may the gods forgive me for Pliny the Elder – Naturalis Historia
saying so, purchased outright. We find one person induced to drink upon the
condition that he shall have as much to eat as he has previously drunk, while Although beer (cervesa) was known to the Romans, they did not
another has to quaff as many cups as he has thrown points on the dice. Then normally partake of it.
it is that the roving, insatiate eyes are setting a price upon the matron’s chastity;
and yet, heavy as they are with wine, they do not fail to betray their designs to “Vita vinum est – Wine is life”
her husband. Then it is that all the secrets of the mind are revealed; one man Petronius
is heard to disclose the provisions of his will, another lets fall some expression
of fatal import, and so fails to keep to himself words which will be sure to
come home to him with a cut throat. And how many a man has met his death
in this fashion. Indeed, it has become quite a common proverb, that ‘in wine
there is truth.’”
The Fable of Falernian
Falernian wine became so popular that legends grew from its suc-
cess. One concerns a farmer, Falernus, who ploughed the earth of Mt.
The comissatio, or drinking bout, was an example of such
Massicus. One day the god Bacchus paid the impoverished farmer a
behaviour. Participants wearing garlands of flowers (coronae con-
visit and the man gave the best of his humble fare to his guest. Bacchus
vivales) as crowns would roll dice. Whoever threw the highest roll
rewarded the man’s hospitality by causing the farmer’s wooden cups to
was declared magister and determined what proportions of wine
fill with wine. Soon the old man passed out from potent elixir but when
to water would be mixed in the wine bowl (crater) for the eve-
he awoke the next morning he discovered that all his fields had been
ning and what entertainments each guest should perform. If the
planted with vines from which grew grapes of outstanding perfection.
rules were broken, then the magister also determined the forfeits
From that point on, the fame of Falerus’ wine spread far and wide.
imposed. Such banquets often ended with the celebrants walking the
46 De minimis non curat lex – The law does not concern itself with trifles
Mythic Rome: The City
The City
“The traditions of what happened prior to the foundation of the City or After battling with the Sabines, Romulus formed an alliance and
whilst it was being built, are more fitted to adorn the creations of the poet a colony of them settled on the Quirinal Hill, doubling the size of
than the authentic records of the historian, and I have no intention of estab- the city. The second king, Numa, built many temples and the city
lishing either their truth or their falsehood. This much licence is conceded to spread to the Aventine Hill.
the ancients, that by intermingling human actions with divine they may confer
a more august dignity on the origins of states. Now, if any nation ought to “Thinking that the ferocity of his subjects might be mitigated by the disuse
be allowed to claim a sacred origin and point back to a divine paternity that of arms, he built the temple of Janus at the foot of the Aventine as an index
nation is Rome. For such is her renown in war that when she chooses to repre- of peace and war, to signify when it was open that the State was under arms,
sent Mars as her own and her founder’s father, the nations of the world accept and when it was shut that all the surrounding nations were at peace. Twice
the statement with the same equanimity with which they accept her dominion.” since Numa’s reign has it been shut”
Livy - Ab Urbe Condita Livy - Ab Urbe Condita
O
nce there was a river ford overlooked by a group of low Tullus, the third king of Rome, built temples to Pallor and Pavor,
hills, interspersed and surrounded by marshy swamps. It and conquered the Albans, destroying their city. He welcomed all
was here in this unlikely spot, that the dispossessed came to the refugees into Rome, doubling again the population. The Caelian
live; herders, thieves, exiles, slaves, the poor and their like, huddled hill was included in the city and that it might become more popu-
in small huts with mud walls and thatched roofs. From their humble lated, Tullus chose it for the site of his palace lived there.
origin came the mightiest city of its age…
“To provide a consecrated building for the increased number of senators
he built the senate-house, which down to the time of our fathers went by the
The City During name of the Curia Hostilia”

the Monarchy Fourth to be crowned was Ancus Martius. Forced to war, he con-
The hills of Rome were first settled in the 8-9th Century BC. tinued to expand Rome’s influence to the point where residential
The legends from the Time of Kings record that Rome began upon space was starting to become scarce.
the Palatine Hill, when Romulus marked out the ancient boundary,
the pomerium, with a plough, fortified the hilltop settlement (during “Ancus advanced against Politorium a city belonging to the Latins. He
which time his brother Remus was slain after he had mocked the took it by assault, and following the custom of the earlier kings who had
construction) and invited the poor and exiled to come and inhabit it. enlarged the State by receiving its enemies into Roman citizenship, he trans-
For his efforts the settlement was named after its founder. To vener- ferred the whole of the population to Rome. The Palatine had been settled
ate the gods, the first temple was built upon the neighbouring Cap- by the earliest Romans, the Sabines had occupied the Capitoline hill with the
itoline Hill. Citadel, on one side of the Palatine, and the Albans the Caelian hill, on the
other, so the Aventine was assigned to the new-comers.”
“Jupiter Feretrius. these arms taken from a king, I, Romulus a king and Livy - Ab Urbe Condita
conqueror, bring to thee, and on this domain, whose bounds I have in will and
purpose traced, I dedicate a temple to receive the ‘spolia opima’ which posterity Now Rome owned the majority of the territory surrounding it,
following my example shall bear hither, taken from the kings and generals of including the Mesian Forest and the river Tiber, all the way to the
our foes slain in battle.” Such was the origin of the first temple dedicated in sea. Ancus began the building of Ostia, Rome’s port and the tem-
Rome.” ple of Jupiter Feretrius was enlarged in consequence of the brilliant
Livy - Ab Urbe Condita successes in the war.
De mortuis nil nisi bene – Say nothing but good about the dead
47
Tarquin was the fifth king and, after a successful war against the
Latins, divided up the land below the Capitoline Hill for building The City During
the Republic
development.
“Then for the first time a space was marked for what is now the “Circus With the city and its walls established, Rome did not change its
Maximus.” Spots were allotted to the patricians and knights where they could boundaries greatly over the next few hundred years. Although many
each build for themselves stands called “ford” from which to view the Games.” of the original temples had been constructed from stone, the houses
Livy - Ab Urbe Condita were still made of wood or mud brick topped with thatched roofs
and even the Servian walls were only stone-fronted earthen embank-
He also laid aside land around the Forum for arcades and shops. ments topped by palisades.
During the early Republic, very few public works were done
“He made preparations for completing the work, which had been inter- to improve or beautify the city. Most of Rome’s efforts were con-
rupted by the Sabine war, of enclosing the City in those parts where no forti- sumed in its continuous struggle for pre-eminence. In fits and starts,
fication yet existed with a stone wall. The low-lying parts of the City round the walls were repeatedly patched up, dismantled and eventu-
the Forum, and the other valleys between the hills, where the water could not ally replaced with more substantial masonry. The open ditches of
escape, were drained by conduits which emptied into the Tiber. He built up the Cloaca Maxima were floored and walled with stone. Houses
with masonry a level space on the Capitol as a site for the temple of Jupiter remained simplistic.
which he had vowed during the Sabine war, and the magnitude of the work This started to change during the Samnite Wars. The conflict
revealed his prophetic anticipation of the future greatness of the place.” drained the populace severely but started to bring in tithes, taxes
Livy - Ab Urbe Condita and new immigrants from subjugated towns. With these resources,
new civic plans were commissioned, founded by consuls and cen-
The sixth to reign in Rome was Servius Tullius. During his time sors. It was the individual who paid for these grand schemes, not
the size of the populace had grown so big that he incorporated the the state. In 312 BC the censor Appius Claudius built the first aque-
final three hills, the Quirinal, Viminal, and Esquiline, and to give the duct which improved the city’s water supply. He also built the first
last more importance he lived there himself. He surrounded the city road, the Appian Way, which connected Rome to the Greek cities
with an embankment, ditches, and a wall, and expanded the ancient of Campania.
promerium to just within these new fortifications. This generated a renewed trend of financing public works,
despite their purpose being generally done for self-aggrandisement
“he at length induced the Latin tribes to join with the people of Rome in rather than civic interest. By far the most common were the con-
building a temple to Diana in Rome” struction of temples, which were offered as supplications to the gods
Livy - Ab Urbe Condita for bringing victory in Rome’s never ending succession of battles.
Over 40 of them were built during the Republic alone. They were
The last king of Rome, Tarquinius Superbus, did the least to usually modest in size, since all such public works were privately
expand his city. Foremost were his plans for the construction of a funded by the general who had lead the victory and as such paid out
new temple to Jupiter on the Tarpeian Mount and supervising its from their personal share of the loot.
foundations. More practical civil projects such as aqueducts, fountains, baths
and roads also improved the city. These schemes were often helped
“He then sketched out the design of a temple to Jupiter, which in its extent by the succession of devastating fires which plagued Rome, which
should be worthy of the king of gods and men, worthy of the Roman empire, cleared land for new development. Maintenance of public buildings,
worthy of the majesty of the City itself.” roads, aqueducts and sewers fell within the ædiles’ mandate.
Livy - Ab Urbe Condita Towards the late Republic, the round huts of plebeian lifestyle
began to be replaced with apartment blocks, in order to more effi-
He also improved living conditions by the construction of the ciently utilise the space within the walls for the swelling populace.
first sewer in the city. Brick and concrete superseded wood and tile replaced thatch. How-
ever, it was not until 146 BC that marble was first used to build a
“[he] also compelled the plebeians to take their share of the work. This temple in the Campus Martius.
was in addition to their military service, and was anything but a light burden. A building renaissance favouring Hellenic styles began during
Still they felt it less of a hardship to build the temples of the gods with their the late Republic. This trend, mixed with Roman architectural
own hands, than they did afterwards when they were transferred to other tasks improvements, began the wholesale importation of Greek columns
less imposing, but involving greater toil - the construction of the “ford” in the and coloured marble for more aesthetic construction. Eventually
Circus and that of the Cloaca Maxima, a subterranean tunnel to receive all more social monuments began to be constructed, such as covered
the sewage of the City.” colonnades, courts and meeting halls, theatres, public gardens and
Livy - Ab Urbe Condita forums.
After a period of 240 years of almost constant wars and con-

quests, the city had achieved its fundamental boundaries. It sprawled
across seven hills, surrounded by strong walls, installed with rudi-
mentary sanitation and filled with temples to the gods.
48 Deliriant isti Romani – These Romans are mad! (Asterix and Obelix)
The Hills and Districts The greatest importance of the Tiber is both as a defensive bar-
rier and the main thoroughfare for trade imported upstream from
(Colles et Regiones) the port of Ostia.
Rome proper was contained within the Servian walls, which
“And yet there is no river more circumscribed than it, so close are its banks
originally only encompassed six hills: the Palatine (Collis Palatinus),
shut in on either side; but still, no resistance does it offer, although its waters
Capitoline (Collis Capitolinus), Quirinal (Collis Quirinalis), Vimi-
frequently rise with great suddenness, and no part is more liable to be swollen
nal (Collis Viminalis), Esquiline (Collis Esquilinus) and the Caelian
than that which runs through the City itself. In such case, however, the Tiber
(Collis Caelius). It was only during the early 4th Century BC when
is rather to be looked upon as pregnant with prophetic warnings to us, and in
the fortifications were rebuilt and strengthened, that the walls were
its increase to be considered more as a promoter of religion than a source of
extended to contain the Aventine hill (Collis Aventinus) and Circus
devastation.”
Maximus.
The city was divided up into four regions (regiones romae), the
Suburana, Esquilina, Collina and Palatina. These were civil divi-
sions which for the purposes of administration and voting. The tribe
(tribus) one belonged to was determined by place of birth, not where Bridges (Pontes)
one lived. Since passage across the Tiber by fording or ferries was incon-
venient, if not impossible when the river was in spate, the Romans
ΩΩ Region 1, the Suburana, was roughly the southeast quarter of
built several bridges to ease the crossing. The original ones were
Rome, comprising the Sucusa, Ceroliensis, and Caelius hills made of wood which were constantly damaged by seasonal flooding.
(this is distinct from the Subura, the slum district, which lies The earliest recorded bridge, the Pons Sublicius, spanned the Tiber
elsewhere). River near the Forum Boarium downstream from Tiber Island. It
ΩΩ Region 2, the Esquilina, was the northeast quarter, containing
was constructed around 642 BC by king Ancus and was famously
the Oppius and Cispius. defended singlehandedly by Horatius Cocles whilst facing the forces
ΩΩ Region 3, the Collina, was the northwest quarter, covering
of Lars Porsenna, king of Clusium.
the Quirinal and the Viminal.
ΩΩ Region 4, the Palatina, was the southwest quarter comprising
“They say, moreover, that the custody and maintenance of the bridge, like
of the Palatium, Velia, and Cermalus. all the other inviolable and ancestral rites, attached to the priesthood, for the
The Capitoline hill was not considered part of the Regiones Romans held the demolition of the wooden bridge to be not only unlawful, but
Quattuor, since it was a separate religious fortification. Neither was actually sacrilegious. It is also said that it was built entirely without iron and
the Aventine which was included later when the Servian walls were fastened together with wooden pins in obedience to an oracle.”
extended. Plutarch – Life of Numa
Each region was further divided into neighbourhoods which
encompassed a street and its adjoining houses, tenements, businesses The Pons Mulvius was originally built in 206 BC and spanned
and temples. The social centre of each neighbourhood was a cross- the Tiber north of the city as part of the Via Flaminia. The first
roads (compitum) where the residents (usually those of lowest social recorded stone arched bridge was the Pons Aemilius built in 142 BC.
rank, i.e. slaves, freedmen and the poorest plebeians) maintained a This was followed by the rebuilding of the Pons Mulvius with stone
small shrine for the area’s guardian spirits (lares). Although not nec- in 115 BC. Thereafter the Pons Fabricius was constructed in 62 BC,
essarily liked, everyone who lived within the boundary was consid- which spanned the river between the east bank and the island, and
ered a neighbour (vicanus) and generally stood up for one another was soon followed by the Pons Cestius in 46 BC, which bridged the
during times of celebration or trouble. Each neighbourhood also island and the west bank.
elected an officer (magister vici) who liaised with the city administra-
tion and participated in civic religion. The Streets (Viae)
Roman streets can be categorised into several types. The wider,
The Tiber River (Tiberis) better paved roads are named Viae. A lesser street (and the neigh-
bourhood it services) is called a Vicus. The streets which lead up and
The Tiber was originally called the Albula due to the milky yel-
low white sediment which it washed down from the hills. According down the hills are named Clivi meaning ‘slope’. Steps (gradus or
to legend, it was renamed when the Alban king Tiberinus Silvius scalae) were used in places where a road would be too steep.
drowned in the river and Jupiter raised him to become its guardian During the early Republic, none of Rome’s streets were paved,
spirit. either inside or outside the city, which meant that all roads turned
The Tiber is famed and honoured as the river into which Romu- to mud when it rained. Thus during the winter months, it was near
lus and Remus were thrown before they were washed up onto its impossible to travel long distances beyond the city walls. By the end
bank at the spot where they later decided to found Rome. The city of the Republic, most of Rome’s streets were paved and the wid-
is built on the eastern shore, near an island which was once a ford- est possess pavements for pedestrians, including stepping stones to
ing point across the river. It frequently floods, inundating the lower cross what conceivably may have been roadways covered with ani-
parts of Rome, the Campus Martius, and the properties foolishly mal dung and the filth conveniently thrown out of doorways and
built upon it. windows.
The default width of a street, according to the laws of the Twelve
Tables in 450 BC, was only 8 ft., and up to double this where it
Deorum iniuriae Diis curae – Offences to the gods are the concern of the gods
49
curved. Although this is technically the width of the most important was paved with stone slabs and cantered to shed water. Within the
thoroughfares, most streets widen once they depart outside the city city, the lesser streets were simply paved or cobbled with round flint
walls. With continual urban renovation and bribery of the ædiles to stones without constructing major foundations. Paved roads enabled
claim more building space, the majority of side streets and alleyways travel at all times of the year and benefited commercial as well as
were much narrower, to the point wherein some alleys a man had to military traffic.
turn sideways to squeeze along it. Street paving continued over time but the duty for paving roads
To the inhabitants, viae are known as ‘two cart’ streets since they was eventually given to the city ædiles. Towards the end of the
are wide enough for two carts to pass each other. However, only the Republic, maintenance of the streets was placed upon the owners
Via Sacra and the Via Nova were this wide. Acta or ‘one cart’ streets of those properties which bordered them. Those who failed to keep
are self-explanatory, allowing only one-way wheeled traffic and itin- their sections of the street clean were forced to pay for contractors
era were streets so narrow that only pedestrians could fit. In a like appointed by the ædile in charge to do it for them.
manner, only the viae ran straight, while other roads were forced to
bend and kink according to the buildings which lie on their path. “Each owner of property fronting on the streets of Rome or on streets
With most roads being overshadowed by high insulae, constricted within a mile of Rome, on which there is continuous settlement now or in the
in width, and forced to twist and turn by the sprawling buildings, future, shall keep such portion of the street in repair at the discretion of that
the back streets of Rome were a confusing labyrinth. Unless a res- ædile who has jurisdiction in this quarter of the city by this law. The aforesaid
ident of the neighbourhood, most visitors rapidly become lost and ædile, at his discretion, shall provide that each owner of property fronting on
disorientated. the street shall keep in repair that portion of the street which by this law it is
The claustrophobic nature of the streets, combined with the dif- proper for him to maintain and he shall provide that no water shall stand there
ficulty of their passageway limits wheeled traffic to the major roads. to prevent the public from convenient passage.”
The streets are also packed with pedestrians and are frequently so Julius Caesar - Lex Iulia Municipalis
crowded that elbows are used to force passage. During riots when
crowds surge, people are often trampled to death in the crush. Eventually in about 45 BC, the Lex Iulia Municipalis restricted
commercial carts to night-time access to the city and within a mile
“When the rich man has a call of social duty, the mob makes way for outside the walls.
him as he is borne swiftly over their heads in a huge Liburnian car. He writes
or reads or sleeps inside as he goes along, for the closed window of the litter “no one shall drive a wagon along the streets of Rome or along those
induces slumber. Yet he will arrive before us; hurry as we may, we are blocked streets in the suburbs where there is continuous housing after sunrise or before
by a surging crowd in front, and by a dense mass of people pressing in on us the tenth hour of the day, except whatever will be ‘proper’ for the transpor-
from behind: one man digs an elbow into me, another a hard sedan-pole; one tation and the importation of material for building temples of the immortal
bangs a beam, another a wine-cask, against my head. My legs are beplastered gods, or for public works, or for removing from the city rubbish from those
with mud; soon huge feet trample on me from every side, and a soldier plants buildings for whose demolition public contracts have been let.”
his hobnails firmly on my toe.” Julius Caesar - Lex Iulia Municipalis
Juvenal - Saturae
Vestal Virgins, the Rex Sacrorum and the Flamens were still
Government officials and married women could ride on two allowed to ride chariots in the city for the purpose of official sac-
wheeled chariots, a two horse (or mule) chariot being called a biga rifices, as were those celebrating Triumphs. Ox or donkey wagons
and a four horse one a quadriga. Farmers and tradesmen were per- that had been driven into the city by night were also excluded from
mitted to bring produce into the city by cart, which were normally the daytime ban as long as they carried dung from within the city or
drawn by oxen. departed empty.
Yet, as the population density continued to rise during the Repub- Since the use of most mounted animals or drawn vehicles was
lic, forcing a path through the myriad walkers became increasingly restricted within the city, many livery stables were set up at the edge
difficult. Litters were used instead, as they could utilise the lesser of the suburbs. If a Roman wished to travel overland, it was usual
streets and avoid blockages caused by innumerable carts. Traffic for them to call at such a business and hire out a mount or vehicle,
rolled through the streets at all times of the day. which would be returned to the same stable and paying a suitable
deposit to protect against theft or damage. For those rich enough to
“Most sick people here in Rome perish for want of sleep, the illness itself afford and feed them, private mounts could be kept and exercised at
having been produced by food lying undigested on a fevered stomach. For what these stables for an annual fee.
sleep is possible in a lodging? Who but the wealthy get sleep in Rome? There
lies the root of the disorder. The crossing of wagons in the narrow winding
streets, the slanging of drovers when brought to a stand, would make sleep
Temples (Aedes)
During the early period, Rome had few temples. The early
impossible for a Drusus - or a sea-calf.
Roman divinities lacked form, being spiritual beings or concepts,
Juvenal - Saturae
and their worship was instead tied to natural objects or locations.
Buildings dedicated to the gods were expensive to build, so many
In 174 BC, the censors began the task of paving the streets.
started out as simple wooden huts, rather than monumental stone
Outside the city, roadbeds were deeply excavated then filled with
edifices.
layers of crushed rubble, gravel and sand mixed with lime, which
turned the whole lot into a solid mass of concrete. The top layer
50 Deserta faciunt et pacem appellant – They create a desolation and they call it peace (Tacitus)
“Or one may come upon an entire temple,

unimaginably ancient, so old it is made not of bricks
and marble but of worm-eaten wood, its dim interior
long ago stripped of all clues of the divinity that once
resided there, but still held sacred for reasons no one
living can remember.”
Steven Saylor - Roman Blood
However, Rome possessed many altars

(sacella) placed haphazardly on the sides of
streets or in plazas. Many which had been
originally constructed in open spaces to view
the skies were swallowed by the encroaching
city.
“One may step down a narrow winding street in

a neighbourhood known since childhood and suddenly
come upon a landmark never noticed before – a tiny,
crude statue of some forgotten Etruscan god set in
a niche and concealed behind a wild fennel bush, a
secret known only to the children who play in the alley
and the inhabitants of the house, who worship the
forsaken and impotent god as a household deity.”
Steven Saylor - Roman Blood The Daily Acts
Started in 131 BC, the Daily Acts (Acta Diurna) were message
Temples served several purposes. Firstly they were places which boards first erected in the Forum Romanum on which were originally
allowed the populace to offer sacrifices and worship to the gods. Sec- posted the results of trials and other legal proceedings. The content grad-
ondly they were used to store treasures, artworks and libraries for the ually expanded to include important public notices, births, deaths and
state, or could be used by individuals as a place to deposit valuable marriages. These news boards were the ones used by Sulla when he
documents… such as wills and testaments at the shrine of Vesta. posted his lists of proscriptions and executions. Those reading the news
Thirdly, they were places where the senate could meet and discuss were closely watched for signs of dissent or guilt. Famously, some sena-
state business. tors openly expressed amazement at being included on the lists, only to be
Beyond these major responsibilities, temples were often used as murdered by those standing around them for the reward.
places to leave messages or send letters to if the recipient had no In 59 BC Julius Caesar expanded the content to include more pop-
permanent residence within the city (or wished to keep it secret). ular information such as news about the games, gladiatorial contests,
Under the influence of the Etruscan kings, most early temples gossip and astrological omens, the first horoscopes. Higher status readers
were Greek in design, although modest in scale. The Hellenic influ- who wished to be kept abreast of the news would assign literate slaves
ence continued until the late Republic, whereupon the architectural to watch the boards and either memorise or inscribe the contents on
style become more Roman – using columns only to decorate the wax tablets, which the slave then related to their master on their return.
front and building the temples on many layered podiums, presum- Illiterate news seekers could always find someone in the crowds that
ably to raise them above the level of flood waters. surrounded the acta diurna to read the texts aloud for them.
Most temples were state supported, although they usually kept
their doors open for supplicants to enter and make individual dona- The mercantile fora Venalia specialised in different types of
tions for sacrifices. product, mainly foods and originally followed the banks of the
Tiber, where goods were more easily transported to the city.
Forums (Fora) ΩΩ Forum Boarium – The cattle market of Rome, near the Pons
A forum is technically an open space given over to the people
Sublicius. Other types of livestock and meat were available
of Rome, for use as a place for athletics, gatherings or trade. The
here.
forums of Rome can be defined according to their use; judicial
ΩΩ Forum Cuppedinis – The delicatessen market, which lay
courts (fora civilia) and commercial plazas (fora venalia).
between the Sacra Via and the Argiletum and was later
Up until the end of the Republic there was only one civil forum,
absorbed along with the Forum Piscarum into the Macellum.
the Forum Romanum, although it initially served as a market place
ΩΩ Forum Holitorium – The vegetable and herb market lying
also. This is the place where court cases were heard, politics were
outside the Servian wall, between the Porta Carmentalis and
debated, assemblies summoned,and news displayed daily. The
the Pons Fabricius.
Forum Julium was built in 54-46 BC to relieve overcrowding in the
ΩΩ Forum Piscarium – The fish-market north of the forum,
older forum.
between the Sacra Via and the Argiletum, which was later
Difficile est saturam non scribere – It is hard not to write satire (Juvenal)
51
absorbed into the Macellum. main curiae were unavailable, the senate would instead meet at a
ΩΩ Forum Vinarium – The wine and garum market, situated temple (aedes), which by default were sanctified.
near the Emporium, between the Aventine Hill and the Tiber.
ΩΩ Curia Hostilia – The original senate house of Rome, situ-
ΩΩ Macellum – A huge food market built in 179 BC which
ated atop a flight of steps on the north side of the Comi-
absorbed some of the other fora.
tium, which lay on the eastern side of the Forum Romanum.
It was erected by King Tullus Hostilius and was decorated
Basilica (Basilicae) with paintings, the most famous of which celebrated Rome’s
victory over the Carthaginians. In 52 BC it was burnt down
Whereas fora were open spaces for public business, basilicae
when the followers of Clodius cremated his body inside.
were roofed buildings used for similar purposes, i.e. courtrooms,
ΩΩ Curia Iulia – The new senate house begun by Julius Caesar in
businesses or assembly places. They usually comprised of a rectan-
44 BC just before his assassination. Completed and dedicated
gular hall, of considerable height, surrounded by one or two colon-
in 29 BC.
naded porticoes, sometimes with galleries, and lit by openings in the
ΩΩ Curia Pompeii – A hall in the Porticus Pompeius where the
upper part of the side walls.
senate sometimes met. It was also the place where Julius Cae-
The following basilicae exist during the Republic.
sar was murdered.
ΩΩ Basilica Porcia – The first basilica in Rome, built for judicial
and business purposes by Cato in 184 BC. It stood a little west
“More than sixty joined the conspiracy against him, led by Gaius Cassius
of the curia,and in it the tribunes held court. It was destroyed
and Marcus and Decimus Brutus. At first they hesitated whether to form two
by fire in 52 BC during the riots accompanying the funeral
divisions at the elections in the Campus Martius, so that while some hurled
of Clodius.
ΩΩ Basilica Sempronia – Built in 170 BC by the censor Gracchus, him from the bridge as he summoned the tribes to vote, the rest might wait
below and slay him; or to set upon him in the Sacred Way or at the entrance
it stood where the Vicus Tuscus entered the Forum Roma-
to the theatre. When, however, a meeting of the Senate was called for the Ides
num. It was knocked down when the Basilica Julia was built.
ΩΩ Basilica Aemilia – Erected in 179 BC. 20 years later it was of March in the Hall of Pompey, they readily gave that time and place the
preference.”
installed with a water clock (clepsydra). In 78 B.C., the con-
Suetonius - The Life of Julius Caesar
sul M. Aemilius Lepidus decorated the basilica with engraved
shields or portraits of his ancestors.
ΩΩ Basilica Opimia – Constructed by the consul L. Opimius
in 121 BC, at the same time that he restored the temple of The Circus (Circus Maximus)
Concord. It stood just north of the temple and was ‘much Roman circuses were structures devoted to the spectacle of sport.
frequented but not magnificent’. They were originally basic wooden structures built simply to provide
ΩΩ Basilica Julia – Built between 54-46 BC on the south side of seating and a better view for those behind the front rows. The first
the forum, between the Vicus Tuscus and the Vicus Iugarius. and only circus in Republican Rome was the Circus Maximus, a
ΩΩ The Emporium, the huge dockyard and marketplace, origi- large plot of ground which lay between the Palatine and Aventine
nally built in 193 BC. It consisted of dozens of shops (taber- hills. This relatively flat area was divided by a natural brook and
nae), offices (officinae), wharfs (portus) and warehouses (hor- races were originally held on either side of the stream.
rea). Although it lay outside the city walls, in 174 BC it was The Etruscan influence of Rome’s early rulers led to the priz-
provided with its own barriers to prevent thieves and paved to ing of chariot racing above all other forms of equine sport. Under
facilitate access by carts. the guidance of king Tarquinius Priscus, the stream’s course was
straightened and bridged, forming a channel (euripus) which served
as a central barrier (spina) for the now oval track. (This stream was
“The hours, however, still remained a matter of uncertainty, whenever the later used as part of the sewage system and was the main channel of
weather happened to be cloudy, until the ensuing lustrum; at which time Scipio the Cloaca Circus Maximus – see Sewers page 63).
Nasica, the colleague of Laenas, by means of a clepsydra, was the first to Despite the euripus, the circus was occasionally inundated when
divide the hours of the day and the night into equal parts: and this time-piece the Tiber’s seasonal floods were higher than usual. A not infrequent
he placed under cover and dedicated, in the year of Rome 595.” occurrence…
“Owing to an inundation of the Tiber, the Circus was flooded in the
middle of the Games, and this produced an unspeakable dread; it seemed as
Curia (Curiae) though the gods had turned their faces from men and despised all that was done
Curia were the places in which the senate held its meetings. A to propitiate their wrath.”
curia had to be a consecrated area (templum), since important polit- Livy - Ab Urbe Condita
ical decisions could only be taken with the consent of the gods. Such
templa were defined as areas where the augurs could perform the Eventually the spina became a low wall completely covering the
auguries, i.e. a divination based on the flights of birds. When the brook, mounted with monuments and shrines, including temples to
Consus, Juventas, and one for Murcia (believed to be the divinity of
the stream beneath).
52 Difficile est tenere quae acceperis nisi exerceas – It is difficult to retain what you have learned unless you practice it (Pliny the Younger)
Over the following centuries the Circus Maximus continued to with a system of seven tilting bronze dolphins to aid the charioteers
be upgraded. In 329 BC permanent starting gates (carceres) were keep track of how many laps they had to go.
built, at the flat end of the track, where it led to the Forum Boar- By the end of the Republic the circus possessed three tiers of
ium. They were arranged in a slightly curving line so as to give no seating; the first story was of stone and the two upper levels wood.
advantage to the team starting on the inside of the track. In 196 BC It could seat at least 150,000 spectators and was surrounded by an
a triumphal arch was built in the circus. arcade of arches (fornices). Those which did not contain access stairs
into the circus were used as shops (tabernae) by fast food cooks, bet-
“L. Stertinius, who made no effort to obtain a triumph, brought away ting agents, prostitutes and diviners who provided both race predic-
from Further Spain 50,000 pounds of silver for the public treasury, and with tions and curse tablets to hinder opposing teams.
the proceeds from the sale of the spoil he erected two gateways in the Forum The Circus Flaminius, which was named for its location on the
Boarium in front of the temples of Fortuna and Mater Matuta, and one in the Flaminian fields, the southern part of the Campus Martius, was in
Circus Maximus. On these three structures he placed gilded statues.” reality a public square used for markets and meetings, and not a
Livy - Ab Urbe Condita permanent circus. The open field was sectioned off in 221 BC from
encroaching buildings, which by then had gradually spread outside
In 174 BC seven columns were constructed along the spina, each of the city walls.
one topped with a large wooden egg (ovum). As each lap of a race The Ludi Plebii, and the Ludi Taurii, special games held to
was completed, one of the eggs would be removed, thus indicating honour the Gods of the Underworld were held here. The Circus
how many laps remained. In 46 BC the circus was lengthened by Flaminius was also the location of many temples which bordered
Julius Caesar and a moat 10 feet wide and 10 feet deep added to its rectangular area. These included shrines to Hercules Custos, Vul-
separate the arena from the seating. This provided protection for can, Neptune, Hercules, Pietas, Juno Regina, Diana, Jupiter Stator,
spectators when the circus was otherwise used for animal hunts and Mars and Castor and Pollux.
gladiatorial combats. Finally in 33 BC, Agrippa (during his extensive
rebuilding of the city) further supplemented the lap counting eggs
Diligentia maximum etiam mediocris ingeni subsidium - Diligence is a very great help even to a mediocre intelligence (Seneca)
53
BC awnings (vela) were erected above a theatre’s cavea to shade the
“One of the censors, M. Aemilius, asked the senate for a sum of money to audience from the sun. The next mention of a wooden theatre was
be decreed for the Games on the occasion of the dedication of Queen Juno and in 60 BC, although it only describes its collapse during a storm.
Diana, which he had vowed eight years previously, during the Ligurian war.
A sum of 20,000 asses was granted. He dedicated the temples which both “For of a sudden such a storm descended upon the whole city and all the
stood in the Circus Flaminius, and exhibited scenic Games for three days after country that quantities of trees were torn up by the roots, many houses were
the dedication of the temple of Juno, and for two days after the dedication of shattered, the boats moored in the Tiber both near the city and at its mouth
the temple of Diana.” were sunk, and the wooden bridge destroyed, and a theatre built of timbers for
Livy - Ab Urbe Condita some festival collapsed, and in the midst of all this great numbers of human
beings perished.”
Cassius Dio - Roman History
Theatres and Amphitheatres Infamously in 58 BC the Theatrum Scauri outdid previous the-
(Theatra et Amphiheatra) atres in wasteful magnificence…
Theatres were semicircular buildings comprising of tiers of
auditorium seating (cavea) surrounding a space (orchestra) where “During his ædileship, and only for the temporary purposes of a few days,
the chorus performed. This lay between the seating and the raised Scaurus executed the greatest work that has ever been made by the hands of
stage (podium) and a large wall acted as a backdrop (scaenae frons) man, even when intended to be of everlasting duration; his Theatre, I mean.
for scenery. The semicircular design, originally conceived by the The stage of this building consisted of three storeys, supported upon three
Greeks, acted as a natural amplifier for a performer’s voice, thus hundred and sixty columns; and this, too, in a city which had not allowed
permitting a larger audience to hear what was being said or played. without some censure one of its greatest citizens to erect six pillars of Hymet-
Amphitheatres were oval or circular buildings which also com- tian marble. The ground-storey was of marble, the second of glass, a species
prised of rising tiers of seating. Instead of a podium for perfor- of luxury which ever since that time has been quite unheard of, and the highest
mances, they instead had a sand filled area (arena) that was used for of gilded wood.”
sporting or gladiatorial events. The design was conceptualised by the Pliny the Elder - Naturalis Historia
Romans who realised that oval seating allowed a larger audience at
events where audibility was not required. Eventually the rule against permanent theatres was sidestepped
Both types of buildings possessed vomitoria, which converse to in 55 BC when Pompey built a stone theatre (Theatrum Pompeii) in
popular thought are the entrances and exits for audiences – not a the Campus Martius, justifying the structure’s cavea as an ornamen-
place where one goes to regurgitate. tal staircase to the Temple of Venus Victrix built atop it.
For the majority of the Republic, the city of Rome lacked any However, Pompey’s theatre caused great consternation in the
formal theatre for public performance. Displays, whether theatrical senate and narrowly avoided being torn down. Thus wooden struc-
or gladiatorial in nature, were instead hosted in the fora upon tem- tures continued to be built, used for a specific series of festivals and
porary wooden stages (podia) or performed in the Circus Maximus. games, and thereafter were torn down again; with much of the often
In 384 BC censor Gaius Maenius had wooden balconies built on top substandard materials being sold to property developers (for use in
of the shops around the Forum Romanum,and thereafter the word building insulae) whilst the richer items, such as marble columns
‘maenianum’ indicated the stalls of a theatre or amphitheatre. The being taken away to grace the sponsors’ own homes.
luxury of seating was frowned upon by the Senate at this time which In 53 BC, Scribonius Curio hosted funeral games in memory
forbade sitting at theatrical performances… of his father and had erected a pair of theatres (Theatra Curionis)
which could be rotated and joined together to form an amphithe-
“so that the manly behaviour of standing might be known as proper to the atre. This was so novel, that the audiences refused to move from
Roman people for the relaxation of their spirits” their seats whilst the theatres revolved, despite the danger of the
Valerius Maximus - Memorable Words and Deeds movement and the chance of the structures collapsing.
The first attempt to build a permanent wooden theatre was in “He caused to be erected, close together, two theatres of very large dimen-
179 BC. It was never finished because it was thought that a perma- sions, and built of wood, each of them nicely poised, and turning on a pivot.
nent theatre would encourage citizens to attend plays so frequently Before mid-day, a spectacle of games was exhibited in each; the theatres being
that they would ignore day-to-day business matters. turned back to back, in order that the noise of neither of them might interfere
Shortly before 155 BC the first stone theatre was started, sanc- with what was going on in the other. Then, in the latter part of the day, all on
tioned by the censors. However, before it could be completed, the a sudden, the two theatres were swung round, and, the corners uniting, brought
consul Scipio Aemilianus in his backlash against Hellenic culture, face to face; the outer frames, too, were removed, and thus an amphitheatre was
appealed to the senate to pull the building down, since it would formed, in which combats of gladiators were presented to the view; men whose
be “injurious to public morality”; thus precipitating a moratorium safety was almost less compromised than was that of the Roman people, in
which prevented future construction of permanent theatres. allowing itself to be thus whirled round from side to side.”
Following this edict, temporary wooden theatres continued to Pliny the Elder - Naturalis Historia
be built, each successive one constructed with more flamboyance
than the last, as politicians strived to woo the populace. In 99 BC The first and only permanent amphitheatre built in Rome during
the scaenae frons of one theatre was elaborately painted and in 70 the Republic was by Julius Caesar in 46 BC. This too was made of
54 Dimidium facti qui coepit habet – He who has begun has the job half done (Horace)
Physical Graffiti
Ubiquitous with city life is the covering of most walls with graffiti (inscriptiones). The range of purposes which graffiti was used for is astounding…
Magical curses, political slogans, boasts, personal insults, declarations of love, advertisements for the games or prostitutes, literary quotes, rewards for stolen
property, jokes, and even secret messages. Sometimes they were simple warnings such as “Beware of the dog” (cave canem).
Graffiti was normally scrawled on any available wall, most commonly using chalk or charcoal. It could also be scratched into plaster using a sharp imple-
ment. Painted graffiti was not common, since paint was an expensive commodity due to its rare and difficult to extract pigments. The homes of more wealthy
home owners were sometimes washed or repainted to remove the often offensive scribbles but, just as in modern times, this simply invited more graffiti to be
drawn on the fresh surface.
Some graffiti was benevolent, such as the price lists of a shop, or free advertising of the goods available inside. One example is the illustration of a phallus
with the text “Handle with Care” (mansueta tene) scrawled outside a brothel.
Not only does graffiti indicate that quite a large percentage of the populace was literate (although spelling and grammatical mistakes are common) but
that people on the streets actually pay attention to what is written on the walls. For a realistic idea of the type and amount of graffiti in the city, the reader is
encouraged to watch the HBO series ‘Rome’, in particular the introduction. For a more fun take on the whole issue, watch the “Romans go home” sketch from
‘Monty Python’s Life of Brian’…
Some examples of Graffiti;
“Cornelius made me pregnant.”

“The petty thieves support Vatia for the ædileship.”
“Helen is loved by Rufus”
“Io Saturnalia.”
“I ask you to elect Gaius Julius Polybius ædile. He gets good bread.”
“You’re a big prick”
“Weep, you girls. My penis has given you up. Now it penetrates men’s behinds. Goodbye, wondrous femininity.”
“Burglar, watch out. “
“This is no place for idlers. On your way-lazy”
“An intellectual was on a sea voyage when a big storm blew up, causing his slaves to weep in terror. ‘Don’t cry,’ he consoled them, ‘I have freed you all in
my will’”
“Lucius painted this”
“We have pissed in our beds. Host, I admit that we shouldn’t have done this. If you ask: Why? There was no potty.”
“Watch it, you that shits in this place. May you have Jove’s anger if you ignore this”
“Myrtis, you do great blow jobs”
“I ask you to elect Marcus Cerrinius Vatia the ædileship. All the late drinkers support him. Florus and Fructus wrote this.”
“Hedone says, “You can get a drink here for only one coin. You can drink better wine for two coins. You can drink Falernian for four coins.”
“Chie, I hope your hemorrhoids rub together so much that they hurt worse than when they ever have before.”
“Pyrrhus to his colleague Chius: I grieve because I hear you have died; and so farewell.”
“A copper pot is missing from this shop. 65 sesterces reward if anybody brings it back, 20 sesterces if he reveals the thief so we can get our property back.”
“His neighbors urge you to elect Lucius Statius Receptus duovir with judicial power; he is worthy. Aemilius Celer, a neighbour, wrote this. May you take sick
if you maliciously erase this.”
“I detest beggars. If somebody asks for something for free, he is an idiot; let him pay his cash and get what he wants.”
“A hunt and 20 pairs of gladiators belonging to Marcus Tullius will fight a Pompeii on November 4-7”
“Guest House. Dining room to let, with three couches and furnishings.”
“Perarius, you’re a thief.”
“Celadus the Thracian gladiator is the delight of all the girls”
“What a lot of tricks you use to deceive, innkeeper. You sell water but drink unmixed wine”
“I wonder, O, wall, that you have not fallen in ruins from supporting the stupidities of so many scribblers.”
wood; although plans were drawn up to build one of stone, they Seating in theatres was regulated by law and custom. The hon-
never saw completion before the death of the dictator. orary seats set closest to the performance were reserved for use by
Patricians, senators and serving magistrates, thus separating them
“He built a kind of hunting-theatre of wood, which was called an from offensive behaviour or disturbances caused by the lower
amphitheatre from the fact that it had seats all around without any stage. In classes. Eventually the area called the orchestra was used for their
honour of this and of his daughter he exhibited combats of wild beasts and stools instead, since the use of choruses eventually faded. However
gladiators.” a law passed in 68 BC declared the next closest 14 rows of benches
Cassius Dio - Roman History should be reserved for the equestrians, indicating the growing status
of that class and providing a greater buffer for the patricians from
the increasingly crass conduct of the plebeians.
Divide et impera – Divide and rule

55
From prologues of plays from the time, it appears that slaves and day. In addition the pool acted as a cooling system when the tem-
women were also allowed to attend public theatrical performances perature was hot. The atrium also contained the lararium, a small
during the Republic, although they had no dedicated area assigned shrine to the household gods, the Lares.
to them, the rest of the seating being ‘first come, first served’. Alae. Wings which improve the space available to the atrium
and tablinum. Noble families also place the wax masks (imagines) of
Houses (Domi) their illustrious ancestors on display here.
Cubicula or Cellae. Small rooms adjoining the atrium. They
From the time of kings until the end of the early Republic, most
are normally dark due to a lack of windows but this is not consid-
Romans lived in crude huts, built of unbaked brick or wood, with a
ered as a hindrance since most of the time the family spends its time
pounded floor (pavimentum) of crushed brick or pottery and roofed
in the atrium. Those on the ground floor were normally used as
with thatch or shingles. All houses were originally only a single story
storage rooms (cellae), libraries (bibliotheca) and so forth; those on
high but as the price of land within the city began to rise, so housing
the upper floor were used as bedrooms (cubicula). Those cubicula
began adding extra floors so as to maximise living space on each
connected to the peristylium were probably used as slave quarters.
plot. Only wealthier people could afford to build a sprawling domus,
Culina. The kitchen, which normally contained ovens and
whereas the poor were gradually forced into living in multi-story
stoves for cooking. In earlier times cooking would have been per-
tenement buildings.
formed in the atrium.
Exedra. The garden room used for formal entertainments and
“What is there more holy, what is there more carefully fortified with every
lavish dinner parties. The walls were often painted with garden or
degree of religious respect, than the house of each individual citizen?”
rural themes.
Cicero - On his house
Peristylium. A colonnaded courtyard which contains a gar-
den. Like the atrium, the peristylium is open to the sky. The garden
It was not until the late Republic that magnificent houses began
primarily provides both decoration and pleasant scents but is also
to be constructed, paid for by the wealth procured by Rome’s over-
used to grow fruits and herbs. The walls of the portico are normally
seas conquests. In its last 50 years, the Republic displayed a very
painted with frescoes and the garden often contains statues, foun-
rapid evolution of grandeur, with the addition of marble to decorate
tains, or even fish ponds.
walls, furnish lintels and build columns. Such squandering of wealth
Tabernae. If the domus fronts a busy street, it normally rents
was looked down upon in public by patricians and equestrians but
out the two roadside rooms as shops. These do not connect through
increasingly imitated by them in private. Meanwhile, the living con-
to the house however. In more salubrious areas these rooms do not
ditions of the plebeians grew ever more crowded and worse.
“M. Lepidus, who was consul with Q. Catulus, was the first to have
the lintels of his house made of Numidian marble, a thing for which he was Locks
greatly censured.” Although originally developed in ancient Egypt, it took the Romans
Pliny the Elder - Naturalis Historia till the late Republic before they began to use door locks (clausurae).
Property was originally guarded by family members or slaves, who
A late Republican domus consisted of a formal arrangement of would bar the door behind those who went out. This meant that homes
rooms, although the precise layout could vary according the size and or shops were never left unattended.
shape of the plot it was built upon. It normally possessed two floors, The first locks were intricate ‘latch lifting’ affairs, using keys with
a tiled roof and lacked any external windows, save perhaps on the prongs which inserted into locks with an exactly matching series of holes
upper floor, to improve security. In addition the domus would have a – each one containing a locking pin. Only when all the pins were lifted
single main door accessing the building, although some might have clear, could the key move the lock bar sideward. Cheap door locks were
a second portal leading to a back street for covert access and these made of wood; expensive ones of bronze or iron. This simple design did
would possess mechanical locks with supplemental bars and bolts. not evolve much beyond the basic concept and specialised thieves with
In severe winter weather, heating was provided by portable bra- mechanical knowledge could pick them with the right tools. This led to
ziers which held hot coals. Other than that, a traditional Roman had the disguising of door locks behind or within ornate metalwork facings.
to wrap up warm and endure, or pay a visit to the baths and take Eventually more complex designs introducing a ‘quarter turn’ of the
advantage of their hypocaust heated hot rooms. key were developed, which made direct access to the pins more difficult.
The example floorplan overleaf is based on a domus excavated Romans also used padlocks to secure chests. These worked on a
in Pompeii. Note that most internal doorways (ostia) are closed off similar principle but used springs instead of gravity assisted pins. These
using curtains which allow better airflow but lack much in the way locks were always made of bronze or iron and could be extremely strong;
of privacy from sounds. in particular those locking the iron bound coffers, which contained a
Atrium. The most important part of the house, this was the family’s wealth. The Pater Familias normally carried the key to the
formal entrance hall and social centre of the home. It had an open strongbox, sometimes wearing it on a finger ring if the key was rea-
hole in the roof (compluvium) above a pool (impluvium) into which sonably small. It was the duty of Roman Matrons to carry the keys to
rainwater drained. The pool in turn fed an underground cistern to the doors of the home, which were usually large and carried as a bunch
supply the home with water. The roof was supported by columns on the belt. It was considered wise to have locks on the doors of certain
and the opening allowed sunlight to illuminate the rooms adjoining storage rooms, those containing valuable equipment or materials, such as
the atrium, aided by reflections from the water. Because of the avail- wine for example.
able light, the atrium was where the womenfolk worked during the
56 Divina natura dedit agros, ars humana aedificavit urbes – The divine nature produced the fields, human skill has built cities (Tibullus)
open on the street, rather they are utilised for more internal space.
One is generally given to the porter who answers the door. Lost Properties
Tablinum. In earlier times this was the master bedroom. Attempting to find a particular address, let alone a specific person in
Towards the late Republic it was instead used as an office or study the city of Rome is a serious problem. In the city, only the major streets
and is the place where a patron meets his clients. It is also the room have names; the other minor streets, lanes and alleyways do not – unless
where the family records and strongbox (arca) are stored. Arcae are given colloquial nicknames by the local residents. In part this is due to
used to store money and valuables, so they are chained or pinned to the constant rebuilding of areas after collapsing insulae or fires. Thus
the floor to prevent the entire box being carried off. The tablinum finding your way requires a detailed description of routes to and from
could be closed off from the rest of the home with curtains or fold- certain landmarks, such as statues, fountains, temples, baths, or even the
ing panel doors. homes of famous men. Even nameless streets were described as ‘the road
Triclinium. The dining room. This was normally furnished which leads to…’
with three large couches (triclinia) designed to hold up to three In reality, the best a visitor could do is get to the approximate area
people each, surrounding a low table. Sometimes there are backed and then ask around to see if anybody knows the particular person (or
chairs in the room too for the use of women and old men. There place) they were trying to find. The lack of official addresses and prop-
were often two such dining rooms, the one in the peristylium being erty numbers illustrates the fascinating chaos which city life entailed.
favoured for meals in the summer. Like most of the communal
spaces in the domus, the walls were usually painted. The lowest floors were the luxury apartments, which were larger
Vestibulum. The entrance hall which passed between the in size, with wood supported concrete floors and ceilings. Sometimes
rented spaces used as shops. The length of the passageway helped to the insulae had piped water to the ground and first floor.
insulate the home from street noise. It was normally decorated and The higher up you went, the smaller the apartments became,
had welcoming messages inscribed on the walls such as salve (good until they were just a single room. The floors, ceilings and internal
heath), nihil intret mali (may no evil enter) or cave canem (beware walls switched from brick and concrete to wood in order to save
of dog). weight. This meant that there was little sound insulation from your
By the end of the Republic, further decoration for the home was neighbours. These higher rooms could be little more than draughty
provided by mosaics which had superseded the usual paved floor. rooms with leaking roofs. In essence, slums placed atop a vertical
stack.
Tenements (Insulae) “I live in a little cell, with one window which doesn’t even fit properly.
Rome was the first city to use flats for residence. Tenement
buildings were high-rise apartment blocks, into which families were Boreas himself would not want to live here.”
increasingly shoehorned. Such insulae could be between three and Marshal - Epigrams
nine stories high but most averaged about six or seven.
The majority of insulae were built cheaply from substandard Security in an insulae was very important. Lower floors generally
materials (the poorest being made totally from second-hand wood) had metal grills to prevent theft via windows accessible to ladders.
and were prone to collapse. Unlike today where the topmost pent- Poorer insulae relied on the watchfulness of nosy neighbours to help
houses are the most sought after, the upper floors in a Roman ten- reduce burglary. The better apartment blocks had a door slave (jan-
ement were the cheapest since there were more flights of steps to itor or ostiarius) who guarded access to the building. Often the man
climb (a concern if you must collect water daily) and they were the was chained in place to ensure continuous attendance.
most difficult to escape from if the building caught fire. The dangers posed by insulae did not just threaten the inhabi-
tants. Passersby on the streets and alleyways bordering such build-
“But here we inhabit a city supported for the most part by slender props: ings were constantly at risk from falling roof tiles (as famously por-
for that is how the bailiff holds up the tottering house, patches up gaping trayed in the film Ben Hur), night soil from tenants too lazy to carry
cracks in the old wall, bidding the inmates sleep at ease under a roof ready to it down to a collection jar, or even accidentally dropped chamber
tumble about their ears. No, no, I must live where there are no fires, no nightly pots themselves. There were so many court cases concerning injury
alarms. Ucalegon below is already shouting for water and shifting his chattels; or death from such incidents, that after the Republic a law was
smoke is pouring out of your third-floor attic, but you know nothing of it; for passed to prosecute such events. A wise Roman always keeps an eye
if the alarm begins in the ground-floor, the last man to burn will be he who open on what is above.
has nothing to shelter him from the rain but the tiles, where the gentle doves Overall, most insulae are dangerous, noisy, ill-maintained and
lay their eggs.” cost a large proportion of a Roman’s wage to inhabit. Even so, most
Juvenal - Saturae tenements were filled to the brim with residents; even space under
the stairs was sold on a nightly basis. Thus they made a lot of rent
The ground floor of any insula was used commercially for shops, money for their owners.
businesses or taverns. The upper floors were for accommodation.
Unlike domi, each upper floor of the building had windows for illu- “The city block of the Arrii Pollii in the possession of Gnaeus Alleius
mination, which could be sealed by shutters and were often covered Nigidius Maius is available to rent from July 1st. There are shops on the
by a wickerwork or iron grill to prevent access of birds or reptiles first floor, upper stories, high-class rooms and a house. A person interested
(no glass was used until after the Republic). Despite this, the level of in renting this property should contact Primus, the slave of Gnaeus Alleius
illumination on the lower floors remained poor due to the overshad- Nigidius Maius.”
owing of neighbouring insulae. Anonymous Graffiti
Docendo discimus - Teach in order to learn

57
Villas (Villae) a monumental scale, they may include luxuries such as private bath
houses.
Villas come in two kinds. A rural farm estate (villa rustica) and a
luxurious home (villa urbana). Only the wealthiest people can afford “But still, why did the laws maintain their silence when the largest of
to possess a villa in the suburbs of Rome. Most villas are situated these columns, pillars of Lucullan marble, as much as eight-and-thirty feet in
in large grounds or estates, which in the case of villa urbana are height, were erected in the atrium of Scaurus? a thing, too, that was not done
planted with formal gardens, rather than turned over for agriculture. privately or in secret; for the contractor for the public sewers compelled him to
They usually take the same architectural form as domi except that give security for the possible damage that might be done in the carriage of them
they contain far more rooms and sometimes extra wings to house the to the Palatium. When so bad an example as this was set, would it not have
extra serving staff such mansions require. been advisable to take some precautions for the preservation of the public mor-
Those that can afford it leave Rome during the height of sum- als? And yet the laws still preserved their silence, when such enormous masses
mer, fleeing the annual heat and diseases which afflict the city. Most as these were being carried past the earthenware pediments of the temples of
nearby villas are therefore used as summer residences, unless the the gods, to the house of a private individual.”
paterfamilias has retired from politics and no longer desires to be in Pliny the Elder - Naturalis Historia
immediate proximity to the city centre.
Since they are normally homes to the rich, most villas are located Families who own villas in the surrounding countryside often use
in positions which take advantage of the local scenery to not only them to display the treasures and artworks looted from the prov-
display the home’s magnificence but also provide it with spectacular inces, since a villa is generally safer from burglary or riots than a
views. Built with sometimes vulgar (and illegal) opulence, often on property in the city.
58 Donec eris felix multos numerabis amicos – As long as you’re prosperous, you’ll have many friends (Ovid)
Interior Decoration than those used as a general sofa. Since they were articles of furni-
ture used primarily by the wealthy, they were often richly decorated
(Exornatio) with inlays or precious metals and like tables possessed ornamental
legs.
Although early Roman homes were small and simple, the last
Beds (lecti cubiculares) were introduced with the spoils imported
century of the Republic brought a new era of style and taste, gener-
from Asia in the late Republic and eventually superseded couches
ating an outlet for the increasing wealth of the higher classes.
for sleeping. They had the appearance of modern bedsteads with
Walls which originally were simply plastered and painted a single
a headboard to retain pillows and four pillars to support a canopy
colour now became covered in frescoes. Floors once pounded earth
(aulaea) which kept dust off, and might even have sported curtains
or plainly tiled, now sported mosaics of ever increasing complexity
for repelling insects whilst sleeping. Like couches they were sprung
(see Art on page 36).
with a lattice of leather or rope straps, atop which a mattress was
Romans had little furniture and most homes were quite Spartan,
placed.
lacking anything beyond the necessities for life. Even wealthy house-
Common Romans continued to sleep on stuffed mattresses (tori)
holds had limited amounts of furniture and utensils, although what
on the floor. These were originally filled with straw and dried herbs,
they owned was more ostentatious, often ornately carved, painted,
but later the stuffing comprised of wool or even feather down for
enamelled or gilded. It usually took the form of tables, chairs,
those who could afford it.
couches, beds, carpets, chests and the occasional cabinet.
Tables were either circular with one or three legs (monopodium,
“as a mattress having lost its Leuconian wool…”
or cilliba) or rectangular with four legs (mensa). Poorer Romans used
Martial - Epigrams
plain tables made of unadorned wood with straight legs. The most
expensive tables had surfaces of richly decorated wood or stone pol-
Carpets (tapetes) were another versatile piece of furniture,
ished to bring out the grain of the material and often inlaid with
thicker ones used as wall hangings or floor coverings and thinner
other woods, tortoiseshell, enamels or metals. The legs (fulcra) were
ones as throws spread over chairs, benches, couches or beds. They
sometimes formed of ivory or precious metals and could be carved
were as expensive as the dyes and designs woven into them and most
in the shapes of animal legs, graceful curves or lathed into exotic
were luxury items.
spindles. Some tables even had adjustable legs to modify the height
Chests (arcae) are used for storing clothing and items not used
of the surface.
on a daily basis. They could be as decorated as the owner wished
Circular tables were normally used to support lamps or toilet-
and of any size. Strongboxes were large, heavy chests devised to
ries, whereas rectangular ones were for working on, whether that
hold money, jewels and important documents in safety, usually being
be scribing or cooking. A further type of table called an abacus was
bound with bronze or iron and chained to the floor. Capsae were
a sideboard with a top of marble for the display of gold or silver
special circular boxes designed to hold and transport scrolls.
dinner services. It held partitions beneath the surface for storing the
Cabinets (armaria) were upright items of furniture mounted
plate.
against walls, with doors to keep out pests or thieves. They were
originally used to store arms (weapons and armour) but soon held
“Gneius Manlius was the first who introduced brazen banquet-
other semi-valuable articles such as scrolls, ornaments and even the
ting-couches, buffets, and tables with single feet, when he entered the City in
wax masks of dead ancestors (imagines). They often included locks
triumph, in the year 567 AUC, after his conquests in Asia.”
to prevent those without permission from opening the doors.
Since storage furniture was relatively expensive and took up con-
siderable amounts of often limited living space, the walls of some
Poor Romans used stools (sellae) or benches (subsellia) in the
domus and insulae were fitted with shelves, or incorporated cubby
home, although benches were also used in public locations such as
holes. In poorer residences, nails hammered into walls and hooks
courtrooms or theatres. Folding stools with ivory legs (sellae curules)
suspended from beams offered further storage for clothing and food.
were a sign of high magisterial authority and only dictators, censors,
Other important articles of a Roman household were those
consuls, prætors, curule ædiles and the Flamen Dialis were permit-
which provided light and heat.
ted to sit upon them.
Candles (candelae) were used by the poor and were made either
High backed chairs with arms (solia) were normally used by the
of wax (cera) or tallow (sebum). Oil lamps (lucernae) could be made
head of a household to conduct business, since the height of the
from either pottery or bronze. They burned olive oil, an expensive
chair’s seat (which required a step to mount) lent the occupant an air
commodity but provided a brighter light than a candle. Roman
of authority. Armless chairs with slightly more comfortable curving
candelabrum originally held candles but eventually evolved so that
backs (cathedrae) were popular with lecturers and women. Although
they supported multiple oil lamps, concentrating the illumination
neither type of chair was upholstered, most Romans used stuffed
provided. Torches (faces) were never used for internal lighting since
pillows to pad the hardness of the wood.
they produced large quantities of smoke and were inherently dan-
The couch (lectus) was a multipurpose piece of furniture. It
gerous fire sources.
was used for sitting, reclining, reading, eating and sleeping, but was
Many poor Romans lacked lights at night, forcing them to retire
generally beyond the reach of poorer people to afford. Like chairs,
early or visit other establishments such as caupona or lupanaria,
couches were not upholstered, instead using thin mattresses, sup-
which provided (very) basic lighting for their customers.
ported over a frame criss-crossed with leather or rope. Couches
could have one or two arms, and sometimes also a back, depending
on its purpose. Those designed for sleeping were generally larger
Dosis facit venemon – it is the dose that makes the poison

59
Heating during the Republic was provided by braziers filled Such artwork was considerably more expensive than furniture, and
with slow burning charcoal. Being made from metal they were very well beyond the reach of most plebeians.
expensive and could be as ostentatious as the purchaser desired. Finally, no home save the worst slums lacked crockery, drinking
Curtains (vela) were commonly used in households in place of vessels, water jugs and the ubiquitous chamber pot.
internal doors or to divide rooms. Since even rudimentary fabric
was costly, in poorer homes such curtains would probably be made
from very rough cloth, rags beyond repair or even strings of beads.
Shops (Tabernae)
Tabernae are places where items or services can be purchased.
Those who could afford such extravagance could further clutter
Within Rome, shops are generally found in two locations. Either
their homes with statues, pools, fountains, and wall hung paintings.
Shop Owners and Tradesmen (Tabernarii) Jewelers (anularii)

Although the ancient Latin nomenclature for many shops has been lost, Lamp makers (lucernarii)
the names of their proprietors can still be found in the surviving texts of Leather sack sellers (cullearii)
the time. The following list is a brief overview of the diversity of differing Lingerie delaers (strophiarii)
occupations which could operate out of tabernae, officinae and pergulae Locksmiths (clavicarii or claustrarii)
towards the end of the Republic. Mason (caementarii)
Metal vessel and tableware makers (vascularii)
Accountants (calculatores) Money dealers (monetarii)
Architects (architecti) Mosaic layers (tessellarii)
Artists (artifices) Needle sellers (acuarii)
Bakers (panifices) Oil sellers (olearii)
Bankers (argentarii) Fresco Painters (pictores)
Barbers (barbitonsores) Paints and unguent sellers (pigmentarii)
Belt makers (baltearii) Papyrus dealer (chartarii)
Blacksmiths (ferrarii) Perfume/Ointment sellers (unguentarii)
Book sellers (bibliopolae or librariae) Pharmacists (pharmacopolae)
Bottle/Flask/Jar dealer (ampullarii) Pipe/Flute makers (aulopoii)
Bronze/Coppersmith (aerarii) Plummers (plumbarii)
Bronze vessel dealers (corinthii) Pork sellers (porcinarii)
Builders (aedifices or fabricatores) Potters (figuli)
Butchers (lanii or carnarii) Preserved food dealer (conditarii)
Cake sellers (crustularii) Rope makers (restiones)
Candelabra maker (candelabrarii) Salt fish dealer (cybiarii)
Carpenters (fabri) Sandal makers (baxearii)
Carpet/Rug maker (cilicarii) Sausage sellers (botularii)
Cart wrights (carpentarii) Scribes (librarii)
Chest/Casket/Box makers (arcularii) Sculptors (plastae)
Cloak/Mantle makers (paenularii) Second hand junk dealers (scrutarii)
Cobblers (sutores) Shield makers (scutarii)
Confectionary sellers (cuppedenarii) Shoe sellers (calcearii)
Cooper (cuparii) Silk dealers (sericarii)
Copyists (bibliographi) Silversmiths (fabri argentarii)
Cushion makers (culcitarii) Slave dealers (venalicii)
Embroiderers (plumarii) Spice dealers (aromatarii)
Engravers (caelatores) Tailors (vestiarii)
Fishmongers (bolonae) Taper sellers (ceriolarii)
Florists (rosarii) Tavern keeper (caupones)
Fruiterers (pomarii) Trouser makers (bracarii)
Fullers (fullones) Trumpet/Horn maker (cornuarii)
Furniture dealers (archiacae) Tunic makers (manulearii)
Girdle makers (zonarii) Undertaker (libitinarii)
Goldsmiths (aurarii) Wine sellers (vinarii)
Hairdressers (tonsores) Wax dealer (cerarii)
Helmet maker (cassidarii) Weaver (textores)
Ivory dealers (eborarii) Wreath/Garland sellers (coronarii
60 Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori – It is sweet and proper to die for one’s country (Horace)
built into the front of houses and ground floors of insulae or situated the bodies or ashes of the dead could not be interred within the city
around the sides of fora and basilicae. Most tabernae are simple, sin- walls, these mausoleums were instead erected along the sides of the
gle room chambers open to the road, where passersby can purchase main roads leading from Rome, where their glory could be viewed
whatever is on display. They usually possess shutters to keep thieves by others. After many centuries streets such as the Via Appia were so
out at night when the shop keeper either returns home or retires to thickly clustered with sepulchres for several miles along their length
the loft above their shop (which also acts as further storage for stock). that they became known as necropolises and were notorious lurking
places for bandits seeking to ambush travellers.
“Nor are these your only terrors. When your house is shut, when bar and Tombs used to hold the bones and ashes of those cremated were
chain have made fast your shop, and all is silent, you will be robbed by a bur- called Sepulcra and those containing unburned bodies were known
glar; or perhaps a cut-throat will do for you quickly with cold steel.” as Conditoria. The burial chambers of the latter were placed under-
Juvenal - Saturae ground to help preserve the flesh and hide the smell of decomposi-
tion from passersby. The Romans originally disposed of their dead
Many shops also double as the workshop that produces the final by burial but over the course of the Republic cremation superseded
product being sold, although by the late Republic the number of it as the fashionable form of hygienic disposal.
shops simply selling goods imported from the countryside or over- Tombs could be built in a range of architectural styles. Normally
seas increases dramatically with the growing wealth of the city. they took the form of altars or temples, but occasionally arches or
Tabernae often utilise wall paintings (or even pavement
mosaics for those wealthy enough) as advertisements indi-
cating the type of product available within, and to identify
particular shops amongst the multitude of other compet-
ing businesses.
Certain classes of shops posses their own specific
names; Popinae are bistros, Cauponae sell wine, Thermo-
polia hot drinks and fast food, Pistrina are bakeries which
specialise in either bread, pastries or confectionary, Lanie-
nae are butchers shops, Librarii are booksellers, Fullonicae
laundrettes, Calceariae shoe shops, Fabricae workshops,
Ferraria black smithies, Figilinae potteries and Barbae (or
Tonstrinae) are barbers/hairdressers.
Some tabernae were offices (officinae), where a service
rather than a product could be purchased, for example
accountants; and stalls (pergulae) which were temporarily
erected tents or tables set up in the streets or fora, from
which sellers would hawk their wares during the day and
would then be collapsed and taken away at night. Stalls
were presumably cheaper to operate since they paid less
rent but required more effort.
Not all tabernae operated out of a small street facing
room. Some required much larger premises such as fullers shops, small edifices with niches were constructed as an alternative. They
which needed many large tubs to soak and bleach the clothing and could be round, rectangular, pyramidal, possess porticos, multiple
space to dry it afterwards. Other professions, for example slave trad- stories, statues, busts and so on and so forth. As long as there was
ers, needed a different type of location to expose their wares to a a place for the body or funeral urn (urna) an architect could let his
larger audience. Thus they would more usually set up in one of the imagination run riot.
fora. Antisocial businesses like dyers, armourers or garum manufac- Smaller tombs that did not contain an internal chamber, but had
turers, would be by law restricted within the city limits, in order to the body or ashes buried directly under the monument instead, pos-
save the local populace from the smell or noise. sessed small receptacles on the surface which were connected via a
Whilst most food, drink and service providers would be liberally lead pipe to the remains below. These were used to make offerings
scattered across the city, those shops specialising in more luxurious of milk and wine to the spirits (manes) of the dead.
items, usually cluster together in more exclusive districts where they Most tombs were placed in a small plot of land surrounded by
communally pay for better protection against theft and extortion. a low wall. The size of the plot was in part enforced by another law
of the Twelve Tables, and limited only by the finances of the family.
This space was used to plant funerary gardens of roses, violets and
Tombs and Necropolises trees, often with a backdrop of shrubbery to enhance the tomb itself,
and always incorporated a bench or seat for visiting relatives.
(Sepulcra) “No one, without the knowledge or consent of the owner, shall erect a
Following a tradition inherited from the Etruscans, wealthy
Romans preserved and honoured the memory and ideals of dead funeral pyre, or a tomb, nearer than sixty feet to the building of another.”
ancestors by building tombs or monuments to them. However, since Table X - Sacred Law
Dum spiro, spero – While I breathe, I hope (Cicero)

61
The largest tombs incorporated other structures into their for- sufficient pressure to feed the network of stone lined canals (canales
mal gardens. Since there were several festivals held throughout the structiles) and terracotta conduits (tubuli fictiles) which filled smaller
year to honour the dead, most families journeyed out to their ances- storage reservoirs. Lead pipes (fistulae plumbeae) were used to con-
tor’s tombs to give the spirits of the departed votive offerings. On nect the secondary cisterns to the buildings of the city. The majority
more extensive grounds there were places of shelter, arbours and of these pipes fed public fountains and basins – from which most
dining-rooms too, in which were celebrated the anniversary feasts. Romans gained their water. Excess overflow from these was diverted
They also had private places for the burning of bodies (ustrinae). to bath houses, latrines, and fullers shops, but the establishment had
Furthermore, extensive funerary gardens could be decorated with to pay for the privilege.
pools (piscinae), fountains (fontes), or terraces (solaria) planted with
grape vines. “’No private person shall conduct other water than that which flows from
The poor of Rome who could not afford a tomb were buried the basins to the ground’ (for these are the words of the law); that is, water
or burned on the eastern part of the Esquiline Hill. Their remains which overflows from the troughs; we call it “lapsed” water; and even this was
thrown into small pits (puticulae) along with the carcasses of dead not granted for any other use than for baths or fulling establishments; and it
animals and the night soil, rubbish and muck collected from the was subject to a tax, for a fee was fixed, to be paid into the public treasury.”
roads of the city. The resulting smell of decomposition was so bad, Frontinus - De Aquis
that the Esquiline was considered unfit for residence, meaning that
only the worst slums subsisted there. A few wealthy individuals could purchase the right to have water
piped directly into their homes but most illegally tapped the mains
Aqueducts (Aquae Ductus) water and simply bribed the officials (aquarii) who were supposed to
prevent such activity to look the other way.
Apart from the natural springs and wells on the hills, the only
source of fresh, clean water comes from aqueducts which carry it
“The cause of this is the dishonesty of the water-men, whom we have
from sources many miles away from the city. Marvels of engineer-
detected diverting water from the public conduits for private use. But a large
ing, the aqueducts follow lines of natural terrain and mainly run
number of landed proprietors also, past whose fields the aqueducts run, tap the
underground or in covered canals, which prevent the water from
conduits; whence it comes that the public water-courses are actually brought to
temperature variations and being polluted. Inverted siphons and
a standstill by private citizens, just to water their gardens.”
viaducts were only built when the line of the aqueduct was forced to
Frontinus - De Aquis
span open spaces such as valleys. Likewise tunnels (specus) and their
associated inspection shafts were only dug through solid rock when
By the late Republic the amount of water flowing into the city
no other option was available.
had increased so much that further improvements were made to
During the Republic the following aqueducts were constructed.
divert any surplus overflow of the public cisterns into tertiary res-
ΩΩ Aqua Appia – Constructed in 312 BC by the censor Appius ervoirs which were used to supply water for decorative ponds and
Claudius Caecus and terminated in the Forum Boarium, near gardens.
the Porta Trigemina. The water pressure from storage cisterns was normally so low
ΩΩ Aqua Anio Vetus – Built from 272-269 BC, the Anio Vetus that water could not be piped above the ground floor of most build-
redirected river water to its terminus on the Viminal Hill. ings. Those living in insulae had to send slaves to fetch water from
Between it and the Aqua Appia, every part of Rome was sup- the nearest fountain or carry it themselves up to the floor they lived
plied with water, except for the Palatine Hill. on. Most Romans kept a small amount of water in their rooms,
ΩΩ Aqua Marcia – The longest aqueduct built in Rome, it was reserved in case of fire.
built from 144-140 BC by the prætor Quintus Marcius Rex. It The ubiquitous lead pipes that fed water throughout the city
followed the route of the Via Tiburtina into the city and sup- were thought by the Romans themselves to cause poisoning. How-
plied the Capitoline Hill. The aqueduct was well known for ever, despite their clever observations, the high calcium content of
its cold, pure waters. It also supplied the Palatine Hill, filling Rome’s water actually prevented the take-up of lead; elevated con-
the gap left by the previous two aqueducts. centrations of which were far more likely to have come from the
sweet sapa syrup used as both a preservative and condiment (see
“The most celebrated water throughout the whole world, and the one to Wine page 46).
which our city gives the palm for coolness and salubrity, is that of the Marcian
Spring, accorded to Rome among the other bounties of the gods:” “Water conducted through earthen pipes is more wholesome than that
Pliny the Elder - Naturalis Historia through lead; indeed that conveyed in lead must be injurious, because from it
white lead is obtained, and this is said to be injurious to the human system.
ΩΩ Aqua Tepula – Constructed in 126 BC by the censors G. Hence, if what is generated from it is pernicious, there can be no doubt that
Servilius Caepio and L. Cassius Longinus, the aqueduct was itself cannot be a wholesome body. This may be verified by observing the
named for the tepid, lukewarm it delivered to the Aventine workers in lead, who are of a pallid colour; for in casting lead, the fumes from
Hill, and was not considered fit for human consumption. it fixing on the different members, and daily burning them, destroy the vigour
ΩΩ Aqua Julia – built in 33 BC by Agrippa during his ædileship, of the blood; water should therefore on no account be conducted in leaden pipes
the aqua Julia helped supply the Caelian and Aventine hills. if we are desirous that it should be wholesome.”
Vitruvius - De Architectura
Once the aqueduct reached Rome, the water was diverted into
vast covered reservoirs (castella) to deposit sediment and build up
62 Duo cum faciunt idem, non est idem – When two do the same, it isn’t the same (Terence)
Fountains (Fontes) from the hills, and drained off the water which stagnated in the
marshes between them. By the end of the Monarchy, the ditch was
During the early days of Rome, water was collected from the lined with stone and had effectively become an open topped canal
natural springs and streams which fed the marshes that lay between (canalis).
the hills. Notable ones were named the Fons Lupercalis, Fons Apol- The partial draining of the marsh allowed it to be developed into
linaris, Fons Pici, and Fons Mercurii. a communal area, eventually evolving into the Forum Romanum.
These were often walled to form pools or ponds (lacus) to contain Minor cloacae branched off from the main canal, taking strangely
the water so that it could be easily gathered without getting wet or kinked routes to pass round buildings, rather than pass beneath
muddy in the process. One example was the ‘Public Pool’ (Piscina them. In fact, the main channel of the Cloaca Maxima did not
Publica), a small lake in the southern part of the city. However, due begin to be covered over with vaults until the 2nd century BC. Until
to improved drainage and the ever increasing need for land devel- that time, they remained open and had to be crossed by bridges. As
opment, this pool had nearly disappeared by the time of Augustus. such, they remained dangerous obstacles for the clumsy or unwary.
Other famous pools were the Lacus Iuturnae in the Forum A famous Stoic philosopher, Crates of Mallos, in 168 BC apparently
Romanum where the mythological Dioscuri, Castor and Pollux (the broke his leg by falling in the Cloaca Maxima.
sons of Jupiter and Leda), were said to have stopped to water their Unfortunately, the running waters of the cloacae were used by
horses after aiding the Romans to victory at the battle of Lake Regil- the populace to dispose of rubbish as well as night soil and almost
lus in 499 BC. A temple to them was later built on the spot. from its original construction it became a sewer. However, such
Another pool, also located in the Forum, was called the Lacus dumping created blockages.
Curtius. This pool had three separate stories explaining its origin.
The first was that this was the place where Metius Curtius, the “[In 184 BC] The censors cut off from the public aqueducts all supplies
leader of the Sabines, fell into a boggy hole when in the midst of of water for private houses or land, and wherever private owners had built up
a battle against the Romans under the command of Romulus. The against public buildings or on public ground, they demolished these structures
second story said that a spring originated there after a divine thun- within thirty days. They next made contracts for lining the reservoirs with
derbolt had struck the ground in 445 BC. The third and more enter- stone and, where it was necessary, cleaning out the sewers, money having been
taining legend records that in 362 BC a bottomless hole opened up set apart for the purpose, and also for the construction of sewers in the Aven-
in the ground in the forum and an oracle foresaw that it could only tine quarter and in other places where as yet there were none.”
be closed by throwing in the most valuable thing in Rome. A young Livy - Ab Urbe Condita
man named Marcus Curtius, dressed himself in armour and on
horseback, cast himself into the chasm; whereupon the abyss closed, The idea of using the running water to ‘flush’ away body wastes
leaving only a spring behind. quickly caught on, and in the 2nd century BC the first public latrines
Yet despite the number of springs tapped in the early Republic, were built and soon became very popular. Roman toilets were liter-
there was still insufficient water for the people of the city. Water had ally communal affairs with no partitions to hide your ‘movements’,
to be drawn from wells, carried from the River Tiber, or collected which allowed people to socialise during their ablutions. Since paper
from rainfall stored in underground cisterns. did not exist at the time, you wiped your bottom using a sponge on
With the building of the aqueducts came the first public foun- a stick… What is worse is that the next person would rinse the same
tains. These came in two forms; water basins fed from beneath (cas- sponge in water before using it themselves.
tellum divisorium) and fountains with water spouts (salientes). Water Most public latrines cost money to use, although in return you
basins were far more common than the ornamental fountains, and would get clean marble seats to sit upon and they were heated in
were designed for public use as sources of drinking and washing winter too. Despite this apparent cleanliness and luxury, Roman
water. public latrines were probably rather unhygienic.
The baths (balneae) were also plumbed into the sewer system, so
“…how much is used for water basins, how much for fountains, how that their daily drained waste water could add to the general flow
much for public structures, how much on account of the State, how much by and help carry away effluent. Other urban runoff such as overflow
private consumers.” from fountains and water basins also contributed to cleanse the
Frontinus - De Aquis sewer system. Despite the growth of the sewer network along and
under the roads, few private residences during the Republic were
Most fountains came in the shape of large flat bowls cut out of directly connected to it, save those which were built directly after the
a single piece of stone, and supported by a central leg, somewhat Gallic sack of Rome by Brennus in 387 BC.
like a shallow drinking vessel. More ostentatious fountains sported
bronze statues, such as boys, tritons, nereids, and other mythological “In their haste, they took no trouble to plan out straight streets; as all
subjects, often with the water spouting from their features. distinctions of ownership in the soil were lost, they built on any ground that
happened to be vacant. That is the reason why the old sewers, which originally
Sewers (Cloacae) were carried under public ground, now run everywhere under private houses,
Rome was the first city to make extensive use of sewers and even and why the conformation of the City resembles one casually built upon by
had its own patron goddess Cloacina, whose shrine was built in the settlers rather than one regularly planned out.”
forum. Its main and most famous sewer, the Cloaca Maxima, was Livy - Ab Urbe Condita
built during the time of the late Kings but in reality was simply a
ditch which controlled the path of the streams which descended
Duobus litigantibus, tertius gaudet – While two men argue, the third one rejoices
63
Most private houses still used cess pits for disposal but these had they received the most harm. For when the bodies were cast up by the waves
to be dug out and emptied on a regular basis. Those people living upon the banks and beaches, a grievous and terrible stench, carried by the
in tenements used chamber pots instead. These were emptied in to wind, smote those also who were still in health and produced a quick change
vats stored under the building’s stairwell, or if these were not pro- in their bodies; and the water brought from the river was no longer fit to drink,
vided, at a sewer access point in the street. Many citizens could not partly because of its vile odour and partly by causing indigestion.”
be bothered and simply cast the contents out of the nearest window. Dionysius of Halicarnassus - Roman Antiquities
“From every towering roof the rubbish falls, Striking the head, and inju- Right at the end of the Republic in 33 BC, Marcus Vipsanius
ries grow rank. See how pots strike and dint the study pavement there’s death Agrippa during his term as ædile undertook to clean out and refur-
from every window where you move. You’d be a fool to venture out to dine, bish the entire sewer system of Rome. After this he founded a per-
oblivious of what goes on above, without you having penned the dotted line Of manent group of 250 slaves that were to maintain the sewers and
your last testament, You can but hope they spill a chamber pot.” aqueducts.
Juvenal - Saturae
“But it was in those days, too, that old men still spoke in admiration
During the late Republic there were three major sewer systems of the vast proportions of the Agger, and of the enormous foundations of
running into the Tiber. the Capitol; of the public sewers, too, a work more stupendous than any; as
mountains had to be pierced for their construction, and, like the hanging city
ΩΩ Cloaca Maxima – Runs from the Argiletum (the main street
which we recently mentioned, navigation had to be carried on beneath Rome;
of the Subura) through the Forum Romanum, zigzags across
an event which happened in the ædileship of M. Agrippa, after he had filled
the Velabrum, passes the Forum Boarium and empties into
the office of consul.”
the Tiber downstream of the Pons Sublicius.
ΩΩ Cloaca Circus Maximus – Built in the 6th century BC, this
sewer flows down the centre of (and under) the Circus Maxi-
mus, and was bridged in at least two places to allow the char-
iot course to cross over it. Baths (Balneae)
ΩΩ Cloaca Magna (Great Drain) – Drained the Swamp of the The first record of balneae in Rome occurs in the 2nd century
Goats (Palus Caprae) on the Campus Martius. It started to BC. By the end of the Republic there were hundreds of privately
be covered in 221 BC when the Circus Flaminius was con- owned, yet publicly accessible balneae in the city, most serving the
structed over it. local residents of the district where it is built. The larger state owned
thermae, which could cover an area the size of several apartment
By the end of the Republic, the majority of the sewers had been blocks, did not exist during the Republic.
covered over, allowing safer movement along the streets and proba- Most baths are modest sized buildings, which can only service
bly helping to contain the smell too. a few hundred people at any time. Acting as sports clubs as much
as places of personal hygiene, some early baths maintain a degree
“The sewers, covered with a vault of tightly fitted stones, have room in of exclusivity by charging higher entry fees. Yet most are extremely
some places for hay wagons to drive through them. And the quantity of water cheap earning their profits by high turnover, rather than catering to
brought into the city by aqueducts is so great that rivers, as it were, flow richer patrons. By the end of the Republic, the baths had become a
through the city and the sewers; almost every house has water tanks, and place where members of any social class can mingle and rub shoul-
service pipes, and plentiful streams of water...” ders together.
Strabo - Geography Once the hypocaust was invented just before the Social War in
91 BC, Roman baths began to be heated. Before this, the waters
Once vaulted however, the sewers took on a more sinister aspect, would have remained cold, which in a warm, mild climate was not
since they were often used for the disposal of dead bodies. In later necessarily a bad thing, save in winter when it might have taken a
times under cover of darkness Nero was reputed to have ‘catch up a Stoic to utilise them fully.
cap or a wig and go to the taverns or range about the streets playing Later baths are built around a similar plan. They possess a warm
pranks, which however were very far from harmless; for he used to room (tepidarium), a hot room (caldarium) and a cold room (frigidar-
beat men as they came home from dinner, stabbing any who resisted ium). The hypocaust funnels hot air from fires under the floor and
him and throwing them into the sewers’, a trend which was proba- up the walls, keeping the warmer rooms, as well as the water heated.
bly inherited from the violence of the late Republic. Unfortunately, In more comprehensive baths there might also be a wet steam room
during times of pestilence the sewers were also used to dispose of the (sudatorium) and a hot, dry sauna (laconicum).
dead, which sometimes spread the disease.
“In other cases, again, it is by their vapours that waters are so beneficial to
“Not the least of the evils the city suffered, and the reason why the pes- man, being so intensely hot as to heat our baths even, and to make cold water
tilence did not quickly abate, was the way in which they cast out the dead boil in our sitting-baths;”
bodies. For though at first, both from a sense of shame and because of the Pliny the Elder - Naturalis Historia
plenty they had of everything necessary for burials, they burned the bodies and
committed them to earth, at the last, either through a disregard of decency or Bath houses have a changing room (apodyterium) which lies
from a lack of the necessary equipment, they threw many of the dead into the beyond the main entrance, where the charging booth is. They also
sewers under the streets and cast far more of them into the river; and from these
64 Dura lex, sed lex – The law is hard, but it is law
have a gymnasium (palaestra) which lies either in the centre or with due care, he pays no respect. Hear how the wretched fray begins - if fray
behind the building. it can be called when you do all the thrashing and I get all the blows. The
Since during the Republic very few homes have a central heating fellow stands up against me, and bids me halt; obey I must. What else can
system using hypocausts, when it is very cold many people go to the you do when attacked by a madman stronger than yourself ?
baths in order to warm themselves up. Juvenal - Saturae
“First of all that harsh and old-fashioned man inveighed against those
persons who, in the month of April, were spending their time at Baiæ, and
using the warm baths. What have we to do with this morose and severe man? Thieves
The manners of our day cannot endure so austere and rigorous a magistrate, Roman thieves (Fures) come in several different kinds.
who, as far as he can help it, will not allow men older than himself to stay at ΩΩ Burglars (effractarii) – rob houses and tenements, using stealth to
their own estates and attend to their health with impunity, even at a time when
enter buildings either by picking door locks or entering via the win-
nothing is doing at Rome.”
dows, which is why many lower floors in insulae have metal grills
Cicero – Speech against Publius Clodius
to prevent entry.
ΩΩ Pickpockets (cleptae) – lift the money pouches from pedestrians,
even though Romans did not have pockets. Most purses (sacculi)
are carried round the waist in the form of a money belt or tucked
Hazards of City Life up under the tunic and held in place by the belt. Some cutpurses use
(Pericula Urbis)
sharp knives to slit belts, allowing pouches stuffed under the tunic to
drop to the ground. Cleptae could also be thieves who steal bathers’
A Roman citizen’s life is always under threat from a multitude of clothes at the baths... a lucrative and profitable item of trade.
different dangers. Apart from the earlier mentions of shoddy con- ΩΩ Muggers (raptores or insidiatores) – are the bane of the streets but
struction causing entire buildings to collapse, there was threat of did not only limit their activities to the night. Some side streets were
crime, riots, fire, flood and pestilence. Even accidents could be fatal famous for deadly robbers who often had no compunction about
from being run down by a cart to having a flower pot dropped on killing those they mugged. Most muggers operate in teams of at
one’s head. In a time where medicine was still rather experimental, least two, one to distract the target whilst the other waylays them
even a simple broken bone could cost you your life. from behind.
ΩΩ A bandit (latro) – is a robber who stakes out the roads outside
Street Crime (Facinus) the city, often using the necropolises as hiding places for ambushes.
They normally operate as small gangs in order to overwhelm
Crime is synonymous with Roman city life. After the Punic wars, mounted victims. Sometimes however, these gangs comprise of noth-
the number of dispossessed citizens dramatically increased. With no ing but desperate beggars seeking food or clothing.
jobs available and no land to farm, many plebeians were forced to a ΩΩ Gangsters (grassatores) – occupy each district and neighbourhood
life of crime to survive. Added to this were an ever growing number of the city. These hoodlums extract protection money from local
of freedmen, released from slavery by masters too mean to continue businesses, run organised crime and are eternally warring with
supporting them after injury or old age. Crime, particularly violent other gangs for control over territory. An enforcer (interfector) would
crime (vis) continued to grow until by the end of the Republic it had be used to permanently settle more difficult problems…
reached endemic proportions. ΩΩ Assassins (sicarii) – are paid murderers. They can be located with
The streets of Rome were hazardous to those unfamiliar to the the right criminal contacts. Since assassination is infrequent even in
city. It was easy to become lost amongst the torturous alleyways and Rome, contracts are few and far between, forcing most professional
be ambushed by muggers or local gangsters. Travelling at night was killers to hold employment in a second, often nefarious, career.
particularly perilous. Since Rome lacked any form of street lighting ΩΩ Forgers (falsarii) and swindlers (deceptores) – are rarely inherently
(lamp oil being very expensive and torches being easy to steal), only dangerous. However they can separate a citizen from his money and
fools, criminals, or those accompanied by slaves or clients would place him in debt, a precarious situation in Rome, since both food
venture out after dark. In streets sheltered by high tenements, the and lodging are difficult for most people to afford. To be fleeced in
darkness must have been near total, even on moonlit evenings. Latin is to suffer a ‘plucking’ (depilatum).
Night was the time of muggers, vindictive drunks, and roaming
groups of young noblemen looking for a good time. Encountering
one of these could quickly lead to violence and possibly death…
“Your drunken bully who has by chance not slain his man passes a night Riots (Seditiones)
of torture like that of Achilles when he bemoaned his friend, lying now upon Riots are one of the more frightening dangers of the city. Since
his face, and now upon his back; he will get no rest in any other way, since Rome lacks any sort of police force and by tradition armed soldiers
some men can only sleep after a brawl. Yet however reckless the fellow may be, are forbidden within the walls, it is almost impossible to restore order
however hot with wine and young blood, he gives a wide berth to one whose once a riot erupts. The city is repeatedly stricken from civic uprisings
scarlet cloak and long retinue of attendants, with torches and brass lamps in during the late Republic.
their hands, bid him keep his distance. But to me, who am wont to be escorted Rioters often devolve into mindless mob violence against both
home by the moon, or by the scant light of a candle whose wick I husband people and property, and looting is commonplace. When the threat
Et tu, Brute! – You too, Brutus! (Shakespeare)

65
The dangers of such insurrections come primarily from factious
Rules for Riots rioters attacking one another, the trampling of people fleeing the
Riots are one of the few times that the average citizen gets to openly rioters, and the threat of major conflagrations breaking out from
wield weapons within the city. Although ‘technically’ illegal, nobody is looters. Since rioting causes so much death and destruction, and
going to declaim or arrest somebody for carrying a knife or even a sword destabilises the city for days afterwards, the act of inciting a riot
during a riot. People caught unprepared will grab anything to use as an often results in a death penalty.
impromptu weapon. Sticks and stones are easily improvised and there
are period reports of the stools of magistrates or the separated rods “The bystanders rescued him, and as he fled he implored “the protection
of fasces being used during mob violence; and even some victims being of the Roman plebs,” and said that he was the victim of a conspiracy amongst
stoned to death with tiles or paving slabs. the patricians, because he had acted generously towards the plebs. He entreated
Considering most Romans lack any form of armour, becoming them to come to his help in this terrible crisis, and not suffer him to be butch-
involved in a fight using knives or swords is usually lethal and the best ered before their eyes. Whilst he was making these appeals, Servilius overtook
advice for player characters is follow in the footsteps of some senators of him and slew him. Besprinkled with the dead man’s blood, and surrounded
the time and play dead. by a troop of young patricians, he returned to the Dictator and reported that
Although violence is inherently dangerous, the most deadly aspect of Maelius after being summoned to appear before him had driven away his
a riot is actually being trampled by the rush of people fleeing the area. officer and incited the populace to riot, and had now met with the punishment
No matter how tough the individual, their strength is useless against a he deserved. “Well done.” said the Dictator, “C. Servilius, you have delivered
crowd of desperate people, especially when the throng is funnelled in the the republic.”’
narrow streets of the city. All that can be done is try to remain upright Livy - Ab Urbe Condita
whilst being pushed along in the flow.
Games Masters should use an Athletics or Brawn roll to see if a A list of the most famous riots follows:
character caught up in the crowd surge retains their balance and escapes
ΩΩ 133 BC – Tiberius Gracchus and 300 of his followers are
the scene. If a character fails the balance check then they fall over and
assassinated by a group of senators fearing his political
must make an Evade roll applying the result on the table below…
reformations.
ΩΩ Critical – the character miraculously finds some form of cover
under a street stall or next to a wall and suffers no damage. They “Now, the attendants of the senators carried clubs and staves which they
may regain their feet automatically. had brought from home; but the senators themselves seized the fragments and
ΩΩ Success – the character suffers 1d6 damage to a single Hit legs of the benches that were shattered by the crowd in its flight, and went up
Location but remains conscious and can extract themselves from the against Tiberius, at the same time smiting those who were drawn up to protect
bodies, which pin them down once the riot has moved on. him. Of these there was a rout and a slaughter, and as Tiberius himself
ΩΩ Failure – the character suffers 2d6 damage to either the Head, turned to fly, someone laid hold of his garments. So he let his toga go and fled
Chest or Abdomen, and is rendered unconscious from crushing or in his tunic. But he stumbled and fell to the ground among some bodies that
being repeatedly kicked. lay in front of him. As he strove to rise to his feet, he received his first blow,
ΩΩ Fumble – the character is trampled to death. A Perception roll as everybody admits, from Publius Satyreius, one of his colleagues, who smote
must be made to recognise the pulped remains once the riot clears. him on the head with the leg of a bench; to the second blow claim was made
by Lucius Rufus, who plumed himself upon it as upon some noble deed. And
For further fun, a Games Master might also require a Status roll of the rest more than three hundred were slain by blows from sticks and stones,
for those characters owning property near the epicentre of the riot to see but not one by the sword.”
if nearby buildings are looted. A failure means that the contents of the Plutarch - Life of Tiberius Gracchus
house, shop or apartment were stolen or wrecked. A fumble indicates that
the property was raised to the ground by arson. ΩΩ 121 BC – Gaius Gracchus, the brother of Tiberius, and Mar-
cus Fulvius Flaccus attempt to protect their law reforms by
raising a plebeian mob. The senate declares him an enemy of
of urban unrest is in the air, most Romans nail up boards across
the state and they along with 3,000 suspected supporters are
windows, pile up furniture against their doors and arm their slaves
killed in the ensuing violence.
to prevent their homes and shops from being attacked. ΩΩ 103 BC – Riots instigated by Gaius Norbanus, a tribune of
the Plebs.
“And just as often occurs when a riot has broken out in a large gathering ΩΩ 100 BC – Partisans of the seditious tribune Lucius Appuleius
of people, and the emotions of the lowly crowd rage, and torches and rocks fly:
Saturninus murder a candidate running for consul and follow
their fury provides the weapons”.
up by seizing the Capitoline hill. A battle erupts in the Forum
Vergil - The Aeneid
Romanum between Saturninus’ mob and the armed forces
of Marius. Despite surrendering, Saturninus and his followers
Although a few of the most famous riots were spontaneous reac-
are then murdered by indignant renegade senators.
tions from poverty stricken people suffering famine or moral outrage
against an unfair judgement, the majority are instigated by ambi-
“Marius shut them up in the senate-house as though he intended to deal
tious or ruthless officials, who organise mobs to enforce their politi-
with them in a more legal manner. The crowd considered this a mere pretext,
cal will by threat of violence.
tore the tiles off the roof, and stoned them to death, including a quæstor, a
tribune, and a prætor, who were still wearing their insignia of office.”
66 Eventus stultorum magister – Events are the teacher of stupid persons
Appian - The Civil Wars
ΩΩ 98 BC – Publius Furius is brought to trial for his

acts whilst tribune and is literally torn to pieces
in the assembly.
ΩΩ 87 BC – A riot breaks out between the followers
of the two consuls Gnaeus Octavius and Lucius
Cornelius Cinna over land redistributions pro-
posed by Marius. Over 10,000 die in the result-
ing insurgence.
“While Octavius was still at home awaiting the result,

the news was brought to him that the majority of the tribunes
had vetoed the proposed action, but that the new citizens had
started a riot, drawn their daggers on the street, and assaulted
the opposing tribunes on the rostra. When Octavius heard this
he ran down through the Via Sacra with a very dense mass of
men, burst into the forum like a torrent, pushed through the
midst of the crowd, and separated them. He struck terror into
them, went on to the temple of Castor and Pollux, and drove
Cinna away; while his companions fell upon the new citizens
“You recollect, O judges, that on that day the Tiber was filled with the
without orders, killed many of them, put the rest to flight, and pursued them
corpses of the citizens, that the sewers were choked up; that blood was wiped
to the city gates.”
up out of the forum with sponges; so that all men thought that such a vast
Appian - The Civil Wars
number and such a magnificent show of gladiators could not have been pro-
vided by any private individual, or plebeian, but must be the exhibition of
ΩΩ 87 BC – Marius returns to Rome and orders the deaths of
some patrician and man of prætorian rank.”
the leading supporters of Sulla. However things spread out
Cicero - Orations
of control and after five days of rioting, 4,000 rampaging
soldiers are rounded up and killed, leaving 100 senators and ΩΩ 57 BC – After a succession of murders, the tribune Titus
equestrians dead, along with countless other citizens.
Annius Milo raises his own force to oppose the autocratic
ΩΩ 75 BC – Civil discord erupts over a shortage of grain, prompt-
reign of terror the unrestricted violence of Clodius’ armed
ing the consul Gaius Aurelius Cotta to make a speech to the
gang has given him. This act condemns the city to another
assembly of the people to calm the plebeians.
four years of intermittent, uncontrolled violence.
ΩΩ 67 BC – Following a law reserving the front 14 rows of seats
ΩΩ 53 BC – The tribune P. Licinius Crassus Dives causes pan-
at the theatre for the exclusive use of the equites (whereas pre-
icked riots after he proposes that Gnaeus Pompeius be
viously they had been available to those of any rank) the ple-
appointed dictator to restore public order.
beians start a riot, requiring a public address from the prætor ΩΩ 52 BC – Rioting runs rampant when the news of Clodius’
Marcus Tullius Cicero to suppress.
death reaches Rome, and also takes place at his funeral when
the mob builds a pyre for his body in the Curia Hostilia…
“Marcus Otho was the first to separate in point of honour the equites from
the rest of the citizens, which he did when he was prætor, and gave them a par-
“As tribunes they conveyed the body into the Forum just before dawn,
ticular place of their own at the spectacles, which they still retain. The people
placed it on the rostra, exhibited it to all, and spoke appropriate words over
took this as a mark of dishonour to themselves, and when Otho appeared in
it with lamentations. So the populace, as a result of what it both saw and
the theatre they hissed him insultingly, while the equestrians received him with
heard, was deeply stirred and no longer showed any regard for things sacred
loud applause. The people renewed and increased their hisses, and then the
or profane, but overthrew all the customs of burial and burned down nearly
equites their applause. After this they turned upon one another with reviling
the whole city. They took up the body of Clodius and carried it into the
words, and disorder reigned in the theatre.”
senate-house, laid it out properly, and then after heaping up a pyre out of the
Plutarch - The Life of Cicero
benches burned both the corpse and the building.”
ΩΩ 66 BC – Rioting occurs at the trial of Caius Cornelius when
he is accused of sedition (maiestas) by the brothers Cominii. ΩΩ 44 BC – The last major riot of the Republic follows oration
The trial is abandoned after the brothers are forced to flee
of Marcus Antonius at Julius Caesar’s funeral, where he reads
the city.
Caesar’s will and displays the bloody toga, naming the perpe-
ΩΩ 57 BC – Publius Claudius Pulcher purposely incites his parti-
trator of each stab wound. The crowd assault the property of
sans to violence to prevent the passing of a bill to recall Mar-
the conspirators who flee the city in fear of their lives.
cus Tullius Cicero to Rome. Many people die as the assembly
flees the pre-planned bloodshed.
Ex nihilo nihil fit – Nothing comes from nothing (Lucretius)

67
“And when he saw that the people were mightily swayed and charmed would sell them for a very small price through fear and uncertainty, and in this
by his words, he mingled with his praises sorrow and indignation over the way most of Rome came to be owned by him.”
dreadful deed, and at the close of his speech shook on high the garments of the Plutarch - The Life of Crassus
dead, all bloody and tattered by the swords as they were, called those who had
wrought such work villains and murderers, and inspired his hearers with such During Rome’s Republican history there were a number of cat-
rage that they heaped together benches and tables and burned Caesar’s body astrophic conflagrations:
in the forum, and then, snatching the blazing faggots from the pyre, ran to the
ΩΩ 390 BC – The first and greatest conflagration was the sack-
houses of the assassins and assaulted them.”
ing of Rome by the Gauls. Since nearly all the buildings at
Plutarch - The Life of Antony
the time were constructed of wood, with thatch or shingle
roofs, the fire laid waste to huge swathes of the city, including
the Forum Romanum, the Comitium, and all the pontifical
Fires (Incendia) records (including those recorded on bronze or stone) were
Probably the most regular occurring disasters in Rome are fires. also destroyed. After this the city underwent a significant
Blazes frequently start in the tenement buildings of the poor, when period of rapid rebuilding, unfortunately without planning or
unsupervised cooking fires or lamps set fire to the (upper) wooden forethought for the future.
parts of the building. The most frightening thing to the average
Roman living in an insulae was that if the fire started below them “After all the arrangements that circumstances permitted had been made
they could not escape and were faced with either burning to death, for the defence of the Capitol, the old men returned to their respective homes
asphyxiation or dying by jumping from an upper story window. and, fully prepared to die, awaited the coming of the enemy… They [the
Since during the Republic there are no professional firemen, it is Gauls] gazed with feelings of real veneration upon the men who were seated
up to both the inhabitants and neighbours of an enflamed building in the porticoes of their mansions, not only because of the superhuman mag-
to extinguish the blaze themselves. A dangerous task they willingly nificence of their apparel and their whole bearing and demeanour, but also
undertake, since once a large fire starts in the densely packed build- because of the majestic expression of their countenances, wearing the very
ings of the narrow streets, everyone else is threatened. aspect of gods. So they stood, gazing at them as if they were statues, till, as it
If a fire spreads out of control it is impossible to extinguish the is asserted, one of the patricians, M. Papirius, roused the passion of a Gaul,
flames and entire buildings have to be collapsed in order to stop the who began to stroke his beard – which in those days was universally worn
spread to other neighbourhoods. The loss of life and property from long – by smiting him on the head with his ivory staff. He was the first to
fires is severe. However, those who survive are generally taken care be killed; the others were butchered in their chairs. After this slaughter of the
of by the local community in order to help them re-establish their magnates, no living being was thenceforth spared; the houses were rifled, and
lives after such a disaster. Such charity is freely given since the next then set on fire.”
time it might be the benefactor themselves who may suffer misfor- Livy - Ab Urbe Condita
tune. This generosity even extended to the senatorial level.
ΩΩ 241 BC – The Temple of Vesta (rebuilt after the Gallic con-
“But if the grand house of Asturicus be destroyed, the matrons go dishev- flagration) burned down again. The Pontifex Maximus Cae-
elled, your great men put on mourning, the prætor adjourns his court: then cilius Metellus entered the burning temple and rescued the
indeed do we deplore the calamities of the city, and bewail its fires. Before the holy Palladium, which was reputed to have been brought by
house has ceased to burn, up comes one with a gift of marble or of building the hero Aeneas from Troy. Although lauded for his selfless
materials, another offers nude and glistening statues, a third some notable work bravery, he was blinded for his impiety, since no male could
of Euphranor or Polyclitus, or bronzes that had been the glory of old Asian gaze upon the sacred artefact.
shrines. Others will offer books and bookcases, or a bust of Minerva, or a ΩΩ 213 BC – An inferno raged for two days, consuming every-
hundredweight of silver-plate. Thus does Persicus, that most sumptuous of thing between the Salinae (the salt warehouses on the Tiber
childless men, replace what he has lost with more and better things, and with next to the Aventine) to the southwest corner of the Capito-
good reason incurs the suspicion of having set his own house on fire. line, and extending as far north as the Forum Romanum. In
Juvenal - Saturae its path it destroyed the Forum Boarium, the Forum Holito-
rium, and the temples of Spes, Mater Matuta and Fortuna.
In the late Republic, the senator Crassus was famed for main- ΩΩ 210 BC – Another great fire broke out in the Forum Roma-
taining his own personal fire-fighting team of slaves. He would wan- num burning the private houses and shops surrounding the
der the streets waiting for a serious fire to occur, and then approach forum, the Forum Piscarium, the Lautumiae (stone quarry
the distraught owner of the building and offer to purchase it at a district) on the eastern slope of the Capitoline, and once
ridiculously cheap price. If the owner sold, then Crassus would send again the temple of Vesta. This time the temple of Vesta was
his small army of slaves into the building to put out the fire, thereby saved by the bravery of 13 slaves who were all manumitted
picking up prime property for cut throat prices. as a reward.
“Crassus missed no chance to accept or buy any properties. Further, seeing

how constant and frequent were the problems at Rome of fires and collapses
of buildings, because of their size and number, he bought slaves who were
architects and builders. When he had five hundred of them, he bought the
properties which were burning down, and those next to them, as their owners
68 Ex vito alterius sapiens emendat suum – From the other man’s mistake, the wise man corrects his own (Publilius Syrus)
“All this talk was suddenly interrupted by a fire which broke out in the “The senate accordingly authorised the consul to give public notice that
night in several places round the Forum on the eve of the Quinquatrus. Seven whoever disclosed the names of those through whose agency the conflagra-
shops which were afterwards replaced by five were burning at the same time, tion had been started should, if he were a freeman, receive a reward, if a
as well as the offices where the New Banks now stand. Soon after, private slave, his liberty. Tempted by the offer of a reward, a slave belonging to the
buildings, the Lautumiae, the Fish Market and the Hall of Vesta were alight. Capuan family of the Calavii, called Manus, gave information to the effect
It was with the utmost difficulty that the Temple of Vesta was saved, mainly that his masters, together with five young Capuan nobles, whose fathers had
through the exertions of thirteen slaves, who were afterwards manumitted at been beheaded by Q. Fulvius, had caused the fire and were prepared to commit
the public cost. The fire raged all through the next day and there was not the every description of crime if they were not arrested. They and their slaves
smallest doubt that it was the work of incendiaries, for fires started simulta- were at once apprehended. At first they endeavoured to throw suspicion upon
neously in several different places.” the informer and his statement. It was asserted that after being beaten by his
Livy - Ab Urbe Condita master, the day before he gave information, he had run away and had made
out of an occurrence which was really accidental the foundation of a false
ΩΩ 203 BC – A conflagration erupted in the densely built ten- charge. When, however, the accused and accuser were brought face to face and
ements of the Clivus Publicius, a street leading south from the slaves were examined under torture, they all confessed. The masters as well
the Circus Maximus over the Aventine. All the buildings were as the slaves who had been their accessories were all executed. The informer
burned to the ground. was rewarded with his liberty and 20,000 asses.”
ΩΩ 192 BC – The seemingly cursed Forum Boarium was again Livy - Ab Urbe Condita
consumed in a fire which lasted a day and a night. It spread
along the warehouses bordering the Tiber causing a great loss
of life and reduced vast amounts of valuable merchandise to
‘smouldering ruins’.
Floods (Diluvia)
Built on the floodplain of the river Tiber, Rome regularly suf-
ΩΩ 178 BC – A temple to Venus near the Forum Romanum was
fered from seasonal inundation. Normally this would be little more
burned down.
than the river rising a metre or two, which posed small threat to the
ΩΩ 148 BC – The Regia (house of the Pontifex Maximus) also
early hill-top communities. However, as the city expanded and the
burned down.
hills were taken for the building of temples and houses, the majority
ΩΩ 111 BC – The temple of Magna Mater on the Palatine suf-
of the populace were forced to live, work, exercise and shop in the
fered the same fate.
valleys between.
ΩΩ 83 BC – During the civil war between Marius and Sulla the
However, the Tiber occasionally experienced severe flooding,
temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, as well as much of the city, was
which reached into the heart of the city. The most important build-
burned to its foundations.
ings such as temples were built upon podiums to protect them from
ΩΩ 52 BC – Partisans of Clodius carried his murdered body to
such occurrences. Although the buildings situated in the lower lying
the Comitium and built a pyre with the benches of senators
areas of the Campus Martius, Forum Romanum, and the Circus
and magistrates which set fire to the Curia Hostilia and Basil-
Maximus would be awash, sometimes to a depth where only boats
ica Porcia, totally destroying both.
could pass along the streets.
ΩΩ 49 BC – Obviously upset by the civil unrest, the gods strike
Whilst few people were in direct danger of being drowned during
the Temple of Quirinus with lightning, burning the temple
floods, the rising waters presented other dangers. Since floods would
and its surroundings.
last for days, they had a tendency of weakening the foundations of
ΩΩ 36 BC – The Regia once again fell prey to a small blaze.
buildings, and it was not uncommon for poorly built insulae to col-
ΩΩ 31 BC – A fire started by a freedman during a riot in protest
lapse, sometimes months later due to waterlogged brickwork and
against his tax assessment, consumes a large proportion of
rotting timbers.
the Circus Maximus. It spreads up the Aventine hill, destroy-
ing the temple of Ceres, the temple of Spes and numerous
“Meantime the Tiber, either because excessive rains had occurred some-
other residential buildings; continues between the Aventine
where up the stream above the city, or because a violent wind from the sea had
and Palatine hills burning everything in its path till it reaches
driven back its outgoing tide, or still more probably, as was surmised, by the
the Tiber, in the process destroying the Forum Holitorium
act of some divinity, suddenly rose so high as to inundate all the lower levels in
and the temple to Janus located there. A vast amount of pre-
the city and to overwhelm many even of the higher portions. The houses, there-
cious artworks which adorned the temples (the gods’ icons,
fore, being constructed of brick, became soaked through and collapsed, while
marble and bronze statues, and many paintings) are lost to
all the animals perished in the flood. And of the people all who did not take
the flames.
refuge in time on the highest points were caught, either in their dwellings, or in
Because the deadly danger, the deliberate setting of fires (arson) the streets, and lost their lives. The remaining houses, too, became weakened,
is a capital offence. Punishment was death, even if the perpetra- since the mischief lasted for many days, and they caused injuries to many,
tors were citizens of high status. For example, after the major con- either at the time or later.”
flagration of 210 BC, the perpetrators were sought and eventually Cassius Dio - Roman History
punished.
During unusually violent floods even the bridges crossing the
river could also be swept away.
Exegi monumentum aere perennius – I have built a monument more durable than bronze (Horace)
69
“The flooded Tiber made a more serious attack upon the city than in the Doctor Who?
previous year and destroyed two bridges and numerous buildings, most of In 219 BC the Senate invited the first professional Greek doctor to
them in the neighbourhood of the Porta Flumentana. A huge mass of rock, Rome, one Archagathos the Peloponnesian, providing him with both cit-
undermined either by the heavy rains or by an earthquake not felt at the time, izenship and a salary provided by the state. However, due to his fondness
fell from the Capitol into the Vicus Jugarius and crushed a number of people. for using the knife and cauterising, his brutal treatments earned him the
In the country districts cattle and sheep were carried off by the floods in all nickname of ‘The Executioner (carnifex)’! He left Rome, presumably
directions and many farmhouses were laid in ruins.” once fear of his reputation reduced the number of patients willing to risk
Livy - Ab Urbe Condita his sadistic cures.
After this, all physicians became “objects of loathing” according to
The second threat presented by flooding was perhaps the more Pliny, which did not change until the arrival of Asclepiades of Bithynia
dangerous, since the river water would flow up through the sewers, sometime towards the end of the 2nd Century BC. His skill was based
flushing effluent back into the streets or even inside buildings directly on preventative measures against illness, such as exercise, diet and
connected to the system. This combined with the residue of muddy bathing, and these treatments were so popular that he became the most
deposits and water saturated ground inevitably led to disease. famous doctor of the period.
“However, the first introduction of plays, though intended as a means of The inherent dampness of the city, being built upon many natural
religious expiation, did not relieve the mind from religious terrors nor the body springs and streams, combined with cold weather of Rome’s winter
from the inroads of disease. Owing to an inundation of the Tiber, the Circus was detrimental to the aged and sick.
was flooded in the middle of the Games, and this produced an unspeakable The three main diseases of the Republic were malaria, spread by
dread; it seemed as though the gods had turned their faces from men and summer mosquitoes; typhoid, caught from drinking polluted water;
despised all that was done to propitiate their wrath.” and tuberculosis, which was inflamed by substandard living condi-
Livy - Ab Urbe Condita tions and cold weather. Plague and smallpox, the two great killers of
later times were unknown in Republican Rome.
Although the Tiber inundated regularly, the greatest and most Once ill, there was very little any doctors of the time could do
destructive floods of the Republic occurred during the years 414, to treat such infections. Although in the majority of cases the dis-
363, 214, 202, 193, 192, 189, 55, and 27 BC. ease was not immediately fatal, they left the body weakened so that
secondary infections from other illnesses could cause death. Since
Disease (Morbus) malaria and tuberculosis could not be cured, their effects returned
seasonally, eventually ending the life of their host prematurely.
Despite their more spectacular effects, fires, floods and civil dis-
Since it was known that certain diseases flourished at particular
order are insignificant in comparison to the death rate inflicted from
times of the year, many Romans tended to depart the city during its
pestilence. Throughout its history Rome suffered constantly from
most pestilent months. It eventually became fashionable (for those
disease. The frequency of these outbreaks peaked during the mid-
who could afford it) to vacation in the country or seaside during the
dle Republic and then diminished as the city built aqueducts and
summer when fevers and mosquitoes were at their height.
expanded the sewer system. Social changes such as the taking of
Given that the medicine of the Republic was useless for treating
regular baths and passing laws to ensure streets were kept clean, also
the effects of pestilence, the normal treatments were dogged with
helped to reduce outbreaks of disease.
superstition and devotion to the gods; sometimes with unfortunate
Despite improvements in hygiene, pestilences still plagued the
consequences…
city. The escalating population density of the city shoehorned into
smaller and smaller insulae apartments, combined with a gradual
“There was a general desire to recall the condition of things which existed
lowering of nutrition due to the increasing poverty of the lower
under Numa, for men felt that the only help that was left against sickness was
classes aided the spread of disease.
to obtain the forgiveness of the gods and be at peace with heaven. Tradition
The location of Rome itself, built upon boggy quagmires and
records that the king [Tullus Hostilius], whilst examining the commentaries
surrounded by marshlands, were breeding grounds of mosquitoes
of Numa, found there a description of certain secret sacrificial rites paid to
and other insects. That such terrain bred disease was well known by
Jupiter Elicius: he withdrew into privacy whilst occupied with these rites, but
the late Republic, and was almost certainly part of the reason the
their performance was marred by omissions or mistakes. Not only was no sign
drainage ditch of the Cloaca Maxima was originally dug.
from heaven vouchsafed to him, but the anger of Jupiter was roused by the
false worship rendered to him, and he burnt up the king and his house by a
“When building a house or farm especial care should be taken to place it
stroke of lightning.”
at the foot of a wooded hill where it is exposed to health-giving winds. Care
should be taken where there are swamps in the neighbourhood, because certain
tiny creatures which cannot be seen by the eyes breed there. These float through
Many Romans prayed at the shrines of the gods responsible for
the air and enter the body by the mouth and nose and cause serious disease.”
such miseries, to appease and ward misfortune. Within the city there
Marcus Varro - Rerum Rusticarum de Agri Cultura
were multiple altars to the goddess of fever (Febris), the goddess of
purification and foul odours (Mephitis), and the god of microbes
Another vector for disease was the lack of central heating in
(Verminus). The majority were clustered about the Esquiline hill,
Roman homes. Private hypocausts did not become widespread
suggesting it was an unhealthy place to live (unsurprising consider-
even in the domus of the wealthy until the time of the Caesars.
ing the burial grounds of the poor lay just outside the city walls atop
70 Exitus acta probat – The results justify the deed

Disease Rules
Considering the prevalence of the three major diseases of the period, Application: Ingestion (drinking tainted water)
it is assumed that most player characters possess some degree of partial Potency: 50
immunity to them. Most people susceptible to such illness usually die in Resistance: Endurance
childhood and many wealthier Romans who avoided a violent death often Onset time: 1d4 weeks
survived to their 70s or80s. Duration: 3 weeks
However, the fear of disease is a powerful motivation of the time. Conditions: Exhaustion, Fever & Hallucinations, Death. During the
Games Masters who wish an extra degree of realism may introduce the first week, the character suffers a slowly rising temperature, a gen-
following, which reflect the dangerous debilitation of such infections. eral feeling of weakness, headaches and a cough. During this time the
character suffers an extra level of Fatigue, atop any they are currently
suffering from.
Malaria
In the second week the character becomes prostrate from the high fever
Spread by mosquitoes, which flourish during warm months, the symp-
and experiences frequent (green coloured) diarrhoea. If this was not
toms of malaria include fever, shivering, joint pain, vomiting, anaemia and
bad enough, they also suffer from delirium, which can become violent.
convulsions, which reoccur on a diurnal cyclic basis. The milder form of
The third week is the most dangerous point, where the patient suffers
malaria is chronic and the infection remains for many years. Characters that
intestinal bleeding and potential heart failure. They are rendered help-
remain in Rome during the summer will be exposed to malaria, above all
those living in the lower districts near the Tiber. less and must succeed an unopposed Endurance roll or die at the end
of the week.
Application: Injected (mosquito bite) Those Games Masters who wish to add a further touch of macabre
Potency: 65 realism can add the following rule. If a character manages to roll a
Resistance: Endurance fumble when initially resisting Typhoid, they are naturally immune
Onset time: 1d8+6 days carriers of it. This becomes a horrifying affliction, since the character
Duration: 2 weeks or more will be a living plague source, infecting all those in their presence if they
Conditions: Fever with possible Unconsciousness and Death. Failing prepare meals, share drinking vessels or have aural contact…
the opposed Endurance roll indicates that the character is infected with
a milder strain of malaria, which causes a succession of feverish par-
oxysms every 3 days, each bout of fever lasting about 6 hours. During Tuberculosis
this time the character treats all skills as Hard. This continues until The majority of Rome’s inhabitants are infected with tuberculosis.
the third week, when the character can make another opposed roll each Congested streets and overcrowded insulae facilitate the spread of the dis-
week to see if the disease goes into remission. ease. Anyone in proximity to an actively coughing sufferer must pass an
Fumbling the original Stamina roll means the character has instead opposed Endurance roll to avoid catching it themselves. For the majority
contracted a deadlier form of malaria. This induces paroxysms every of healthy people this infection remains latent, never developing into full
2 days but each bout of fever renders the victim unconscious for 24-36 blown active tuberculosis.
hours. In addition the character must make an unopposed Stamina roll Unfortunately, many of the poorer plebeians and slaves of the city are
with each attack. If failed the victim suffers dies. not at their full health, often suffering from malnutrition and poor housing.
Once infected with the milder form of malaria, characters must make Each winter, characters that are living at the subsistence level should make
a further Endurance roll each summer to see if they suffer a relapse. If unopposed Endurance rolls. On a fumble, they progress to active tuberculo-
so, then they suffer the same effects as their first bout of the disease. Yet, sis. Once activated, the character must succeed in an Endurance roll each
if they roll a critical success, then their body purges the infection and month, otherwise the disease flares up.
they no longer suffer from the disease.
Application: Inhalation (in proximity to an active sufferer)
Potency: 60
Typhoid
This disease is transmitted from the consumption of water or food Resistance: Endurance
contaminated by faecal waste. Its symptoms commonly include a sustained Onset time: Only activates if the annual winter Endurance roll is a
high fever, headaches, diarrhoea, stomach pains and sometimes a rash fumble
of pink spots. It is often fatal, particularly to those weakened by other Duration: Monthly
infections. Conditions: Exhaustion. Once the tuberculosis becomes active, each
Characters that drink river water downstream from any of the cloacae month the character fails an unopposed Endurance roll they spend that
outlets or anyone remaining in the city after a major flood of the Tiber, month coughing and feeling weak. After a while the sufferer will begin
should make an opposed Endurance roll. Losing indicates that they have to note traces of blood in their phlegm. Due to lung scarring the Fatigue
been infected. The disease progresses in three stages, each one typically loss is permanent, eventually leading to death from accumulating
lasting a week. weight loss, pulmonary bleeding and respiratory failure.
Experto credite – Believe me, for I have experienced (Virgil)

71
the hill). Even in the Forum Romanum was a shrine to the goddess regarded with suspicion, and were expensive to hire. Not until the
of the sewers (Venus Cloaca) who presumably protected the city by late Republic did the advances in Greek medicine start to gain
carrying away filth and dirt. Roman trust.
It was generally the slaves and poorest classes who suffered worst
in any pestilence, presumably due to a lower level of nutrition and “Until recently, Diaulus was a doctor; now he is an undertaker. He is still
inferior housing. doing as an undertaker, what he used to do as a doctor”
Marshal - Epigrams
“The work of enrolment was all the more difficult for the consuls, because
the pestilence which the year before had attacked the cattle had now turned into
an epidemic, and those who fell victims to it seldom survived the seventh day;
those who did survive were subject to a long and tedious illness, which gener-
ally took the form of a quartidian ague. The deaths occurred chiefly amongst
the slaves and their unburied bodies lay scattered in all the streets, and not even
in the case of the free population could the funeral rites be carried out decently.
The corpses lay untouched by dog and vulture and slowly rotted away, and
it was generally observed that neither in this nor in the previous year had a
vulture been anywhere seen.”
Some epidemics were so deadly that the city became severely

depopulated. In such cases even the wealthiest died due to the inabil-
ity to clear the dead from homes and streets. Many historical records
of the time specifically list the fatalities of serving magistrates.
“[in 451 BC] Rome was afflicted with a pestilence more severe than any
of those recorded from past time. Almost all the slaves were carried off by it
and about one half of the citizens, as neither the physicians were able any
longer to alleviate their sufferings, nor did their servants and friends supply
them with the necessaries. For those who were willing to relieve the calamities
of others, by touching the bodies of the diseased and continuing with them,
contracted the same diseases, with the result that many entire households per-
ished for want of people to attend the sick.”
Dionysius of Halicarnassus - Roman Antiquities
Eventually, during one epidemic in 293 BC the senate ordered

the Sibylline Books to be consulted, and these advised that the cult
of Aesculapius be brought to the city.
“When the people suffered from a plague, envoys were sent to bring a
statue of Aesculapius from Epidaurus to Rome. They brought with them a
snake that had joined them in the ship, and which no doubt was a manifesta-
tion of the god; from the ship, it went to the island in the Tiber, to the place
where the temple of Aesculapius has been erected.”
Livy - Periochae
The temple of Aesculapius became the centre of healing in the

city and it was the place that the poor came to beg help for their
ailments. Despite this faith, the priests of the god used psychology
rather than science to treat their supplicants. Patients were placed
into a narcotic induced sleep so that the god might send a dream
revealing the proper treatment for their affliction. The priests inter-
preted these dreams and, if the therapy was successful, a votive
totem (in the shape of the part of the body afflicted) was suspended
in the temple, along with a tablet describing the treatment.
Wealthier or more sceptical patients often took a different
approach to a cure. They would be carried out into the streets and
left under porticoes, so that passers-by could give them advice on
cures based on their personal experience. Doctors in general were
72 Faber est suae quisque fortunae – Each is the maker of his own fortune (Appius Claudius Caecus)
73
74
Mythic Rome: The Games
The Games
“He gave entertainments of diverse kinds: a combat of gladiators and also Ludi scaenici were a combination of other forms of spectacle.
stage-plays in every ward all over the city, performed too by actors of all lan- Primary amongst these were plays, which helped to spread the pop-
guages, as well as races in the circus, athletic contests, and a sham sea-fight. ularity of comedy and mime. There were also processions (pompae),
In the gladiatorial contest in the Forum Furius Leptinus, a man of praetorian public feasts and animal displays. The latter involved the importa-
stock, and Quintus Calpenus, a former senator and pleader at the bar, fought tion of unknown creatures from the ends of the world, which were
to a finish. A Pyrrhic dance was performed by the sons of the princes of Asia shown to the populace as novelties. It was not until the late Republic
and Bithynia. During the plays Decimus Laberius, a Roman knight, acted a that they decided to kill the creatures for entertainment instead.
farce of his own composition, and having been presented with five hundred Although initially staged for religious observance, additional
thousand sestertii and a gold ring, passed from the stage through the orchestra games were introduced to celebrate military victories (ludi votivi)
and took his place in the fourteen rows. For the races the circus was lengthened or simply to boost public morale. Eventually the entire concept was
at either end and a broad canal was dug all about it; then young men of the corrupted as politicians used the games as means to raise public sup-
highest rank drove four-horse and two-horse chariots and rode pairs of horses, port from voters. By the end of the Republic, gladiatorial combats
vaulting from one to the other. The game called Troy was performed by two were merged with the games to provide greater spectacles, which
troops, of younger and of older boys. Combats with wild beasts were presented birthed an appetite for blood and cruelty which had previously been
on five successive days, and last of all there was a battle between two oppos- unknown.
ing armies, in which five hundred foot-soldiers, twenty elephants, and thirty Ludi were managed by the magistrates of the city. The Ludi
horsemen engaged on each side. To make room for this, the goals were taken Apollinares and Ludi Victoriae Sullae were supervised by the urban
down and in their place two camps were pitched over against each other. The prætor. The Ludi Plebeii was presided over by the plebeian ædiles
athletic competitions lasted for three days in a temporary stadium built for the and the remainder were run by the curule ædiles. All these were
purpose in the region of the Campus Martius. For the naval battle a pool was originally funded by taxes on allied (or subjugated) cities but during
dug in the lesser Codeta and there was a contest of ships of two, three, and the late Republic, ædiles began to supplement the costs of bigger
four banks of oars, belonging to the Tyrian and Egyptian fleets, manned by and better games out of their own pockets in order to influence their
a large force of fighting men. Such a throng flocked to all these shows from electoral chances of higher office. Eventually the senate attempted
every quarter, that many strangers had to lodge in tents pitched in streets or to limit the expense of the games, but to no avail.
along the roads, and the press was often such that many were crushed to death, The first games were the Roman Games (Ludi Romani), origi-
including two senators.” nally held as a votive offering in honour of Jupiter Optimus Maxi-
Suetonius – Life of Julius Caesar mus in 509 BC. They comprised of a triumphal procession from his
temple atop the Capitoline hill to the Circus Maximus, followed by
T
he games began originally as religious festivals to please and a series of contests.
placate the gods. Given the lack of public entertainments at
the time, these festivals became increasingly popular – not “The contests were horse-racing and boxing, the horses and boxers mostly
least because they were free. Despite popular misconceptions the brought from Etruria. They were at first celebrated on occasions of especial
games did not simply comprise of gladiatorial combats (munera); solemnity; subsequently they became an annual fixture, and were called indif-
those came later and were separate religious observances to the ferently the “Roman” or the “Great Games.”
spirits of the dead. Instead the amusements the games provided Livy – Ab Urbe Condita
were a mélange of differing entertainments, classed as sports (ludi
circenses), or theatrical performances (ludi scaenici). These games were repeated infrequently during times of great
Ludi circenses were originally a mixture of athletic contests and portent, until almost a century and a half later, when they finally
equestrian races. Over the course of time the athletics displays were became an annual event. Additional celebrations were added
sidelined, and chariot racing grew to overwhelming popularity. throughout the remainder of the Republic.
Facta, non verba – Deeds, not words

75
The following list describes the names and dates of the annual two days of the games were ludi circenses, the rest were given to
games celebrated. theatrical productions.
Ludi Megalenses (4-10 April) Ludi Victoriae Caesaris (20-30 July)

First held in honour of the Cybele, whose statue was brought Originally named the Ludi Veneris Genetricis and held by Julius
to Rome in 204 BC by order of an oracle found in the Sibylline Caesar in 46 BC to celebrate the completion of the temple to Venus
Books. Once her temple was finally completed in 191 BC, the games Genetrix. However, after his assassination the following year, the
were hosted annually. The majority of the celebrations were ludi games were moved to July to mark the month of Caesar’s birth and
scaenici, with feasts and processions. Only the final day was there a commemorate his victories. They comprised of seven days of ludi
ludi circenses. scaenici followed by four days of ludi circenses.
Ludi Cereales (12-19 April) Ludi Romani (5-19 September)

The games of Ceres, dedicated to the goddess of the harvest The original public games held in deference to the deity Jupiter
began by 202 BC. A particular spectacle of these celebrations was Optimus Maximus. Yearly games started in 366 BC.
the release of foxes which had lit torches tied to their tails.
Ludi Victoriae Sullae (26 October – 1 November)
“In a valley, he caught, in the depths of a willow copse, a vixen, who’d Commenced in 82 BC to celebrate Sulla’s victory at the Colline
stolen many birds from the yard. He wrapped his captive in straw and hay, Gate. They comprised of six days of ludi scaenici followed by a sin-
and set fire to it all: she fled the hands that were out to burn her: In fleeing she gle day of ludi circenses.
set the crops that covered the fields, ablaze: And a breeze lent strength to the
devouring flames. The thing’s forgotten, but a relic remains: since now there’s Ludi Plebeii (4-17 November)
a certain law of Carseoli, that bans foxes: And they burn a fox at the Cerialia The second eldest public games, established in 216 BC in trib-
to punish the species, destroyed in the same way as it destroyed the crops.” ute of the reconciliation between the patricians and plebeians after
Ovid – Fasti the plebeians moved to either the mons sacer or, according to other
sources, the Aventine Hill. There were nine days of ludi scaenici
Like the Ludi Megalenses, only the last day was a ludi circenses, performances, followed by a great feast held in honour of Jupiter,
featuring chariot races. The rest were all ludi scaenici. Another tra- the Senators eating at public expense upon the Capitoline, while the
dition of these games was the wearing of white clothes in respect of Roman public dined in the Forum. This was continued with a grand
the goddess of grain, which meant that anyone in mourning could procession led by statues of the Capitoline Triad, which would pro-
not attend. ceed to the Circus Maximus, and begin a further four days of ludi
circenses.
“White is fitting for Ceres: dress in white clothes for Ceres. Festival: on
this day no one wears dark-coloured thread.”
Ovid – Fasti Processions (Pompae)
Formal processions were a large part of public entertainments.
Ludi Florales (28 April – 3 May)
They were given as part of triumphs – victory celebrations of wars,
Although originally celebrations to the goddess Flora, the Flo-
appeals for divine intercessions in times of disaster and, of course,
ralia were superseded by the Ludi Florales, when a new temple to
part of the annual ludi. Descriptions written by Dionysius of Hali-
her was built in 238 BC on the Aventine hill overlooking the Cir-
carnassus record an example of such a parade during the Ludi
cus Maximus. By 173 BC the games were an annual occurrence.
Romani, which followed a traditional format.
It comprised of four days of ludi scaenici performances involving
At the head of the procession led the consuls and other magis-
naked actresses and prostitutes, with the final day being used for
trates as befitting their place as leaders of the city. These were fol-
ludi circenses.
lowed by a groups of young men sometimes mounted, who were
either wastrel fans of the circus entertainments, or had political
“Those games, therefore, are celebrated with all wantonness, as is suitable
intentions. After them came the chariot drivers in their vehicles,
to the memory of a harlot. For besides licentiousness of words, in which all
followed by the athletes dressed only in loincloths to display their
lewdness is poured forth, women are also stripped of their garments at the
physiques.
demand of the people, and then perform the office of mime players, and are
Dancers came next, usually youths or boys, dressed in red tunics,
detained in the sight of the people with indecent gestures, even to the satiating
bronze belts and crested helmets, carrying swords and spears…
of unchaste eyes.
accompanied by various musicians. They were followed by men
Lactantius – Divinae Institutiones
dressed as mythological satyrs and silenoi, with wineskins and huge
phalluses, who comically impersonated the military dancers who
preceded them. These too were escorted by musicians.
Ludi Apollinares (6-13 July) Finally, after the comic section of the procession passed, came
These games were first held in 212 BC in propitiation of Apollo, the sacred objects of the gods (or their anthropomorphic images in
to avert the fears generated by Hannibal’s invasion of northern Italy. the later Republic); on litters (fercula) bourn upon the shoulders of
They were made permanent four years later to forestall the ravages the priests. At the end of the procession were wisely led the sacrificial
of a pestilence, since Apollo was a god of healing. Only the final
76 Falsus in uno, falsus in omnibus – False in one thing, false in all
animals, presumably so their dung would not
sully the steps of those before them.
Add flower wreaths, thrown petals, street
hawkers and excited throngs of spectators
jammed into the streets or looking down from
open windows, and one can begin to understand
the true spectacle…
Animal Shows
(Venationes)
In Republican Rome, animal shows were
a mixture of displaying rare creatures, shows
of performing beasts and most notoriously, the
hunts. These venationes were normally held at
the Circus Maximus.
The first recorded display of wild animals at
the games was in 250 BC, when 142 Carthag-
inian elephants captured in Sicily were shipped
back to Rome. There were many other notable
displays of strange or frightening animals, such
as the loosing of lions in the Forum Romanum by desperate enough to volunteer – and were regarded less highly than
Sulla in 93 BC, the showing of a hippopotamus and five crocodiles gladiators.
in 58 BC, and in 46 BC even the parade of a giraffe by Julius Caesar. Normally venatores were armed only with hunting spears (ven-
The first record of animals being hunted at the games was in abula) and wore no armour save knee length leather wrappings (fas-
186 BC. After the display, which outraged some senators, animal ciae crurales). At the end of the Republic, hunters placed against
hunts were banned for 20 years, but eventually they returned with dangerous predators began to be armed like gladiators instead, with
a vengeance. sword and shield.
The hunt was not the only form of animal combat however.
“The hunting of lions and panthers formed a novel feature, and the whole Many shows displayed clashes between different types of animals,
spectacle presented almost as much splendour and variety as those of the pres- which were chained together to ensure they would fight. Popular
ent day.” matches were leopards versus lions and bears versus bulls. However,
Livy – Ab Urbe Condita the Romans experimented with all sorts of combinations to provide
novelty in the arena, using elephants, rhinoceroses, bulls, bears,
Some animal hunts were infamous. In 55 BC Pompey had 500 boars, lions, leopards, pythons and even crocodiles… although hunts
lions and 410 leopards killed in the Circus Maximus, which he fol- involving the use of dogs against stags or boars, were probably more
lowed by the slaughter of 18 elephants. Unfortunately for him, the usual.
last scene evoked the sympathies of the audience, which publicly
cursed him for his cruelty. “While the trainers were gingerly provoking a rhinoceros, and the anger
of the great wild beast was taking a long time to build up, the anticipated
“Indeed, five hundred lions were used up in five days, and eighteen ele- battle looked as if it would not take place. But finally the rage of the beast
phants fought against men in heavy armour. Some of these beasts were killed previously much in evidence returned, for he thus lifted up a heavy bear with
at the time and others a little later. For some of them, contrary to Pompey’s his twin horns…”
wish, were pitied by the people when, after being wounded and ceasing to Marshal – Liber Spectaculorum
fight, they walked about with their trunks raised toward heaven, lamenting so
bitterly as to give rise to the report that they did so not by mere chance, but were Horseback bull wrestlers (taurocentae) were a specialist form of
crying out against the oaths in which they had trusted when they crossed over combatant. They rode beside a bull, leapt onto its back and tried
from Africa, and were calling upon Heaven to avenge them. to wrestle it to the ground by twisting its head. The more familiar
Cassius Dio – Roman History bull fighters (taurarii) faced their beasts in single combat, as in their
modern day successors but the contest was more even, with the bulls
Those who participated in these hunts were known either as winning far more frequently.
hunters (venatores) or beast handlers (bestiarii). Venatores were pro- In fact, those animals who won their combats were frequently
fessional hunters trained to kill wild animals, whereas bestiarii were discharged from the arena alive and some made great names for
of inferior status, used to care for and drive the animals into combat themselves as man killers.
using whips or burning torches – although sometimes they could be
attacked by the beasts instead. Most venatores and bestiarii were
recruited from condemned criminals or prisoners of war – or those
Fama volat - Rumor flies

77
“But what pleasure can it possibly be to a man of culture, when either a a stuffed cylinder held in the hand. Despite its fearsome reputation,
puny human being is mangled by a most powerful beast, or a splendid beast is the caestus was primarily designed to protect the bones in the hand,
transfixed with a hunting-spear?” rather than inflict additional damage to the opponent. Metal caestus
Cicero – Letters did not occur until after the Republic.
Yet armed with only basic leather gloves, Roman boxers still
Not all displays were necessarily lethal. There were snake charm- dispensed terrific injuries upon each other; fractured bones, broken
ers, crocodile wrestlers and bull leapers too. jaws and noses, lost teeth, and concussions were common. Deaths,
Venationes usually ended with a show of performing animals. although unintentional, also occasionally occurred from untreatable
These extravaganzas could range from tamed lions, to apes driving cerebral contusions.
chariots, and even elephants walking on tightropes.
“It is recorded that Hanno, one of the most distinguished of the Car-
For a Fistful of Caestus
Roman boxing gloves of the Republic were not the brutal devices
thaginians, was the first human being who dared to handle a lion and exhibit
of the later Imperial games. Caestus grant no additional damage when
it as tamed, and that this supplied a reason for his impeachment, because it
used to box. However, they do provide a degree of protection to the hands
was felt that a man of such an artful character might persuade the public to
and forearms, which allows them to block damage from both armed and
anything, and that their liberty was ill entrusted to one whom even ferocity had
unarmed attackers. Treat caestus as 2 points of Armour.
so completely submitted.”
Wrestling was the least dangerous of the athletic sports, requir-

ing the opponent to be thrown or tripped to the ground three times
Athletics (Certamina to win. The pancratium however was a brutal, no holds barred
form of fighting which did not gain popularity until the close of the
Athletarum)
Athletics were first introduced into Rome from their Etruscan
Republic. No protection of any sort was worn and the only rules
were that biting and eye gauging were forbidden. Anything else was
allowed. The winner was the man who knocked out, killed or oth-
neighbours. These sports were divided into two categories: the erwise caused his opponent to surrender. Historical records remain
severe, which were combat orientated and the light, which were of a pancratium champion who won an Olympic competition by
‘individual’ tests of running, jumping or throwing. default, due to his intimidating reputation of deliberately breaking
Romans originally only practiced the sports of running (cursus), the fingers of his opponents.
wrestling (lucta) and most popularly, boxing (pugilatus). The pen-
tathlon (quinquertium) was eventually introduced from Greece and
Chariot Races
expanded the athletic disciplines to include long jumping, the discus
and javelin throwing.
The games were normally only attended by professional athletes
(athletae), although amateur competitors (agonistae) – who normally
only practiced the discipline for health and fitness – could also par-
(Curricula)
ticipate if they desired. They competed for monetary reward, and “Now let me describe the mass of people, unemployed and with too much
champions won palm branches (palmae), ribbons and wreaths – the time on their hands. For them the Circus Maximus is a temple, home, commu-
traditional Roman signs of victory. nity centre and the fulfilment of all their hopes. All over the city you can see
Roman athletics were an established feature of the ludi circenses, them quarrelling fiercely about the races… They declare that the country will
continuing to remain popular throughout the Republic. Greek ath- be ruined if at the next meeting their own particular champion does not come
letics, however, first performed in 186 BC and repeated infrequently first out of the starting-gate and keep his horses in line as he brings them round
for the next century and a half, were not particularly popular, reput- the post. Before dawn on a race day they all rush headlong for a place on the
edly due to the Greek tradition of completing completely nude. terraces at such a speed that they could almost beat the chariots themselves.”
Of course, the Romans preferred the severe disciplines of Box- Ammianus Marcellinus – Res Gestae
ing, Wrestling and Pancratium.
Boxing was the prince of the sports and took a slightly different Of all the public entertainments, the chariot races were by far
format to its modern version. Roman boxing lacked the concept of the most popular. The straining horses, the skill of the drivers and
‘rounds’ and there were no weight divisions either, the basic rules the not-infrequent accidents, all combined with legal gambling on
being that only the fists could be used to strike and no holding was the race results made it a heady spectacle.
allowed. There were no rules against striking prone opponents, Chariot races existed in Rome from the period of the monarchy,
and neither was there a limit against what might be targeted. Once and were inherited from the Etruscans. They were always held in
started, a fight continued without rest until the knockout or submis- the Circus Maximus which could seat the majority of the city’s pop-
sion of the opponent. ulace. There were no restrictions on seating at the races. Men and
Most boxers were only loincloths, and gloves (caestus) which left women, slaves and citizens all rubbed shoulders and as one of Ovid’s
the fingertips and thumb free, and had straps which extended down poems relates, it was the perfect place to meet or secretly fraternise
the entire forearm. Across the knuckles was a wide strap of rein- with members of the opposite sex.
forced leather (padded on the inside with fur) which connected to
78 Fames est optimus coquus – Hunger is the best cook

During the Republic, chariot races usually comprised of two for. Since the reins controlling the horses were wrapped and tied
horse (bigae) or four horse (quadrigae) chariots, although other about one of the driver’s arms, they also carried a curved knife in
numbers of horses and even other animals were occasionally used order to cut themselves free if the chariot crashed and they found
for novelty. Yet, the latter were not common and four horse chariots themselves being dragged across the sand.
remained the favourite type of vehicle, probably due to the increased Not only were the charioteers at risk. Men were needed to clear
skill needed to control them. wreckage and bodies from the track whilst the race continued. There
Races involved starting from the 12 stalls (carceres) built along were also young track boys (sparsores) who splashed water on the
the straight end of the circus (it was actually slightly curved to equal- passing horses and the chariot wheels to reduce friction and they
ise the starting distances to the beginning of the central barricade), were often run down by the chariots.
completing seven laps (spatia) around the central barrier (spina) and Despite the dangers of racing, there was no end of freedmen or
then a breakneck sprint to the finishing line (calx), which was placed slaves willing to enrol as charioteers. By the end of the Republic the
halfway back between the end of the spina and the starting gates. financial rewards for winning were phenomenal, being in the order
The total length of this course was about five and a half kilometres, of thousands of sesterces per race at a time when the annual salary
depending on how tightly one could drive the chariot around the of a legionary barely amounted to 225 sesterces a year.
turning posts (metae) at either end of the central barrier. This made From 292 BC palm fronds were given to race winners and this
the duration of a race between eight and nine minutes. remained the sign of victory from then on. By the late second cen-
Between 10 and 12 races were held per day; each one involv- tury BC, gold wreaths (coronae) rather than ones of simple foliage
ing either four, eight or 12 chariots and interspersed with displays started to be presented too. Winners would also earn tips when tak-
of acrobatic riders (hortatores). Traditionally, from the time before ing a victory lap, receiving flowers, garlands and small coins thrown
the starting gates had been built in 329 BC, each race was begun from the crowd.
by the dropping of a white starting flag (mappa) by the presiding To be a successful charioteer meant fame and fortune and many
magistrate. died as extremely wealthy men. Fans idolised their champions as
with professional sportsmen today and some were so popular that
“the second day of the Roman Games, whilst the consul was mounting the their deaths were considered tragedies…
stand to start the chariots, a despatch-bearer who said that he had come from
Macedonia handed him a despatch wreathed in laurel. After the chariots were “We find it stated in our Annals, that Felix, a charioteer of the red party,
started he mounted his own and, riding across the course to the raised benches being placed on the funeral pile, some one of the number of his admirers
where the spectators were seated, held up the laurelled despatch [declaring the threw himself upon the pile; a most silly piece of conduct. Lest, however, this
defeat of the Macedonian king] for the people to see.” circumstance might be attributed to the great excellence of the dead man in
Livy – Ab Urbe Condita his art, and so redound to his glory, the other factions all declared that he had
instead been overpowered by the fumes of the incense.”
All charioteers (aurigae) belonged to one of four circus factions Pliny the Elder – Naturalis Historia
(factiones) which were named after colours – the Reds (russati),
Whites (albati), Blues (veneti), and Greens (prasini). Although technically forbidden, dirty tricks were a part of every
race. Deliberate blocking of opposing faction drivers was considered
“Chariots very properly have their drivers clad in the colours of idolatry. normal tactics; and forcing chariots to swerve at critical moments,
For at first there were only two colours: white and red. White is sacred to by cutting across them or crowding the opponent’s horses into the
winter, for the gleaming white of the snow, red to the summer because of the spina, simply a fact of life.
Sun’s redness. Later, as pleasure and superstition gained ground together, some The more underhanded ploys involved ‘accidental’ whipping of
dedicated the red to Mars, others the white to the Zephyrs, the green to Mother an opponent’s horses or the driver themselves, if they passed close
Earth, the blue to Sky and Sea.” enough to your own horses to get away with it. Records remain of
Tertullian – De Spectaculis veterinary remedies for such injuries to the eyes and heads of chariot
horses.
Although individual prizes were given to the winning charioteer, The spoke breaking hubs seen in the movie Ben Hur would not
chariot races were actually team sports. Each faction was granted have worked in real life since the teams of horses were much wider
an equal number of places per race for their own drivers and than the small one man chariots and therefore one would never be
these team-mates cooperated tactically to try to ensure their own able to drive two chariots wheel to wheel. However, a chariot slightly
side won. The factions would be paid handsomely for submitting in advance of an opponent’s team could catch the legs of the outside
racing teams and part of that wealth went towards supporting the horse in its wheel spokes, usually leading to the inevitable mangling
staff, accommodations and stabling each faction maintained on the of the horse and loss of control as the beast went down, dragging
Campus Martius, with the excess going towards raising and training its team with it.
new horses on the stud farms in the countryside or simply lining the
pockets of the private owners and investors in the sport. “His horses were brought down, a multitude of intruding legs entered the
Chariot racing was dangerous, and many drivers lost their lives wheels and the twelve spokes were crowded, until a crackle came from those
from collisions (naufragia). In order to protect themselves from such crammed spaces and the revolving rim shattered the entangled hooves. Then
an end, most drivers wore a crash helmet (pilleus) made from felt or he, the fifth victim, was flung from his chariot which fell upon him, caused
leather, leg wrappings (fasciae) and a corset made of leather straps, a mountain of manifold havoc and blood disfigured his prostrate brow…”
worn over the coloured tunic identifying which faction they raced Sidonius Apollinaris – Letter to Consentius
Fas est et ab hoste doceri – It’s proper to learn even from an enemy (Ovid)
79
Running a Chariot Race When running chariot races it should be remembered that drivers of the
same faction act as a team. Thus some chariots will be used for blocking so
The following section will hopefully allow Games Masters to recreate that one can break free of the pack and head for the finishing line.
the excitement of chariot races. Bear in mind that in history this sport was
dangerous and often fatal, which has been reflected in these rules. ΩΩ Block Opponent – Cost 1. Can only be used on chariots behind the
For the sake of simplicity, a chariot race is broken down into the fol- driver in the race order. The driver swerves to prevent one opponent
lowing stages: from overtaking. The blocked chariot loses 2 from their movement total.
ΩΩ Crowding – Cost 2. Can only be used on chariots that are neck and
Stage 1 – Leaving the starting gates (carceres) neck or behind in the race order. The driver deliberately squeezes the
Stage 2 – First lap opponent into another chariot or the central barrier of the track. This
Stage 3 – Second lap takes more manoeuvring but has the potential of causing a crash. The
Stage 4 – Third lap crowded opponent reduces the success level of his Drive skill roll that
Stage 5 – Fourth lap lap by one step. If this results in a fumble, he crashes.
Stage 6 – Fifth lap ΩΩ Evade Trouble – Cost 2. The driver keeps his head down and does his
Stage 7 – Sixth lap best to keep out of trouble. During that stage of the race he is immune
Stage 8 – Seventh lap to any other dirty tricks. Although this slows him down, it potentially
Stage 9 – Sprint for the finishing line (calx) saves him from suffering crashes.
ΩΩ Sideswipe – Cost 3. Can only be used on chariots neck to neck in the
During each stage the participants roll against their Drive skill. Games race order. A malicious trick, the driver manoeuvres his chariot to catch
Masters who are running races with 8 or 12 vehicles are recommended to his opponent’s horse’s legs. Not only does the opponent reduce the success
divide up the NPC chariots amongst the other players, to make the race more level of his Drive skill that lap by one step but he must roll against
competitive. the skill twice and take the lower result. If this results in a fumble, he
The result of the Drive roll indicates how quickly the chariot has moved crashes.
each lap and a running total should be kept throughout the race to keep track ΩΩ Sprint Ahead – Cost 0. Usually left to the final stages of the race, this
of relative positions. tactic allows the driver to make an extra Drive roll and add the results
to his movement total. However this comes at a penalty. From the fol-
lowing stage onwards, each time the driver makes a Drive roll, his level
ΩΩ Critical – 3 movement points. The driver takes the perfect line around of success is automatically reduced by one step, due to the exhaustion
the turning posts (metae). of the horses.
ΩΩ Success – 2 movement points. The chariot moves without hindrance. ΩΩ Trample – Cost 1. Can only be used on drivers who have suffered a
ΩΩ Failure – 1 movement point. The driver is forced to reign back in crash and still remain on the track. If not already dead, the target of
the trampling attack must make a successful Evade roll to escape, else
order to avoid an obstacle on the track.
suffer 2d6 damage to every Hit Location.
ΩΩ Fumble – Roll on the crash table. The chariot hits a piece of wreck- ΩΩ Whipping – Cost 1. Can only be used on chariots neck to neck or just
age on the track, takes a bend too fast or the horses stumble whilst ahead in the race order. Technically illegal, a driver can whip the horses
trampling a water boy, causing a smash-up. or driver of another chariot. Although whipping does not cause any
serious injury, it does distract a driver or upset his horses. The opponent
is forced that lap to make two Drive rolls and take the lowest result.
The actual distance represented by these movements is purely abstract.
Running totals merely indicate the current race order as each stage is com-
pleted. I.e. the highest value is the race leader; the second highest total is in Crashes
second place and so on. If two or more chariots share the same value, then Unlike the portrayal of the chariot that leaps (or rather bounces) over
they are considered running neck and neck. the wreckage of a previous crash in the movie Ben Hur, Roman racing
The eventual winner is the driver with the highest total at the end of chariots are actually very fragile. If a chariot hits an obstacle – the result is
race. Draws are permissible. a smash-up which will immediately shatter or overturn the vehicle. Whether
Of course, Roman chariot racing is not necessarily a challenge of gen- or not the driver survives is calculated by the driver making an Athletics roll
tlemanly conduct. Tactics and dirty tricks abound. Those Games Masters and consulting the following results.
who desire a grittier race are encouraged to let their players use the following
options… Critical – A miraculous escape. You roll clear of the crash suffering
no damage but lie prone and winded until the next lap. The gods obviously
Chariot Manoeuvres favour you.
After the chariots have left the starting gates, drivers may begin to use Success – You take 1d6 damage to a single lower body Hit Location
special manoeuvres to impede the progress of their opponents. Each manoeu- (roll 1d10) as you are dragged clear of the wreckage by the horses, who con-
vre costs a number of movement points to perform, because a driver must tinue to race around the track. Each lap you take a further 1d6 damage to a
sacrifice straight line distance to either jockey for position or perform some randomly determined location from abrasion until you can cut yourself free.
other nefarious deed. These points are taken off the running total and are Skill rolls (such as cutting yourself free using a Combat Style) are halved
not limited to the roll for that particular stage in the race. due to the difficulty of the situation.
Each lap, every driver must select one of the following manoeuvres. Failure – You fail to leap free of the chariot and are crushed by its
These are declared in advance, in order of Initiative. Only after every driver weight or pinned beneath the bodies of your horses. Take 3d6 damage to a
has decided which tactic they will use, are rolls made; and the results are all single Hit Location.
calculated simultaneously. Fumble – A gruesome and spectacular death. Your body is thrown
Manoeuvres are sometimes limited in their application according to the through the air to land like a rag doll on the consul’s podium; or lands head
position the chariots are to one another. Normally, drivers may only affect first through the spokes of an opponent’s chariot wheel, where it obscenely
the chariots directly ahead, beside or behind them in the race order. Relative flops about until the mangled mess finally decapitates. Your ghastly death is
positions are easily calculated from the running total of movement points. talked about for months afterwards and immortalised in graffiti.
80 Felix qui potuit rerum cognescere causas – Happy is the one who can learn the reasons of things (Virgil)
It is unknown if drivers who fell from their chariots were deliber- “Whilst the Romans made use of this armour [captured during a battle
ately trampled down or run over. It is unlikely that such things were in 310 BC] to honour the gods, the Campanians, out of contempt and hatred
frequent, as a charioteer who performed such an act would probably towards the Samnites, made the gladiators who performed at their banquets
be hunted down by fans of the maligned faction and murdered in wear it, and they then called them ‘Samnites’.”
revenge. Livy – Ab Urbe Condita
Since gambling on chariot races was legal (gambling in the city
was normally forbidden), the passion of winning and losing races Although gladiatorial contests were held in Campania during the
was intensified. After particularly important races, it was not uncom- 4th Century BC, it was not until 264 BC that the first funeral rites
mon for a small riot to break out between opposing fans. Indeed, it were held in Rome. Somewhat modestly, only three pairs of gladi-
was wise for supporters of the same faction to sit together for protec- ators fought in Forum Boarium. These ceremonies continued to be
tion, in case tempers became carried away. held for the most important citizens of the city but moved to the
Spectators even went as far as purchasing ‘curse tablets’ to bring Forum Romanum where they were observed from tiers of tempo-
misfortune to the opposing teams. The use of such seems to have rary wooden seating.
been rife, despite proscriptions against magic and sorcery. The numbers of gladiators ‘shown’ at these munera, continued
to increase until the next record of a gladiatorial contest – nearly
“I adjure you, demon whoever you are, and I demand of you from this half a century later in 216 BC. This time the funeral ceremonies
hour, from this day, from this moment, that you torture and kill the horses of included 22 pairs of fighters. After that, depending on the wealth of
the Greens and Whites and that you kill in a crash their drivers...and leave not the man hosting the rites, these numbers grew unrelentingly.
a breath in their bodies.”“I conjure you up, holy beings and holy names, join in Unlike the public games, these munera were privately funded
aiding this spell, and bind, enchant, thwart, strike, overturn, conspire against, events which actually charged entrance fees for seating. A small
destroy, kill, break Eucherius, the charioteer, and all his horses tomorrow in number of tickets were given away free to the upper classes, as was
the circus at Rome. May he not leave the barriers well; may he not be quick expected by those who would honour the spirit of one of their peers.
in contest; may he not outstrip anyone; may he not make the turns well; may Other blocks of seating were purchased by groups (guilds and such),
he not win any prizes...” which distributed or sold them to their members. The remaining
Curse mentioned by Ammianus Marcellinus – Res Gestae seats were then sold to the general public.
Just as with popular concerts and sports events of today, ticket
The chariot horses themselves were regarded as much heroes as touts were part of Republican Rome. These touts (locarii) bought
the drivers. Many mosaics were laid depicting the names and images up large numbers of seats in advance and then sold them on at an
of famous equines. Some even won praise for completing races with- inflated price.
out their drivers… As these gladiatorial celebrations grew in reputation and spec-
tacle – the poorer classes, unable to afford entry, became resent-
“When the charioteer Corax, who belonged to the white party, was ful of these private shows. Eventually, in 122 BC the tribune Caius
thrown from his place at the starting-post, his horses took the lead and kept it, Gracchus ordered the removal of the temporary wooden seating to
opposing the other chariots, overturning them, and doing every thing against allow the poor to see without charge. However, this act furthered his
the other competitors that could have been done, had they been guided by the downfall and munera continued in the main to be pay-for-entry for
most skilful charioteer; and while we quite blushed to behold the skill of man the rest of the Republic.
excelled by that of the horse, they arrived at the goal, after going over the whole
of the prescribed course.” “The people were going to enjoy an exhibition of gladiators in the forum,
Pliny the Elder – Naturalis Historia and most of the magistrates had constructed seats for the show round about,
and were offering them for hire. Caius ordered them to take down these seats,
in order that the poor might be able to enjoy the spectacle from those places
Gladiatorial without paying hire. But since no one paid any attention to his command,
he waited till the night before the spectacle, and then, taking all the workmen
Combats (Munera)
At the beginning of the Republic, funeral rites involving blood
whom he had under his orders in public contracts, he pulled down the seats,
and when day came he had the place all clear for the people.”
Plutarch – Life of Caius Gracchus
sacrifice did not exist in Rome. Roman sacrifices were originally of
bread and salt. The concept of using blood to feed the spirits of By the last century BC, the munera had lost their ritualistic signif-
the dead (manes) was originally Greek, and slowly spread across the icance, instead devolving into crass displays of conspicuous wealth
Mediterranean via their city states. and opportunities to raise political support from the plebeians.
The Roman adoption of gladiatorial combats as funeral rites
came from the region of Campania; which not only decorated its
tombs with images of such fights, but was where the first stone Gladiators (Gladiatores)
amphitheatres were built too. The gladiators used in funerary rites came from several sources.
The majority were either criminals condemned to death (noxii), pris-
oners of war, or disobedient slaves. During the mid-Republic there
was a constant source of war captives but as Rome conquered all the
lands in its vicinity, criminals and fractious slaves by necessity took a
greater share. Those convicts condemned to the sword (ad gladium)
Fiat justitia, ruat caelum – Let justice be done, even though the heavens collapse
81
were obliged to be killed within a year; others condemned to glad-
iator school (ad ludum), could obtain their discharge at the end of “Caesar gave a gladiatorial show besides, but with somewhat fewer pairs
three years if they survived. of combatants than he had purposed; for the huge band which he assembled
Occasionally, volunteers (auctorati) of freedman or even citizen from all quarters so terrified his opponents, that a bill was passed limiting the
status would be driven to gamble their lives, agreeing to bind them- number of gladiators which anyone was to be allowed to keep in the city.”
selves to the owner (lanista) of a gladiatorial troop (familia gladi- Suetonius – Life of Julius Caesar
atoria) with a solemn oath (sacramentum)… “I will endure to be
burned, to be bound, to be beaten, and to be killed by the sword.” Most schools were effectively prison encampments, where gladi-
In return they gained regular meals, the best health care available, ators could be secured and trained under close guard. Much of their
and the chance to earn prize money. Since gladiators were often space was devoted to a central training arena, surrounded by small
seen as sex symbols, additional ‘physical’ rewards might also have cells for sleeping. Other areas were included such as a refectory, a
tempted those desperate enough to enrol. kitchen and a holding pen for the more rebellious trainees. The
ludus was a self-contained world, from which only the most trusted
“Scipio returned to New Carthage to discharge his vows and to exhibit the gladiators would be allowed to leave. Life was not all discipline and
gladiatorial spectacle which he had prepared in honour of the memory of his brutality however. Feasts were often given for fighters who would
father and his uncle. The gladiators on this occasion were not drawn from the appear in the next munera and prostitutes were also made available.
class from which the trainers usually take them – slaves and men who sell their Within the schools, new recruits (novicii) were normally chained
blood – but were all volunteers and gave their services gratuitously.” until they conformed to the rules and discipline of the ludus and
Livy – Ab Urbe Condita learned to fight with a wooden sword (rudis). Once their tuition
was completed the unproven trainees (tirones) would be ready for
Gladiators were trained in the owner’s school (ludus), by expert their first fight. If they survived, they would be regarded as gladi-
teachers (doctores). Their training included repeatedly striking at ators proper and rise through a hierarchy of grades (paloi), which
a wooden post (palus) which extended six Roman feet above the reflected their experience and skill. Being labelled as Primus Paloi
ground, sparring with fellow students and in formulaic pattern exer- meant you were amongst the best fighters in your style.
cises akin to modern martial arts kata. Since gladiators normally Owners of these schools earned money by renting or selling
tended to fight other members of their own troupe, they were some- members of their troupe. The profits could be lucrative but came at
times criticised for fighting in too choreographed a manner, instead the price of becoming a social pariah, since lanistae were regarded
of putting on a show of real combat. as being lower than pimps due to their profiteering of men’s poten-
The fighting record of gladiators was an important part of their tial deaths. However, some members of equestrian and patrician
individual reputation, just as in modern boxing today. Such infor- class managed to avoid becoming sullied by their ‘investments’ as
mation was often inscribed on their tombstones, listing the number long as it was clear that they were strictly dabbling amateurs whose
of bouts in the arena and their victories. Occasionally even their tied gladiatorial profits were merely a sideline and not the basis of their
combats and losses were also recorded, such as one inscription from fortunes.
Sicily where Flammius a 30-year-old had fought 34 times, scoring 21 Towards the end of the Republic, even Julius Caesar himself
victories (victoriae), 9 draws (stantes) and had been pardoned four owned a school in Capua stocked with hundreds of gladiators. Iron-
times after being defeated (missio). They definitively reveal that pro- ically confirming the fears of the senate decades earlier, the gladia-
fessional gladiators, although beaten, were often spared. tors were eventually used as a counter insurgency force during the
civil war.
Training Schools “At Capua they first began to take courage and to rally, and determined
(Ludi Gladiatorii) to raise levies in the colonies, which had been sent thither by the Julian law:
and Lentulus brought into the public market place the gladiators which Caesar
Training schools for gladiators existed across the territories con-
trolled by Rome. The most renowned ones were located in Capua maintained there for the entertainment of the people, and confirmed them in
and Praeneste. There were also a number within Rome itself. Soon their liberty, and gave them horses and ordered them to attend him.”
after the beginning of the 1st Century BC, a ludus belonging to a Julius Caesar – The Civil Wars
man named Scaurus had its gladiators subpoenaed by the consul
Rutilius, in order to train newly recruited soldiers how to use their
weapons. Another, the Ludus Aemilius, was mentioned by Horace A Day at the Munera
in a book on poetry of all things. Funerary celebrations were widely advertised to encourage a full
Despite the uprising of Spartacus in 73 BC (incidentally starting attendance. Not only did this attract more attention to the memory
at a ludus in Capua), gladiatorial schools still remained in the city, of the departed but it also had the benefit of driving up the price
although probably limited in size in order to prevent a slave revolt of seats, thus defraying part of the costs of the spectacle. Programs
from occurring again. Eventually a law was passed in 65 BC to pre- (edicta munerum) describing the featured entertainments were
vent individuals from owning too many gladiators, in case they were scrawled as graffiti on building walls, and pamphlets (libelli munera-
used as a private army to overthrow the senate. rii) were sold on the day of the combats.
These ads not only promoted the name of the gladiatorial troop
(which could draw in more interest if its reputation was good), but
sometimes also listed the names of the more famous gladiators, the
82 Fide, sed qui, vide – Trust but take care whom
proposed matches to be fought, which schools they had trained in Few fights were declared as ‘bouts to the death’ (sine missione)
and their previous wins and losses. Some adverts also promised addi- but these became more popular towards the end of the Republic. It
tional comforts such as awnings to keep the sun off the spectators or is probable, considering the expense of compensation, that the glad-
the watering of the fighting area to keep the dust down. iators assigned to these matches were actually untrained criminals or
Most munera started with a procession of all the competitors slaves who had been condemned ad gladium.
around the arena in which they would battle and recognition of the In the unlikely event that the loser was refused honourable dis-
sponsor of the games (editor muneris) who had paid for the event. missal from the arena, they were expected to face death bravely by
This was followed by a display of fighting using wooden weapons. kneeling, grasping their opponent’s leg and holding still whilst they
This undoubtedly gave the participants a chance to warm up in were given the coup de grâce. The bodies of dead gladiators were
preparation for the real match, thus avoiding the chance of pulled buried but those of condemned noxii were thrown into the Tiber
muscles or torn ligaments, which could not only ruin their fitness for instead.
future fights but might also cost them their lives. The winner was presented with a victory palm leaf (palma) and
Once warmed up, the combatants would be given real weapons prize money (praemium) from the editor. The higher their rank, the
previously checked by the editor for adequate sharpness. Then the more money they would win. If they had fought exceptionally well,
fight would begin under the supervision of two referees, the summa a laurel wreath (corona) was added as well. Then the victor would
rudis and secunda rudis. Each match was introduced and sometimes run around the perimeter of the arena to the applause of the crowd.
accompanied by music to either give the fight a tempo or match it,
incidentally increasing the excitement of the audience. “It does the people good to see that even slaves can fight bravely. If a mere
Spectators participated as modern fans do today with cheering slave can show such courage, what then can a Roman do? Besides, the games
and shouted insults. Common cries were “Habet, hoc habet” – he’s harden a warrior people to sights of carnage and prepares them for battle.”
had it, “Iugula.” – cut his throat and “Missum” – release him. Cicero
The bout continued until one or both gladiators submitted, died
or were injured so badly that they were unable to carry on. At that During the Republic the emphasis of gladiatorial combat was
moment the referees would stop the fight, preventing the disadvan- on the display of bravery and skilful combat, not killing. An anal-
taged (or submissive) gladiator from being further wounded. ysis of gladiator gravestones from just after the end of the Repub-
Defeated gladiators raised a finger of their left hand in supplica- lic revealed that the chances of a trained gladiator dying during a
tion to be granted permission to be dismissed alive (missio). Although match were low – less than 10%. These were probably more likely
it was the editor who decided whether the loser was released, the due to accidents rather than deliberate murderous intent, since
opinion of the audience could heavily influence his choice, espe- most fights would be between compatriots from the same troupe.
cially if the sponsor was seeking popular support. Although combat was dangerous, honourable dismissal and even
draws were the norm.
“Now they give munera and, with a turn of the thumb, win favour by
slaughtering in accordance with the whims of the mob”
Juvenal – Satires
Ave Imperator, Morituri te Salutamus.
The visual signal of the crowd’s disapproval was the turned The famous quote “Hail emperor, we who are about to die salute
thumb (pollex versus) although nobody is sure exactly what that thee.” was, according to the writings of Suetonius, used only once in
means today. The sign for release was supposedly the waving of a history, by the noxii sentenced to death at a great mock naval battle
handkerchief. The Roman audience during the Republic was not as hosted by the emperor Claudius.
bloodthirsty as those of the later Empire; yet they showed contempt
for those who exhibited cowardice, and rewarded courage and skill. “But when the combatants cried out: “Hail, emperor, they who are
about to die salute thee,” he [Claudius] replied, “Or maybe not,” and
“...we despise gladiators if they are willing to do anything to preserve their after that all of them refused to fight, maintaining that they had been
life; we favour them, if they give evidence of their contempt for it.” pardoned. Upon this he hesitated for some time about destroying them
Seneca – De Tranquillitate Animi all with fire and sword, but at last leaping from his throne and running
along the edge of the lake with his ridiculous tottering gait, he induced
Normally the loser was allowed to live, since a trained gladiator them to fight, partly by threats and partly by promises. At this perfor-
was an expensive commodity. Compensation of up to a 100 times mance a Sicilian and a Rhodian fleet engaged, each numbering twelve
the worth of the gladiator had to be paid to the lanista for those triremes, and the signal was sounded on a horn by a silver Triton, which
which died during the munera. For famous gladiators this could be was raised from the middle of the lake by a mechanical device.”
ruinously expensive. Suetonius – Life of Claudius
If the loser was seriously wounded, then they were loaded onto
wheeled carts looking rather like stretchers and carried off to be In reality, such a pessimistic salute would never be used by supersti-
treated immediately by medical staff. Those who had received an tious gladiators who realistically faced good odds of survival. However,
injury which would become mortal were put out of their misery, it would probably be a sensible idea for any player character gladiator
out of sight of the audience. Survivors who were maimed were dis- to pay their respects to the editor hosting the munera with some sort of
missed from the school and the lanista claimed compensation from salute. A dramatic or bravely proclaimed salutation could swing the
the editor of the munera. balance between life and death.
Forsan et haec olim meminisse iuvabit – Perhaps even this, will one day be pleasant to look back on (Virgil)
83
Those gladiators who had been sentenced ad ludum and reached Samnite Combat Style: Gladius, Short Scutum; and either ‘Batter Aside’ or
the end of their term could, if proven popular champions, be ‘Solid Stance’ (resist Knockback, Leaping Attacks and Bash as if using the brace
granted their freedom. This was ritually symbolised by the presenta- action), depending on the ludus.
tion of a wooden sword (rudis). A retired gladiator (rudiarius) then
faced the decision of what to do with their life, since they would no Gaul (Gallus)
longer be supported by the familia. Often they hired themselves out Based on conjecture, these gladiators are dressed only in trou-
as bodyguards and those with the greatest reputations could find sers, padded or embroidered for protection (1 AP) and a brimless
employment teaching other gladiators how to fight. Some, finding helm with cheek guards (5 AP). They use a large oval shaped Scutum
independent life too difficult or boring without the adoring fans and reinforced with a vertical rib and the longer Spatha (treat as a broad-
women ‘groupies’ (ludiae), simply sold themselves back into a school. sword). The further reach of this weapon combined with the extra
coverage of his shield make up for the lack of armour, often giving
Types of Gladiators them initiative in combat; whether first strike due to superior reach
or being less hindered by unnecessary weight.
The earliest gladiatorial combats held by Rome’s neighbours
Gaul Combat Style: Spatha, Scutum; and either ‘Daredevil’ or ‘Intimidating
appear to have used men dressed in tunics or loincloths and
Scream’ depending on the ludus.
equipped with spears, circular shields and bronze helmets. But by
the late Republic styles within Rome had changed. Thracian (Thraex)
Gladiators from this period were dressed as traditional Roman Dressed in the same loincloth and belt combination as the Sam-
enemies (and initially were actually captives), equipped from the nite (2 AP) they also have the padded sleeve or wrapped leather pro-
spoils of Rome’s many battles. There was the Samnite, the Gaul and tector for their weapon arm (2 AP). However they wear two greaves
the Thracian. All three were similar in arms and armour, the more instead, which extend further up the leg to mid calf (6 AP), making
exotic gladiators not appearing until the Imperial period. The only up for their smaller shields. Thracian helmets are crested, brimmed
other type of gladiator was the horseman (eques) based on Rome’s and possess full face protection with grills over the eyes (8 AP). They
own cavalry troops, who started combat on horseback, armed with are armed with a large forward-curved slashing knife called a Sica
lances but finished it on foot. (dagger) and a small square shield called a Parma (treat as a Heater).
To provide more tactically interesting fights, different types of Thracian Combat Style: Sica, Parma; and either ‘Defensive Minded’ or
gladiator (save for the equites) were paired together. The arms and ‘Hooker’ (allows use of Pin Weapon special effect on a normal success) depend-
armour of each was designed to be minimalist, yet still provided ing on the ludus.
effective protection.
The reasons for this were simple. Gladiatorial combat provided Horseman (Eques)
no rest breaks, the contestants continuing until submission, injury or Unlike the previous gladiators the equites wore mail on their
death. Considering a gladiator might be fighting under the blazing torso (6 AP), probably to provide greater protection from the spears
sun, exhaustion and overheating was a significant problem. Since they used on horseback. The fact that for at least the first part of the
it is much easier to strike at the limbs and head of an opponent, it fight they were mounted also prevented the gladiator from becoming
made sense to leave the torso exposed, allowing it to act as a radia- winded by its weight. In addition the horseman had leather strapped
tor. The weight of armour was also a contributing factor and metal arms (2 AP) and a brimmed but crestless helmet (7 AP). However,
pieces were kept to a minimum except on those locations more fre- they possessed no leg protection, implying that they were forbidden
quently struck. to strike below the waist in fear of injuring the horses they rode…
Republican gladiatorial armour comes in two forms. The first which were another expensive commodity. They were also armed
are leather wrappings about the lower leg (fasciae) or forearm (man- with a Gladius and small target shield called a Palma Equestris; the
icae). In later periods, these seem to have been replaced by quilted traditional armament of Republican cavalry.
sleeves and leggings extending over the entire limb. The second type Equites Combat Style: Spear, Gladius, Parma Equestris; and either ‘Beast-
is made from metal which was formed into greaves (ocreae), rect- back Lancer’ or ‘Mounted Combat’ depending on the ludus.
angular breastplates (cardiophylaces) and helmets (galeae). Unlike
those of later periods, these helmets had cheek guards and some-
times a brim, but left the face open. Helmets were decorated with
The Thirteenth Gladiator…
either crests or feather holders and padded with felt to help cushion
blows.
Anachronistic Combats
Republican gladiators are rather limited in scope when com-
pared with the later styles of combat in the Imperial age. Games
Samnite (Samnis) Masters who desire a more anachronistic variety to their munera
Dressed in a loincloth held in place with a broad, decorated
can add other types as one-off spectacles. During the Republic there
leather belt (2 AP), Samnites wear a short greave on the leading
were few conventions to break and the traditional armaturae had
leg (4 AP), a square breastplate (4 AP) and a brimmed helmet with
yet to be developed and formalised. Editores like Julius Caesar intro-
feathers (5 AP). Their weapon hand and lower arm are wrapped
duced many innovations to woo the jaded plebeian factions, such
with leather straps (2 AP). One of the heaviest and well-armed
as the time when he staged a munus where all the gladiators wore
gladiator types, they tend to favour brute force in bouts, wielding a
silvered armour.
Gladius (short sword) and a shortened Scutum (treat as a rectangular
An example of a gladiator from the later period is the retiarius:
Hoplite shield).
84 Fortes Fortuna adjuvat – Fortune aids the brave (Terence)

Netman (Retiarius) “Finally he produced a naval battle, not on the sea nor on a lake, but on
Sporting the same loincloth and belt combination (2 AP), a land; for he hollowed out a certain tract on the Campus Martius and after
retiarius also has a padded sleeve up to the shoulder of their left flooding it introduced ships into it. In all the contests the captives and those
arm, supplemented with a metal shoulder plate (4 AP). Other than condemned to death took part.”
that they wear no other armour whatsoever, making them faster and Cassius Dio – Roman History
more manoeuvrable than their opponents. The retiarius is armed
with a Fuscina (trident) in the right hand and a Rete (net) in the left, These battles were populated with either condemned men or
which can be used to throw or parry as desired. They also have a prisoners of war. Enlisted gladiators were not used due to the high
backup Pugio once the net has been cast. To survive, a retiarius must levels of slaughter in what was effectively an un-martialled battle.
utilise the length of their trident to keep foes such as Secutores at Each naumachia reflected a historical conflict, Egyptians vs. the
bay, preventing them from attacking until their opponent manages Tyrians for Caesar’s and the combatants which could number in the
to close. thousands were split into two sides. Survivors of the ensuing car-
Retiarius Combat Style: Fuscina, Rete, Pugio; and either ‘Cautious Fighter’ nage were occasionally granted a reprieve of their death sentence in
or ‘Mancatcher’ depending on the ludus. reward for their efforts.
Later classes such as the Provocator, Hoplomachus, Murmillo
and Secutor were simply refined versions of the earliest gladia- “There was a combat of elephants, twenty against twenty, and a naval
tors. Other more exotic categories included the Dimachaerus (two engagement of 4,000 oarsmen, where 1,000 fighting men contended on each
swords), Crupellarius (heavily armoured), Laquerarius (lasso using side.”
versions of a Retiarius) and Sagittarius (bowmen). Appian – The Civil Wars
Naval Battles (Naumachiae)

The most spectacular of all gladiatorial combats were the mock
naval battles which used full sized ships crewed by thousands of
Plot Hooks
ΩΩ The characters are approached by the magistrate in charge
oarsmen and warriors. The earliest (and biggest) were held in Rome
on natural or artificial lakes (stagna) excavated for the spectacle. of the games, who asks them to investigate a matter of some
Unfortunately for Games Masters who desire historical accuracy, delicacy. It appears that the star of the next venatio – the
only one of the great naumachiae was ever hosted during the time famous man-eating lion named Audacius (fearless) – has been
of the Republic, by Julius Caesar in 46 BC. stolen from his cage. The magistrate is desperate to recover
the animal, which is a key part of his games, and is offering
a small fortune for the lion’s return. A little later, gossip on
Fortitudine vincimus – By endurance we conquer

85
the streets reveals that a senator has been killed in a mysteri- patrician sons who have vanished on the eve of the naval battle and get
ous accident. Suspiciously his body is not laid in open state at caught up in the brutal bloodshed in order to save them.
his home, due to the horrific injuries he suffered. The house Welcome To Rome – A campaign could begin with the player char-
slaves are tight lipped and forbidden to leave the house but acters all starting as Gallic prisoners of war. Placed aboard one of
bribing the undertaker reveals that the senator was mauled the ships, they must fight for survival against condemned men turned
by some big animal. Was he murdered by being thrown to psychotic with bloodlust and fear. If they manage to live they are part
Audacius? Did the senator have a dark secret of desiring to of a pitiful handful of survivors granted their freedom. Such a massacre
be a venator, a pastime forbidden to his rank? Or was this would be instrumental in setting the adventurer’s attitudes towards the
‘accident’ the result of something far more nefarious... city. They could use their newfound camaraderie with the other survi-
vors to join the criminal underworld; or the characters might be regarded
ΩΩ A gang of thugs approach one of the player characters who as celebrities for their toughness and approached by gladiator troupes,
is about to participate in an important boxing match or is rich patrician women, or deceitful politicians for their… err, services.
the patron of an up and coming boxer of considerable tal-
ent. The thugs suggest in no uncertain terms that in the next ΩΩ On the eve of an extremely important race, a team of very
fight – which will be against a champion of great reputation successful and very expensive chariot horses belonging to
but fading skill – the character (or his client) should take a one of the player characters is brutally killed. Somebody did
fall. A considerable amount of prize money and reputation not want the team to win but why and who? The number of
are at stake. Should the PC back down and forfeit the fight, suspects is countless. Was it one of the gambling syndicates
or should they begin a feud with the criminal underworld? run by a shady figure rumoured to be a senator in financial
difficulty? Was it one of the rival factions, fed up with the
ΩΩ After winning his last few fights, a player character glad- popularity of the winning team and lost revenue? Or was it
iator is approached by a lady of patrician rank and great a rival driver in the same team who was jealous of the con-
beauty. An illicit affair ensues, with the gladiator gaining tinuously victorious driver? Once the investigation starts, the
valuable gifts and a degree of freedom from the ludus to characters are led beyond the disreputable world of profes-
visit the patroness. After a period of time the character is sional racing and uncover a more sinister plot. The horses
informed by the lady that her husband has discovered the were sacrificed to a dark and deadly cult, which is secretly
affair and has threatened to have him killed. The gladiator plotting to control the city using religion and magic. How-
is faced with a tough decision. Should he kill the husband ever, the horses did not bring the desired result, and now
himself or steadfastly face the increasingly murderous com- the cultists are seeking the blood of the charioteer himself…
bats in the arena against opponents bribed to slay him.
Whatever he chooses, the husband ends up dead, stabbed ΩΩ The characters start as foreign captives, rebellious slaves or
in a side street on the way home. The gladiator has no reli- criminals. Due to their deeds they are condemned to be glad-
able alibi and it becomes apparent that the entire situation iators. Life inside the school is brutal, the doctores are sadists
has been a machination devised by the lady for her own and several friends die during training. Eventually two of the
advancement, and if truly despicable, her pleasure too… player characters are forced to fight each other to the death
for the personal perverse pleasure of the lanista. Faced with
ΩΩ Although no sane Roman citizen would ever participate in death and armed with proper weapons, the characters could
naumachiae unless becoming a condemned criminal first, attempt a breakout. If successful they then face the decision of
a cunning Gamemaster could use the following ideas to get whether to simply slip back into the underworld of the city; or
their player characters involved in the horrific massacre. enraged by the cruelty of gladiatorial life, begin a slave upris-
Revenge – At a critical point in an ongoing campaign, an old enemy ing. Perhaps one of their fellow escapees is named Spartacus…
captures the characters by drugging their wine or ambushing them on the
way home. When they awake, they find themselves bound and gagged in ΩΩ One of the player characters is caught carrying a deadly
the hold of a ship. Any assumptions they might have had about kidnap- weapon inside Rome (an almost certain event in the case of
ping or transportation are crushed when they emerge into the beginnings most adventurers). If the character is a citizen of high stand-
of the battle. The characters will need to put all of their skills together ing, the judgement of the magistrate is that he be taught a
to forge the criminal crew into a coordinated unit. If successful they lesson, and learn that a Roman of courage and wit requires
might escape certain death, and be able to seek who it was that placed no armament inside the walls of his own city. He is sentenced
them the ship for his, or her, sadistic pleasure. to appear at the next games and participate in the boxing
Youthful Bravado – Younger, inexperienced characters from the competition. The populace think this is a marvellous idea
equestrian or patrician class may be challenged to prove their bravery, and betting runs rampant. The PC is approached by a sena-
by participating in the naumachia. Using stealth, wits or bribery they tor who offers an ex-champion to give the character a crash
can attempt to stowaway on one of the ships the night before the bat- course over the next few weeks. Should they accept the help?
tle begins. Only once the merciless fighting starts should the characters Are there strings attached? Will the character be tempted to
realise that they are out of their depth, surrounded by vengeful prisoners cheat if the opportunity is presented?
of war who care nothing about the character’s status or wealth. Alter-
natively, the characters could be hired to find a group of foolish young
86 Fortuna est caeca – Fortune is blind (Cicero)

ΩΩ One of the player characters is caught carrying a deadly
weapon inside Rome (an almost certain event in the case of
most adventurers). If the character is a citizen of high stand-
ing, the judgement of the magistrate is that he be taught a
lesson, and learn that a Roman of courage and wit requires
no armament inside the walls of his own city. He is sentenced
to appear at the next games and participate in the boxing
competition. The populace think this is a marvellous idea
and betting runs rampant. The PC is approached by a sena-
tor who offers an ex-champion to give the character a crash
course over the next few weeks. Should they accept the help?
Are there strings attached? Will the character be tempted to
cheat if the opportunity is presented?
Fui quod es, sum quod eris – I was what you are, I am what you will be (Roman tombstone)
87
Mythic Rome: The Army
The Army
“After Quintus Sertorius had learned by experience that he was by no This chapter gives a superficial overview of Rome’s toughest ene-
means a match for the whole Roman army, and wished to prove this to the mies, illustrating many aspects of army life from the annals of the
barbarians also, who were rashly demanding battle, he brought into their pres- period. The Historical Timeline (pages 195-224) gives more infor-
ence two horses, one very strong, the other very feeble. Then he brought up two mation about when certain battles occurred but for greater detail
youths of corresponding physique, one robust, the other slight. The stronger Games Masters are encouraged to undertake their own research and
youth was commanded to pull out the entire tail of the feeble horse, while read Livy and Polybius for descriptions of the wars up until the end
the slight youth was commanded to pull out the hairs of the strong horse, of the mid-Republic, or Gaius Julius Caesar and Sallust for the wars
one by one. Then, when the slight youth had succeeded in his task, while the of the late Republic. They make fascinating reading and provide a
strong one was still struggling vainly with the tail of the weak horse, Sertorius wealth of NPC’s and events for scenarios.
observed: “By this illustration I have exhibited to you, my men, the nature of It should be noted that the arms and armour presented in this
the Roman cohorts. They are invincible to him who attacks them in a body; yet chapter are but rough guidelines. Up until the Marian Reforms in
he who assails them by groups will tear and rend them.” the late Republic, there was no consistency in the manufacture of
Frontinus - Stratagems any culture’s military equipment; thus even within the same unit,
each man’s armament could be very different in terms of looks,
A
lthough this campaign supplement focuses upon adventur- quality and protective value. Because a soldier had to arm them-
ing specifically within Rome, it does not prohibit the inclu- selves from their own resources, personal wealth or breakage and
sion of war and glory. In fact, during the monarchy and scavenging during a campaign could radically change their panoply.
early Republic, the city was almost continuously at war with its sur-
rounding territories. Hannibal came knocking at the gates of Rome The Naming of Weapons
in the mid-Republic during the Punic wars and the late Republic Even amongst the Roman authors, the names of weapons described
was a period of successive slave uprisings, civic disorder and civil in the annals are varied and erratically applied. In describing some of
war. Indeed there are very few periods before Imperial rule when the armaments of Rome and her enemies, the most applicable that could
Rome was not facing armed conflict on its own doorstep. be found were used. However, their accuracy cannot be guaranteed, as
Games Masters who desire military adventure can easily set their this extract shows…
campaigns during the early and mid-periods; when Rome’s army
comprised only of a levy of its own citizen population during the “Once upon a time, when I was riding in a carriage, to keep my
summer campaigning season, to conquer or defend against her mind from being dull and unoccupied and a prey to worthless trifles, it
neighbouring city states. This allows an easy shift from battlefield to chanced to occur to me to try to recall the names of weapons, darts and
city, taking advantage of both role-playing situations. swords which are found in the early histories… Those, then, of the
Setting military campaigns in the late Republic offers some dif- former that came to mind at the time are the following: spear (Hasta),
ficulties due to the change in the length of time a levy was con- pike (pilum), fire-pike (phalarica), half-pike (semiphalarica), iron bolt
scripted for, thus committing player characters to a minimum of (soliferrea), Gallic spear (gaesa), lance (lancea), hunting-darts (spari),
six years’ service, unless they play officers of high social rank. Of javelins (rumices), long bolts (trifaces), barbed-javelins (tragulae),
course a legionary citizen may be prematurely retired due to crip- German spears (frameae), thonged-javelins (mesanculae), Gallic bolts
pling wounds or could desert the army all together. (cateiae), broadswords (rumpiae), poisoned arrows (scorpii), Illyr-
It took Rome the best part of five and a half centuries to conquer ian hunting-spears (sibones), cimeters (siciles), darts (veruta), swords
the whole of Italy, before they expanded outwards and conquered (enses), daggers (sicae), broadswords (machaerae), double-edged swords
an empire. Despite its reputation of unstoppable progress, the (Spathae), small-swords (lingulae), poniards (pugiones), cleavers
Roman army suffered many terrible defeats but eventually overcame (clunacula).”
all adversity out of sheer stubbornness more than anything else. Gellius - Noctes Atticae
88 Gladiator in arena consilium capit – The gladiator is making his plan in the arena (Seneca)
The armament examples in the following sections only give a generic cuirass. The Third Class he formed of those whose property fell as low as
guideline based on the few archaeological finds thus far discovered 50,000 lbs.; these also consisted of twenty centuries, similarly divided into
and ancient authors’ reports, which themselves could be written cen- seniors and juniors. The only difference in the armour was that they did not
turies after the period. wear greaves. In the Fourth Class were those whose property did not fall below
25,000 lbs. They also formed twenty centuries; their only arms were a spear
Combat Style & Traits and a javelin. The Fifth Class was larger it formed thirty centuries. They car-
An often overlooked aspect of ancient militaries is that they were ried slings and stones, and they included the supernumeraries, the horn-blow-
usually levies of common citizens, with little or irregular training in ers, and the trumpeters, who formed three centuries. This Fifth Class was
formations or tactics. To represent this state of affairs, most of the Com- assessed at 11,000 lbs. The rest of the population whose property fell below
bat Styles describing Romans and their enemies possess only a single this were formed into one century and were exempt from military service.”
combat style trait. Only the later mercenary and professional armies are Livy - Ab Urbe Condita
granted access to two or more traits. The following are new or modified
traits to help reinforce the fighting styles as described by ancient authors Since Rome was then under the influence of Etruscan kings and
at the time. much of Etruscan culture was descended from Hellenic sources, the
Batter Down trait – If the fighter’s Damage Modifier is one Roman army was effectively mustered and armed in the Greek tra-
or more steps greater than his opponent’s, his Damage Modifier roll dition. It fought as a phalanx supported by wings (alae) of lighter
is counted as double solely for the purposes of calculating Knockback. armed troops. Interestingly, it was the most prosperous citizens who
Intimidating Scream – As well as its normal effect, this trait bore the duty of either paying the upkeep of their horses or standing
allows the formation to utilise the Intimidate creature ability (Myth- in the front of the phalanx; forcing those who had most to lose to
ras page 216) but only before combat starts or when they have their
make the greatest commitment both financially and physically.
opponents at a severe disadvantage.
Press Home – Allows the formation to engage and keep an “After thus regulating the equipment and distribution of the infantry, he
enemy unit at Short reach, penalising foes using longer weapons. re-arranged the cavalry. He enrolled from amongst the principal men of the
State twelve centuries. In the same way he made six other centuries (though
only three had been formed by Romulus) under the same names under which
The Army During the first had been inaugurated. For the purchase of the horse, 10,000 lbs. were
assigned them from the public treasury; whilst for its keep certain widows were
the Monarchy
assessed to pay 2000 lbs. each, annually. The burden of all these expenses
was shifted from the poor on to the rich.”
Up until the reforms of Marius in 104 BC, the army of Rome Livy - Ab Urbe Condita
was made up entirely of conscripted citizens who had to provide and
maintain their own arms and armour. Another fascinating aspect of this structure was the division of
The majority of these citizens were land owning farmers who each class into two parts, the senior men who were held as the Home
had return to their fields once the campaigning season was over. The Guard and the younger, fitter junior men who engaged in campaigns
men of the levy (legio – from whence the word Legion evolved) were against other towns. Thus Rome technically possessed two armies,
not paid at this time, because it was considered your civic responsi- each of 8,500 men. However, depending on the number of recent
bility to participate in defence of the city. However, a successful con- battles, famines and pestilences, the total strength of the army could
clusion to a military campaign, such as capturing a city or defeating be considerably less than this. As Rome’s population was not so large
an army, resulted in plunder which would be shared out amongst the in its early days, such losses could take years to replace. It is not sur-
troops. It was this which made the yearly levy worthwhile... that and prising to find gaps of up to 20 years between active campaigns in
not being conquered by foreigners and sold into slavery. the early Republic, indicating that some enemies required an entire
The first mention of the Roman army’s organisation was the mil- generation of boys to grow up before starting their conflicts again.
itary restructuring which took place under the rule of king Servius
Tullius. The ‘classes’ he formed were social ones based on wealth, The Armament of the Pre 4th
and from each citizen class was drafted a certain number men to Century Roman Army
form the army. The weapons (arma) and armour (panoplia) of each class of men
are listed here. Each unit (as with following army descriptions) is
“Those whose property amounted to, or exceeded 100,000 lbs. weight of listed with its combat style trait, along with the weapons used. Note
copper were formed into eighty centuries, forty of juniors and forty of seniors. that Roman Chalcidian or Attic style helmets are decorated with a
These were called the First Class. The seniors were to defend the City, the horsehair or feather crest which runs along the centre ridge from
juniors to serve in the field. The armour which they were to provide themselves front to back. Rome’s neighbouring Latin and Etruscan opponents
with comprised helmet, round shield, greaves, and cuirass, all of bronze; these were all armed in similar manner.
were to protect the person. Their offensive weapons were spear and sword. To
this class were joined two centuries of carpenters whose duty it was to work Cavalry (Equites) - Mounted Combat trait
the engines of war; they were without arms. The Second Class consisted of 1H Spear (Hasta) M, L, 1d8+1+db, Impaling
those whose property amounted to between 75,000 and 100,000 lbs. weight Sword (Xiphos) M, S, 1d6+db, Bleeding
of copper; they were formed, seniors and juniors together, into twenty centuries.
Their regulation arms were the same as those of the First Class, except that First Class (Lochoi) - Formation Fighting trait
they had an oblong wooden shield instead of the round brazen one and no Etruscan Bronze Hoplite Armour
Gloriosum est iniurias oblivisci - It is glorious to forget injustice

89
At the end of the monarchy, Rome’s army was supplemented
with troops levied from allied Latin towns. Facing a command and
control problem, king Lucius Tarquinius Superbus formed units
comprised half of Romans and half of Latins, thus placing them
under the direct authority of the Roman commander and ensuring
discipline. From this arose the concept of the maniple.
“In compliance with the order contingents assembled from all the thirty
towns, and with a view to depriving them of their own general or a separate
command, or distinctive standards, he formed one Latin and one Roman cen-
tury into a maniple, thereby making one unit out of the two, whilst he doubled
the strength of the maniples, and placed a centurion over each half.”
The Army During

the Early Republic
With the start of the Republic the army was no longer com-
manded by a king, but was led by two generals instead ‒ the chief
magistrates of the city. These were originally known as prætors but
by the 4th century BC they were renamed consuls and the title of
prætor was used to denote the second rank of civil magistrates.
During the 5th century BC, the most significant enemies of
Rome were the Volsci and Aequi hill tribes, who proved to be a
thorn in the city’s side for more than 60 years. An unending series
Cuirass (Lorica Musculata), 5 AP (Chest and Abdomen) of battles occurred between them but neither tribe was completely
Greaves (Ocreae), 5 AP (Legs) conquered until the end of the Second Samnite War.
Full Helmet (Cassis), 6 AP (Head) The hill tribes were equipped differently to the Romans, proba-
Bronze Faced Hoplite Shield (Hoplon), H, S, 6 AP/15 HP bly because of the difficulty of crossing and fighting in mountainous
Passive Blocks 4 Locations terrain whilst encumbered. Thus they wore lighter armour and used
1H Spear (Hasta), M, L, 1d8+1+db, Impaling skirmishing tactics which placed the slower moving Roman phalanx
Sword (Xiphos), M, S, 1d6+db, Bleeding at a severe disadvantage.
Second Class - Formation Fighting trait The Armament of the 5th Century Hill Tribes
Partial Bronze Hoplite Armour The distinctive armour of these tribesmen was a circular pecto-
Greaves (Ocreae), 5 AP (Legs) ral breast and back plate worn instead of the cuirass, and supple-
Full Helmet (Cassis), 6 AP (Head) mented with a sword harness consisting of broad bronze shoulder
Wooden Hoplite Shield (Aspis), L, S 4 AP/15 HP straps and belt. Their helmets were distinctive too, crested pot helms
Passive Blocks 4 Locations possessing a very broad brim.
1H Spear (Hasta), M, L, 1d8+1+db, Impaling
Sword (Xiphos) , M, S, 1d6+db, Bleeding Aequi or Volsci Warrior - Skirmishing trait
Volsci Bronze Armour
Third Class - Formation Fighting trait Pectoral with cross straps (Lorica), 4 AP (Chest)
Pot Helmet (Cassis), 4 AP Brimmed Helmet (Cassis) plus Throat Guard, 5AP,
Wooden Hoplite Shield (Aspis), L, S, 4 AP/15 HP (Head)
Passive Blocks 4 Locations 2H Spear (Hasta), L, VL, 1d10+1+db, Impaling
1H Spear (Hasta), M, L, 1d8+1+db, Impaling Javelins (Veruta), L, ‒, 1d6+db, Impaling
Sword (Xiphos), M, S, 1d6+db, Bleeding Sword (Kopis), M, S, 1d4+2+db, Bleeding
Fourth Class - Skirmishing trait Although the formations, arms and armour of the Roman army
Wooden Hoplite Shield (Aspis), L, S, 4 AP/15 HP remained fundamentally unchanged from the beginning of the
Passive Blocks 4 Locations Republic, in the 4th century BC it began to adjust its tactics in reac-
1H Spear (Hasta), M, L, 1d8+1+db, Impaling tion to the different style of warfare used by their newest enemies…
Javelins (Veruta) L, ‒, 1d6+db, Impaling the Gallic tribes migrating into the north of Italy. Around 387 BC
the Romans were defeated in the battle of Allia, and Rome itself
Fifth Class (Funditor) - Cautious Fighter trait
was sacked.
Sling (Funda), S, ‒, 1d8, Crushing
90 Gutta cavat lapidem, non vi sed saepe cadendo – The drop hollows the stone, not by force but by falling on it often (Ovid)
Similar to the Romans, only the wealthier Gauls engaged in war-
fare. The majority lacked body armour but wore pot helms and used Champions and Challenges
large shields, generally oval shaped and decorated with individual Not all wars were decided by battle. During the monarchy and early
ensigns. Although most wore trousers and cloaks, some Gauls were Republic, many were settled by the individual combat of champions.
reputed to go into battle naked. Often the generals would agree to abide by the result in order to save
lives. At other times the blow to the morale of the losing side caused
“In their journeying and when they go into battle the Gauls use chariots them to retreat from the field in superstitious fear. The following account
drawn by two horses, which carry the charioteer and the warrior; and when describes such an event in 364 BC, demonstrating the wonderful oppor-
they encounter cavalry in the fighting they first hurl their javelins at the enemy tunities available to heroically inclined players characters.
and then step down from their chariots and join battle with their swords. Cer-
tain of them despise death to such a degree that they enter the perils of battle “A Gaul of extraordinary stature strode forward on to the unoccu-
without protective armour and with no more than a girdle about their loins. pied bridge, and shouting as loudly as he could, cried: “Let the bravest
They bring along to war also their free men to serve them, choosing them from man that Rome possesses come out and fight me, that we two may
among the poor, and these attendants they use in battle as charioteers and as decide which people is the superior in war.” A long silence followed.
shield-bearers” The best and bravest of the Romans made no sign; they felt ashamed
Diodorus Siculus - Bibliotheca Historica of appearing to decline the challenge, and yet they were reluctant to
expose themselves to such terrible danger. Thereupon T. Manlius, the
They were armed with javelins and spears but their fearsome youth who had protected his father from the persecution of the tribune,
reputation came from using long (for the period) swords in close left his post and went to the Dictator. “Without your orders, General,”
he said, “I will never leave my post to fight, no, not even if I saw that
combat, since the size and reach of the Gauls using slashing swords
victory was certain; but if you give me permission I want to show that
were difficult to ward with circular hoplite shields.
monster as he stalks so proudly in front of their lines that I am a scion
of that family which hurled the troop of Gauls from the Tarpeian rock.”
“For stature they are tall, but of a sweaty and pale complexion, red-
Then the Dictator: “Success to your courage, T. Manlius, and to your
haired, not only naturally, but they endeavour all they can to make it redder affection for your father and your fatherland. Go, and with the help of
by art. They often wash their hair in water boiled with lime, and turn it the gods show that the name of Rome is invincible.” Then his comrades
backward from the forehead to the crown of the head, and thence to their very fastened on his armour; he took an infantry shield and a Spanish sword
necks, that their faces may be more fully seen, so that they look like satyrs and as better adapted for close fighting; thus armed and equipped they led
hobgoblins.” him forward against the Gaul, who was exulting in his brute strength,
Diodorus Siculus - Bibliotheca Historica and - even the ancients thought this worth recording - putting his tongue
out in derision. They retired to their posts and the two armed champions
The Gallic method of war was indelibly linked to personal status. were left alone in the midst, more after the manner of a scene on the
Battles started with challenges to single combat and the taking of stage than under the conditions of serious war, and to those who judged
heads as trophies. by appearances, by no means equally matched. The one was a creature
of enormous bulk, resplendent in a many-coloured coat and wearing
“It is also their custom, when they are formed for battle, to step out in painted and gilded armour; the other a man of average height, and
front of the line and to challenge the most valiant men from among their oppo- his arms, useful rather than ornamental, gave him quite an ordinary
nents in single combat, brandishing their weapons in front of them to terrify appearance. There was no singing of war-songs, no prancing about,
their adversaries. And when any man accepts the challenge to battle, they then no silly brandishing of weapons. With a breast full of courage and
break forth into a song in praise of the valiant deeds of their ancestors and in silent wrath Manlius reserved all his ferocity for the actual moment of
boast of their own high achievements, reviling all the while and belittling their conflict. When they had taken their stand between the two armies, while
opponent, and trying, in a word, by such talk to strip him of his bold spirit so many hearts around them were in suspense between hope and fear, the
Gaul, like a great overhanging mass, held out his shield on his left arm
before the combat.”
to meet his adversary’s blows and aimed a tremendous cut downwards
Diodorus Siculus - Bibliotheca Historica
with his sword. The Roman evaded the blow, and pushing aside the
bottom of the Gaul’s shield with his own, he slipped under it close up to
Due to their lighter armaments and use of chariots to manoeu-
the Gaul, too near for him to get at him with his sword. Then turning
vre about the field of battle quickly, Gallic tactics focused on the the point of his blade upwards, he gave two rapid thrusts in succes-
use of intimidating charges, using their height in close combat to sion and stabbed the Gaul in the belly and the groin, laying his enemy
overreach circular shields, and flanking to break the discipline of prostrate over a large extent of ground. He left the body of his fallen
their foes – turning the ponderous defensive strength of the phalanx foe un-despoiled with the exception of his chain, which though smeared
into a weakness. with blood he placed round his own neck. Astonishment and fear kept
the Gauls motionless; the Romans ran eagerly forward from their lines to
The Armament of the 4th Century Gauls meet their warrior, and amidst cheers and congratulations they conducted
him to the Dictator. In the doggerel verses which they extemporised in his
Gallic Infantry - Batter Down trait honour they called him Torquatus (“adorned with a chain”), and this
Bronze Pot Helmet (Cassis), 4 AP (Head) soubriquet became for his posterity a proud family name. The Dictator
Large Wooden Oval Shield (Thureos), L, S, 4 AP/15 HP gave him a golden crown, and before the whole army alluded to his
Passive Blocks 4 Locations victory in terms of the highest praise.”
Sword (Spatha), M, M, 1d8+db, Bleeding Livy - Ab Urbe Condita
Light Javelin (Lancia), L, ‒, 1d6+1+db, Impaling
Hannibal ante portas! – Hannibal is at the door!

91
maniple was commanded by two centurions and possessed a stan-
dard bearer (vexillarius).
“When the battle formation of the army was completed, the Hastati
were the first to engage. If they failed to repulse the enemy, they slowly retired
through the intervals between the companies of the Principes who then took
up the fight, the Hastati following in their rear. The Triarii, meantime, were
resting on one knee under their standards, their shields over their shoulders and
their spears planted on the ground with the points upwards, giving them the
appearance of a bristling palisade. If the Principes were also unsuccessful,
they slowly retired to the Triarii, which has given rise to the proverbial saying,
when people are in great difficulty “matters have come down to the Tria-
rii.” When the Triarii had admitted the Hastati and Principes through the
intervals separating their companies they rose from their kneeling posture and
instantly closing their companies up they blocked all passage through them and
in one compact mass fell on the enemy as the last hope of the army. The enemy
who had followed up the others as though they had defeated them, saw with
dread a now and larger army rising apparently out of the earth.”
The tactics of this new Roman army revolved around the use of
missile weapons and swords. Firstly the skirmishers would attempt
to break up an enemy formation with thrown javelins and then
Gallic Fanatics - Intimidating Scream trait disperse to guard the flanks. Then the Hastati would cast their pila
Large Wooden Oval Shield (Thureos), L, S, 4 AP/15 HP and charge in with swords. If the enemy failed to break, the Hastati
Passive Blocks 4 Locations would retreat between gaps left between the Principes who would in
1H Spear (Hasta), M, L, 1d8+1+db, Impaling turn repeat the manoeuvre. If the second line was also beaten, the
Light Javelin (Lancia), L, ‒, 1d6+1+db, Impaling Principes too would retreat through the spear armed Triarii who
would close ranks and the entire army withdraw from the field under
Gallic Charioteer - Chariot Fighting trait
the protection of their hedgehog.
Bronze Pot Helmet (Cassis), 4 AP (Head)
Large Wooden Oval Shield (Thureos), L, S, 4 AP/15 HP The Armament of the 4th
Passive Blocks 4 Locations
Sword (Spatha), M, M, 1d8+db, Bleeding
Century Roman Army
The manipular armour of this period had evolved away from
that of earlier phalanxes. Firstly was the adoption of the pecto-
Gallic Cavalry - Mounted Combat trait ral first used by the hill tribes, to replace the heavier cuirass. The
Bronze Pot Helmet (Cassis), 4 AP (Head) Roman pectoral however was square and covered a larger amount
Passive Blocks 4 Locations of the chest. Secondly, only the leading leg was armoured, again in
Sword (Spatha), M, M, 1d8+db, Bleeding an attempt to save weight and expense.
Hastati and Principes - Cautious Fighter trait
Bronze Half Hoplite Armour
The Roman army, placed at a disadvantage by the revolutionary
Large Pectoral (Lorica), 4 AP (Chest)
new tactics of close fighting, was forced to evolve countermeasures.
Single Greave (Ocrea), 5 AP (Left Leg)
They began arming their heavier troops with larger shields (scuta)
Helm with Cheek Flaps (Cassis), 5 AP (Head)
that had reinforced iron edges for better protection against slashing
Iron Rimed Oval Shield (Scutum), L, S, 5 AP/15 HP
swords and the heavy javelin (pilum) to break up charges. The struc-
ture of the army was also revised. The phalanx was abandoned,
Sword (Falcata), M, S, 1d4+2+db, Bleeding
replaced with a formation formed of three lines.
Heavy Javelin (Pilum), H, ‒, 1d8+1+db, Impaling
The front line comprised of 15 units (manipuli) of 60 heavy
infantry (Hastati), formed from the most youthful soldiers. Each Triarii - Formation Fighting trait
maniple had an additional 20 lightly armed skirmishers (Leves) As Hastati, but armed with a spear instead of Javelins
assigned to it. The middle line consisted of 15 maniples of 60 heavy 1H Spear (Hasta), M, L, 1d8+1+db, Impaling
infantry (Principes) who were in their maturity and considered the
best soldiers in the army. The much larger rear line was formed Rorarii and Accensi - Skirmishing trait
from 15 companies (Ordines) of 180 soldiers. However, each ordo Open Helmet (Cassis), 4 AP
was further subdivided into three parts or vexillae of 60 men; old Iron Rimed Oval Shield (Scutum), L, S, 5 AP/15 HP
veterans (Triarii) in the front, the younger skirmishers (Rorarii) in Passive Blocks 5 Locations
the middle and the reserves (Accensi) in the rear. Each vexilla and 1H Spear (Hasta), M, L, 1d8+1+db, Impaling
92 Historia est vitae magistra – History is the tutor of life

Leves - Skirmishing trait 1H Spear (Hasta), M, L, 1d8+1+db, Impaling

Wooden Hoplite Shield (Aspis), L, S, 4 AP/15 HP, Light Javelin (Veruta), L, ‒, 1d6+1+db, Impaling
Light Javelin (Veruta), L, ‒,1d6+1+db, Impaling Cavalry - Beast-Back Lancer Trait
Samnite Light Armour
Since the Roman army was spending more and more time in the Broad Bronze Belt (Balteus), 4 AP (Abdomen)
field, at the start of the 4th century BC soldiers began to be paid Helm with Neck Guard & Cheek Flaps (Cassis), 6 AP (Head)
compensation for their military service. The amount was basic and 2H Spear (Hasta), L, VL, 1d10+1+db, Impaling
barely covered the expenses of paying for their own food and replac- Light Javelin (Veruta), L, ‒, 1d6+1+db, Impaling
ing damaged weapons. However, soldiers could still expect to claim Horse Armour, Peytral, 4 AP (Chest)
a share of any spoils gained during the campaign. Chamfron, 4 AP (Head)
During the latter half of the 4th century, the Romans as head
of the Latin League, entered a new war against the Samnites. Hos- By the 3rd century BC the metal working skills of the Gauls had
tilities lasted for over 50 years and these new enemies proved to be led them to the development of iron mail armour, iron helmets with
amongst the most difficult Rome had ever faced. extended neck protection and hinged face plates and longer, more
The Samnites were originally a collective of hill tribes which resilient, swords. These breakthroughs were so successful that over
occupied the region of the south central Apennines. Following the the following centuries they were adopted by the Roman army.
collapse of the Etruscan nation (due to Rome’s rise) they flowed
down from their mountains and by military conquest formed a fed- “For swords, they use a long and broad weapon called Spatha, which they
eration of allied tribes, eventually occupying the entirety of Italy hang across their right thigh by iron or brazen chains. Some gird themselves
south and east of Campania. Since the region under their control over their (mail) coats with belts gilt with gold or silver. For darts they cast
was primarily a collection of Greek settled coastal cities, the arms those they call Lancia, whose iron shafts are a cubit or more in length, and
and armour of the Samnite Federation was heavily influenced by almost two hands in breadth. For their swords are as big as the javelins of
Greek tradition. other people, but the points of their javelins are larger than those of their
The fighting style of the Samnites lent itself to rapid manoeu- swords; some of them are strait, others bowed and bending backwards, so that
vrability in loose formations. They did not carry swords, so their they not only cut, but break the flesh; and when the dart is drawn out, it tears
primary attacks were missile fire from javelins and spear work, pre- and rents the wound most miserably.”
sumably using the speed of their lighter armed troops to outflank Diodorus Siculus - Bibliotheca Historica
and break up heavier formations. Atop this, the Samnite cavalry was
at the time reputed to be the best in Italy. Eventually though, the Gallic tribes were defeated and the most
warlike forced from northern Italy. Those which remained were –
The Armament of the 4th – like the other conquered peoples of the peninsula – granted ally
3rd Century Samnites status (socii), whereupon they were permitted self-rule in exchange
Samnite armour is generally well decorated. Helmets extend for supplying troops for the army, and placing their foreign policy in
lower in the back to help guard the neck, have cheek guards (adopted Rome’s hands.
from the Gauls) and display feather holders as well as the horsehair
crest. They sometimes even sport bronze wings. Body armour var-
The Armament of the 3rd – 1st Century Gauls
The majority of Gallic warriors still lacked any form of body
ies in style between the square plate muscled cuirass and a version
armour. Only chieftains could afford mail shirts or gift it to their
decorated with or formed from three discs. Below the cuirass is worn
champions. Thus the term ‘Heavy Gallic Infantry’ should be inter-
a broad bronze belt for further protection. If possessed, greaves are
preted as individual leaders and their personal warbands scattered
worn as pairs.
though out the battle line.
Heavy Infantry - Cautious Fighter trait
Heavy Gallic Infantry - Batter Down trait
Samnite Bronze Hoplite Armour
Gallic Iron Armour
Square or Triple Circle Pectoral (Lorica), 5 AP (Chest)
Mail Vest (Lorica Hamata), 6 AP (Chest and Abdomen)
Broad Bronze Belt (Balteus), 4 AP (Abdomen)
Montefortino Helm (Galea), 6 AP (Head)
Greaves, (Ocreae), 5 AP (Legs)
Large Iron Rimed Oval Shield (Thureos), L, S, 5 AP/18 HP
Helm with Neck Guard & Cheek Flaps (Cassis), 6 AP (Head)
Large Wooden Oval Shield (Thureos), L, S, 4 AP/18 HP
Long Sword (Spatha), M, M, 1d8+db, Bleeding
Light Javelins (Lancia), L, ‒, 1d6+1+db, Impaling
Light Javelin (Veruta), L, ‒, 1d6+1+db, Impaling Light Gallic Infantry - Cautious Fighter trait
Pot Helmet (Cassis), 4 AP
Light Infantry - Skirmishing trait
Samnite Light Armour
Broad Bronze Belt (Balteus), 4 AP (Abdomen)
Helm with Neck Guard & Cheek Flaps (Cassis), 6 AP (Head)
Hoc natura est insitum, ut quem timueris, hunc semper oderis – It’s an innate thing to always hate the one we’ve learnt to fear
93
Polybius - Histories
Pyrrhus defeated the Roman army time after time, but ultimately
lost the war due to an inability to replace his wounded and dead.
From this costly campaign we get the phrase ‘Pyrrhic Victory’.
“The two armies separated; and we are told that Pyrrhus said to one
who was congratulating him on his victory, “If we are victorious in one more
battle with the Romans, I shall be utterly ruined.” For he had lost a great
part of the forces with which he came, and all his friends and generals except
a few; moreover, he had no others whom he could summon from home, and he
saw that his allies in Italy were becoming indifferent, while the army of the
Romans, as if from a fountain gushing forth indoors, was easily and speedily
filled up again, and they did not lose courage in defeat, nay, their wrath gave
them all the more vigour and determination for the war.”
Plutarch - Life of Pyrrhus
It was from Pyrrhus that the Romans learned the value of erect-
ing a fortified camp at the end of each day; a skill which saved them
many times in the future.
“In ancient times the Romans and other peoples used to make their camps
like groups of Punic huts, distributing the troops here and there by cohorts,
since the men of old were not acquainted with walls except in the case of
cities. Pyrrhus, king of the Epirotes, was the first to inaugurate the custom of
concentrating an entire army within the precincts of the same entrenchments.
Later the Romans, after defeating Pyrrhus on the Arusian Plains near the city
Gallic Charioteer - Chariot Fighting Trait of Maleventum, captured his camp, and, noting its plan, gradually came to
Pot Helmet (Cassis), 4 AP the arrangement which is in vogue today.”
Large Iron Rimed Oval Shield (Thureos), L, S, 5 AP/18 HP Frontinus - Stratagems
Light Javelins (Lancia), L, ‒, 1d6+1+db, Impaling The Armament of the 3rd c
Macedonian Phalanx
Gallic Cavalry - Mounted Combat Trait
Gallic Iron Armour Heavy Phalangite -
Mail Shirt (Lorica Hamata), 6 AP (Chest and Abdomen)
Formation Fighting, Siege Warfare traits
Montefortino Helm (Galea), 6 AP (Head)
Heavy Macedonian Armour
Scaled Cuirass (Kataphraktes), 5 AP (Chest and Abdomen)
Greaves, (Knimis), 5 AP (Legs)
Full Helm (Kranos), 6 AP (Head)
Bronze Phalangite Shield (Aspis), L, S, 6 AP/12 HP
The final enemy of Rome during the early Republic was Pyr-
rhus, king of Epirus, who landed in Italy with an army organised
2H Pike (Sarissa), L, VL, 1d10+2+db, Impaling
into a Macedonian-style phalanx and supported with heavy shock
Sword (Kopis), M, S, 1d4+2+db, Bleeding
cavalry and elephants.
Light Phalangite -
“With this point in our minds, it will not be difficult to imagine what the
Formation Fighting, Siege Warfare traits
appearance and strength of the whole phalanx is likely to be, when, with low-
Light Macedonian Armour
ered sarissae, it advances to the charge sixteen deep. Of these sixteen ranks, all
Quilted Linen Cuirass (Linothorax), 3 AP (Chest and Abdomen)
above the fifth are unable to reach with their sarissae far enough to take actual
Open Helm (Kranos), 4 AP (Head)
part in the fighting. They, therefore, do not lower them, but hold them with the
Bronze Phalangite Shield (Aspis), L, S, 6 AP/12 HP
points inclined upwards over the shoulders of the ranks in front of them, to
shield the heads of the whole phalanx; for the sarissae are so closely serried,
that they repel missiles which have carried over the front ranks and might
fall upon the heads of those in the rear. These rear ranks, however, during an
advance, press forward those in front by the weight of their bodies; and thus Macedonian Cavalry -
make the charge very forcible, and at the same time render it impossible for the
Beast-Back Lancer, Mounted Combat Traits
front ranks to face about.”
Macedonian Cavalry Armour
94 Hoc tempore obsequium amicos, veritas odium parit – These days flattery provides friends, the truth provides hatred (Terence)
Scaled Cuirass (Kataphraktes), 5 AP (Chest and Abdomen) The cavalry were organised into squadrons of 300 Equites,
Plated Leather Skirt (Pteryges), 4 AP (Legs) which could be broken down into 10 turmae of 30 men. Each turma
Open Helm (Kranos), 4 AP (Head) comprised of three files (decuriae) of 10 men, led by a decurion and
2H Pike (Sarissa), L, VL, 1d10+2+db, Impaling assisted by a ‘rear ranker’ optio.
Sword (Kopis), M, S, 1d4+2+db, Bleeding As Rome became embroiled in campaigns overseas and faced
conflict on several different fronts, the number of legions required
With the eventual defeat of Pyrrhus, the whole of Italy ostensibly grew beyond the previously sufficient four urban legions. During the
fell under Roman dominance, although some regions still simmered 2nd Punic war there were upwards of 20. The right to raise new
with dissent and even outright rebellion, over the next few centuries. legions was voted on by the Senate, which carefully restricted the
numbers of troops which any single commander was permitted to
enlist.
The Army during The Armament of the 3rd

the Mid-Republic Century Roman Army
Similarly equipped to the troops of the previous century, the
Driven by their needs to expand their territory, the next series
major differences are in weaponry rather than armour. The Hastati
of conflicts Rome faced were the Punic wars with Carthage, inter-
and Principes now carry two pila, one thick and one thin, presum-
spersed by a Gallic invasion from the north. During this time the
ably to use at short and long range respectively. Contact with Span-
structure of the Roman army was refined – it maintained its struc-
ish mercenaries in the first and second Punic wars led to the addition
ture around the Hastati, Principes, and Triarii but the Rorarii and
of a dagger (pugio) and the replacement of the single edged, hack-
Accensi were dropped or absorbed into the rest of the army.
ing falcata with the shorter, stabbing gladius. In the last quarter of
During this time Rome mustered a mere four legions (legiones),
the 3rd century BC after the final Gallic invasion, those legionaries
placing two each under the authority of the consuls. In times of
who could afford it began to adopt Gallic style sleeveless mail shirts
emergency, the entire army could be commanded by a dictator and
(loricae hamatae) and Montefortino style helmets (galeae) with bet-
his second in command, the Master of Horse (magister equitum) for
ter neck protection and cheek guards.
a period of six months.
The consuls appointed 24 military tribunes (tribuni militum)
“The common soldiers wear in addition a breastplate of brass a span
from the senatorial class, who were assigned six apiece between the
square, which they place in front of the heart and call the heart-protector, this
legions. Half of the tribunes (comitiati) were elected by the popular
completing their accoutrements; but those who are rated above ten thousand
assembly and the other half (rufuli) being selected by the command-
drachmas wear instead of this a coat of chain-mail. Finally they wear as an
ers-in-chief. Tribunes could either be former magistrates such as
ornament a circle of feathers with three upright purple or black feathers about
prætors, consuls, or young inexperienced men starting their public
a cubit in height, the addition of which on the head surmounting their other
career.
arms is to make every man look twice his real height, and to give him a fine
Only half of the troops in each legion were Romans, the other
appearance, such as will strike terror into the enemy.”
half assembled from the population of allied cities. These men were
still divided according to age and personal wealth into different
classes. The youngest and poorest formed the lightly armed Velites
(formally known as the Leves). The remaining youths were placed in Hastati And Principes - Shield Wall Trait
the Hastati, those in the prime of life in the Principes, and the oldest Armoured either as in the 4th Century or upgraded to...
in the Triarii. Mail Shirt (Lorica Hamata), 6 AP (Chest and Abdomen)
The legion comprised of about 4,200 men, broken down into Brimmed Montefortino Helm (Galea), 6 AP (Head)
the following units: Iron Rimed Oval Shield (Scutum), H, S, 5 AP/18 HP
ΩΩ 10 maniples of Hastati, each maniple containing 120 heavy Passive Blocks 5 Locations
Sword (Gladius), M, S, 1d6+db, Impaling
infantry and 40 Velites.
ΩΩ 10 maniples of Principes, each maniple containing 120 heavy Heavy Javelin (Pilum), H, ‒, 1d8+1+db, Impaling
Triarii - Shield Wall Trait
ΩΩ 10 maniples of Triarii, each maniple containing 60 heavy
Armoured as Hastati
Iron Rimed Oval Shield (Scutum), H, S, 5 AP/18 HP
Each maniple had two centurions, the prior and posterior and Passive Blocks 5 Locations
each centurion had his own rear-guard officer called an optio. With Sword (Gladius), M, S, 1d6+db, Impaling
this command structure a maniple could be further subdivided into 1H Spear (Hasta), M, L, 1d8+1+db, Impaling
two centuries, each one under the direct leadership of a single cen-
turion, aided by his optio. The centurions rewarded the two best Velites - Skirmishing Trait
and bravest men of each maniple with the duty of standard bearer Small Wooden Round Shield (Parma), M, S, 4 AP/12 HP
(signiferi). Every maniple also had at least one trumpeter (tubicen) Passive Blocks 3 Locations
and hornblower (cornicen) for signalling purposes. The most senior Sword (Gladius), M, S, 1d6+db, Impaling
centurion (primus pilus) of the legion was permitted to attend meet- Light Javelin (Veruta), L, ‒, 1d6+1+db, Impaling
ings of the high command.
Hominem, memento te – [You are] a man, I remind you

95
Cavalry (Equites) - Mounted Combat Trait

Cavalry Armour Marines in the Roman Army
Mail Shirt (Lorica Hamata), 6 AP (Chest and Abdomen) Since most sailors were recruited from the poorest classes of cit-
Open, Crested Helm (Cassis), 4 AP (Head) izens, few could afford any form of armour, which would have just
Small Wooden Round Shield (Parma), M, S, 4 AP/12 HP hindered ship-board duties anyway. Although expected to fight, sailors
Passive Blocks 3 Locations were only equipped with a single side arm, such as a knife or some other
Sword (Gladius), M, S, 1d6+db, Impaling impromptu weapon. They could also be issued with javelins or bows to
1H Spear (Hasta), M, L, 1d8+1+db, Impaling provide missile support.
Roman marines were simply legionaries placed aboard ship, with
The Carthaginians were Rome’s greatest enemies of the mid-Re- no differences in armament. After the Punic wars, Rome gave up on
public, hostilities starting with the 1st Punic war being fought over maintaining its own navy, recruiting fleets from Greek allies instead.
control of Sicily; the Republic’s first foreign campaign overseas.
Although several legions fought on mainland Sicily (Sicilia) itself, ranks of those [Romans] who were stationed opposite the elephants, pushed
the campaign soon bogged down into a succession of sieges. The back when they encountered them and trodden under foot by the strength of
major conflicts occurred at sea and Rome found herself at a loss, the animals, fell in heaps in the mêlée, while the formation of the main body,
not possessing a navy (classis) of her own. Ships were built and sail- owing to the depths of the ranks behind, remained for a time unbroken. At
ors initially recruited from the 5th class of citizens but the Romans length, however, those in the rear were surrounded on all sides by the [merce-
suffered for their lack of seamanship and over the period of the nary] cavalry and obliged to face round and fight them, while those who had
war lost 700 warships, thousands of supply vessels and hundreds of managed to force a passage through the elephants and collect in the rear of
thousands of men (of which at least 50,000 were Roman citizens). those beasts, encountered the Carthaginian phalanx quite fresh and in good
The majority of ships foundered due to inexperienced command- order and were cut to pieces.”
ers, poor construction and bad weather rather than actual combat Polybius - Histories
and eventually the wealth qualifications were lowered so that sailors
could be recruited from the un-propertied poor. A decade and a half after the 1st Punic war, the Gauls, seeing
Roman sailors were expected to fight just as the regular legionar- their lands in the Po valley under threat from the Roman’s inexora-
ies who acted as marines. Rome’s naval tactics involved mass board- ble advances northwards, invaded for the final time. They crossed
ing actions rather than ramming, using a type of drop down bridge the Apennines and were defeated at the Battle of Telamon. Over the
(corvus) with a spike at the end which ‘nailed’ it to the enemy ship, following few years the Po valley was completely subjugated.
with low walls to help prevent the marines from falling off. During the 2nd Punic war, the range of mercenaries became
more diverse, including Iberian swordsmen from Hispania and
“When the Carthaginians thought they had drawn off the first and Gauls urged to revolt against Roman rule.
second squadrons far enough from the others, they all, on receiving a signal
from Hamilcar’s ship, turned simultaneously and attacked their pursuers. “At the same time Hannibal brought his Balearic slingers and spearmen
The engagement that followed was a very hot one, the superior speed of the across the river, and stationed them in advance of his main body; which he led
Carthaginians enabling them to move round the enemy’s flank as well as to out of their camp, and, getting them across the river at two spots, drew them
approach easily and retire rapidly, while the Romans, relying on their sheer up opposite the enemy. On his left wing, close to the river, he stationed the Ibe-
strength when they closed with the enemy, grappling with the corvi every ship rian and Celtic horse opposite the Roman cavalry; and next to them half the
as soon as it approached, fighting also, as they were, under the very eyes of Libyan heavy-armed foot; and next to them the Iberian and Celtic foot; next,
both the consuls, who were personally taking part in the combat, had no less the other half of the Libyans, and, on the right wing, the Numidian horse.”
high hopes of success.” Polybius - Histories
Several of the mercenary types used in the Punic wars stood out
Being based in Africa, the Carthaginians used many merce- from the norm. The Numidians were regarded as the best light cav-
nary troops recruited from the neighbouring nations of Libya and alry in the world. Unable to directly charge opponents, they were
Numidia, as well as the colonies it had established in Sardinia, Cor- used for scouting, skirmishing with thrown javelins, breaking forma-
sica and other islands in the western Mediterranean. These mer- tions by flanking manoeuvres, and pursuing routed enemies. The
cenaries were used for the land battles in Sicily and in defence of Balearic slingers were famed for their skill in slinging heavy stones
Carthage itself when Rome attempted its ultimately doomed first with great accuracy.
invasion of Africa…
“The armour of the Libyans was Roman, for Hannibal had armed them
“Acting on this authority, he sent the elephants forward and drew them up with a selection of the spoils taken in previous battles. The shield of the Ibe-
in a single line in front of the whole force, placing the Carthaginian phalanx rians and Celts was about the same size, but their swords were quite different.
at a suitable distance behind them. Some of the mercenaries he stationed on the For that of the Iberians can thrust with as deadly effects as it can cut, while
right wing, while the most active he placed together with the cavalry in front the Gallic sword can only cut, and that requires some room. And the compa-
of both wings. The Romans, seeing the enemy drawn up to offer battle, issued nies coming alternately - the naked Celts, and the Iberians with their short
forth to meet them with alacrity. Alarmed at the prospect of the elephants’ linen tunics bordered with purple stripes, the whole appearance of the line was
charge, they stationed the Velites in the van and behind them the legions many strange and terrifying.”
maniples deep, dividing the cavalry between the two wings... But the first Polybius - Histories
96 Homines quod volunt credunt – Men believe what they want to (Julius Caesar)
The Armament of the Carthaginian Army

The Carthaginians primarily used mercenaries to fight its battles
and maintain garrisons, paid for by the wealth of its trading fleets.
The majority of its own people were employed as merchants or sail-
ors. These troops cover a range of different types used during the
three separate Punic wars.
Libyan Phalangite - Formation Fighting Trait

Looted Heavy Roman Armour (See Armament of the 3rd
Century Roman Army previously)
Medium Bronze Shield (Aspis), L, S, 6 AP/15 HP
Iberian Swordsmen (Scutarii) -

Cautious Fighter, Shield Wall Traits
Quilted Linen Cuirass (Linothorax), 3 AP
Sinew Cap/Hood (Pilos), 3 AP
Iron Rimed Oval Shield (Scutum), L, S, 5 AP/15 HP
Sword (Espasa), M, S, 1d6+db, Impaling
Dagger (Pugio), S, S, 1d4+1+db, Impaling
Heavy Barbed Javelin (Saunion), H, -, 1d8+1+db, Impaling
Iberian Skirmishers (Caetrati) - Skirmisher Trait

Sinew Cap or Hood (Pilos), 3 AP
Small Round Shield (Caetra), M, S, 4 AP/12 HP destroying Carthage in the 3rd Punic war. The final conflict of the
Passive Blocks 3 Locations mid-Republic was against the Iberians, concluding with the Numan-
Dagger (Pugio), S, S, 1d4+1+db, Impaling tine war.
Heavy Javelins (Pila), H, ‒, 1d8+1+db, Impaling For examples of troops used in these later conflicts, use those
described under The Armament of the 3rd c Macedonian Phalanx
Iberian Cavalry - for the Macedonians, The Armament of the 3rd – 1st c Gauls for
Beast-Back Lancer, Mounted Combat Traits the Gauls and The Armament of the Carthaginian Army for the
Sinew Cap or Hood (Pilos), 3 AP Iberians. Remember that by this time the Romans were universally
Small Round Shield (Caetra), M, S, 4 AP/12 HP using mail armour, Montefortino helmets and gladii.
Sword (Espasa), M, S, 1d6+1+db, Impaling
The Army during
Numidian Cavalry -
Mounted Combat, Ranged Marksman Traits
the Late Republic
Rome continued her expansion across the Mediterranean world
Small Round Shield (Caetra), M, S, 4 AP/12 HP and up into northern Europe. However, since the focus of this book
Passive Blocks 3 Locations is on the local environs of Rome itself, the foreign campaigns which
Javelins (Veruta), L, ‒, 1d6+1+db, Impaling often lasted many years are not examined in any detail. Other than
the migrating German tribes, the greatest foe Rome faced during
Elephants - Mounted Combat, Trained Beast Traits
the late Republic was herself. This was the time of civil wars where
See Creatures on page 150. War elephants are heavily armoured
Romans fought Romans.
on the head and chest (6 AP atop their already thick skin) and carry
Games Masters who wish to run foreign battles can use the arma-
on their backs a howdah with a crew of two or three men armed
ment guidelines mentioned in the previous section, for example –
with bows and pikes. The elephant also carried a driver, called a
using the Gallic troop descriptions for Germans). There were few
mahout.
new developments in personal arms and armour during this period.
For details of the Carthaginian’s Gallic allies, please use The
At the end of the 2nd century BC, Rome faced its final serious
Armament of the 3rd – 1st c Gauls page 93.
challenge. Due to incompetent leadership the Romans lost five suc-
After the 2nd Punic war, Rome began to engage full scale in
cessive battles against the migrating Germanic tribes of the Cimbri,
foreign wars, expanding the territory of her blossoming empire.
Teutones and Tigurines. This disastrously wiped out the available
During this time she fought again against the Gauls of the Po Val-
manpower of the middle classes of Rome and her allies... The total
ley and engaged in a series of wars with Macedonia, before finally
Homo homini lupus – Man is a wolf to man (Plautus)

97
numbers of casualties estimated between 150–180,000 men in a of the camp where the commander’s tent was pitched. Other special
period of only seven years. units were the scouts (exploratores) and the elite troops (antesignani),
Fearing annihilation, Rome’s only successful general at the time, formed from the bravest legionaries, used for spearheading assaults
Gaius Marius, was elected consul for an unprecedented five years or rapid manoeuvres. Capable individuals could also be handpicked
in a row, starting in 104 BC. Using his authority he, or his contem- as spies (speculatores).
porary generals, completely reorganised the Roman army. From his Eventually, the casualties lost to constant wars forced Roman
experiences fighting the Numidians of North Africa, Marius had generals to recruit primarily from their allies or even foreign prov-
learned the value of flexible troop deployment and the need for both inces. Such men were promised the additional benefit of receiving
a professional army and experienced commanders to lead it. citizenship for distinguished military service. With the possibility of
His tactical reorganisation regrouped the soldiers of a legion additional wages (donativa) paid by the general from his own pocket,
into 10 cohorts, rather than the older system of 30 maniples. Each citizenship and the promise of land being provided after disband-
cohort comprised of a maniple each of the Hastate, Principes, and ment or retirement, these new professional soldiers became fiercely
Triarii (raised to equal strength) along with their associated Velites. loyal to their commander, viewing him as their patron, rather than
Thus a cohort numbered about 480 men and was capable of inde- the state whom they were supposed to protect.
pendent action. However, the distinction between the armaments Such changes in loyalty ultimately led to the majority of the 1st
and function of the maniples was lost with the issue of standardised century BC becoming a succession of unending civil strife both on
armour and weapons. All legionaries now wore chain armour and Italian soil and in the provinces. Despite this, throughout the same
were armed with gladius, scutum and pilum. Each cohort could be period Rome continued to expand overseas, fighting a series of wars
subdivided into six ‘centuries’ of 80 men, and these were divided with Mithridates of Pontus, the Armenians, the Gauls, the Germans,
again into 8 man units called contubernia that tented and messed the Belgae, the Britons, the Egyptians and the Parthians.
together in camp. The command structure of legions was gradually reformed,
Other important changes was a return to regular training and finally being legalised under Sulla’s new constitution. Consuls (whose
strict discipline (which had lapsed in the mid-Republic) and the inexperience or incompetence had often led to defeats) no longer
requirement that each soldier carry his own baggage (weapons, directly led the legions, instead proconsuls and elected command-
armour, an entrenching tool, up to 15 days dried rations, one day’s ers now became the generals (duces). Also the limit to the number
water and several stakes for the camp defences). These reforms of legions one general could command was no longer restricted to
allowed the army to move faster and further each day and insulated that issued by senatorial decree. However after 80 BC, a general
it against the possible loss of the (now reduced) baggage train. who led their soldiers out of their assigned provinces into Italian
territory, except for the purpose of celebrating a triumph, was guilty
“Setting out on the expedition, he [Marius] laboured to perfect his army as of treason.
it went along, practising the men in all kinds of running and in long marches, Although military tribunes were still assigned to each legion, they
and compelling them to carry their own baggage and to prepare their own become increasingly younger men starting their magisterial careers,
food. Hence, in after times, men who were fond of toil and did whatever was often with little military experience or ability. Thus overall com-
enjoined upon them contentedly and without a murmur, were called Marian mand over a legion was sometimes shifted from the senior tribune
mules.” (tribunus) to a legate (legatus), a more seasoned officer attached to
Plutarch - Life of Marius the general’s staff, although still of senatorial rank. Foreign troops
(auxilia) or marines were, towards the end of the period, com-
Socially, Marius devolved the unpopular conscription, which manded by prefects (praefecti). Officers wore Greek style armour
with overseas campaigns sometimes forced a propertied man to of either bronze or moulded leather and donned purple cloaks to
serve with no appreciable remuneration for up to six years at a time denote their rank.
if the legion was not disbanded at the end of its campaign first. The command rank of the centurions remained unchanged but
Instead of protecting their own farms and livelihood, enforced ser- they received a pay rise in recognition of their importance. Centuri-
vice was causing many small holder farmers to become bankrupt as ons at this time wore transverse crests on their helmets and greaves
their lands went to seed. on their legs. They also carried a vinewood staff to enforce discipline.
Instead, the property requirements were lowered to the point An additional rank of tesserarius was created for the man who
where the only qualification a volunteer needed was citizenship. was in charge of sentry duty, placing him 3rd in command of the
Weapons, armour and even clothing were supplied by the state. century after the centurion and his optio. Each century had a stan-
These changes allowed recruitment from the largest part of Rome’s dard bearer (signifer), who was now also in charge of the men’s pay
population, the poor. Indeed, since the army offered regular meals and savings and a hornblower (cornicen) for signalling.
and some chance of earning a fortune from plunder, there was no Lastly, a new position was made called the aquilifer – the bearer
lack of volunteers. of the legion’s eagle. This solitary rank was a step towards promo-
The reorganisation of the legions also resulted in the abolish- tion to centurion.
ment of Roman cavalry, once the unit into which only the richest
class could join. Foreign cavalry were instead raised or hired from The Armament of the 1st c Roman Army
provinces noted for their superior horsemen (Numidian, Gallic and This is the advent of the true heavy infantry, fully armoured for
German in particular) and led by their own chieftains. close quarter battlefield fighting. As part of his reforms, Marius had
Each general also recruited a personal bodyguard from their the top and bottom curved edges removed from scutum, giving them
legions, named the Prætorian Cohort after the prætorium, the area their distinctive rectangular shape.
98 Homo sum, humani nihil a me alienum puto – I am human, therefore nothing human is strange to me (Terence)
Legionary (Legionarius) -
Press Home, Shield Wall, Siege Warfare Traits
Brimmed Montefortino/Coolus Helm (Galea), 6 AP (Head)
Iron Rimed Rectangular Shield (Scutum), H, S, 5 AP/18 HP
Stabbing Sword (Gladius), M, S, 1d6+db, Impaling
Heavy Javelin (Pilum), H, -, 1d8+1+db, Impaling
Dagger (Pugio), S, S, 1d4+1+db, Impaling
Centurion (Centurio)
As a Legionary, but with the addition of leg protection
Greaves, (Ocreae), 5 AP (Legs)
Officer (Dux, Legatus, Tribunus) - No Trait

Bronze Cuirass (Lorica Musculata), 5 AP (Chest and Abdomen)
Greaves and Skirt (Ocreae and Pteryges), 5 AP (Legs)
Extravagant Attic Helm (Galea), 6 AP (Head)
Small Wooden Round Shield (Parma), M, S, 4 AP/12 HP
Stabbing Sword (Gladius), M, S, 1d6+db, Impaling
Auxilia Gallic & Germanic Cavalry

(Eques) - Mounted Combat Trait
Brimmed Montefortino/Coolus Helm (Galea), 6 AP (Head)
Small Wooden Round Shield (Parma), M, S, 4 AP/12 HP
and after military disasters such as those during the 2nd Punic War,
Germanic invasions and terrors of Spartacus’ uprising, the skills and
honour of the legions were often lost with their massacre.
Sword (Spartha) , M, M, 1d8+db, Bleeding
The rapid formation of newly levied legions, comprised of inex-
Auxilia Mercenary Archers perienced troops, with few veteran centurions to train them and
poor generals, led to lazy, useless soldiers and sometimes outright
(Sagittarius) - Skirmishing Trait
rebellion.
Small Buckler (Aspidiotas), M, S, 4 AP/9 HP
“When the Roman army before Numantia had become demoralized by the
Recurve Bow (Arcus), H, -, 1d8+db, Impaling
slackness of previous commanders, Publius Scipio reformed it by dismissing
Sword (Xiphidion), M, S, 1d6+db, Bleeding
an enormous number of camp-followers and by bringing the soldiers to a sense
Auxilia Balearic Mercenary Slingers (Funditor) of responsibility through regular daily routine. On the occasion of the frequent
marches which he enjoined upon them, he commanded them to carry several
- Cautious Fighter, Ranged Marksman Trait
days’ rations, under such conditions that they became accustomed to enduring
Sling (Funda), S, ‒, 1d8
cold and rain, and to the fording of streams. Often the general reproached
them for timidity and indolence; often he broke utensils which served only
“And their training in the use of slings used to be such, from childhood up,
the purpose of self-indulgence and were quite unnecessary for campaigning.”
that they would not so much as give bread to their children unless they first hit
Frontinus - Stratagems
it with the sling. This is why Metellus, when he was approaching the islands
from the sea, stretched hides above the decks as a protection against the slings.”
Iron discipline was restored by frequent exercises and harsh pun-
Strabo - Geographica
ishments for lax duty. Training commonly involved route marches
with full packs, formation drills, swimming, practicing with double
weight weapons and shields and frequent building of encampments.
During the late Republic when not on active campaign, the legions
Roman Military would not be allowed to sit idle and run to seed; rather they were
Discipline (Disciplina
sometimes used to provide skilled labour for civil engineering proj-
ects such as building roads, aqueducts, or city walls.
Militaris)
Whenever a Roman citizen enrolled as a soldier, whether part
of a conscripted levy or willing enlistment, he swore a military oath
The austere lifestyle and greater civic virtue of the early Republic (sacramentum) to the Senate and Roman People; and later directly
gave the part-time civilian legionary a high reputation for discipline to the general himself. The oath forced the soldier to ‘voluntarily’
and training. However, these traits slowly eroded over the centuries
Honores mutant mores – Honours change behaviour

99
give up his citizen’s right of appeal for any death sentence and agree as a further display of public shame, be refused the right to dress in
to fulfil the conditions of military service. a soldierly manner.
“Up to that day there had only been the military oath binding the men to “Because Gaius Titius, commander of a cohort, had given way before
assemble at the bidding of the consuls and not to disband until they received some runaway slaves, Lucius Piso ordered him to stand daily in the headquar-
orders to do so. It had also been the custom among the soldiers, when the ters of the camp, barefooted, with the belt of his toga cut and his tunic ungirt,
infantry were formed into companies of 100, and the cavalry into troops of and wait till the night-watchmen came. He also commanded that the culprit
10, for all the men in each company or troop to take a voluntary oath to each should forgo banquets and baths.”
other that they would not leave their comrades for fear or for flight, and that Frontinus - Stratagems
they would not quit the ranks save to fetch or pick up a weapon, to strike an
enemy, or to save a comrade. This voluntary covenant was now changed into Pecunaria multa – fines or deductions from the pay allowance
a formal oath taken before the tribunes.” for minor infractions.
“When the consul Quintus Petilius had been killed in battle by the Ligu-
Military discipline was extremely rigorous, even for the times and rians, the Senate decreed that that legion in whose ranks the consul had been
the general had the power to summarily execute any soldier under slain should, as a whole, be reported “deficient”; that its year’s pay should be
his command. This level of obedience was necessary to ensure the withheld, and its wages reduced.”
health and safety of a legion as a whole, and built an esprit de corps Frontinus - Stratagems
which helped to maintain morale in the midst of battle.
Castigatio – corporal punishment. More specifically, animad-
“The Roman army put their soldiers through basic training. They did versio fustium was the punishment of being struck by a centurion’s
running exercises, obstacle courses while wearing all their armour and weap- staff.
ons, and marched eighteen miles three times a month. On these marches the
soldiers had to carry all their equipment. They drilled in flanking and column “and they killed a centurion, Lucilius, to whom, with soldiers’ humour,
movements used in battles and ceremonies. The Roman army was very strict they had given the name “Bring another,” because when he had broken one
about being perfect in drilling. But most important they trained in the usage vine-stick on a man’s back, he would call in a loud voice for another and
of their weapons.” another.”
Flavius Josephus Tacitus - Annals
Punishments came under two classes: those for crimes which Verberatio – a flogging, given for more severe violations. It
broke laws and those for dishonourable, shameful acts. Convic- could also be a prelude to a worse punishment too…
tions of ‘unmanly acts’ were in some ways more serious than nor-
mal crimes, since they were accompanied with a mark of shame “In the consulship of Publius Cornelius Nasica and Decimus Junius
which could ruin a man’s standing in the legion, or his posthumous those who had deserted from the army were condemned to be scourged publicly
reputation. with rods and then to be sold into slavery.”
“…the following [crimes] being treated as unmanly acts and disgraceful
in a soldier - when a man boasts falsely to the tribune of his valour in the field Gradus deiectio – a reduction in rank.
in order to gain distinction; when any men who have been placed in a covering
force leave the station assigned to them from fear; likewise when anyone throws “On motion of Appius Claudius the Senate degraded to the status of
away from fear any of his arms in the actual battle. Therefore the men in foot-soldiers those knights who had been captured and afterwards sent back
covering forces often face certain death, refusing to leave their ranks even when by Pyrrhus, king of the Epirotes, while the foot-soldiers were degraded to the
vastly outnumbered, owing to dread of the punishment they would meet with; status of light-armed troops, all being commanded to tent outside the fortifica-
and again in the battle men who have lost a shield or sword or any other arm tions of the camp until each man should bring in the spoils of two foemen.”
often throw themselves into the midst of the enemy, hoping either to recover Frontinus, Stratagems
the lost object or to escape by death from inevitable disgrace and the taunts of
their relations.” Missio ignominiosa – dishonourable discharge. This could be
Polybius - Histories applied to an entire legion simultaneously.
Minor punishments could be meted out by any centurion, optio “When sedition broke out in the tumult of the Civil War, and feeling ran
or tesserarius for ignominious activities such as slovenly appearance, especially high, Gaius Caesar dismissed from service an entire legion, and
poorly maintained equipment, shirking jobs and other minor mis- beheaded the leaders of the mutiny. Later, when the very men he had dismissed
conducts. More serious crimes were refusing an order, embezzle- entreated him to remove their disgrace, he restored them and had in them the
ment, theft, murder, cowardliness and, ultimately, rebellion. These very best soldiers.”
were normally tried by court-martial. The more common or infa- Frontinus - Stratagems
mous punishments, in ascending order of seriousness, are as follows;
Munerum indictio – additional duties. These could take quite Fustuarium – death from being stoned or beaten with cud-
strange forms, such as standing to attention for the entire day; and gels by his fellow soldiers. This punishment was given to those
100 Ignorantia legis non excusat – Ignorance of the law is no excuse

court-martialled for desertion, falling asleep on sentry duty, theft
(from the camp or their companions), giving false witness or sexually “Caius Lusius, a nephew of his [Marius], had a command under him
abusing of a fellow soldier. It could also be given to persistent re-of- in the army. In other respects he was a man of good reputation, but he had a
fenders of lesser crimes. The sentence would be performed by the weakness for beautiful youths. This officer was enamoured of one of the young
assembled troops of the camp. Those who managed to escape the men who served under him, by name Trebonius, and had on made unsuccessful
camp’s boundaries were not pursued, but eternally banished from attempts to seduce him. But finally, at night, he sent a servant with a sum-
Rome. mons for Trebonius. The young man came, since he could not refuse to obey a
summons, but when he had been introduced into the tent and Caius attempted
“The man who advocates sedition will be put to death on the spot, and violence upon him, he drew his sword and slew him. Marius was not with
no one will be allowed to say the things which are uttered amongst you with the army when this happened; but on his return he brought Trebonius to trial.
impunity. With us the man who deserts his standard or abandons his post Here there were many accusers, but not a single advocate, wherefore Trebonius
is liable to be cudgelled to death, but those who urge the men to abandon the himself courageously took the stand and told all about the matter, bringing
standards and desert from the camp are listened to, not by one or two only; they witnesses to show that he had often refused the solicitations of Lusius and
have the whole army for an audience.” that in spite of large offers he had never prostituted himself to anyone. Then
Livy - Ab Urbe Condita Marius, filled with delight and admiration, ordered the customary crown for
brave exploits to be brought, and with his own hands placed it on the head
Decimatio – the penultimate (and rarely meted out) military of Trebonius, declaring that at a time which called for noble examples he had
discipline used to punish mutinous or cowardly soldiers. A cohort displayed the most noble conduct.”
selected for punishment by decimation was divided into groups of Plutarch - Life of Marius
ten; each group cast lots and the soldier on whom the lot fell was
executed by his nine comrades, by stoning or clubbing. The remain-
ing soldiers were given rations of barley instead of wheat and forced
to sleep outside of the Roman encampment until they had remitted Wages, Expenses &
their shame.
Plunder (Stipendia,
“At this Antony was enraged, and visited those who had played the coward
with what is called decimation. That is, he divided the whole number of them
Dispendia et Praeda)
Until 405 BC, the Roman levied soldier actually received no
into tens, and put to death that one from each ten upon whom the lot fell. For
pay (stipendium) for active military service. Since all members of
the rest he ordered rations of barley instead of wheat.”
the army were citizens of a minimum wealth, they were considered
Plutarch - Life of Antony
self-supporting. It was only sometime between the 2nd and 3rd
Punic Wars that legionaries began to be compensated 100 asses per
More extreme than decimation was the total annihilation of an
month and the Centurions and Equites double that. However, sol-
entire cohort or legion. This was ordered when the men involved in
diers’ pay was effectively lost in charges made for the food, clothing,
a rebellion were beyond redemption, or had committed an atrocity.
replacement armaments and fodder (if cavalry) they used. Thus the
Military court-martials were held in the camp’s tribunal and
money was only a sustenance payment.
were reserved for more serious crimes. Legionaries were tried by the
With gradual inflation any chances for actually earning an
tribunes, and the tribunes tried by their commander. They were held
income from this stipend was lost. Eventually pay was doubled by
as traditional Roman trials with witnesses brought forwards to give
Julius Caesar during his Gallic campaigns and he gave them other
character references or evidence. The final decision was solely in the
bonuses (donativa) as he was able.
hands of the tribune or commander in charge. Even the tribunes
were not exempt from corporal or even capital punishment.
“He doubled the pay of the legions for all time. Whenever grain was
plentiful, he distributed it to them without stint or measure, and now and then
gave each man a slave from among the captives.”
Suetonius - Life of Julius Caesar
Save for looting and the slim opportunity to be granted a pension

comprising of a plot of land at the end of their service, no hon-
est legionary could ever make any significant money during their
enlistment.
Booty won on campaign came in four forms. General plunder
(praeda), money from plundered objects when sold (manubia), per-
sonal objects stripped from an enemy (exuviae) and more specifically
armour and weapons (spolia). Examples of such spoils were tro-
phies including chariots, army standards, the rams of ships, ornate
armour, statues, metal ingots, slaves and other artworks, as well as
the normal treasures of coinage and jewellery. Spolia Opima were
the armaments of an enemy commander which could only be won
Imperare sibi maximum imperium est – To rule yourself is the ultimate power (Seneca)
101
by a Roman Commander defeating him in single combat and were latter had been the agent in the surrender of Nasos and its garrison. Each
regarded as a very great sign of honour. of these men received the full Roman citizenship and 500 jugera of land.”
“Claudius Marcellus, having unexpectedly come upon some Gallic troops,
turned his horse about in a circle, looking around for a way of escape. Seeing Military decorations were the equivalent of modern-day medals.
danger on every hand, with a prayer to the gods, he broke into the midst of the Rewards granted for demonstrating bravery or commendable con-
enemy. By his amazing audacity he threw them into consternation, slew their duct were often commonplace objects of superior value – probably
leader, and actually carried away the spolia opima in a situation where there looted from defeated enemies – such as torques (named after Titus
had scarcely remained a hope of saving his life.” Manlius Torquatus, who first looted a golden neck ring from a Gal-
Frontinus - Stratagems lic chieftain he defeated in single combat) and bracelets (armillae).
Embossed precious metal discs (phalerae) were particularly prized,
Plunder won by an army was divided up according to rank; the being worn on straps over armour during parades.
more senior the officer, the larger the share. The greater part would The highest accolades were only granted for extreme acts of note
always be assigned to the general however, but they were free to and took the form of crowns (coronae), an article normally banned
donate all or part of their share to the adorning or building of tem- from being worn due to its associations with monarchy.
ples or as a bonus to their men to repay, or maintain, their loyalty.
Division of spoils was usually performed at the end of a campaign “In the presence of the two armies rewards and decorations were bestowed
so that the accumulated wealth could be displayed as part of a Tri- by both Carvilius and Papirius. Papirius had seen his men through many
umph and prevent erosion of discipline or even the premature dis- different actions in the open field, around their camp, under city walls, and the
banding of the legion. rewards he bestowed were well merited. Spurius Nautius, Spurius Papirius,
his nephew, four centurions, and a maniple of Hastati all received golden
“Marcus Salinator, when ex-consul, was condemned by the people because bracelets and crowns. Sp. Nautius won his for his success in the manoeuvre by
he had not divided the booty equally among his soldiers.” which he frightened the enemy with the appearance of a large army; the young
Frontinus - Stratagems Papirius owed his reward to the work he did with his cavalry in the battle
and in the following night, when he harassed the retreat of the Samnites from
Pensions (emerita) did not become an official perk of military ser- Aquilonia; the centurions and men of the maniple were rewarded for having
vice until after the Republic had ended. Before this, legionaries were been the first to seize the gate and wall of the city.”
reliant upon their general to intercede with the Senate in order to be Livy - Ab Urbe Condita
granted lands or monies to support them after retirement.
Corona Obsidionalis (Corona Graminea) – The highest mili-
“When, in honour of his defeat of the Sabines, the Senate offered Manius tary award in the Roman army. They were given to those who broke
Curius a larger amount of ground than the discharged troops were receiving, the siege of a beleaguered Roman army. The crown is a wreath
he was content with the allotment of ordinary soldiers, declaring that that man made of grass gathered from the site of the lifted siege and pre-
was a bad citizen who was not satisfied with what the rest received.” sented by the army so relieved.
“…but up to the present time it [the Corona Graminea] has been given
By the late Republic the Senate were hesitant to make such land to a single centurion only, Cneius Petreius Atinas, during the war with the
grants, since it meant dispossessing a former owner to make room Cimbri. This soldier, while acting as primus pilus under Catullus, on finding
for an ex-soldier and, save for newly conquered regions overseas, all retreat for his legion cut off by the enemy, harangued the troops, and after
most of the lands were owned by the patrician and equestrian fam- slaying his tribune who hesitated to cut a way through the encampment of the
ilies who populated the Senate. The naked greed behind such refus- enemy, brought away the legion in safety.”
als to grant legionaries their own lands helped fuel the civil wars of Pliny the Elder - Naturalis Historia
the late Republic.
Corona Civica – The second highest regarded military award,
primarily due to its epitome of Roman civic virtues. Awarded to a
Decorations and soldier who saved the life of another in battle, it took the form of a
crown of oak leaves and acorns. The rescued soldier could only make
Rewards (Praemia)
Faithful duty in the military could be rewarded in other ways
the recommendation himself (something most were loath to do) and
would present the crown to his saviour. The honours accorded to
the soldier awarded this crown included the right to be seated next
than pure financial gain. Honours (beneficia) could be requested by to the Senate at public spectacles, freedom to himself, his father and
generals from the state to reward those who had demonstrated good grandfather from ‘public burdens’ and the eternal respect from the
service. The reward could take the form of promotion, decorations, person who owed their life – as if they were a son to a father.
material gifts (such as land), favours, citizenship or even the reduc-
tion of more laborious duties. “But this is a thing which even common soldiers do against their will,
and they are reluctant to give a civic crown to a citizen, and to confess that
“Not the least conspicuous feature of the spectacle was the sight of Sosis they have been saved by any one; not because it is discreditable to have been
the Syracusan and Moericus the Spaniard who marched in front wearing protected in battle, or to be saved out of the hands of the enemy (for in truth
golden crowns. The former had guided the nocturnal entry into Syracuse, the
102 In alio pediculum, in te ricinum non vides – You see a louse on someone else, but not a tick on yourself (Petronius)
that is a thing which can only happen to a brave man, and to one fighting
hand to hand with the enemy), but they dread the burden of the obligation, Triumphs and Ovations
because it is an enormous thing to be under the same obligation to a stranger
that one is to a parent.” (Triumphi et Ovationes)
Triumphs and ovations were massive celebrations given to suc-
Cicero - Pro Plancio
cessful military commanders upon their return to Rome. They were
Corona Muralis – A crenulated gold crown decorated with jealously awarded by the Senate, who also donated a sum of money
towers, which is awarded to the first soldier or Centurion over the to defray against the expenses of hosting the festivity.
walls into a besieged city. Only a victorious general, lauded as ‘Imperator’ by his troops,
who had held the office of dictator, consul or prætor, was permitted a
“Then he praised the courage of his troops, whom, he said, nothing had triumph and only then in legitimate wars against enemies of Rome.
daunted, neither the sortie of the enemy, nor the height of the walls, nor the The campaign should also have brought a new province under the
untried depth of the lagoon, nor the fort on the hill, nor the unusual strength control of Rome and the territory reduced to a state of peace.
of the citadel. Nothing had prevented them from surmounting every obstacle Ovations were a lesser form of triumph, awarded when the ene-
and forcing their way everywhere. Though every man amongst them deserved mies were of inferior numbers or status (such as fighting against
all the rewards he could give, the glory of the mural crown belonged especially slaves) or when the war had not been fully concluded.
to him who was the first to scale the wall, and the man who considered that he Considering the number of requirements for eligibility, it is
deserved it should claim it. Two men came forward, Q. Tiberilius, a centurion hardly surprising that the celebration of a triumph was a rare event.
of the fourth legion, and Sextus Digitius, one of the marines. The contention In the early days of Rome, a triumph consisted simply of a pro-
between them was not so heated as the excitement with which each body advo- cession led by the captured men and leaders of the enemy, behind
cated the claim of its own representative… …He [Scipio] then announced whom rode the victorious general upon a chariot and followed by
that he had definitely ascertained that Q. Tiberilius and Sextius Digitius had the standards and troops of his army laden with plunder. After them
both surmounted the wall at the same moment, and he should honour their came the celebrating populace, singing victory songs and jeering at
bravery by presenting them each with a mural crown.” the defeated captives. When the procession arrived at the Capitoline
Livy - Ab Urbe Condita hill, certain members of the captive leaders would be put to death
and the general would ascend to the Temple of Jupiter to offer a
Corona Vallaris – A golden crown decorated with the uprights sacrifice of a bull. After this, a public banquet was thrown for the
of a palisade. It is awarded to the first soldier or centurion to force people of the city.
their way over the entrenchments and walls of an enemy camp. In the later years of the Republic, the spectacle became far more
Corona Rostrata – Awarded for the destruction of an enemy pompous. The procession was led by the Senate headed by the mag-
fleet. It was a golden crown surmounted with the beaks (rostra) of istrates, followed by a mass of trumpeters, who in turn were trailed
ships and historically only granted once to Agrippa for his defeat of by exotically decorated carts which were loaded with the most spec-
Antony at the Battle of Actium. tacular of the booty captured during the campaign – such as gold
Corona Navalis – A gold crown awarded to the first man who and silver coins, jewellery and plate, embroidered cloth, brightly
boarded an enemy ship during a naval engagement. woven carpets, armour and weapons, and other beautiful artworks.
Corona Triumphalis – A crown made of laurel, given to com- After this, flute players proceeded before the priests, accompa-
manders who are awarded a triumph. nying flawless white oxen with gilded horns, which were destined
Corona Ovalis – A crown made from myrtle, given only to for sacrifice. Then came a menagerie of strange unforeseen animals
commanders who are awarded an ovation for successful military native to the province conquered. Following this was a display of the
campaigns against ‘inferior’ foes, such as Crassus received for defeat- spolia opima of the captured enemy leaders and then the captives
ing Spartacus, despite the fact that this ‘mere slave’ had defeated themselves.
legion after legion in open battle and had thrown the entirety of Next was a display of crowns and tributes granted to the imper-
Italy into terror. ator by allied rulers and states, followed by his lictors bearing their
All these decorations were of vital importance to the average fasces bound with laurel. Then came the imperator himself, riding
Roman, for they demonstrated his manly courage (virtus), self-sac- in a four horse chariot and wearing a gold embroidered purple robe
rifice (devotio),and helped spread his fame (gloria). Scars too were a (toga picta) and flowered tunic (tunica palmata), bearing in his right
sign of virtus and there were incidents in Roman law where court hand a laurel bough and in his left a sceptre, his brows were encir-
cases were dismissed when the battle scars of a defendant were cled with a laurel wreath (corona triumphalis). In addition his body
shown to be all on the front of their body. was painted bright red.
In the chariot with him would be young children in order to
“I cannot, to justify your confidence, display family portraits [wax effigies avert envy and ill-will (invidia). To further encourage humility, a little
of renowned ancestors] or the triumphs and consulships of my forefathers; but magic charm (fascinum) and a whip (flagellum) were attached to the
if occasion requires, I can show spears, a banner, horse trappings and other vehicle as symbols that the occupant could still suffer the misfortune
military prizes, as well as scars on my chest. These are my portraits, my of death or scourging. Also present was a slave standing behind the
patent of nobility, not left to me by inheritance as theirs were, but won by my general, whose purpose was to whisper in the ear of the Imperator
own innumerable efforts and perils.” the warning words “respice post te, hominem memento te” – “look
Sallust - War with Jugurtha behind you, remember that you are mortal”.
In cauda venenum – In the tail (of the scorpion) is the poison

103
Caesar displayed some of the
greatest triumphs and showed
extemporary generosity to the men
of his legions.
“Having ended the wars, he celebrated

five triumphs, four in a single month, but at
intervals of a few days, after vanquishing
Scipio; and another on defeating Pompey’s
sons. The first and most splendid was the
Gallic triumph, after that the African, and
finally the Spanish, each differing from
the rest in its equipment and display of
spoils. As he rode through the Velabrum
on the day of his Gallic triumph, the axle
of his chariot broke, and he was all but
thrown out; and he mounted the Capitol
by torchlight, with forty elephants bear-
ing lamps on his right and his left. In his
Pontic triumph he displayed among the
show-pieces of the procession an inscrip-
tion of but three words, “I came, I saw,
I conquered,” not indicating the events of
“And he would not be alone in the chariot, but if he had children or
the war, as the others did, but the speed with
relatives, he would make the girls and the infant male children get up besides
which it was finished. To each and every foot-soldier of his veteran legions he
him in it and place the older ones upon the horses - outriggers as well as the
gave twenty-four thousand sesterces by way of booty, over and above the two
yoke-pair; if there were many of them, they would accompany the procession
thousand apiece which he had paid them at the beginning of the civil strife.
on chargers, riding along beside the victor.”
He also assigned them lands, but not side by side, to avoid dispossessing any
of the former owners.”
Behind the chariot would be the adult sons of the imperator,
his legates, military tribunes and equites of his army. The rear was
An ovation differed from a full triumph, being a lesser spectacle.
brought up by the legionaries in marching order, bearing spears
The general entered the city on foot instead of riding in a chariot
wreathed with laurel and shouting either complements or sarcas-
and wore the simple toga praetexta of a magistrate. His wreath was
tic insults about their commander. Both were allowed and actively
made of myrtle, not laurel, and he bore no sceptre. Also missing
encouraged.
were the trumpets, senatorial procession and accompanying legion-
aries, so that the imperator was attended only by the equites and any
“[As said by Caesar’s troops during his Triumph] Romans, watch your
plebeians who wished to join in. The final sacrifice was only a sheep
wives, the bald adulterer’s back home. You fucked away in Gaul the gold you
rather than a bull.
borrowed here in Rome”.
After such magnificence the imperator would as tradition com- Legionary Standards
manded, oversee the execution of the enemy leader and then mount
to the Temple of Jupiter to perform the sacrifice. A tithe of the plun-
der (usually a tenth), was donated to the temple and the laurel wreath
(Signa)
At the beginning of Rome, the legions possessed a number of
was left in lap of the god. This was followed by a public speech and different standards based upon creatures noted for their strength,
the rewarding of the troops, the most notable being mentioned by virility or ferocity. These provided a rallying point easily identifiable
name and presented with gifts. during battle or march and inspired the troops which bore it.
The ceremonies were concluded by lavish public banquet to However, during his reforms in 104 BC, Marius made the eagle
which the imperator’s friends and the city magistrates were invited, emblem supreme because of its close associations with Jupiter,
although the consuls were politely asked not to attend so that the replacing all the other animal totems. Each legion was assigned a
recipient of the triumph would not be overshadowed by their pres- silver eagle standard (aquila) and was charged with dire punishments
ence. When the feast finally ended, the imperator was escorted and disgrace if it were lost in battle. Thus the senior standard bearer
home by torchlight, accompanied by grateful citizens and musicians. became known as an aquilifer.
Of course there were occasions when certain generals tried to
outdo previous triumphs, such as when Pompey arranged to have his “And while our men were hesitating [whether they should advance to the
chariot drawn by elephants instead of horses, but was stymied when shore], chiefly on account of the depth of the sea, he who carried the eagle
it was discovered that the city gates were too narrow to permit entry. of the tenth legion, after supplicating the gods that the matter might turn out
104 In dubio pro reo – When in doubt, favour the accused (Corpus Juris Civilis)
favourably to the legion, exclaimed, “Leap, fellow soldiers, unless you wish of Arausio where his army of 80,000 men was annihilated.
to betray your eagle to the enemy. I, for my part, will perform my duty to the
commonwealth and my general.” When he had said this with a loud voice, he He was prosecuted for losing his army (although the
leaped from the ship and proceeded to bear the eagle toward the enemy. Then gold probably biased the outcome), stripped of citi-
our men, exhorting one another that so great a disgrace should not be incurred, zenship and spent the remainder of his life in exile in
all leaped from the ship.” Smyrna. The theft of the gold by Caepio was never
Julius Caesar - The Gallic Wars proven, although rumours abounded of the suspiciously
weak guard escort he had placed on the treasure and the
Prior to Marius, every legion was a temporary levy authorised fact he displayed previously unseen levels of wealth after.
solely by the Senate, which was disbanded after it had completed
the campaign it was assigned to. This prevented the legions from An adventure could be based around discovering who exactly
building any long term traditions. However, after the reforms, a did steal the gold. Was it taken back by the vengeful Celts,
large part of the army became standing legions, which were retained Caepio’s own bodyguard, the worshippers of Apollo or pos-
continuously unless destroyed or dishonoured in battle. These new sibly the ghost of Brennus? Conversely, the characters could
professional legions slowly evolved a sense of identity and by the be part of the escort provided for the treasure, offering them
end of the Republic had begun to claim individual names based the chance to save the gold or perhaps steal it themselves…
upon origin, region of service or victories; in addition, they selected
emblems (often zodiacal) to further distinguish themselves. Julius ΩΩ One of the characters has won the vaunted position of signifer
Caesar normally appointed his legions with a bull and Octavian the in the maniple or the party is assigned as guards for the legion’s
sign of a Capricorn. Eventually, the legionaries began to venerate eagle. To their horror, during the night the standard goes
their standards and treated them as sacred religious items. missing. The characters know that they will take the blame,
despite the fact that the standard might have vanished during
the previous watch, or could have been stolen by the mani-
Plot Hooks ple’s senior centurion who left the tent as they came on duty.
ΩΩ During the 2nd Punic War, the Romans lost a vast number The players have several options. Investigate the disap-
of both its allies and own troops. The squander became so pearance, whereupon they uncover a tale of political cor-
desperate that the dictator Marcus Junius Pera was forced to ruption and blackmailing (with the innocent centurion
draft several legions comprised of slaves and criminals. desperately trying to hide the fact that his is chronically
short sighted); or alternately try to steal a standard from
“After duly discharging his religious duties and obtaining the necessary another maniple and hope to cover up the original crime.
permission to mount his horse, he published an edict that all who had been
guilty of capital offences or who were enslaved for debt and were willing to If the disappearance is discovered before the original is found
serve under him would by his orders be released from punishment and have or substituted, then the characters are going to lose status and
their debts cancelled. 6,000 men were raised in this way, and he armed them reputation, before being sentenced to some sort of capital
with the spoils taken from the Gauls and which had been carried in the trium- punishment…
phal procession of C. Flaminius.”
ΩΩ The characters are either facing bankruptcy or currently
suffering abject poverty. With no other choice, they have
This could be the perfect occasion for a Games Master to accepted loans from a notorious banker in order to pay
turn the tables on a group of player characters convicted for for food and rent. However, the bailiffs of the banker will
profiteering in Rome and send them out to face Hannibal on be calling round on the next market day for repayment…
his approach to the city. Slave characters could volunteer for and they are ex-gladiators with a mean streak. The bod-
the army and be granted their freedom in reward for faithful ies of defaulters end up being found dead in the sewers.
service towards the State... assuming they survive.
However, the following day a Triumph is being celebrated and
ΩΩ In 105 BC, Quintus Servilius Caepio the proconsul of South- the characters see vast quantities of precious metals and art-
ern Gaul, travelled to Tolosa distracted from his military works rolling past in carts, literally just out of arms reach. Will
orders by rumours of an ancient treasure hidden within the they be tempted to perform a desperate act? Not only do they
city, reputedly looted from Delphi by the infamous chieftain need to perform the theft under the eyes of the veteran soldiers
Brennus. guarding the treasure but they will also need to escape the
crowds of spectators who will see the theft as an impious act.
ΩΩ On capturing Tolosa, Caepio confiscated an immense horde
of 15,000 talents of gold and silver hidden within the shrines If they fail to be tempted, then the banker could approach
and sacred lakes of the city. However, during its transport them in the crowd and offer to clear their debts (and per-
back to Rome, the majority of this treasure mysteriously haps add a small bonus) in return for humiliating the trium-
disappeared. Apparently cursed by the gods for his impi- phant general; pelting him with rotten fruit or upsetting his
ety, Caepio then suffered a disastrous defeat at the Battle chariot for example. This option might save them from the
In medio stat virtus – Virtue stands in the middle (Horace)

105
murderous ex-gladiators but would gain the characters an
enemy of high status and unceasing wrath…
ΩΩ During an attack on the encampment of an enemy army,

the players are placed in the situation of being first over the
walls. Survivors of the beachhead are awarded a Corona
Vallaris for bravery in the face of great danger. However,
during the award ceremony, an old nemesis of the party
steps forwards and claims the honour for himself, backed up
by the lies of half a cohort of sycophantic ‘eye witnesses’.
Since the nemesis is a person of high social rank,

or an immediate superior in the legion (e.g. a sadis-
tic centurion), the commander is placed in a diffi-
cult position and several different results could occur.
If the players stubbornly defend their honour, an investiga-

tion is held into the backgrounds and reputations of both the
party and their nemesis. This could lead to the case going
either way and unsubstantiated accusations by the players
could actually cause them further problems in the future.
If the players lose their case, then they might be approached

by sympathetic troops within the legion who see this as
an unjust act and wish to use it as the cause for starting a
rebellion; which the players are free to join if they wish…
If on the other hand, the players sense the factious tension

within the legion and decide to back down in order to prevent
the arguments from breaking down into outright violence,
then the commander will award the crown to the nemesis but
reward the players in a different way. Perhaps allowing the
honourable characters a chance to show up the impostor’s
bravery and let them win even greater glory.
106 In vino veritas – The truth is in wine

Mythic Rome: Religion
Religion
“…so that for those who do not know the piety which the Romans prac- milk to the ‘lares’ of the household, then pay for the sacrifice of a
tised in those times it may not seem surprising that all their wars ended so well. dove to Venus and in the evening spill a libation to Jupiter in thanks
For you will see that they conducted the beginnings and basics of all of them for not being struck by lightning during the storm that day.
with immense piety and for this reason in particular had the gods on their side Worship is generally proactive to beg for help in a certain deed
in times of danger.” or reactive so as to ward the worshipper from the harm which that
Dionysios of Halikarnassos – Roman Antiquites deity represents. Games Masters interested in rules for such divine
interventions should refer to Calling upon the Gods page 140.
Rome and religion are inseparable entities. Like most peoples of The divinities of Rome can be broken down into four rough cat-
the time, religion is a fundamental part of everyday life. Offerings egories: spirits of the home, ancestor worship, animistic deities and
are made to the protective gods of the household, prayers made to deified concepts.
divinities to help grant aid in war, enterprise, or love, and the tem-
ples become crowded in times of adversity.
The Romans believed in supernatural beings and were intensely
Spirits of the Home
There are several spirits which ward the home from harm. The
superstitious. It was only with the introduction of certain Hellenistic
gods of the store cupboard (Di Penates), the god of the hearth fire
philosophical ideas (such as Epicureanism) that atheism was planted
(Vesta) and the spirits of protection (Lares). These minor divini-
in the minds of well-educated Romans of the late Republic.
ties had their own images and altar (aedicula) within the dwelling,
Despite these new ideas, Rome continued to sacrifice to the gods,
welcoming new cults and forcibly bringing icons of foreign, cap-
tured enemy faiths to the eternal city. Freedom of belief and reli-
gious tolerance was very important; very few faiths were ever cen-
sured during the Republic. Religion, whether or not its priests were
truly pious, was a powerful tool for civic control.
“To those who look at a city and see not humanity but stone, Rome
is overwhelmingly a city of worship. Rome has always been a pious place,
sacrificing abundantly (if not always sincerely) to any and every god and
hero who might become an ally in the dream of empire. Rome worships the
gods; Rome gives adoration to the dead. Temples, altars, shrines, and statues
abound. Incense may abruptly waft from any corner.”
Steven Saylor – Roman Blood
Religion (Religio)
The gods of the Romans were originally animistic in origin, spir-
its of rivers, soil and sky, combined with ancestor worship. As time
passed they evolved to embrace more sophisticated concepts, spe-
cific to human activity and values. Eventually these undefined deities
took on anthropomorphic shapes in mimicry of Hellenic tradition.
All Romans are polytheists, that is to say, they freely worship all
the gods in their pantheon. One morning they might give a bowl of
In virtute sunt multi ascensus – There are many degrees in excellence (Cicero)
107
whether it was an apartment in an insula or a villa. They were the weather, growing of crops or death. They were at first depicted
appeased with garlands on the calends, nones and ides of each only with symbols but with the influx of Hellenism the gods were
month, offers of food from each evening meal placed on the hearth granted anthropomorphic images and their unique Roman aspects
and the monthly burning of incense. gradually subsumed by the mythology of their Greek versions. The
names of the greatest Roman gods survived the centuries and were
“Divine Penates of our ancestors, to you I commend the good fortune of used to identify the very planets themselves.
my parents, and to you, Spiritual Father of our family, that you safeguard During the early and mid-Republic, Rome experienced repeated
them well” disasters. At these times, the senate would consult the Sibylline Books
Plautus – Mercator (page 111), whose prophesies often required the city to appease spe-
cific gods by the hosting of festival games, building of temples, cer-
Shrines to the Lares could also be found at every crossroads emonial offerings of food or even the importation of foreign deities.
(compitum) in the city, where some spirits looked after whole dis-
tricts. These were worshiped during the compitalicia festival held “In accordance with an oracle found in the Sibylline books, which stated
in early January and offerings made to them of cakes by both slaves that a foreign invader would be expelled if the Idaean Mother [Cybele] had
and citizens. been brought to Rome, the Idaean Mother was brought to Rome from the
The final household spirit was the Genius, the guardian of the Phrygian town Pessinus. She was given to the Romans by king Attalus of
family. This was represented as a (sometimes bearded) snake in art- Asia. Because the oracle had ordered that the deity had to be received and
but was thought to actually reside within the head of the household consecrated by the best man, she was received by Publius Scipio Nasica, who
– the paterfamilias. Respect was shown to the genius by a libation was judged by the Senate to be the best man, although he was young and had
of wine. not even reached the quæstorship.”
Livy – Periochae
Ancestor Worship The following gods were considered of the highest importance
The Romans believed that the afterlife was a shadowy reflection
in Rome. They either possessed the largest temples or held major
of the living world and that the souls of the dead required nourish-
annual celebrations;
ment to survive. Thus it was considered vital that dead ancestors
(di parentes) be provided with libations, offerings and gifts (inferiae)
Apollo – god of the sun, poetry, music and oracles, originally an
to show them respect and ensure their continuance. These rites
Olympian
were normally performed in the home and, during certain festivals
Bona Dea – goddess of fertility, healing, virginity and women.
(Parentalia, Feralia and Lemuria), at the family necropolis outside
Also known as Fauna
the city walls.
Bacchus – god of wine and sensual pleasures
Wealthy Romans traditionally took wax facial masks (imagines)
Carmenta – goddess of childbirth and prophecy, and assigned
of newly dead ancestors, which would be placed on display in the
a Flamen minor
atrium of the house. During family funerals, actors would wear the
Ceres – goddess of the harvest, mother of Proserpina and an
masks and act out the physical mannerisms of the dead person, so
Olympian, also assigned a Flamen minor
as to be a receptacle for the spirit of the ancestor. To help actors in
Cybele (Magna Mater) – earth mother
their portrayal, the masks were often stored with a papyrus describ-
Diana – goddess of the hunt, the moon, virginity and childbirth;
ing the ancestor’s traits, as well as listing their deeds and magisterial
twin sister of Apollo and an Olympian originally served by a
positions.
runaway slave who had act as her priest
Falacer – obscure god, he was assigned a Flamen minor
“Next after the interment and the performance of the usual ceremonies,
Flora – goddess of flower, and assigned a Flamen minor
they place the image of the departed in the most conspicuous position in the
Fortuna – goddess of fortune
house, enclosed in a wooden shrine. This image is a mask reproducing with
Furrina – obscure goddess the waters, one source claims she
remarkable fidelity both the features and complexion of the deceased. On the
was a goddess of robbers and thieves, she was assigned a Flamen
occasion of public sacrifices they display these images, and decorate them with
minor
much care, and when any distinguished member of the family dies they take
Janus – two-headed god of beginnings and endings and of doors
them to the funeral, putting them on men who seem to them to bear the closest
Juno – Queen of the Gods, goddess of matrimony and an
resemblance to the original in stature and carriage.”
Olympian
Polybius – Histories
Jupiter – King of the Gods and the storm, air and sky god, and
an Olympian, also assigned a Flamen maior.
Such processions of respected ancestors would provide an inspi-
Mars – god of war and father of Romulus, an Olympian and
ration and guide to younger members of the family, since as stated
assigned a Flamen maior
by Polybius, “who would not be inspired by the sight of the images
Mercury – messenger of the gods and bearer of souls to the
of men renowned for their excellence, all together and as if alive
underworld, also an Olympian
and breathing?”
Minerva – goddess of wisdom and war, and an Olympian
Neptune – god of the sea, earthquakes and horses, and an
Animistic Deities (numina) Olympian
Originally, the Roman gods were simple supernatural represen- Ops – goddess of plenty
tations of either places (genii locorum) or natural processes – such as
108 Inhumanitas omni aetate molesta est - Inhumanity is harmful in every age (Cicero)
Palatua – obscure goddess who guarded the Palatine Hill, she plebeians, at about 367 BC half the positions in the Sacris Faciundis
was assigned a Flamen minor were opened to those of lower class and later in 300 BC the same
Pluto – King of the Dead, also known as Orcus occurred for the pontifices and augurs too. Once elected, the office
Pomona – goddess of fruit trees and assigned a Flamen minor of priesthood was retained for life and the holder exempted from all
Portunes – god of keys, doors and livestock, he was assigned a civil and military duties.
Flamen minor First ranked in importance was the Collegium Pontificum, the
Proserpina – Queen of the Dead and a grain-goddess college of Pontiffs. They followed the following hierarchy in order
Quirinus – Romulus, the founder of Rome, was deified as Quir- of precedence…
inus after his death. Quirinus was a war god and a god of the
ΩΩ Rex Sacrorum (‘King of Rites’) – introduced after the fall of
Roman people and state, and was assigned a Flamen maior
the monarchy to replace the religious duties held by the king.
Saturn – a titan, god of harvest and agriculture, the father of
ΩΩ 3 Flamines Maiores (‘Major Flamines’) – the leading priests
Jupiter, Neptune, Juno and Pluto
of Jupiter (Flamen Dialis), Mars (Flamen Martialis) and Quir-
Venus – goddess of love, beauty, sex and prostitution, mother of
inus (Flamen Quirinalis). Only patricians could be flamines
the hero Aeneas and an Olympian
maiores.
Vesta – goddess of the hearth and the Roman state and an
ΩΩ Pontifex Maximus (‘Principle Pontif ’) – by the late Republic
Olympian
the Pontifex Maximus had risen in authority to the head of
Volcanus – god of the forge, fire and blacksmiths, and an Olym-
the religious hierarchy.
pian, assigned a Flamen minor
ΩΩ Subordinate Pontifices – four in 509 BC, nine in 300 BC and
Volturnus – a god of water assigned a Flamen minor
14 in 81 BC. These officials gradually took over the adminis-
tration of newer gods introduced during the Republic.
“Olympus is the name which the Greeks give to the sky, and all peoples
ΩΩ 12 Flamines Minores (Minor Flamines) – priests of Car-
give to the mountain in Macedonia; it is from the latter, I am inclined to think,
menta, Ceres, Falacer, Flora, Furrina, Palatua, Pomona, Por-
that the Muses are spoken of as Olympiads...”
tunus, Volcanus and Volturnus. These priests were elected
Varro – On the Latin Language
from the plebeians. By the late Republic the functions of
some of these gods, as well as the names of the last two divin-
Many of these gods were originally Etruscan or Latin in origin
ities had been forgotten.
and brought to Rome during its gradual conquests of neighbouring
territory. Diana was originally from Aricia and Juno was an Etruscan The college of Pontiffs were in charge of maintaining religious
goddess from Veii, introduced via the ritual of evocation – a sacred tradition and recorded all omens and prodigies (lightning strikes,
rite for inviting the patron deities of captured or besieged towns to births of two headed animals, rains of stones or blood and so on) in
abandon their homes and migrate to Rome. their sacred books (libri pontificales).
Second in importance were the Augurs. Experts on the auguries
“Juno Regina, who in Veii now dwells, I pray, that after our victory You (auguria), which indicated whether a proposed action was favour-
will follow us to our City, soon to become Your City as well, where a holy able (fas) or unfavourable (nefas) to divine will. This involved the
precinct worthy of Your dignity will be built to receive You” watching of the heavens for the movements of birds (auspicia). Orig-
Livy – Ab Urbe Condita inally formed by King Numa, the second king of Rome, in 509 BC
they numbered only three, one for each tribe. But this increased to
nine in 300 BC and they eventually totalled 15 in 81 BC.
Deified Abstract Concepts The lowest ranked priesthood were the Sacris Faciundis. Created
With Hellenism were introduced hundreds of other lesser reli- by the final kings of Rome, the Etruscan Tarquins, they originally
gions, many of which encompassed a single philosophical idea, assisted in the rites and sacrifices to the gods. Eventually they were
such as peace (Pax), freedom (Libertas) or justice (Iustitia). These placed in charge of consulting the Sibylline Books and implement-
‘higher’ concepts gained widespread worship during the late Repub- ing the prophesies contained within. They numbered only two in
lic. Although never granted as great a status as the original numina, 509 BC but expanded to 10 in 367 BC and 15 in 81 BC. Instead
countless shrines and temples to these minor deities proliferated. of their official title, the priests were referred to as the ‘Two Men’
Since these lesser gods are so numerous, it is impossible to (duumviri), ‘Ten Men’ (decemviri) or ‘Fifteen Men’ (quindecemviri)
describe each one individually. However an abridged list of their according to how many they numbered at the time.
names and attributes is included in Appendix IV. The final college of priests, the Epulones was created during the
mid-Republic in 196 BC. The lowest ranking of the priesthoods,
their task was to assist the Pontifices with organising the growing
The Priesthood number of feasts associated with sacrifices, hence the name of ‘Ban-
queters’. They originally numbered three but this had increased to
(Sacerdotium)
During the period of the Monarchy, there were three distinct col-
seven in 81 BC.
The only group of women priestesses that held any status in
Rome were the Vestal Virgins who tended the sacred flame of Vesta,
leges of priests, who gave sage advice and conducted religious rites. goddess of the hearth and home. Their temple was founded in the
At the foundation of the Republic, only patricians were eligible for reign of King Numa and initially only two priestesses served. How-
election into the collegium of priests but to sooth the feelings of the ever this number was soon raised to six.
Inter arma enim silent leges – During wars laws are silent (Cicero)
109
The Vestals were important political entities in their own right,
being the few women allowed to own property and vote. They had The Ceremonies & Restrictions of Priests
places reserved for them at all public ceremonies, festivals and feasts, Although the honour of becoming a priest is very great, the responsi-
and were permitted to travel in a wheeled cart, proceeded by a lic- bilities (Mores Sacerdotales) attached to it are burdensome. Indeed, some
tor bearing the fasces. Being incorruptible of character, they were ceremonies are so onerous that few men desired the position of a flamines
entrusted with wills, contracts and state documents. They were even majores or minores. A list of restrictions applicable to the Flamen Dialis
granted the power to free condemned prisoners or slaves by merely is quoted below and Games Masters are encouraged to create their own
touching them. obscure superstitious guidelines for other priesthoods.
Despite a rigorous service of 30 years, during which time the
priestess was sworn to chastity, the life of a Vestal was greatly sought “Only a free man may cut the hair of the Dialis. It is not customary
after due to the elevation of status and freedom from control of for the Dialis to touch, or even name, a she-goat, raw flesh, ivy, and
men. If however, the Vestal ever broke her oaths, the punishments beans. The priest of Jupiter must not pass under an arbour of vines.
could be terrible… The feet of the couch on which he sleeps must be smeared with a thin
coating of clay, and he must not sleep away from this bed for three nights
“The Virgins’ minor offences are punished by beating, which is admin- in succession, and no other person must sleep in that bed. At the foot of
istered by the Pontifex [Maximus], with the offender naked, and in a dark this bed there should be a box with sacrificial cakes. The cuttings of the
place with a curtain set up between them. A Virgin who is seduced is buried nails and hair of the Dialis must be buried in the earth under a fruitful
alive near what is known as the Colline gate. At this place in the city there is tree. Every day is a holy day for the Dialis. He must not be in the open
a little ridge of land that extends for some distance, which is called a ‘mound’ air without his cap; that he might go without it in the house has only
in the Latin language. Here they prepare a small room, with an entrance from recently been decided by the Pontiffs, so Masurius Sabinus wrote, and
above. In it there is a bed with a cover, a lighted lamp, and some of the basic it is said that some other ceremonies have been remitted and he has been
necessities of life, such as bread, water in a bucket, milk, oil, because they excused from observing them. The priest of Jupiter must not and touch
consider it impious to allow a body that is consecrated to the most holy rites any bread fermented with yeast. He does not lay off his inner tunic
to die of starvation.” except under cover, in order that he may not be naked in the open air,
Plutarch – Life of Numa Pompilius as it were under the eye of Jupiter. No other has a place at table above
the Flamen Dialis, except the Rex Sacrificulus. If the Dialis has lost
his wife he abdicates his office. The marriage of the priest cannot be
dissolved except by death. He never enters a place of burial, he never
Etruscan Priests touches a dead body; but he is not forbidden to attend a funeral.”
With a reputation for a deeper knowledge of divination and the Gellius – Noctes Atticae
supernatural, Etruscan priests became a class apart from their fellow
members of the sacred colleges. Whereas Roman priests were in effect A humorous scenario idea would be to allow a player character the
merely citizens who held a public office assumed via politics, Etruscans opportunity to be elected to the position of flamen, only then to lay upon
priests were specifically trained for the position. them the full horror of the sacred oaths and duties during their elevation
Their education took place in special institutes and took years of ceremony. Of course, the character could always refuse to swear, perhaps
laborious study. Much like an ancient university, they learned an eclectic fast talking their way out of the ‘honour’ with some long forgotten family
curriculum of both divine and secular knowledge. Particular subjects vow or publicly shaming themselves by revealing a hidden impropriety
included religious law, theology, astronomy, meteorology, zoology, orni- which makes them invalid for the post...
thology, botany and geology. In effect they were studying many of the life
sciences, save that it was inclined towards an application to divination.
They even learned the art of hydrology so as to be able to divine for Subsidiary fraternities called sodalitates preserved archaic rites
water, dig wells, excavate irrigation or drainage ditches, and even bore but were not strictly priests. These were the:
through hillsides to channel fresh water. Experts in such matters were
ΩΩ Luperci – two young patrician men who performed the
called aquivices. Other specialities were engineering and surveying.
Lupercalia
ΩΩ Arval Brethren – 12 men who enacted the rites of Dea Dia
“Romulus made a beginning with the foundation of the city. He had
ΩΩ The Salii – the 12 dancers of Mars
sent for men from Etruria to direct every action within the founding with
ΩΩ Fetiales – 20 men learned in the sacred declarations of war
certain sacred offerings and rules and to teach how it was prescripted in
or peace treaties
the Sacred Law.”
Plutarch – Life of Romulus Last, but by no means least, was a group of soothsayers called
haruspices. They came from Etruria and practiced haruspicy, which
Thus not only were Etruscan priests interpreters of divine will but is the examination of the entrails of sacrificed animals and birds,
they were also able to apply that will in practical ways, useful to society. and could interpret lightning too.
In many ways the Etruscan priesthood was not unlike the Celtic druids
of the same period. “We receive many further warnings from prodigies, from entrails, and a
number of other phenomena, of which a long experience has been so observant
as to have produced an art of divination.”
Cicero – De Divinatione
110 Ira furor brevis est – Anger is brief insanity (Horace)

However, the haruspices were regarded as individual specialists
and their Etruscan origins prevented harmonious integration into The Sibylline Books
the official hierarchy of Roman religion. Although they were first According to legend these sacred books (Fata Sibyllina) were orig-
introduced during Rome’s founding as a natural part of the influx inally written by the Cumaean Sibyl, who sold them to Tarquinius
of conquered and conquering peoples, haruspices never achieved Priscus, the fifth King of Rome.
independent political authority during the Republic, remaining pri-
marily as consultants for animal sacrifices. “they say that she [the Sibyl] brought nine books to the king Tarqui-
nius Priscus, and asked for them three hundred pieces of gold, and that
“Furthermore, Romulus ordered one soothsayer out of each tribe to be the king refused so great a price, and derided the madness of the woman;
present at the sacrifices. This soothsayer we call hieroskopos or “inspector that she, in the sight of the king, burnt three of the books, and demanded
of the vitals,” and the Romans, preserving something of the ancient name, the same price for those which were left; that Tarquinius much more
haruspex. He also made a law that all the priests and ministers of the gods considered the woman to be mad; and that when she again, having burnt
should be chosen by the curiae and that their election should be confirmed by three other books, persisted in asking the same price, the king was moved,
those who interpret the will of the gods by the art of divination.” and bought the remaining books for the three hundred pieces of gold:”
Dionysios of Halikarnassos – Roman Antiquites Lactantius quoting Varro – Institutiones Divinae
As time passed and religious law was superseded by secular law, During the very worst crises of the Republic, the senate would order
the authority of the priesthood slowly diminished. Since the respon- the consultation of the Sibylline Books by the priests of the Sacris Faci-
sibilities of the priesthood were heavy and some of the positions undis and act upon their recommendation. The books were considered so
required restrictive taboos, which forced the holders to lead tedious, important that their contents were held as secret and hidden within the
withdrawn lives, it was often difficult to find novices willing to fill sanctuary of the Temple of Jupiter atop the Capitoline Hill. Tragically
positions left open by the death of the previous holder. when the temple burned down in 83 BC, the books were also lost. Six
By the end of the Republic, the priesthood had become little years later, at the Senate’s order, envoys were sent across the empire to
more than a political office and many priests became lax in perform- compile a new collection of sibylline quotations.
ing their ritualistic duties. The terrible authority of the books was such that they were responsi-
ble for the introduction of new religious faiths, festivals and even human
sacrifices. Thus they would only be consulted during the very worst
Superstition times, to limit their proclivity for instituting cultural change.
(Superstitio)
The Romans believed in many things… divine blessings and
“…the severe winter was followed by a pestilential summer, which
proved fatal to man and beast. As neither a cause nor a cure could be
found for its fatal ravages, the senate ordered the Sibylline Books to be
infernal curses, good fortune and bad. The influx of foreign ideas consulted. The priests who had charge of them appointed for the first
with immigrants, over hundreds of years built up a huge eclectic time in Rome a lectisternium. Apollo and Latona, Diana and Hercules,
body of superstitious law. Mercury and Neptune were for eight days propitiated on three couches
Leading amongst these, the interpretation of extraordinary nat- decked with the most magnificent coverlets that could be obtained. Solem-
ural phenomena (prodigia) was introduced by the Etruscans, who nities were conducted also in private houses. It is stated that throughout
read omens (omina) in such things as lightning strikes, thunder claps the City the front gates of the houses were thrown open and all sorts
or rumblings of earthquakes. Certain days of the year – the dies atri of things placed for general use in the open courts, all comers, whether
– were considered unlucky. During them fires would not be lit, no acquaintances or strangers, being brought in to share the hospitality.
sacrifices made at altars and public worship was forbidden. Men who had been enemies held friendly and sociable conversations
There were two particular forms of the dies atri. The dies with each other and abstained from all litigation, the manacles even were
postriduani (the days after the Kalendae, Nonae and Ides of each removed from prisoners during this period, and afterwards it seemed an
month) were regarded as bad omens for beginning private activities, act of impiety that men to whom the gods had brought such relief should
business or journeys. The dies vitiosi were specific dates decreed by be put in chains again.”
the Senate to be unlucky, due to some historical disaster. Sometimes Livy – Ab Urbe Condita
these became regular additions to the annual calendar.
ΩΩ The 18th day of Quintilis (July) (after 477 BC), commemo-
interpret these occurrences and if considered harmful, decide on a
rating the defeat on the Allia River and the following sack of
method of placating the gods. In later times, some priests were not
Rome by the Gauls.
ΩΩ The 2nd day of Sextilis (August) (after 216 BC), when the above using them to make political gestures.
Romans were massacred by Hannibal at the Battle of Cannae.
ΩΩ The 6th of October (after 105 BC), the battle of Arausio “Numerous stories of portents filled men’s minds with superstitious ter-
rors. It was said that crows picked with their beaks some of the gold on the
where 80,000 Romans were annihilated by the combined
Capitol and actually ate it, and rats gnawed a golden crown at Antium.
tribes of the Cimbri and Teutoni.
The whole of the country round Capua was covered by an immense flight
Almost any unusual event was considered a portent or omen of locusts, and no one knew whence they had come. At Reate a foal was
by the Roman people. Extraordinary ones would be recorded in born with five feet; at Anagnia fiery meteors were seen in different parts of
the libri pontificales. It was the responsibility of the priesthood to the sky and these were followed by a huge blazing torch; at Frusino a thin
Laeti vescimur nos subacturis – We gladly feast on those who would subdue us (motto of The Addams Family)
111
bow encircled the sun, which afterwards grew to such a size that it extended animal (victima). The larger the request or more important the god,
beyond the bow; at Arpinum there was a subsidence of the ground and a vast the bigger the sacrifice required.
chasm was formed. Whilst one of the consuls was sacrificing, the liver of the Certain deities had specific types of animals they particularly
first victim was found to be without a head. These portents were expiated by favoured for explicit celebrations, such as rams for Janus. Even the
sacrifices of full-grown animals, the college of Pontiffs intimated the deities sex and colour of the animal was important. However, in times of
to whom they were to be offered.” want or poverty, symbolic sacrifices of lesser animals, or even cakes
Livy – Ab Urbe Condita shaped as cult specific animals could be made without fear of cen-
sure from the deity.
Crossing the threshold of a house right foot first, a snake drop-
ping from roof into your atrium, meeting a mule bearing the herb “Priapus, a large cup of milk and this libum bread is all you can expect
hipposelinum (used to decorate tombs), hearing a cock crow during each year, guardian of a pauper’s garden”
a dinner party, attending a banquet with an even number of people, Virgil – Eclogues
tripping over your own doorstep, or even spilling wine, water, or oil
were all considered premonitions of bad luck. Most sacrifices were either domestic rituals held in the home,
Some portents were somewhat more obvious, such as the crack- with the paterfamilias acting as the priest, or public sacrifices held
ing of a roof beam foretelling disaster, since even if the roof did not in the temples during festivals. A private sacrifice could be made at
immediately collapse, you would still have to pay for an expensive a temple too but this required attendance in the more serious attire
repair. of the toga, as well as a probable donation to the priests beyond the
Certain animals had associations with fortune. Black cats that cost of the animal to be offered.
entered your home, images of snakes and scorpions, and catching The ritual of a formal sacrifice took place at the god’s altar, next
sight of an owl (believed to be transformed witches), were all signs of to which was positioned a brazier or fireplace (focus). The fire was
impending calamity… whereas bees and eagles were the opposite. used as the receptacle for consumable offerings, i.e. incense, wine or
Poultry were often used to predict the outcome of battles and each food stuffs. Cleanliness was important. At the start of the ritual the
legion had a position called the ‘Keeper of the Sacred Chickens’. proprietor would cover their head in the folds of their toga (to dis-
play their piety) and wash their hands, before touching the altar and
“…will not even the instances in our own history teach us to acknowledge uttering their prayer. This was accompanied by a libation or burning
the power of the gods? Shall we remain unimpressed by the tale of the pre- of incense or cakes in the fire.
sumptuous conduct of Publius Claudius in the first Punic war, who, when the After these preparations, the main sacrifice would be made. The
sacred chickens, on being let out of the coop, refused to feed, ordered them to cleaned and decorated animal sacrifice (in ribbons or sometimes
be plunged into the water, that they might, as he said, drink, since they would partially gilded) would be consecrated to the god with either a sprin-
not eat? He only ridiculed the gods in jest, but the mockery cost him many a kling of salt and splash of wine (ritus Romanus), or similarly with
tear (for his fleet was utterly routed), and brought a great disaster upon the grain and water instead (ritus Graecus).
Roman people.”
Cicero – De Natura Deorum “Of old the means to win the goodwill of gods for man were spelt and
the sparkling grains of pure salt. As yet no foreign ship had brought across the
Even food was regarded with superstition. Garlic was consumed ocean waves the black-distilled myrrh; the Eufrates had sent no incense, India
in large quantities by soldiers and gladiators, since it was believed to no balm, and the red saffron’s filaments were still unknown. The altar was
bring strength. Cabbage was thought to prevent drunkenness and content to smoke with savine, and the laurel burned with crackling loud. To
even protect against pestilence. garlands woven of meadow flowers he who could violets add was rich indeed.
The knife that now lays bare the bowels of the slaughtered bull had in sacred
rites no work to do.”
Prayers, Sacrifices Ovid – Fasti
and Thanksgiving Once completed, the animal was then killed by a special butcher
(victimarius) by being bled (larger animals often necessitated a blow
(Vota, Supplicatio from a mallet to stun them first). If the animal showed panic then
it was considered a bad omen, requiring a new sacrifice to be done.
et Sacrificia) The carcass of the sacrifice was then opened and its entrails (exta)
examined for abnormalities by an assistant haruspex. If no anom-
Romans were constantly praying to their gods. Requests for good
alies were found, then the ritual was considered acceptable to the
luck, the return of stolen goods, favour in love, success in business
gods (litatio) and could proceed.
or battle or even calling curses upon others. In some cases prayers
The entrails of the beast would then be cooked (grilled or boiled)
were given in thanks for the perceived fortune that a god might have
and offered to the god being honoured. Chthonic deities had the
already granted… the survival of a sea crossing for example. There
offerings cast upon the ground or buried. Water deities had theirs
were few things for which a prayer would not be offered.
cast into an appropriate water source (sea, spring and so on). Other-
Prayers were almost always accompanied by a sacrifice or the
wise the offering was burned in the focus of the fire.
future promise of a greater donation, worthy of the deity’s generous
The remaining meat would then be served at the banquet (epu-
intervention. In most cases this was either an offering of sustenance
lum) after the sacrifice. This would be eaten by the priests and
– wine, milk, fruit, cakes and so forth – or a blood sacrifice of an
attendees as guests of the god, unless the ritual was held for a deity
112 Legum servi sumus ut liberi esse possimus – We are slaves of the laws in order that we may be able to be free (Cicero)
of the underworld – in which case it was forbidden (or
simply unwise) to share a feast dedicated to a god con-
nected with death.
Although this was the general method of making
sacrifices, other deities often had their own idiosyn-
crasies. Flowers for the goddess Flora for example
would not be burned but used as decorations for her
temple instead. Sometimes musical instruments would
be played as part of the ceremony, often to cover the
secret words uttered during the ritual.
Any sacrifice which had failed due to the distress of
the animal or the pollution of its entrails required an
additional sacrifice to ward off the anger of the god.
Only if this was successful could the original sacrifice
be repeated.
Greater sacrifices than cult animals were rare,
reserved to show proper reverence for gods which had
brought about some great intercession on behalf of
the worshipper. These material offerings were called
donaria and could take the form of a statue, a work of
art, or in some cases a new altar or entire new temple.
reaching their 20th or 21st year to found a new colony. Rome how-
Generals often made mighty oaths to deities which
ever was more merciful; both recorded times the Romans vowed a
brought them victory on the battlefield. Such declarations – if made
ver sacrum, the oath was confined to the sacrifice of only animals.
publicly – could strengthen the failing morale of an army. The
donaria usually took the form of a new temple, or the presentation
“The Sabini, since they had long been at war with the Ombrici, vowed
of a large share of the spolia won on the battlefield.
(just as some of the Greeks do) to dedicate everything that was produced that
year; and, on winning the victory, they partly sacrificed and partly dedicated
“In the middle of it all the consul, raising his hands towards heaven and
all that was produced; then a dearth ensued, and some one said that they ought
speaking in a loud voice so that he might be well heard, vowed a temple to
to have dedicated the babies too; this they did, and devoted to Mars all the
Jupiter Stator if the Roman army stayed its flight and renewed the battle and
children born that year; and these children, when grown to manhood, they sent
defeated and slew the Samnites. All officers and men, infantry and cavalry
away as colonists, and a bull led the way;”
alike, exerted themselves to the utmost to restore the battle. Even the divine
Strabo – Geography
providence seemed to have looked with favour on the Romans, so easily did
matters take a favourable turn.”
Everything the Romans did as part of religious rituals was
Livy – Ab Urbe Condita
intensely formulaic. The slightest mistake would force the entire rit-
ual to be performed again from the start. Eventually even some of
Divine blessings took a slightly different form than normal
the language used became obscure, so that the participants were no
prayers. The ritual of lustration was given by sprinkling pure water
longer sure exactly what they were intoning.
over the objects or persons to be protected, accompanied by the dis-
play of foliage and burning of herbs. Lustrations were commonly
used for purifying fields of crops or flocks of livestock – warding Human Sacrifice
them from disease and evil magic. Even the Roman army was
blessed in such a manner each time they took the field against an (Humana Hostia)
enemy. Despite Rome’s later reputation for civilised behaviour, it was
Beyond traditional offerings, there were a number of extraordi- in many ways no different than the cultures which surrounded it.
nary sacrifices made at times of apparent divine anger, when Rome The city had a long history of ritual human sacrifice. Indeed, Rome
was facing destruction. can be viewed as somewhat hypocritical in its justification of the
The lectisternium and sellisternium were peculiar banquets held final annihilation of Carthage, based in part on the Carthaginians
specifically for the gods. Male gods had couches and food provided practice of human sacrifice, since it was not until 97 BC that the
for them throughout the city, whereas female deities were provided practice was officially banned by law in Rome; although this did not
with chairs instead; hence the two different names for the same completely stop the act from continuing to occur, even up to the end
ritual. of the Republic.
The penultimate sacrifice was the ver sacrum, a common custom A human sacrifice was the ultimate offering that could be made
amongst the early city-states, where everything born the following to the gods but only to those of the underworld (dii inferni) rather
spring is promised as a sacrifice to the gods. This was only done than the celestial deities (dii consentes).
in the direst of circumstances. Although this vow included baby The earliest Roman laws from the Twelve Tablets had a form of
children too, the custom was eventually changed so that any infants punishment where a man who had broken his oaths, defrauded his
were allowed to grow up but were then driven out of the city upon clients or moved boundary markers was considered to have broken
the sacrosanct rules of society and would be declared sacer; that is,
Laudatur ab his, culpatu ab illis – He’s praised by these and blamed by those (Horace)
113
“given to the gods”. Rather than a blessing, this was in fact a terrible as a sort of ritual observance. The true cause I am unable to state, inasmuch
curse, which removed the man from the protection of society. In as the Sibyl made no utterance and there was no other similar oracle, but at
effect, his life was now dedicated to the deities of the underworld any rate they were sacrificed in the Campus Martius by the Pontifices and the
and he could be abused or even killed by any person with no fear of priest of Mars, and their heads were set up near the Regia.”
reprisal or censure. With such chastisements, it is unsurprising that Cassius Dio – Roman History
the Romans of the early Republic placed so much importance in
honesty and personal integrity. Not all sacrifices were instigated by the senate. The rite of devo-
Further hints of early human sacrifice were entwined with two tio was the dedication of oneself to the manes. It was most famously
annual festivals. The first was the Feriae Latinatae held at the end of performed by Roman generals, who had offer themselves to the gods
April, where puppets were hung in trees in exchange for the previous and then charge headlong into the enemy. This courageous death
practice of sacrificing young boys. The second was a processional would then ensure victory.
ceremony held on the ides of May (See Festivals page 115), when the
Vestal Virgins would cast rush puppets (argei) into the River Tiber “In like manner as I have uttered this prayer so do I now on behalf of the
from the Pons Sublicius (the first bridge in Rome) in substitution for commonwealth of the Quirites, on behalf of the army, the legions, the auxil-
the original practice of throwing in old men. iaries of the Roman People, the Quirites, devote the legions and auxiliaries of
the enemy, together with myself to the Divine Manes and to Earth.” After this
“...he [Hercules] taught them to appease the anger of the god by making prayer he ordered the lictors to go to T. Manlius and at once announce to his
effigies resembling the men they had been wont to bind hand and foot and colleague that he had devoted himself on behalf of the army. He then girded
throw into the stream of the Tiber, and dressing these in the same manner, to himself with the Gabinian cincture, and in full armour leaped upon his horse
throw them into the river instead of the men…” and dashed into the middle of the enemy. To those who watched him in both
Dionysios of Halikarnassos – Roman Antiquites armies, he appeared something awful and superhuman, as though sent from
heaven to expiate and appease all the anger of the gods and to avert destruction
The first record of people being directly sacrificed to the gods from his people and bring it on their enemies. All the dread and terror which he
began in the monarchy. When King Servius expanded the city walls, carried with him threw the front ranks of the Latins into confusion which soon
four human sacrifices were buried beneath the old pomerium, which spread throughout the entire army. This was most evident, for wherever his
encircled the Palatine Hill, to placate the gods over the enlargement horse carried him they were paralysed as though struck by some death-dealing
of the sacred boundaries of the city. star; but when he fell, overwhelmed with darts, the Latin cohorts, in a state
Most human sacrifices were authorised by the state. In times of of perfect consternation, fled from the spot and left a large space clear. The
dire portents a Vestal Virgin was sometimes accused of breaking her Romans, on the other hand, freed from all religious fears, pressed forward as
vow of chastity (being used as a scapegoat), whereupon they would though the signal was then first given and commenced a great battle.”
be buried alive not only as a punishment but more importantly as Livy – Ab Urbe Condita
propitiation to the manes, the spirits of the dead.
On several occasions (228 BC, 216 BC and 113 BC) the Sibyl- A devotio offering was akin to the Greek idea of the scapegoat;
line Books demanded human sacrifices to the dii inferni. Each time, a single man volunteering to absorb all misfortunes and then will-
a pair of Gauls and a pair of Greeks were buried alive under the ingly sacrificing himself so that he carries the calamities away with
Forum Boarium. him. The act of offering oneself in this way brought great honour
and reward to the family of the dead man. Sometimes however, the
“Thereupon a barbarian slave of a certain equestrian gave information willing volunteer was blessed by the gods and failed to actually die.
against three Vestal Virgins, Aemilia, Licinia, and Marcia, that they had In such circumstances an alternative sacrifice was made, in the same
all been corrupted at about the same time, and that they had long entertained manner as the argei puppets mentioned previously.
lovers, one of whom was Vetutius Barrus, the informer’s master. The Vestals,
accordingly, were convicted and punished; but, since the deed was plainly atro- “I ought to add here that a consul or dictator or prætor, when he devotes
cious, it was resolved that the priests should consult the Sibylline books. They the legions of the enemy, need not necessarily devote himself but may select any
say that oracles were found foretelling that these events would come to pass for one he chooses out of a legion that has been regularly enrolled. If the man who
the bane of the Romans, and enjoining on them that, to avert the impending has been so devoted is killed, all is considered to have been duly performed. If
disaster, they should offer as a sacrifice to certain strange and alien spirits two he is not killed, an image of the man, seven feet high at least, must be buried
Greeks and two Gauls, buried alive on the spot.” in the earth and a victim slain as an expiatory sacrifice”
Plutarch – Roman Questions Livy – Ab Urbe Condita
Such sacrifices did not stop even in the late Republic. When Last, but by no means least, were the gladiatorial combats.
rebellious soldiers of Julius Caesar attempted an insurrection in Although these eventually devolved into mere entertainment, they
Rome, the dictator, acting as the Pontifex Maximus, ordered their began as a serious religious observance, with volunteer participants
sacrifice in the Campus Martius at the hands of the Pontifices and shedding blood to the spirits of the dead. Even though the original
Flamen Martialis. intention of these fights was not death, fatalities were an accepted
part of the ceremonies.
“In fact they did not cease their rioting until Caesar suddenly came upon
them, and seizing one man with his own hands, delivered him up to punish-
ment. So this man was executed for the reason given, and two others were slain
114 Major e longinquo reverentia – Viewed from a distance, everything is beautiful (Tacitus)
Eventually, almost every day of the year was sacred to one god
The Disciplina Etrusca or another and some days held significance for two or more deities
The origins of Etruscan religious and divinatory knowledge were simultaneously. In consideration of space, a foreshortened list of the
supposedly a gift from a genius loci, which appeared whilst a founding most important festivals of the monarchy and early Republic follow.
father of the Etruscan nation was ploughing near Tarquini. The dates of the religious games, the ludi, are separately listed on
page 76.
“One day in a field near the river Marta in Teruria, from a newly
ploughed furrow rose up a divine being with the appearance of a child,
but with the wisdom of an old man. The startled cry of the ploughman
The Cycle of the Dead
Lemuria – 9th, 11th and 13th May. Propitiations made to the
brought the priest-kings hurrying to the spot. To them the wise child,
lemurs, the ‘hungry ghosts’ of dead family members who were con-
Tages, chanted the sacred doctrine, which they reverently wrote down so
sidered dangerous and harboured ill-intent. During the nights of
that this most precious possession could be passed on to their successors.
the Lemuria, the paterfamilias would rise at midnight, wash himself
Immediately after the revelation, the miraculous being fell dead and dis-
clean and then barefoot and loose robed, walk through the house
appeared into the ploughed field.”
spitting black beans from his mouth. Then chanting “with these
Cicero – De Divinatione
beans I redeem me and mine” he would wash his hands a second
time whilst the lemures supposedly collected the beans in preference
The compiled religious and divinatory law was written in a number
to the souls of the living. Once cleansed a second time he would
of collected books known to the Romans as the Disciplina Etrusca.
clang bronze household instruments together and walk through the
Each text was a separate body of sacred information, written on its
house chanting “Paternal ghosts, get out.”
own set of scrolls. The entire collection must have been the equivalent
Rite of the Argei – 15th May. The purification ceremony when
of a small library in itself.
the Vestal Virgins, led by Pontifex Maximus, threw rush puppets into
ΩΩ The Libri Haruspicini dwelt upon methods of divination using the the Tiber.
entrails of sacrificed animals. Mundus Patet – 24th August, 5th October, and 8th November.
ΩΩ The Libri Fulgurates concerned the portents revealed by thunder Three times a year, the mundus (a vaulted ritual pit located in the
and lightning. Comitium on the Palatine Hill) was opened by removing its stone
ΩΩ The Libri Rituales dealt with ritual knowledge such as consecra- slab cover (lapis) and an offering of fresh fruits lowered within.
tion of altars, shrines and temples, the founding of cities, blessing During these days the gates of the underworld were considered to
of defensive walls, divisions of the people and organisation of be opened and ghosts were free to walk the streets of Rome. No
festivals. military or public matters were permitted when the ‘gates of Orcus’
ΩΩ The Libri Fatales explained the measuring of time and the lifespan (ostia Orci) were open.
of individuals and peoples.
ΩΩ The Libri Acherontici illustrated the underworld and rituals needed “When the mundus is open, it is as if a door stands open for the sorrowful
to guide the soul to the proper afterlife. gods of the underworld.”
ΩΩ The Libri Ostentaria defined the rules for interpreting portents Macrobius quoting Varro
(including prognostication from trees) and described the propitiatory
and expiatory acts needed to placate the gods. Parentalia – 13th to 21st February. A privately celebrated fes-
ΩΩ The Libri Tagetici further prophesies of Tages, the source of tival when families honoured their ancestral dead, processing to the
Etruscan knowledge. tombs of relatives bringing gifts of wine, water, milk, honey, oil, salt,
ΩΩ The Libri Vegoritici contained cosmic prophesies made by the black coloured cakes (shaped as sacrificial victims) to nourish the
nymph Vegoia. dead souls, and also flowers with which to decorate their mausole-
ΩΩ The Liber Linteus described the calendar rituals of the year. ums. During Parentalia all temples were closed, no fires burned on
the altars, marriages were forbidden and the magistrates laid aside
their insignia.
Roman Festivals
Feralia – 21st February. A public festival which marked the
end of Parentalia. It involved the placating sacrifice of sheep to the
(Feriae)
manes in general.
During the Republic special holy days (the dies feriae), were
assigned as religious festivals to show devotion to the gods of the
The Cycle of War
Feriae Marti – 1st March. The beginning of the new year. Fes-
state (cultus civiles). On many of these days no legal business could tival in honour of Mars, where the Salii dressed in ancient armour,
be performed, only religious rites. Thus they slowly transformed into processed around Rome dancing, leaping and chanting ancient
holidays where those who could afford to performed pious rituals hymns.
and took a day of rest. Equiria – 14th March. Dedication of cavalry horses to Mars,
Since the religious beliefs of the early Romans centred on the followed by horse races held on the Campus Martius.
concepts of death and purification, war and agriculture – their orig- Quinquatrus – 19th to 23rd March. The purification of the
inal festivals reflected these important aspects of their lives. As time sacred shields (ancilae) by the Salii, followed by a sacrifice to Mars
passed however, more deities were given sacred dates in the calendar and an accompanying feast. Also celebrated was the Minervalia in
and the primary purpose was lost amid a clutter of contesting faiths.
Mali principii malus finis – The bad end of a bad beginning

115
of ivy upon their heads sat at all parts of the city with cakes, which
The Salii they burned in sacrifice on braziers for anyone who purchased them.
The Salii were a lesser priesthood (sodalitas) comprised of two Cerialia – 12th to 19th April. Festival in honour of Ceres.
groups of 12 men, the Palatini (devoted to Mars) and the Collini Women wore white and carried lit torches on the streets to represent
(devoted to Quirinus). Only patricians with both parents living were the goddess’s search for her lost daughter Proserpina. Offerings of
permitted to join the order. The religious garb of the Salii was a very old salt, flour, incense, pine branches, milk, honey or wine were made on
style of military dress: a colourfully painted or dyed tunic (tunica picta), the private alters (lararium) of the home. For the entire duration of
a bronze breast plate and a short military cloak with scarlet stripes and the festival it was forbidden to engage in sexual relations.
a purple border. On their heads they wore a conical helmet (apex) and Fordicidia – 15th April. The sacrifice of pregnant cows in hon-
carried spears. The most important part of their gear however was the our of Tellus, goddess of Earth. The unborn calves are taken from
shield (ancile) shaped roughly like a figure-8. the womb, burned on the sacred flame of Vesta and the ashes saved
According to myth, Jupiter dropped a shield from heaven as a gift by the Virgins for the following festival of Parilia.  
to Numa, the second king of Rome. Afraid that it would be stolen, Parilia – 21st April. A purification festival held in honour of
Numa had a smith forge 11 identical copies (so no one would know the Pales, goddess of the herds. A public ceremony was held by the Ves-
divine one) and stored them in the Regia. With them were also stored tal Virgins who built a sacred fire into which were thrown bean husks
the spears of Mars, which were said to foretell disaster when they shook and the October horse blood and calf ashes previously saved. In
spontaneously. Legendarily, the spears were said to have shaken the night the countryside the pens of herd animals were cleaned and ritually
before Julius Caesar was assassinated. purified with the smoke of burning sulphur, rosemary and fir wood,
The Salii were a vital component of most of the ancient festivals after which the animals were blessed with a lustration. The cere-
dedicated to Mars and Quirinus. Their task was to perform war dances monies finished with a bonfire through which the flocks and their
in honour of their gods, whilst chanting hymns. The spectacle of fully shepherds were then driven three times, accompanied by the music
armed, leaping dancers demonstrated the vitality and splendour of of flutes and cymbals, to protect them from predators, sickness and
Rome’s military prowess but must have been a terrible test of the priest’s starvation. This date was also the anniversary of the birth of Rome
endurance, where failure to perform the dance correctly (or energetically (Roma condita).
enough) could have been publicly viewed as a failure to invoke the bless- Vinalia – 23rd April. Libations of the first wines of the year
ings of the gods… offered to Jupiter and a lamb offered by Flamen Dialis in order to
ward off the frosts that kill new vine shoots.
Robigalia – 25th April. Propitiation to Robigus, god of blight
honour of the dedications of the temples to Minerva, another war and rust to protect the crops. It involved the sacrifice of a red
goddess. coloured dog and a sheep by the Flamen Quirinalis at the fifth mile
Tubilustrium – 23rd March. The lustration of the war trum- on the Via Claudia, where there was a sacred grove.
pets (tubae) calling upon Mars to sanctify them before the start of
the campaigning season. “Spare Ceres’ grain, O scabby Robigo, let the tips of new shoots sway
Equus Octobris – 15th October. The sacrifice of the October gently above the earth, let growing crops be nourished… keep your scaly hands
horse to Mars, followed by a traditional fight over possession of the from the harvest… Grip harsh iron rather than the tender wheat, Destroy
decapitated head. The tail of the horse was soaked in its blood and whatever can destroy others first. Better to gnaw at swords and harmful
carried to the temple of Vesta, where it was preserved by the Virgins spears”
for use in the festival of Parilia. Ovid – Fasti
“It was called the October Horse, the one harnessed on the right of the Floralia – 28th April to 3rd May. A festival honouring Flora,
winning chariot, because it is burned in sacrifice to Mars in October every year who brought crops into flower. Animals blessed with great fertility,
in the Campus Martius; over this horse’s head there is no small contest between such as rabbits or deer, were released into the Forum Romanum.
the Suburans and the people on the Sacra Via, so that the latter can affix it on During the festivities people would wear flower garlands and women
the wall of the Regia, and the former on the Mamilian tower.” dressed in their brightest coloured clothes.
Festus – De Uerborum Significatu Consualia – 21st August. Celebrated the completed harvest and
the granary deity Consus. The Pontifex Maximus and Vestal Virgins
Armilustrium – 19th October. The purification by the Salii would remove the soil covering his temple in the Circus Maximus
of the armaments of the mustered legions before they were placed and sacrifice fruits upon his altar prior to refilling the city’s grain
back into storage. This festival marked the end of the campaigning storage vaults located there. All animals which laboured were rested
season for the year. on this day and decorated with garlands.
Opiconsivia – 25th August. Festival honouring the wife of Con-
The Agrarian Cycle sus. The Vestal Virgins and the Pontifex Maximus (also dressed in
the vestments and veil like the priestesses) held rites in her shrine in
The fecundity festivals were primarily grouped around three
periods of the year: March/April, the months of birthing, sprouting, the Regia to give thanks for the fertility of the soil. Originally the
and flowering, August, the month of harvesting and December, the rites were performed in the main granary.
month of planting/sowing. Consualia – 15th December. A fertility festival started by
Liberalia – 17th March. Festival of Liber and Libera the god Romulus, commemorating the rape and insemination of the Sabine
and goddess of generative functions. Old women wearing wreaths women.
116 Malum est consilium quod mutari non potest – A plan that cannot be changed is bad (Publilius Syrus)
Saturnalia – 17th December. The festival of Saturn was cele-
brated after the vintage and harvesting was complete but before the
onset of full winter. It started with a sacrifice of young pigs to Saturn
and then continued with feasting and unrestrained merrymaking. It
also included exchanging presents and offering sacrifices. Masters
served their slaves as a token of the equality of rank. By the end of
the Republic the festival had been extended to three days in length.
Opalia – 19th December. Festival in honour of Ops, the goddess
of plenty and wife of Saturn.
Lupercalia – 15th February. A fertility and purification ritual
sacred to Faunus. It began with a sacrifice of goats and a dog in the
Lupercal cave on the Palentine Hill, the blood was daubed onto the
faces of two young boys of patrician families dressed only in goat-
skin aprons (the luperci). Carrying strips of leather in their hands,
the boys would then run around the city and whip young women
waiting along the way to increase their fertility.
Forbidden Religions
and Rites (Cultus
Illiciti)
Despite being a conservative society, Rome was surprisingly
open-minded about the introduction of new deities. Religious tol-
erance was a fundamental keystone of Roman life. Yet, even the
Romans had their limits when religion began to threaten social
order. with suspicion due to their secretive nature and initiation rites. Such
At least three religions were officially suppressed during the closed cults were considered gathering points for the seditious by
Republic. the Senate and genuinely feared as sources of rebellion or social
Foremost amongst these were the proscriptions passed by the corruption.
Senate in 186 BC against the worshippers of Bacchus, the Roman The next religion which faced censure was that of Cybele, the
god of wine. The bacchanals of the cult had grown into excesses of great mother. Although the rites were not secretive like those of Bac-
pleasure, involving uninhibited inebriation, dancing, and perverse chus, they still embraced what was considered improper behaviour
sexual acts. Not only were these celebrations morally abhorrent to in Roman society.
the majority of Roman citizens but leaders of the cult had organised
their worshippers (bacchanales) into a syndicate of crime. “The rites of the Idaean goddess are a case in point; for the prætors
perform sacrifices and celebrated games in her honour every year according to
“Nor was the mischief confined to the promiscuous intercourse of men and the Roman customs, but the priest and priestess of the goddess are Phrygians,
women; false witness, the forging of seals and testaments, and false informa- and it is they who carry her image in procession through the city, begging alms
tion, all proceeded from the same source, as also poisonings and murders of in her name according to their custom, and wearing figures upon their breasts
families where the bodies could not even be found for burial. Many crimes were and striking their timbrels while their followers play tunes upon their flutes in
committed by treachery; most by violence, which was kept secret, because the honour of the Mother of the Gods. But by a law and decree of the senate no
cries of those who were being violated or murdered could not be heard owing native Roman walks in procession through the city arrayed in a parti-coloured
to the noise of drums and cymbals.” robe, begging alms or escorted by flute-players, or worships the god with the
Livy – Ab Urbe Condita Phrygian ceremonies.”
Dionysios of Halikarnassos – Roman Antiquites
The outrages of the cult became so great that the Senate was
forced to act. They issued orders that anyone initiated into the cult Although these displays were thought of as lacking decorum,
was to be imprisoned, whereas those who had performed criminal worse still were the extremes of religious enthusiasm inspired by
or murderous acts were to be put to death. They then published an Cybele’s worship, which included voluntary self-mutilation. Indeed,
edict forbidding any one to sell or buy anything for the purpose of to become a priest of her faith (Galli) required the advocate to cas-
flight or to receive, harbour, or in any way assist those who fled. Ulti- trate himself with a flint knife.
mately, over 7,000 people were implicated in the plot, the majority
of whom were executed or committed suicide, after which all the “He tore at his body too with a sharp stone, And dragged his long hair
bacchanalian shrines in Italy were destroyed. in the filthy dust, Shouting: ‘I deserved this. I pay the due penalty In blood.
The Bacchanalia were the first of a series of mystery cults that Ah. Let the parts that harmed me, perish. Let them perish.’ Cutting away
gradually infiltrated Roman society. They were generally regarded the burden of his groin, and suddenly bereft of every mark of manhood. His
Malum quidem nullum esse sine aliquo bono – There is, to be sure, no evil without something good (Pliny the Elder)
117
madness set a precedent, and his unmanly servants toss their hair, and cut off were built outside the pomerium (i.e. outside the sacred area within
their members as if worthless…” the city walls).
Ovid – Fasti The Senate continued their suppression of the cult, placing accu-
sations of licentiousness and orgies against it. Eventually, in 50 BC
Such acts were severely dealt with. Slaves who mutilated them- the consul L. Aemilius Paulus was forced to doff his toga and begin
selves in this manner were transported overseas away from the city. the destruction of her temples himself when the plebeian workforce
Citizens who did the same were no longer considered men and were refused to follow his orders.
unable to benefit from the law in the courts. Again the temples were rebuilt and, in 48 BC, the Senate decreed
The third restricted religion was the Egyptian cult of Isis and that they be destroyed again. This time, an adjoining temple to Bel-
Serapis. These gods were introduced to Rome around the time of lona (a female god of war) was accidentally pulled down during the
the consulship of Lucius Cornelius Sulla and soon became popular demolition, leading to a rather grisly discovery…
amongst the plebeians and slaves – especially women. Eventually the
city possessed dozens of shrines dedicated to them. Thus it was fear “Among other things that happened toward the end of that year [48 BC]
that the cult could be used for political ends, religiously unifying the bees settled on the Capitol beside the statue of Hercules. Sacrifices to Isis
under-classes, which caused its persecution. chanced to be going on there at the time, and the soothsayers gave their opinion
Claiming the cult of Isis and Serapis was causing a loss of piety to the effect that all precincts of that goddess and of Serapis should be razed
towards the traditional Roman deities, the Senate initially ordered to the ground once more. In the course of their demolition a shrine of Bellona
Isis’s cult statue to be removed from the Capitoline hill in 58 BC. was unwittingly destroyed and in it were found jars full of human flesh…”
Then in 53 BC the Senate forbade private worship of the goddess Cassius Dio – Roman History
and ordered her shrines be destroyed. In retaliation, new sanctuaries
Eventually acknowledging defeat, the second Triumvirate
granted the cult official sanction and ordered a temple to be built at
the state’s expense.
The Bachanalia
The rites of Bacchus were initially benign celebrations held only by
Philosophy
women, led by a matron of respected character three times a year. The
religion was supposedly debased by the teachings of a low born Greek
in Etruria who was “a hedge-priest and wizard, not one of those who
imbue men’s minds with error by professing to teach their superstitions
openly for money, but a hierophant of secret nocturnal mysteries.” These
(Philosophia)
Roman philosophy was based upon ideas imported from the
mysteries became so popular that the cult and their shrines spread across Greeks, following Rome’s imperialistic meddling in their constant
the length and breadth of Italy. wars. Several schools of philosophy were introduced during the later
By the second century BC the religion had become completely cor- half of the second century BC; most notably those of Pythagorean-
rupted and performed many depravities, up to and including human ism, Stoicism, Epicureanism and Scepticism.
sacrifice. To the Roman mind, religion was concerned with the relation-
ships between man and the Gods, whilst philosophy was primarily
“At the same time she made the rite a nocturnal one, and instead concerned with the relationships between men. It provided a guide
of three days in the year celebrated it five times a month. When once to how one should live one’s life and even though philosophy usually
the mysteries had assumed this promiscuous character, and men were encouraged rationalistic thinking, they also allowed for the supernat-
mingled with women with all the licence of nocturnal orgies, there was ural and were therefore compatible with the rituals and practices of
no crime, no deed of shame, wanting. More uncleanness was wrought the Roman religion.
by men with men than with women. Whoever would not submit to
defilement, or shrank from violating others, was sacrificed as a victim. “This is the difference between us [philosophers] and the Etruscans, who
To regard nothing as impious or criminal was the very sum of their have consummate skill in interpreting lightning: we think that because clouds
religion. The men, as though seized with madness and with frenzied collide, lightning is emitted; but they think the clouds collide in order that
distortions of their bodies, shrieked out prophecies; the matrons, dressed lightning may be emitted.”
as Bacchae, their hair dishevelled, rushed down to the Tiber with burn- Seneca – Quaestiones naturales
ing torches, plunged them into the water, and drew them out again, the
flame undiminished, as they were made of sulphur mixed with lime. Eventually it was the rival philosophies of Stoicism and Epicure-
Men were fastened to a machine and hurried off to hidden caves, and anism that grew in popularity and provided the foundation of cor-
they were said to have been rapt away by the gods; these were the men rect Roman behaviour.
who refused to join their conspiracy or take a part in their crimes or sub-
mit to pollution. They [the bacchanales] formed an immense multitude,
almost equal to the population of Rome; amongst them were members
Stoicism (Stoica Ratio)
Perhaps the most important philosophy of Republican Rome
of noble families both men and women. It had been made a rule for the
was Stoicism, which seemed to embrace the traditional Roman vir-
last two years that no one more than twenty years old should be initiated;
tue of virtus meaning ‘manliness’ or ‘toughness’.
they captured those to be deceived and polluted.”
The central concept of Stoicism was logos – the rational order of
the universe. The Stoics argued that nature was a system designed
118 Manus manum lavat – One hand washes the other (Petronius)
by the divinities and believed that humans should strive to live in demonstrated his ability to construct opposing arguments on a
accordance with nature. Thus they taught that one can achieve famous trip to Rome, as part of an Athenian embassy.
freedom and tranquillity only by becoming insensitive to material
comforts and external fortune and by dedicating oneself to a life of “This Carneades, when he had been sent by the Athenians as ambassador
virtue and wisdom. to Rome, disputed copiously on the subject of justice, in the hearing of Galba
In practical terms, Stoicism led to the embracing of an austere and Cato, who had been censor, who were at that time the greatest of orators.
lifestyle, upholding the law and not to complain about adversity. But on the next day the same man overthrew his own argument by a disputa-
During the mid-Republic such things were already a natural part of tion to the contrary effect, and took away the justice which he had praised on
society and required no external philosophies to reinforce. As Rome the preceding day”
grew in wealth and started to embrace indolent lifestyles, Stoicism Lactantius – Divine Institutes
grew increasingly important as a method of resisting corrupting
influences from foreign territories. Vergil’s epic poem the Aeneid Unfortunately, this scientific display of rhetoric shocked the
concerning the founding of Rome epitomises the qualities of Sto- Roman sense of ‘sincerity’ and, as a result of that, Cato banned all
icism, reflecting its popularity at the time. Greek philosophers (albeit temporarily) from the city.
Somewhat more esoteric than Stoicism or Epicureanism, the
Epicureanism (Schola school of Scepticism never really flourished as its own school during
the Republic but its philosophical concepts were gradually incorpo-
Epicurea) rated into rhetoric schooling and thereby wormed itself into Roman
society.
“Harvest the day, trusting as little as possible in tomorrow.”
Horace – Odes Pythagoreanism (Schola
Unlike its rival Stoicism, Epicureanism advocated the existence Pythagorea)
of ‘free will’. Its objective was to promote happiness by removing the Pythagoreanism combined ethical, supernatural and mathemati-
fear of death. Its founder Epicurus, maintained that natural science cal beliefs with many ascetic rules, such as obedience, silence, refrain-
was important only when applied in making practical decisions that ing from sensual pleasures and simplicity of dress and possessions.
helped people achieve the maximum amount of pleasure, which he They believed in the transmigration of the soul, which when
identified with gentle motion and the absence of pain. released by death would reincarnate into a succession of animal bod-
Epicureanism also embraced the idea that the gods were neu- ies before regaining the form of a human. Because of this Pythag-
tral and did not involve themselves in human affairs. This radical oreans were vegetarian, eating no meat and somewhat strangely
concept planted the seeds which eventually developed into atheism. refused to consume beans also. A pure and simplistic life would allow
this cycle to be broken, freeing the soul to reside with the gods.
“If God is willing to prevent evil, but is not able to, then He is not omnip- Pythagoreans viewed the world from the perspective of math-
otent. If He is able, but not willing then He is malevolent. If He is both able ematics, musical theory, and astronomy – and thus tried to live in
and willing then whence cometh evil? If He is neither able nor willing then harmony with the insights brought by these sciences. In the 1st cen-
why call Him God?” tury BC Publius Nigidius Figulus famed as both a philosopher and
Riddle of Epicurus magus, revived the doctrines of Pythagoras in Rome, leading to the
start of Neo-Pythagoreanism.
In time, the teachings of Epicureanism began to undermine
several keystones of Roman society. Firstly that one should live an
ascetic life and secondly the public belief in the gods. Both these
trends became extremely worrying to the more traditional members
of the Senate, who imposed various sumptuary laws to prevent what
they saw as the moral decline of the Republic.
The popularity of Epicureanism reached a new high with the
Philosophies as Passions
Roman characters are permitted to take a philosophy as a Passion,
publication of De Rerum Natura (On the Nature of Things) written
as part of character creation, page 133. They may use their philosophy
by the Roman poet Lucretius in the 1st century BC.
to subvert the normal mores of Roman customs or to resist the influence
of others. For example a Skeptic may substitute their Skepticism passion
Skepticism (Sceptica Ratio) for Insight when seeing through the lies of another or a stoic could sub-
The school of Skepticism embraced the questioning of objec- stitute their Stoicism passion for Willpower or Endurance when over-
tive knowledge, using logic as a powerful critical device, to skilfully coming physical privation. As always the Games Master has final say
undermine any positive philosophical view. on whether the Passion has relevance in that situation and it should be
Sceptics insisted that wisdom consisted in awareness of the extent remembered that the same passion will restrict the behaviour of charac-
of one’s own ignorance. They believed that the way to tranquillity ters so as not to act outside the bounds of their philosophy.
and fulfilment lies in a complete suspension of judgment of things
which one has no true knowledge of.
Carneades, a Skeptic in the mid-2nd century BC was famous
for his ability to oppose Stoic arguments and is said to have
Mater artium necessitas – Necessity is the mother of invention (Apuleius)

119
Time (Tempus)
Romans, like all ancient peoples, had great difficulties with keep-
inclusively; i.e. you start counting by saying the current day as day
1, rather than assigning tomorrow as the first as we do in modern
times.
ing track of time, whether the hours of the day or the number of Market days are considered dies fasti (see Calendars page 121).
days in the year. The whole problem of seasonal slippage was orig-
inally dealt with by the kings during the monarchy. With the advent
of the Republic, the problem was passed onto the priests instead,
Months & Dates
making it a religious duty, which often caused difficulties when the
serving Pontiffs and Flamens were lax in performing their tasks.
(Menses et Dies)
Originally at its foundation under Romulus, the Roman year
Roman timekeeping is rather unusual and very confusing. From possessed only 10 lunar months, each one starting at the new moon.
a modern perspective they lacked accurate clocks (horologia), orig- However, this lunar calendar became badly out of synch with the
inally kept a lunar calendar, did not use numbers for dates in a solar year. Thus the second king of Rome, Numa Pompilius, added
month, and noted years by the names of the reigning consuls. two further months, Ianuarius and Februarius.
“We have two measures of time, one annual which the sun bounds by its “When Rome’s founder established the calendar. He determined there’d be
circuit, the other monthly which the moon embraces as it circles.” ten months in every year. You knew more about swords than stars, Romulus,
Varro – De Re Rustica surely, since conquering neighbours was your chief concern.”
Ovid – Fasti
Using authentic times and dates can emphasise the atmosphere
of a campaign, so the concepts of Roman timekeeping are carefully Despite the two extra months, the year was still 10¼ days too
explained below. short. Therefore an intercalary period (intercalans) of 22 or 23 days
was introduced. This was known as Mercedonius and was inserted
Hours of the Day (Horae) after the 23rd of February on alternate years. This somewhat com-
The hour (hora) of the day was calculated using sun dials (solar- plex system was under the jurisdiction of the Pontiffs and was fre-
ium). The day was broken into 12 equal parts and the same for the quently mishandled until the calendar eventually fell three months
night. This had the interesting effect that the duration of an hour out of synch with the seasons.
varied between summer and winter. A midsummer daylight hour
Roman Months
lasted 75½ minutes, and a midwinter one 44½ minutes.
Of course determining the time when it was cloudy or dark Month Number
Name Meaning
Number of Days
became pretty much a matter of guesswork. Because of this, the first
water clock (clepsydra) was installed by the censor P. Scipio Nasica 1 Martius Mars, God of War 31
in 159 BC. These soon spread to other public locations in the city. Venus (Aphrilis), Goddess
2 Aprilis 29
Romans refer to a particular time by saying the number of the of Love
relevant hour, i.e. the first, second, third hour etc. The working day 3 Maius Maia, Goddess of Spring 31
starts with the first hour, beginning at daybreak. Since they have
4 Iunius Juno, Queen of the Gods 29
no consideration of minutes, arranging appointments can be quite
vague. 5 Quintilis Fifth Month 31
6 Sextilis Sixth Month 29
Prima hora – first hour 7 September Seventh Month 29
Altera hora – second hour 8 October Eighth Month 31
Tertia hora – third hour
9 November Ninth Month 29
Quarta hora – fourth hour
Quinta hora – fifth hour 10 December Tenth Month 29
Sexta hora – sixth hour 11 Ianuarious Janus, God of Doors 29
Septima hora – seventh hour Februa, Feast of
Octava hora – eighth hour 12 Februarius 28
Purification
Nona hora – ninth hour
Decima hora – tenth hour
Undecima hora – eleventh hour “That the Romans, at first, comprehended the whole year within ten,
Duodecima hora – twelfth hour and not twelve months, plainly appears by the name of the last, December,
meaning the tenth month; and that Martius was the first is likewise evident,
The Roman day was broken into two parts: morning (antemerid- for the fifth month after it was called Quintilis, and the sixth Sextilis, and so
ianum) and afternoon (pomeridianum), with midday being meridies. the rest; whereas, if Januarius and Februarius had, in this account, preceded
Martius, Quintilis would have been fifth in name and seventh in reckoning.”
Length of the Week Plutarch – Nuna Pompilius
Republican Romans did not have days of the week. However,

on every eighth day a market was held. This was called the nun-
dinae which technically means ‘ninth day’, because Romans count
120 Mea culpa – By my guilt

It was not until 153 BC that the order of months was officially C – dies comitalis. Days when Romans could meet in assemblies
changed to make December the last month of the year, although it (comitia) but not if the day was also a nundinae.
took a while to catch on. N – dies nefasti. Days when no legal transactions or public voting
To identify a particular date in a month, the Romans referred to could take place.
one of three temporal points. The Kalends was the first day of the F – dies fasti. Days when legal actions were permitted.  
month (when rent and interest on debts was paid), the Nones the EN – endotercissus. ‘Cut or split’ days which were nefasti in the
fifth or seventh day and the Ides the 13th or 15th day, the Nones morning or the evening but fasti otherwise.  
and Ides coming on the later date in the months of March, May,
July and October.
All dates were expressed as the number of days before the next Lost in Time
temporal point, thus any day after the Ides is counted back from the Working out the days using Roman nomination is guaranteed to
Kalends of the following month. bend the mind of the most able Games Master. So to help out, here are
Once again the Romans’ habit of counting inclusively bewilders two formulae to calculate dates…
matters. Thus for example the 23rd October would be known as ‘X A date after the Ides but before the Kalends of the following month
Kalends November’ (the first day is the Kalends itself, the second can be calculated by subtracting the modern date from the total number
day before is the 31st of October, the third day before is the 30th, of days in the month plus two. Thus October 29th would be… 31
and so on until the 23rd which is the 10th day before.). To add to the (days in October) +2 and minus 29; which equals 4. Thus Oct 29th
confusion, instead of saying ‘two days before’ the Romans use the is ‘IV Kalends November’.
word pridie for the day before. A date before the Nones or Ides can be calculated by subtracting the
modern date from the total number of days in the month plus one. Thus
May 3rd is… 7 (Nones) +1 -3; or the ‘V Nonas Maius’. Or May
Marking the Years 10th is… 15 (Ides) +1 -10; being the ‘VI Idus Maius’.
There were two methods of noting the year in Roman society. For those of you still helplessly confused, here’s a table.
The first used the names of the ruling consuls of that specific year to
identify it, which caused problems if the person you were speaking 1st Kalendis Kalendis Kalendis
to had not memorised the long tedious lists of politician’s names. 2nd VI Nonas IV Nonas IV Nonas
The second method was used by Roman historians of the period 3rd V Nonas III Nonas III Nonas
when writing their annals. They counted the number of years since
4th IV Nonas Pridie Nonas Pridie Nonas
the mythical founding of the city of Rome, AUC – ab urbe condita.
5th III Nonas Nonis Nonis
6th Pridie Nonas VIII Idus VIII Idus
“In the 551st year from the foundation of the City, during the consulship
of P. Sulpicius Galba and C. Aurelius and within a few months of the con- 7th Nonis VII Idus VII Idus
clusion of peace with Carthage, the war with King Philip began.” 8th VIII Idus VI Idus VI Idus
Livy – Ab Urbe Condita 9th VII Idus V Idus V Idus
10th VI Idus IV Idus IV Idus
For the purposes of clarity in this book, most dates are referred 11th V Idus III Idus III Idus
to using the modern nomenclature of BC – before Christ. To con- 12th IV Idus Pridie Idus Pridie Idus
vert BC to AUC, is a simple matter of subtracting the year from the
13th III Idus Idibus Idibus
value of 753 and add one (inclusive counting again), since the first
14th Pridie Idus XVII Kalends XVI Kalends
year of the city 1 AUC, is the same year as 753 BC. For example,
15th Idibus XVI Kalends XV Kalends
the assumption of Augustus to the position of the first Emperor of
Rome was in year 727 AUC. 16th XVII Kalends XV Kalends XIV Kalends
17th XVI Kalends XIV Kalends XIII Kalends
Calendars (Fasti) 18th

19th
XV Kalends
XIV Kalends
XIII Kalends
XII Kalends
XII Kalends
XI Kalends
Roman calendars marked each day with a row of letters and
abbreviations. 20th XIII Kalends XI Kalends X Kalends
The first letter identified the Nundinae. Since the length of the 21st XII Kalends X Kalends IX Kalends
year was not a multiple of eight, the position of the nundinae would 22nd XI Kalends IX Kalends VIII Kalends
shift each year. To indicate this, a designated letter between A and H 23rd X Kalends VIII Kalends VII Kalends
would represent the market day for the whole of that year. 24th IX Kalends VII Kalends VI Kalends
If the day was one of the kalends, nones, or ides of that month, 25th VIII Kalends VI Kalends V Kalends
it would be marked with the following abbreviations: 26th VII Kalends V Kalends IV Kalends
K. – Kalends followed by the month; K.IAN for the kalends of
27th VI Kalends IV Kalends III Kalends
January, K.FEB for the kalends of February, etc.
28th V Kalends III Kalends Pridie Kalendis
NON – Nones
29th IV Kalends Pridie Kalendis -
EIDVS – Ides
The second part of the sequence indicated the type of day it was, 30th III Kalends - -
which in turn controlled what work was permitted: 31st Pridie Kalendis - -
Medicus curat, natura sanat – The physician heals, nature convalesces

121
NP – indicated public holidays (feriae) and were considered dies characters to feel guilty for their interruption of the sacred
nefasti.   rites, or maybe even performing a reversal of their original
FP – were another kind of religious holiday but the specific intentions.
meaning has been lost.
ΩΩ The excesses of the Bacchanalia are an excellent thread
to weave into adventures. Although the Senate banned
Festivals (Feriae) the cult in the early second century BC, it does not mean
There were a great number of festivals and holidays (holy days) that it did not continue in a more secretive nature. Ini-
celebrated in Rome. At these times, citizens suspended politics and tiation into the Bacchic rites can be used in a variety of
law suits and slaves were freed from labour. Originally ‘feast days’, different ways to intrigue or hamper player characters.
these originated back to the early days of the Republic when the
aristocracy would give banquets to feed the poor. Subversive Secret Societies – These could be groups
There are three types of feriae. Feriae stativae, annual festivals dedicated to the overthrow of the Republic and the
which occur on fixed days, feriae conceptivae, festivals whose dates Bacchic rites proof of the member’s dedication to the
are determined yearly by priests or magistrates and feriae imperati- cause and a way of blackmailing them if they suffer hes-
vae, one-off holidays proclaimed by consuls, prætors or dictators to itation in following orders. Something like the situa-
celebrate military victories. tion which Cataline was accused of when he organised
his rebellion from amongst the young men of the city.
Plot Hooks Mythic Horror – The Bacchanals could be used as a

source of otherworldly power in ostensibly magic-free cam-
ΩΩ The idea of being sacrificed to the gods by the rite of ver paigns. The perverse rites and human sacrifices a source
sacrum is an excellent way of starting a campaign during the of horror for the player characters, in particular if their
early period of Rome. The characters could all be exiled from own family members or trusted friends are victims. In such
their home city and led to Rome by a divinely inspired beast, campaigns the bacchanales can be reoccurring enemies.
which accompanies them. There they could be driven by the
desire for just retribution to take vengeance on their fami- Seductive Power – For mature groups, the player characters
lies who cast them out. Conversely, the characters could be could be seduced into the rites of Bacchus; offering tantalis-
expelled from Rome instead and forced to create their own ing rises in social and political rank, in exchange for initiating
city. This would give them a chance to rise to the top of the themselves ever deeper into the cult. Sadistic Games Masters
hierarchy of the newly founded state and possibly grow to could inflict serious anxiety on the characters, by carefully
become a rival of Rome herself. describing the perversity, degradation or horror required at
each level. These need not be sexually orientated… instead
ΩΩ Early Rome had several purification rites which utilised the involving such acts as giving their sister to the cult, publicly
concept of the scapegoat, a volunteer who took upon them- betraying a long respected patron, stealing items dedicated
selves the ills of the city and then was ritually exiled or sacri- to a god from his temple and so on. Each test should increas-
ficed. In later years these victims were usually replaced with ingly strain the character’s morals to the limit, until they even-
ceremonial replicas. However, many cults may have sim- tually cannot perform what is required of them and must try
ply performed their true rites in secret and this idea could to break free of the cult’s hooks.
be incorporated into a scenario in several different ways.
During a disaster affecting the city (e.g. a pestilence), the

senate could request a scapegoat for the people of Rome.
If a player character volunteers for the position, his family
will be raised in honour (perhaps being promoted to the
equestrian class) and receive a large donation of money.
The character would either have to leave the city forever,
or be actually killed. However, in return, the Games Mas-
ter could reward the brave, self-sacrificial act by granting
the player bonus characteristics, skill points or divine bless-
ings to his next character, especially if from the same family.
On the other hand, the scapegoat maybe an unwilling vic-

tim; a patron, friend or family member of one of the player
characters. The adventure would be a hunt for the cult that
has kidnapped the victim; a slow unveiling of growing horror,
ultimately leading to a direct confrontation on the night of
the ceremony. Of course if the scapegoat is freed in time,
certain dire disasters could then affect the city, forcing the
122 Mens sana in corpore sano – A sound mind in a sound body (Juvenal)
Mythic Rome: Characters
Characters
T
o generate Mythic Rome characters, follow the Character on nationality or physical appearance. Unmarried females also only
Creation rules as laid out in Mythras but using the alternate have a single name, the feminine form of their father’s nomen. To
Characteristics, Cultures and Professions described here. generate female nomen, you simply replace the final letters ‘us’ with
an ‘a’. Thus the female version of Flavius would be Flavia. Multi-
ple daughters also required epithets to distinguish between them,
Roman Characteristics
Roman characters are generated as per the standard Mythras
such as ‘greater’ (Maxima), ‘lesser’ (Minima), ‘the first’ (Prima), the
second (Secunda) and so on. By the late Republic, wedded women
would adopt the feminine form of their husband’s cognomen as a
rules, except for when rolling the SIZ characteristic. It is often stated second name.
in the annals of the time that Romans were distinctly shorter than Of course, depending on the tone of the campaign, character
the northern barbarians they frequently encountered. For that rea- names can simply be linguistically humorous – following in the tra-
son, Roman PCs should roll 2d6+3 for their SIZ and reserve the dition of ‘Bigus Dickus’ in Monty Python’s Life of Brian. A compre-
normal 2d6+6 for Celtic and Germanic slaves or enemies. hensive list of names appears on the following pages.
Names
To a Roman, his name was everything. It represented his family,
Social Class
Characters may roll on the Social Class table to determine their
his clan and gave him the dignity and gravitas earned by his ances- place in Roman society. However, the Games Master is at liberty to
tors. Names were so important that they were passed from father restrict certain classes or pre-define what class the characters will be
to first son with little or no change, which made identification of in order to fit the intended campaign. If desired, the Wealth rating
a particular male family member sometimes difficult without using of the character’s class can be used to limit which professions are
the epithet of ‘the elder’ (maior) for the father and ‘younger’ (minor) available to them.
for the son.
Patrician and Equestrian names are usually made up of three
Social Class
parts. First was the forename (praenomen), used by relations or close d100 Social Class Av. Wealth Rating Wealth Cap
friends. Strangely, only 18 different forenames were used during the 01-02 Foreigner Any Wealthy
later Republic. Next was the clan name (nomen), which denoted the 03-20 Slave Destitute Poor
common ancestor of the gens. Lastly was the name of the family 21-70 Freedman Poor Affluent
branch (cognomen) within the clan. 71-95 Plebeian Average Affluent
Often the cognomen was based on some physical or personal- 96-99 Equestrian Affluent Wealthy
ity trait of the founder of the family line and since it was initially 100 Patrician Wealthy Wealthy
awarded by his fellows (and not by the founder himself), they were
often derogatory. With this in mind, Games Masters are encouraged
to choose cognomina for his players, or award them in play for their
actions.
A few individuals who performed outstanding service or virtue
Roman Culture
All native Roman characters start with the Civilised culture
were granted an additional honorific (agnomen) in recognition of
(Mythras page 14). Foreigners and slaves use either Civilised (Etrus-
their deeds. Such accolades could only be granted by others, gener-
can, Carthaginian, Greek, Macedonian, Parthian, Egyptian and
ally by approbation of the Senate.
Cappadocian), Barbarian (Gallic, Germanic, Hispanic, Numidian),
Most, but not all, plebeians lack a cognomen. Slaves are nor-
or Nomadic (Scythian) as defined by their nationality.
mally given a single nickname, usually something descriptive based
Mundus vult decipi, ergo decipiatur – The world wants to be deceived, so let it be deceived!
123
Names Bellicus – warlike Eugenius – born from a good family

Bellus – good-looking Fabillus – little Fabius, from the gens Fabia
Praenomen (First Names): Appius, Aulus,
Bestius – the animal Facilis – the easy
Decimus, Gaius, Gnaeus, Kaeso, Lucius, Mamercus,
Bibaculus – heavy drinker Falco – the falcon
Manius, Marcus, Numerius, Oppius, Publius, Quintus,
Bibulus – he who doesn’t refuse a drink. Familiaris – the householder
Servius, Sextus, Tiberius, and Titus
Blandus – flattering Felix – the lucky
Bonifatus – he on whom fate smiles Festus – the merry
Nomen (Clan Names): Abudius, Aeternius,
Brocchus – toothy Fidelis – the faithful
Afranius, Albinius, Albius, Antius, Appuleius, Aqui-
Brutus – the stupid, foolish one Figulus – the potter
lius, Atrius, Caecilius, Caedicius, Caelius, Calidius,
Burrus – the red haired one Fimbria – the fringe
Calpurnius, Calvisius, Caninius, Cassius, Catilius,
Buteo – the buzzard Firmus – the firm
Cicereius, Claudius, Cloelius, Cocceius, Comicius,
Caecina – cognomen of gens Licinia Flaccus – the floppy, with floppy ears
Cominius, Cornelius, Cornuficius, Curius, Curtius,
Caecus – the blind Florens – blossoming
Decius, Dexius, Didius, Domitius, Duilius, Equitius,
Caelestis – the heavenly one Florus – the flowery
Fabius, Fabricius, Flaminius, Flavius, Folius, Fulvius,
Caepio – the onion vendor Fortunatus – the fortunate
Furius, Gabinius, Geganius, Gellius, Genucius, Helvius,
Caesar – with the fine head of hair Fronto – he who has a prominent forehead
Herennius, Hermenius, Hirtius, Horatius, Hortensius,
Caldus – hot tempered Frugi – the fruit
Iulius, Iunius, Iuventius, Labienus, Laelius, Larcius,
Calvinus – cognomen of gentes Domitia & Veturia Frugius – the fruitful
Laronius, Licinius, Livius, Lucilius, Lucretius, Lutatius,
Calvus – the bald Fuscus – the dark, the dark-haired
Manlius, Marcius, Marius, Memmius, Menenius, Mini-
Camillus – a child who helped during sacrifices Gemellus – the twin
cius, Modius, Mucius, Munatius, Naevius, Nautius,
Candidus – the bright, the white Germanus – blood-relative
Nerius, Nigidius, Nonius, Norbanus, Numicius, Octa-
Capito – he who has a big head Geta – the Getan (a Thracian tribe), cognomen of
vius, Ogulnius, Opimius, Oppius, Otacilius, Ovidius,
Caprarius – the goat keeper gens Licinia
Ovinius, Ovius, Papirius, Pedius, Peducaeus, Perpenna,
Carbo – charcoal Glabrio – the hairless, cognomen of gens Acilia
Pinarius, Plautius, Pleminius, Poetelius, Pompeius,
Carinus – (nut) brown Glaucia – the bleater
Pomponius, Pontius, Popillius, Porcius, Postumius, Pub-
Carnifex – the executioner Gracchus – cognomen of gens Sempronia
lilius, Pupius, Quintilius, Quintius, Rabuleius, Rom-
Cascus – the archaic Gracilis – the slender
ilius, Roscius, Rutilius, Salonius, Sallustius, Salvius,
Castus – the pure, chaste one Gratus – welcome
Scribonius, Sellius, Sempronius, Sentius, Sergius,
Catilina – cognomen of gens Sergia Hilarus – the cheerful
Sertorius, Servilius, Sestius, Sicinius, Sosius, Statilius,
Cato – cognomen of gens Porcia Homullus – the midget
Suetonius, Sulpicius, Tarpeius, Tarquinius, Tarquitius,
Catulus – calf, cognomen of gens Lutatia Humilis – the low-born
Terentius, Tetrilius, Titinius, Titurius, Titurnius, Tre-
Catus – the shrewd Ingenuus – born of free (respectable) parents
bellius, Trebius, Trebonius, Tuccius, Tullius, Valerius,
Celatus – the hidden Iustus – the just
Vatinius, Ventidius, Vergilius, Veturius, Villius, Vipsa-
Celeris – the quick Laeca – cognomen of gens Portia
nius, Virginius, Vitellius, Vibius, Vitruvius, Volcatius,
Celsus – high, tall Laenas – cognomen of gens Popillia
and Volumnius
Cerinthus – waxy Laevinus – from the Laevi, an Italian tribe
Cethegus – cognomen of gens Cornelia Lateranus – cognomen of gentes Claudia & Sextia
Cognomen (Family Name/Nickname):
Cicero – chick pea Lentulus – the slow, cognomen of gens Cornelia
Adjutor – the helper
Cimber – the Cimbrian Lepidus – the charming
Adventor – the visitor
Cinna – cognomen of gens Cornelia Libo – cognomen of gentes Marcia & Scribonia
Agelastus – he who doesn’t laugh
Citus – the swift Ligur – the Ligurian, a celtic tribe, cognomen of
Agricola – the farmer
Clarus – the famous gentes Aelia & Octavia
Agrippa – he who was born feet first
Clemens – the forgiving Longus – the tall
Ahala – cognomen of gens Servilia
Collatinus – cognomen of gens Tarquinia Longinus – cognomen of gens Cassia
Albinus – cognomen of gens Postumia
Columella – little column Lucullus – small grove, cognomen of gens Licinia
Amandus – loveable
Commodus – favourable Lupus – the wolf, cognomen of gens Rutilia
Ancus – crooked/bent
Concessus – the gift; granted Lurco – the glutton
Aper – the boar
Constans – the reliable Macro – the big
Aquila – the eagle
Corbulo – little basket Maius – born in May
Aquilinus – eagle-like
Cordus – late-born Maior – born first
Aquilius – brown
Cornutus – horned Mancinus – cognomen of gens Mucia
Arcarius – he who deals with money/cash
Corvinus – like a crow Mansuetus – the mild
Armiger – he who bear arms
Corvus – the crow, cognomen of gens Valeria Marcellinus – little Marcellus
Arvina – the fat one
Cotta – cognomen of Gens Aurelia Marcellus – little Marcus
Asellio – the keeper of donkeys
Crassus – the fat Marinus – the sailor
Asina – the female donkey
Crispinus – the curled Maritimus – of the sea
Asprenas – rough/hard
Crispus – he who has curly hair Maro – cognomen of Vergilia
Audens – the daring
Culleolus – leather sack Maternus – related to mater
Auspex – the diviner
Curio – priest of a Curia Mercator – the merchant
Avitus – he who takes after his grandfather
Cursor – the swift Merula – the blackbird
Balbillus – Probably diminutive of Balbus
Damasippus – cognomen of gens Licinia Messala – cognomen of gens Valeria
Balbus – he who stutters
Disertus – the eloquent Messor – the reaper
Barbatus – the bearded one
Dolabella – the pick-axe Metellus – the army follower
Baro – the dunce
Drusus – cognomen of gens Livia Moderatus – the temperate
Bassus – the plump (i.e. fat) one
Durus – the hard Montanus – of the mountains
Bellator – the fighter / the warmonger
124 Navigare necesse est, vivere non est necesse – To sail is necessary, to live is not necessary (Gnaeus Pompeius)
Murena – the moray (eel), cognomen of gens Probus – the upright Tacitus – the quiet
Licinia Proculus – born while the father was away Tertius – the third one
Mus – the mouse, the rat Pudens – the sensible Tranquillus – the calm
Musa – the muse or a poet Pulcher – the handsome Triarius – the rear guard
Musicus – musical Quietus – the calm Tuditanus – cognomen in gens Sempronia
Nasica – having a thin, long nose Ravilla – grey eyed Tutor – protector
Naso – the nose, cognomen of gens Ovidia Reburrus – he with hair tied back Urbicus – from the city, city dweller
Natalis – on the birthday Regillus – little king, cognomen of gens Aemilia Ursinus – related to Ursus, the bear
Nepos – grandchild Regulus – the child king Ursus – the bear
Nero – cognomen of gens Claudia Rufinus – of red hair Valens – strong, in good health
Nerva – cognomen of gentes Cocceia & Silia Rufus – reddish, ginger haired Valgus – knock-kneed
Nigellus – diminutive of Niger, black/dark Rullus – the rude Varro – cognomen of gens Terentia
Niger – black/dark Ruso – cognomen of the gens Abudia Varus – bow-legged
Nigrinus – related to Niger, black/dark Rusticus – from the countryside Vatius – bow-legged
Oceanus – he who lives by the ocean Sacerdos – the priest, cognomen of gens Licinia Venator – the hunter
Optatus – chosen, desired Salinator – he who harvests salt Verecundus – the shy
Otho – cognomen of gens Roscia Scaeva – left handed Verres – cognomen of gens Cornelia
Paenula – wearing a hooded travelling cloak Scaevola – cognomen of gens Mucia Verrucosus – having warts
Paetus – blinking Scapula – with large shoulders Verus – the truthful
Pansa – he who walks with his legs spread Scaurus – the lame Vespillo – the undertaker
Pappus – old man Scipio – triumphal wand, cognomen of gens Viator – the traveller
Pastor – shepherd Cornelia Victor – the conqueror
Paterculus – daddy Scrofa – the sow Vindex – the avenger
Paternus – fatherly Secundus – the second one; blessed Virilis – the manly
Patiens – the patient Seneca – probably related to senex, the old man Vitalis – the vigorous
Paulinus – a little, a small quantity Senecio – probably related to senex, the old man Vocula – the soft-spoken
Paulus – a little, a small quantity, a small thing Seronatus – he who was born after term Vopiscus – the surviving twin
Pavo – the peacock Severus – the strict Vulso – he who has regular spasms
Pennus – sharp Silanus – from the forest, cognomen of gens Iunia
Peregrinus – the foreigner Silo – snub-nosed Agnomina (Honorific Titles)
Pertinax – stubborn Silus – cognomen of gens Sergia Achaicus – conqueror of Achaea
Pictor – the painter Silvanus – from the forest Africanus – victor in Africa
Pilatus – dense, armed with a pilum Similis – the same, he who bears a resemblance Britannicus – victor over the Britons
Piso – the mortar, cognomen of gens Calpurnia Simplex – simple, straight forward Magnus – great
Placidus – the peaceful Sisenna – cognomen of gens Cornelia Maximus – very great
Plautus – flat footed Speratus – hoped for Numantius – conqueror of Numania
Pollio – the strong Strabo – cross-eyed Pius – dutiful
Poplicola / Publicola – of the people Sulla – cognomen of gens Cornelia Sapiens – prudent
Postumus – the last born Superbus – the proud
Primus – the first one, the first born Superstes – the survivor
Priscus – very ancient, old-fashioned Sura – having large calves
The cultural Combat Style depends entirely on the region and In a similar fashion, foreign characters would be expected to
period the game is set. It is important to remember that from the learn the military combat style of their nation, at least before the
founding of Rome up until the Marian Reforms, every Roman citi- period when they were conquered by Rome.
zen (see The Populace page 8) was expected to serve in the legions,
as part of his civic duties – the army was formed from mandatory
annual conscription and professional soldiers did not appear until
the start of the 1st century BC. To reflect this, citizen characters Professions
prior to this date are permitted access to the Roman Legion combat
style, comprising of the military arms and traits of that period – (Disciplinae)
Not everyone in Rome works or has a strict career. Some of the
which are described in The Army chapter (Monarchy page 89, Early
Republic page 92 and mid-Republic page 95). following professions simply reflect lifestyles, enabling the character
Conversely, most citizens of the Late Republic have little or no to learn the skills necessary to survive or maintain their social class.
military training and a reduced chance to purchase weaponry, leav- All are based on the format presented in the Mythras rules, with
ing those who are not professional legionaries or gladiators access an additional line which grants a bonus or penalty to a character’s
only to the default Roman Citizen combat style. Status skill according to how the profession was viewed in Roman
Roman Citizen Combat Style: Sica, Pugio, Club, Thrown society.
Stone; Street Mob trait (Permits a group of three or more fellow cit- Most of the following professions are exclusively male, save for
izens to utilise the Intimidate creature ability (Mythras page 216), those of Dancer, Musician, Prostitute and Slave, for which alterna-
but only before combat starts or when they have their opponents at tive feminine Latin titles are given.
a severe disadvantage).
Ne cede malis – Yield not to evils (Virgil)

125
Actor (Histrio) Athlete (Athleta)

Actors are held with contempt in Roman society, primarily Although strictly speaking there were not any professional ath-
because they are viewed as prostituting themselves for public enter- letes in Rome, a character could be a Greek athlete who has been
tainment. In fact, some are indeed prostitutes on the side. Actors brought to the city by a wealthy patron in order to put on a per-
work on a per commission basis, usually hired to perform at particu- formance at the games or an ex-champion who offers his skills as
lar festivals and games, or travelling as a troupe and performing one a personal fitness trainer. Most are skilled in the classic sporting
or two days at each town before moving on. Most actors are slaves or disciplines of the Pentathlon and spend most of their time at the
foreigners and it would be a social scandal if a plebeian would lower gymnasiums in the baths or the Campus Martius. Only Olympic
himself to act. In fact senators have been removed from the Senate champions are particularly well regarded but their fame soon fades
for engaging in public performance. along with patronage. Otherwise, most are looked down upon for
either making life hell at the gymnasium or for following what is in
ΩΩ Wealth: Poor to Average
reality a Greek rather than a Roman tradition.
ΩΩ Status: Characters who are, or have been actors, have their
Status reduced by 10% ΩΩ Wealth: Poor or Average
ΩΩ Standard Skills: Athletics, Dance, Deceit, Influence, Insight, ΩΩ Status: Athletes suffer a 10% penalty to their Status However,
Native Tongue, Sing Olympic champions gain a temporary 25% bonus to their
ΩΩ Professional Skills: Acting, Language (Greek), Literacy, Musi- Status for several years, after which their normal Status pen-
cianship, Rhetoric, Seduction, Streetwise alty is cleared
ΩΩ Standard Skills: Athletics, Brawn, Endurance, Evade, Pugi-
lism, Swim, Willpower
Artist (Artifex) ΩΩ Professional Skills: Acrobatics, Culture (Other), Gambling,
See Craftsman.
Language (Other), Lore (Any), Streetwise and the Pentathlete
Combat Style (Wrestling, Discus, Javelin; no trait)
Roman Snobbery
Most professions greatly affected the social status of the family
which depended upon it. As can be seen by the following quote, Romans
Banker (Argentarius)
Bankers and usurers are the most despised people in Rome. They
are extremely social conscious.
charge a steep annual rate to keep your money safe or to issue credit
notes against it when your travel. Worse still, they impose extortion-
“Now in regard to trades and other means of livelihood, which
ate rates of interest if you are foolish enough to borrow their money.
ones are to be considered becoming to a gentleman and which ones are
Most bankers have to hire bodyguards for personal protection, to
vulgar, we have been taught, in general, as follows: First, those means
keep their strongboxes safe and act as enforcers to extract payment
of livelihood are rejected as undesirable which incur people’s ill-will, as
from late payers. Although bankers often come from the equestrian
those of tax-gatherers and usurers. Unbecoming to a gentleman, too, and
class, they are usually ostracised by polite society.
vulgar are the means of livelihood of all hired workmen whom we pay
for mere manual labour, not for artistic skill; for in their case the very ΩΩ Wealth: Affluent to Wealthy
wage they receive is a pledge of their slavery. Vulgar we must consider ΩΩ Status: Bankers are barely tolerated and suffer a 15% penalty
those also who buy from wholesale merchants to retail immediately; for to their Status
they would get no profits without a great deal of downright lying; and ΩΩ Standard Skills: Brawn, Conceal, Deceit, Influence, Insight,
indeed, there is no action that is meaner than lying. And all craftsmen Locale, Willpower
are engaged in vulgar trades; for no workshop can have anything liberal ΩΩ Professional Skills: Bureaucracy, Commerce, Gambling, Lan-
about it. Least respectable of all are those trades which cater for sensual guage (Other), Literacy, Lore (Any), Streetwise
pleasures: ‘fishmongers, butchers, cooks, and poulterers, and fishermen’,
as Terence says. Add to these, if you please, the perfumers, dancers, and
all performers of the ludus talarius. But the professions in which either a
Barber (Barbitonsor)
Barbers perform several vital services. As well as haircutting,
higher degree of intelligence is required or from which no small benefit to
hairdressing, shaving and plucking; barbers performed extraction of
society is derived – medicine and architecture, for example, and teaching
teeth. Barbers are also sources of daily news and gossip. Most work
– these are proper for those whose social position they become. Trade, if
on the streets, where the light is better and they avoid paying rent.
it is on a small scale, is to be considered vulgar; but if wholesale and on
Barbers do not arrive in Rome until the mid-Republic, since men
a large scale, importing large quantities from all parts of the world and
preferred beards up to this time.
distributing to many without misrepresentation, it is not to be greatly
disparaged. Nay, it even seems to deserve the highest respect, if those ΩΩ Wealth: Poor to Average
who are engaged in it, satiated, or rather, I should say, satisfied with ΩΩ Status: Barbers are regarded with neutrality and suffer no
the fortunes they have made, make their way from the port to a country penalty to their Status
estate, as they have often made it from the sea into port. But of all the ΩΩ Standard Skills: Customs, Deceit, First Aid, Influence,
occupations by which gain is secured, none is better than agriculture, Insight, Locale, Perception
none more profitable, none more delightful, none more becoming to a ΩΩ Professional Skills: Commerce, Courtesy, Craft (Barber),
freeman.” Healing, Language (Other), Lore (Any), Streetwise
Cicero – De Officiis
126 Ne Jupiter quidem omnibus placet – Not even Jupiter can please everyone
Beast Hunter (Venatores) Craftsman (Faber)

Hunters who work in the amphitheatre killing unusual animals. Craftsmen are the artists and manufacturers of the Roman
Use the Gladiator profession. world. All are plebeians or freedmen, since no member of the eques-
trian or patrician class would openly lower themselves to such work.
Beggar (Mendicus) Most craftsmen sell their goods from the front of their workshop,
Usually beggars are freed-men or foreigners. No citizen would which normally opens out directly onto the street. Artists work on a
lower himself to such work without losing their Status first. Beg- commission basis, to decorate homes, paint or carve statues and so
gars generally sport (or fake) terrible scars or injuries that help them forth. Most lack the funds to simply create art for art’s sake
evoke pity from potential donators. Most beggars belong to a gang
for mutual protection and hang about the bridges and main streets ΩΩ Wealth: Poor to Average
of the city where the most people pass. ΩΩ Status: Trades with a social stigma such as fishermen, under-
takers, dyers, launderers etc., suffer a 10% penalty to Status
ΩΩ Wealth: Destitute or sometimes Poor ΩΩ Standard Skills: Brawn, Drive, Endurance, Influence, Insight,
ΩΩ Status: Beggars are not well thought of in Roman society and Locale, Perception
suffer a 10% penalty to their Status ΩΩ Professional Skills: Art (Any), Commerce, Craft (Any), Engi-
ΩΩ Standard Skills: Customs, Deceit, Evade, Influence, Insight, neering, Language (Other), Mechanisms, Streetwise
Locale, Perception
ΩΩ Professional Skills: Acting, Commerce, Language (Other),
Streetwise, plus three other professional skills reflecting their
Dancer (Saltator or Saltatrix)
Dancers are effectively the same as Actors in terms of skills, their
previous life before they were reduced to destitution.
use as prostitutes and public attitude towards them.
Bodyguard (Stipator) Dilettante (Ardelio)

These were usually ex-gladiators. See the Gladiator profession Dilettantes represent those members of the wealthy classes who
for details. neither work for a living, nor actively seek magisterial office to sup-
port the Republic. Many live in indolent luxury, waited on hand
Bureaucrat (Administrator) and foot by slaves and providing patronage for artists and poets.
Bureaucrats are members of the Roman civil service and were Some dilettantes are young, dissatisfied sons of high rank blocked
the real power behind the magistrates and Senate. They fulfil the from a political career, who waste their time (and father’s money) on
tasks of administrators, scribes, customs officials, trade supervisors unceasing entertainment and dubious intrigues.
and judicial secretaries. Normally only State owned slaves and a few
freedmen work in the bureaucracy, and most magistrates find the ΩΩ Wealth: Affluent to Wealthy
internal workings unfathomable. ΩΩ Status: Dilettantes gain no adjustment to their Status
ΩΩ Standard Skills: Athletics, Dance, Deceit, Influence, Insight,
ΩΩ Wealth: Most are secretly Average to Affluent, perhaps due to Locale, Sing
corruption or extortion ΩΩ Professional Skills: Courtesy, Gambling, Literacy, Lore (Any),
ΩΩ Status: Bureaucrats are the heart of the Republic and suffer Rhetoric, Seduction, Streetwise
no penalty to their Status
ΩΩ Standard Skills: Customs, Deceit, Influence, Insight, Locale,
Perception, Willpower
Diviner (Haruspex)
ΩΩ Professional Skills: Bureaucracy, Commerce, Courtesy, Lan- Most diviners are foreign soothsayers who pander to Roman
superstitions. They live a borderline legal existence usually paying
guage (Other), Literacy, Lore (Any), Streetwise
bribes to city magistrates to be overlooked during their frequent
expulsions from Rome. Many people, even those of the highest
Charioteer (Auriga) classes, seek the advice of diviners before undertaking decisions.
Reckless, sporting heroes of the Roman world, they are both Diviners use many strange and exotic methods to see the future,
famous and short-lived. Racing in the Circus Maximus is danger- some are frauds or self-deluded, but others show an uncanny ability
ous, since both on and off the track there are few rules save to win for precognition (see Divination on page 141). Practitioners of divi-
at any cost. Successful charioteers or even their horses are frequently nation are often sought out to perform other, darker, magical rites...
cursed, and sometimes poisoned prior to important races.
ΩΩ Wealth: Poor to Affluent
ΩΩ Wealth: Average, although successful charioteers can achieve ΩΩ Status: Most are simply treated as foreigners but those who
Affluent, or even Wealthy. display reliable accuracy or otherworldly powers receive a
ΩΩ Status: Famous charioteers gain a 10% bonus to their Status 10% bonus to Status
ΩΩ Standard Skills: Brawn, Conceal, Deceit, Drive, Endurance, ΩΩ Standard Skills: Customs, Dance, Deceit, Influence, Insight,
Evade, Perception Locale, Willpower
ΩΩ Professional Skills: Acrobatics, Commerce, Gambling, Lan- ΩΩ Professional Skills: Bureaucracy, Divination, Language
guage (Other), Mechanisms, Seduction, Streetwise (Other), Literacy, Lore (Any), Rhetoric, Streetwise
Ne nuntium necare – Don’t kill the messenger

127
Doctor (Medicus) also earn extra money or gifts by acting as sex-slaves or bodyguards
Doctors must decide whether to be either Physicians or Surgeons. during or after their careers.
Somewhat surprisingly of the two, the surgeon was considered infe- ΩΩ Wealth: Poor to Average
rior, because most surgery was limited to battlefield treatments and ΩΩ Status: Gladiators start with a penalty of 10% to their Status,
usually failed to preserve life despite rudimentary knowledge of dis- but each victory adds 1% up to a maximum of +10%. Los-
infectants. Physicians on the other hand specialise in treating illness ing reduces it likewise. Retired champions retain their final
using physical exercises, sanitary lifestyle, diet and medicines. They bonus/penalty for the remainder of their lives
cannot perform surgery since they are specifically forbidden by the ΩΩ Standard Skills: Athletics, Brawn, Customs, Endurance,
Hippocratic oath to cause harm to a patient. Most doctors of either Evade, First Aid, Pugilism
speciality possessed questionable knowledge of medicine or anat- ΩΩ Professional Skills: Acting, Commerce, Gambling, Language
omy and even less about their dubious cures. In many situations the (Other), Seduction, Streetwise, and one gladiatorial Combat
doctor was only called in as the last resort. Doctors are usually fluent Style chosen from those described on page 84
in Greek, as most medical texts are written in that language.
ΩΩ Wealth: Average to Affluent Labourer (Operarius)
ΩΩ Status: Doctors are an honourable profession and suffer no Labourers are slaves, freedmen or plebeians who perform the
penalties to Status backbreaking work of construction, engineering or farming. They
ΩΩ Standard Skills: Customs, First Aid, Influence, Insight, are usually poorly educated and poorly skilled but some are men
Locale, Perception, Willpower who have fallen from high station either via poverty or criminal
ΩΩ Professional Skills: Commerce, Healing, Language (Other), activity.
Literacy, Lore (Any), Rhetoric, Streetwise
ΩΩ Wealth: Destitute to Average
“All the more if they send their [Greek] doctors here. They have sworn ΩΩ Status: Labourers are disparaged and suffer a 10% penalty
to kill all barbarians with medicine – and they charge a fee for doing it, in to Status
order to be trusted and to work more easily. They call us barbarians, too, of ΩΩ Standard Skills: Athletics, Brawn, Drive, Endurance, Locale,
course, and opici, a dirtier name than the rest. I have forbidden you to deal Perception, Willpower
with doctors” ΩΩ Professional Skills: Commerce, Craft (Any), Engineering,
Pliny quoting Cato the Elder Gambling, Language (Other), Streetwise, Survival
Farmer (Agricola)
Farmers in early Rome are the backbone of its economic and Lawyer (Jurisconsultus)
military strength. Most are smallholders, working the land them- Strictly speaking there were no professional lawyers in Republi-
selves to feed their family and barter excess produce for other neces- can Rome. Young men of high social class took up litigation in the
sities. However over time, with the drain of manpower in the cease- law courts as a prequel to serving in the magistracies of the Curses
less wars, many small farms go to seed and the families are forced Honorum. Use Senator instead.
to sell to cover their debts. In later years the yeoman farmer still
exists but now as either a tenant farmer, or the manager of larger, Legionary (Legionarius)
conglomerated farms (latifundia), which are worked by slaves. For This career is for those professional legionaries raised in the first
landlords of huge estates, use the Dilettante profession instead. century BC. They are given months of hard training in diverse skills.
Tough, disciplined and (usually) loyal to their generals, ex-legionar-
ΩΩ Wealth: Poor to Average ies are sometimes granted land to farm after extended campaigns.
ΩΩ Status: Farmers are traditionally well thought of and those Legionaries often learn other languages in their postings around the
who own their own land gain a 10% bonus to Status empire and are experienced with several different weapons. Roman
ΩΩ Standard Skills: Athletics, Brawn, Drive, Endurance, Locale, marines are basically land troops placed aboard ship.
Perception, Ride
ΩΩ Professional Skills: Commerce, Craft (Any), Language ΩΩ Wealth: Destitute to Average
ΩΩ Status: Although military service is the epitome of a true
(Other), Lore (Farming or Herding), Navigation, Survival,
Track Roman, professional legionaries are usually recruited from
the dispossessed. Only centurions or professional legates gain
a 10% bonus to Status
Gladiator (Gladiator) ΩΩ Standard Skills: Athletics, Brawn, Conceal, Endurance, Per-
Usually, but not always, freedmen or slaves, gladiators fight men ception, Pugilism, Swim. Auxiliary cavalry replace Swim with
or beasts for public entertainment. There are many specialities of Ride
gladiator, each one trained to fight in different weapon and armour ΩΩ Professional Skills: Command (Centurions or Officers only),
combinations. Combatants who put on a spirited or entertaining Craft (Carpentry, Leatherworking, Masonry or Smithing),
show usually survive defeat, assuming their injuries can be treated. Engineering, Gambling, Language (Other), Ride (Auxilia
Popular gladiators are granted the rudis (wooden training sword) only), Survival, and the relevant Late Republican military
that earns their freedom from the amphitheatre. Gladiators can Combat Style as described on page 99
128 Ne quid nimis – Nothing in excess (Terence)

Magistrate (Magistratus) Republic, many poets begin to directly satirise leading politicians,
A magistracy is a short term appointment. Use Senator instead. often at great danger to themselves.
Merchant (Mercator) ΩΩ Status: Respectable poets apply no penalty to their Status
Whereas craftsmen manufacture and sell their own goods, mer-
chants are experts in buying and selling goods in bulk. Generally this
Native Tongue, Willpower
involves moving merchandise to and from the city, or acting as an
ΩΩ Professional Skills: Art (Poetry), Courtesy, Language (Other),
auctioneer for others. Merchants have less Status than craftsmen,
Literacy, Lore (Any), Musicianship, Rhetoric
save those who run (or rather own) huge import/export enterprises
where they cease to be the negotiating middleman. Most merchants
have a Lore skill appropriate to the goods they trade or business Priest (Sacerdos)
procedures, such as Geography or Accounting. In general, priesthood was an appointed honour rather than a
career in itself. Most people perform their own rituals and sacri-
ΩΩ Wealth: Average to Wealthy
fices to their household gods and ancestors. Even the priests of the
ΩΩ Status: Merchants other than large scale wholesalers suffer a
major State gods were elected positions (often influenced by political
10% penalty to their Status motivations), whose duties were performed as an adjunct to their
ΩΩ Standard Skills: Boating, Drive, Deceit, Insight, Influence,
normal lives and responsibilities. State priests are normally Senators
Locale, Ride who gain a 10% bonus to their Status for the honour. However, the
ΩΩ Professional Skills: Commerce, Courtesy, Culture (Any), Lan-
following profession is available for temple slaves or priests of foreign
guage (Other), Lore (Any), Navigation, Streetwise sects which insinuate themselves into the city and maintain them-
selves on the contributions of their worshippers.
Musician (Musicus or Musica) ΩΩ Wealth: Poor to Affluent
Although decried by some snobbish Romans as a sign of dec-
ΩΩ Status: Since Romans are very religious, most priests receive
adence, musical performances are common and skilled musicians
no penalty to their Status
highly valued. Music has great importance in certain religious con-
texts and is popular at feasts or celebrations. Most musicians have a
Native Tongue, Willpower
range of performance skills to satisfy their patrons.
ΩΩ Professional Skills: Bureaucracy, Courtesy, Cursing, Divina-
ΩΩ Wealth: Poor to Average tion, Language (Other), Literacy, Theology
ΩΩ Status: By the late Republic as the arts become more valued,
musicians suffer no penalty to their Status Prostitute (Exoletus or Meretrix)
ΩΩ Standard Skills: Customs, Dance, Deceit, Influence, Insight,
Roman prostitutes come in many types from the lowliest street-
Sing, Willpower walkers to the highest paid courtesans and can be either men or
ΩΩ Professional Skills: Art (Composition), Commerce, Courtesy,
women (see Prostitutes page 31). Those who do not work in an
Language (Other), Musicianship, Seduction, Streetwise official brothel are sometimes also thieves. Whilst prostitution is an
accepted fact of life, it does hold a degree of social stigma and many
Philosopher (Philosophus) prostitutes lose some legal rights in terms of marriage.
Scholars who dedicate themselves to the understanding of the
ΩΩ Wealth: Destitute to Affluent
universe, philosophers study both sciences and society. They are a
ΩΩ Status: Prostitutes suffer a 10% penalty to their Status
highly regarded profession, usually Greek or Greek speaking and
ΩΩ Standard Skills: Dance, Deceit, Influence, Insight, Native
most belong to a specific school of philosophy. In general philoso-
Tongue, Perception, Sing
phers are skilled in several areas of knowledge but also teach and
ΩΩ Professional Skills: Acting, Commerce, Language (Any),
hold open debate about the truth of the world.
Musicianship, Seduction, Sleight, Streetwise
ΩΩ Status: As intellectuals, philosophers are generally well
Scholar (Doctus)
regarded and suffer no penalty to their Status Scholars are an affectation rather than a viable profession in
ΩΩ Standard Skills: Customs, Influence, Insight, Locale, Native
ancient Rome, being those people who study or even write about
Tongue, Perception, Willpower particular subjects in their spare time. Most are either independently
ΩΩ Professional Skills: Culture (Any), Language (Other), Literacy,
wealthy enough not to need to work or have retired.
Lore (Primary), Lore (Secondary), Rhetoric, Teach
Shopkeeper (Tabernarius)
Poet (Poeta) Most shopkeepers are either Craftsmen or small scale Merchants.
Those poets who are not wealthy dilettantes live a marginal life in For more examples of Latin names for specific types of shopkeeper,
Rome. They rely on patronage to support themselves whilst creating see Shop Owners and Tradesmen page 60.
new works and in return perform their compositions at banquets
and dinner parties. Most poets come into vogue for a brief period of
Senator (Senator)
Leaders of the Republic, senators are the commanders of the
time before eventually their popularity fades. Towards the end of the
army, priests of the Roman pantheon and politicians who guide the
Nec Hercules contra duos – Even Hercules [can’t] against two

129
State. They normally come from the patrician and eventually eques- maids act as informal prostitutes. Tavern keepers are viewed with
trian class and take the lion’s share of the annual magisterial offices. neutrality, since they are a centre-piece of Roman life.
Although senators are technically only those who have served as a
magistrate, for the purposes of simplicity this profession should be
ΩΩ Status: Tavern keepers suffer no penalty to their Status
used for up and coming sons of the nobility too, as they are groomed
ΩΩ Standard Skills: Brawn, Conceal, Deceit, Endurance, Locale,
for future office.
Perception, Pugilism
ΩΩ Wealth: Affluent to Wealthy ΩΩ Professional Skills: Commerce, Craft (Brewing, Cooking or
ΩΩ Status: A senator gains a 10% bonus to their Status Vintner), Gambling, Language (Other), Lore (Any), Sleight,
ΩΩ Standard Skills: Customs, Deceit, Influence, Insight, Native Streetwise
Tongue, Perception, Willpower
ΩΩ Professional Skills: Bureaucracy, Command, Courtesy, Law,
Teacher (Magister)
Literacy, Politics, Rhetoric
Teachers only came into existence for the last couple of centuries
of the Republic. Before that children were taught by members of
Slave (Servus or Serva) their own family. Teachers can be slaves, freedmen or plebeians and
This profession is for household slaves who lack the skills for a teach everything from basic literacy and numeracy to artistic skills.
different profession, such as craftsmen, gladiators, labourers, priests They are normally fluent in Greek since most ancient literature
or teachers. The majority of urban slaves are granted some freedom available at the time was written in that language.
of movement to accompany their masters, maintain their education
or even earn money for themselves. Since most are foreigners, or
ΩΩ Status: Teachers suffer no other penalty to their Status
the children of foreign slaves, they usually speak another language.
ΩΩ Standard Skills: Customs, Influence, Insight, Locale, Native
ΩΩ Wealth: Destitute to Poor Tongue, Perception, Willpower
ΩΩ Status: Slaves, already at the bottom of the social ladder, suf- ΩΩ Professional Skills: Courtesy, Culture (Any), Language
fer no other penalty to their Status (Other), Literacy, Lore (Primary), Lore (Secondary), Teach
ΩΩ Standard Skills: Brawn, Conceal, Endurance, Insight, Locale,
Perception, Stealth
ΩΩ Professional Skills: Commerce, Courtesy, Craft (Any), Lan-
Thief (Fur)
Roman criminals range between burglars, confidence men, mug-
guage (Other), Literacy, Lore (Any), Streetwise
gers, forgers, pick pockets or even street thugs. Life is hard and short
for a thief, since punishment if captured, is brutal. Many criminals
Sorcerer (Malefici or Strigae) form gangs for mutual protection, which often clash when rival
Sorcerers and witches live under great suspicion in Rome, at gangs invade each other’s territory. Members treat their gang leader
risk of being denounced and potentially put to death. Their rep- as their patron.
utation concerning the dark arts draws the discontented who seek
retribution or revenge. Most pose as diviners. However, to continue
ΩΩ Status: Thieves suffer a 10% penalty to their Status
practicing their arts requires secrecy and maintaining a few choice
ΩΩ Standard Skills: Athletics, Deceit, Evade, Insight, Perception,
customers in the upper classes to convince the authorities to turn a
Pugilism, Stealth
blind eye.
ΩΩ Professional Skills: Acting, Commerce, Disguise, Lockpicking,
ΩΩ Wealth: Poor to Affluent Mechanisms, Sleight, Streetwise
ΩΩ Status: Despite their negative connotation, sorcerers gain a
+10% bonus to Status from the fear they instil
Native Tongue, Willpower Skills (Artes)
The following are skills that have either been renamed or have
ΩΩ Professional Skills: Cursing, Divination, Necromancy, Lan-
guage (Other), Literacy, Pharmacy, Shape-Shifting been tweaked to suit the setting. A few are unique and are further
described elsewhere in the book.
The Status and Politics skills are not actually skills per se but
Tavern Keeper (Caupones) rather ratings granted by the character’s family prominence and
Rome is full of taverns, inns, wine bars and even small stalls on personal achievements. Neither skill has a Base Chance but their
the streets. Most tavern keepers offer wines and cheap food and bar initial value depends on the character’s social class, profession and
whether they have held a political office. See Political Power Games
page 18.
Those skills which differ in either name or application from the
core Mythras Rules are described as follows.
130 Nemo ante mortem beatus – Nobody is blessed before his death
Art (Ars) [specify] POW+CHA Language (Linguae) INT+CHA

The arts practised in ancient Rome are: All characters start off knowing their Native Tongue at INT+-
CHA+30%. Foreigners (as many slaves are), must learn Latin as an
ΩΩ Compose – Creation of music and songs
extra language to be able to function within Rome. This skill acts as
ΩΩ Mosaics – Setting of tiled floors and walls
a cap to other communication skills, indicating the importance of a
ΩΩ Painting – Decorating statues, ceramics or frescoes
wider vocabulary and better elocution.
ΩΩ Poetry – Composing of poems and epics
ΩΩ Sculpture – Carving of statues from stone Literacy (Litterae) INT x2
ΩΩ Writing – Authoring of histories, biographies, and novels Although Rome’s population has one of the highest literacy rates
in history, proficiency in reading is not learned by default. Charac-
Command (Imperium) INT+CHA ters must learn a new literacy skill for each language they wish to
The ability to lead others primarily but not exclusively, in a mili- read, since at this time most languages have their own unique alpha-
tary context. It replaces the usual skill of Lore (Strategy and Tactics). bet, grammar, and script. This automatically includes the ability to
Until the Late Republic the position of a military commander (Con- write.
sul, Tribune and Dictator) was a political appointment, thus those
elected to the position often lacked significant knowledge of warfare,
Lock Picking (Irruptio) DEX x2
This skill is intended for thieves and spies who wish to covertly
which led to many of Rome’s military disasters. In game terms some
bypass latches and padlocks. Since Roman locks are relatively sim-
commanders lack the Command skill entirely, substituting Rhetoric
plistic, most people have a small chance of picking an average lock.
at a penalty of one or more difficulty grades; representing strength
A single attempt may be made by rolling their DEX or less on a
of their raw leadership rather than a grasp of military knowledge.
d100, with failure resulting in the lock being irreparably damaged
Commerce (Pactio) INT+CHA and making it obvious that someone tried to force it. Because of this
Most Romans use this skill on a daily basis when shopping for fact, most households either leave family members at home or sup-
food, haggling over purchases, negotiating wages or contracts and plement their security with door slaves and gladiators.
even arranging a suitable bribe. Those lacking this skill will be
gouged 10-30% more on the price of everything (1d3x10%).
Lore (Scientia) [specify] INT x2
This skill represents those areas of knowledge normally unavail-
Craft (Fabrica) [specify] DEX+INT able to the common citizen. It has a number of specialities which
There are a huge number of different crafting specialities should include: Accounting, Animal Training, Architecture, Art (for
applicable in Rome. Some examples include Apothecary, Baking, connoisseurs), Bureaucracy, Farming, Geography, Herding, History,
Barbering, Brewing, Carpentry, Cooking, Dyeing, Glassblowing, Literature and so forth.
Laundering, Leatherworking, Locksmithing, Masonry, Metalwork-
ing, Mining, Pottery, Sandal making, Scribing, Slaving, Tailoring,
Medicine (Medicina) INT+POW
Replaces the normal Healing skill. Up until the end of the
Undertaking, Vintner and Weaving.
Republic, medical training was often next to useless. Physiology was
Cursing (Exsecratio) POW+CHA poorly understood due to the superstitious (and religious) prohibition
See Magic page 143. against dissecting human bodies; and pharmacy was based more
upon the use of ingredients selected for sympathetic function, rather
Divination (Divinatio) INT+POW than empirically observed medicinal effect. Since most treatments
See Magic page 141.
Drive (Agendum) DEX+POW Realistic Roman Medicine

Covers the ability to drive a wagon or chariot. Most city-based The Medicine skill works as noted in the Mythras rulebook on
Romans have little practical knowledge of driving, as wheeled vehi- page 46, save that a ‘failed’ roll is treated as a fumble on the table
cles are generally too wide to fit any except the main streets and such (i.e. it inflicts more damage, or makes diseases and poisons worse) and
transport is expensive to maintain. If the animals used to pull the a ‘fumbled’ roll causes the rapid death of the patient. It is the very
vehicle are different from those the driver is normally used to, they dangerousness of fledgling medicine which gives most doctors a justified
suffer a difficulty grade of Hard or worse. reputation of being quacks or butchers.
Games Masters who like frequent combats in their campaigns
Law (Lex) INT+CHA should be at pains to understand that there are no rapid methods of
This is the familiarity with and understanding of Rome’s legal healing at this time. No magic, no mystically potent herbs and no first
system and how to use it to one’s advantage. Most Romans have a aid kits. Wounds recover naturally as described under Healing from
basic knowledge of their legal rights, since Roman society is driven Injury (Mythras page 80), unless characters wish to risk the atten-
by politics and watching legal cases at the basilicae is a main form tions of someone using the medicine skill. Thus lethal combat should be
of entertainment. The Law skill can be used in an opposed/abstract constrained to such times as the annual legion conscription or part of a
way when resolving litigation in the courts. specific climax to a scenario. Otherwise the death rates of player charac-
ters will be high. Even professional gladiators fought only a handful of
times each year, probably to give them time to fully recover from injuries.
Nemo saltat sobrius – Nobody dances sober (Cicero)

131
were no more than ritual spells combined with often noxious reme- so it is historically correct. Secondly, unless off on a military cam-
dies or fumbling surgery on ill-understood body parts, the following paign or taking part in a sanctioned suppression of civil uprising,
option is suggested for Games Masters who prefer brutal reality over nobody wears any armour – so allowing characters to run amuck
character survivability. with swords and axes will quickly result in mass slaughter, followed
by the inevitable death of the instigators themselves.
Navigation (Gubernatio) INT+POW
This skill is not very useful for the average citizen in Rome, who
uses the Streetwise skill to get around (see Lost Properties on page
Uncommon Skills
Whilst the professions provided are comprehensive for a city
57). Even those Romans who made journeys overland usually had
dwelling Roman, characters of foreign backgrounds or those with
a good road to follow and as such a good sense of navigation was
eccentric habits may wish to know other skills. Games Masters are
not really needed. This sometimes caused difficulties during times
encouraged to permit some leeway learning alternate skills, as long
of war however. Many of Rome’s defeats in its early history were
as the character’s background provides a valid rational.
caused by consuls leading the army across unfamiliar terrain and
either becoming lost or trapped.
Seamanship (Navigatio) INT+CON
This is a very rare skill for any Roman citizen to know. Save for a
Necromancy (Necromantia) INT+CHA
This skill should be reserved for campaigns using supernatural brief period before and during the Punic Wars, Rome did not main-
magic, see Magic page 144. tain its own navy. Those fleets it did build were repeatedly destroyed
by inept consular admirals, knowing nothing of sailing and naviga-
Pharmacy (Medicamentaria) INT x2 tion. After the final defeat of Carthage, the Republic simply hired
See Magic page 145. their fleets from client states. This skill is primarily known by Greek
or Egyptian sailors, who were employed to captain or crew Roman
Politics (Respublica) * owned ships.
Further described under Political Power Games (page 18), Poli-
tics signifies the political standing of a character and the authority he “The Carthaginian admiral, on seeing what Junius had done, decided
can bring to bear in the political arena of the Senate or Assemblies. not to incur the risk of approaching such a dangerous shore, but, gaining a
certain cape and anchoring off it, remained on the alert between the two fleets,
Pugilism (Pugilatio) STR+DEX keeping his eye on both. When the weather now became stormy, and they were
This is the Unarmed skill renamed. threatened with a heavy gale from the open sea, the Carthaginian captains who
were acquainted with the locality and with the weather signs, and foresaw
Rhetoric (Declamatio) POW+CHA and prophesied what was about to happen, persuaded Carthalo to escape the
This is the Roman name for the Oratory skill. tempest by rounding Cape Pachynus. He very wisely consented, and with great
labour they just managed to get round the cape and anchor in a safe position.
Shape-shifting (Ars Versipellis) CON+POW But the two Roman fleets, caught by the tempest, and the coast affording no
Like Necromancy, this skill should be reserved for campaigns
shelter at all, were so completely destroyed that not even the wrecks were good
using supernatural magic, see Magic page 147.
for anything”
Status (Status) * Polybius – Histories
Status indicates the social standing of the character, which can
Track (Indagatio) INT+CON
be used to impress or intimidate others. It has a default value based
Another rare skill amongst urbanised citizens of the city, tracking
on the social class of the character. Profession can further modify
was far more common in the early days when many of the popu-
this. See Political Power Games page 18.
lace still comprised of shepherds and herders. In the later Republic,
Streetwise (Scitus) POW+CHA the skill is normally only known by foreigners or slaves, who either
Within Rome, this skill represents the social contacts of a char- perform most of the work concerning animal husbandry or are
acter and, to a lesser degree, their knowledge of famous persons captured barbarians who used the skill in everyday life. Tracking
and social order. With this, the user can pick up on local gossip, within the city is always considered a Formidable difficulty roll; since
find patrons, ask questions to navigate their way through unknown despite incidental filth on the streets, the sheer amount of foot traffic
streets and so on. soon destroys any spoor.
Theology (Theologia) POW x2

See Magic page 140.
Passions
No game set in ancient Rome would be complete without Pas-
Weapon Styles (Telum) [specify] STR+DEX
Unless playing professional gladiators, it is recommended that sions to give the players a focus. Characters may start with between 1
Games Masters limit characters to the pre-defined cultural combat and 3 Passions which they can work out with the help of the Games
styles described earlier in this chapter (page 125). Whilst some play- Master to suit their background. Common choices include:
ers might rebel at the thought of being limited to such ‘inferior’
weapons, the reasons for this are very simple. Firstly, within the Loyalty to Rome
walls of Rome weapons and weapon training are strictly limited, Loyalty to Patron
Loyalty to Street Gang
132 Nemo sine vitio est – No one is without fault (Seneca the Elder)
Loyalty to Legion can use it to augment any Lore skill. In return however, Pythagore-
Love Chariot Races ans must lead a miserable life of self-denial, being forced to refute
Love Gladiatorial Fights rewards, promotions and even decent food (meat, fish and beans
Love Gambling being banned).
Love Family
Hate Family
Hate Social Rival (specific individual)
Hate Political Rival (specific individual) Money and Possessions
Dislike Foreigners
Lust for Political Power (Pecunia)
In the earliest period of Rome, most transactions were dealt with
Lust after Money
Desire Freedom in terms of pure barter, often using livestock or personal service as
Seek Vengeance (for specific event) payment. Precious metals, originally lumps of raw bronze (aes rude)
Overthrow the Senate then bronze ingots (aes signatum), were used as a form of proto cur-
Fear Plebeians rency – but only as a way of converting wealth into an accountable
Fear Doctors form. Every five years when the census was taken, every citizen in
Fear the Supernatural Rome was appraised in terms of how many asses of bronze his prop-
Respect the Gods erty and holdings was worth.
Eventually coins from other cultures (notably those from the
All passions have a base value of POW x2, with an additional Greek city states in the south of Italy) began to be used in the city
starting bonus of +30% for the first, +20% for the second and but it was not until around 280 BC that the first Roman bronze
+10% for the third. coinage (aes grave) was cast and about 211 BC when they began
If desired, characters may substitute a school of philosophy to mint silver coins. By the end of the Republic a fairly stable and
for one of their Passions, representing their interest in its tenets. un-debased currency system was in circulation.
The following describes the common philosophies of the time and The coins (nummi) and their values are:
demonstrate how each could be used in a campaign. These should ΩΩ Quadrans – the smallest value copper coin, two quadrantes
be treated as rough guidelines rather than hard and fast rules, sub- equal a semis
ject to the Games Master’s discretion. Only one specific school of ΩΩ Semis – two copper semisses equal an as
philosophy may be chosen; since the Passion reflects adherence to ΩΩ As – two copper asses equal a dupondius
that philosophical mindset, rather than just academic knowledge. ΩΩ Dupondius – two copper dupondii equal a sestertius
The following schools each grant benefits in particular situations. ΩΩ Sestertius – a small silver coin, four sesterces equal a denarius
(its name originally meant ‘two and a half asses’ – the original
Stoicism value of the coin)
A follower of Stoicism can use his philosophy to augment any ΩΩ Denarius – the largest silver coin, 25 denarii equal an aureus
Willpower roll, in order to maintain self-control, hide their emotions
(in 211 BC the denarius was worth 10 asses, hence its name,
or overcoming fear. Conversely stoic characters may not openly
but was revalued at 16 asses in 141 BC when the size of
complain, disobey orders, or show signs of weakness without first
bronze coins were shrunk)
failing a roll against their Stoicism passion. ΩΩ Aureus – the only gold coin, these were used for transactions
Epicureanism of the State and never entered common circulation
Devotees of Epicureanism can apply their positive perspective
and pursuit of pleasure to influence social intercourse. They use Coinage
their philosophy as an augment for the following skills: Art, Com- Coin Value in asses pre 141 BC Value in asses post 141 BC
merce, Courtesy and Influence, providing the attempt is to increase Quadrans ¼ ¼
their personal gratification. On the other hand an Epicurean must Semis ½ ½
fail tests against their philosophy to resist being diverted whenever As 1 1
such opportunities present themselves. Dupondius 2 2
Skepticism Sestercius 2½ 4
Skeptics are skilled at using logic and observation to perceive the Denarius 10 16
truth. They can apply their philosophy as an augment when utilising Aureus 250 400
Rhetoric or the Perception skill. In return they cannot act in an intu-
itive or illogical manner without the Games Master requesting them
to roll against (and fail) their Skepticism.
“when Hannibal was pressing hard upon Rome, in the dictatorship of Q.
Fabius Maximus, asses of one ounce weight were struck, and it was ordained
Pythagoreanism
that the value of the denarius should be sixteen asses and that of the sestertius
Followers of this school can employ their philosophy to resist
four asses”
any type of physical or mental temptation, in lieu of Endurance or
Willpower. In addition, their devotion to the sciences means they
Nil satis nisi optimum – Nothing but the best is good enough
133
A single quadrans would pay for admission to a public bath or Although in real terms the price of the patrician’s footwear may be
latrine. During the Republic the value of goods and property was less than the rent, to a plebeian the rent is a necessary expenditure,
usually priced in sesterces, the smallest silver coinage. whereas the shoes are a needless luxury. Thus values are inherently
Although Rome’s treasury is kept in the Temple of Saturn, coins linked to personal wealth.
are actually minted in the Temple of Juno Moneta (from which we
get the word money.). Roman coins were often struck with images
of gods and ancestors, yet it was not until Julius Caesar that the first
Availability of Goods
coins were made with a living Roman’s image on them. Another and Services
interesting fact is that before 167 BC the tax rate in Rome was An interesting aspect of Roman commerce is that up until the
only 1% of a citizen’s total wealth, which was only raised in times mid-Republic there are very few craftsmen who actually maintain a
of severe war but only up to a maximum of 3%. After this date, stock of ready-to-sell products in their workshops. Most only make
taxes were waived since the newly conquered provinces were taxed those items that have been commissioned in advance by a customer.
instead. Stalls displaying immediately available goods that can be browsed
are the realm of merchants, who normally purchase their stock from
The Value Of Goods either craftsmen or from captured war spoils and thus take upon
themselves the risk that the goods will not sell.
And Services Early Roman households only contain basic utensils and furni-
The problem with assigning set prices to goods and services of ture, often items manufactured by the family itself. Not only is it
ancient Rome is that all monetary values are subject to inflation, deemed rather poor taste to live luxuriously but the opportunities to
quality and availability. For instance, grain prices in the mid-Repub- purchase even such basic items as clothing are nearly non-existent.
lic rose threefold by end of the late Republic. Availability was also Campaigns set in early Rome should emphasise the chance to loot
a major factor; in a year when pirates or slave uprisings interrupted luxuries and furniture from conquered cities as part of the annual
imports, then the price could double, triple or even more, potentially military service.
causing starvation for those families living at the sustenance level. Only towards the late Republic do shops become stocked with
During the 2nd Punic War when Hannibal ravaged central Italy, the items which the average Roman used to make for themselves, or
price of grain rose to six times its normal price. more exotic foreign goods imported from overseas.
In the face of these difficulties and to avoid the impossibility of
defining fluctuating values throughout each period of Rome’s his- “Friends share’ – is this your ‘sharing’, Candidus, which you grandly
tory, prices have been given as an aspect of Wealth Levels. Games bang on about by night and day? A toga washed in Lacedaemonian Galae-
Masters who normally run campaigns with specific monetary values sus swathes you, or one which Parma provided from a special flock; yet as
are encouraged to use this more abstract system according to the for mine, the first dummy which has suffered the rage and horns of a bull
following guidelines: wouldn’t want to call it its own. Cadmus’ country has sent you Agenorian
cloaks; you won’t be able to sell my scarlet clothes for three sesterces. You bal-
ΩΩ To prevent abuse by characters who attempt to stockpile or
ance round Libyan tabletops on Indian ivory: my beechwood table is propped
trade various goods by repeated use of their Status skill and
up with a fragment of pottery. Oversized mullets cover your yellow gold-inlay
Wealth Level, each transaction should be vetted for the avail-
plates: lobster, you blush on my plate that shares your colour. Your ‘flock’ could
ability of the item requested, or by limiting the number of
compete with the Trojan catamite: but instead of a Ganymede it’s my hand
such ‘purchases’ per game week.
that comes to my aid. Out of so much wealth you give nothing to an old and
ΩΩ Characters who desire items above their normal Wealth
faithful friend and you still say, Candidus, ‘Friends share’?”
Level can only access them via their patron (who will require
Martial – Epigrams
an equivalent service in return) or by taking a loan from a
banker or usurer (which also leads to some interesting plot
Tables for the goods and services follow at the end of this chap-
possibilities).
ter, starting on page 136.
ΩΩ When the city of Rome is under direct threat (for example
during the 2nd Punic War or the later civil wars) the values
of everything, including food, should be raised by one level. Starting Equipment
All characters begin play with:
Instead of simply doling out thousands of sesterces at the end
of an adventure, financial rewards for characters can instead be ΩΩ One or more complete sets of clothing appropriate for their
items beyond their normal means, such as expensive clothing, lux- wealth level
ury items, better accommodation, paying off a debt or loan, promo- ΩΩ A personal family heirloom, usually a ring, sword, drinking
tions, marriage and so on. No actual money needs to be defined and cup or something similar
indeed this can encourage a better understanding of how both status ΩΩ Any trade tools or armaments applicable to their profession
and the client-patron relationship work in ancient Rome. and class
Bear in mind that the following ‘value’ lists reflect what is accept- ΩΩ Living accommodation appropriate for their wealth level
able expenditure for a given Wealth Level. It does not directly repre-
sent the actual intrinsic cost of each item. For example, purchasing
a pair of patrician’s shoes is considered a Priceless expense; whereas
a month’s rent of a large room in an insula is merely Average.
134 Nil sine magno labore vita dedit mortalibus – life does not give mortals anything but hard labour (Horace)
Services (Ministeria) a point it could not be repaired anymore, it was turned into patches
for other garments.
Many jobs were paid for on a per incidence basis. The following
list illustrates the costs of such ‘services’.
Slaves and Livestock
Service Value
Having a bath Cheap (Servi et Pecudes)
Using the public toilet Cheap Slaves are normally sold on the auction block, stripped to reveal
Getting a shave Inexpensive their physique. The price of a slave depends upon their skills and
Laundry Inexpensive beauty. After successful wars, prices fall due to the glut of new slaves
Prostitute Cheap1 Cheap on the market. Otherwise most slaves are imported from the eastern
Prostitute Average Inexpensive Mediterranean, where most have been captured by pirates and sold
Prostitute Good Average into servitude.
Scribe writing a legal document Average Livestock is traded in the Forum Boarium where unblemished
Scribe writing a letter Inexpensive animals can also be purchased as sacrifices for those wishing to pro-
Pleading a law case Expensive pitiate the gods.
1
Make an Endurance roll to avoid catching a venereal disease. Transport (Vectatio)
Most Romans travel by foot or litter in the city but use donkeys,
Food (Cibus) horses or wagons when travelling to or from the countryside. Rent-
ing is the preferred method since the upkeep of slaves or animals
Romans purchase dried foods (such as grain or desiccated veg-
etables) by the Modius, a measurement of volume. Fresh food is dedicated purely for transport is very high. Ships are horribly expen-
bought by the pound weight. Liquids are bought by the Sextarius or sive to build and are usually funded by collectives of investors.
Amphora. These measures translated into modern terms are: Purchasing the mode of transport outright, increases its Value
by one step
1 sextarius = about a pint or half a litre in volume
16 sextarii = 1 modius General Paraphernalia
48 sextarii = 1 amphora As previously mentioned, most early period and poor Romans
20 amphorae = 1 culleus own few material possessions save the basic necessities of plates,
cups, knives, workman tools (depending on profession) and buckets
A modius of grain would provide an adult with 10 days of bread or amphorae (to carry water). Furniture too would be basic, often
after being milled and baked. However, baking bread was expensive crafted by the family itself.
in terms of fuel, so many of the poor simply crushed their grain Over times, however, those who could afford luxuries began to
and left it to soak to make a porridge known as puls. The most basic find many objects to spend their money on. Jewellery, dinner services
dietary cost a Roman could live on (porridge, poor vegetables, a little made of silver, statues, bronze oil lamps, upholstered couches, tables
olive oil and cheapest wine) was ½ a sestertius per day – the same or cabinets made of exotic woods, iron bound chests with locks,
price as two loaves of baked bread or a bowl of stew at an inn. marble vases, book scrolls, paintings; the list grew as the borders of
Meat and fresh vegetables are purchased by the libra, the ancient Rome’s empire expanded.
equivalent of the pound (lb). Most Romans rarely ate meat simply Where the values have a range, the lower value is for crude items
due to the cost. made of wood or pottery, the mid values for those fashioned from
Wine came from all over the fledgling empire but the most well exotic woods or bronze, and the upper value for premium quality
regarded wines were local Italian ones (see Wine page 46). Poor objects crafted from (or inlaid with) silver, ivory, marble or glass. Art-
quality wine was little more than sour flavoured vinegar but when work also ranges in value depending on its quality.
mixed with hot water became a favourite drink of the legions.
Where the price given has a range, the lower value is for ‘second
quality’ whereas the upper value is for ‘first quality’. By the end of
Arms and Armour
Armaments are freely available for sale in the city up until the
the Republic, members of the higher classes are expected to offer
late Republic, whereupon they gradually become more restricted in
foods and wine of good or exquisite quality to guests or suffer a
availability until they are only sold as part of wholesale contracts
lowering of their status.
to the legions, or to young gentlemen of the upper classes engag-
ing in their military careers. Armour and weapons are expensive
Clothing and Fabric due to the difficulties (and costs) of smelting and forging bronze or
(Vestis et Textum) ,later, iron; and most armaments are heirlooms, captured spoils, gifts
from patrons, or a significant expenditure paid for by the extended
For much of the Republic, the women of most Roman house- family... and eventually the State. Variance in values represents the
holds spent their time weaving cloth, from which the family’s clothes amount of ornamentation included on the armament.
were made. In fact many matrons of poorer class earned a supple-
mentary income spinning and weaving for other people. Old clothes
were often given by patrons to their clients. Once clothing reached
Nill Illigitimi carborundum – Do not let the bastards grind you down
135
Accommodation & Property Clothes

Clothing1 Av Value per Item
(Habitatio et Possessio) Mammillare/subligar Inexpensive

Living in the eternal city is expensive. Most inhabitants can only Plain tunic Average to Expensive
afford to rent a single room in one of the ubiquitous insulae. Only Stola Average to Expensive
prosperous characters live in houses and even then they are nor- Hooded Cloak (Lacerna) Average to Expensive
mally under the authority of their father (or grandfather) who owns Soldier’s Cloak (Sagum) Average to
the place and may still live there. Expensive
Toga plain Expensive
General Expenses (Sumptus) Toga praetexta Priceless
Many Romans attempt to improve their social status by spon- Soldiers boots Average
soring entertainments or erecting monuments. However, most of Patrician’s shoes Priceless
these expenses are beyond the pocket of most common plebeians to Senatorial shoes Expensive
provide. Even the richest men in Rome have to borrow heavily from
Equestrian’s shoes Expensive
friends or relations in order to pay for such spectacles.
Normal Gallic sandals Inexpensive
Price and Value Lists 1Treat old clothes (-5% Status) as being one Value level lower, and rags (-20% Status) as two
levels lower
Dried Food
Wine and Oil
Item Av Value in Modius Notes
Wine1 or Oil Av Value in Sextarius Notes
Dried Vegetables Cheap Peas, beans
Normally part, if not all,
Cheap Grain Cheap Millet, oats, barley, rye Poor Wine Cheap
vinegar
Good Grain Inexpensive Wheat
Average Wine Inexpensive
Salt Average Course crystalline or rock
Coan, Corinthian, Lesbian,
Anything from sage to Good Wine Average Cretan, Judean, and
Spices Expensive to Priceless
saffron Mamertine
Caecuban, Fundanian,
Fresh Food Fine Wine Expensive Setinian, Falernian, Alban,
Item Av Value in Libra Notes and Statinian
Fresh Vegetables Cheap Olive Oil Inexpensive to Expensive Depending on quality
Fresh Fruit Inexpensive Liquamen Inexpensive to Expensive Depending on quality
Beef was not favoured for 1
Spiced or heated wine adds one to its value
Beef Inexpensive
consumption
Prices range from poor to Livestock
Fish (Freshwater) Average to Expensive
best quality Types Av Value
Prices range from poor to Dove Inexpensive
Fish (Saltwater) Average to Expensive
best quality Chicken Inexpensive
Goat Average Goat Average
Lamb Average Sheep Average
Pork Average Pig Average
Prices range from poor to Ox Average
Sausage Average to Expensive
best quality
Donkey Average
Chicken Average
Horse Expensive
Goose Expensive
Dog 1
Expensive
Pheasant Expensive
Successful Chariot Team Priceless
Leopard Priceless
Fabric
Lion Priceless
Item Av Value per Libra Weight
Assumes a dog specially bred and trained for hunting or guarding. Otherwise dogs can be found
1
Wool Inexpensive
wild in the streets or necropolises for those brave enough to attempt to domesticate one
Linen Average
Cotton Average
Undyed Coan silk Expensive
Purple dyed Cloth Priceless
136 Noli turbare circulos meos! – Do not upset my circles! (Archimedes)

Slaves Property
Duties/Skills1 Av Value Type Av Value
Unskilled labourer Average Modest house in Rome Priceless
Household slave Average Large house in Rome Beyond Priceless
Music or Dancing slave Average Run down insula2 Priceless
Educated slave Expensive Well maintained insula2 Beyond Priceless
Trained gladiator or charioteer Expensive Smallholding3 Average
Household manager Priceless Humble farm3 Expensive
Trained doctor Priceless Modest villa3 Priceless
Popular gladiator or charioteer Priceless Large estate with villa3 Beyond Priceless
1
Particularly beautiful or handsome slaves raise their Value by one level
1
The new maximum value of ‘Beyond Priceless’ has been added to represent the difficul-
ties of even the super rich being able to purchase the most precious commodity in Rome,
Transport that of land and property itself.
Type Av Value 2
The number of floors the insula possesses is the annual % chance the insula will collapse
Rented slave-borne litter Expensive or burn each year. Well maintained insulae halve the chance of disaster. If the insula is
Rented donkey Average the character’s major source of income, their Wealth Level drops to the value of their next
Rented horse Expensive largest business or property until it is rebuilt.
3
Each year the owner, depending on whether he is managing or farming the land, should
Rented wagon Average
roll against his Command or Craft (Farming) skill and look up the result on the following
Hire a merchant ship Priceless
table:
General Goods ΩΩ Critical – Excellent cultivation improves the quality of the land. Not only does
the bountiful harvest increase the income by one step for the following year, but
Type Av Value
the Value of the land itself is permanently enhanced, raising its Value by a level
Pot Cheap to Expensive
ΩΩ Success – The land provides a normal income
Dish Cheap to Average ΩΩ Failure – Wretched weather or bad management causes the harvest to fail. The
Matched Dinner Service Inexpensive to Priceless income drops by one step for the following year
Vase Average to Priceless ΩΩ Fumble – Disaster strikes. The land is poisoned or blighted. No income is produced
Oil lamp Cheap to Average and the land’s Value permanently drops by one level
Chandelier Average to Priceless
General Expenses
Bucket Cheap to Inexpensive
Type Av Value
Knife Inexpensive to Average
Value equal to the Wealth Level of the
Labourers Tools Cheap to Inexpensive Maintain clients
client
Craftsmen Tools Inexpensive to Average One Value step higher than your Wealth
Throwing an elaborate party1
Artists Tools Average to Expensive Level
Storage Box Cheap to Priceless One Value step higher than your Wealth
Hold a wedding or funeral
Lockable Chest Average to Priceless Level
Furniture Inexpensive to Priceless Hold an elaborate wedding or Two Value steps higher than your Wealth
Artwork Value funeral2 Level6
Book (Papyrus Scroll) Average to Expensive Sponsor a play2 Expensive
Jewellery Average to Priceless Host a private gladiator combat 2

Expensive
Hanging Paintings Average to Priceless Erect a public monument3 Priceless
Wall Frescos Average to Priceless Run in an election (bribery and

Priceless
counter-bribery)
Mosaics Expensive to Priceless
Build a major temple4 Beyond Priceless
Statues Expensive to Priceless
Host munera or ludi games5 Beyond Priceless
1
A successful party gives the host a brief 5% bonus to their Status when next negotiating
a favour from a guest. Multiple parties do not stack bonuses
2
Elaborate spectacles or entertainments grant a yearlong 10% bonus to Status with those
who attend
3
Public monuments grant a permanent 10% bonus to Status. Multiple monuments do
not stack bonuses
4
Erecting a major temple can bring favour from the gods (see Theology page 140)
5
A spectacular set of games can bring a temporary 25% bonus to the Politics skill when
the sponsor seeks their next magisterial office
6
To a maximum of Beyond Priceless
Nomina stultorum scribuntur ubique locorum – Fools have the habit of writing their names everywhere
137
Armour
Type AP Av Value
Monarchic Roman Armour

Bronze Cuirass (Chest and Abdomen) 8 Priceless
Bronze Greaves (Legs) 4 Priceless
Bronze Chalcidian or Corinthian Helmet (Head) 8 Priceless
Bronze Pot Helm (Head) 4 Expensive
Early Republican Roman Armour

Bronze Pectoral (Chest) 6 Priceless
Bronze Greaves (Legs) 4 Priceless
Bronze Helmet with Cheek Flaps (Head) 5 Priceless
Bronze Pot Helm (Head) 4 Expensive
Mid-Republican Roman Armour

Iron Mail Shirt (Chest and Abdomen) 7 Priceless
Iron Helmet with Neck and Cheek Guards (Head) 7 Priceless
Bronze Pectoral (Chest) 6 Expensive
Bronze Greaves (Legs) 4 Expensive
Bronze Helmet with Cheek Flaps (Head) 5 Expensive
Late Republican Roman Armour

Commander Armour (Chest, Abdomen, Legs and Head) 8 Priceless
Iron Mail Shirt (Chest and Abdomen) 7 Expensive
Iron Helmet with Neck and Cheek Guards (Head) 7 Expensive
Iron Greaves (Legs) 4 Expensive
Shields
Shield Damage Size Reach AP/HP Notes Period Value
Bronze Hoplite Shield (Hoplon) 1d4 H S 6/15 Passive Blocks 4 Locations Monarchy Priceless
Wooden Oval Shield (Aspis) 1d4 L S 4/15 Passive Blocks 4 Locations Monarchy Average
Wooden Round Shield (Parma) 1d3 M S 4/12 Passive Blocks 3 Locations Monarchy - Mid Republic Average
Iron Rimed Oval Shield (Scutum) 1d4 L S 5/15 Passive Blocks 5 Locations Early Republic Expensive
Iron Rimed Oval Shield (Scutum) 1d4 H S 5/18 Passive Blocks 5 Locations Mid Republic Average
Iron Rimed Rectangular Shield (Scutum) 1d4 H S 5/18 Passive Blocks 5 Locations Late Republic Average
Weapons
Weapon Damage Size Reach AP/HP Notes Value
Dagger (Sica) 1d3+1 S S 5/6 Bleeding Inexpensive to Average
Dagger (Pugio) 1d4+1 S S 5/8 Impaling Average to Priceless
Short Sword (Xiphos) 1d6 M S 6/6 Bleeding Expensive
Hacking Sword (Falcata, Kopis) 1d4+2 M S 6/7 Bleeding Expensive
Stabbing Sword (Gladius) 1d6 M S 5/8 Impaling Expensive
Cavalry Sword (Spatha) 1d8 M M 5/10 Bleeding Expensive
Spear (Hasta) 1d8+1 M L 4/5 Impaling Average to Expensive
Ranged Weapons
Damage
Ranged Weapon Damage Force Range Load Impale Size AP/HP Combat Effects Cost
Mod
Impale, Pin Weapon
Heavy Javelin (Pilum) 1d8+1 Y H 10/20/50 — M 3/8 Average
(Shield)
Light Javelin (Veruta) 1d6+1 Y H 10/20/50 — M 3/8 Impale Average
Sling (Funda) 1d8 N L 10/150/300 3 — 1/2 Stun Location Cheap
138 Non est ad astra mollis e terris via - There is no easy way from the earth to the stars (Seneca)
Mythic Rome: Magic & Superstition
Magic &
Superstition
“For myself, I sincerely believe that there exists an art which the Greeks Roman magic can be broadly divided into the following catego-
call Mantikè, or magic; and that the flight of birds and other signs, which ries. In game terms, each one is treated as a separate skill.
the augurs profess to observe, form a part of this magic. For when we grant
ΩΩ Theology (theologia)
the existence of the supreme gods, and their intellectual government of the
ΩΩ Divination (divinatio)
universe, and their benignant dealings with the human race, and their power
ΩΩ Cursing (exsecratio)
of granting us intimations of future events, I know not why we should deny
ΩΩ Necromancy (necromantia)
the art of granting us intimations of future events, I know not why we should
ΩΩ Pharmacy (medicamentaria)
deny the art of divination.”
ΩΩ Shape-shifting (ars versipellis)
Cicero – De Re Publica
Strictly speaking there are no hindrances to who can learn magic,
Magic and superstition are rife in Rome. Ceremonies propitiate anyone of any class or standing can practice such things…. Yet some
the gods, divinations are held before the Senate can begin business forms of magic are less socially acceptable than others. For example,
and in the darker alleyways curses are written on lead tablets. By praying to the gods is fine but summoning the dead is damning and
necessity the city is repeatedly purged of the evils of foreign sorcer- eventually proscribed.
ers, which threaten the morals and beliefs of the people.
Such a fundamental aspect of Roman life is impossible to sep- “Agrippa did this, and he also drove the astrologers and the sorcerers out
arate from any accurate portrayal of the city. However, deciding of the city.”
how influential magic will be is an important consideration for a Cassius Dio – Roman History
campaign, since it grants supernatural options to overcome prob-
lems to both players and their foes. Whether magic actually works is Characters wishing to learn the darker arts will find it difficult to
up to the Game Master, who has several choices regarding magical find teachers without travelling overseas, purchasing (or capturing)
reality… foreign slaves already possessing such knowledge or seeking out the
ΩΩ No Magic – sorcery does not work and is complete nonsense. secretive professional practitioners in the city.
ΩΩ Psychological Magic – sorcery is merely applied psychology
or pharmaceutical effects.
ΩΩ True Magic – sorcery is real and the gods and spirits have
power over the world.
The Legality of Magic
Some forms of magic are forbidden in Rome’s history. In the
It should be noted that none of the following magical systems original laws of the Twelve Tables written in 451 BC, two different
use the magic rules described in the Mythras core book. Rather types are actively forbidden. “Whoever has sung an evil incanta-
they have been designed to accurately model the magical arts as tion (malum carmen)…” and “It is illegal for anyone to charm away
described by the Romans themselves. Such magic is neither potent another man’s crops”. The penalty for the latter form of malefic
nor flashy. It cannot reproduce the elemental powers and spells of sorcery was sacrifice to the goddess Ceres.
Greek mythology, which cause rivers to flow backwards or summon During the reprisals against the Bacchic rites, Roman magistrates
weather. Instead it is far more subtle; controlling the minds and fears ordered the execution of more than 5,000 worshippers accused of
of men, the application of herbal concoctions, interpreting unusual malign magic and poisoning (veneficium). By the late Republic the
events and foreseeing the future. laws against certain types of magic and their practitioners had been
formalised by Sulla, and continued to be exceedingly stringent in
their punishments.
Non nobis solum nati sumus – We are not born for ourselves alone
139
Priests of the state gods, augurs, and those haruspices warranted
“Those who perform or direct the performance of impious or nocturnal by the Senate are not considered magicians and remain above and,
rites, in order to bewitch, bind, or tie a person, are either crucified or thrown ostensibly beyond, censure.
to the beasts. Those who sacrifice a human being, make offerings of human
blood, or pollute a sanctuary or temple, are thrown to the beasts or, if they are
of the upper classes, executed. It is resolved to subject those who know the craft
Theology (Theologia)
The worship of the gods is universal amongst the inhabitants of
of magic to the ultimate punishment, that is, to throw them to the beasts or
the city of Rome, no matter their personal philosophy or the pan-
crucify them. Actual mages, however, are burned alive. No one may have books
theon they propitiate. Everybody believes. Although respect is given
on the craft of magic in his house. If they are found in someone’s house, they
by all Romans, calling for their aid requires specific knowledge of
are burned in public and their owner has his property confiscated; upper classes
the ancient formats and formulae used.
are deported to an island, lower classes are executed. Even the mere knowledge
Only those characters who cultivate the Theology skill know how
of this craft, let alone its pursuit as a trade, is forbidden.”
to phrase prayers in the correct manner so that the gods to listen to
Sulla – Lex Cornelia de Sicariis et Veneficis
their entreaties. Calling upon the gods to intervene in their lives is
known as Divine Intervention but this requires that any help given is
Yet even after this proclamation, Rome remained full of scrolls
paid for, usually with an appropriate sacrifice.
concerning magic and prophesy, from which much lore was proba-
The Theology skill not only represents the degree of favour with
bly preserved. But in 31 BC Octavian finally ordered their destruc-
which the gods look upon their worshipper but also grants knowl-
tion in one of the first mass book burnings in history.
edge of the pantheon’s deities and customs. Since the position of
priest within Rome is a political one, characters striving for elevation
“After he had at long last taken on the office of Pontifex Maximus on the
into one of the collegia need not actually be particularly skilled in
death of Lepidus (for he had not had the heart to deprive him of it during
Theology but are expected to learn after election.
his lifetime), he gathered together from all quarters over two thousand books
of prophetic writings in Greek and Latin, commonly held to be anonymous or Calling upon the Gods
penned by insufficiently suitable authors, and burned them. He just preserved Anybody possessing the Theology skill may make an appeal for
the Sibylline Books, but in the case of these too he chose some and rejected divine aid. However, the contractual nature of such bargains is exact
others. He buried them in two gilded boxes under the pedestal of Palatine and the worshiper must not make any mistakes, else the gods ignore
Apollo.” their request… Only if the prayer is invoked correctly will that char-
Suetonius – Augustus acter be briefly blessed with divine fortune.
A call for divine aid must be made before the character begins
an endeavour; it cannot be performed retroactively. The invocation
Types of Magicians
Magical practitioners are known by many different names,
requires spending at least a minute uttering the entire invocation –
first addressing the correct divinity, then framing the request and
concluding with a promise of a sacrifice reciprocal to the divine
according to the powers they work with. Despite the rather disrepu-
assistance. The prayer can be shouted out for all to hear or merely
table reputation of the craft, magicians remain an inseparable part
muttered under one’s breath.
of society – fulfilling the needs of the populace, whether psycholog-
ical or nefarious.
“From the very outset I pray to You, Apollo, inventor of music and of
Astrologers (astrologi), diviners (vates) and foreign soothsayers
all the healing arts, come to my aid and this undertaking, bless it with your
(haruspices) use various different methods of divination to foretell
laurel”
fate and the future. Some are regarded as charlatans who prey on
Ovid – Remedia Amoris
peoples’ fears and insecurities to encourage repeated consultations.
Sorcerers (venefici and malefici) are male dabblers in the darker
To determine whether or not the deity agrees to the contract, the
sides of magic: summoning the dead, inflicting curses and brew-
player makes a roll against their Theology skill. If successful, then
ing poisons. They live a far more dangerous life, at risk of being
the god has accepted the prayer and will ‘bless’ the character in their
reported to the authorities by unsatisfied clients.
forthcoming enterprise.
Witches (sagae and strigae) are female sorcerers. Saga are wise
The blessing allows the character to ‘bump’ the success of a sin-
women who brew traditional herbal remedies for disease, injury, or
gle skill check by one level. It will turn a fumble into a fail, a fail into
abortion. Striga are the more ominous casters of curses, brewers of
a success or a success into a critical. The opportunity to utilise the
poisons, and love potions; they could even shape shift themselves or
blessing remains active for the remainder of that scene/encounter
their victims.
and if not used will be wasted.
“…there’s a certain old woman called Dipsas… I suspect she changes,
“Venus, I offer you thanks, and I beg and entreat you that I may win the
at will, in the shadows of night and her old woman’s body grows feathers. I
man I love and long for, and that he may be gracious to me, and not reject my
suspect it, and that’s the rumour. Her eyes shine too with double pupils, and
desire for him”
twin lights come from the orbs. She calls up ancient ancestors, ghosts from the
Plautus – Miles Gloriosus
grave and with long-winded charms splits solid earth.”
Ovid – The Procuress, Elergies
After the conclusion of the blessing, the god will refuse to grant
further boons until the promised sacrifice has been made.
140 Non omne quod licet honestum est - Not everything that is permitted is honest (Corpus Iuris Civilis)
Appropriate Sacrifices major gods of Rome see Religion page 108. A list of the minor gods
Since all promised sacrifices must ultimately be made at a shrine is included in Appendix IV.
of the god called upon, repetitive requests for divine aid require close
proximity to the pertinent temple or a priest of that deity who can Divination (Divinatio)
temporarily consecrate altars. Atop this, the cost of an appropriate The Romans have an odd attitude towards divination. On the
sacrifice can be prohibitively expensive to those of meagre finances. one hand, State authorised augurs and haruspices do not actually
The minimum sacrifice required for a personal blessing (i.e. foretell the future, they merely divine the ‘will of the gods’ at that
something which only directly benefited the worshipper) is the dona- moment; that is to say, they report if the gods approve of a particular
tion of an animal suitable to that cult. In most cases this is something course of action (omina).
modest like a dove, goat or sheep. But for higher status gods it may On the other hand, the precise revelation of future events is con-
involve more expensive and individualistic animals, such as flawless sidered illegal and subject to severe punishment; despite the fact that
white bulls for example (see Prayer, Sacrifices and Thanksgiving on the State sometimes consults the Sibylline Books, which are full of
page 112). such prophesy concerning the future of Rome. Yet in secret, many
Sacrifices for blessings which have a larger scale effect, such as Romans seek just such divinations from seers and soothsayers to help
rallying a losing army, preventing the loss of a fleet to bad weather, guide them in their political, financial, and even gambling activities.
or diffusing a mob before it can riot, require a much larger bequest.
This normally involves donating a tenth of the spoils of a battle or a “Do we wait for the immortal gods to converse with us in the forum, on
promise to redecorate or renovate the god’s temple. the street, and in our homes? While they do not, of course, present themselves
in person, they do diffuse their power far and wide. The Stoics reason that, if
“If You, Father of the Gods and of men, hold back our enemies, at least there are gods and they do not make clear to man in advance what the future
from this spot, delivering the Romans from their terror, and stay their shameful will be, then either they do not love man or they themselves do not know what
retreat, then this I vow to You, Jupiter Stator, that a holy precinct and shrine the future will be.”
will be built in Your honour as a memorial to remind our descendents of how Cicero – De Divinatione
once the city of Rome was saved by Your aid”
Livy – Ab Urbe Condita There are a number of different schools of divination, each util-
ising unique means to read the future. Most are foreign in origin,
Those very few that can afford to make a massive commitment, which adds an element of exotic mystery to their reputation.
can build a new temple to the god they deem as their patron. Such
investments cost millions of sesterces and years of construction. ΩΩ Astrology (astrologia) – Divination by charting the motion of
However, at the conclusion of its building, after it has been dedi- the stars, planets, comets and other celestial phenomena in
cated, the founder is under a continuous blessing. Once each day the night sky and comparing them to dates of birth.
they may call upon their patron god to aid them, and never have to ΩΩ Augury (auguratio) – The interpretation of the flights, num-
make another sacrifice to restore that god’s favour. bers and species of birds to judge whether something was
approved or disapproved of by the gods.
The Blessings of the Gods ΩΩ Cleromancy (sortilectio) – Divination by drawing lots, usu-
Choosing the correct god to call upon is very important. Each ally stones or beans from a jar or from a bag, rolling dice or
deity has a specific domain over which they have authority and knucklebones, or drawing straws.
sometimes a god has several different aspects referring to many dif- ΩΩ Dendromancy (dendromanteia) – Divination by listening to
ferent areas of power. For example, a legionary will call upon Mars the sounds of leaves in wind-blown trees, or by studying the
for divine protection in battle, whereas the commander of the legion rings in a freshly snapped branch.
might instead request aid from Jupiter Victor (bringer of victory). ΩΩ Haruspication (haruspicina) – Divination by examining the
It is the Game Master’s responsibility to rule whether the deity entrails (especially the liver) of sacrificed animals.
being supplicated is applicable to the task being performed. For the ΩΩ Lycanomancy (lycanomanteia) – Oil is dripped onto water
and the pattern it makes tells the diviner about events in the
future.
Chariots of the Gods ΩΩ Meteromancy (meteromanteia) – Divination by watching the
Although the Theology skill grants a definite benefit, divine blessings
weather, cloud formations, the direction of the wind, sun on
could simply be the result of psychosomatic inspiration by those who are
the clouds and so forth.
truly pious. Of course, some Game Masters might prefer that the gods ΩΩ Lychnomancy (lychnomanteia) – Lamp divination, through
really do exist, playing with their worshippers for their entertainment or
the flickering of a lamp, smoke of incense burning on a char-
even their own divine survival. In campaigns where the gods are real, it
coal brazier, or of flower and laurel leaves smouldering on a
should be remembered that, unlike Greek mythology, the major Roman
fire. The flame or smoke reveals patterns of future events to
gods do not physically manifest themselves (although their legendary
the diviner.
champions might). Instead they work through the medium of dreams
and portents. Historical examples include lightning strikes from the sky,
eagles landing on a shoulder or the toppling of statues. Like all aspects
of the Roman supernatural, the gods are not brazen but subtle (well, as
subtle as a being struck by lightning can be…).
Non scholae, sed vitae discimus – We learn not for school but for life (Seneca)
141
melodramatic prophesy, rolls the requisite number of dice to see
how many Magic Points it costs, and then the Game Master rolls
against the character’s Divination skill.
The result of the roll should remain hidden from the soothsayer,
since he has no idea if his attempt to predict the future has suc-
ceeded or not.
ΩΩ Critical – The prediction immediately occurs, precisely as
the player desired.
ΩΩ Success – Will bring the desired result within a week, in a
series of odd coincidences.
ΩΩ Failure – The prediction completely fails to occur, under-
mining the soothsayer’s reputation.
ΩΩ Fumble – Causes the twisting or reverse of the original inten-
tion (which can be particularly bad if the prophesy concerns
death). The more important or influential the failed prophesy,
the greater the risk that the seer is killed for his temerity, inac-
curacy or simply executed for maleficent sorcery.
The Magic Point cost of the divination varies according to the

changes prophesied. Large scale prophesies are extremely danger-
ous to cast and must be performed before a large number of people
in order to work.
1d6 – Prediction affects a single individual
2d6 – Prediction affects a family or college
3d6 – Prediction affects an entire city
+1d6 – Prediction brings disaster or fortune
+2d6 – Prediction causes death
The number of Magic Points spent generating the prediction is
“…that there are gods; that they rule the universe by their foresight; and rolled at the conclusion of the ritual. If the total cost exceeds the
that they direct the affairs of men... Then surely it must follow that the gods available Magic Points of the soothsayer, then the strain of changing
give to men signs of coming events… Flight patterns of birds; entrails of reality to such a great degree causes them to collapse and either
sacrificed animals; types of dreams” die or go insane as the Game Master desires. However, even if the
Cicero – De Divinatione seer dies, their dying words can still come true if the Divination roll
succeeds.
Of course, true divination does not need to be present in cam-
paigns with no real magic or a Game Master may wish to restrict its “Moreover, proof of the power of dying men to prophesy is also given by
use to the province of NPC’s. Posidonius in his well-known account of a certain Rhodian, who, when on
his death-bed, named six men of equal age and foretold which of them would
How Divination Works die first, which second, and so on.”
In role-playing games, prophesying the future is somewhat Cicero – De Divinatione
impractical. After all, the Game Master is not omnipotent and the
randomness of dice rolls (or capricious players) can invalidate the
Loose Talk Costs Lives
simplest prediction. Thus instead of divination being used to predict
All prophesies should be phrased in the traditional ‘loose’ manner,
the future, a player character soothsayer can instead change events
allowing the success of the foretelling to occur from an infinite number
to create their own desired future.
of different possibilities. They should also be made in a public man-
Of course such modifications are usually minor affairs, which do
ner so that any psychological influence can affect the subjects of the
not greatly disrupt reality. However, major events can be generated
divination.
by soothsayers of significant skill or daring. In essence the soothsayer
For example, a seer attached to a legion proclaims that the city they
uses psychology to influence their clients or listeners into particular
are besieging “shall fall when the apples kiss the ground”. The GM
courses of action, or draws upon seemingly random coincidences to
rolls the dice and the seer is successful in his divination. He can imple-
fulfil their predictions.
ment this prophesy in a number of different ways. A normal success
The presence of witnesses is vital to the divination, since the
might mean the campaign drags on several more weeks until the rains of
reactions of those listening is often the cause of many prophesies
an autumn storm collapse part of the city’s fortifications, coincidentally
coming true.
at the time the apples drop in the orchards. On a critical success, a table
Making a Divination supporting a bowl of apples near the seer overturns and several apples
The Divination skill is used in the following manner. The player roll into a hitherto unnoticed hole, revealing a secret passage under the
performs a divination ritual, states his intended result as a suitably walls…
142 Non uno die Roma aedificata est – Rome was not built in one day
Once a prophesy has been made, it cannot be rescinded or manifestations attached to curses, they do not need to have an actual
replaced. The future has now been set. Another soothsayer who suc- supernatural explanation.
cessfully divines future events will make exactly the same prediction.
This can be extremely bad if a prediction is specifically made about Curse Tablets (Defixiones)
a player character. Of course, the Seer may not have succeeded in Although curse tablets are normally inscribed upon lead, they
his Divination roll but if he has, then the GM is duty bound to force can be made with other materials such as carved stone, papyrus,
the events to happen. Large scale events usually take a longer time wax and even occasionally gemstones. Since a large proportion of
to occur. Rome’s populace are illiterate, curse tablets are often written by pro-
Note also that a soothsayer cannot make a divination concerning fessionals and sold to customers to invoke for themselves.
their own future. Those that try invariably cause the prophecy to Other than litigation curses, maledictions are used to hinder
twist against themselves. opponents in competitions, blight the success of rival tradesmen,
punish ex-lovers or would-be lovers and more interestingly, bring
Cursing (Exsecratio) justice upon those who have wronged the writer and even return
stolen goods (for specific examples of competition curses, see Char-
iot Races page 81).
“There is no one, who does not dread being spell-bound by means of evil
imprecations”
“The one who has stolen my bronze bowl is accursed. I give the person
to the temple of Sulis, whether woman or man, whether slave or free, whether
boy or girl, and may the man who did this pour his own blood into the very
Perhaps unsurprisingly for a society so entrenched with the con-
bowl. I give you that thief who stole the item itself, for the god to find, whether
cepts of vengeance and retribution, curses are one of the most pro-
woman or man, whether slave or free, whether boy or girl.”
lific forms of magic in Rome. Although most people know a few
Anonymous Curse
choice phrases invoking the gods of the underworld, dabbling in
such arts is inherently dangerous and the majority go to a profes-
After inscription, those defixiones placed upon flexible materials
sional sorcerer or witch for really effective curses (dirae).
are rolled up and have a nail hammered through them, thus ‘fixing’
the curse. They are then ritually buried in graves of the untimely
“And when the other tribunes would not permit this, the attendant released
dead or thrown in chthonian sanctuaries or wells which are all
Crassus, but Ateius ran on ahead to the city gate, placed there a blazing
thought to connect with the underworld. This also has the benefit
brazier, and when Crassus came up, cast incense and libations upon it, and
of hiding the curse from the person so blighted, since its destruction
invoked curses which were dreadful and terrifying in themselves, and were
will negate the magic. In many cases, the victim is informed of the
reinforced by sundry strange and dreadful gods whom he summoned and called
malediction and can purchase the curse tablet back or rescind the
by name. The Romans say that these mysterious and ancient curses have such
act which caused them to be cursed in the first place.
power that no one involved in them ever escapes, and misfortune falls also
upon the one who utters them, wherefore they are not employed at random Casting a Curse
nor by many… yet had he involved the city in curses which awakened much Invoking a malediction requires the Cursing skill. A simple roll
superstitious terror. against the skill determines if the curse has been successfully cast.
Plutarch – Life of Crassus However, the victim of the curse may resist its effects by winning
an opposed test of their Willpower against the caster’s Cursing roll.
Although curses can be performed by verbal invocation (fascina- Targets of a curse, whether or not it takes effect, always feel such
tio) or the ‘evil eye’ (invidentia), most curses are inscribed upon lead nefarious attacks with some form of physical or psychosomatic con-
tablets and cast into pits, wells or buried in graves – where spirits of sequence – although the sensations might not be recognised for what
the dead carry the request to the infernal deities. In this way, even if they truly are… for example shivers down the spine, or overt thump-
the caster is ‘dealt with’ for their maledictions, the curse (inscribed ing of the heart.
as it is on permanent material) is believed to continue ad infinitum.
Cursing was a frequent part of law cases, either to affect the “He [Olympius] had a contemptuous attitude toward Plotinus because
results of litigation, or sometimes to denounce the reputation of the of his own desire to be the first. His attacks culminated in an attempt to use
accused. magic to sun-scorch him. But when he perceived that the assault was rebound-
ing on himself, he told his friends that Plotinus’s soul was so powerful that it
“When I had rounded off the case for the defence on behalf of Cotta’s could beat back attacks against him and turn them on those who were trying
Titinia in a very important private suit, he [Curio] was speaking against me to harm him. However, Plotinus perceived Olympius’s attack and said that at
on behalf of Servius Naevius. All of a sudden he forgot his entire case and that moment his body felt drawn tight as if by purse strings, with his limbs
said that this had been caused by Titinia’s spells and incantations.” being crushed together. After repeatedly exposing himself to harm as opposed
Cicero – Brutus to inflicting it on Plotinus, Olympius gave up.”
Porphyry – Life of Plotinus
In most campaigns the effects of cursing can be readily explained
by the simple application of psychology. Romans believe in curses, Failure to affect the target of a successfully invoked curse
so when they themselves are accursed, their own minds play rebounds the detrimental effect back upon the caster, although this
tricks on them, hindering everyday tasks. As there are no actual might not be immediately obvious. Thus cursing can be a foolish
thing to attempt for the uninitiated.
Non ut edam vivo, sed vivam edo – I do not live to eat, but I eat to live (Quintilian)
143
The effects of a curse are many and varied. The caster may the full extent of their allotted hundred years had passed could they
choose from the following options. then cross over to seek eternal peace.
The dead were believed capable of revealing knowledge held
ΩΩ Loss of fertility, preventing the production of children, live-
by the departed and even foretelling the future, (although such pre-
stock or crops
dictions were considered unreliable, ultimately turning against the
ΩΩ Plagued by dreams (if attracting) or nightmares (if chastising),
questioner). Spirits could also be summoned to haunt, or even slay,
which begin to drive the victim to increasing levels of fatigue
the living. Thus sorcerers and witches were greatly feared and given
ΩΩ Reduction of competence in a single skill by continuously
respect by their neighbours.
reducing the success levels of any rolls against it by one step
(e.g. Failures downgrade to Fumbles, Successes to Failures
“You [Vatinius], who are accustomed to call yourself a Pythagorean and
and so on)
to conceal behind the name of a most learned man your monstrous and barbar-
Invoking curses costs the caster 1d6 POW, which is temporarily ian customs, what crookedness of mind possessed you, what frenzy so great?
removed from the characteristic until the curse is allowed to lapse. You have undertaken unheard-of criminal rites. You are accustomed to call up
Thus curses can be maintained for years if necessary but at a detri- the spirits of the dead. You are accustomed to make sacrifices to the ghosts of
mental effect to the caster since each malediction twists his personal- the dead with the entrails of boys.”
ity, saps magical energy and can reduce Luck Points. Cicero – In Vatinium
Once a curse is allowed to drop, the caster regains the POW
expended. Those curses cast without a curse tablet (such as the Evil
Eye), can be prematurely ended with the death of the caster.
Performing Necromancy
Summoning, controlling or exorcising the dead requires the Nec-
romancy skill. Its implementation by necessity involves the use of
dead bodies or casting spells in places where the dead are buried. As
Curses, Curses.
such, the lengthy rituals required are usually held at night, in forgot-
Those prone to being cursed on a regular basis, such as charioteers
ten graveyards or remote necropolises.
for example, often have dozens, if not hundreds of maledictions cast
Summoning a spirit for questioning requires a cadaver to inhabit,
upon them. This would mean that eventually some curses would take
so that the eidolon can use the dead body’s voice to communicate.
hold. Although this perhaps explains the high mortality rate of the pro-
This means the dubious obtainment of a fresh corpse. The sum-
fession, it does open the gates of game abuse.
moner must expend 1d6 Magic Points and roll successfully against
To counteract this wave of negativity, those skilled in cursing
their Necromancy skill to correctly recall a spirit to the corpse. It is
can also counter-curse, providing protection against defixiones. These
then bound to answer questions its summoner poses. Each question
are cast and cost exactly the same as a normal cursing but any curse
costs the summoner a further 1d6 Magic Points and another roll
attempting to affect the target must first overcome the Cursing skill of his
(performed by the Game Master) against their Necromancy skill
guardian in an opposed test, before it may continue onto the victim. Such
to obtain the correct answer. The dead are cunning and pervert
protection is expensive but in many cases worthwhile.
answers unless rigidly held to the will of the witch or sorcerer.
Since curses normally require time to prepare and enact, and have
a detrimental effect on the caster, cursing should not cause undue game
“As the blood struck them the organs beneath the chill breast quivered,
balance difficulties in most campaigns.
and life, creeping anew into the innards that had forgotten it, mingled itself
with the death. Then all the dead man’s limbs shook, and his sinews flexed.
The corpse did not raise itself from the ground gradually, one limb at a time.
Rather, it shot up from the earth and was upright in an instant. The eyes were
laid bare, the mouth an open grimace. His appearance was of one not yet fully
Necromancy (Necromantia) alive, but of a man still in the phase of dying. He was still pallid and stiff,
“The impious chief of an unspeakable religion, accustomed to learning

the fates in advance through human entrails, laid the spasming guts of a free The Reality of the Restless Dead
born breast in the flames and broke the ground with a magical incantation. On the face of it, necromancy appears to have no place in campaigns
He dared to draw Pompey from the Elysian Fields. For shame. That Magnus that abjure real magic. However even if no true supernatural powers are
should look upon this rite. Stupid man, why do you seek Pompey among the used, practitioners could still falsely portray some frightening and con-
shades of the underworld? His spirit could not be confined by the earth.” vincing effects. Many of the historical witches and sorcerers were reputed
Annoymous Epigram to use mediums, usually young boys if not themselves, through which the
spirits spoke – a device still used till modern times. The employment
The art of summoning and controlling the dead is a potent force. of reanimated corpses could also be mere trickery, using fine threads
Necromancy is intimately woven into the legends of Rome’s found- disguised by very dim lighting to make the corpse move, augmented with
ing, from the voyage of Aeneas in the Aeneid, to the placation of the ventriloquism. Even the sending of ghosts to haunt or murder might
vengeful ghost of Romulus’ brother, Remus. The Romans thought simply be persons frighteningly disguised with ashes and makeup, or
that those who died premature deaths (for whatever reason) or could even delusions suffered from the viewer being subtly poisoned… Those
not pay for the ferry across the River Styx were trapped on the edge Game Masters who want to use ‘real’ ghosts should refer to the Lemures
of the underworld, still able to return to haunt the living. Only once on page 161.
144 Non vestimentum virum ornat, sed vir vestimentum – Not the raiment graces the man, but the man the raiment
and in consternation at being brought back into the world.
But his tightened mouth made no mutter. Voice and tongue
were granted him only for replying. “Tell me,” said the
Thessalian witch, “what I command you, and you shall
be well rewarded.”
Lucan – Pharsalia
Calling forth a lemur from the underworld to

haunt a victim is a far more dangerous procedure.
Without a body to confine its spirit, the ghost can
potentially break free of the summoner’s control. It
costs 3d6 Magic Points and a successful roll against
the Necromancy skill to summon a lemur; if the
cost is more than the Magic Points the witch or sor-
cerer has available, then control over the ghost is
lost, leaving them vulnerable to its predilections…
normally meaning imminent possession or death.
“She [an unfaithful wife] asked for one of two results,

either that her husband should be pacified, and that she
should be reconciled with him, or, if she could not do that,
that at any rate a ghost or some dreadful demon be sent to
do violence to him and destroy him. Then the witch, able as mare, the succulent gland that grows on a foal’s forehead, the pledge that its
she was to compel divine powers, opened a skirmish with just the basic weap- mother will love it. A mind, even when not corrupted by a poisonous drink,
ons of her evil trade. She tried to redirect the husband’s mind from its deep can be overcome with incantations. Couples who cannot be bound to each other
feelings of offence toward love. The plan did not work as she had intended. by the contract of the marriage bed or the power of a lovely form are dragged
She became angry with the powers, and was impelled to her task now not only together by the magical twisting of threads.”
by the promised profit of her payment, but also by the contempt of the powers Lucan – Pharsalia
for her. Now she began to threaten the life itself of the unfortunate husband,
and sent the ghost of a woman killed by violence to kill him.” The components for pharmacy are gathered from a plethora of
Apuleius – Metamorphoses different sources. Most are animal or plant derived but some ingre-
dients even come from exhumed human cadavers. These recipes
Necromancy can also be used in a more benevolent manner to
lay the dead to rest, or simply drive them off. Exorcising a ghost A Roman Ghost Story
requires the necromancer to win an opposed test of their Necro- The Romans had many stories concerning the dead, some were
mancy skill against the spirit’s Willpower. brought from Greece but others such as the ghost of Remus were part of
the legends of the city. These stories were treated seriously and recorded
“My son,” he [the boy’s father] said, “is not sufficiently dead. He still by historians of the period.
roams abroad when the stars shine in the night. When daylight is gone, he puts
an end to his death, returns home, and terrorizes his mother in her sleep. Find “Two Arcadian companions hit the road together and came to Meg-
something; find some bonds of words, pushing your craft and your energies to ara. One of them went to stay with an innkeeper, the other with a
their limits. Great is your glory, if you can confine my son, who returns to his friend. After a meal they took to their beds. Just after he had retired for
mother even from death.” A deleterious spell is put around the tomb, and the the night the man who was staying with his friend saw a vision of the
urn is closed off with terrible words. Then for the first time the son becomes other companion in his dreams, in which he begged him to come help,
a corpse and shade.” because the innkeeper was plotting to murder him. His first reaction was
Quintilian – Declamationes Maiores to wake in terror at the dream, but then he gathered his wits, concluded
that the vision was nugatory, and went back to sleep. As he slept on he
saw another vision in which the same man begged him that he should
Pharmacy (Medicamentaria) not suffer his death to go unavenged, since he had not come to help him
while still alive. After killing him, he said, the innkeeper had thrown his
The traditional province of witches, pharmacy is the concoc-
tion of potions from exotic, weird or downright toxic ingredients. body on the back of a cart and covered it with dung. He asked him to
Although the skill could be used for more innocent purposes – med- bring himself to the town gate in the morning before the cart could leave
icines for example – the most infamous uses of this skill were the the place. This dream disturbed him, and so he confronted the driver at
production of poisons and love potions. the gate and asked him what was in the cart. He fled in terror, the dead
man was pulled out of the dung, all was revealed, and the innkeeper
“By the spell of Thessalian women love flows into hard hearts, contrary paid the penalty.”
to destiny, and austere old men burn with the flames of unlawful desire. Their Cicero – De Divinatione
powers are not restricted to harmful potions or the hippomanes, stolen from the
Non vini vi no, sed vi no aquae – I swim not thanks to the wine, but thanks to the water
145
the correct ingredients. Each dose takes at least several hours to
The Ladykillers concoct and must be invested with 1d6 Magic Points to activate it.
The following story was a historic event in the period of the mid These Magic Points do not regenerate until the potion is consumed,
Republic. It shocked the patriarchal society of the time and helped fuel applied, or allowed to go stale.
later sanctions against magicians and poisoners, who were regarded as The duration of a potion’s effect is permanent, until countered
the same thing in Roman society, hence sharing the name of venefici. by another potion. Some examples of Roman potions are…
ΩΩ Love potions (amatoria) – These cause the imbibers to fall
“The foremost men in the state were being attacked by the same
madly in love with the person the potion was made for (who
mysterious malady, which in almost every case proved fatal. A maid-ser-
supplies part of the potion’s ingredients). It is resisted by win-
vant went to the city magistrate, Quintus Fabius Maximus, and prom-
ning an opposed roll of the drinker’s Willpower against the
ised to reveal the cause of these suspicious deaths, provided the state
Pharmacy skill of the concoctor.
would guarantee her safety. Fabius went at once to the consuls, who
referred the matter to the senate, which authorized a promise of pro-
“And yet no herb, no root lying hidden in rough places has escaped me.
tection and immunity. The maid-servant then accused certain women
Does he lie on a drugged bed and forget all my rivals? Ah. He walks abroad,
of concocting poisons. If officers would follow her at once, she said,
delivered by the spell of a more knowledgeable witch. I will not use the famil-
they could catch the poison makers in the act. The officers followed
iar potions. Varus, you will weep at length and run back to me. Your mind
the informant and did indeed find the accused compounding poisonous
will not return to me summoned merely by Marsian spells. I am preparing
substances, along with batches of poisons which were already made up.
something stronger.”
The evidence was seized and brought into the Forum. Twenty high-born
Horace – Epodes
matrons, at whose houses poisons were discovered, were brought before
the magistrates. Two of the women, Cornelia and Sergia, both from
ΩΩ Warding potions (tutelae) – Brewed to protect the drinker
ancient patrician families, contended that the concoctions were medic-
from the ill effects of other mentally affecting concoctions.
inal preparations. Accused of lying, the maid-servant suggested that
The potency of any such potion later consumed is reduced
the women should drink some the supposed medicine themselves; if they
by the Pharmacy skill of whomever brewed the warding
wishes to prove it was harmless. The court was cleared of spectators.
infusion. If the imbiber is already under the domination of
The accused women consulted among themselves. All consented to drink
a mind-altering potion, they are allowed to make another
the potions, whereupon they all died.”
opposed test to throw off the effect – this time using the Phar-
macy skills of the respective concoctors.
ΩΩ Poisons (venena) – Other than serpent bites, the poisons
sound disgusting but gave the final potion a great deal of authen- of witches are some of the most lethal substances known
ticity to the average ill-educated Roman. For example the “Gall of to Romans. The potency of any such poison is equal to the
the wild boar, smeared on” promoted copulation and similarly the Pharmacy skill of the concoctor. See the Text Box on Roman
fluids, described by Virgil “from a horse’s copulation and a horse’s Poisons for a description of how they work.
testicles, dried so that they may be ground up and put in a potion, ΩΩ Medicines (medicamenta) – Wise women (sagae) can
or the right testicle of an ass drunk in wine in a suitable dose” were sometimes brew medicines which aid against disease. The
common ingredients of love potions. imbiber may use the Pharmacy skill used to create the medi-
The normal place scoured to recover human ingredients was the cine against the disease potency it was brewed for, instead of
Esquiline Hill outside of the city walls, where the burial pits were using their own Endurance. Obviously most of these herbal
located. medicines are less effectual than a healthy constitution but
they can still aid the young or elderly.
“One can live on the salubrious Esquiline now and go for walks on the
Pharmacy in non-magical campaigns can be easily explained as
sunny rampart, whereas until recently one could only look gloomily on a field
applied pharmacology. Narcotics and poisons can still be produced
disfigured by white bones. It is not so much the thieves and the wild animals
without supernatural powers. However, to preserve game balance
accustomed to disturb the place that concern and bother me, so much as the
the Game Master should limit the proliferation of such substances
women who try to twist human minds about with spells and poisons. I just
by making their ingredients rare and difficult to obtain.
cannot put an end to these women or stop them collecting bones and destructive
herbs, once the wandering moon brings out her comely face.” What’s your Poison?
Horace – Satires Although the Romans knew of many different poisonous sub-
stances, the majority were herbal in nature. Most mineral poisons
Of course such concoctions were often more poisonous than were actually regarded as medicines at the time and animal poisons
effective, despite the psychosomatic effects attributed by its imbiber. normally required the creature to inflict its own venom since it rap-
The punishments for producing potions were harsh, either being idly lost its effectiveness after it was killed.
sent to the mines or marooned on an island, in an attempt to stop The following poisons were the ones known to be potentially fatal
the needless deaths caused by malpractice. to a man. None are given a strict potency, since the strength of a
herbal poison depends on the skill of the pharmacist preparing it
Concocting Potions (see Concocting Potions above). However their medical effects are
To brew a potion the character must possess the Pharmacy skill,
described for realism.
allowing them to concoct a variety of potions, if they can locate
146 Nosce te ipsum! – Know thyself ! (Cicero)

Victims of these poisons must match their Endurance against excitement (occasionally convulsions) may lead to coma and
the Potency of the poison in an opposed test. Success means that the death within hours.
victim is only seriously ill and all skills suffer a difficulty grade of For- ΩΩ Panther Cap Mushrooms – Symptoms: Like the Fly Aga-
midable for a number of days equal to one tenth the Potency, until ric above but with slower onset and higher fatality.
the character fully recovers. Failing the Resistance Roll means the ΩΩ Death Cap Mushrooms – Symptoms: Latent period of
character dies. Additional conditions may be applied as described 6-15 hours is followed by abdominal pain, vomiting and diar-
by its symptoms. rhoea (often bloody). Renal failure then sets in with death 2-3
days later, usually in hepatic coma.
ΩΩ Henbane – Symptoms: Rapid onset within minutes of inges-
tion, dry mouth, abnormally rapid heartbeat and a progres-
sion of neurological symptoms varying from sedation to delir-
ium, hallucination, mania, paralysis, coma and death.
Shape-Shifting (Ars Versipellis)
Of all Roman magic, shape-shifting is by far the most fantas-
ΩΩ Thorn Apple – Symptoms: Similar to henbane. Seeds pro-
tical. It intimates an actual physical change, unique amongst the
duce mainly maniacal symptoms, whilst leaves tend towards
normal Roman tradition of subtle sorcery; save for a few reports of
stupor and coma. Survivors have amnesia of the event.
werewolves (versipelles) from Greece, the only shape-shifters were
ΩΩ Deadly Nightshade – Symptoms: As for henbane. Known
recorded as entertaining stories rather than actual fact.
as strychnos, spears were sometimes coated with it.
ΩΩ Mandrake – Symptoms: Dry mouth and rapid heartbeat but
“Rather, as was clear to see, my hair thickened into bristles, and my tender
neurologically it causes sedation, motor depression and death
skin hardened into leather. All the fingers on the ends of my hands reduced in
via heart failure.
number and coalesced into undivided hooves. A large tail was produced from
ΩΩ Aconite – Symptoms: Rapid onset of numbness and tin-
the base of my spine. By now my face was huge, my mouth long, my nostrils
gling of the mouth and throat which spreads over the rest
gaped and my lips hung down. At the same time my ears shot up high and
of the body; pain and twitching of the muscles, progressing
grew shaggy. There was not one good thing about this pitiful transformation,
to general weakness, cold and clammy extremities, irregular
except that my genitals increased in size, although I was no longer in a position
heart rhythm and abnormally low blood pressure, respira-
to embrace Photis. Without the means to help myself, I looked over all my body
tory paralysis, drowsiness, convulsions, stupor and death.
and saw that I was not a bird but an ass.”
Extremely poisonous even in small doses.
Apuleius – Metamorphoses
ΩΩ Hemlock – Symptoms: Rapid onset of nausea, salivation
and vomiting, abdominal pain, headache and degrees of
Less magically orientated campaigns might prefer to remove this
mental confusion. General weakness may be associated with
form of enchantment completely. Conversely, it can be twisted so
convulsions, and death is caused by progressive paralysis and
that its practitioners or victims believe than they have been changed
respiratory failure.
into beasts, whilst they actually gallivant about either naked or
ΩΩ White Hellebore – Symptoms: Rapid onset of tingling over
dressed in the skins of the beasts they unwittingly imitate.
the whole body, sneezing, vomiting, and diarrhoea, followed
The province of shape-shifting was firmly under the control of
by abnormally low blood pressure, cardiovascular collapse
witches. They could, like the famous Greek witch Circe, transform
and respiratory paralysis causing death.
men into beasts. Or they themselves could switch into more useful
ΩΩ Colchicum (autumn crocus) – Symptoms: Tingling of the
forms. Traditionally, Romans believed that owls were shape-shifted
whole mouth and throat, after 2-6 hours it is followed by an
witches…
impaired ability to swallow, nausea, vomiting and diarrhoea
(often bloody). Circulation collapse may follow, with general
“First Pamphile divested herself of all her clothes. She opened a casket
paralysis, often convulsions and death due to respiratory
and took a few little boxes from it. She took the top off one of these and
failure.
scooped some lotion out of it. For a while she worked it between her palms
ΩΩ Yew – Symptoms: After approximately one hour there is
and then she smeared herself all over with it, from the ends of her toenails to
onset of dizziness, vomiting, rapid heartbeat, dilation of the
the hairs on the top of her head. She had a mysterious conversation with her
pupils, dilation of the blood vessels causing a reddish face and
lamp and set her limbs fluttering. As they gently flowed, soft down sprung from
shallow breathing. Death results from respiratory paralysis.
them, and strong feathers grew. Her nose grew hard and became hooked, and
The Scythians were said to dip their arrows in yew-sap.
her toenails curved round into talons. An owl was made of Pamphile. With
ΩΩ Opium – Symptoms: Induces a somniferous state with
this she issued a mournful screech and, testing herself, jumped up from the
euphoria and pinpoint pupils, progressing to stupor with mus-
ground, a little higher each time. Then she pulled herself aloft and flew out of
cular relaxation, slow respiration and ultimately death from
the house, using the full power of her wings.”
respiratory failure. Pliny wrote that opium was sometimes
Apuleius – Metamorphoses
used by elderly Romans to commit suicide.
ΩΩ Fly Agaric Mushrooms – Symptoms: Within minutes to Changing Forms
two hours, salivation, excessive production of tears, breathing Most shape-shifting needs the application of an enchanted oint-
problems and severe abdominal pain with diarrhoea. Vertigo ment or salve to achieve the desired transformation. To create these
and progressive mental symptoms like confusion, delirium, enchantments requires the Shape-Shifting skill. However, the final
potion, once concocted, can be used by anyone.
Each enchantment takes at least several days to concoct and,
assuming a successful Shape-Shifting skill roll is made, can then
Nulla avarita sine poena est – There is no avarice without penalty (Seneca)
147
be invested with a number of Magic Points to activate it (see table
below). These Magic Points do not regenerate until the enchantment
is either used or allowed to go stale.
Plot Hooks
The name of Rome’s own patron god is a very closely guarded
The animal, into which an enchantment transforms its user, must secret during the Republic. Known only to the highest priesthood, it
be decided in advance, since the material components used to for- is never uttered in public lest enemies can use the knowledge to steal
mulate it are specific to the creature desired. or even curse the deity. An adventure could be set around the idea
To employ a shape-shifting enchantment, all of the user’s clothes that an impious priest has sold or been blackmailed into revealing
must be first removed. Then the potion is smeared over the whole of this sacred name and the characters must follow a grisly trail of dead
their body. Once applied, the physical change is very rapid – taking priests and politicians to prevent the information being sold to the
only 1d3 rounds to complete. The duration of the shape-shifting city’s enemies…
effect is permanent until countered by a neutralising potion, nor-
mally produced in advance by sensible shape-shifters. “Verrius Flaccus cites authors whom he deems worthy of credit, to show
that on the occasion of a siege, it was the usage, the first thing of all, for the
(Counter) Enchantment Magic Point Cost: Roman priests to summon forth the tutelary divinity of that particular town,
1d6 – Small animals: Mice, Frogs, Owls, etc. and to promise him the same rites, or even a more extended worship, at Rome;
2d6 – Medium animals: Wolves, Boars, Snakes, etc. and at the present day even, this ritual still forms part of the discipline of
3d6 – Large animals: Lions, Panthers, Bears, etc. our pontiffs. Hence it is, no doubt, that the name – of the tutelary deity of
Rome has been so strictly kept concealed, lest any of our enemies should act
Enchanted animal skins differ slightly from potions in that they in a similar manner.”
can be removed at will by the wearer and do not lose their magic Pliny the Elder – Naturalis Historia
once doffed. However, the cost to create these priceless artefacts
requires the permanent sacrifice of an amount of POW equivalent
to the normal Magic Point expenditure.
The Price of Power

As can be seen from the preceding sections, the darker arts of Roman
magic are expensive both in terms of investing (tying up) Magic Points
and in the lengthy durations required to prepare invocations.
Such hindrances are deliberate. In both the historical reports and
entertaining plays of the period, magic was a difficult (and extremely
dangerous) power to call upon. An invocation or concoction took hours
of preparation before casting and each new enchantment required fresh
components – rather than maintaining a stockpile of pre-prepared curse
tablets or potions.
The reasons for this are manifold. But the primary one is that every
spell must be specially crafted for its intended victim/recipient. Sympa-
thetic superstition is a vital aspect of Roman magic, making it stronger,
or at least increasing the witnesses’ belief in it.
Practitioners of forbidden magic normally reserve their most pow-
erful abilities for a single patron at a time and are expensive to support.
These compounding difficulties should prevent the proliferation of magic
in campaigns; turning its occurrence into singular, unique events, rather
than a regular method to solve problems.
148 Nulla poena sine lege - No punishment without a law

Mythic Rome: Creatures
Creatures
M Bears (Ursi)
ost Romans have little direct contact with the animal
world. Save for the early days of the city when nature
was still allowed to roam the hills, the populace saw little A popular opponent for venatores in the earliest beast hunts;
but the birds of the air and the livestock in the Forum Boarium. bears were also used as part of paired beast matches – bears versus
Although hunters, farmers and shepherds could still encounter wild bulls or lions being a favourite. Bears were initially common in the
life, eventually the region surrounding Rome was settled and culti- alpine regions of Italy but as time passed they had to be imported
vated to such a degree that only vermin remained. from northern Europe. For statistics, see Mythras page 230.
The majority of wild animals seen by the people of Rome were
exotic creatures imported from overseas, usually places like Africa, Bulls (Tauri)
which supplied an unending source of strange beasts. They were Probably an evolution from the ancient Cretan traditions of Bull
initially used for the simple purpose of display at festivals, somewhat Dancing, bull fights were one of the earliest forms of beast hunt
like the travelling circuses of the 19th and 20th centuries. However, in the Circus. Initially widespread across Europe, wild aurochs (uri)
in 186 BC the novel entertainment of the beast hunts began, where became rare by the end of the Republic, the best coming from Ger-
ferocious animals were matched against hunters in the Circus Max- mania and beyond. The statistics of a normal bull are presented
imus. Eventually these animals were fought against each other and here. For those of its giant brethren, the Aurochs, see Mythras page
started a tradition of gambling, which still survives to the modern 226.
day.
Bull Attributes
The creatures described in this chapter are split into two sections.
STR: 2d6+18 (25) Action Points: 2
The first are the real animals, which can be used as encounters in the
early days of the City or as opponents in the Circus. The second part CON: 2d6+9 (16) Damage Modifier: +1d12
concerns mythological creatures, which Games Masters can include SIZ: 2d6+21 (28) Magic Points: 7
if they desire more fantastic encounters. DEX: 2d6 (7) Movement: 8m
INS: 2d6+4 (11) Initiative Bonus: +9
Animals (Bestiae)
POW: 2d6 (7) Armour: Shaggy Hide
Abilities: Trample
These animals are either native to Europe of the period or
imported at great expense from the provinces. Where known, the 1d20 Location AP/HP
date of the first appearance in the city is also included. 1–3 Right Hind Leg 4/9
4–6 Left Hind Leg 4/9
7–9 Hindquarters 4/10

Fighting Quadrupeds
Remember that – as a rule – when four legged animals fight, the 10 – 12 Forequarters 4/11
creature places its head towards its opponent. Given the size of most 13 – 15 Right Front Leg 4/8
quadrupeds, it is difficult for a single human to strike any location other
16 – 18 Left Front Leg 4/8
than the forequarters, front legs, or head of the beast. For this reason, it
is suggested that when a character attacks such an animal, they roll a 19 – 20 Head 4/9
d10+10 for the Hit Location. Of course, if the animal is surrounded

Skills
by multiple foes, then the full range of its target locations should be
Athletics 52%, Brawn 73%, Endurance 62%, Evade 34%, Perception 38%, Stealth
available.
38%, Willpower 44%
Nulla res tam necessaria est quam medicina – Nothing is so necessary as medicine
149
Combat Style & Weapons Hippopotami (Hippopotami)

Fearless Stampede 52% First seen in Rome in 58 BC in concert with the first crocodiles,
hippos became popular creatures for private collections. Second
Weapon Size/Force Reach Damage AP/HP
only in weight to the elephant and a deadly beast in the water (its
Gore L M 1d8+1d12 As for Head preferred environment), hippopotami share the same fierce and
Trample H T 2d12 As for Leg
aggressive temper as their smaller relations, the boar.
Boars (Apri) Hippopotamus

Attributes
Seen more as a source of food rather than an animal for pub-

CON: 2d6+6 (13) Damage Modifier: +2d8
lic spectacle, wild boars are common throughout all of Italy and
Europe – many being escaped domestic stock. Hunting boars how- SIZ: 2d6+40 (47) Magic Points: 7
ever, still remains a dangerous occupation. For statistics, see Myth- DEX: 1d6+3 (7) Movement: 6m
ras page 230. INS: 2d6+4 (11) Initiative Bonus: +9
POW: 2d6 (7) Armour: Thick Hide

Crocodiles (Crocodili) Abilities: Trample
The first crocodiles were exhibited at Rome by the ædile Scaurus
in 58 BC. Eventually they became popular as opponents to lions in 1d20 Location AP/HP
beast matches. For statistics, see Mythras page 237. 1–3 Right Hind Leg 5/12
Dogs (Canes) 7–9 Hindquarters 5/13

Dogs are actually not very popular in Rome itself, especially after
10 – 12 Forequarters 5/14
the sacking of the city by the Gauls, when the dogs were considered
lax in their guard duties. Some people however still use dogs to deter 13 – 15 Right Front Leg 5/11
thieves and scavenging packs of wild dogs which roam the streets 16 – 18 Left Front Leg 5/11
can be dangerous to the unwary.
19 – 20 Head 5/12
Normally dogs are only used by hunters and shepherds who
reside in the countryside. Roman dogs are often given a spiked collar Skills
(melium) to protect them from being wounded by wild beasts (auto- Athletics 41%, Brawn 81%, Endurance 66%, Evade 24%, Perception 38%, Stealth
matic 1d3 damage to the attacker if they bite at the head or neck). 28%, Swim 47%, Willpower 54%
For statistics, see the notes for Wolf, Mythras page 272.
Combat Style & Weapons
“…there are, then, two sorts of dogs – the hunting-dog suited to chase the Bellicose Beast 61%
beasts of the forest, and the other which is procured as a watch-dog and is of
importance to the shepherd” Weapon Size/Force Reach Damage AP/HP
Varro – De Re Rustica Bite E S 1d8+2d8 As for Head
Elephants (Elephanti) Trample C T 4d8 As for Leg
Most of the elephants of this period are African forest elephants,

which are somewhat smaller than their plains cousins (and are now
extinct). Initially seen by the Romans in their war with General Pyr-
rhus, they were frightening beasts, which repeatedly broke the lines Horses (Equi)
and discipline of the legionaries. The first display of elephants in Normally forbidden within Rome, most horses are stabled away
Rome was in 251 BC. It was not until the end of the Republic when from the city walls, in locations where there is still grazing land to
the animals began to be used in beast hunts. For statistics refer to support them. Owning a horse is expensive in terms of daily care
Mythras page 256, but reduce STR and SIZ by another 4 points and feed, so most hire steeds as and when they need them. During
apiece. the Roman period, horses were much smaller than modern breeds
and specially trained warhorses, taught to attack, didno t exist. For
“Hannibal pitted a Roman prisoner against an elephant, and this statistics see Mythras page 251, but reduce STR and SIZ by 4
man, having secured a promise of his freedom if he killed the animal, met points apiece.
it single-handed in the arena and much to the chagrin of the Carthaginians
dispatched it. Hannibal realized that reports of this encounter would bring
the animals into contempt, so he sent horsemen to kill the man as he was
departing”
150 Nullum magnum ingenium sine mixtura dementiae fuit – There has been no great genius without some madness (Seneca)
Hyenas (Hyaenae) BC Pompey had 500 killed as part of his theatre’s inauguration. For
statistics, see Mythras page 253.
Imported from Africa, the hyena is a scavenger with extremely
powerful jaws. Also known as the Crocotta, the Romans believed it
to be an animal produced by the union of the wolf and the dog, “for Panthers (Pardi)
it can break any thing with its teeth and instantly on swallowing it In ancient Rome leopards are known as panthers. They were
digest it with the stomach”. It was also reputed to be able to change first shown in 186 BC along with lions. Panthers were also favourite
its colour or sex at will. opponents for the beast hunts, not only for their agile fierceness but
also for their beauty. Their popularity continued to rise and by 168
Hyena Attributes BC, 63 panthers were shown in the games. Towards the end of the
STR: 1d3+9 (11) Action Points: 2 republic, some panthers were kept as exhibits in private menageries.
CON: 3d6 (11) Damage Modifier: None
If a panther’s claw or bite hits, it remains attached to prevent its
prey from escaping and the panther uses an alternative attack. If it
SIZ: 1d6+9 (13) Magic Points: 7
has two solid holds, then the panther can apply its Savage ability
DEX: 3d6 (11) Movement: 8m
using its hind claws to rake.
POW: 2d6 (7) Armour: Fur

Panther Attributes
Abilities: Night Sight, Savage
1d20 Location AP/HP CON: 3d6 (11) Damage Modifier: +1d2
1–2 Right Hind Leg 1/5 SIZ: 1d6+9 (13) Magic Points: 7
3–4 Left Hind Leg 1/5 DEX: 1d6+12 (16) Movement: 8m
POW: 2d6 (7) Armour: Fur
8–10 Forequarters 1/7
Abilities: Leaper, Night Sight, Savage
11–13 Right Front Leg 1/5
14–16 Left Front Leg 1/5 1d20 Location AP/HP
17–20 Head 1/5 1–3 Tail 1/4
4–5 Right Hind Leg 1/5

Skills
Athletics 62%, Brawn 54%, Endurance 62%, Evade 52%, Perception 50%, Track
54%, Willpower 44% 8 – 10 Hindquarters 1/6
15 – 16 Right Front Leg 1/4
Pack Attack (Bite) 62%
19 – 20 Head 1/5
Bite M T 1d6 As for Head
Skills
Savage 79%, Willpower 54%
If the creature manages to attach itself to a victim, by biting and
holding on with the Grip special effect, they continue to inflict dam- Combat Style & Weapons
age, shaking their head (or their entire body) back and forth to tear the Stealthy Hunter 69%
wound open. This ability allows the creature to spend an Action Point
on its Turn to automatically roll damage without needing an attack roll, Weapon Size/Force Reach Damage AP/HP
whilst also permitting it to ignore any negative Damage Modifier it Claw M S 1d4+1d2 As for Leg
might normally possess.
Bite M T 1d6+1d2 As for Head
“It so happened, that being one day at the Docks, where there were some
wild beasts from Africa, while he (Pasiteles) was viewing through the bars of
Lions (Leones) a cage a lion which he was engaged in drawing, a panther made its escape
from another cage, to the no small danger of this most careful artist.”
Lions were sometimes privately owned and Marcus Antonius
was reputed to have driven a chariot drawn by lions from Brindisi
to Rome. The first lion hunt was held in 186 BC and they soon
became a staple opponent in the matched beast fights. During 93
BC Sulla turned 100 lions loose in the Forum Romanum and in 55
Nullum’st iam dictum quod non sit dictum prius – Nothing is already said which wasn’t said before (Terence)
151
Rhinos (Rhinocerotes) Realistic Scorpion and Snake Venom

Matched in aggressiveness with the Hippo but easier to trans- Animal venoms work somewhat differently to ingested plant toxins,
port, the Black Rhino was a terrifying foe in the beast hunts. Any- having a swifter onset time and principally affecting the body location
thing caught in the rhino’s charge was doomed and stories tell of struck. Although in this day and age few envenomisations are fatal, the
beast fights where rhinos tossed bulls and bears tumbling into the reverse is true for the ancient world. Poor health and nutrition are factors,
air, killing them outright. plus the lethal reputation of poisonous creatures cause victims to panic,
precipitating severe shock and hastening venom absorption. In addition,
Rhinoceros Attributes
medical treatments of the period would likely raise the morbidity or
mortality of the wound. (see Realistic Roman Medicine page 131)
CON: 2d6+9 (16) Damage Modifier: +2d8 Games Masters who feel pity towards their players could allow
SIZ: 2d6+39 (46) Magic Points: 7 characters to spend a Luck Point when struck by a venomous creature,
DEX: 1d6+6 (10) Movement: 8m resulting in a ‘dry’ bite or sting where the creature has not actually
INS: 2d6+4 (11) Initiative Bonus: +11 injected any toxin. Or they could instead say nothing, deciding in secret
that the attack was merely a non-venomous warning and sadistically
POW: 2d6 (7) Armour: Thick Hide
allow their players to sweat in anticipation of imminent death...
Abilities: Intimidate, Trample
1d20 Location AP/HP Few scorpions are lethal to humans but can make the victim of a
1–3 Right Hind Leg 6/13 sting very ill. Usually only children and elderly are at risk. Scorpions
4–6 Left Hind Leg 6/13 come in all colours and sizes (up to ten inches in length) and nor-
mally only sting those who mistakenly surprise them. Depending on
species the venom can vary in Potency and effect but always causes
10 – 12 Forequarters 6/15 the Agony condition in the location hit. The sting itself causes no
13 – 15 Right Front Leg 6/12 other damage. Once stung the victim can easily withdraw to avoid
further stings (unless the arachnid is inside the victim’s clothing), or
kill the scorpion with a successful attack.
19 – 20 Head 6/13
19 – 20 Head 1/5 Snakes (Angues)

Although large constrictor snakes are mainly imported for dis-
Skills
play (snake dancing or wrestling acts), they are also infrequently used
for beast fights. Poisonous asps or cobras can be imported too but
31%, Willpower 54%
their ownership is viewed with suspicion, since there is little one can
do with a venomous snake save nefarious deeds.
Like scorpions, venomous snakes attack only in defence or when
Cantankerous Charge 67%
surprised. Once they strike, they generally retreat and can easily be
avoided. Large constrictors however, can be quite persistent if they
manage to entangle a lone victim in their coils.
Gore E M 1d12+2d8 As for Head
Trample C T 4d8 As for Leg Venomous Snakes

There are countless types of venomous snakes ranging from one
to three metres in length. Although their mouths are universally
Scorpions (Scorpiones) too small to damage humanoids, their venom is not to be under-
estimated. Vipers should be treated more akin to one-shot traps or
There are a variety of scorpions available from foreign lands. accidental encounters, biting out of self-defence before wriggling
Normally people that possess such creatures have no legitimate rea- away or being hacked down by the victim. Whilst the native viper is
son for ownership, save apothecaries or sorcerers who use them for indigenous to Italy, more venomous snakes must be imported from
concocting ‘medicines’ or to impress their customers. In Egypt there Arabia or Africa.
are even believed to be winged scorpions with double stings.
Scorpion Venoms
Species Potency Resistance Onset Time Duration Venom Effect
Yellow Tailed Scorpion 40% Endurance Instant 1d6 hours Agony in the Hit Location stung
Instant for Agony, 1d3 hours for Agony in the Hit Location followed by Exhaustion.
1d3 days if
Fattail Scorpion 50% Endurance Exhaustion, and 1d10+5 hours for Victim is permitted a second resistance roll to
not fatal
Asphyxiation survive the Asphyxiation
Nausea lasts Agony in the Hit Location followed by Nausea.
Instant for Agony, 1d3 hours for
Deathstalker Scorpion 60% Endurance 1d3 weeks if Victim is permitted a second resistance roll to avoid
Nausea, and 1d3+3 hours for Death
not fatal Death
152 Nunc est bibendum – Now it’s time to drink (Horace)

Snake Venoms
Species Potency Resistance Onset Time Duration Venom Effect
Native Viper 30% Endurance 1d3 Turns 1d6 hours Agony in the Hit Location bitten
1d3 hours
Immediate Agony in the bite site followed by
Instant for Agony, Maiming starts after for Agony.
Puff Adder 50% Endurance Maiming (1 Hit Point per full day), usually leading
1 day 2d6 days for
to death from necrosis
Maiming
Victim initially suffers Paralysis, followed 1d3 hours
Egyptian Cobra 70% Endurance 1d3x10 minutes Permanent
later by death via Asphyxiation
Black Mamba 90% Endurance 1d6+4 minutes Permanent Exhaustion followed by Death 10 minutes later.
Venomous snakes have a Stealth skill of 70+1d10% and a Toxic

Strike combat style of 60+1d10%. By default they possess the Cold- Wolves (Lupi)
Blooded and Venomous abilities, and use Inject Venom if they win a A significant animal in the Roma psyche, the wolf is treated with
special effect in combat. Each species has its own venom as defined respect for its cunning and ability to hunt as a pack. Few humans are
in the above table. directly at risk of wolf attacks but they tend to prey upon free-rang-
ing animals under the supervision of shepherds. Romans believe
Constrictor Snakes that wolves are able to steal the voice of a man.
The only constrictor snakes that can be imported to Rome are Wolves are sometimes displayed in the Circus, perhaps due
African rock pythons, which can sometimes grow up to six metres in to their commonplace nature or maybe because they are part of
length. They are dangerous if they manage to grapple an opponent, Rome’s sacred founding. However, wolves are also native to the
being able to wrap the victim up in its coils and slowly crushing them mountainous regions of Italy, and both shepherds and travellers may
If not actively crushing to inflict damage, a python may instead encounter them. For statistics see Mythras page 272.
make an attack roll to engulf another Hit Location in its coils.
Constrictor
Attributes
Mythological
CON: 2d6+6 (13)
SIZ: 1d6+9 (13)
Damage Modifier: +1d2
Magic Points: 10
Creatures (Monstra)
Most of Rome’s mythological creatures were inherited from
DEX: 2d6+6 (13) Movement: 4m
Greek legends or reports from the first explorers of Africa and Per-
INS: 2d6+5 (12) Initiative Bonus: +13 sia… very few were fundamentally Roman. The most important
POW: 1d6+6 (10) Armour: Scales have been included for those Games Masters who desire a mythic or
Abilities: Cold-Blooded, Dark Sight (heat only),
horror based campaign.
Grappler It should be noted that although these creatures were written
1d20 Location AP/HP
about by academics and historians, the presence of such foreign
creatures would be incongruous outside of the wild mountains of
1–3 Tail Tip 2/6
the Aegean nations or the arid wastes of North Africa. The few that
4–5 Mid End-length 2/6 are native to Italy are mentioned specifically for those campaigns
6–7 Fore End-length 2/6 which remain in the environs of Rome.
The inhabitants of the Eternal City are by nature very supersti-
8–9 Rear Mid-length 2/7
tious, and the sight of a supernatural creature in their own streets is
10 – 12 Mid Mid-length 2/7 an excellent time to apply the Terrifying ability (Mythras page 217),
13 – 14 Fore Mid-length 2/7 as the sight of one of their feared nightmares or legends in the flesh
is likely to turn most Romans mad with fear.
15 – 16 Rear Fore-length 2/6
Some of the following monsters are measured in cubits, an
17 – 18 Mid Fore-length 2/6 ancient measurement. A cubit is technically the length of your fore-
19 – 20 Head 2/6 arm from fingertip to elbow, which in modern terms is about 45cm.
Skills
Aithiopian Bulls
65%, Swim 59%, Willpower 50% (Tauri Aethiopici)
Monstrous bulls of gargantuan size, lumbering speed, a violent
temperament and a carnivorous appetite, which drives them to
Crushing Doom 69% attack other animals. They also possess a red coloured hide, which is
reputedly impervious to iron weapons.
Bite M S 1d4+1d2 As for Head
Constrict H T 1d6+1d2 As for Body
O fortunatos nimium sua si bona norint, agricolas – Oh fortunate farmers, if only they would see their luck (Virgil)
153
Aithiopian Bull Attributes


DEX: 2d6 (7) Movement: 10m
POW: 2d6 (7) Armour: Bristly Hide
Abilities: Immunity (Iron), Intimidate, Trample
1d20 Location AP/HP

19 – 20 Head 6/11
Skills
38%, Willpower 54%

Belligerent Bull 68%
The Amphisbaena attacks by either spitting venom at an oppo-
Weapon Size/Force Reach Damage AP/HP nent’s eyes or leaping upon them and biting (safely within the vic-
tim’s weapon reach), before wriggling off and waiting for them to
Gore H M 1d10+2d6 As for Head
die. If spat and the victim fails to Evade, a failed resistance roll
Trample E T 4d6 As for Leg causes immediate (but temporary) blindness. If instead the victim is
bitten and fails the resistance roll, they suffer convulsions and respi-
“It seems that those Aithiopian Bulls which they call ‘flesh-eaters’ are ratory failure after 15-30 minutes.
the most savage of animals. They are twice the size of Bulls in Greece, and
their speed is very great. Their hair is red, their eyes blue-grey, more so than
Amphisbaena Attributes
the eyes of lions. In normal times they move their horns as they do their ears,
STR: 2d6 (7) Action Points: 3+1 (Multi-Headed)
but when fighting they raise them, making them stand strongly up, and so do
battle; and once raised in passion owing to some truly wonderful natural cause CON: 2d6 (7) Damage Modifier: -1d4
their horns do not go aslant. No spear, no arrow can wound them: iron, you SIZ: 2d4 (5) Magic Points: 7
see, does not penetrate their hide, for the Bull raises its bristles and throws off DEX: 2d6+12 (19) Movement: 4m wriggling, 10m rolling
the weapons showered upon it in vain. And it attacks herds of horses and also INS: 2d6+5 (12) Initiative Bonus: +16
wild animals. Accordingly herdsmen who wish to protect their flocks dig deep
POW: 2d6 (7) Armour: Scales
concealed ditches and by these means ambush the Bulls. And when they fall
into these ditches they are choked with rage. “ Abilities: Cold-Blooded, Multi-Headed, Venomous
Aelian – On Animals
1d20 Location AP/HP
Amphisbaena
1–3 Rear Head 1/3
4–5 Mid End-length 1/3
“The Amphisbaena has a twin head; that is one at its tail-end as well, as 6–7 Fore End-length 1/3
though it were not enough for poison to be poured out of one mouth.” 8–9 Rear Mid-length 1/4
Pliny the Elder – Naturalis Historia 10 – 12 Mid Mid-length 1/4
13 – 14 Fore Mid-length 1/4

This odd creature is a two headed serpent, one at either end
of its body. It probably originated from the confused descriptions 15 – 16 Rear Fore-length 1/3
of real snakes, which are occasionally born with two heads. It was 17 – 18 Mid Fore-length 1/3
reputed to travel by grasping its mouths together and rolling along
19 – 20 Front Head 1/3
the ground.
154 Occasio aegre offertur, facile amittitur – Opportunity is offered with difficulty, lost with ease (Publius Syrus)
Skills Basilisk Attributes

Athletics 66%, Brawn 42%, Endurance 44%, Evade 78%, Perception 49%, Stealth STR: 2d3 (4) Action Points: 3
61%, Willpower 54%
CON: 2d6+6 (13) Damage Modifier: -1d6
Combat Style & Weapons SIZ: 1d3+1 (3) Magic Points: 13
Rolling Doom 66% DEX: 3d6+6 (17) Movement: 6m

POW: 2d6+6 (13) Armour: Scales
Bite S T 1d4-1d4+Venom As for Head
Abilities: Camouflaged, Cold-Blooded, Venomous
Spit - VL Blinding -
1d20 Location AP/HP

Amphisbaena Venom
1–3 Tail Tip 1/4
Potency Resistance Onset Time Duration Venom Effect
If spat the victim 4–5 Mid End-length 1/4
Instant for suffers temporary 6–7 Fore End-length 1/4
Blindness, or 1d3+3 Blindness. If the
8–9 Rear Mid-length 1/5
60% Endurance 1d4+2 x 5 hours for victim is bitten
minutes for Blindness instead, the 10 – 12 Mid Mid-length 1/5
Asphyxiation victim dies from
13 – 14 Fore Mid-length 1/5
Asphyxiation
15 – 16 Rear Fore-length 1/4
Basilisk (Basiliscus) 17 – 18 Mid Fore-length 1/4
Native to the African province of Cyrene, the basilisk was a ser- 19 – 20 Head 1/4
pent of small size, which possessed a white spot resembling a dia-
dem upon its forehead. They are so venomous that their poison leg-
Skills
endarily could travel up a weapon used to strike them and thus kill
its wielder. These monsters were probably based upon rumours of
69%, Willpower 56%
spitting cobras, but a very deadly, mythological version is presented
here.
The basilisk repels all serpents in its presence by hissing. Its
Death Near or Far 61%
exhaled breath also withers all plant life in the region of its hole. The
basilisk’s extremely potent venom instantly kills anyone bitten, the Weapon Size/Force Reach Damage AP/HP
victim turning black and necrotic. Its breath is less powerful how-
Necotic Bite S T 1d3-1d6+Venom As for Head
ever, having only half the Potency. Anybody coming close enough
to strike the serpent with a melee weapon must enter the invisible Miasma - VL Venom -
corona of its miasmic exhalation – which has a range equal to its
STR in metres. Those who successfully resist the venom take no Basilisk Venom
other effect but must make a new save at the start of each round they Potency Resistance Onset Time Duration Venom Effect
stay within the cloud. Death whether
It may seem that the only way to deal with a basilisk is to shoot 100% Endurance Instant Inapplicable
bitten or coming
it from afar but assuming characters can even spot it, the Games into contact with
Master should remember the situational modifiers of a prone target, the noxious fumes
a tiny SIZ, and the easy availability of cover leaving it completely
obscured most of the time. Cacus
“As to the basilisk, a creature which the very serpents fly from, which kills “Once a cavern there, deeply recessed in the hill-side, impervious to the
by its odour even, and which proves fatal to man by only looking upon him, sun’s rays; its occupant was a half-human, horrible creature, Cacus; its floor
its blood has been marvellously extolled by the magicians. This blood is thick was forever warm with new-spilt blood, and nailed to its insolent doors you
and adhesive, like pitch, which it resembles also in colour: dissolved in water, could see men’s heads hung up, their faces pallid, ghastly, decaying. This
they say, it becomes of a brighter red than that of cinnabar. They attribute to ogre was the son of Vulcanus; as he moved in titan bulk, he breathed out his
it also the property of ensuring success to petitions preferred to potentates, and father’s deadly flame.”
to prayers even offered to the gods; and they regard it as a remedy for various Virgil – Aeneid
diseases, and as an amulet preservative against all noxious spells.”
Pliny the Elder – Naturalis Historia Cacus was a fire-breathing, smoke-belching giant who lived in a
cave on the Palatine Hill before the establishment of Rome. Cacus
ate human flesh, nailing the heads of his victims to the doors of his
cave. Being of divine descent from Vulcan, he was a formidable foe
and was eventually destroyed by the hero Hercules. This legend was
Occasio facit furem – Opportunity makes a thief

155
Cacus Attributes
STR: 30 Action Points: 3
CON: 21 Damage Modifier: +1d12

SIZ: 27 Magic Points: 31
DEX: 15 Movement: 8m
INT: 13 Initiative Bonus: +14
POW: 31 Armour: Divine Skin
CHA: 5 Abilities: Breathe Flame, Earth Sense, Intimidate
1d20 Location AP/HP

1–3 Right Leg 7/10
4–6 Left Leg 7/10
7–9 Abdomen 7/11
10 – 12 Chest 7/12
13 – 15 Right Arm 7/9
16 – 18 Left Arm 7/9
19 – 20 Head 7/10
Skills
Athletics 45%, Brawn 67%, Craft (Cook Human) 68%, Craft (Smithing) 88%,
Endurance 72%, Evade 30%, Perception 74%, Stealth 78%, Willpower 82%

Ogre Appetites 85% (Unarmed, Club, Thrown Rock, Flaming Breath)
Weapon Size/Force Reach Damage AP/HP Catoblepas

Unarmed L M 1d6+1d12 As for Limb The Aethiopian Catoblepas is a bull shaped beast whose heavy
Once per head, when raised, causes the death of those it looks at. The frightful
Fiery Breath - - 2d6
Round gaze may only affect a single target each round and must be resisted
using Willpower in an opposed test. Failure indicates instant gibber-
the foundation for the worship of Hercules by the Romans and of ing death. It costs the Catoblepas one Magic Point each time it gazes
the ancient cave of Cacus, which reputedly existed near the Porta at an opponent and after expending all its Magic Points the beast is
Trigemina – the gate in the Servian wall at the north end of the helpless.
Aventine Hill.
Treat the breath of Cacus like the Breathe Flame creature ability Catoblepas Attributes
(see Mythras page 215) at the cost of 1d6 Magic Points. If desired STR: 2d6+15 (22) Action Points: 2
Cacus can instead exhale a cloud of thick choking smoke for the
same cost; this blinds everyone (including himself) within a range
equal to his POW in metres and lasts several minutes before dissipat- SIZ: 2d6+21 (28) Magic Points: 13
ing. However, the ogre can then rely on his Earth Sense to perceive DEX: 2d6 (7) Movement: 6m
those about him. INS: 2d6+4 (11) Initiative Bonus: +9
POW: 2d6+6 (13) Armour: Hide
Abilities: Death Sense, Gaze Attack (Death)

Cacus: Plot Hook
1d20 Location AP/HP
One of the few truly Roman monsters, Cacus has the potential to
appear within the Eternal City; either as a demigod raised from the 1–3 Right Hind Leg 4/9
abyss via some vile cult worship, or as a ghost during the times of the 4–6 Left Hind Leg 4/9
year when the dead walk the streets again. The epic nature of Cacus
places him beyond the ability of most characters to defeat directly. How-
ever, an adventuring party of noble Romans might be able to summon 10 – 12 Forequarters 4/11
the shade of Hercules from his temple in the Forum Boarium to save the 13 – 15 Right Front Leg 4/8
city or sacrifice themselves in combat whilst the rest of the populace flees
to safety of the temples.
19 – 20 Head 4/9
156 Oderint dum metuant – Let them hate, so long as they fear (Lucius Accius)
Skills Eale
Athletics 59%, Brawn 60%, Endurance 52%, Evade 34%, Perception 54%, Stealth Yet another Aethiopian monstrosity, the Eale or Yale, was a crea-
48%, Willpower 66% ture the size of a hippopotamus, with an elephant’s tail of a black
or tawny colour, the jaws of a boar and movable horns more than
a cubit in length, which in a fight are erected alternately and pre-
Cranky Catoblepas 59% sented to the attack or sloped backward in turn as necessary.
In terms of characteristics, use the Hippopotami described
earlier, reducing its Armour to 3AP, increasing its combat style by
Death, if not
Deadly Gaze - - - +10% and replacing the Bite with Gore (1d10+2d8).
resisted
“In Western Aethiopia there is a spring, the Nigris, which most people
have supposed to be the source of the Nile. In its neighbourhood there is an
animal called the Catoblepas, in other respects of moderate size and inactive
with the rest of its limbs, only with a very heavy head which it carries with
difficulty--it is always hanging down to the ground; otherwise it is deadly to
the human race, as all who see its eyes expire immediately.”
Cetos
The Cetos is a gigantic sea-monster of undefined description.
Whales are known and feared in the Iberian Sea in the west of
the Mediterranean, whereas serpents were more popular amongst
Greek legends. For the sake of simplicity, use the statistics for the Sea
Serpent (Mythras page 264) to represent both.
“The huge Ketea that are bred in the habitations of Poseidon are, I
declare, no whit meaner than the ravening children of the land, but both in
strength and size the dauntless terrors of the sea excel… The Ketea that are Etruscan Daemones
nurtured in the midst of the seas are very many in number and of exceeding Represented in the art of Etruscan tombs, these Daemones of
size. And not often do they come up out of the brine, but by reason of their the underworld brought great fear to the Romans. Any place asso-
heaviness they keep the bottom of the sea below. And they rave for food with ciated with Dis (the underworld), such as deep natural grottos or
unceasing frenzy, being always hungered and never abating the gluttony of the mephitic springs at Cumae, is thought to be haunted by these
their terrible maw – for what food shall be sufficient to fill the void of their fearful beings, as well as the spirits of the dead which they shepherd
belly or enough to satisfy and give a respite to their insatiable jaws?” or punish.
Oppian – Halieutica The appearance of daemones can vary depending on whether
they are masculine or feminine. Charun and Tuchulcha are repre-
Dragons (Dracones) sented as large winged beings with beards, beaks or beaked noses,
pointed donkey-like ears, blue skin and hissing serpents wrapped
Large serpents destitute of venom were known as dragons. They
were supposedly at least 20 cubits in length and were the avid foes of around their head or arms. Daemones such as Vanth or Lasa are
elephants. From this perspective dragons are not really mythological
creatures save for their huge size. To calculate the dragon’s statistics, Daemones: Plot Hook
use the characteristics of the giant snake (Mythras page 266). Etruscan Daemones are perfect for Italian or Roman based adven-
tures. They are a fundamental part of the Latin psyche, being repre-
“…the dragon, which is perpetually at war with the elephant, and is sented in ruined Etruscan tombs and temples built in the early days of
itself of so enormous a size, as easily to envelope the elephants with its folds, the city. They are never discussed or written about but always feared.
and encircle them in its coils. The contest is equally fatal to both; the elephant, The appearance of a blue-skinned daemon can be used to great effect if
vanquished, falls to the earth, and by its weight, crushes the dragon which is the initial sightings are brief glimpses from the corner of the adventurer’s
entwined around it.” eye, momentarily writhing frescoes or haunting dark dreams. Whether
Pliny the Elder – Naturalis Historia the daemon awaits the death of the character or a major nemesis is up
to the Games Master but the final appearance should only occur at the
“It is a well-known fact, that during the Punic war, at the river Bagrada, demise of the truly wicked, caused in part by the daemon itself. Seeing
a serpent one hundred and twenty feet in length was taken by the Roman army the victim being dragged off to Dis screaming in terror, should provide a
under Regulus, being besieged, like a fortress, by means of balistae and other memorable ending which will haunt the characters for the remainder of
engines of war. Its skin and jaws were preserved in a temple at Rome, down their lives, particularly for those guilty of questionable deeds…
to the time of the Numantine war.”
Omne ignotum pro magnifico – Everything unknown passes for miraculous

157
Ploutonia
A ploutonion was an entrance to the underworld, a place of caves
and twisting passages filled with mephitic wisps of volcanic gases.
The most famous to the early Romans were the Phlegrean Fields near
Cumae.
“There was a huge, deep cave with jagged and pebbles underfoot
and a gaping mouth guarded by dark woods and the black waters of the
lake. No bird could wing its flight over this cave and live, so deadly was
the breath that streamed out of the black throat and up into the vault
of heaven. Hence the Greek name, ‘Aornos’, ‘the place without birds’.”
Virgil – Aeneid
Such a location, so close to Rome is an excellent place for supernat-

ural encounters. Not only is it the site of the Sibyl of Cumae but it can
also be a path to realm of Dis, for those brave (or foolish) enough to
plumb its depths. Games Masters who wish to run an adventure there
are recommended to read Virgil’s Aeneid for an evocative description of
the rituals needed to enter the underworld and the terrifying encounters
which might be faced.
“Near Cumae… is the setting of the fabulous story of the Homeric

Nykeia [Odysseus’ journey to the Underworld]; and, what is more,
Daemones Attributes
writers tell us that there actually was an Oracle of the Dead here and
STR: 2d6+9 (16) Action Points: 3 that Odysseus visited it… At any rate, only those who had sacrificed
CON: 2d6+9 (16) Damage Modifier: +1d4 beforehand and propitiated the Daimones Katakhthonioi [Underworld
SIZ: 1d6+12 (16) Magic Points: 19 Gods] could sail into Aornos, and priests who held the locality on lease
DEX: 1d6+12 (16) Movement: 6m Walking, 12m Flying were there to give directions in all such matters; and there is a fountain
INS: 2d6+6 (13) Initiative Bonus: +15 of potable water at this place, on the sea, but people used to abstain from
it because they regarded it as the water of the Styx.”
POW: 2d6+12 (19) Armour: Divine Skin
Strabo – Geographica
Abilities: Flying, Terrifying
Of course, the trip into the depths of the earth may be an elaborate
1d20 Location AP/HP
hoax perpetrated by costumed priests and accentuated by the halluci-
1–2 Right Leg 8/7
nogenic volcanic emissions. But it is always wise to heed the Sibyl’s
3–4 Left Leg 8/7 warning…
5–6 Abdomen 8/8
 “it is easy to go down to the underworld. The door of black Dis
7–8 Chest 8/9
stands open night and day. But to retrace your steps and escape to the
9 – 10 Right Wing 8/7 upper air, that is the task, that is the labour.”
11 – 12 Left Wing 8/7
Virgil – Aeneid
13 – 15 Right Arm 8/6
16 – 18 Left Arm 8/6

somewhat less intimidating females with fair hair and light coloured
19 – 20 Head 8/7 or white wings and carrying objects suitable to the soul they have
come to claim.
Skills Since such beings only come forth to claim the souls of those who
Athletics 62%, Brawn 52%, Endurance 62%, Evade 52%, Perception 72%, Stealth are dead, or about to die, and as immortals they are not expected to
72%, Willpower 78% enter combat with characters. However, seeing a daemon (in partic-
ular the blue skinned ones) can be exceptionally frightening, even to
Combat Style & Weapons those who are not the target of the manifestation.
Reaping Souls 82%
Weapon Size/Force Reach Damage AP/HP Grypes

Iron-bound
The Latin version of the Gryphon comes directly from its Greek
H L 2d6+1d4 6/10 origins, as an eagle-headed and winged lion, which collects and
Great Club
Serpent Twisted lines its mountaintop nests with gold. They supposedly live in the
M S 1d4+1d4+Venom As for Arm
Fist Rhipaean Mountains (thought to be the Urals) near Scythia, from
158 Omnes viae Romam ducunt – All roads lead to Rome

which the Boreas wind comes. For characteristics see Griffin (Myth- Jaculus Attributes
ras page 248).
“I have heard that the Indian animal the Gryps is a quadruped like a lion; CON: 2d6 (7) Damage Modifier: None
that it has claws of enormous strength and that they resemble those of a lion. SIZ: 1d6+3 (7) Magic Points: 7
Men commonly report that it is winged and that the feathers along its back are DEX: 2d6+12 (19) Movement: 6m
black, and those on its front are red, while the actual wings are neither but are INS: 2d6+5 (12) Initiative Bonus: +16
white. And Ktesias records that its neck is variegated with feathers of a dark POW: 2d6 (7) Armour: Scales
blue; that it has a beak like an eagle’s, and a head too, just as artists portray
Abilities: Camouflaged, Cold-Blooded, Leaper
it in pictures and sculpture. Its eyes, he says, are like fire. It builds its lair
among the mountains, and although it is not possible to capture the full-grown
1d20 Location AP/HP
animal, they do take the young ones.”
Aelian – On Animals 1–3 Tail Tip 1/3
4–5 Mid End-length 1/3
Harpy (Harpyia) 6–7 Fore End-length 1/3

Another Greek monster introduced into Latin literature, the 8–9 Rear Mid-length 1/4
Harpies are described as bird-bodied, girl-faced things with faces
10 – 12 Mid Mid-length 1/4
haggard with insatiable hunger. They were spirits of the storm
winds, sent to steal people away from the earth or castigate those 13 – 14 Fore Mid-length 1/4
who defy the gods. Their place of abode was the Strophades Islands 15 – 16 Rear Fore-length 1/3
in the Ionian Sea.
17 – 18 Mid Fore-length 1/3
Although in the Aeneid they could not be harmed, the Greek
legends said they were vulnerable to those swift (or foolish) enough 19 – 20 Head 1/3
to pursue them. Harpies either carry off people or possessions to the
far corners of the world or they inflict starvation on a victim by foul- Skills
ing and stealing their food. Whoever eats food spoiled by a harpy or Athletics 73%, Brawn 21%, Endurance 34%, Evade 78%, Perception 49%, Stealth
is wounded by one is exposed to Typhoid (see Disease page 71). For 71%, Willpower 34%
statistics, see Harpy (Mythras page 250), but change their Armour
Points to 6AP from divine protection. Combat Style & Weapons
Death from Above 63%
“The Harpyiae are on us, horribly swooping down from the mountains.
They tear the banquet to pieces, filthying all with their bestial touch. Hideous
the sounds, nauseous the stench about us. We choose a secluded spot under an Impaling Leap S - 1d10 As for Head
overhanging crag, enclosed by trees and their shifting shadows, to set up our
tables again and light a fire on a new altar. Again from their hidden lairs, “Behold. afar, around the trunk of a barren tree, a fierce serpent – Africa
flying in from different angles, that noisy coven claws at the feast, hovering calls it the jaculus -wreathes itself, and then darts forth, and through the head
around it, their mouths tainting the meal. So then I order my friends, stand to and pierced temples of Paulus it takes its flight: nothing does venom there
arms, for we must fight this damnable brood. They did as they were ordered: affect, death seizes him through the wound. It was then understood how slowly
they put their shields out of sight beside them. So when the creatures again fly the stones which the sling hurls, how sluggishly whizzes the flight of the
came screeching round the bay, Misenus from an observation post above us, Scythian arrow.”
blew the alarum. My friends went into an unfamiliar combat, trying their steel Lucan – Pharsalia
on sinister birds of the sea. But blows did not make them turn a feather, their
bodies would not be wounded – they simply flew off at high speed into the Kynoprosopoi
blue, leaving a half devoured feast and their own disgusting traces. “ The dog-men of the desert, the Kynoprosopoi were probably
Virgil – Aeneid exaggerated reports of baboons. However, for those who want
the mythic version, the following statistics are provided. Accord-
Jaculus ing to Latin authors, the dog-men were generally friendly towards
travellers.
The Jaculus is a type of deadly snake, which kills by launching
itself from trees with incredible force and piercing through the bod- If provoked to combat, kynoprosopoi attack with a claw, main-
ies of its victims – according to Pliny like a bolt from a siege engine. taining contact and allowing the bite to be brought into play. If the
Being an ambusher by nature, once the Jaculus has landed it is effec- bite hits, the dog-man uses its Savage ability each round thereafter
tively helpless until it can scale another position of height, so it tends until the Hit Location is rendered useless.
to wriggle away into the nearest cover or flee. Since their body is
in effect a living javelin, it is capable of inflicting an Impale spe- “After traversing the Egyptian oasis one is confronted for seven whole days
cial effect but instead of remaining in the wound, they pass straight with utter desert. Beyond this live the human Kynoprosopoi (Dog-Faces) along
through. the road that leads to Aethiopia. It seems that these creatures live by hunting
gazelles and antelopes; further, they are black in appearance, and they have
the head and teeth of a dog… …They are however not endowed with speech,
Omnia praeclara rara – All the best things are rare (Cicero)
159
Kynoprosopoi Attributes
but utter a shrill squeal. Beneath their chin hangs down a beard; we may
compare it with the beards of Drakones, and strong and very sharp nails cover
their hands. Their whole body is covered with hair – another respect in which
CON: 3d6 (11) Damage Modifier: +1d2 they resemble dogs. They are very swift of foot and know the regions that are
SIZ: 3d6 (11) Magic Points: 11 inaccessible: that is why they appear so hard to capture.”
DEX: 3d6 (11) Movement: 6 metres Aelian – On Animals
INT: 2d6+6 (13) Initiative Bonus: +12
POW: 2d6+6 (13) Armour: Fur Lamia

CHA: 3d6 (11) Abilities: Savage The Lamiae were beautiful women with serpentine tails in place
of their legs. By using illusions to disguise their form, they would
1d20 Location AP/HP seduce young men, take them as lovers and slowly drain them of
1–3 Right Leg 1/5
their vitality until death. Lamiae avoid direct confrontation where
possible, preferring to subtly charm victims into falling in love with
4–6 Left Leg 1/5
them. Their illusionary ability allows them to project the appear-
7–9 Abdomen 1/6 ance of normal humanity at a cost of 1 Magic Point per hour but
10 – 12 Chest 1/7
the illusion cannot be maintained if they are forced to use their con-
striction attack.
13 – 15 Right Arm 1/4
Magical seduction requires that the Lamia overcomes her victim
16 – 18 Left Arm 1/4 in an opposed test of her Seduction skill verses his Willpower. If
19 – 20 Head 1/5
the victim succeeds, then he is immune to her charms for that day.
Otherwise he will willingly be taken to bed and engaged in a night
Skills of delirious passion. The strength of his desire causes the victim
Athletics 58%, Brawn 48%, Deceit 54%, Endurance 42%, Evade 52%, Insight
to cease eating and spend his entire time desiring to return to his
46%, Perception 56%, Stealth 44%, Willpower 36% beloved. Each day of passion after the first causes the temporary
loss of a level of Fatigue. These points recover at one each day of
Tribe Defender 58% (Spear, Sling), Unarmed 68% (Teeth & Claws) Lamia Attributes
STR: 3d6 (11) Action Points: 3
CON: 3d6 (11) Damage Modifier: +1d4
Bite M T 1d4+1d2 As for Head
Claw S S 1d3+1d2 As for Arm
DEX: 3d6+6 (17) Movement: 6 metres
Shortspear M L 1d8+1+1d2 4/5 INT: 2d6+9 (16) Initiative Bonus: +17
Sling L - 1d8 1/2 POW: 2d6+9 (16) Armour: Scales on serpent parts
CHA: 2d6+6 (13) Abilities: Illusion, Night Sight, Poison Immunity
1d20 Location AP/HP

1–3 Tail End 3/7
4–6 Mid Tail 3/7
7–9 Upper Tail 3/8
10 – 12 Chest 0/9
13 – 15 Right Arm 0/6
16 – 18 Left Arm 0/6
19 – 20 Head 0/7
Skills
Athletics 58%, Brawn 73%, Deceit 69%, Endurance 62%, Evade 74%, Influence
56%, Insight 72%, Perception 62%, Seduction 79%, Stealth 63%, Willpower 72%

Slithering Horror 68%
Constrict H T 1d4 As for Tail
Tail Lash L L 1d8+1d4 As for Tail End
160 Omnia vincit amor – Love conquers all (Virgil)

enforced rest and eating. Unless this is imposed by helpers, the vic-
tim eventually dies.
The Tragedy of Scorpus: Plot Hook

Gaius Antonius is more popularly known as Scorpus, a famed char-
ioteer who is well on his way to winning his five hundredth race. Once a
slave, he won his freedom a few years ago and has lived a life of relative
luxury since.
In recent months Scorpus has been losing races. Of course, not every
charioteer wins all the time but Scorpus has been losing contests he
should have won easily. He seems tired; he is making mistakes. His
patrons are worried and the characters are tasked with investigating.
Scorpus has a big race coming up – his patrons are banking on him
winning, and much money rides on the outcome. If he does not recover
his form, he will surely lose.
By following and watching Scorpus, they find he has a new lover.
She rarely leaves the fine villa the charioteer has bought but the two can
be glimpsed in the gardens, deep in conversation and sometimes in other
activities. Scorpus is clearly besotted but any attempts to either meet this
new love or convince him to return to his previously strenuous training
regime is met with outright hostility.
The new lover is Livia and she is a lamia. She has chosen Scorpus
for his virility, which she is is slowly draining with each night of pas-
sion. Within a week he will be dead and the crucial race is in a little
over that. The irony is, Livia genuinely loves Scorpus. Other men would
be withered husks by now but Scorpus is intelligent, strong and is also in
love with Livia. He suspects what she is but has fallen so deeply in love
with her, he is blind to what is happening.
The characters must try to save Scorpus from his doom. He will the underworld were opened and ghosts were free to walk the streets
resist – so will Livia. And if Scorpus is convinced to abandon his lover, of Rome.
Livia turns her attentions to one of the characters – the strongest, most
passionate character, intending to find a new lover and a new source of “I scarcely believe it, but they say that ancestral spirits came moaning
sustenance. from their tombs in the still of night, and misshapen spirits, a bodiless throng,
howled through the City streets, and through the broad fields. Afterwards
neglected honour was paid to the tombs”
The Lamia of Lybis Ovid – Fasti
The Libyan Lamia is a legendary figure who is used by Roman
mothers to frighten young children into obedience. She is a monster who Most dead spirits only return to plague those who have wronged
roams the streets stealing and eating any children she can find, appearing them. Families can be haunted for the failure to show proper respect
as an old hag who has removed her own eyes. Of course there are many to their ancestors or permitting the neglect of their tombs. Mur-
dangers in Rome, which might explain the frequent disappearance of derers or political enemies are often plagued for causing the death
young children, but the presence of the true Lamia in the Eternal City of the ghost until justice is served. Unwary fools who remain in the
would make a very disturbing adventure. presence of necropolises after dark are prone to attack from insane
lemures who only desire to taste blood from those who wander near
“nor should it extract a living child from the stomach of the ogress, their long forgotten sepulchres.
Lamia, after she has dined”
Horace – Ars Poetica “Flitting phantoms appear midst the tombs and unburied bones, gibbering
menace”
Petronius – The Satyricon
Roman spirits never manifest physically as wraiths, although

some are able to move physical objects. Instead they drive their
Lemures object of their haunting mad with repeated visitations. Malicious
The spirits of the dead, Lemures are objects of particular dread lemures return during the nights of festivals which honour the dead
to the average Roman. Many festivals are held annually to placate (see The Cycle of the Dead on page 115), in an attempt to pos-
the hungry dead and show them proper respect. This is extremely sess their victims; if successful, will force them to commit suicide.
important since three days each year the stones covering the gates to Lacking physical form, these spirits cannot be harmed, save for the
intercession of magic (see Necromancy on page 144). Lemures can
Optimum est pati quod emendare non possis – It is best to endure what you cannot change (Seneca)
161
be represented by using the characteristics of Haunts (see Mythras Skills
page 150), but lack the Wither ability.
Athletics 62%, Brawn 58%, Endurance 46%, Evade 62%, Imitate Voice 78%,
Perception 67%, Stealth 70%, Willpower 56%
“Another variety of “daemon” consists of the human soul that abandons
its body when it has finished its services in life. I note that in the old Latin Combat Style & Weapons
language these used to be termed lemures. Now, to some of these lemures was Cunning Crocotta 72%
allotted the care of their descendants. These occupy houses with a propitious
and peaceful attitude, and they are called Lares of the family. But others, Weapon Size/Force Reach Damage AP/HP
because of their misdeeds in life, are punished with a kind of exile, namely, Bite L S 1d8+1d6 As for Head
with the denial of a home and with undirected wanderings. They can only
Hoof L M 1d6+1d6 As for Leg
be harmless terrors to good men, but they are dangerous to bad men. People
usually call these larvae. When it is unclear what category of ghost one is
dealing with, whether it is one of the Lares or the larvae, one uses the term Mantichora
Di Manes.” Originally from the Middle East, the Mantichora is a melange
Apuleius – De Deo Socratis of a red coloured lion with a human head and a huge scorpion tail
covered with barbs and a sting over a cubit in length. It is a man
Leucrocota eater (hence its name) and can fire its barbs in any direction out to
a range of 30 metres by flicking its tail. Worse still is that the barbs
“ the Leucrocota, swiftest of wild beasts, about the size of an ass, with and sting are infused with a poison fatal to everything save elephants.
a stag’s haunches, a lion’s neck, tail and breast, badger’s head, cloven hoof, The Mantichora is fearless, attacking groups of men for the
mouth opening right back to the ears, and ridges of bone in place of rows of taste of their flesh. Use the statistics of a Manticore (Mythras page
teeth – this animals is reported to imitate the voices of human beings.” 256) but change its tail venom to a Potency of 70%, and instead of
Pliny the Elder – Naturalis Historia Paralysis it causes internal haemorrhaging (Bleeding) at one level per
hour until death.
A strange chimera from Aethiopia, formed from the combina-
tion of stag, lion and badger, the Leucrocota was feared for its ability “…which he calls the Mantichora; it has a triple row of teeth, which fit
to mimic human voices. It used this power to lure people away from into each other like those of a comb, the face and ears of a man, and azure
their companions or campfires before tearing them to pieces. eyes, is of the colour of blood, has the body of the lion, and a tail ending in a
The Leucrocota can attack with its horrific gaping mouth and sting, like that of the scorpion. Its voice resembles the union of the sound of
kick with its hooves. Whilst a deadly man eater in its own right, the the flute and the trumpet; it is of excessive swiftness, and is particularly fond
Leucrocota cannot stand up to a coordinated attack, hence its use of of human flesh.”
mimicry to entice lone victims into its reach, whereupon it springs Pliny the Elder – Naturalis Historia
upon the victim and consumes him alive.
Leucrocota Attributes
Neades
There is very little known about the Neades save that they left
STR: 2d6+9 (16) Action Points: 3 their monstrous bones on the island of Samos. Modern theories sug-
CON: 2d6+6 (13) Damage Modifier: +1d8 gest that these may even have been dinosaur or mammoth bones
SIZ: 2d6+15 (22) Magic Points: 13 discovered by the Greek inhabitants. Bearing that in mind, Games
DEX: 2d6+9 (16) Movement: 8m
Masters might wish to have an island of ‘Fearfully Great Lizards’ or
slightly less fanciful prehistoric mammals from the Pliocene Epoch
using suitable creatures from the Mythras core rules.
POW: 2d6+6 (13) Armour: Fur
Abilities: Leaper, Night Sight “…in primeval times Samos was uninhabited, for there appeared in the
island animals of gigantic size, which were savage and dangerous to man to
1d20 Location AP/HP approach, and they were called Neades. Now these animals with their mere
1–3 Tail 2/6 roar split the ground. So there is a proverbial saying current in Samos, ‘He
roars louder than the Neades.’ And the same writer asserts that huge bones are
displayed even to this day”
6–7 Left Hind Leg 2/7 Aelian – On Animals
8 – 10 Hindquarters 2/8
For those desiring a more classical version, the following charac-
teristics are for giant quadruped lizards whose roar can cause earth-
15 – 16 Right Front Leg 2/6 quakes. These monsters may either attack once per round or roar.
17 – 18 Left Front Leg 2/6 Roaring costs the creature 1d6 Magic Points and causes a localised
earth tremor. Everything within 100 metres must roll an opposed
19 – 20 Head 2/7
test of their Athletics skill against the monster’s Thunderous Roar
skill. Failure indicates that object or person has fallen over, suffer-
ing the prone penalty if the monster decides to trample over them.
162 Otium sine litteris mors est et hominis vivi sepultra – Leisure without literature is death, or rather the burial of a living man (Seneca)
Realistically such creatures should only be faced by a cohort armed
with ballistae.
Neades Attributes

DEX: 2d6 (7) Movement: 6 metres
POW: 3d6 (11) Armour: Tough Hide and Bony Spikes & Plates
Abilities: Area Attack (Tail), Cold-Blooded, Intimi-

date, Trample
1d20 Location AP/HP

1-3 Tail 8/17
4-5 Right Hind Leg 6/17
6-7 Left Hind Leg 6/17
8-10 Hindquarters 8/18
11-14 Forequarters 8/19
15-16 Right Front Leg 6/16
17-18 Left Front Leg 6/16
19-20 Head 8/17
Skills
Athletics 35%, Brawn 94%, Endurance 84%, Evade 24%, Perception 42%,
Thunderous Roar 70%, Willpower 52%
Ophies Attributes
Combat Style & Weapons STR: 2d4 (5) Action Points: 3
Unstoppable Juggernaut 52%
CON: 2d6 (7) Damage Modifier: -1d6
Weapon Size/Force Reach Damage AP/HP SIZ: 2d4 (5) Magic Points: 7
Tail Bash C VL 2d6+2d8 As for Tail DEX: 2d6+12 (19) Movement: 4m Wriggling, 12m Flying
Trample C T 4d8 As for Leg
POW: 2d6 (7) Armour: None
Abilities: Cold-Blooded, Flying
Ophies
1d20 Location AP/HP
1–3 Tail 0/1
Many coloured snakes with two pairs of wings, which emit acidic
4–6 Rear Length 0/2
urine on those who disturb them. A particularly nasty beast, male
Ophies are killed by the females after copulation, who in turn are 7–9 Mid Length 0/3
consumed by their young, who eat their way out of her body. Ophies 10 – 12 Fore Length 0/4
inhabit the frankincense trees of Arabia and are considered a terri-
13 – 15 Right Wing 0/4
ble pest by those who desire to harvest the rare spice. The serpents
can be driven briefly away with the smoke of burning Storax Resin, 16 – 18 Left Wing 0/4
imported at great expense from the Phoenicians. Normal encounters 19 – 20 Head 0/3
are with flying flocks of Ophies, making them difficult opponents to
face. For rules concerning Acid, see Mythras page 68. Skills
Athletics 34%, Brawn 10%, Endurance 24%, Evade 38%, Fly 74%, Perception
“Megasthenes states that in India there are snakes (ophies) with wings, 59%, Stealth 61%, Willpower 34%
and that their visitations occur not during the daytime but by night, and that
they emit urine which at once produces a festering wound on anybody on which Combat Style & Weapons
it may happen to drop.” Aerial Assault 64%
Aelian – On Animals
Urine Squirt S - 1d2 Weak Acid -
Pacta sunt servanda – Agreements should be obeyed

163
Pegasi The following characteristics can be used for either beast, save
that Aethiopian Sphinxes cannot fly or riddle and have INS instead
The Roman version of the classic winged horse differs slightly of INT.
from the Greek in the fact that it has horns. Note that Pegasi are
a species living in Africa, whereas the mythological Pegasus came
Sphinx Attributes
from the slaying of Medusa by Perseus. Normally pegasi flee from
combat, but if cornered or injured will strike back with wing buffets
to knock foes down and kick with its hoofs. CON: 2d6+6 (13) Damage Modifier: +1d8
“Aethiopia produces… many monstrosities… [including] winged horses DEX: 2d6+12 (19) Movement: 8m
armed with horns, called Pegasi.” INS: 2d6+6 (13) Initiative Bonus: +16
POW: 2d6+9 (16) Armour: Fur on lion parts
Abilities: (Flying), Leaper, Night Sight

Pegasi Attributes
1d20 Hit Location 1d20 Hit Location AP/HP
CON: 2d6+6 (13) Damage Modifier: +1d10 Right Hind Right Hind
1–3 1–2 1/7
SIZ: 2d6+21 (28) Magic Points: 13 Leg Leg
DEX: 2d6+6 (13) Movement: 10m Walking, 15m Flying 4–6 Left Hind Leg 3–4 Left Hind Leg 1/7
7–9 Hindquarters 5–7 Hindquarters 1/8
10 – 12 Forequarters 8 – 10 Forequarters 1/9
Abilities: Flying
* 11 – 12 Right Wing 1/8
1d20 Location AP/HP * 13 – 14 Left Wing 1/8
1–2 Right Hind Leg 1/9 Right Front Right Front

13 – 15 15 – 16 1/6
Leg Leg
Left Front Left Front
5–7 Hindquarters 1/10 16 – 18 17 – 18 1/6
Leg Leg
8 – 10 Forequarters 1/11 19 – 20 Head 19 – 20 Head 0/7
11 – 12 Right Wing 1/10

Skills
13 – 14 Left Wing 1/10
Athletics 55%, Brawn 60%, Endurance 56%, Evade 46%, Fly 75%, Perception
15 – 16 Right Front Leg 1/8 54%, Stealth 44%, Willpower 56%

19 – 20 Head 1/9 Equine Fury 55%
Skills Weapon Size/Force Reach Damage AP/HP
Athletics 55%, Brawn 60%, Endurance 56%, Evade 46%, Fly 75%, Perception Kick L M 1d6+1d10 As for Leg
54%, Stealth 44%, Willpower 56%
Wing Buffet M VL 1d4+1d10 As for Wing

Equine Fury 55%
“Here afore time she stood, fierce uplifting her pallid cheeks, her eyes
tainted with corruption and her plumes all clotted with hideous gore; grasping
Kick L M 1d6+1d10 As for Leg human remains and clutching to her breast half-eaten bones she scanned the
Wing Buffet M VL 1d4+1d10 As for Wing
plains with awful gaze, should any stranger dare to join in the strife of rid-
dling words, or any traveller confront her and parley with her terrible tongue;
then, without more ado, sharpening forthwith the unsheathed talons of her
Sphinxes livid hands and her teeth bared for wounding, she rose with dreadful beating
of wings around the faces of the strangers”
Roman Sphinxes as described by Pliny were an Aethiopian spe-
Statius – Thebaid
cies derived from the combination of a woman’s head with the body
of a lion, possessing “…brown hair and a pair of udders on the
breast…”. The Greek sphinx however was a unique creature with
wings who questioned travellers in Thebes. Those who answered her
riddles wrongly were eaten.
164 Panem et circenses - Bread and circuses (Juvenalis)

Strix Strix Plot Hooks

These strange creatures are nocturnal birds of ill-omen, which The Strix is a fabulous creature to set upon unsuspecting characters
rend flesh and drink human blood. Strix generally only attack the in Rome. Superstitious Romans consider even the merest sight or sound
young or helpless, even carrying off babies small enough to be of an owl to be terrible bad luck. Games Masters need not even intro-
borne. They are reputed to live at the outskirts of Tartarus but these duce a true Strix into their games…. Simply including an owl into an
‘owls of hell’ can be warded off with the leaves of the Arbutus tree adventure and making occasional hidden rolls can drive up the paranoia
or be given the meat of pigs as a substitute for their normal appe- of the players.
tites. Being an indelible part of Roman mythology, these creatures For more supernatural adventures, the characters could fall foul
could easily be encountered in Rome. of some sinister chthonian cult and have these creatures set upon them
nightly, until they uncover the source of the attacks. Or perhaps they
“Their heads are large, their eyes stick out, their beaks fit for tearing, their have been cursed by an enemy and the Striges are drawn to the stygian
feathers are grey, their claws hooked. They fly by night, attacking children with doom upon them.
absent nurses, and defiling their bodies, snatched from the cradle. They’re said A scenario could be designed so that the characters stumble upon the
to rend the flesh of infants with their beaks, and their throats are full of the body of a drunk in the street, up from which flutters a dark shape. On
blood they drink. They’re called screech-owls, and the reason for the name is inspection the man is discovered to be dead and drained of blood, the
the horrible screeching they usually make at night. Whether they’re born as beginning of a murderous trail by a shape-shifted witch. Failure to solve
birds, or whether they’re made so by spells, old women transformed to birds the mystery could lead to a close family member ending up dead, or the
by Marsian magic” characters being accused of the deed(s) themselves…
Ovid – Fasti
Strix Attributes
Sylvan Daemones
The sylvan daemones are the untamed nature spirits of the
woods and mountains, which included satyrs, fauns and other
CON: 1d6+6 (10) Damage Modifier: –1d4 strange spirits such as nymphs. In Latin mythology they were the
SIZ: 1d3+1 (3) Magic Points: 7 orgiastic, drunken entourage of Bacchus the god of wine and Fau-
DEX: 2d6+15 (22) Movement: 15 metres flying nus, the god of the woods and pastures.
INS: 2d6+5 (12) Initiative Bonus: +17 Fauns (also known as panes) are bearded humans from the waist
POW: 2d6 (7) Armour: None
up, hoofed goats below, and have the pointed ears and horns of a
goat. Satyrs however have human legs, but the ears and tails of asses.
Abilities: Diving Strike, Flying, Night Sight
“The countryfolk, the Sylvan Deities (Numina Silvarum), the Fauni and
1d20 Location AP/HP
brother Satyri and the Nymphae.”
1–3 Right Leg 0/2 Ovid – Metamorphoses
4–6 Left Leg 0/2
Both the fauns and satyrs were players of musical instruments
7–9 Body 0/4
and the fauni in particular were reputed to be able to cast illusions.
10 – 13 Right Wing 0/3 They were also savage in battle and possess a malicious sense of
14 – 17 Left Wing 0/3 humour. Due to their bestial nature, many areas about Rome were
deliberately left as wilderness or sacred groves to propitiate them.
18 – 20 Head 0/3
Skills “The Panes (fauns) madly made battle skipping with light foot over the
Brawn 21%, Endurance 40%, Evade 44%, Fly 70%, Perception 69%, Stealth 74%,
peaks. One of them gript an enemy’s neck tight with encircling hands, and
Willpower 44%
ript him with his goat’s-hooves, tearing through the flank and strong corselet
together. Another caught a fugitive and ran him through this middle where he
Combat Style & Weapons stood, then lifting him on the curved points of his two long branching antlers,
Night Hunter 60% sent him flying high through the airy ways, rolling over himself like a tumbler.
Another waved in his hand the straw-cutting sickle of sheaf-bearing Deo, and
Weapon Size/Force Reach Damage AP/HP reaped the enemy crops with claw curved blade, like corn ears of conflict, like
Claw Rake S T 1d4-1d4 As for Leg gavels of the battlefield. There was a revel for Ares, there was harvest-home
for Dionysos, when the enemy’s heads were cut. He offered the curved blade to
Peck S T 1d3-1d4 As for Head
watching Bacchus, dabbled with human dew, and so poured a blood-libation
to Dionysos, and made the Moirai (Fates) drunken with the battle cup he
filled for them. Another man was standing, when one goat-foot Pan twined
both hands interlacing about his neck, and struck his well corseted enemy with
his horn, tearing his flank with the double point. Another met a fellow rushing
on him with a blow from his cudgel, and smashed his forehead right between
the ends of his eyebrows.”
Nonnus – Dionysiaca
Parva scintilla saepe magnam flamam excitat – A small spark often initiates a large flame
165
Sylvan Daemones Attributes


POW: 2d6+9 (16) Armour: Hide on legs and abdomen
CHA: 3d6 (11) Abilities: Frenzy (Battle), Leaper
Magic: Folk Magic
1d20 Location AP/HP

1–3 Right Leg 1/6
4–6 Left Leg 1/6
7–9 Abdomen 1/7
10 – 12 Chest 0/8
13 – 15 Right Arm 0/5
16 – 18 Left Arm 0/5
19 – 20 Head 0/6
Skills
Athletics 68%, Brawn 55%, Dance 77%, Endurance 72%, Evade 62%, Insight
59%, Locale 56%, Musicianship 77%, Perception 59%, Willpower 52%

Sylvan Savage (Sickle, Club) 68%, Unarmed (Fist, Head Butt, Hoof) 78%
The Original Beastmen?
The fauns and satyrs were frequently represented in art, being popu- Weapon Size/Force Reach Damage AP/HP
lar subjects in paintings and statuary, particularly in gardens where they Club M M 2d6+1d4 4/4
are thought to bless and protect the plants. They also became indispens-
Sickle M S 1d4+2+1d4 6/4
able characters in many Greek and Latin plays, where they began to take
on personalities of their own... Hoof M T 1d4+1d4 As for Arm
Horns M S 1d6+1d4 As for Head

“Twelve horned Panes (fauns) there were, with this changeling
shape and horn bearing heads, who were begotten of the one ancestral
Pan (Faunus) their mountain ranging father. One they named Kelaineus Unicornis
(Blackie) as his looks bore witness, and one Argennos (Whitey) after The Roman version of the Monoceros, it was a legend developed
his colour; Aigikoros (Goatgluts) was well dubbed, because he glutted from Greek reports of the first rhinoceroses seen in ancient India. In
himself with goat’s-milk which he pressed from nannies udders in the some accounts they are as large as horses with a white body, a dark
flock. Another masterly one was called Eugeneios (Longbeard), from a red head, their eyes bluish and they have a horn in their forehead
throat and chin which was a thick meadow of hair. Daphoineus (the about a cubit in length. The lower part of the horn, for about two
Bloody) came along with Omester (Eat-em-raw); Phobos (the Fright- palms distance from the forehead, is quite white, the middle is black,
away) with shaggy-legged Philamnos (the Lamb’s Friend). Glaukos the upper part, which terminates in a point, is a very flaming red.
with Xanthos, Glaukos glaring like the bright sea, with a complexion Those who drink out of cups made from it are proof against convul-
to match. Xanthos had a mane of hair like a bayard, which gave that sions, epilepsy and even poison.
name to the horned frequenter of the rocks. Then there was bold Argos
with a shock of hair as white as snow . . . Along with these came Phor- “But that the fiercest animal is the Monoceros (Unicorn), which in the
bas (Fear) to join their march, savage and insatiate.” rest of the body resembles a horse, but in the head a stag, in the feet an ele-
Nonnus – Dionysiaca phant, and in the tail a boar, and has a deep bellow, and a single black horn
three feet long projecting from the middle of the forehead. They say that it is
Such stories show that these wilderness deities were an inescapable impossible to capture this animal alive.”
part of the Roman psyche, who even dressed the choruses in their theatres Pliny the Elder – Naturalis Historia
up as fauns and satyrs. The superstitious Romans truly fear the deep
dark woodlands for the presence of these wild beings and thus they can
be introduced even into ostensibly historical campaigns still set within
Italy.
166 Pecunia non olet – Money has no smell (Vespasian)

Unicornis Attributes

CHA: 3d6 (11) Abilities: Disease Immunity, Formidable Natural

Weapons (Horn), Poison Immunity
1d20 Location AP/HP

17 – 20 Head 1/7
Skills
69%, Willpower 78%

Horned Lancer 77%
Kick L M 1d6+1d10 As for Leg
Horn L L 1d8+1d10 6/12
Werewolf (Versipellis)
The Versipellis was the Roman werewolf. It differed from the
modern version in that the wolf needed to reclaim its clothes
in order to return to human form. It was also vulnerable to nor-
mal weapons, although somewhat tougher than a normal human.
Indeed the werewolf described in the Satyricon is impaled through
the neck but the following morning is seen alive in human shape, the
wound being tended by a doctor.
Werewolves use the characteristics as described for Lycanthropy
in the Wolf description (see Mythras page 273).
“The moon was shining like the midday sun. We arrived among the
tombs. My man went for a pee against a gravestone. I held back, singing and
counting the stones. Then, when I looked back at my companion, he had taken
all his clothes off and laid them beside the road. I almost died of fright, and I
stood there like a dead man. He peed a circle around his clothes and suddenly
became a wolf. Don’t think I’m joking. No one’s inheritance is so valuable as
to make me lie. But, as I’d begun to say, after he had become a wolf, he began
to howl and ran into the woods.”
Petronius – The Satyricon
Peior est bello timor ipse belli – Worse than war is the very fear of war
167
Mythic Rome: Campaigns
Campaigns
“It becomes all men, who desire to excel other animals, to strive, to the Before creating a Roman campaign, the Games Master should
utmost of their power, not to pass through life in obscurity, like the beasts think carefully about the following issues. Each will have a signifi-
of the field, which nature has formed grovelling and subservient to appetite. cant bearing on how games are run, from cultural role-playing to
All our power is situate in the mind and in the body. Of the mind we rather character survivability and thus the enjoyment that players will gain
employ the government; of the body, the service. The one is common to us with from it.
the gods; the other with the brutes. It appears to me, therefore, more reasonable
to pursue glory by means of the intellect than of bodily strength, and, since
the life which we enjoy is short, to make the remembrance of us as lasting as
Family
Of the greatest importance to any Roman was their family. Ven-
possible. For the glory of wealth and beauty is fleeting and perishable; that of
erating ancestors and obeying the Paterfamilias are two inviolate
intellectual power is illustrious and immortal.”
cornerstones of society, along with striving to raise the status of the
Sallust – Conspiracy of Catiline
family name. All three of these concepts have vital roles to play in
a campaign.
Failing to propitiate your ancestors can bring trouble to any char-
Designing a Roman acter, since not only does it lower reputation in the eyes of your fam-
Campaign
ily and friends but it could also attract supernatural reprisal. Slaves
might leave the household in superstitious fear and enemies may be
As illustrated in the earlier chapters, ancient Rome is often an perfectly justified to slander those guilty of such impious behaviour.
incomprehensible blend of tradition, superstition, honour and A Paterfamilias is probably the best sadistic tool available to a
treachery. Its very strangeness is its attraction and the fluid hierarchy Games Master. The querulous commands of old men can drive
of family status, wealth and patronage present a fantastic oppor- players to extremes of desperation. Since the word of a paterfamil-
tunity for a Games Master to raise his beginning characters from ias is law within his family, there is no recourse but to obey – unless
obscurity to the leading magistrates of the city. Or even the other the character wishes to be killed, be sold into slavery or take the most
way around, falling from nobility to become criminal gang leaders, heinous of steps and commit patricide. This stick, often without a
or even revenge driven slaves. Nothing is impossible because at the carrot, can be used to precipitate all kinds of ethical dilemmas and
time, nothing was. test the spirit of the character.
Republican Rome caters to every taste. It lauds heroism, self-sac- The reputation of a family’s name is revered by its members.
rificing altruism, integrity and honour. Yet it breeds ruthless ambi- Fierce pride drives relations to defend their family honour against
tion, greed, corruption and hypocrisy. Only by wholeheartedly any who would besmirch it; and ambition to raise its honour and
embracing both paths does Roman society function, where any rank compels sons to climb the Cursus Honorum. The strength of
man – hero or profligate – can briefly hold ultimate power and law these imperatives are a vital aspect of Roman psyche, causing dispa-
enforcement is in the hands of your peers. rate members of a family gens to gather together to perform great
Role-playing games set in ancient Rome possess the potential for deeds, religious observances, or even fund a relative in his political
an incredibly diverse range of events. Scenarios can include such career.
things as wars, criminal gangs, politics, corruption, slave uprisings,
gladiatorial combat, chariot racing, subversive religious cults, floods, “Under these circumstances the Fabii came to the senate, and the consul,
fires, pestilence, supernatural manifestations, noxious sewers, riots, on behalf of his house, spoke as follows: ‘As you are aware, senators, the Vei-
fantastic beasts, looting and pillaging foreign cities – the scope is entine war does not require a large force so much as one constantly in the field.
near limitless. A good campaign will mix these differing occurrences Let the other wars be your care, leave the Fabii to deal with the Veientines.
together; keeping a couple as the core thread which draws the char- We will guarantee that the majesty of Rome shall be safe in that quarter. We
acters along, whilst others can provide exciting diversions. propose to carry on that war as a private war of our own at our own cost. Let
the State be spared money and men there.’ ...The Fabii were all cut down to
168 Periculum in mora – There’s danger in delay (Livy)

a man, and their fort taken. It is generally agreed that three hundred and six force which protects citizens from miscreants. This is both a blessing
men perished, and that one only, an immature youth, was left as a stock for and curse for characters, since they are free to throw their weight
the Fabian house to be Rome’s greatest helper in her hour of danger both at around if they wish... but there is nobody official to defend them
home and in the field” when the inevitable backlash comes.
Livy – Ab Urbe Condita To deal with the problems of crimes and violence, citizens use
social bonds to protect each other. Neighbourhoods, whether they
Wealth be just an insulae or an entire street, keep a wary watch for suspi-
cious behaviour and band together when confronted by an external
The wealth level of characters is another important consid-
threat (think of Block Wars in Judge Dredd, except the populace are
eration. A low wealth level gives the campaign a gritty feeling as
armed with roof tiles and paving slabs instead of guns). Citizens can
characters scrabble to survive in the city, emphasising the need for
also avoid trouble by invoking the name of a patron or by calling on
patrons to aid them with their everyday problems. Starting with high
him for direct help if the implied threat does not work. Richer citi-
wealth levels is the other side of the coin, allowing role-playing of a
zens gain protection vice-versa by surrounding themselves with their
more luxurious lifestyle and the support of clients instead. The bias
clientele. A large crowd of clients not only demoralises most thieves
of such a campaign would be the retention of wealth and power,
and thugs, but can also be used to force a way through crowded
rather than the seeking of it.
streets or shout down hecklers.
Thus, the true strength behind social order is a communal sense
“Speaking as an aristocrat myself, I can tell you that the advantages of
of civic responsibility and the client-patron relationship... not the
high birth are greatly overrated. You get to hold high office, which can get you
number of bodyguards you have.
killed or prosecuted; you are qualified for the highest priesthoods, and I cannot
Games MasterGames Masters are encouraged to teach their
imagine anything more boring than that. Worst of all, you have to spend a
players that the city will always meet force with greater force. If
lot of time with your fellow aristocrats, most of whom are bores, insane, or
they bully a single citizen, then that man’s family will come seeking
congenital criminals. Be content with wealth and luxury. Those will get you
redress. Intimidating the entire family will call attention from that
all the respect and deference you could ask for, without all the other headaches.”
family’s patron. Bribing thugs to beat up the patron may bring the
John Maddox Roberts – Oracle of the Dead
local gang down on the attackers and all too soon hired gladiators
will start lurking outside the homes of the characters. Eventually
A Games Master should think carefully about permitting charac-
the character’s own patron will be leaned upon and told to keep his
ters to start out at wildly differing wealth levels, since social contact
clients under control. If they continue to push, bloodshed will spi-
is limited between those of different classes. Although this could be
ral out of control and eventually the Senate itself will proscribe the
handled in such a way that the other characters all play the servants
and clients of the richest party member, it can lead to chaffing of
the poorer characters to escape from the authority of their patron.
Assassination and Murder

An interesting aspect of a Roman setting is that the blatant mur-
der of an enemy is utterly prohibited. Such an act would bring the
censure of peers or patrons, along with a swift death sentence to pre-
vent the social disintegration caused by vendettas. If a player wishes
to eradicate a longstanding foe, they must do it subtly, or indirectly,
so that they cannot be accused of a misdeed. Even killing thieves
is only permitted at night and only after you have given a shouted
warning of your intention.
Since the merest suspicion of unlawful killing can bring rebuke,
most enemies of high Status must instead be defeated via the law
courts; and except for the most heinous of crimes, a patrician or
equestrian found guilty is normally fined or flees into exile, rather
than be executed. Thus enemies can continue to return and plague
the player characters in pursuit of revenge; or quite surprisingly may
offer alliances in order to defeat the plans of a new threat. In politics
especially, enmity is transient.
The social reproof of casual killing may take some players of
traditional fantasy a while to take on board but the knife cuts both
way, and this constraint can be used by player characters to save
their own lives. After all, exile is not always a permanent sentence.
Civic Order
Rome at this time has no police force and soldiers are prohibited
from mustering within the walls. This means that there is no official
Philosophum non facit barba – A beard doesn’t make a philosopher (Plutarch)

169
players as Enemies of the State and they will be hunted down by the
entire city. In the end, civic order will be maintained. Politics
Politics are the centre point of Roman life and should be an ines-
capable part of any campaign. As an ostensibly democratic city, cit-
Combat izens of whatever rank have the possibility (or responsibility) to vote
Combat in Mythras is deadly. If using the more realistic version in magisterial elections and sit in judgement on new laws. Both of
of the Medicine skill (as suggested on page 131), combat becomes which are wonderful opportunities for scenarios.
even deadlier. In ancient Rome there are no curative spells, no mag- In the eternal battle over social rights between the patricians and
ical potions to recover hit points, no unusual herbs which acceler- plebeians, new legislation can be an excellent source of antipathy
ate healing... a character usually heals damage at their natural rate. to player characters if the law encroaches on personal liberties or
This has a profound effect on how violence should be handled in a sources of wealth. Are they steadfast Optimates or Populares, or do
Roman game. they swap their political position depending on selfish (or fearful)
Within the walls of Rome the wearing of armour and carrying self-interest?
of weapons is forbidden, proscribed by law. Of course many peo-
ple, especially during the closing stages of the late Republic, ignore “I myself, however, when a young man, was at first led by inclination,
these rules but the expense of armour keeps it is beyond the reach like most others, to engage in political affairs; but in that pursuit many cir-
of everyone but the richest. What this means is that without pro- cumstances were unfavourable to me; for, instead of modesty, temperance,
tection, the lowliest street thug armed with a sica can be extremely and integrity, there prevailed shamelessness, corruption, and rapacity. And
intimidating. although my mind, inexperienced in dishonest practice, detested these vices, yet,
In general, fighting with weapons should be avoided at all costs. in the midst of so great corruption, my tender age was ensnared and infected
A bit of good natured street brawling (such as in the October Horse by ambition; and though I shrunk from the vicious principles of those around
festival) or an occasional boxing match is all well and good. But as me, yet the same eagerness for honours, the same obloquy and jealousy, which
soon as a knife gets drawn, somebody is going to die and it may very disquieted others, disquieted myself.”
well be one of the player characters. Games Masters should encour- Sallust – Conspiracy of Catiline
age the idea of fleeing combat, most people do. However, players
with psychopathic tendencies can be educated by the loss of a limb Great fun can be had trying to undermine the election of a hated
or being forced to miss out on entire scenarios, immobilised in bed adversary, particularly if the slur campaign fails and he decides to
for several weeks whilst their wounds slowly knit back together. use the authority of his magistracy to seek revenge. Corruption and
Nevertheless, up until the late Republic almost all citizens are bribery become commonplace in politics as the Republic nears its
expected to muster for military service. Games Masters can improve end, granting a Games Master the chance to subvert character’s
the survivability of these – initially annual – expeditions by allow- morals with ever more tempting gifts or seeding adventures where
ing the characters to own or loot decent armour for protection. In they uncover and expose underhanded policies. Such activity is dan-
addition, intelligent tactics may allow them to bias battlefield odds gerous as the web of political relationships is complex and could
in their favour, friends can jump in to save them if they fall in for- lead to the accidental exposure of their own patron, or even the
mation and just as in modern warfare, becoming a casualty means current consul... with predictable results if they ignore the increas-
that you are retired from active service until healed, which generally ingly dire threats.
means no more fighting till the following year... if the army manages It does not matter if the characters are mere plebeians or mem-
to leave the field in good order. bers of the senate. Politics has a daily effect on their lives, and they
should ignore it at their own peril. At times in Rome, your political
“Now, for the first time, the youth, as soon as they were able to bear the affiliation can get you exiled or killed and nobody is allowed to sit
toils of war, acquired military skill by actual service in the camp, and took on the fence.
pleasure rather in splendid arms and military steeds than in the society of mis-
tresses and convivial indulgence. To such men no toil was unusual, no place
was difficult or inaccessible, no armed enemy was formidable; their valour had
Magic
The Games Master may wish to decide whether magic really is
overcome everything. But among themselves the grand rivalry was for glory;
magical or simply trickery and psychology. For most forms of magic
each sought to be first to wound an enemy, to scale a wall, and to be noticed
(save Shape-shifting) the rules work essentially the same but the
while performing such an exploit. Distinction such as this they regarded as
actual truth behind how it functions can be kept nebulous. Remem-
wealth, honour, and true nobility. They were covetous of praise, but liberal of
ber that everyone in this period is intensely superstitious. People
money; they desired competent riches, but boundless glory.”
believe in the paranormal, even if it is completely bogus.
Of course, the inherent nature of magic and the gods in every-
day life can be completely ignored by those wishing to run a more
Battle is not the only (or indeed the most satisfying) option for
secular game. But Games Masters are encouraged to squeeze as
defeating belligerent enemies. Since most players wish to overcome
much prophecy, witchcraft, curses and divine worship as they can
opponents in a competitive situation, the Games Master should offer
into their scenarios, since it builds up a vivid image of the everyday
alternatives to deadly combat. Historically, glory and reputation was
nature of irrational Roman belief.
also won in rhetorical argument in the law courts, challenges on the
sports fields, artistic performances, political elections and even in
philosophical debate.
170 Plures crapula quam gladius perdidit – Drunkenness takes more lives than the sword
Period
The period in which a campaign is set is critical, providing a
background storyline and potentially affecting character freedom.
For example, up until the late Republic every citizen is expected
to annually serve in the army, allowing these games to legitimately
involve mass battles and regular combat. In the last century BC how-
ever, the legions slowly transform into professional armies, making
the alternation between city life and war adventures more difficult,
if not impossible, for most citizens. Example periods are:
ΩΩ The Founding of Rome – Aiding Romulus and Remus to
found and protect the fledgling city of Rome.
ΩΩ The Monarchy – Military and social conflicts during the time
of kings, including plenty of heroic single combats.
ΩΩ The Creation of the Republic – Support or oppose the last
king of Rome in his struggle against the neophyte Republic.
ΩΩ The Etruscan and Latin Wars – A period full of battles as
Rome slowly conquers her neighbouring city states one by
one, with the high drama of Rome being sacked by the Gauls.
ΩΩ The Pyrrhus Campaign – Fighting against the phalanxes and
elephants of the famous king.
ΩΩ The Punic Wars – Another classic period full of politics and
war, with the first naval battles, slave armies, Hannibal laying
waste to central Italy and several invasions of north Africa.
ΩΩ The Bacchanalian Conspiracy – Dark cult worship, murder,
and sacrifice, as Bacchantes corrupt the youth of the city.
ΩΩ The Gracchi Reforms – A high political campaign as the
Gracchi brothers in turn, break Roman convention; applying
laws in hitherto unthinkable ways to achieve their objectives,
Supernatural Creatures being killed by the Senate for their threatening actions and
Since most legendary beasts in Roman knowledge are simply opening the door for future mob violence.
exaggerated reports of real animals from Africa or the Middle East, ΩΩ The Germanic Threat – A tough military campaign against
such creatures can be included into even those games lacking the the massed Germanic tribes pushing towards Roman terri-
paranormal. However, unless the campaign is planned to visit for- tory, when several armies are massacred.
eign provinces, it has little effect unless explorers or merchants bring ΩΩ The Civil War of Marius and Sulla – A combination of poli-
back live exhibits or the stuffed bodies or bones of such monsters. tics and warfare, including the horrors of proscriptions where
The only supernatural creatures likely to be stumbled upon thousands die for their political affiliation or wealth.
within Rome or its local environs are ghosts, demons, fauns or strix. ΩΩ The Spartacus Revolt – A group of gladiators break free
Such an encounter in a hitherto ‘realistic’ game will radically change of their school and begin to run riot across Italy, repeatedly
the superstitions and fears of the characters, much to everyone’s defeating the Roman armies sent against them.
enjoyment. ΩΩ The Catiline Conspiracy – The young and politically margin-
alised band together under Catiline, who plans to overthrow
Disasters the Senate.
ΩΩ The Rise of the First Triumvirate – A political campaign
Misfortune abounds in Rome. Every few years the city suffers a
major flood, fire or pestilence which can be both exciting and tragic either supporting or undermining the triumvirate, with more
at the same time. Games Masters can instil a tangible sense of fear in mob violence on the streets of Rome.
ΩΩ The Civil War of Caesar and Pompey – The division of
their players with a vividly described catastrophe, not only by threat-
ening the survival of the characters directly – but also menacing Rome between the two leaders, with the possibility of hasten-
their families, sources of wealth or even monuments they may have ing or perhaps preventing Caesar’s assassination.
ΩΩ The Second Triumvirate – Battles and politics between the
built.
A well timed disaster can be used to test character’s stoicism, if second triumvirate and the murderers of Caesar, before open
it strikes when they are at a peak of career or riches. Yet how they hostility between Octavian and Marc Antony descends into
respond to the adversity, with bravery or generosity, can grant them war for ultimate rule over the Republic.
a greater reward in terms of fame and glory from grateful clients,
neighbours and citizens. “But when, by perseverance and integrity, the republic had increased its
Like all epic disaster movies, a little goes a long way. Catastrophes power; when mighty princes had been vanquished in war; when barbarous
should be used sparingly but when they do occur, they should inflict tribes and populous states had been reduced to subjection; when Carthage, the
personal loss and cull a few NPCs along the way. rival of Rome’s dominion, had been utterly destroyed, and sea and land lay
Potius sero quam numquam – Better late than never (Livy)

171
everywhere open to her sway, Fortune then began to exercise her tyranny, and to
introduce universal innovation. To those who had easily endured toils, dangers, Using Historical Sources
and doubtful and difficult circumstances, ease and wealth, the objects of desire One of the best things a Games Master can do before run-
to others, became a burden and a trouble. At first the love of money, and then ning any Roman campaign is to dip into the plethora of his-
that of power, began to prevail, and these became, as it were, the sources of tories (or annals) written during the period. To read one com-
every evil. For avarice subverted honesty, integrity, and other honourable prin- pletely is both daunting and unnecessary but a brief glance at
ciples, and, in their stead, inculcated pride, inhumanity, contempt of religion, the text can immediately snag one’s attention and inspire a plot
and general venality. Ambition prompted many to become deceitful; to keep idea. Indeed, many of the entertaining quotes in this book are
one thing concealed in the breast, and another ready on the tongue; to estimate derived from the following works.
friendships and enmities, not by their worth, but according to interest; and to Recommended authors for the Monarchic and Republican
carry rather a specious countenance than an honest heart. These vices at first periods of Rome are:
advanced but slowly, and were sometimes restrained by correction; but after-
ΩΩ Livy – Ab Urbe Condita, from which most of our knowl-
wards, when their infection had spread like a pestilence, the state was entirely
changed, and the government, from being the most equitable and praiseworthy, edge of early Rome comes from
ΩΩ Polybius – The Histories, good coverage of the military
became rapacious and insupportable.”
Sallust – Conspiracy of Catiline campaigns about the time of the Punic Wars
ΩΩ Sallust – Catiline’s War, the political machinations which
led to the ineffectual coup
ΩΩ Caesar – The Gallic Wars and The Civil Wars, which
Inviolate History
both cover politics and military campaigns
ΩΩ Plutarch – Parallel Lives, although not written during
The Games Master should decide in advance on whether they the Republic, it contains interesting biographies of
wish to stick to the official timeline of Roman History. If history is famous Romans of the period
inviolate, it makes it difficult for player characters to achieve fame in
English translations of these works can be found for free on
their own right and forces the Games Master to keep key historical
the internet (see the Bibliography page 225 for suggested web
figures sacrosanct until certain events occur. Of course, characters
addresses).
can still work behind the scenes to cause history to turn out the way
The histories often give the names and personalities of doz-
it does or alternately the players could unknowingly take the parts of
ens of protagonists, fascinating events (sometimes supernatural)
real historic personages.
and anecdotes, all of which can simply be copied wholesale as
Without inviolate history, characters can derail the timeline com-
plot devices, complete with pre-generated NPC’s.
pletely by their actions. This allows players the freedom to act with-
Of course, these suggestions are not necessary to run a
out unnecessary constraint. In some ways this can be a very enjoy-
Roman campaign. But they can often provide scenario ideas
able option since you can then generate the future as desired, and
more intriguing, and convoluted than anything a Games Mas-
keep the more historically knowledgeable players guessing.
ter can normally come up with himself. Truth is stranger than
fiction, and the Roman world is definitely best studied via their
Alternate
own words.
Campaign Styles
Although this book focuses on role-playing in ancient Rome as Tempus Ambulatus
a Roman, a campaign need not limit itself to a traditional historic Time travel campaigns could stop off in Rome. A number of
setting. A myriad of alternate fantasy or science fiction ideas exist Republican battles are key focal points for changing history. What
where the city or its culture can be given a unique and unusual slant would happen to the future if Hannibal followed up after his victory
to the campaign. at Cannae by assaulting Rome? Indeed why did he not? The charac-
ters could be recruited by godlike time travelling agents (or be agents
themselves) in order to prevent such occurrences. Of course, if the
Pax Cthulhu timeline is inherently resilient to change, then Rome might instead
Combining Rome with the Cthulhu Mythos is an easy way of be the perfect place where a time travelling criminal might hide or
creating a horror campaign of epic scope at a time where foreign vacation, with its massive population and lack of any technology
cults are regularly introduced into the city. Carthage could wor- for tracking individuals. Another idea might be to have characters
ship the Elder gods, explaining why certain members of the Senate in an erstwhile Sci-Fi campaign, suffer the backlash of some worm-
demand its total eradication. Blood sports in the Circus Maximus hole experiment and be permanently stranded in the past. Unable
may be the tithe required to pacify Rome’s own dark gods that to return, the characters themselves might themselves introduce the
sleep under its streets. Perhaps the cult of Bacchus is attempting to technical advances the fledgling Republic uses during its climb to
call Nyarlathotep into the world, or do Deep Ones live in the city Empire.
sewers..?
172 Praemonitus, praemunitus – Forewarned [is] forearmed

Fantasy Rome
A fantasy Roman campaign would place the city in world full
A Century of
of mythological creatures and real gods, the most obvious being
those of Greek derivation. This would permit spectacular scenes of
Plot Seeds
Considering the huge variation of possible starting options on
Minotaur gladiators in the Circus Maximus, Sea Serpent drawn war which to base a Roman campaign, the author has not included a
galleys, or Jupiter himself casting lightning bolts to obliterate enemy detailed introductory adventure. Ultimately most Games Masters
generals. The setting need not be classical of course; a group of will wish to use a conflicting time period, social beginning, or adven-
Romans or even the entire city itself could be transported into an ture style.
alternate world full of wizards and monsters, as in Harry Turtle- Therefore in order to help Games Masters through their first
dove’s Legion of Videssos series. Or perhaps the eternal city is actu- few games, 100 different scenario ideas follow. Each can be used as
ally ruled by an oligarchy of dead ancestors, who refuse to continue either the introduction into a campaign or possible split off scenarios
over the Styx to the underworld but remain instead to continue per- until the campaign gains its own momentum.
sonal machinations with their still living descendants as game pieces. To flesh out these scenario seeds, a list of pre-generated non-
player characters follow this section. Since Roman politics tend to
High Science Fiction be played at several subtle levels simultaneously, some of these plots
What if a Roman adventurer, whilst exploring a ploutonion, should be tied into longer running campaign threads with powerful
discovered that the underground tunnels suddenly transformed into individuals ultimately pulling the strings.
metal corridors? Or an exiled explorer climbing the highest peaks of
the Alps or Atlas mountains sees the edge of the world on the other
side. Rome and its surroundings could be a replica built on a gar-
Gladiatorial Scenarios
1. One or more of the characters start as slaves and must earn
gantuan scale on an artificial world. Maybe the joke or social exper- their freedom in the gladiatorial arena, during which time
iment of an advanced civilisation such as those described in Iain M. they can gradually interact with the darker side of the city,
Banks’ Culture novels or Philip José Farmer’s World of Tiers. The building underworld contacts and learning the social con-
campaign could centre on exploring or escaping from the construct ventions of Rome.
or even battling their hitherto undiscovered alien masters or neigh- 2. The gladiator is hired as a bodyguard for a senator marked
bours. David Drake’s stories ‘Ranks of Bronze’ and ‘Lambs to the for assassination. Will he defend the senator, gaining a
Slaughter’ offer the idea of a Roman legion being sold into service powerful future patron? Or should he accept a bribe large
as primitive mercenaries for an advanced alien race. enough to purchase his freedom and step aside?
3. The gladiator is sought after by an elderly matron who
Alternate Timeline wants him as a paramour. Enduring the caresses of the
A campaign could be set where certain geopolitical events of wrinkled grandmother will bring gifts and possible favours,
Rome’s history are significantly changed. For example Livy himself whereas refusal will result in enmity.
questioned what might have happened if Alexander the Great had 4. The gladiator engages in a romantic relationship with a
expanded west towards Rome, instead of east. Much fun could be young woman, who turns out to be the daughter of some-
had trying to defeat one of the greatest generals of history. What if a one very important. The gladiator is forced to face very des-
central African civilisation rises to oppose the Republic? An army of perate odds in the arena unless he ends the relationship or
pseudo Zulus invading Italy might be a very entertaining scenario. solves the problem another way.
5. Faced with daily abuse from a sadistic trainer, the other
“Had Alexander the Great, after subjugating Asia, turned his attention gladiators approach the player characters and ask them to
to Europe, there are many who maintain that he would have met his match join a revolt. Should they break free and gratuitously satisfy
in Papirius.” their thirst for vengeance or reveal the plan to their owner
Livy – Ab Urbe Condita in the (possibly forlorn) hope of freedom?
6. One of the characters is forced to face his best friend
(another player character) in an unusual combat to the
Carry On Up the Tiber death. Should they really try to kill each other, refuse and
face terrible punishment or attempt a daring escape?
Comic adventures can be great fun considering how Latin lends
7. The gladiator is hired to perform an assassination but
itself to abuse in the English language. As mentioned previously in
unfortunately he knows the target. Perhaps it is a now-freed
the chapter on Character Generation, humorous pseudo-Roman
gladiator who showed him kindness in the arena or the
names are very easy to come up with and there are some plots
unsuspecting father of his current lover?
that can be borrowed wholesale from movies and mercilessly paro-
8. The gladiator is hired for a private show and is challenged
died. Movies such as ‘A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the
to a fight by an inebriated senator, whom he then kills when
Forum’ are of course already parodies of farces written by Plautus in
the pompous oaf fumbles one of his parries. What should
the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC but imagine what could be done in a
the gladiator do? Keep quiet and hope it is covered up, call
comic version of Ben Hur or Spartacus... Start the game with a few
in a favour from a patron or defend himself in the courts?
glasses of wine and calling your tough Centurion ‘Limpus Dickus’
9. A sadistic fellow ex-gladiator makes death threats against
and everything else will flow naturally.
a recently retired player character for imagined crimes.
Praevenire melius est quam praeveniri – It is better to precede than to be preceded

173
Ceaseless hounding and derogatory graffiti ensure the issue killed. Success brings brief glory and possible new patrons
must eventually be settled either publicly in the arena or but also earns the hostility of the embarrassed senator.
down a dark alley. Of course a murder will cast suspicion 10. A seller of narcotics offers the charioteer a mysterious
on the players. potion, which will allow him to win any race. If the PC
10. The gladiator is approached by a gambling syndicate who turns it down, the seller offers it to another charioteer who
wish him to take a fall in the next fight. Despite the seri- then wins everything. However the substance is addictive
ously large bribe, the loss will set back the character who and soon costs horrendous amounts of money to purchase
is building the reputation of a champion. Failing to agree (half skills during withdrawal).
to the business arrangement will bring retributive murder
attempts.
Religious Scenarios
1. The worshippers of Bacchus (under a pseudonym) attempt
Charioteering Scenarios to lure the player characters into their cult, where they are
1. One or more of the player characters are brought to Rome slowly corrupted until they are given a test which pushes
as a team of charioteers. They must face corruption, cheat- them to the limit of their morals. At this point they are cast
ing and outright murder in order to win enough races to out and hunted as enemies of the cult.
earn their freedom. 2. Late at night a lone player character is approached by a
2. The charioteer character is the wastrel son of a senator beautiful woman who begs him for sex. The next day at a
(who disapproves of his sons’ interest in the Circus Maxi- public sacrifice, the character recognises the woman as one
mus) and secretly races wearing a golden mask to hide his of the Vestal Virgins. The sentence for deflowering one of
features. However, his competitors now see it as a challenge the priestesses is a horrible death for both parties but should
to unmask the character during the races. he confess? If not, a series of seemingly divinely sent disas-
3. No matter how skilled the charioteer character he always ters begins to strike Rome...
comes second to a rival, who constantly rubs his nose in 3. An evil cult begins in the sewers of the city, grabbing people
it. The bragging should eventually drive the character into off the street and sacrificing them. The lower class inhab-
doing something illegal and win at any cost. itants begin to leave the city in terror but the problem is
4. Just before a major race the charioteer finds one of his team not treated seriously by the characters’ patrons or the Sen-
mates, a close friend, has been murdered. Who killed them? ate. Investigation reveals that the leading patron is in fact a
A fan of a rival faction or the financiers his own team? priest of the cult.
Seeking revenge may uncover deeper levels of corruption 4. Due to dire omens, the Senate consults the Sibylline Books
and match fixing, placing the character himself in serious and orders a lustrum for certain gods, in which the player
danger. characters must participate. Much pressure is placed on the
5. The charioteer begins to find his performance on the track characters, since if they fail to perform the ritual correctly,
suffering. Ill fortune dogs every race and soon it becomes the entire lustrum must be repeated.
apparent that he is cursed. He must find protection against 5. During a military campaign against a neighbouring city,
the malediction or find the source of this potent hex and the player characters are asked to infiltrate the temple of its
terminate it. patron god and steal the deity, by performing certain rituals.
6. The character has accepted bribes to ‘lose’ races but on Considering that the ceremony requires animal sacrifices,
the advent of a particularly important race he is instead performing the rite stealthily is a serious challenge.
blackmailed into poisoning the rest of his team. Should 6. By subtle dreams and omens, a player character is driven
he betray his racing companions or attempt to silence the by one of the gods to recover a valuable artefact or sub-
blackmailers? stance from an enemy city and place it on his or her altar.
7. After accidentally whipping a rival charioteer’s horses Persuading others that the quest is real could be a problem
during a race, the incensed adversary begins a lethal enmity considering the dangers involved.
on the track, where he deliberately attempts to kill the player 7. During the rebuilding of a major temple, a passageway
character using increasingly suicidal manoeuvres. Can he sealed under the cult statue is discovered and volunteers
be placated or bought off or will the rivalry continue until brave enough to explore the tunnel are called for. Will
someone dies? they discover an ancient shrine of an enemy cult, signs of
8. A challenge is made to race chariots from Rome to Capua (a human sacrifice, a long forgotten god craving worship or an
la ‘Montecarlo or Bust’). Dirty tricks abound to manipulate entrance to hell?
the race result, such as sabotaging chariot wheels, applying 8. Whilst sorting through the effects of a dead ancestor, a
laxatives, hiring gangs of thugs to set ambushes, switching player character discovers an old pledge to build a temple to
road signs and so forth. the now-fallen family’s divine founder. Should the character
9. A foolish senator drives a chariot drawn by lions into the squander the family’s remaining fortune to fulfil the ancient
Forum where he loses control, a player character must try to pledge? If ignored, perhaps the ghost of the founder will
mount and control the chariot before too many people are plague him.
9. The ancestral gods of a character’s household are stolen
and must be recovered at all costs. Why were they stolen,
174 Primus inter pares – First among equals

who has them, and what is suitable vengeance towards the number. Success, even if they die, brings immense glory to
perpetrators? Until their recovery, the character is placed their families.
under a curse and cannot call upon any gods for aid. 10. A fighting competition is held between the cohorts in the
10. After the mysterious disappearances of some of the divine legion. Betting is rife and dirty tricks abound, in order to
fowl, the player characters are ordered to guard the Sacred bias the outcome of the tourney. The winner will be pro-
Geese. Is this the psychological or supernatural prequel to moted, receive a torque in honour of their victory and a
an attack on Rome? Or just the desperate acts of a starving, bonus to their Status in the legion.
impious plebeian?
Crime Scenarios
Legion Scenarios 1. During a visit to the baths, the character’s clothes are sto-
1. During a siege the brutality of a centurion causes his cohort len, including a very expensive new toga given to him by
to revolt. Do the player characters participate, decrying his patron. Tracking down the thief may require contacting
their conditions in the army, attempt to restore the loyalty local criminals, or should he embarrassingly ask his patron
of their fellow men, or flee to the enemy city for protection? for help?
2. A hoard of valuable scrolls is discovered during the sack 2. On the way home after a late party, the player characters
of a city and the characters are ‘volunteered’ to guard it are ambushed by a gang of muggers. Should they pay or
during its transport to Rome. Their general asks them to be fight? If conflict breaks out, neighbours may join in by pelt-
somewhat lax in their duties, offering a large bribe. Should ing all the combatants with rubbish or more dangerously,
they trust their general or will they be tempted to read or roof tiles.
steal some them? 3. If a player character owns a shop then he is approached
3. The characters save the life of a spoiled patrician’s son serv- for protection money from the local street gang. Failure to
ing as a military tribune, who promises them the Corona pay up causes increasingly violent incidents to occur, until
Civica but later recants his offer and denies it ever hap- all the customers are frightened away. Should the character
pened. Should they push their claim and cause dissention, attempt to overthrow the gang or ingratiate himself instead?
or buckle under the intimidation and threat of their com- 4. If unemployed, a player character is propositioned by the
manding officer? local gang to see if he wishes to join. He must prove himself
4. An extended campaign against an enemy city has exhausted by beating up a member of a neighbouring gang, thus pre-
the troops of both sides, so the commanders mutually agree cipitating a gang war.
that the battle should be decided by a challenge of single 5. At a banquet the host, a senator of small standing, is poi-
combats. The player characters should volunteer or they soned. The player characters are assigned the task of
will be selected for whatever reason. researching his death and finding the culprit. Was it his
5. The player characters are unfortunately members of a adulterous wife, his cheating business partner, a vengeful
legion which flees from combat and as part of its punish- political opponent, an insulted poet or did the head slave
ment the legion is decimated – the characters (one of whom do it?
may draw the short straw) have to club some of their com- 6. A recent purchase by one of the player characters turns out
patriots to death. Will they do it or will they desert instead? to be stolen property; the character must seek compensation
6. During a civil war, the player characters are sent to assassi- in court and suffer the slanderous indignities of the legal
nate the commander of the opposing army. However they process.
discover the general is either a relation or patron of one 7. The father of a player character dies under mysterious cir-
of the characters, potentially placing their loyalties at odds. cumstances. The character is accused of patricide in court
Should they switch sides? and faces a horrific execution unless his name is cleared.
7. After being massacred during a battle, the legion loses its Was the old man murdered or was he accidentally killed by
eagle. It is up to the player characters to clear the shame of his medication?
the disaster by recovering the standard themselves. If suc- 8. A literate player character is approached to write a forged
cessful they gain considerable status within the legion and will. The bribe is very, very impressive but the punishment
possible promotion. if caught is death. If the character agrees, news arrives a
8. After a battle where the Romans are badly defeated, a few few days after completion that the man whose will was been
hundred survivors find themselves surrounded in enemy forged is now dead...
territory, lost and without supplies. The player characters 9. The mistress of a player character is being blackmailed over
are the only remaining officers and must take charge, using some love poetry she wrote and sent to an older paramour.
guile and strategy to escape or reverse the situation. She begs the character to break into the house of the black-
9. As the legion retreats in the face of overwhelming odds, mailer and steal the scroll back. However, the dogs and sev-
its commander asks for volunteers to form a rear-guard. If eral ex-gladiator guards make a direct break-in somewhat
the player characters step forwards, they are set to defend a tricky.
bridge or narrow gully against a force a hundred times their 10. A boxed package is delivered to the home of a player char-
acter with a note from an old friend to keep it secure. Inside
is a crude tarnished statuette of a lead eagle. All too soon
Pulvis et umbra sumus – We are dust and shadow (Horace)

175
protagonists turn up wanting the bird, which under the thin
lead layer is actually an exquisite silver legion eagle... Disaster Scenarios
1. The River Tiber floods and submerges the lower city,
stranding people in the upper floors of their insulae. As
Animal Scenarios food rapidly runs out, life becomes a fight for survival with
the inhabitants of each building using violence to protect
1. A leopard escapes from its cage on the docks and runs riot.
The player characters can attempt to capture or kill it as their scraps and possessions against neighbours, looters and
desired; capturing grants a reward but killing earns the each other.
enmity of the out-of-pocket owner. Either way the charac- 2. Whilst one of the player characters is entertaining guests in
ters gain the brief adoration of the local populace. his apartment, a fire on the ground floor spreads rapidly out
2. A number of children go missing in the Via Sacra area, of control and grows into an inferno. The characters find
which unknown to the PCs is the haunt of an immense themselves trapped on the upper floors and must figure out
python. Investigation around the temples results in the an escape before the flames reach the roof.
discovery of several huge scales by sharp eyed characters. 3. Whilst shopping in the Forum Romanum, an argument
Hunting the creature will be tricky since it normally hides starts between two equestrians, one of whom splashed mud
in the Cloaca Maxima. onto the pristine toga of another. Their clients begin a riot
3. A player character is challenged to prove his manhood by which soon spreads out of control. Will the characters try
fighting a lion single handed at the next beast show. Armour to intervene, flee the area or use the opportunity to loot a
and weapons are permitted. Success improves the charac- shop?
ter’s Status and the eternal respect of the challenger. 4. A pestilence hits the city, killing thousands of people each
4. The characters are asked to help solve a succession of high day. Lacking guidance from their sick patrons the player
profile jewellery thefts. Despite setting guards in the gardens characters must independently find a pious priest and learn
and inside the houses, the thefts continue. Fur trapped in how to appease Apollo in order to divert the plague.
the oozing resin of a newly installed window grating gives 5. Within several weeks an unusual number of insulae collapse
a clue that the thief might be a specially trained monkey. across the city. On investigation one of the characters dis-
5. One of the characters belatedly discovers a scorpion in his covers his apartment block was also built by the same con-
shoe. Assuming he survives the malicious attempt on his life, sortium that has used substandard materials. If ignored, the
he then finds one in his bed, his folded toga at the baths, the character’s insula will collapse with possibly them or their
wine cup at the tavern... Has the character offended some family in it.
ancient deity or sorcerer? Or is one of his slaves trying to 6. Whilst watching the excavation of a collapsed or burned
assassinate him with the deadly insects? out building, a character notices that the work is undermin-
6. During some beast hunts at the games, the elephants go bering the nearby aqueduct. Direct appeal to the slaves or their
serk and break into the stands of the audience. The player supervisor has no effect and the characters must rapidly
characters can run, or bravely hold back the enraged beasts locate the absent Aedile in charge of the operation before
so that others may escape. Gifts, patronage and increases it topples.
to Status are the rewards for saving important dignitaries. 7. A player character hears rumour of a planned assassination
7. The player characters see a young boy being chased down of their patron at the next festival games. Trying to locate
the street by a pack of rabid dogs. Interceding diverts the the vengeful assassin turns up the name of a distinguished
mad dogs to attack the characters instead and any successful ex-gladiator but it is not until zero hour that knowledge of
dog bite may expose the injured character to the (POT 13) his past as an architect comes to light. Intelligent deduction
fatal disease. The grateful father is a gang boss who offers may infer that the wooden supports of the temporary the-
each rescuer a single favour or patronage if desired. atre have been sabotaged.
8. A dockside warehouse in Rome’s port of Ostia is raided and 8. A conflagration starts on the Aventine hill and spreads
vandalised night after night and a reward is offered to any- across the city. Heroic characters need to stand firm and
one who can help. If the PCs stake out the store, they will create a fire break by collapsing some insulae, before the
discover that the thief is a giant octopus seeking amphorae flames engulf them. Eventually the fire is traced back to
of pickled fish. It can be killed, driven off or perhaps cap- the apartment of one of the characters, placing him under
tured as desired. suspicion of negligence or arson.
9. A number of mutilated dead bodies appear downstream of 9. A great and terrible storm engulfs Rome, with lightning
the sewers, all of which have odd bite marks on their bodies. repeatedly striking the city. The characters are asked by a
Bravely entering the sewer, characters can eventually trace terrified patron to ascend the Capitoline Hill and perform
the bodies back to the crocodiles kept at the villa rented as a successful sacrifice to appease the wrath of Jupiter. Failure
the Egyptian embassy. Who is being thrown into the sacred risks being struck by lightning...
pool and why? 10. A famine hits the city and the PCs are given the critical duty
10. Local shepherds flocks are being decimated by wolves and of guarding one of the grain storehouses in the Circus Max-
the player characters are asked by a patron to deal with the imus. How will they react to being presented with the sight
problem. However the wolves appear to be highly intelli- of starving babies, being offered huge bribes and eventually
gent; are they really wolves or is it a group of shape-shifters? outright, desperate hostility?
176 Quæ communiter possidentur communiter negliguntur – Things possessed in community are neglected in community
Supernatural Scenarios reappears and saves the helpless character, by dragging his
enemy screaming off to the underworld.
1. During the Lemuria festival, a character’s household is pet-
rified with fear by the spectral manifestation of an ancestor
who threatens death if the family mausoleum is not rebuilt.
But on its next appearance the character might notice the
Patron Scenarios
1. In return for bailing out a character from a disastrous finan-
ghost bears an uncanny resemblance to one of his slaves. If cial investment, his patron later returns and asks for the
chastised for his impious jape, the slave is found dead the character’s most treasured possession (a family heirloom,
following morning with a look of utter horror on his face. military award, his wife or children...). If the character
2. The player characters are asked to locate a patron who refuses then he must sever his client-patron bond and gains
has gone missing for several days. Retracing his last known an enemy. If he resignedly fulfils his obligation, then he is
steps, they discover his clothes neatly folded and hidden rewarded tenfold for his loyalty.
in a sepulchre. If they take the clothes the characters will 2. The son of a patron is kidnapped and sold into slavery. The
notice each evening that they are shadowed by a very large client character is asked to find and free the boy, leading the
and fierce wolf, the shape-shifted form of their patron who characters into the seedy criminal underworld and mount-
wishes to transform back to his human shape. ing a daring rescue on a gang run brothel.
3. The characters are sent to Capua to ask a question of the 3. The patron departs Rome for the summer, leaving his house
Sibyl there and must journey into the underworld to locate unoccupied. The player characters are asked to protect the
her. During their terrifying descent through the pitch black property from thieves and vandals. Of course, having pos-
caves, they see demons and multi-headed dogs. But are they session of an expensive house may lead to temptations such
real or merely hallucinations caused by volcanic gases? as raiding the wine store, or hosting a wild party to gain
4. The following morning after upsetting an old female beg- Status.
gar, a player character finds himself transformed into the 4. After many years of service between their families, the cur-
shape of an animal. He must locate his compatriots and rent inheritor of the position of patron suddenly fails to be
seek a way to be returned to his real shape, discovering in able to satisfy the next request the characters make of him.
the process that the old beggar was really a witch in disguise. It become apparent that he has gone bankrupt via an illegal
5. After unwittingly consuming a love potion, one of the player embezzlement, but will the characters sever a long-standing
characters falls madly in love with a middle aged widow of familial relationship or should they band together and find
questionable beauty and overzealous lust. His compan- a way of restoring the patron’s fortune?
ions need to discover the reason for this radical personality 5. The daughter of the patron is never seen due to being dis-
change and free him from his slavery with their own potion. figured from birth, when an oil filled brazier was acciden-
6. The characters are asked to investigate the authenticity of a tally knocked over on her. Unhappy that she will never find
soothsayer in the Campus Martius. The probe is inconclu- love or marriage, she persuades her father to marry her to
sive until they become threatening, at which point the seer one of his clients... one of the player characters. Although
kicks them out of his shack and makes a disastrous predic- terribly scarred, the daughter will make an excellent good
tion about the characters which later that day comes true. wife for he who volunteers to the marriage (skilled in com-
7. During one of the festivals of the dead, the vengeful ghost of mand, crafts and Greek & Roman literacy) and eventually
a major enemy returns to haunt one of the characters and inherits a fortune.
attempts to kill him. He returns each night until successful 6. A client of a player character begs for protection in a forth-
or is banished back to the underworld by a necromancer. coming legal case. At first glance the client seems guilty as
8. The player characters are asked by a busy patron to travel hell but will the PC fulfil his obligation to the client-patron
out of the city and perform a ceremony to placate the god relationship? As the case progresses, it appears that the pur-
of a woodland grove before it is thinned out for timber. If pose of the suspicious case is to drag the name of the player
successful they receive a blessing but if they mess it up, the character into disrepute.
grove’s faun savagely kills the woodsmen and leaves their 7. The client of a character claims that his family has been
torn apart bodies as a warning. murdered by a certain wealthy patrician. The client seeks
9. During a drunken dinner party, the characters are asked retribution and the player character must decide the best
to prove their bravery and spend the night in the burial path. Should he call in some favours owed to him or deal
grounds on the Esquiline Hill. Whilst there they see some with the problem personally in the courts?
witches perform a necromantic ritual from afar. Whether 8. A well-groomed young man offers his services as a client to
or not they interfere is their decision but will have repercus- a player character. He refuses to reveal his past but proves
sions good or bad according to how courteously they act. worthy of trust and capable of completing many chal-
10. Whilst wandering through one of Rome’s many outlying lenging tasks. After some time an acquaintance recognises
necropolises, a player character sees a demon, which leers the man as the disgraced grandson of a recently deceased
at him. Although no trace of the being can be found, the censor, making the youth as sole inheritor and fabulously
natural paranoia of the character and his player should
be encouraged by the Games Master. Later on, during a
life or death critical moment such as combat, the demon
Quae nocent, saepe docent - What hurts, often instructs

177
wealthy. If he was well treated the young man offers patron- the vessels are found smashed but the still soft crockery of a
age and makes a powerful ally for his ex-patron. political rival has been left unattended, ready to be fired...
9. A client gifts his player character patron a wagonload of the 6. Rome is engaged in a particularly critical war when a totally
finest vintage falernian wine, asking for funding in return, in incompetent leader appears to be about to bribe his way
order to journey south and set up a wine importing business. to consulship. Should the characters prevent the election
In consideration of the wine’s exquisite quality the answer before such an inept general is given power over the legions?
should be yes and the client vanishes with a large quantity Or should they wait on the sidelines and hope their own
of cash. However, soon afterwards when a magistrate is patron is sent to clean up the resulting mess, and thus gain
invited to dinner, the official recounts that his wine cellars a potential triumph at the expense of thousands of dead?
were cleared out by thieves, just as he is about to sample the 7. The characters are asked to investigate the personal habits
unique vintage... of a particular tribune of the plebs. Despite many rumours
10. After giving a beggar an overly large donation by mistake, to the contrary, nothing worthy of blackmail can be found;
the tramp follows the player character loudly proclaiming instead they are ordered to engineer a shocking event in
his generosity. Each morning the beggar will turn up on the order to stain the man’s spotless reputation.
character’s doorstep as a loyal client, expecting more hand- 8. A fellow client of a player character’s patron, known for
outs. If the character disparages the beggar and drives him spreading bribes to the plebs, is found murdered. The char-
off, the local ghetto where the PC lives will be full of graffiti acters are asked to investigate to prove the patron’s suspi-
lampooning his munificence and causing him a loss in Sta- cions that one of his enemies is responsible. But if the char-
tus. However if the character continues to give alms, then acters dig too deep they discover it was the patron himself
he discovers that the beggar has access to a large amount who had the client killed. Why? And what will the charac-
of gossip, superior to any information purchased by profes- ters do with the information?
sional espionage. 9. The player characters are sent as ambassadors to negotiate
a settlement treaty with an enemy city. However the resi-
Political Scenarios dents are confrontational, making the task extremely diffi-
cult. Do they try to win over the city leaders with soft words
1. The characters are asked by a patron to attend him as he
and silver greased palms, or match belligerence with arro-
canvasses for support in the Forum Romanum. An opposing
gance? Unknown to the others, a character will privately be
group of supporters start heckling, leading to a full blown
offered a huge bribe to undermine his companion’s efforts
slanging match. The characters should reciprocate, until
during negotiations and with the Senate back in Rome.
eventually somebody loses their temper and throws half a
10. The characters are ordered by the current consul to subtly
loaf of bread, starting an all-out brawl...
look into the mint in the Temple of Juno Moneta for signs
2. The craftsmen’s guild to which one of the player charac-
of negligence, where they eventually discover a devious
ters belongs, agrees to vote for a particular aspirant in the
plot debasing the coinage. The trail of the embezzled silver
consular elections. However, at the voting tables, the guild
leads back to the co-reigning consul, who abuses his author-
leader votes for a different candidate who eventually wins by
ity to have them blocked, then terminated if they persist in
a hair’s breadth. Was the guild leader bribed or threatened,
their investigation.
and can the characters prove that the election was rigged
before the new consuls take office?
3. A character is visited by a slave claiming that some sena-
tors are planning to overthrow the senate. Soon afterwards,
the character is invited to join the insurrection. Should he A Cast of Characters
Here are some pre-generated non-player characters, which can
report this information to the Senate, after all, who can he
trust? Or is the slave a test of the character’s loyalty to the be used as the dramatis personae for any of the previously suggested
rebellion? plot seeds. Since most characters should be recurring (outright kill-
4. To repay a favour owed to one of the current tribunes of the ing of foes being rare), they can be reused from scenario to scenario
Plebs, the characters are asked to stand guard outside the as the players slowly build up their social contacts and enmities.
house of the praetor urbanis, and prevent him from reach-
ing the Curia, so that he cannot propose a new law. The The Patron – Manius Scribonius Musa
characters must foil several escape attempts, eventually cul- STR 11, CON 12, SIZ 10, INT 14 , POW 14, DEX 10 CHA 11
minating in the praetor dressing up as a woman and leaving HP: 5/7/6/4/5, Damage Modifier: None
his home with the household slaves on their daily shop. Notable Skills: Art (Poetry) 78%, Courtesy 72%, Gambling
5. The characters are asked to organise the production of 63%, Insight 71%, Language (Greek) 55%, Language (Latin) 74%,
propaganda cups and bowls for the election campaign Literacy (Greek) 50%, Literacy (Latin) 63%, Lore (Art) 79%, Lore
of their patron (crockery with election slogans and their (Literature) 60%, Rhetoric 59%, Status 77%, Streetwise 71%
patron’s name inscribed on them) and distribute them freely A happy member of the equestrian class with far too much
amongst the plebeians. However on the day of delivery all money, he spends his free time reading literature, avidly collecting
art, and performing (often quite tedious) epic poetry at the dinner
parties he hosts.
178 Quam bene vivas refert, non quam diu – How well you live is important, not how long (Seneca)
The Old Friend – Titus Gabinius Rusticus Notable Skills: Acting (Choreographed Fighting) 72%, Athlet-
STR 11, CON 12, SIZ 10, INT 14 , POW 14, DEX 10 , CHA ics 89%, Evade 76%, Gambling 60%, Language (Latin) 55%, Lan-
13 HP: 5/7/6/4/5, Damage Modifier: None guage (Numidian) 70%, Necromancy 64%, Pugilism 87%, Status
Notable Skills: Athletics 63%, Commerce 60%, Craft (Vintner) 47%, Combat Style (Thracian) 88%
69%, Drive 61%, Gambling 50%, Influence 51%, Language (Latin) The son of an African tribal shaman, captured and sold into
72%, Lore (Farming) 67%, Ride 56%, Status 59%, Combat Style slavery, he eventually won his freedom fighting as a gladiator. Now a
(Legionary) 68% freedman and ex-champion of the arena, he hires himself as a high
A farmer who once served in the legions, he is a faithful friend profile bodyguard, using his necromantic skills in private to lay the
and promising wine producer, whose vineyards are maturing. ghosts of those he slays to rest.
The Military Officer – Aulus Furius Bellator The Charioteer – Appius Pavo
STR 17, CON 13, SIZ 15, INT 14 , POW 07, DEX 15 , CHA STR 13, CON 12, SIZ 09, INT 11 , POW 17, DEX 13 , CHA
08 HP: 6/8/7/5/6, Damage Modifier: +1d4 14 HP: 5/7/6/4/5, Damage Modifier: None
Notable Skills: Athletics 69%, Command 71%, Evade 61%, Notable Skills: Athletics 64%, Drive 79%, Evade 64%, Gam-
Language (Latin) 70%, Language (Numidian) 64%, Perception bling 54%, Language (Latin) 55%, Lore (Horse Training) 67%,
62%, Status 70%, Swim 60%, Theology 68%, Combat Style Perception 54%, Pugilism 73%, Ride 62%, Status 24%, Streetwise
(Legionary) 89% 71%, Combat Style (Whip) 75%
A grizzled centurion recently returned from campaigning in Although still a slave, the up and coming charioteer soon hopes
Africa, he is both pious and a firm disciplinarian who has been to purchase his freedom from the paltry share of the prize money he
awarded a plethora of civic awards for bravery. earns from races he manages to win. As a talented slave he is given a
long leash, and frequently finds himself embroiled in some bar fight
The Courtesan – Fabia Vulso over which chariot faction is the best.
STR 06, CON 14, SIZ 09, INT 15 , POW 11, DEX 10 , CHA
17 HP: 5/7/6/4/5, Damage Modifier: -1d4 The Gang Leader – Sextus Taurinus
Notable Skills: Commerce 63%, Courtesy 52%, Dance 79%, STR 16, CON 11, SIZ 14, INT 17 , POW 09, DEX 16 , CHA
Insight 72%, Language (Latin) 79%, Literacy (Latin) 75%, Percep- 09 HP: 5/7/6/4/5, Damage Modifier: +1d4
tion 62%, Seduction 74%, Status 66%, Stealth 59%, Streetwise 66% Notable Skills: Commerce 66%, Deceit 76%, Evade 68%,
A widowed equestrian who has taken the drastic step of becom- Gambling 74%, Language (Latin) 85%, Perception 77%, Pugilism
ing a professional courtesan but in reality she uses the position to act 80%, Status 63%, Stealth 80%, and Streetwise 72%
as a spy, selling information about her paramours to their enemies. Starting life as a young boy running gambling games on the
streets to support his mother, he now controls his own gang who
The Senator’s Wife – Tullia Domitia Penna run a reasonably benevolent protection racket. His headquarters is a
STR 09, CON 07, SIZ 10, INT 13 , POW 10, DEX 12 , CHA gambling den in a tavern adjoining the Clivus Suburanus.
15 HP: 4/6/5/3/4, Damage Modifier: None
Notable Skills: Art (Composition) 64%, Craft (Weaving) 66%, The Faithful Slave – Servus
Courtesy 68%, Influence 56%, Language (Greek) 74%, Language STR 09, CON 10, SIZ 14, INT 18 , POW 15, DEX 08 , CHA
(Latin) 75%, Literacy (Greek) 63%, Literacy (Latin) 67%, Lore (Lit- 11 HP: 5/7/6/4/5, Damage Modifier: None
erature) 76%, Politics 54%, Status 92%, Streetwise 51% Notable Skills: Courtesy 62%, Influence 57%, Insight 65%,
A devoted wife who acts as the perfect hostess to support her hus- Language (Greek) 90%, Language (Latin) 68%, Lore (Geography)
band’s political career but in secret publishes satirical poetry about 52%, Lore (History) 77%, Perception 74%, Rhetoric 52%, Status
the Senate under a male name. 23%, Stealth 73%
A Greek slave well educated and faithful, he manages the other
The Merchant – Decimus Vibius Gracilis household slaves and keeps alert to any chicanery which may
STR 14, CON 12, SIZ 16, INT 14 , POW 12, DEX 13 , CHA threaten his adoptive family.
06 HP: 6/8/7/5/6, Damage Modifier: +1d4
Notable Skills: Commerce 72%, Courtesy 78%, Deceit 58%, The Wastrel – Quintus Tarquinius Bibulus
Influence 57%, Insight 57%, Language (Latin) 75%, Language (Syr- STR 11, CON 12, SIZ 13, INT 12 , POW 09, DEX 11 , CHA
ian) 71%, Literacy (Latin) 69%, Lore (Trade Routes) 69%, Phar- 14 HP: 5/7/6/4/5, Damage Modifier: None
macy 52%, Status 81% Notable Skills: Courtesy 54%, Deceit 78%, Gambling 75%,
An equestrian importer of fine linen from Syria, he has been Insight 55%, Language (Latin) 63%, Literacy (Latin) 59%, Lore
corrupted by the luxurious lifestyle of the east and now sports a cor- (Dirty Songs) 73%, Lore (Wine) 69%, Sing 71%, Pugilism 74%,
pulent body. Ruthless in terms of business and protecting his inter- Seduction 52%, Status 74%, Streetwise 62%
ests, he will bribe his way out of difficult situations with those of A young man with no purpose to his life, he spends all his time
superior rank or use a subtly administered poison to deal with those gambling, drinking and partying with his friends. Lacking prospects
the lower classes. until the death of his father grants him financial freedom, he is
slowly descending into depravity and debt.
The Gladiator – Marcus Carnifex
STR 15, CON 16, SIZ 14, INT 10 , POW 14, DEX 15 CHA 10,
HP: 6/8/7/5/6, Damage Modifier: +1d4
Quem di diligunt, adulescens moritur – Whom the gods love, dies young (Plautus)
179
The Beggar – Lucius Mus

Notable Skills: Acting (Exaggerate Disability) 62%, Commerce
67%, Cursing 79%, Deceit 63%, Insight 73%, Language (Latin)
70%, Perception 59%, Sleight 58%, Status 31%, Streetwise 65%,
Combat Style (Roman Citizen) 62%
A freedman thug who has lost an ear, has an evil scar down one
side of his face and a maimed left arm. Crippled, he has turned to
begging for survival, supplying street gossip or surveillance for those
who pay him regular stipends. He is left alone by those who know of
the reputed potency of his curses.
The Magistrate – Publius Hortensius Caecus

10 HP: 4/6/5/3/4, Damage Modifier: +1d4
Notable Skills: Command 79%, Courtesy 59%, Insight 56%,
Language (Latin) 75%, Law 58%, Literacy (Latin) 68%, Lore (Archi-
tecture) 78%, Politics 73%, Rhetoric 76%, Ride 69%, Status 95%
An up and coming, though rather short-sighted, magistrate of
middle years. One of the two curule ædiles of the year, his ultimate
objective is to become a censor, so that he might use the city treasury
to rebuild all the temples and forums in a new architectural style he
himself has personally designed.
The Priest – Gaius Ovidius Agelastus

Notable Skills: Acting (Religious Ritual) 61%, Commerce 60%,
Divination 71%, Influence 56%, Insight 52%, Language (Latin)
85%, Sing 68%, Status 57%, Streetwise 70%, Theology 72%
An Etruscan trained haruspex of questionable personal habits,
devoted to the gods and a diviner of skill. His life is corralled by
religious observance which makes his presence at social events rather
restrictive. Despite his lowly station, his life seems blessed by good
fortune.
The Musician – Philoxenus

Notable Skills: Art (Composition) 69%, Commerce 60%, Cour-
tesy 58%, Insight 66%, Language (Latin) 57%, Language (Greek)
80%, Musicianship (Fistula Panis) 71%, Musicianship (Tibia) 76%,
Perception 72%, Status 35%, Streetwise 64%
An ex-slave brought from Greece, he performs at festivals or par-
ties for small gratuities. With a reputation for innovative material, his
popularity and status is growing, and the more youthful members of
the equestrian class now seek to employ his services.
180 Qui custodiet ipsos custodes? – Who watches the watchers?

Mythic Rome: Romans
Romans
R
omans details a few of Rome’s most famous sons, daugh-
ters and enemies. It is by no means fully comprehensive but “By natural temperament he was inclined to the practice of every virtue,
merely an introduction to some of the key personalities of and he had subdued himself still more by discipline, endurance of hardships,
the era. They include a brief resume of their achievements but lack and the study of wisdom. He had thus put away from himself not only the
any characteristics since it is impossible to cover their personal devel- infamous passions of the soul, but also that violence and rapacity which are
opment over the courses of their lives. It is up to the Game Master in such high repute among Barbarians, believing that true bravery consisted in
to flesh them out with skills, if necessary, to match their campaigns. the subjugation of one’s passions by reason”
The list is ordered by time to help locate the correct personalities Plutarch – Life of Numa
for a particular period. Specifically for the kings the first year is the
start of their rule and the second is that of their death. For all others Tullus Hostilius – 3rd King
the two years are for birth and death. These dates are only rough of Rome (673-641 BC)
guidelines, subject to debate by historians. The third king of Rome, his skill was the art of war. He battled
against and subjugated the cities of Alba Longa, Fidenae and Veii.
Romulus (753-716 BC) and Remus (753-753 BC) One battle was settled in a battle of champions, the three Horatii
The sons of Mars and founders of Rome, abandoned to the brothers fighting for Rome, against the Curiatii triplets who fought
River Tiber, they were suckled by a wolf (or prostitute) and raised for Alba Longa. During the fight the triplets were all wounded but
by a local shepherd. Romulus and Remus founded the city of Rome two of the Horatii were killed. The remaining brother fled, causing
with fugitives and slaves, and ruled it jointly. Resentment grew his injured pursuers to spread out, whereupon he turned about and
between them, after a dispute about where the city should be built slew them one by one. After the conquered Albans refused to hon-
and who would name it. The bitterness eventually led to Romulus our their peace treaty, Tullus had their dictator ripped apart by two
killing his brother. Afterwards Romulus founded the Senate, created chariots and destroyed their city, resettling the populace in Rome. In
the first legion, instigated the kidnap of the Sabine Women and con- fighting so much he neglected the gods, who sent a plague – so he
quered much of the surrounding territory. After his death, Romulus performed a sacrifice to Jupiter to cure the people but fumbled the
was deified as Quirinus. ceremony and was struck down by a thunderbolt.
“Romulus, then, after making a vow that if he should conquer and over- Ancus Marcius – 4th King
throw his adversary, he would carry home the man’s armour and dedicate it in of Rome (641-616 BC)
person to Jupiter, not only conquered and overthrew him, but also routed his Deciding that a peaceful, pious king was needed, the people of
army in the battle which followed, and took his city as well” Rome elected the son of Numa as the fourth king of Rome. How-
Plutarch – Life of Romulus ever, he was forced to defend Rome’s territory from aggressive
neighbours and eventually ended up conquering the league of Latin
Numa Pompilius – 2nd King city states, resettling some of them on the Aventine Hill. He fortified
of Rome (715-673 BC) the Janiculum west of the city, built the first wooden bridge across
A Sabine elected to kingship by the people of Rome. His was a the Tiber – the Pons Sublicius and founded the port of Ostia.
rule of peace and justice, legendarily taught to him by the Nymph
Egeria. His piety was rewarded by Jupiter who dropped a sacred Lucius Tarquinius Priscus – 5th
shield from the sky, upon which was written a prophesy concerning King of Rome (616-579 BC)
the city. Numa had 11 copies made to disguise the real one and they An Etruscan who had migrated to Rome where, upon his arrival,
were used by the Salii priests in religious processions. He also estab- an eagle snatched up his cap, flew away and then returned drop-
lished the Pontifices, the earliest guilds and invited the first Vestal ping it back onto his head – a prophesy of future greatness. He was
Virgins to the city. It was also by his order that the gods were given adopted as the son of Ancus for his generosity and was elected king
no images in their temples.
Qui multum habet, plus cupit – He who has much, desires more (Seneca)
181
Mythic Rome: Romans
over his deceased father’s true sons. He defeated the Sabines in a Publius Valerius Publicola (560-503 BC)
battle within the very streets of Rome and then followed his success The co-founding prætor of the Republic, after the battle against
by conquering the Etruscan cities of Corniculum, Firulea, Came- the Tarquins and their Etruscan allies, where his colleague Lucius
ria, Crustumerium, Americola, Medullia and Nomentum. With the Junius Brutus died, he celebrated the very first triumph by parading
plunder he expanded the public buildings of the city, began the Cir- through Rome mounted on a four horse chariot, thus setting a tra-
cus Maximus and drained the lowlands with a ditch called the Clo- dition. He also passed many laws which shaped the Republic, some
aca Maxima thus recovering the land to start the Forum Romanum. of which lasted down to the assassination of Julius Caesar, including
During his reign he eventually purchased the Sibylline Books from such conventions such as removing the axe heads from the fasces
the Cumaean Sibyl after she had burned six of the nine volumes. whilst within Rome. His laws were so just he was named ‘Publicola’
He also began the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus and was eventually meaning ‘friend of the people’. After passing over the consulship in
assassinated by the disgruntled sons of his adoptive father. 503 BC he died a poor man but the populace all donated something
towards his funeral and he was mourned by the women for an entire
Servius Tullius – 6th King of year. His memory was so honoured that ever after, eminent mem-
Rome (579-535 BC) bers of the family were allowed to be buried in the same spot within
Originally an Etruscan and a slave, Servius married a daughter the walls of Rome, an accolade forbidden to other Romans.
of Lucius Tarquinius Priscus and thus succeeded him with the bless-
ing of his mother-in-law, rather than by an election consulting the “Valerius, as we are told, while Rome was still a kingdom, was conspic-
people. After battling the rebellious city of Veii and other Etruscan uous for his eloquence and wealth, always employing the one with integrity
cities, he reformed the army and Roman political administration and and boldness in the service of justice, while with the other he gave liberal and
built several temples to goddesses, including Diana and his patron- kindly aid to the poor and needy. It was therefore clear that, should Rome
ess Fortuna. He also established the first census and expanded the become a democracy, he would at once be one of its foremost men”
city walls to include all seven hills. Favouring the plebeians over the Plutarch – Life of Publicola
patricians, he was eventually assassinated by his son-in-law Lucius
Tarquinius Superbus and daughter Tullia, who drove her chariot Lars Porsena (6th century BC)
repeatedly over his body. The king of the Etruscan city of Clusium, who attacked Rome
in 509 BC to overthrow the Republic at the request of the exiled
Lucius Tarquinius Superbus – The king Tarquinius Superbus. After the failed assassination attempt by
7th King of Rome (535-495 BC) Mucius Scaevola, he instead made peace.
Tarquin the Proud was the last king of Rome, who seized the
throne via assassination. He levelled the top of the Tarpeian Rock, Gaius Mucius Scaevola (6th - 5th century BC)
removing the Sabine shrines built on it, completed the Temple of A courageous Roman who sneaked into an Etruscan army camp
Jupiter Capitolinus. His son Sextus raped the noblewoman Lucretia besieging Rome in order to assassinate Lars Porsena. He killed the
– whose dramatic suicide to save her honour precipitated a revolt wrong man but when captured he defiantly declared to the king that
against the Tarquinii dynasty. Forced to flee into exile, Tarquinius he was the first of three hundred Romans ready to sacrifice them-
drummed up support from neighbouring Etruscan and Latin kings selves to kill him. To prove his dedication he thrust his right hand
and attempted to retake the city, but the fledgling Republic survived into the flames of a brazier, showing no pain as his hand burned.
and he retired to Cumae. The Etruscan king was so impressed he let Mucius go and the assas-
sin was forever after named Scaevola or ‘lefty’.
Lucius Junius Brutus (545-509 BC)
Brother to a senator who had been killed by Tarquinius, Brutus Horatius Cocles (536-490 BC)
insinuated himself into the Tarquin family by feigning simple-mind- The one-eyed hero who (accompanied by Titus Herminius &
edness. He accompanied the king’s sons to the Oracle of Delphi, Spurius Lartius) defended the Pons Sublicius against an invading
who prophesised that the next ruler of Rome would be the first per- Etruscan army in 506 BC. Asking his two companions to destroy
son present to kiss his mother. Brutus pretended to trip and kissed the bridge behind him so that the enemy would not be able to enter
the ground, whom he interpreted as the symbolic mother of all men. Rome, he single handed fought off several champions till the bridge
Later he witnessed the suicide of his sister Lucretia after her rape collapsed and he swam across the turbulent river. He was rewarded
and grasping the dagger from her hand he led the overthrow of the with as much land as he could plough around in a single day and a
Tarquins. He passed power to the hands of the senate who elected statue erected in the Temple of Vulcan.
him as one of the first two prætors (proto consuls) and made the peo-
ple swear an oath that they would never allow a king to rule Rome Then out spake brave Horatius, the Captain of the Gate:
again. Eventually Brutus was forced to execute his own two sons for “To every man upon this earth death cometh soon or late.
conspiring against the Republic. He died in single combat against And how can man die better than facing fearful odds,
the Etruscan leader Arruns, each stabbing the other with their spear. For the ashes of his fathers, and the temples of his Gods”
Lord Macaulay – Lays of Ancient Rome
“Brutus, like the tempered steel of swords, had a disposition which was
hard by nature and not softened by education, so that his wrath against the Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus (519-438 BC)
tyrants drove him upon the dreadful act of slaying his sons” Served as consul in 460 BC, and then dictator in 458 and 439
Plutarch – Life of Brutus BC. Nicknamed Cincinnatus for his curly hair, he was an active
opponent of equality between the plebeians and patricians, being
182 Qui pro innocente dicit, satis est eloquens – He who speaks for the innocent is eloquent enough (Publius Syrus)
Mythic Rome: Romans
firmly in the aristocratic faction. He fell in to antipathy with the tri- Marcus Furius Camillus, the 2nd
bunes of the plebs, after his son fled into exile charged with murder,
Founder of Rome (447-365 BC)
forcing Cincinnatus to liquidate his estates to pay for the defaulted
A patrician soldier and statesman, he was dictator five times in
bail. Serving his term as consul, he refused an offered second con-
396, 390, 385, 368, and 367 BC; celebrated four triumphs and on
secutive term in protest against the (in his eyes) disgrace that plebe-
his death was granted the title “Second Founder of Rome”. His first
ian tribunes could continuously be re-elected to office. Retiring to
great victory was the capture of long besieged Veii by infiltrating via
his small farm, all that was left of his estates, he was recalled by the
tunnels dug into the sewage system; after which displayed shocking
Senate to help aid a Roman army fighting against the Aequi tribe,
impiety by using white horses to draw his triumphal chariot – an
which had become besieged in the Alban hills. Nominated dicta-
act normally reserved for the gods. He also defeated the cities of
tor by the consul remaining in Rome, he raised a new army from
Capena and Falerii, then later by an act of honourably returning
the remaining men of military age and destroyed the enemy Aequi
children taken hostage by a defector. Because the city surrendered
in a two pronged attack. Forcing the enemy commanders to pass
he forbade it from being looted, which alienated his soldiers who’d
beneath the yoke (an act of submission), he resigned his dictatorship
expected booty. He was exiled from Rome on charges of embezzling
after only 16 days, and returned to his farm. This act of voluntarily
state plunder from his previous campaigns, but legendarily prayed
surrendering and eschewing power was seen as a paragon of civic
to the gods that if his expulsion was unjust that Rome would suffer
duty... despite that before he did, Cincinnatus took the vindictive
a great calamity, and beg for his return. Soon after he was recalled
opportunity to expel from Rome all those witnesses responsible for
and appointed dictator in order to defeat Chieftain Brennus, whose
his son’s exile. In like manner, he immediately gave up his second
tribe had sacked Rome. Several further military campaigns against
dictatorship after crushing a plebeian rebellion, the task for which
the Aequi and Volsci followed, and he finally concluded his military
he’d been appointed.
career by defeating the Gauls at the Battle of the Anio River. During
Gaius Marcius Coriolanus (527-490 BC) his political career he passed a law sharing the consulships between
A patrician who won a corona civica at the Battle of Lake Regil- the patricians and the plebs, and started the construction of a Tem-
lus and further honour in the siege against the Volsci city of Corioli, ple to Concord to celebrate this domestic settlement. He died during
from which he earned his name. Being an avid aristocrat he argued a pestilence which struck Rome.
against surrendering legal rights to the exploited plebs, which caused
Valerius Maximus Corvus (386-285 BC)
him to lose an election for consul. During a famine he was further
Starting his military career under M. Furius Camillus against the
humiliated in the Senate after he demanded that the plebs be starved
Gauls, Valerius famously accepted a challenge to single combat by
into renouncing their tribunes. In retaliation the tribunes charged
a huge Gallic warrior. As the fight started, a raven flew down and
him with treason, and he was exiled. In anger against his treatment,
clawed at the Gaul’s face, enabling the Roman to win. In recognition
he defected to the Volscians and successfully led their army to the
he took the name Corvus, to show his ally respect. He was consul
walls of Rome. Before the city was captured he was persuaded to
six times, in 348, 346 (when he finally crushed the Volscians), 343,
stop by the intercession of his wife and mother. Withdrawing the
335, 300, and 299 BC; dictator three times in 342, 302, and 301 BC;
army he retired to Antium, where he was assassinated for betraying
and celebrated four triumphs. He was popular with the soldiers with
his allies.
whom he engaged in athletic competitions, and interceded when the
army mutinied. His constant military activities continued up to the
“Marcius bore witness for those who hold that a generous and noble
age of 70, and he died still fit at the age of 100.
nature, if it lacks discipline, is apt to produce much that is worthless along
with its better fruits, like a rich soil deprived of the husbandman’s culture. For Appius Claudius Caecus (350-271 BC)
while the force and vigour of his intelligence, which knew no limitations, led A patrician who, unusually, started his political career by serving
him into great undertakings, and such as were productive of the highest results, as censor in 312 BC and went on to serve as consul twice in 307 and
still, on the other hand, since he indulged a vehement temper and displayed 296 BC, and dictator once. His term in office was contentious, being
an unswerving pertinacity, it made him a difficult and unsuitable associate accused of placing his own clientele into the Senate over better qual-
for others.” ified aristocrats, biasing the voting majorities in favour of his own
Plutarch – Life of Coriolanus political aims. He was struck blind (hence his cognomen), apparently
as a punishment from the gods for sacrilegiously removing the custo-
Brennus (5th-4th century BC) dianship of the Temple of Hercules from the Potitian family to State
The Gallic chieftain of the Senones, Brenuus defeated the
owned slaves. His major contributions to Rome were the building
Romans at the Battle of the Allia and captured Rome, laying siege
of the first aqueduct (Aqua Appia), and major road (Via Appia).
to the populace atop the Capitoline Hill. After an almost successful
During his military campaign against the Samnites he vowed to and
night attack, prevented only by the warning hisses of the Sacred
built a Temple to Bellona.
Geese of Juno, the Romans were forced to pay a thousand pounds
(weight) of gold as settlement. When they complained about the Lucius Papirius Cursor (4th century BC)
accuracy of the weights, Brennus threw his sword upon the scales Roman general, five times consul in 326, 320, 319, 315, and 313
and uttered “Woe to the vanquished”. BC, and twice dictator in 325 and 309 BC. When appointed dictator
for the first time he famously sentenced his Master of Horse to death
for disobeying orders, which was narrowly avoided by the interces-
sion of the father of the subordinate, the Senate and people. His
Quia suam uxorem etiam suspiciore vacare vellet – Caesar’s wife may not be suspected (Julius Caesar)
183
Mythic Rome: Romans
cognomen Cursor (the swift) came from his ability to march 50 miles of being elected censor, and achieving the joint religious offices of
a day, and he was a firm disciplinarian. After defeating the Samnites Chief Augur and Pontifex Maximus.
at Longula he was awarded a triumph.
“When Hannibal had proved no match for Fabius either in character or in
Publius Decius Mus (died 295 BC) generalship, in order to smirch him with dishonour, he spared his lands, when
A plebeian who served as consul four times in 312, 308, 297 and he ravaged all others. To meet this assault, Fabius transferred the title to his
295 BC. He died leading the left flank of a Roman army against property to the State, thus, by his loftiness of character, preventing his honour
the Gauls. When his troops started routing, he dedicated himself from falling under the suspicion of his fellow-citizens”
and the Gallic army to the gods of the underworld and charged Frontinus - Stratagems
into the enemy ranks (as had his father famously done before him
at the Battle of Vesuvius – see the rite of devotio page 114). The Marcus Claudius Marcellus, the
self-sacrifice inspired his men and they held formation long enough Sword of Rome (265-208 BC)
to win the battle. A plebeian general in the 2nd Punic War, he was consul five
times, 222, 215, 214, 210 and 208 BC, and was the third and last
Pyrrhus of Epirus (318-272 BC) commander to win the Spolia Opima, by slaying the chieftain of
Invited by the city of Tarentum in 281 BC to be their war leader,
the Insubrian Gauls in single combat at the Battle of Clastidium.
Pyrrhus consulted the Oracle of Delphi, who encouraged him to
Amongst other successes he conquered and sacked Syracuse after
aid them against the Romans. He brought the first war elephants to
several years of siege against the defences of Archimedes. He was
Italy. After several costly battles which Pyrrhus won, his loses were
eventually killed by Hannibal’s forces whilst scouting near Venusia.
so great he was forced to give up the campaign in the face of the
Romans ability to draw upon seemingly endless reinforcements. He Gaius Flaminius (265-217 BC)
instead travelled to Sicily to drive out the Carthaginians and was Twice consul, Gaius was a popular leader and protector of
declared king. However, the Sicilians fearing a despotic rule, eventu- the plebeians, establishing the first land reforms in a manner that
ally drove him out of the country. He returned to Italy but on facing would be copied by the Gracchi a century later – which earned him
vastly superior numbers of Roman troops and battling them to a a reputation of being a demagogue. However, the land redistribu-
standstill, he decided to return to Epirus and thereupon conquered tion sparked a renewed war with the Gauls, who were eventually
Macedonia. defeated at the Battle of Telamon. As consul he forced the Gauls
into submission and created the province of Cisalpine Gaul. In 220
Publius Appius Claudius Pulcher (288-247 BC) BC he was made censor and built the Via Flaminia, two new colo-
Rome’s most inept admiral. Elected consul in 249 BC he sailed
nies at Cremona and Placentia, and cleared the Circus Flaminius on
for the enemy held harbour of Drepanum but ignored a dire omen
the Campus Martius. He was one of the few senators who actively
when the sacred chickens used for augury failed to eat and he had
supported the Lex Claudia which prevented senators from engaging
them all cast overboard. After which he sent his entire fleet into the
in overseas trade. He was killed in 217 BC during his second consul-
harbour at dawn to crush the Carthaginian navy, keeping his own
ship, leading an army into Hannibal’s ambush at Lake Trasimene
flagship at the rear. Thus he failed to notice that the Carthaginians
.
had sailed clear and was thereby trapped against the shore when the
“A few days after entering his second consulship whilst offering his sacri-
enemy flanked his fleet from the open sea. Of his 120 warships he
fice, the calf after it was struck, bounded away out of the hands of the sacri-
lost 93 and was charged with treason for his incompetence. His trial
ficing priests and bespattered many of the bystanders with its blood. Amongst
was delayed by a thunderstorm, but before it could resume Publius
those at a distance from the altar who did not know what the commotion was
died suspiciously.
about there was great excitement; most people regarded it as a most alarming
omen”
“Shall we remain unimpressed by the tale of the presumptuous conduct
of Publius Claudius in the first Punic war, who, when the sacred chickens, on
being let out of the coop, refused to feed, ordered them to be plunged into the Titus Maccius Plautus (254-184 BC)
water, that they might, as he said, drink, since they would not eat? He only One of the earliest Roman playwrights who specialised in writ-
ridiculed the gods in jest, but the mockery cost him many a tear” ing farces. His career was a colourful one, starting out as a carpen-
Cicero - On the Nature of Gods ter, becoming an actor and with the money he earned, a merchant.
When his investments collapsed he was reduced to a labourer and
Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus, wrote plays in his spare time. His comedies were very popular and
the Shield of Rome (275-203 BC) frequently performed at the festival games.
A patrician general and politician, he was consul five times in
233, 228, 215, 214, and 209 BC and dictator twice in 221 and 217 Pomponia (3rd-2nd century BC)
BC. Although he was granted the derogatory epithet of ‘Cunctator’ An equestrian who married into the patrician Scipio family, giv-
(the delayer) for his scorched earth strategy and refusal to engage ing birth to the famous general Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus.
Hannibal’s forces in the 2nd Punic War, after the crushing defeat She was modelled as an ideal Roman wife, being both extremely
of Cannae the Romans understood that it was a sensible tactic and pious and dedicated to hard work within the household.
not cowardliness and the title became a badge of honour instead.
Tough and courageous, during his life he also gained the honours
184 Quod licet Iovi non licet bovi – What Jupiter is allowed to do, cattle (people) are not
Mythic Rome: Romans
Hannibal Barca (247-183 BC) Marcus Porcius Cato, Cato

One of the greatest military commanders in history, Hannibal the Censor (237-149 BC)
was reputed to have sworn an oath to his father that as long as he A politician of plebeian stock, he was a devoted farmer and
lived, he would never be the friend of Rome. He subjugated His- holder to old fashioned ways of Roman life. A new man, he pro-
pania and when Rome broke her treaty with Carthage, starting the gressed through the offices of Cursus Honorum, as tribune in 214
2nd Punic War, he marched his army (which included elephants) BC, quæstor in 204 BC, ædile in 199 BC, prætor in 198 BC, consul
from northern Iberia, across the Alps and down into the Po Valley in 195 BC and finally Censor in 184 BC. An orator of great skill
of northern Italy, in the face of active native opposition. Once in and stern disciplinarian, he served with distinction in the 2nd Punic
Italy he continuously crushed the Romans in battle, the most nota- War; and repeatedly called for the destruction of Carthage delenda
ble defeats being Trebia, Trasimene and Cannae – after which the est Carthago “Carthage must be destroyed” before the outbreak of
Romans followed the Fabian strategy of non-engagement. Despite the 3rd Punic War. He was granted one triumph for a successful
his successes Hannibal was unable to conquer Rome itself and campaign in Hispania and was very generous with his distribution
lacking full support of the Oligarchy in Carthage, he was eventu- of the spoils, including the dedication of a small temple to Virgo
ally forced to return to Africa to defend the capital. At the climactic Victoria in thanks for his success. During his censorship he was strin-
Battle of Zama he was narrowly defeated by Scipio. After peace was gent against luxury, Hellenic culture, stamped out corruption (albeit
reached Hannibal became the chief magistrate of Carthage and temporarily) and even expelled a man from the Senate for kissing his
repaid the indemnities owed to Rome in record time by redirecting wife in front of their daughter. Conversely he cleaned the sewers,
money which had previously been lost to corruption. Unfortunately repaired the aqueducts, cleared private properties which encroached
he was so successful that Carthage once again became a threat to on public streets and built a number of new buildings, including the
Rome and the Senate demanded Hannibal be handed over to them. first basilica. His ruthlessness, incorruptibility, misogyny and intran-
He went into voluntary exile, hiring his skills as a general but was sience earned him countless enemies; despite being viewed as an
hounded from country to country by the Romans until he finally icon of impartial integrity. In his later years he was an author and
committed suicide by poison. historian of note and died of old age.
“When I was a small boy, Antiochus, my father Hamilcar took me up to “On one occasion when Marcus Cato, who had lingered for several days
the altar whilst he was offering sacrifice and made me solemnly swear that I on a hostile shore, had at length set sail, after three times giving the signal
would never be a friend to Rome. Under this oath I have fought for six-and- for departure, and a certain soldier, who had been left behind, with cries and
thirty years; when peace was settled this oath drove me from my native country gestures from the land, begged to be picked up, Cato turned his whole fleet back
and brought me a homeless wanderer to your court” to the shore, arrested the man, and commanded him to be put to death, thus
Livy - Ab Urbe Condita preferring to make an example of the fellow than to have him ignominiously
put to death by the enemy”
Quintus Ennius (239-169 BC) Frontinus - Stratagems
The father of Roman poetry, Ennius was from Salento, a Greek
city in the south of Italy. His works influenced future Latin literature Aemilia Paulla (230-163 BC)
and ranged from satires to epics, on diverse subjects such as theology The patrician wife of Scipio the Elder and mother of Cornelia
and history. Africana, she was noted for the unusual freedom given to her by her
husband and her scandalous enjoyment of luxury.
Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus,
Scipio the Elder (236-185 BC) Titus Quinctius Flaminius (229-174 BC)
A general of the 2nd Punic War, he gained fame for defeating A military tribune in the 2nd Punic War, curule ædile in 203
Hannibal by adopting many of the Punic commander’s own tactics BC, quæstor in 199 BC and consul in 198 BC at the young age of
against him. Devout and pious like his mother before him, he sur- 30. During his consulship and following proconsulship, he defeated
vived the disastrous defeats of Ticinus, Trebia and Cannae. He was King Philip (the 5th) of Macedon using new legionary formations
granted the proconsulship of Hispania since he was the only one to defeat the obsolescent phalanx. An admirer of Hellenic culture,
brave enough to take the position and successfully prosecuted a cam- he proclaimed the freedom of the Greek States from Macedonian
paign against Hannibal’s brother Hasdrubal. Elected consul in 205 authority in 196 BC. With his Achaean League allies he conquered
BC he raised an army in Sicily, sailed to Africa the following year and plundered Sparta, returning to Rome to celebrate a triumph
and in 202 BC finally defeated Hannibal at the Battle of Zama. He accompanied by thousands of freed slaves. In 189 he was elected
refused the honours of dictator or consul for life but in 199 BC was censor, after which returned to Greece and on his own authority
elected censor. Scipio was infamous for his love and appreciation of demanded the King of Bithynia to hand over the old general Han-
Greek culture, and spent many years magnanimously trying to pre- nibal, prompting the Carthaginian to commit suicide and costing
vent the (in his eyes) unjust persecution of Hannibal. He was exiled Flaminius his political support in Rome.
from Rome over charges of corruption brought by Cato the Censor
and died a year later under suspicious circumstances. Polybius (203-120 BC)
A member of the Greek aristocracy, he was captured and held
“When people said of Scipio Africanus that he lacked aggressiveness, he as a hostage by Rome for 17 years, after their war with Perseus of
is reported to have answered: ‘My mother bore me a general, not a warrior’” Macedonia. In Rome he was hosted by the Aemilius family, where
Frontinus - Stratagems he became a tutor to Scipio the Younger. A friendship formed
Quod medicina aliis, aliis est acre venenum – What is medicine to some, is bitter poison to others
185
Mythic Rome: Romans
between them and they travelled together during many of Scipio’s popular assembly, incidentally violating the sanctity of, and depos-
military campaigns. He also used his patrician connections to organ- ing, a fellow tribune who was under the influence of the oligarchy.
ise new forms of government in the Roman conquered Greek cities. As a final act of defiance he used his tribunician powers and diverted
Polybius is famous for his written history, which he researched by a foreign king’s legacy to pay for his land reforms, undermining
speaking with veterans of the various wars, or by first-hand experi- one of the key areas of responsibility of the Senate. Surrounded
ence, being present at the destruction of Carthage. by alienated political enemies, Tiberius attempted re-election as
tribune the following year to avoid impeachment and pass further
Publius Terentius Afer, Terence threatening policies. He appeared at the vote surrounded by armed
(195/185-159 BC) guards but was mobbed and killed by the senators who feared he
Brought from Libya or Carthage as a slave and educated, he wished to make himself king. Many hundreds of his closest support-
impressed his senatorial master Terentius Lucanus so much that was ers also died in the attack, their bodies cast like criminals into the
soon granted freedom. Famed as a playwright, he wrote six come- Tiber. Thus it was the Senate who began the use of open violence
dies, which were first performed in Rome between 170 and 160 BC. in Roman politics.
Cornelia Africana (190-100 BC) “The wild beasts of Italy have their caves to retire to, but the brave men
Mother of Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus, she was viewed by who spill their blood in her cause have nothing left but air and light. Without
Roman women as a model of feminine virtues and stoicism, and houses, without settled habitations, they wander from place to place with their
loved by the plebeians for the efforts of her sons. After her death a wives and children; and their generals do but mock them when, at the head of
statue was erected in her honour, an unusual honour for a woman. their armies, they exhort their men to fight for their sepulchres and the gods of
their hearths, for among such numbers perhaps there is not one Roman who
Publius Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus, has an altar that has belonged to his ancestors or a sepulchre in which their
Scipio the Younger (184-129 BC) ashes rest”
Adopted from the Aemilian family into the Cornelius Scipio Tiberius Gracchus – Speech 133 BC
family, he distinguished himself in the 3rd Punic War as a junior
officer, winning a Corona Muralis in Hispania for being the first Gaius Gracchus (153-121 BC)
man to crest the walls of an assaulted city. In 147 BC he was elected Inheriting Tiberius’s ideals, Gaius built upon his brother’s efforts
consul, conquered Carthage and by the order of the Senate, levelled and pushed for more reforms popular with the plebeians. After serv-
it to the ground. He was said to have wept at the destruction fearing ing as a quæstor he was elected to tribune and amongst others, intro-
the same fate lay in wait for Rome. On his return he celebrated duced policies to redistribute lands illegally acquired by the wealthy,
a triumph and was granted the same title of his adoptive grand- limit the time citizen’s mandatorily served in the army, and regu-
father, that of Africanus. In 142 BC he became a censor, piously late the price of grain (which had inflated during the wars). Like his
repairing the stone bridge erected by his birth family and initiated brother he ran for a second consecutive term as tribune of the plebs,
a policy against luxury and immorality, dismissing several members this time successfully. However, running for a third term failed and
from the senate. In revenge three years later, he was accused of trea- Gaius saw his new laws repealed by the consuls of that year. In frus-
son but easily brushed off the case. During his second consulship in tration, he attempted to use mob violence and assassination to pro-
134 BC he restored the discipline of the army, conquered the city tect his hard work but the insurrection was suppressed by the Senate,
of Numania and brought the province of Hither Hispania under which armed itself and declared him as an enemy of the Republic.
Rome’s dominion, for which he gained the second title of Numan- In the resulting atrocities, Gaius was killed along with three thou-
tius. He died mysteriously in his bed, probably assassinated; on the sand of his supporters, whose estates were confiscated. His head was
very day he was to make a speech against the agrarian proposals of taken to one of the consuls, who paid the promised reward of its
the Gracchi. weight in gold, despite it being deviously filled with lead.
Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus (163-133 BC) “But you suffered Tiberius to be despatched with bludgeons before your
The patrician who started the instability of the Republic, by cir- eyes, and his dead body to be dragged from the Capitol through the middle of
cumventing certain Roman political conventions and twisting the the city in order to be thrown into the river. Such of his friends, too, as fell
law to his own purposes. He started his career as a military tribune into their hands, were put to death without form of trial. Yet, by the custom
on the staff of his brother-in-law Scipio the Younger. As quæstor in of our country, if any person under a prosecution for a capital crime did not
Hispania he saved the army from destruction by agreeing a peace appear, an officer was sent to his door in the morning, to summon him by
treaty with the enemy but back in Rome was accused of cowardli- sound of trumpet, and the judges would never pass sentence before so public a
ness by Scipio and the treaty was nullified – thus starting the enmity citation. So tender were our ancestors in any matter where the life of a citizen
between Tiberius and the Senate. After the long years of the Punic was concerned”
wars, most of Rome’s middle class land owners had died or gone Gaius Gracchus – Speech 122 BC
bankrupt whist serving in the legions. Since entry into the army was
limited to land owning citizens, Tiberius recognised the future dan- Marcus Livius Drusus (?-108 BC)
ger and as tribune proposed an agrarian land reform, granting land Set up as a tribune of the plebs in 121 BC to oppose Gaius Grac-
back to the dispossessed lower classes. Unfortunately the majority of chus. He undermined the land reform bills by suggesting instead
Rome’s public land was settled or rented by the richest citizens and to build 12 new colonies, each populated with 3,000 poor citizens
the Senate turned down the proposal. Thus he started to legislate by and to relieve the rent on property distributed in the last decade.
bypassing the Senate entirely and placing proposals directly to the The new laws were never ratified since his purpose was simply to
186 Quod non est in actis, non est in mundo – What is not kept in records does not exist
Mythic Rome: Romans
reduce support from Gracchus, in which he was successful. In 112
BC he was elected consul and fought in Macedonia driving out the “Since he was naturally virile and fond of war, and since he received a
Scordisci. Three years later in 109 BC he was made censor but died training in military rather than in civil life, his temper was fierce when he
the following year. came to exercise authority. Moreover, we are told that he never studied Greek
literature, and never used the Greek language for any matter of real impor-
Marcus Livius Drusus the tance, thinking it ridiculous to study a literature the teachers of which were
Younger (128-91 BC) the subject of another people; and when, after his second triumph and at the
Following in his father’s footsteps, Drusus was ultimately elected consecration of some temple, he furnished the public with Greek spectacles,
tribune of the plebs in 91 BC. He started out as a conformist, sup- though he came into the theatre, he merely sat down, and at once went away”
porting the Senate but upset them first by alienating the populace Plutarch – Life of Marius
of Asia Minor from extortionate tax collectors (for which he was
exiled) and then by wanting to grant citizenship to the Italian allies. Lucius Cornelius Sulla (138-78 BC)
His arrogance eventually undermined all of his popular support in The eventual enemy of Marius and the first man to march a
Rome and he was assassinated. However the death of their cham- Roman army on Rome, he was consul twice in 88 and 80 BC and an
pion angered the allies, who desired more say in the policies of the unconstitutional dictator. Born to an impoverished patrician family,
Republic to which they lent the majority of military strength and his early life was spent with the dregs of city life, including a Metro-
thus precipitated the Social War of 91-88 BC. Ironically, the Senate bius female impersonator with whom he held a livelong romantic
eventually capitulated to the demands and opened up access to full attachment. Receiving two inheritances he used the money to pay
citizenship. his way up the Cursus Honorum till he became the quæstor to
Marius in the Jugurthine War. Sulla captured Jugurtha by bribing
Gaius Marius (157-86 BC) King Bocchus to betray him. He next won the magistracy of Prætor
The equestrian general who was elected an unmatched seven Urbanus supposedly through bribery again and was given procon-
times as consul in 107, 104-100 and 86 BC. As a ‘new man’ his early sulship in Cilicia where he first established relations with the Pontus
political career was mediocre but he served as a legate in the cam- and Parthia. His next major command was as a general during the
paign against Jugurtha in Numidia. Apparently advised by a seer to Social War, being set up in opposition to Marius whom the Senate
trust the gods and pursue his desires, he ran for consul campaigning was beginning to fear and won for himself a Grass Crown (Corona
against the corrupt oligarchy and was elected. To campaign against Graminea) for saving a Roman army at Nola. After this the Senate
Jugurtha he revolutionised the army by allowing landless citizens elected him to command in the 1st Mithridatic War but after Marius
to join the legions and modified its equipment and tactics, thereby jealously attempted to wrest the command for himself, Sulla took
producing Rome’s first professional army. Eventually Jugurtha was six of his most loyal legions, marched on Rome and ousted Marius.
captured by his subordinate Sulla and Marius as the commander Sulla successfully defeated Mithridates earning the agnomen ‘Felix’
rightfully claimed the glory and celebrated a triumph. After several the lucky and although his rival was four years dead, returned to
disastrous campaigns led by idiotic commanders against Cimbri and Italy to crush Marian support for once and for all. With the sup-
Teutones, causing the loss of several hundred thousand men, Rome port of subordinate officers such as Marcus Licinius Crassus and
elected Marius for five successive terms as consul in order to avert Pompey, he overcame all opposition and concluded the civil war by
the Germanic tribes from invading Italy. Against superior numbers assaulting Rome at the Battle of the Colline Gate. In 82 BC he was
he completely annihilated the Teutones and followed up by defeat- appointed dictator by his supporters in the Senate with no limit to
ing the Cimbri and enslaving the survivors. Another (joint) triumph his term in office and promptly engaged in a bloodbath of proscrip-
was celebrated but the sixth consulship was marred by the necessity tions, sentencing one and a half thousand nobles (senators, patri-
of suppressing a revolt led by his own political ally Saturnius – who cians and equestrians) to death and confiscating their property. After
after capture was murdered despite being placed under his protec- a sweeping series of reforms, new laws and returning political power
tion. Marius retired but was drawn back to offer military advice to firmly in the hands of the Senate, he resigned the dictatorship in 81
help put down rebelling cities during the Social War. After this the BC and restored normal consular government. He was elected to
1st Mithridatic War broke out and a jealous disagreement broke out consul the following year and then retired, surrounding himself once
over who should lead the army. The senate chose Sulla, but the Pop- more with the dancers and actors of his poor beginnings.
ular Assembly at Marius’ urging chose him. Sulla travelled to his
waiting legions, convinced them to follow him and then marched on “When he was still young and obscure he spent much time with actors
Rome, an act forbidden by law and ancient tradition which started and buffoons and shared their dissolute life; and when he had made himself
the first civil war of the Republic. Although Marius attempted to supreme master, he would daily assemble the most reckless stage and theatre
organise a defence using gladiators, he was defeated and fled to folk to drink and bandy jests with them, although men thought that he dis-
Africa. A death sentence was passed against him but once Sulla had graced his years, and although he not only dishonoured his high office, but
taken the army to battle Mithridates of Pontus, Marius returned neglected much that required attention”
from exile with an army to intercede in the partisan fighting that had Plutarch – Life of Sulla
broken out between the two consuls, Octavius who supported Sulla
and the Cinna who supported Marius. Some of his troops went on
the rampage and killed Octavius, along with a dozen nobles, adher-
ents of Sulla. The soldiers were put to death but the damage was
done, establishing a precedent. Marius was elected consul for the 7th
time but died a month later.
Quos Deus vult perdere, prius dementat – Those whom god wills to destroy he first deprives of their senses (Euripides)
187
Mythic Rome: Romans
Quintus Sertorius (126-73 BC) and then wintered at the Straights of Messina negotiating with local
A successful jurist and orator Sertorius began a military career by pirates for transport to Sicily (the home of previous slave uprisings).
surviving the Battle of Arausio, then served under Marius as a spy Fate conspired against him, and breaking free of Crassus’ eight
against the Germanic tribes and in Hispania as a military tribune. As legions, he was eventually trapped between the army of Pompey
a quæstor he lost an eye and on returning to Rome to run for tribune recently returned from Hispania and that of Lucullus from Mace-
of the plebs he was thwarted by Sulla, starting an enmity between donia. He died in a final battle against Crassus at the headwaters of
them. After Sulla precipitated the civil war by attacking Rome, Ser- the Siler River.
torius supported Cinna and criticised Marius for the actions of his
unruly soldiers. In 83 BC Sertorius returned to Hispania as procon-
Marcus Terentius Varro (116-27 BC)
An equestrian scholar and author, he served in the magistrate
sul and fought a running war with Sulla’s forces; and despite being
offices of tribune of the plebs, quæstor, curule ædile and prætor. He
forced to temporarily retreat to North Africa, he won the respect
was a supporter of Pompey in the civil war but was pardoned by
and support of Hispania, especially the Lusitanians who had been
Julius Caesar. He was appointed to supervise the first public library
plundered by Sulla’s supporters. His skill as a general was matchless
of Rome in 47 BC but was later proscribed by Marc Antony, caus-
and he persecuted a guerrilla war against Sullan forces under Quin-
ing the loss of all his personal property. He eventually found favour
tus Caecilius Metellus Pius, winning many battles against armies
under Augustus and wrote a great many works on amongst other
several times his own in size. Fortified with refugees and deserters,
things, agriculture, architecture, linguistics and satire.
he took back the province of Hispania Ulterior and started to civilise
the region. Aided by a white fawn, supposedly a messenger from the
Marcus Licinius Crassus (115-53 BC)
Goddess Diana, he held Hispania and was reinforced by an army
A supporter of Sulla in the first civil war, he benefitted from the
led by dissatisfied nobles from Rome. In 77 BC Pompey was sent
proscriptions to rebuild his family’s confiscated fortune and then
to aid Metellus Pius conquer Sertorius but the latter proved far the
increased it by trafficking in slaves, silver mines, and property invest-
superior tactician and repeatedly crushed his opponents in several
ments. His nickname was ‘Dives’ meaning rich. Crassus undertook
battles. In 73 BC he was assassinated at a banquet, on the verge of
at his own expense to raise, equip and train his own army to even-
creating Hispania as an independent Republic.
tually defeat Spartacus in 71 BC, capturing 6,000 slaves alive and
had them crucified along the Via Appia as a warning. Although he
“He did not remit the activities of a daring soldier after he had advanced
won the war, Pompey stole his glory by claiming credit for finish-
to the dignity of a commander, but displayed astonishing deeds of prowess
ing it (by cleaning up the broken, fleeing survivors) and Crassus was
and exposed his person unsparingly in battle, in consequence of which he got
only awarded an ovation because he had been fighting slaves. The
a blow that cost him one of his eyes. But on this he actually prided himself
animosity between the two grew, despite a joint consulship in 70 BC
at all times. Others, he said, could not always carry about with them the
and later both forming the first Triumvirate with Julius Caesar. He
evidences of their brave deeds, but must lay aside their necklaces, spears, and
was censor in 65 BC and when elected to a second consulship with
wreaths; in his own case, on the contrary, the marks of his bravery remained
Pompey in 55 BC, Crassus took Syria as his province in an effort to
with him, and when men saw what he had lost, they saw at the same time a
finally outshine Pompey in military glory; using it to launch a mili-
proof of his valour”
tary campaign against Parthia. Cursed horrifyingly as he left Rome
Plutarch – Life of Sertorius
by the tribune Capito (who was later prosecuted for the act), Crassus
was defeated at the Battle of Carrhae, where he and his legions were
Spartacus (120-70 BC)
annihilated.
A Thracian who served in the Roman army as an auxiliary
but was sentenced or sold as a slave into a gladiatorial school near
“Wealth is sought sometimes for the necessary uses of life, sometimes for
Capua belonging to Lentulus Batiatus. In 72 BC the slaves revolted,
indulgence in luxury. In those possessed of a higher order of mind the desire for
seizing knives from the kitchen and weapons delivered in a wagon,
money is entertained with a view to the increase of the means of influence and
they broke free of the school and occupied the summit of Mount
the power of generous giving. Thus, not long ago, Marcus Crassus pronounced
Vesuvius. To survive they began pillaging the local area until the
no property sufficient for one who meant to hold a foremost place in the repub-
Senate was roused and sent a legion of three thousand men under
lic, unless its income would enable him to support an army”
the command of a prætor, Claudius Glaber, to capture them. Spart-
Cicero – De Officiis
acus sent some of his men down the cliffs on the opposite side of the
caldera whom then flanked the unfortified Roman camp at night,
Lucius Licinius Lucullus (110-57 BC)
killing most of the soldiers and their commander whilst they still
A patrician who began his political service as a military tribune in
slept. The victory drew runaway slaves from all over Italy to join the
the Social War. In 88 BC, serving as prætor, he was the only officer
successful revolt. Spartacus trained his rabble army using the gladia-
to support Sulla on his march on Rome. He fought in all three of the
tors and under his tactical command, defeated two more legions sent
Mithridatic Wars and as curule ædile in 79 BC he gave a lavish series
to destroy them. Two consuls each with their own legion were sent to
of games. Lucullus inherited Sulla’s memoirs and became guardian
stop the slaves escape north and although a subordinate Crixus split
of his son. In 74 BC he was elected consul, initially receiving Cisal-
off with 30,000 slaves to continue plundering, Spartacus defeated
pine Gaul as his proconsular province but swapped it for Cilicia in
each consul’s legion in turn and then the legion of the proconsul
order to prosecute the 3rd Mithridatic War and eventually defeated
of Cisalpine Gaul. Although some of his non-combatant followers
Mithridates at the Battle of Cabira, completing the conquest of Pon-
may have passed over the Alps to return to their homelands, Spart-
tus. Following up on his successes he continued the campaign into
acus returned south, defeating a two legion army under Crassus,
Armenia defeating Mithridates again at the Battle of Artaxata in 68
188 Quot linguas calles, tot homines vales – You are worth as many people as there are languages that you speak
Mythic Rome: Romans
BC. At this point his brother-in-law Publius Clodius caused dissen- three daughters named Junia in the second. Sometime prior to 64
tion amongst his troops, allowing the severely weakened Mithridates BC she became the mistress of Julius Caesar and remained so until
to briefly retake some of his lost territories. As a direct result of his death in 44 BC. She had no dealings in the assassination of Cae-
his attempt to reform the rapacious administration of Asia, which sar and indeed resented the influence of Porcia, Cato’s daughter
gained him enemies amongst the tax farmers of Rome, Lucullus was over her son. After Brutus’s death she retired to the guardianship
recalled and replaced by Pompey. On his return his well-earned tri- and care of Titus Pomponius Atticus.
umph was maliciously delayed until 63 BC and he gave up pursuing
a political career, instead living a life of indolent luxury, becoming Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, Pompey (106-48 BC)
known as a gastronome. He used part of his wealth earned in the An equestrian from provincial eastern Italy, Pompey ascended the
wars to build famously beautiful gardens north of Rome and several Cursus Honorum as quæstor in 104 BC, prætor in 92 BC and consul
lavish villas one of which sported fish ponds connected to the sea. in 89 BC. A supporter of the Optimates, he sided with Sulla in the
civil war and defeated Marian forces in Sicily and Africa. For his vic-
Lucius Sergius Catilina, Catiline (108-62 BC) tories he was proclaimed ‘Imperator’ by his legions and sarcastically
A patrician of an impeccable family but declining fortunes, Cat- granted the cognomen ‘Magnus’ the Great by Sulla. He demanded
iline served in the Social War and with Sulla in the later civil war. a triumph which was eventually granted after he refused to disband
His reputation suffered a blow when he was accused of adultery with his legions outside Rome and in retaliation Sulla celebrated his own
one of the Vestal Virgins. Acquitted of the charge he was elected triumph first, followed by one for Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius,
to prætor in 68 BC and after a two year proprietorship in Africa, leaving Pompey’s for last – much to the amusement of the populace
was charged with abuse of power, of which he was again acquitted. when his elephant drawn chariot would not fit through the gates
Charges of corruption prevented him from running for consul for of Rome. Sent to help Metellus Pius against Sertorius in Hispania,
two years. He was defeated in the consular elections of 63 BC, due for five years he was unable to achieve any victory until Sertorius
to a lack of senatorial support and fear of his proposed universal was assassinated, at which point he helped pacify the province. On
cancellation of debts. He was once again brought to trail, this time return to Italy with his army he came across the fleeing ragtag rem-
for being one of the men who profited during Sulla’s proscriptions nants of Spartacus’ defeated army and promptly executed them –
and for killing his brother-in-law for financial gain. Again acquit- thereby claiming glory for ending the war. In 71 BC he celebrated
ted (although perhaps only because Julius Caesar was the judge), a second triumph for his Hispanic success, and using his military
he ran for consulship in 62 BC. However, the constant blackening victories to bypass the legal age requirement he was elected as con-
of his reputation undermined his political support and he failed to sul with Crassus in 70 BC. Breaking with the Optimate party and
be elected. At this point he decided to seek the consulship via ille- supported by a young Julius Caesar, he passed a law restoring power
gal means. Approaching other cast out and side-lined politicians, he to the tribunes of the plebs and re-shared jury positions between
gathered together conspirators who sought restoration to the Senate senators and equestrians. In 67 BC he was granted an extraordinary
and those dispossessed and veteran soldiers who clung to his idea of magistracy against the pirates that controlled the Mediterranean
debt relief. His subordinate Gaius Manlius organised the assembly Sea. With his gift for logistics, he completed the task in only three
of an army in Etruria and a slave revolt started in Capua. Catiline months. He was then tasked to replace Lucius Licinius Lucullus in
remained in Rome to lead the planned slaughter of senators and prosecuting the 3rd Mithridatic War and just as in the war against
the burning parts of the city to cause disruption. Cicero, one of the Spartacus he stepped in after Lucullus had successfully broken the
targets, was warned of the plot and placed guards to defend himself. power of Mithridates and then celebrated a third triumph for his
The following day Catiline was denounced in the Senate by Cicero pacification of the East. He joined the first Triumvirate in order to
and stormed off, seemingly leaving to a voluntary exile. Soon after achieve the land settlements he had promised to his veterans and
letters were intercepted proving the conspiracy and the implicated married Caesar’s daughter. With the death of his wife, followed by
conspirators were rapidly executed, terminating the insurrection that of Crassus in Parthia, the relationship between Caesar and
in Rome. Driven to desperation, Catiline, along with his army of Pompey became strained, and the Senate used him to undermine
10,000 men attempted to flee to Gaul but was forced to fight at the Caesar’s growing power, resulting in another civil war. At their final
Battle of Pistoria and he died bravely with his men, whose bodies confrontation at the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC, despite outnum-
were noted for only bearing wounds to their fronts. bering his foe two to one, Pompey lost and fled to Egypt where he
was assassinated by two old friends. His head was presented by a
“He [Catiline] was intimate with many thoroughly wicked men; but he slave to Caesar who “turned away from him with loathing, as from
pretended to be entirely devoted to the most virtuous of the citizens. He had an assassin; and when he received Pompey’s signet ring on which
many things about him which served to allure men to the gratification of their was engraved a lion holding a sword in his paws, he burst into tears.”
passions; he had also many things which acted as incentives to industry and
toil. The vices of lust raged in him; but at the same time he was conspicuous “Too long had great Pompeius from the height of human greatness, envied
for great energy and military skill. Nor do I believe that there ever existed of mankind, looked on all others; nor for him henceforth could life be lowly.
so strange a prodigy upon the earth, made up in such a manner of the most The honours of his youth too early thrust upon him, and the deeds which
various, and different and inconsistent studies and desires” brought him triumph in the Sullan days, his conquering navy and the Pontic
Cicero – Pro Caelio war, made heavier now the burden of defeat, and crushed his pondering soul.”
Lucan – Pharsalia
Servilia Caepionis (107-after 42 BC)
The half-sister of Cato the Younger, Servilia was married twice
producing a son, Marcus Junius Brutus from the first marriage and
Roma traditoribus non premia – Rome does not reward traitors (Scipio)
189
Mythic Rome: Romans
Marcus Tullius Cicero (106-43 BC) from office by the Senate but public demonstrations helped return
The most famous author and orator of the late Republic, Cicero him to office. He also divorced his wife that year, because she was sus-
was an equestrian and self-styled champion of the Republic. An pected of adultery. He was given the province of Hispania Ulterior
intellectual by nature, Cicero served the minimum necessary mili- as his proprætorship and conquered the local tribes, being heralded
tary service under Strabo and Sulla during the Social War. He then Imperator by his troops. Faced with either celebrating a triumph or
dedicated himself to a career as a lawyer. His first case in 79 BC was standing for election as consul, he chose the latter. In 59 BC he was
the defence of Sextus Roscius on a charge of patricide, chancing elected consul with Bibulus, his ineffectual colleague. Coordinating
Sulla’s disfavour. Although successful, he soon left for a philosophy with Crassus, who had paid off many of Caesar’s debts and Pompey
tour of Greece, Asia Minor and Rhodes, learning from the great- who wanted land for his veterans, the three men formed the first
est rhetoricians of the time. After his return he began his climb up Triumvirate. During the consulship he passed reforms to redistrib-
the Cursus Honorum, elected as quæstor to the Sicilians in 75 BC, ute lands to the poor, which were forced through by the intimidating
who impressed with his honesty, became his clients and asked him presence of Pompey’s veterans. After his term in office Caesar was
to prosecute Gaius Verres, who had illegally plundered the island granted an extraordinary proconsulship over Cisalpine and Transal-
during his governorship. As a ‘new man’, Cicero had problems find- pine Gaul and Illyricum. Safe from prosecution, he began the con-
ing political support in the Senate, despite the fact that he strongly quest of the rest of Gaul in part to pay off his remaining debts. From
supported the Optimates faction. However he struggled on, achiev- 58 to 51 BC he conquered the entire region, drove off a Germanic
ing curule ædile in 69 BC, prætor in 66 BC and finally consul in 63 incursion and invaded Britain. In the process he earned vast wealth
BC. During his consulship he discovered and prevented a conspir- from the plunder and enslavement of thousands of Gauls. In 50
acy led by Catiline, for which he was granted the cognomen ‘Pater BC the Senate, by manipulating Pompey, ordered Caesar to disband
Patriae’, father of the fatherland. However, despite physical proof, his army and return home since his extended term as proconsul
Cicero overstepped his authority by sentencing the conspirators to had finished. Accused of treason, and fearing legal prosecution, he
death by strangulation in the Tullianum without a trial. During the approached Rome with only a single legion, which sparked civil war.
civil war between Caesar and Pompey, Cicero sided with the Pom- Pompey and the Senate fled, leaving Rome in Caesar’s hands, who
peians but became disillusioned and was later pardoned by Cae- proceeded to confiscate the treasury and began hounding Pompey
sar. After Caesar’s assassination, Cicero rose to the forefront of the and his legions, first defeating the Pompeian subordinates in His-
Senate in an attempt to preserve the Republic but in the process pania and then travelling to Greece to defeat Pompey himself. After
alienated Marc Antony, eventually naming him an enemy of the the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC he was declared dictator, a position
State. After Antony formed a second Triumvirate with Octavian and he resigned after 11 days, and stood for consul instead. He pursued
Lepidus, he proscribed Cicero, who was caught and murdered at his the defeated Pompey to Egypt where he supported Cleopatra in the
villa in Formiae. His hands and head were displayed on the Rostra. Alexandrian civil war. In 47 BC he suppressed uprisings in the Mid-
dle East, then travelled to North Africa in 46 BC to defeat Metellus
“For this man beyond all others showed the Romans how great a charm Scipio and Cato the Younger and finally to Hispania in 45 BC to fin-
eloquence adds to the right, and that justice is invincible if it is correctly put in ish off Pompey’s sons. During the last two years he was re-elected as
words, and that it behoves the careful statesman always in his acts to choose consul for the third and fourth times and appointed dictator at first
the right instead of the agreeable, and in his words to take away all vexatious for 10 years and then for life. Showing unexpected leniency, Caesar
features from what is advantageous” pardoned his enemies and celebrated a great series of games on his
Plutarch – Life of Cicero return to Rome. He also started major works, building a new forum
and a temple to Venus Genetrix. Despite being awarded many hon-
Gaius Julius Caesar (100-44 BC) ours and titles by the Senate, his new reforms for the common good
A patrician by birth, Caesar became the head of his family at sewed fears amongst some senators that Caesar would undermine
the age of 16 and the Flamen Dialis at 17. However during Sulla’s their wealth and power, prompting 60 of them to assassinate him in
proscriptions, he was stripped of his priesthood, inheritance and his the Theatre of Pompey.
wife’s dowry, but survived in hiding despite being Marius’ nephew,
via the intercession of his mother and the Vestal Virgins. Joining the “But do you see what sort of man this is into whose hands the state has
army he served with distinction, winning for himself a Civic Crown fallen, how clever, alert, well prepared? I verily believe that if he takes no lives
at the siege of Mytilene. He was accused of a love affair with King and touches no man’s property those who dreaded him most will become his
Nicomedes whilst seeking to secure his fleet. After Sulla’s death, warmest admirers”
Caesar returned to Rome and lacking funds, purchased a modest Cicero – Selected Letters
house in the Subura, the lowest class neighbourhood in the city. He
took up legal advocacy and proved himself an excellent orator,and Titus Lucretius Carus (99-55 BC)
whilst travelling to Rhodes to perfect his rhetoric, was kidnapped by Lucretius was a poet and Epicurean philosopher, probably
pirates – whom after being having his ransom paid, he captured and a wealthy dilettante. His prominent work was ‘On the Nature of
sold into slavery. He worked up the Cursus Honorum, starting as a Things’ (De Rerum Natura), which attempted to free the reader’s
military tribune, served a quæstorship in Hispania and borrowed mind of superstition and the fear of death by illuminating the phi-
massively to pay for public works and games during his ædileship. In losophy of Epicureanism.
63 BC he became the Pontifex Maximus, and moved into the official
residence. He was accused of being part of the Catiline conspiracy
but was later cleared. Elected prætor in 62 BC he was suspended
190 Romani ite domum – Romans Go Home! (Monty Python, Life of Brian)
Mythic Rome: Romans
Marcus Porcius Cato Salonius, Publius Clodius Pulcher (92-52 BC)

Cato the Stoic (95-46 BC) Descended from an illustrious patrician family, Claudius was a
A passionate believer in the Republic and politician of famed troublemaker during his undistinguished military career, stirring
tenacity, Cato was one of a few Roman politicians considered up rebellion and mutiny wherever he served. Returning to Rome
incorruptible and his completely objective opinion was decisive in in 65 BC, he entered politics and three years later caused an uproar
the court or senate. Although wealthy, his lifestyle was austere con- when he was caught sneaking into the female-only religious rites of
forming to his stoic philosophy, wearing the minimum of clothes Bone Dea dressed as a woman. The event caused the divorce of
and consuming the plainest of foods. As a military tribune in 67 Julius Caesar from his wife, who was rumoured to be in an adul-
BC, he was sent to Macedonia and led from the front, sharing the terous affair with Claudius. In 61 BC to stand for election as tri-
work and living standards of his men, who respected him greatly. bune of the plebs, he voluntarily gave up his patrician rank by being
After a private trip through the Middle East, Cato returned to Rome adopted into the plebeian branch of the family – thus changing his
in 65 BC and was elected as quæstor, during which he prosecuted name from Claudius to Clodius. Successful, he angered the Senate
former quæstors for corruption. In 63 BC he became a tribune of by granting a free grain dole, abolishing the right of magistrates to
the plebs, assisting Cicero in suppressing the Catiline conspiracy by prevent the assembly of the comitia by taking unfavourable omens,
arguing against Caesar’s speech for the novel sentence of lifelong preventing censors from excluding members from the Senate with-
imprisonment for the conspirators, demanding execution instead. out trial and re-establishing the guilds. These changes made him
In possible vengeance for this, Caesar entrapped Cato by reading a very popular with the plebeians, so that he was able to abuse his
personal note during a meeting of the Senate. Cato accused Caesar tribuneship to exile Cicero, confiscate his property and burn down
of involvement in the conspiracy and demanded that the message his house on the Palatine Hill. Clodius himself purchased the burnt
be read out, which turned out to be a love letter to Caesar from Ser- out lot at auction via a proxy. Once Caesar had left for Gaul, no
vilia, Cato’s own half-sister. The personal enmity continued when authority restricted Clodius; accompanied by a gang of thugs, he
Cato attempted to unify opposition to the monopoly of the first Tri- became the unspoken master of Rome using violence and intimida-
umvirate, his favourite tactic being that of speaking until the sun tion to subdue his political opponents. He was eventually countered
set, preventing the Senate from taking a vote. After an immaculate by Milo who procured his own gang of ex-gladiators and Cicero was
quæstorship in Cyprus where he raised a huge revenue of silver by recalled to the city. Despite this, the violence escalated, with Cicero
eradicating the normal graft and corruption, he was elected prætor assaulted in public and the house of his brother set fire. In 53 BC
in 54 BC. After the collapse of the Triumvirate when Crassus died, outright war erupted in the streets between the armed gangs of Milo
he then drove a wedge between Caesar and Pompey in order to and Clodius, who were both standing for magisterial office. When
weaken both parties. This disastrously failed, leading to the outbreak both passed each other on the Via Appia outside of Rome, Clodius
of civil war. Reluctantly supporting Pompey, he was initially given was killed in the melee and at the funeral his clients used the Senate
command of Sicily but withdrew when faced with superior forces. house for his funeral pyre, burning down the curia and part of the
In charge of the camp at the Battle of Pharsalus, he survived and forum in the process.
escaped to join Metellus Scipio in North Africa where they raised
a new army. Despite outnumbering Caesar, this resistance was
Gaius Sallustius Crispus, Sallust (86-34 BC)
A plebeian from the Sabine region, he spent his youth as a wastrel
defeated in 46 BC and unwilling to surrender to his enemy, Cato
and began his political career as a tribune of the plebs in 52 BC. A
killed himself by pulling out his own intestines after an initially failed
sympathiser of the populares, he became a loyal devotee of Caesar
suicide attempt.
who became his patron. In 50 BC he was dismissed from the Senate
for immorality but Caesar reinstated him the following year and he
“As for Cato, my affection for him is no less than yours; but even with the
was elected quæstor. He managed to gain the office of prætor in 46
best will in the world, there are times when his high-mindedness is a positive
BC and accompanied Caesar on his African campaign, setting him
danger to the state. He delivers opinions which would be more at home in the
up for the proprætorship of the province, which he extorted brutally.
pages of Plato’s Republic than among the dregs of Romulus here. “
On returning to Rome he used part of his rapaciously gained wealth
Cicero – Letters to Atticus
to lay out the Gardens of Sallust, near to those of Lucullus. Retiring
Clodia Metelli (95-? BC) from politics, he became an author of historical literature, including
The elder sister to Publius Clodius Pulcher, Clodia was married the ‘Catiline Conspiracy’ (De Coniuratione Catilinae) and the “Jug-
as a young girl to Lucullus, then after being divorced in 66 BC due to urthine War’ (Bellum Juguthimun).
arguments between her husband and brother, she was remarried to
Quintus Caecilius Metellus Celer. Throughout this second marriage “Accordingly, when my mind found peace after many troubles and perils
she engaged in many affairs with married men and slaves, and was and I had determined that I must pass what was left of my life aloof from
notorious for drinking and gambling. When her husband died in 59 public affairs, it was not my intention to waste my precious leisure in indolence
BC, Clodia was suspected of poisoning him. She refused to marry and sloth, nor yet by turning to farming or the chase, to lead a life devoted
again but led a scandalous life with many more affairs during which to slavish employments. On the contrary, I resolved to return to a cherished
she accused an ex-lover of attempting to poison her. The defence purpose from which ill-starred ambition had diverted me, and write a history
lawyer was Cicero, who slandered Clodia with an incestuous rela- of the Roman people, selecting such portions as seemed to me worthy of record;
tionship with her own brother. After the case was overturned, Clodia and I was confirmed in this resolution by the fact that my mind was free from
vanished into obscurity. hope, and fear, and partisanship”
Salus populi suprema lex – The safety of the people is the highest law (Cicero)
191
Mythic Rome: Romans
Marcus Junius Brutus (85-42 BC) Gaius Valerius Catullus (84-54 BC)
The descendant of the famed Brutus who started the Republic, An equestrian poet from Verona, he travelled to Rome in 61 BC
Marcus Junius Brutus started his political career as an assistant to and fell in love with the ‘Lesbia’ of his poems, who is believed to
Cato during his governorship of Cyprus. He became rich by unscru- have been Clodia Metelli. His brief affair ended when she spurned
pulously lending money at outrageously high rates of interest and him for his friend Caelius Rufus. In 57 BC he served on the staff of a
aligned himself with the optimates in the Senate. When civil war friend assigned as proprietor of Bithynia, then returning to Rome to
broke out, Brutus followed Pompey against Caesar, despite the fact spend the last two years of his short life there. His poetry concerned
that Pompey had killed his father and Caesar was the love of his erotic love, rude or obscene invectives of friends or politicians, and
mother. After the Battle of Pharsalus, he wrote an apology to Cae- condolences for the loss of loved ones.
sar who pardoned him. In 46 BC he was then made governor of
Gaul and in 45 BC made Prætor Urbanus. Moved by his loyalty Marcus Antonius, Marc Antony (83-30 BC)
to Cato (to whose daughter he was then married) and constantly A distant cousin of Julius Caesar, Antony’s youth was a wild and
reminded of his founding ancestor’s acts, he joined the conspiracy unguided and he frivolously wasted money on gambling, drink-
to murder Caesar whom he feared was seeking kingship. After the ing,and love affairs. He eventually was forced to flee to Greece to
assassination Brutus retired to Crete from 44-42 BC but when Octa- escape his creditors and there was conscripted to fight in the cam-
vian was elected consul and declared that Caesar’s assassins were paigns against Judea. Gaining a reputation for bravery and leader-
murderers, Brutus (at Cicero’s urging), raised 17 legions with Cassius ship of cavalry, he was admitted to Caesar’s staff on his conquest
and marched on Rome. At the second Battle of Philippi Brutus was of Gaul. Under his patronage, Antony was elected to the offices
finally defeated and he committed suicide by falling on his sword. of quæstor, augur and tribune of the plebs. When Caesar became
dictator, Antony was made Master of Horse and retained control
“Brutus rose and said ‘By all means must we fly; not with our feet, over Italy until the last Pompeian dissidents were defeated. Despite
however, but with our hands.’ Then, after clasping each by the hand, with being relieved of political responsibilities due to his administrative
a very cheerful countenance he said he rejoiced with exceeding joy that not ineptitude, Antony remained faithfully loyal to Caesar and was
one of his friends had proved false to him, and as for Fortune, he blamed her joint consul with him in 44 BC. After Caesar’s assassination, Ant-
only for his country’s sake; himself he regarded as more to be envied than his ony professed the desire to seek peace and agreed to an amnesty for
conquerors, not yesterday and the day before merely, but even now, since he the assassins. However at Caesar’s funeral, Antony gave a powerful
was leaving behind him a reputation for virtue, which those who surpassed eulogy and dramatically displayed Caesar’s body, pointing at each
in arms or wealth would not do; since the world would believe that base and stab wound and shaming the senator responsible. He also read Cae-
unjust men who put to death the good and just were unfit to rule. Then, after sar’s will, which left most of his property to the people of Rome,
earnestly entreating them to save themselves, he withdrew a little way in the demonstrating the he had no desire to found a royal dynasty. The
company of two or three friends, amongst who was Strato, whom had been audience was roused to anger, attacking the homes of the assassins,
his intimate since they studied rhetoric together. This man he placed nearest to forcing them to flee Rome. After warring over Cisalpine Gaul as his
himself, and then, grasping with both hands the hilt of his naked sword, he proconsular province, Antony joined forces with Marcus Aemilius
fell upon it and died” Lepidus and Octavian, forming the second Triumvirate, in order to
Plutarch – Life of Brutus face the threat of Brutus and Cassius marching on Rome. Defeating
Caesar’s assassins, Antony travelled on to Egypt where his began an
Gaius Cassius Longinus (85-42 BC) affair with Cleopatra. After Lepidus foolishly tried to usurp control,
A survivor of the military disaster at Carrhae, he managed to Octavian and Antony divided responsibility for the empire between
escape Parthia with 500 cavalry and defended Syria against Parthian them, with Antony taking the East. Disagreements over an ill-con-
incursions as proquæstor until the replacement proconsul arrived. sidered invasion of Parthia, further compounded by the revelation
He joined Pompey during the civil war, acting as commander of his that he had illegally granted Roman provinces to his young children
fleet and successfully burned a large portion of Caesar’s navy. After with Cleopatra and that Caesarion was the legitimate heir to Cae-
Pompey’s defeat he was forced to surrender and in an act of mercy sar’s name and fortune (threatening Octavian’s popularity and legal
Caesar appointed him a legate in the Alexandrian War. Unable to status as the adoptive son), caused the outbreak of hostile propa-
face fighting Cato and Scipio in North Africa, he retired to Rome ganda and eventually the Senate declared war on Cleopatra, giving
and two years later was made Prætor Peregrinus. Despite the clem- Antony the chance to return to the fold. He refused and the two
ency shown him, Cassius conspired to assassinate Caesar and led sides met at the naval Battle of Actium, where Marcus Vipsanius
the physical assault on the dictator. When Marc Antony raised the Agrippa defeated Antony. Fleeing to Egypt, Antony and Cleopatra
populace against them, Cassius fled, turning down the province of lived their final months to the full before Octavian invaded. He com-
Cyrene assigned to him, in favour of Syria. He raised an army of mitted suicide in despair after being falsely informed that Cleopatra
12 legions to confront and defeat the legitimate governor Publius was dead. At the time of his death he had been married five time-
Cornelius Dolabella and joined forces with Brutus to oppose the sec- sand had fathered dozens of children.
ond Triumvirate. Cassius was slain at his own request by his freed-
man Pindarus, when he lost the first Battle of Philippi against Marc “For whenever he was going to be seen by many people, he always wore
Antony. his tunic girt up to his thigh, a large sword hung at his side, and a heavy cloak
enveloped him. However, even what others thought offensive, namely, his jest-
ing and boastfulness, his drinking-horn in evidence, his sitting by a comrade
who was eating, or his standing to eat at a soldier’s table, it astonishes how
192 Sapiens omnia sua secum portat – A wise man takes everything he owns with himself
Mythic Rome: Romans
much goodwill and affection for him all this produced in his soldiers. And purchased an appointment as an official in the State treasury and
somehow even his conduct in the field of love was not without its charm, nay, used his free time writing lyrical poetry.
it actually won for him the favour of many; for he assisted them in their love
affairs, and submitted pleasantly to their jests upon his own amours. Further- Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus,
more, his liberality, and his bestowal of favours upon friends and soldiers with Octavian (63 BC – AD 14)
no scant or sparing hand, laid a splendid foundation for his growing strength, Born a mere plebeian, but gaining patrician status when he was
and when he had become great, lifted his power to yet greater heights, although adopted by his great uncle Gaius Julius Caesar, the young Octavian
it was hindered by countless faults besides” only started his political life after inheriting Caesar’s estates in 44
Plutarch – Life of Antony BC. Returning from his military studies in Dalmatia, he was granted
Imperium to legally command the legion of veterans he had raised
Marcus Vitruvius Pollio (80/70-15 BC) on the way to Rome, and was sent with the consuls of that year to
An architect, engineer and author, Vitruvius served as an artil- defeat Antony in Cisalpine Gaul. Although Antony was forced to
leryman in the army. As a free but poor citizen he served in many retreat, both consuls were killed, leaving Octavian in command of
campaigns across Gaul, Hispania, Aquitaine and Pontus and built the consular armies. The Senate attempted to transfer command
various different artillery and siege machines. He wrote a compre- to Decimus Brutus, the governor of Cisalpine Gaul, but since he
hensive book on Roman architecture, including chapters concerning was one of his great uncle’s assassins, Octavian refused. Instead he
aqueducts, materials, surveying and central heating. He eventually remained in the Po Valley and demanded that he should receive one
found patronage under Augustus’ family. of the vacant consulships, and that Antony should be cleared of
being a public enemy. When his demands were refused he marched
Fulvia (77-40 BC) on Rome with eight legions and the Senate capitulated. After this
A strong willed woman, she was the offspring of a plebeian fam-
he joined forces with Antony and Lepidus to form the second Tri-
ily and inherited the Gracchi fortune in 63 BC. She married three
umvirate, in order to fight off the combined armies of Brutus and
times. The first was with Publius Clodius Pulcher, whose political
Cassius. They enacted a series of murderous proscriptions in the
career she financed and possibly influenced. She had a daughter
manner of Sulla to remove their enemies from power and raise
Clodia with him. Widowed in 52 BC she quickly married again to
money for the legions. This purge of 300 senators and 2,000 eques-
Gaius Scribonius Curio, a tribune of the plebs bribed by Caesar,
trians permanently weakened the Senate. Eventually the Triumvi-
who was killed in 49 BC leading an expedition to conquer Numidia.
rate collapsed and after another succession of civil war, Lepidus was
Her third marriage was to Marc Antony whose political career she
allowed to retire in exile and Antony committed suicide following
also funded and bore him two sons. To solidify the second Trium-
his defeat at the Battle of Actium. Octavian was left in sole com-
virate she offered Octavian her daughter Clodia in marriage. How-
mand over Rome. Although appearing to restore the workings of
ever when he later divorced her daughter, Fulvia took offence and
the Republic, he retained autocratic power despite turning down the
together with Antony’s brother (Antony at this time was settled in
office of dictator. Instead he was voted both tribunate and censor-
Egypt), she raised an army of eight legions to fight for her husband’s
ship powers for life by the Senate and was continuously re-elected as
rights. Despite the brief capture of Rome, she was forced to retreat
consul. He held much of his power from financial domination won
to Perusia where they were starved into submission. Fulvia was
by conquest and by granting patronage to many loyal soldiers and
exiled to Sicyon and died of an illness before Antony could join her.
veterans across the empire. With such irresistible popularity with the
people and overwhelming military support, the Senate was forced
Publius Vergilius Maro, Virgil (70-19 BC)
to concede to his decisions. His authority was such that in 27 BC
Born in Cisalpine Gaul, Virgil travelled to Rome to study rhet-
he was granted the titles ‘Augustus’ and ‘Princeps’, and declared the
oric, medicine and astronomy, but abandoned these to study Epi-
start of the Pax Romana, a peace which was to last (save for a single
curean philosophy. He soon began to write poetry and eventually
year) for two centuries.
published the classic epics known as the Bucolics, the Georgics and
the Aeneid – which became the Roman national epic. The Aeneid
“Although weakened by illness, being driven from his camp in the first bat-
took 10 years to write and recounts the tale of Aeneas the last hero
tle [of Philippi] and barely making his escape by fleeing to Antony’s division,
of Troy, from the fall of the city to the foundation of Rome and the
he did not use his victory with moderation, but after sending Brutus’s head to
moral challenges he faces of whether to fulfil his desires as a man or
Rome, to be cast at the feet of Caesar’s statue, he vented his spleen upon the
act with virtue and pietas towards his ancestors and the gods. The
most distinguished of his captives, not even sparing them insulting language.
work was left unfinished when Virgil died from fever but Augustus
For instance, to one man who begged humbly for burial, he is said to have
overruled the author’s own wish that the poem be burned on his
replied: “The birds will soon settle that question.” When two others, father
death.
and son, begged for their lives, he is said to have bidden them cast lots or play
Quintus Horatius Flaccus, Horace (65-27 BC) mora, to decide which should be spared, and then to have looked on while both
The son of a freedman in Venusia, he was educated in Rome died, since the father was executed because he offered to die for his son, and the
and Athens, subsisting as a middleman at auctions. He joined the latter thereupon took his own life. Because of this the rest, including Marcus
army of Brutus as a staff officer after Caesar’s assassination and sur- Favonius, the well-known imitator of Cato, saluted Antony respectfully as
vived the Battle of Philippi by shamefully throwing away his shield Imperator, when they were led out in chains, but lashed Augustus to his face
and running. He returned to Rome under Octavian’s amnesty, but with the foulest abuse”
discovered his estate had been confiscated. Reduced to poverty he Suetonius – Life of Augustus
Sapientia est potentia - Wisdom is power

193
Mythic Rome: Romans
Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa (63-12 BC)

Agrippa began his impressive military career fighting under
Julius Caesar against Pompey’s son in Hispania, after which he was
sent to Dalmacia with Octavian to study warfare, befriending him
in the process. Following Caesar’s assassination, he accompanied
Octavian back to Rome where he assisted levying new legions in
Campania. He was elected tribune of the plebs in 43 BC and the
following year fought alongside Octavian at the Battle of Philippi.
In 41 BC he helped put down a rebellion led by the brother and
wife of Marc Antony and in 40 BC was left as Prætor Urbanus to
defend Italy against Sextus Pompeius who had captured Sicily. In
38 BC he crushed an uprising in Transalpine Gaul and harried the
Germanic tribes. Agrippa was made consul by Octavian in 37 BC
in order to prepare for a war against Pompeius which he prosecuted
the following year, and received a Naval Crown, a unique award.
During the next few years he undertook a vigorous series of resto-
ration and improvement projects in Rome. As ædile he repaired the
streets, cleaned the sewers, restored and built new aqueducts, and
constructed baths, porticoes and gardens. In 30 BC he was the com-
mander of Octavian’s navy, successfully winning several naval bat-
tles until his final confrontation with Antony at the Battle of Actium
which he won.
Titus Livius, Livy (59 BC - 17 AD)

A native of Cisalpine Gaul, he is famous for writing his huge
historical work, ‘From the Founding of the City’ (Ab Urbe Condita).
He used previous Roman annalists as his sources and openly mixed
legendary stories with extant historical records. His history eventu-
ally comprised of 142 ‘books’ (or more rightly scrolls) and was an
instant success after its publication.
Livia Drusilla (58 BC - 29 AD)

After marriage to a patrician cousin and forced to flee Italy
during the civil wars, her family returned to Rome under Octavian’s
amnesty. Already the mother of the future emperor Tiberius and six
months pregnant, she was introduced to Octavian in 39 BC where-
upon he immediately fell in love with her. Although already married
to Scribonia his second wife, Octavian divorced her after only a year,
on the very day she gave birth to his daughter. He then persuaded
Livia’s husband to divorce her and they were married three days
after the birth of her second son. The marriage lasted a further 51
years and she played the part of a faithful matron, taking care of the
household, weaving clothes and dressed modestly. In 35 BC she had
a statue erected to her and was given the right to control her own
finances, becoming a patron to her own circle of clients.
194 Scio me nihil scire – I know that I know nothing (Socrates)

Mythic Rome: Timeline
Timeline
T
his chapter sketches out the history of Rome from its found- As a final warning, the dates included are roughly correct to a
ing in 753 BC to the final fall of the Republic in 27 BC; a year or so either way. Most of our knowledge comes from an amal-
long and complex melange of wars, superstitions, politics, gam of several historical authors whose annals, of course, do not
treachery and glory. So much information was recorded by the quite match up. Thus each entry on the table is only as accurate as
Romans themselves that it would take several books of this size just the source used.
to cover it briefly, let alone comprehensively.
Therefore in order to give Games Masters a chance of locat-
ing happenings often overlooked in more in-depth reviews, the
following table has been constructed to show interesting events in
the categories of War, Politics, Religion and the City. Those who
desire a slightly more detailed summary of early Roman history are
encouraged to look to the internet or specialised history books for
additional help.
Year War Politics & Law Religion City

Traditional Founding of Rome
753 BC by Romulus and Remus atop the
Palatine Hill
Rule of Romulus, after killing his
War and eventual peace with the Romulus dedicates a temple to Jupiter Rape of the Sabine women.
753 - 716 BC own brother. Division of the people
Sabines Feretrius atop the Capitoline Hill Settlement of the Quirinal Hill
into curiæ
Construction of many shrines,
715-674 BC Reign of Numa Pompilius including a temple to Janus at the The city spreads to the Aventine Hill
foot of the Aventine Hill
The Curia Hostilia is built. The
Conquering of the Albans and the dispossessed Albans are welcomed
673-642 BC Reign of Tullius Hostilius Temples built to Pallor and Pavor
destruction of their city into Rome which expands to include
the Caelian Hill
The city wall is extended and
fortifications built to defend the
Assault and conquest of the Latin
The Temple of Jupiter Feretrius lower regions of the hills. The Pons
642-617 BC city of Politorium and its population Reign of Ancus Marcius
expanded Sublicius is built spanning the Tiber
transferred to Rome
River near the Forum Boarium
downstream from the Tiber island
Lucius Tarquinius Priscus vows a
great temple to Jupiter Optimus
The area for the Circus Maximus
Maximus, Juno and Minerva in
is laid out and stands are built by
return for defeating the Sabines and
members of the patricians and
616-579 BC Further conflict with the Sabines Reign of Tarquinius Priscus begins to lay its foundations atop
equites. The Forum Romanum is
the Capitoline Hill, incorporating
constructed with space allotted for
the existent shrines of Terminus
arcades and shops, on drained land
and Juventas. The purchase of the
Sibylline Books from the Sibyl
Rome expands to incorporate the
The construction of the Temples of
578-535 BC Reign of Servius Tullius Viminal and Esquiline Hills. The
Diana, Fortuna and Mater Matuta
Servian wall is built around the city
Secrete amicos admone; lauda palam – Advise friends in secret; praise them openly (Publilius Syrus)
195

Work continues on the construction Construction of the Cloaca Maxima,
of the Temple of Jupiter Optimus
535-510 BC Reign of Tarquinius Superbus the first major drainage ditch and
Maximus. Introduction of the cult
of Apollo eventual sewer
Overthrow of Etruscan kings and

The temple of Jupiter Optimus
destruction of the monarchy by L.
509 BC Maximus is finally dedicated. First The rape and suicide of Lucretia
Junius Brutus. Establishment of the
occasion of the Ludi Romani
Roman Republic
Creation of the position of Pontifex
Invasion of the Etruscans under Lars
508 BC Maximus as an official, to oversee the
Porsena
Rex Sacrorum
505 BC First pair of consuls elected
504 BC Migration of the Claudii to Rome
Battle of Pometia, the Latin League

502 BC defeats the Romans, leaving one of
the consuls badly wounded
Appointment of the first-ever A temple to Saturn begins
501 BC
dictator, T. Larcius construction in the Forum Romanum
The Temple of Saturn is dedicated.
Known as the Aerarium it is used
498 BC to store the treasury of Rome, the
state archives, and the insignia of
the legions
Battle of Lake Regillus, where Carthage and Rome make a treaty
Rome under the command of Aulus whereby Roman ships undertake
496 BC Postumius Albus Regillensis finally not to trade to the west of Carthage
defeats the Latins and the former while the Carthaginians undertake
king of Rome, Tarquinius Superbus not to interfere in Latin politics
Battle of Aricia, consul Publius Introduction of the cult of Hermes
495 BC Servilius Priscus wins over the by Greek traders and a temple built
Auruncans to him in the Circus Maximus
First Secession of the Plebeians
to the Mons Sacra where they
threaten to found a new city. To end
the crisis, the patricians allow the
plebs to annually elect two leaders
494 BC
who are given the title of Tribune.
Establishment of the aediles,
magistrates originally in charge of
the temple and cult of Ceres and also
elected from the plebeian class
A mutual defence treaty known as
the Foedus Cassianum is agreed
between Latin League and Rome, in Dedications of the Temples of
Gaius Marcius Coriolanus captures
493 BC which Rome abandons its claim to Ceres, Liber and Libera built on the
the Volscian town of Corioli.
hegemony over the league in return Aventine Hill
for being recognised as the dominant
city
Gnaeus Marcius Coriolanus is
exiled for withholding grain from
the starving plebeians unless they
agreed to the abolition of the office
The Temple of Fortuna Muliebris
491 BC of Tribune. He then seeks refuge with Famine in Rome
is built
the King of the Volsi and leads their
army against Rome in retribution,
turning back when his mother and
wife entreat him
196 Semper inops quicumque cupit – Whoever desires is always poor (Claudian)

The proposal of an agrarian law by
Consul Spurius Cassius Vecellinus
War with the Aequi and the Volsci, to assist needy plebeians, is violently
486 – 436 BC which continues on and off for
opposed both by the patricians and
another 50 years
wealthy plebeians, who have Cassius
condemned and executed
The temple of Castor and Pollux (the
Dioscuri) in the Forum Romanum is
484 BC completed and dedicated in honour
of their aid at the Battle of Lake
Regillus
482 - 474 BC Intermittent wars with Veii
The Volscians defeat consul Lucius

Aemilius Mamercus at the Battle
482 BC of Antium. The following day, he
reverses his defeat, by winning the
Battle of Longula
Battle of Veii in which the consuls
Marcus Fabius Vibulanus and
480 BC Gnaeus Manlius Cincinnatus win a
heavy battle over the Veientes and
their Etruscan allies
The Battle of the Cremera where
all the members of the Fabii clan
but one are killed in battle with the
Veientes. Consul Gaius Horatius
Pulvillus fights an indecisive battle
477 BC with the Etruscans at the Battle of
the Temple of Hope. This is rapidly
followed by the Battle of Colline
Gate where consul Gaius Horatius
Pulvillus achieves an indecisive
victory over the Etruscans
The Greek city-states in Italy win
474 BC a naval battle at Cumae and crush
Etruscan power in Campania
Creation of the Concilium Plebis.
471 BC Office of the tribunes officially
recognised
A revolt in Rome leads to the
Capitoline Hill and most of the
important temples there being
occupied by the rebellious slaves. The
460 BC
revolt only ends with the intervention
of an allied army from Tusculum,
led by the Tusculan dictator Lucius
Mamilius
Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus
is summoned by the Senate and
declared dictator in order to rescue
a besieged Roman army at Mt.
Algidus. He musters the remaining Cincinnatus resigns his dictatorship
457 BC men in Rome, marches all night and after only 16 days and returns to Cincinnatus celebrates a Triumph
traps the besieging Aequi within his farm
hastily erected fortifications. The
Aequi are then defeated by a double
attack from within and outside their
lines
Sero venientibus ossa – The bones [leavings] for those who come late
197

The plebeians of Rome are granted
456 BC
land in the Aventine
The patricians set up the decemvirate
A terrible pestilence kills half the
(council of ten) to establish the Code
451 BC citizens and almost all the slaves of
of the Twelve Tables, the foundation
the city
of Roman Law
The laws of the Twelve Tables
are inscribed on ivory and posted
in the Forum Romanum for all to
read. Following a blatantly criminal
decision upholding the kidnap and
slavery of a young woman named
449 BC Verginia, her father kills her to
maintain her chastity and freedom,
which leads to an uprising against
the Decemvirate; forcing them
to resign their offices and return
to the previous system of elected
magistrates
Secession of the plebs. The Lex
449 BC Valeria Horatia grants the tribunes
inviolability
Creation of position for two
447 BC quaestors, elected by the tribal
assembly
Titus Quinctius Capitolinus Barbatus
leads Roman troops to win over the
446 BC
Aequi and the Volsci at the Battle of
Corbione
Law passed by a tribune named
Gaius Canuleius, the Lex Canuleia,
removes the ban preventing inter-
marriage between Plebeians and
Patricians. Anger over this social A spring emerges in the Forum
445 BC reform, which the Senate sees as a Romanum after a divine thunderbolt
threat to its authority results in the strikes the ground there
patrician consuls being replaced with
three military tribunes (with consular
powers), whom could be elected from
the plebeian class
Introduction of the office of censor
to the Cursus Honorum, to prevent
443 BC
plebeian military tribunes from
having control of the census
440 BC Rome suffers a famine
Gn. Spurius Maelius attempts to

make himself king of Rome, by
buying up a large amount of grain
and selling it at a low price to garner
votes from those suffering from the
famine. He is summoned to face
439 BC
Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus (made
dictator to suppress any revolt by
the plebeians) but refuses to appear.
Maelius is killed by Quintus Servilius
Ahala, his house razed and his wheat
distributed amongst the people
198 Si uno adhuc proelio Romanos vincemus, funditus peribimus! – Another victory like that, and I’m done for! (Pyrrhus)

Q. Servilius Fidenas excavates a
435 BC tunnel under the walls of the city of
Fidenae in order to capture it
The terms of office for censors are
434 BC
fixed at four years
433 BC A pestilence strikes Rome
The temple of Apollo Medicus (the

doctor) built in the Flaminian fields is
The Aquei are driven from Mt.
431 BC dedicated by Gnaeus Iulius Mento, in
Algidius by M. Furius Camillus
fulfilment of a vow to the god during
the plague of two years earlier
428 BC Rome conquers Fidenae
Comitia Centuriata given final voice

427 BC
in the matter of declaration of war
The number of quaestors is increased
421 BC
to four, and it is opened to plebeians
The river Tiber floods causing
414 BC
destruction
Three of the elected quaestors are
409 BC
plebeians
The city of Anxur is besieged and
406 BC
captured by the Romans
The beginning of the Siege of Veii,
405 BC
which lasts 10 years
Rome completes her conquest of
the Etruscans when Veii is finally
Marcus Furius Camillus is made
396 BC captured by M. Furius Camillus. Pay
dictator
is introduced for Roman soldiers for
the first time
The Falerii surrender unconditionally
394 BC to the Romans under M. Furius
Camillus
Quintus Fabius Ambustus and his
two brothers are sent as emissaries to
parley for the relief of the town of
Marcus Furius Camillus is accused
Clusium with Brennus, chief of the
of making an unfair distribution of
besieging Gauls. When negotiations
the spoils of his victory at Veii and
391 BC break down, Quintus Fabius kills
goes into voluntary exile. The three
one of the Gallic leaders. Outraged
Fabii brothers are elected as military
at the act Brennus demands that the
tribunes for their defiance of Brennus
Fabii brothers be surrendered to him,
but the Romans refuse so the Gauls
advance on Rome
Disaster at the Battle of the Allia During the siege of the Capitoline
River. The Roman army under the Hill, the Gauls attempt a sneak attack
Rome is sacked and burned. Every
command of the military tribunes Q. A ransom of 1,000 pounds of gold up the steep cliff. Marcus Manlius
following year on the anniversary of
Servius Fidenas, Q. Sulpicius and P. is paid to Brennus who uses heavier Capitolinus is alerted to the Gallic
the sacking, guard dogs are crucified
Cornelius Maluginensis are defeated weights than standard. When the attack by the sacred geese of Juno,
390 BC on the Capitoline Hill as punishment
by the Brennus of the Gauls. The Romans complain, Brennus throws which are honoured for their timely
for their failure to alert the people
Gauls then sack and burn the city his sword onto the scales and warning. Temple of Saturn burns
of Rome to the Gallic sneak attack,
of Rome and the inner capitol is states’Woe to the vanquished’ down, causing the loss of all official
whilst the Capitoline Geese watch
besieged for seven months, before the records. It is rebuilt and dedicated by
invaders are bought off Lucius Furius
The Aequi are defeated by the
388 BC
Romans at a battle near Bola
Si vis pacem, para bellum – If you want peace, prepare for war (Vegetius)
199

Marcus Furius Camillus introduces
the Ludi Capitolini honouring Jupiter
387 BC Capitolinus, in commemoration of
Rome's Capitol not being captured
by the Gauls
The combined Italian tribes, the
386 BC Latins, Volscii and Hernici are
defeated by the Romans
The censor Gaius Maenius has
temporary wooden balconies built
on top of the shops around the
Forum Romanum, so increase the
viewing area for spectators of public
performances
The district of Tusculum is pacified
Tusculum becomes the first
381 BC after a revolt against Rome and
municipium
conquered
Rebuilding of the permanent Servian
378 BC
Wall
The Latins are defeated after the
377 BC
capture of the city of Satricum
Gaius Licinius (Calvus) Stolo starts
10 years of successive election as
376 BC tribune, during which he smoothes
relationships between the patricians
and plebeians
No curule magistrates are elected for
375 BC
this year
Gaius Licinius Stolo and Lucius
Sextius Lateranus institute the Lex The Temple of Concord is vowed
Liciniae Sextiae, which not only and built in the Forum Romanum
restores the Consulship but reserves by Marcus Furius Camillus
367 BC
one of the two seats for plebeians. It to commemorate the political
also limits the amount of public land reconciliation between the patricians
any man might hold to 500 iugera and plebeians
(300 acres)
The first plebeian consul, L. Sextius
Sextinus Lateranus, is elected. Offices The Ludi Romani games begin to be
366 BC
of Praetor and Aedile added to the held annually
Cursus Honorum
The first theatrical performances are
365 BC
held in Rome, by Etruscan actors
363 BC The river Tiber floods
A bottomless hole opens up in the

Forum Romanum but closes up again
after a young man named Marcus
362 BC
Curtius, dressed in armour and on
horseback, casts himself into the
chasm
Rome captures the city of
361 BC
Ferentinum
War with cities of Tibur, Praeneste,
and the Hernici tribe who advance
360 BC
to the gates of Rome but are beaten
back
The town of Tarquinii revolts against
359 BC
Roman rule
200 Sic semper tyrannis – Thus always to tyrants (Brutus)


Marcus Furius Camillus introduces
the Ludi Capitolini honouring Jupiter
387 BC Capitolinus, in commemoration of
Rome's Capitol not being captured
by the Gauls
The combined Italian tribes, the
386 BC Latins, Volscii and Hernici are
defeated by the Romans
The censor Gaius Maenius has
temporary wooden balconies built
on top of the shops around the
Forum Romanum, so increase the
viewing area for spectators of public
performances
The district of Tusculum is pacified
Tusculum becomes the first
381 BC after a revolt against Rome and
municipium
conquered
Rebuilding of the permanent Servian
378 BC
Wall
The Latins are defeated after the
377 BC
capture of the city of Satricum
Gaius Licinius (Calvus) Stolo starts
10 years of successive election as
376 BC tribune, during which he smoothes
relationships between the patricians
and plebeians
No curule magistrates are elected for
375 BC
this year
Gaius Licinius Stolo and Lucius
Sextius Lateranus institute the Lex The Temple of Concord is vowed
Liciniae Sextiae, which not only and built in the Forum Romanum
restores the Consulship but reserves by Marcus Furius Camillus
367 BC
one of the two seats for plebeians. It to commemorate the political
also limits the amount of public land reconciliation between the patricians
any man might hold to 500 iugera and plebeians
(300 acres)
The first plebeian consul, L. Sextius
Sextinus Lateranus, is elected. Offices The Ludi Romani games begin to be
366 BC
of Praetor and Aedile added to the held annually
Cursus Honorum
The first theatrical performances are
365 BC
held in Rome, by Etruscan actors
363 BC The river Tiber floods
A bottomless hole opens up in the

Forum Romanum but closes up again
after a young man named Marcus
362 BC
Curtius, dressed in armour and on
horseback, casts himself into the
chasm
Rome captures the city of
361 BC
Ferentinum
War with cities of Tibur, Praeneste,
and the Hernici tribe who advance
360 BC
to the gates of Rome but are beaten
back
The town of Tarquinii revolts against
359 BC
Roman rule
Sine sole sileo – Without the sun I’m silent (sundial inscription)
201
357 BC Falerii revolts. Gauls raid Latium
The first plebeian dictator is

356 BC
appointed
Samnites sign a treaty of alliance
354 BC with Rome to defend against the
Gauls
353 BC Caere defeated
The office of censor is opened to the

351 BC The Etruscans sue for peace
plebeians
Treaty with Carthage establishing
348 BC non-aggression towards members of
Rome's Latin League
Foreign coinage begins to be used
347 BC
in Rome
The Romans defeat the cities of
346 BC
Antium and Satricum
Beginning of the First Samnite War.
Romans occupy northern Campania,
343 BC
interceding on behalf of the city of
Capua against the Samnites
Battle of Mount Gaurus in which
Marcus Valerius Corvus made
342 BC the Roman general Marcus Valerius
dictator
Corvus defeats the Samnites
The Roman consul Marcus Valerius A hasty peace treaty is signed with
Corvus defeats the Samnites once the Samnites, owing to the revolt of
341 BC
more at the Battle of Suessola. End members of the Latin League. Rome
of the First Samnite War retains control of Campania
The members of the Latin League
Start of the Latin War. Rome
request equal rights with Rome,
340 - 338 BC conquers the Volsci seaport of
including seats within the Senate.
Antium
Rome refuses and war breaks out
Battle of Vesuvius, Romans under
Capua and Cumae are granted full
P. Decius Mus and T. Manlius
339 BC citizenship, becoming part of the
Imperiosus defeat the rebellious
Roman State
Latins
Latin League dissolved but Latin
Roman general T. Manlius
rights and partial citizenship
Imperiosus decisively defeats the The rostra, or speaking platform, is
338 BC established, bringing many of the
Latins at the Battle of Trifanum. End created by G. Maenius
cities into the Roman State. The
of the Latin War
Volsci accept an alliance with Rome
337 BC Office of praetor opened to plebeians
The Romans capture the town of

336 BC
Teanum Sidicinum
The Campanian city of Cales is Marcus Valerius Corvus is elected
335 BC
conquered consul for the fourth time
Rome signs a treaty with the city of Creation of two new tribes at Rome,
332 BC
Tarentum the Maecia and Scaptia
The Italian cities of Fondi and
Privernum, led by M. Vitruvius
330 BC Vaccus, launch a revolt against Ostia, Rome's coastal port, founded
Rome, which is quelled by the consul
L. Plautius Venno
The Circus Maximus is completed
329 BC
in Rome
328 BC Etruria and Campania annexed
202 Stultum est timere quod vitare non potes – It is foolish to fear that which you cannot avoid (Publius Syrus)

At the request of Neapolis, the
327 BC Romans send an army, which evicts a Neapolis becomes an ally of Rome
Samnite garrison from the city
Start of the Second Samnite War.
Rome increases its influence in
After the eviction of their garrison in
326 BC southern Italy by forging new
Neapolis the Samnites declare war
alliances
on Rome
Lucius Papirius Cursor appointed A temple to Quirinus vowed by
324 BC
dictator Papirius Cursor
After failing to reach an agreement
for a peace settlement, the Romans
The Samnites sue for peace but the
under Spurius Postumius and T.
terms offered by Rome are so harsh
321 BC Verturius Calvinus are defeated and
the Samnites reject them and the war
humiliated by the Samnites under
continues
Gaius Pontius at the Battle of the
Caudine Forks
Battle of Lautulae where the Romans
are badly defeated by the Samnites,
316 BC
who march to within 20 miles of
Rome
Censorship of Appius Claudius
Caecus, whose political reforms;
Construction of the first aqueduct,
including the distribution of the
the aqua Appia, and the first major
312 BC landless citizens of Rome among the
road, the Via Appia, which connects
voting tribes, the admission of sons
Rome with southern Capua.
of freedmen into the Senate, and the
right of freed slaves to hold office
Etruscans join the Samnites against
311 BC
Rome
The Romans, led by Lucius Papirius The Etruscans are persuaded by the
310 BC Cursor, defeat the Etruscans at the Samnites to break their alliance with
Battle of Lake Vadimo Rome.
Lucius Papirius Cursor defeats the
Samnites at Longula. He compels the
city of Luceria (which had revolted)
to surrender, thus recovering Roman Lucius Papirius Cursor appointed Lucius Papirius Cursor celebrates a
309 BC
hostages held there in captivity, the dictator triumph
standards lost at Caudium, and
makes 7,000 of the enemy pass under
the yoke
The Umbrians, Picentini, and The Etruscans sue for peace, which is
308 BC
Marsians join the war against Rome granted under severe terms
The Italian tribe, the Hernici, revolts
307 BC
against Rome
Battle of Bovianum - Roman consuls
M. Fulvius Curvus Paetinus and L.
305 BC
Postumius Megellus decisively defeat
the Samnites
A bronze shrine to Concord is
Aequi defeated. End of the Second
erected by the aedile Gnaeus Flavius, Under the censor Fabius Maximus
Samnite War, Rome establishes many
304 BC Peace treaty made with the Samnites in the hope of reconciling the nobility Rullianus landless new citizens are
new colonies and gains control over
who are outraged by his publication assigned to four tribes in the city
much of central and southern Italy
of the calendar
Marcus Valerius Corvus made
301 BC
dictator for the second time
Summum ius summa inuria- More law, less justice (Cicero)

203

Lex Valeria passed by a tribune of
Lex Ogulnia is passed, which states
the plebs granting the legal right to
300 BC that half of the members of Rome's
appeal against any capital sentence
priestly colleges must be plebeian
passed on a Roman citizen
The Romans capture the territory
299 BC
of Narnia
Start of the Third Samnite War.
Gauls raid Roman territory.
Battle of Camerinum in which
the Samnites defeat the Romans An alliance is formed with the
298 BC
under Lucius Cornelius Scipio. The Picentes
Romans capture the Samnite cities
of Taurasia, Bovianum Vetus, and
Aufidena.
A Temple to Bellona is vowed by
Appius Claudius Caecus after a
296 BC victory over the Etruscans and is built
outside the Pomerium but close to the
Servian Wall
The Romans under Fabius Maximus
Rullianus and Publius Decimus Mus
Fabius Maximus Rullianus elected
295 BC are victorious over a coalition of
consul for the fifth time
Samnites, Gauls, and Umbirnas at
the Battle of Sentinum
The Temple of Victory is built and
dedicated by Lucius Postumius
294 BC Samnite victory at Luceria
Megellus out of fines he levied during
his aedileship
After the pestilence the Sibylline
The Romans under Lucius Papirius Books are consulted which advise that
Cursor achieve a decisive victory over a temple to Aesculapius be dedicated
293 BC
the Samnite forces at the Battle of on the Tiber Isle. Completion and
Aquilonia dedication of the Temple of Quirinus
by Papirius Cursor
The rebellious city of Falerii is
292 BC
reduced by the Romans
The Romans storm the Samnite city
291 BC
of Venusia
The territory of the Samnites
The Sabines are conquered by
is annexed. Establishment of
290 BC Manius Curius Dentatus. End of the
the triumviri capitals (criminal
Third Samnite War
magistrates) occurs in Rome
Introduction of the triumviri
monetales (official mint supervisors)
to control the minting of coins.
Dictator Quintus Hortensius is
287 BC
appointed to deal with a secession
of the plebeians and passes the Lex
Hortensia, which gives plebiscites
(plebeian referendums) power in law
The Lex Aquilia is passed, which
provides compensation to the owners
286 BC of property, including slaves and
herd animals, injured as a result of
someone's fault
Battle of Arretium where a Roman
army under Lucius Caecilius
284 BC
Metellus Denter is destroyed by the
Senones Gauls
204 Sunt facta verbis difficiliora – Deeds are harder than words

A Roman army under P. Cornelius
Dolabella first repulses the Senones
The Temple of Saturn burns down
283 BC from Arretium, then defeats the Rome burns
(again)
Etruscans and the Gallic tribe of the
Boii, at the Battle of Lake Vadimo
Etruscan resistance to Roman
domination of Italy is finally
crushed at the Battle of Populonia.
King Phyrrus of Epirus offers his
Rome conquers territory still held
282 BC aid to defend Tarentum from the
by the Gauls along the Adriatic.
Romans
The Roman Fleet is attacked by
Tarentum. Beginning of the war
against King Phyrrus
Battle of Heraclea the first
Gaius Fabricius Luscinus, is sent to
engagement of Roman and Greek
negotiate the ransom and exchange
armies, in which Pyrrhus defeats a
of prisoners. Pyrrhus is so impressed
280 BC Roman force under the command
by Fabricius refusing to accept a
of P. Valerius Laevinus, with the
bribe, that he releases the prisoners
judicious use of elephants previously
without the requirement for a ransom
unknown to the Romans
Battle of Asculum in Apulia, where
Pyrrhus defeats another Roman
army under the command of Publius
279 BC
Decimus Mus but at great cost to his
own force, giving rise to the phrase
'Pyrrhic victory'
Carthage invades Sicily and lays siege
The Carthaginians loan Rome
to Syracuse. Pyrrhus leaves Italy to
278 BC money and ships in their fight against
help Syracuse and begins conquering
Pyrrhus
Carthaginian held territory
Increasingly despotic, Pyrrhus
is asked to leave Sicily by the
Syracusians and returns to Italy. But
275 BC after an inconclusive battle against
the Romans under Marcus Curius
Dentatus at Beneventum, Pyrrhus
decides to leave Italy for good
Impressed by Rome's defeat of
273 BC Pyrrhus, Ptolemy II sends a friendly
embassy, which is reciprocated
Surrender of Tarentum brings most
A second aqueduct, the Anio Vetus,
272 BC of southern Italy under Roman
begins construction
control
Capture of Rhegium and the
subjugation of the Brutians, the Rome effectively dominates the entire
270 BC
Lucanians, the Calabrians and the Italian peninsular
Samnites
The first Roman bronze coinagen
269 BC
is minted
Picentes conquered and granted
268 BC
limited citizenship
The Romans capture the city of
267 BC
Brundisium
Apulia and Messapia reduced to
266 BC alliance securing the Italian Peninsula
for Rome
Tempora mutantur et nos mutamur in illis - The times are changed, and we are changed in them (Cicero)
205

Start of the First Punic War.
Appius Claudius Caudex defeats Introduction of the first funeral
the Syracusans in battle outside the The Mamertines of Sicily form munera (gladiatorial combat) in the
A temple to Vertumnus is built on the
264 BC Sicilian city of Messina; the first time an alliance with Rome, hoping for Forum Boarium. 2,000 bronze statues
Aventine Hill
Roman legions have fought outside protection against the Carthaginians looted from Volsinii are melted down
of Italy. Razing of the Etruscan city to make coins to help pay for the war
of Volsinii
Hiero of Syracuse becomes an ally The first sundial is brought to Rome
263 BC
of Rome from Sicily
Battle of Agrigentum during which
Carthaginian forces under Hannibal
261 BC Gisco and Hanno are defeated by
the Romans, who attain control over
most of Sicily
Rome builds its first navy based
on the model of a captured
Carthaginian quinquereme. At the
Battle of the Lipari Islands part of
the Roman fleet is defeated by the
Carthaginians. The Romans under
260 BC Gaius Duilius Nepos then defeats the
Carthaginian fleet at the Battle of
Mylae, giving Rome control of the
western Mediterranean. However, the
Carthaginian army under Hamilcar
defeat the Romans at the Thermae
of Himera with a surprise attack
Romans occupy Corsica. Hamilcar
continues to defeat Roman forces,
259 BC
seizing the cities of Enna and
Camarina
Minor naval victory against the
Carthaginian fleet at the Battle of In a rare honour Gaius Duilius
258 BC Sulci, near Sardinia. The Romans Nepos, a novos homo (new man), is
retake Enna and Camarina and elected as censor
capture the town of Mytistraton
Naval victory of Tyndaris, over
257 BC Carthage in Sicilian waters. Rome
captures Sardina
Major naval victory at the Battle of
Cape Ecnomus, over a Carthaginian
fleet under Hamilcar and Hanno. An
256 BC expeditionary force is sent to North
Africa under Marcus Atilius Regulus,
who then defeats the Carthaginians
at the Battle of Adys
Battle of Tunis in Africa, in which Carthage sues for peace, but during
the invading Roman army under negotiations Marcus Atilius Regulus
M. Regulus is virtually destroyed demands that Carthage agree to an
and Regulus captured by the unconditional surrender, cede Sicily,
Carthaginians led by Xanthippus. Corsica, and Sardinia to Rome,
255 BC
The Roman fleet which rescues the renounce the use of their navy, pay
few survivors is wrecked in a terrible an indemnity, and sign a vassal-like
storm off the coast near Pachynus, treaty. The Carthaginians decide to
with the loss of 270ships and a keep fighting and hire the services of
100,000 men the Spartan mercenary Xanthippus
206 Tempus fugit – Time flees (Virgil)


Romans capture the city of Birth of the Roman comedy
254 BC Panormus but lose Agrigentum back playwright Plautus, in the town of
to the Carthaginians Sarsina, Umbria, in Italy
A second Roman fleet of 150 ships is
253 BC wrecked off the coast of Sicily near First plebeian Pontifex Maximus
the town of Palinurus
Battle of Panormus at which the
Carthaginian forces under Hasdrubal
251 BC
are defeated by the Romans under L.
Caecilius Metellus
The Carthaginians send Marcus
Atilius Regulus to Rome on parole
to negotiate a peace or an exchange
of prisoners. However, on his arrival,
he urges the Senate to refuse both
250 BC
proposals and continue fighting. He
then honours his parole, returning
to Carthage where he is executed by
being placed in a spiked barrel, which
is then rolled down a hill
Following his defeat Publius Claudius
Pulcher is fined 120,000 asses and
The Roman admiral Publius
his colleague, Lucius Iunius Pullus,
Claudius Pulcher loses 93 of his 123
249 BC commits suicide. Aulus Atilius
ships, against the Carthaginians at
Calatinus is then elected dictator and
the Battle of Drepana
leads an army into Sicily, the first
dictator to command overseas
Hamilcar Barca begins offensive in Hiero of Syracuse makes a treaty Birth of Hannibal, the Carthaginian
247 BC
Sicily with Rome commander
Gaius Lutatius Catulus constructs
another major fleet of 200 ships
242 BC
and blockades the Sicilian cities of
Lilybaeum and Drepanum
Battle of the Aegates Islands, in The Temple of Vesta burns down
which the Roman fleet is victorious whereupon the Pontifex Maximus
Occupation of Sicily which is made a Construction of the Via Aurelia from
241 BC over Carthaginians who sue for Caecilius Metellus enters the
Roman province Rome to Pisa
peace, thus ending the First Punic burning temple and rescues the holy
War. Palladium
The Roman poet and writer Livius
240 BC Andronicus produces the first Latin
literature in Rome
Birth of the writer Quintus Ennius,
239 BC born at the town of Rudiae in
Calabria
A new temple to Flora built on the
238 BC Annexation of Sardinia and Corsica Aventine Hill and the first instance of
the Ludi Florales
236 BC Gallic raids in northern Italy
Consul Titus Manlius Torquatus

presides over the first ever closing
235 BC
of the gates of the Temple of Janus,
signifying peace
Peace ends. Roman general Q. Fabius
233 BC Maximus Verrucosus wins a victory
over the Gallic Ligurians
Teneo te, Africa! – I have you, Africa! (Julius Caesar)

207

T. Flaminius passes a law for the
distribution of the ager Gallicus into
232 BC smallholdings for those plebeians
whose farms have fallen into ruin
during the First Punic War
Envoys are sent to Illyria to end
the killing of Roman merchants
by Illyrian pirates. When one of
230 BC
the envoys is murdered for causing
offence to Queen Teuta, Roman
forces invade the island of Corcyra
First Illyrian War. Lucius Postumius
Establishment of friendly relations
Albinus and Gnaeus Fulvius
between Rome and the Aetolian and
229 BC Centumalus invade Illyria, capturing
Achaean Leagues, which approve of
the Greek cities of Epidamnus,
the suppression of Illyrian piracy
Apollonia, Corcyra and Pharos
The Romans besiege Shkodra, the
228 BC Birth of Titus Quinctius Flamininus
Illyrian capital
Rome creates two new provinces,
Queen Teuta surrenders to the
those of Sicily and Sardinia and
besieging Roman army and is forced
227 BC Corsica combined. Each is assigned
to accept a crushing peace treaty. End
an annually elected Praetor with
of the First Illyrian War
consular powers over his region
At the request of Greek merchants
from Massilia, whom are worried by
the Carthaginian conquests in Spain,
226 BC a treaty is drawn up with Hasdrubal
defining river Iberus (Ebro) as border
of influence between Rome and
Carthage
The Romans are defeated by a
225 BC coalition of Gallic tribes of Cisalpine
Gaul at the Battle of Faesulae
The Romans under Lucius Aemilius
Papus and Caius Atilius Regulus
224 BC
defeat the Gauls at the Battle of
Telamon
T. Flaminius is victorious in a war The province of Cisalpine Gaul is
223 BC
against the tribe the Insubres created
At the Battle of Clastidium, the
Roman general M. Claudius
Marcellus kills Viridomarus, chieftain
222 BC of the Insubres tribe, in single
combat, causing the surrender of the
Insubres and earning himself the
spolia opima
After the assassination of the
Carthaginian general Hasdrubal,
the Spanish allied city of Saguntum
221 BC
appeals to Rome for help against
Hannibal who succeeds to power in
Carthaginian Spain
T. Flaminius begins construction of
the Circus Flaminius to be built on
Start of the Second Illyrian War
220 BC the Campus Martius, and the via
following renewed pirate attacks
Flaminia which connects Italy to
northern Greece
208 Timendi causa est nescire – Ignorance is the cause of fear (Seneca)

Although in their treaty with Rome,
End of the Second Illyrian War, the Carthaginians are permitted to
but the region remains rebellious. conquer any territory south of the The first foreign surgeon to practice
219 BC
Hannibal captures the town of Iberus river (within which Saguntum in Rome arrives in the city.
Saguntum. lies), the Romans declare it an act
of war
Start of the Second Punic War.
First naval clash between the navies
of Carthage and Rome during the
Second Punic War at the Battle of
Lilybaeum. The Romans defeat
Carthaginians at the Battle of Cissa
Lex Claudia is passed, which
and gain control of the territory
prohibits senators from engaging in A new temple to Concordia is vowed
north of the Ebro River. Hannibal
commerce and owning vessels with by the praetor Lucius Manlius after
218 BC crosses Alps and arrives in northern
the ability to be launched at sea, quelling a mutiny among his troops in
Italy. This is followed by the Battle
thus establishing the social snobbery Cisalpine Gaul
of the Ticinus at which Hannibal
towards money made from trading
defeats the Romans under Publius
Cornelius Scipio the elder in a small
cavalry fight and the Battle of the
Trebia where he defeats the Romans
under Tiberius Sempronius Longus
with an ambush
Battle of Lake Trasimene at which
Elevation of Q. Fabius Maximus
Hannibal destroys the Roman army The Saturnalia festival is established.
Verucosis (Cunctator) to Dictator.
217 BC of Gaius Flaminius, who is killed. During the festival, masters are
Later joined by Marcus Minucius
The Romans gain a victory in a naval required to wait on their servants
Rufus also elevated to dictator
encounter near the Ebro River
Hannibal crushes a large Roman
army at the Battle of Cannae under
commanders G. Terentius Varro
and L. Aemilius Paullus. He then Beginning of the Ludi Plebeii. The
marches through the district of new Temple of Concordia is built
Cannae into Campania and begins to on the arx (atop the Capitoline Hill).
plunder and ravage the countryside. Many of Rome's allies begin to defect The Roman historian Quintus Fabius
216 BC
Capua revolts against Rome. Marcus to Hannibal's side Pictor is sent to Delphi in Greece to
Claudius Marcellus holds off an consult the Oracle for advice about
attack by Hannibal at the first Battle what Rome should do after its defeat
of Nola. Two legions under praetor in the Battle of Cannae
Lucius Postimus posted in Cisalpina
Gall, are ambushed and destroyed by
Gauls in Litanam Forest
The Lex Oppia, which not only A temple to Venus Obsequens is
Hasdrubal defeated by Cn. and P. restricts women's wealth but also dedicated outside the Colline gate
Cornelius Scipio at Dertosa, Spain. the display of it, is instituted by on the Capitol, to commemorate the
215 BC Marcellus again repulses an attack the tribune Gaius Oppius. Excess Roman defeat at the Battle of Lake
by Hannibal at the Second Battle jewellery and possessions are used to Trasimene. It is built with money
of Nola raise money to pay for the war and fined from women found guilty of
grain to feed the city adultery
The censors Publius Furius Philus
and Marcus Atilius Regulus condemn
Syracuse is persuaded by Carthage to and degrade senators and equestrians
revolt against Rome. Marcellus fights who have either… broken their
Destruction caused by the Tiber
214 BC an inconclusive battle with Hannibal parole as captured officers when the
flooding
at the third Battle of Nola. Start of senate refuses to pay their ransoms,
the First Macedonian War advocated surrender to Carthage
after the disaster of Cannae, or who
have made plans to flee Rome
Timeo Danaos et dona ferentes – I fear the Greeks, even when they bring gifts (Laocoon, Virgil’s Aeneid)
209

A fire rages for two days, consuming
everything between the Aventine and
The temples of Spes, Mater Matuta
Siege of Syracuse in Sicily begins. Capitoline Hills and extending as far
213 BC and Fortuna burn down in a major
Hannibal captures Tarentum north as the Forum Romanum. In its
conflagration
path it destroys the Forum Boarium,
the Forum Holitorium
Romans besiege the city of Capua.
during which Hannibal defeats
the consuls Q. Fulvius Flaccus and The senate decrees the start of a new
Appius Claudius but the Roman festival, the Ludi Apollinares on the
army escapes. Hannibal then instructions of a prophecy. Publius The first silver coinage is struck in
212 BC
annihilates the army of the Roman Licinius Crassus Dives is elected Rome
praetor M. Centenius Penula at the pontifex maximus, despite never
Battle of the Silarus and destroys the having held any magisterial offices
Roman army of the praetor Gnaeus
Fulvius Flaccus at Herdonia
Defeat of the Scipios in Spain.
Publius and Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio
are killed in the Battle of the Upper
Baetis, against the Carthaginians Rome enters into an alliance with the
211 BC
under Hasdrubal Barca. Hannibal Aetolians against Macedonia
marches on Rome but fails to break
the siege at Capua, which along with
Syracuse, falls to the Romans
Following the deaths of his father
and uncle, P. Cornelius Scipio (later Another great fire breaks out in
Africanus) is given the command the Forum Romanum burning the
Once again the temple of Vesta
in Spain. The second Battle of private houses and shops surrounding
catches fire. The temple is saved by
210 BC Herdonia, Hannibal destroys the it, the Forum Piscarium, the eastern
the bravery of 13 slaves who were all
Roman army of Fulvius Centumalus, slope of the Capitoline. Famine and
manumitted as a reward
who himself is killed. Hannibal inflation in the city are eased by the
defeats Marcus Claudius Marcellus re-pacification of Sicily
once more at the Battle of Numistro
Recapture of Tarentum. Capture of
Carthago Nova. Battle of Asculum
- Hannibal once again defeats
Marcellus, in an indecisive battle. At
209 BC the first Battle of Lamia the Romans
are defeated by Philip V of Macedon.
This is followed by the second Battle
of Lamia where the Romans are
defeated again
P. Cornelius Scipio the Younger
defeats army of Hasdrubal Barca Marcus Claudius Marcellus elected
208 BC
near the town of Baecula, in consul for the fifth time
Hispania
Roman general Gaius Claudius
Nero fights an indecisive mêlée
with Hannibal at the Battle of
Grumentum, then escapes north
207 BC
to confront Hasdrubal Barca, who
has invaded Italy. At the Battle of
the Metaurus River Hasdrubal is
defeated and killed by Nero's army
Scipio again decisively defeats the The Pons Mulvius is originally built,
The Temple of Quirinus is struck by
206 BC remaining Carthaginian forces in spanning the Tiber north of the city
lightning
Hispania at the Battle of Ilipa as part of the Via Flaminia
210 Tunc tua res agitur, paries cum proximus ardet – It also concerns you when the nearest wall is burning

The worship of the cult of Cybele is
introduced to Rome from Phrygia.
Scipio travels to Sicily. End of Scipio Nassica is ordered to take
205 BC the First Macedonian War, which all the married women of Rome to
concludes in a stalemate Ostia to receive the statue of the
Great Mother and a temple to hold
her icon is started on the Palatine Hill
Battle of Crotona in which Hannibal
fights a drawn battle against the
204 BC First instance of the Ludi Megalenses
Roman general Sempronius in
Southern Italy. Scipio Invades Africa
Scipio defeats Hasdrubal Gisco
Another conflagration erupts and
and Syphax, winning the Battle of
destroys the densely built tenements
Bagbrades. Hannibal recalled to
203 BC of the Clivus Publicius, a street
Carthage. King Syphax of Numidia
leading south from the Circus
is defeated and captured in the battle
Maximus over the Aventine
of Cirta
Scipio Africanus Major narrowly
202 BC defeats Hannibal at the Battle of Beginning of the Ludi Cereales The river Tiber floods
Zama. End of the Second Punic War
200 - 197 BC Second Macedonian War
Roman forces defeat the Cisalpine

Gauls at the Battle of Cremona. Birth of the Greek historian Polybius,
200 BC
Romans sack the Macedonian town in Megalopolis, Arcadia, Greece
of Acanthus
Titus Quinctius Flamininus defeats
198 BC the army of King Phillip in the Battle
of the Aous River
Revolt of Turdenati in Spain. Second
Number of praetors is raised to six,
Macedonian War ends with defeat of
197 BC to cover the growing number of
Philip V by T. Quinctius Flamininus
Roman provinces
at Cynoscephalae, in Thessaly
The city of Smyrna appeals to Rome
Flaminius proclaims the liberty of
196 BC for help against the attacks of King
Greece
Antiochus III
Hannibal Barca, exiled from
195 BC
Carthage joins Antiochus
Roman victory over the Gauls at the
194 BC
Battle of Mutina.
Massive flooding by the Tiber.
193 BC
Construction of the Emporium
192 - 188 BC Syrian War against Antiochus
The Tiber floods the city again for

the second sequential year. The
Forum Boarium erupts in a fire which
192 BC lasts a day and a night, spreading
along the warehouses bordering the
Tiber and causing a great loss of life
and valuable merchandise
Antiochus defeated at Thermopylae
by the Romans under Manius Acilius
Glabrio. Antiochus' fleet defeated
The Temple of Magna Matter on
off Corycus. Defeat of the Boii by
the Palatine Hill is dedicated and the
191 BC P. Cornelius Scipio Nasica, son of
ludi Megalenses are instituted in her
Gn. Scipio and cousin of Scipio
honour
Africanus. Rome conquers and
annexes what becomes known as the
province of Cisalpine Gaul
Ubi concordia, ibi victoria – Where there’s unity, there is the victory (Publius Syrus) 211

Roman forces under Lucius Aemilius
Regillus defeat a Seleucid fleet
commanded by Hannibal, at the
Battle of the Eurymedon. Another
Seleucid fleet is defeated by the
190 BC Romans at the Battle of Myonessus.
In the Battle of Magnesia Romans
under Lucius Cornelius Scipio and
his brother Scipio Africanus Major
defeat Antiochus III the Great in the
decisive victory of the war
189 BC Disastrous flooding of the Tiber
Peace of Apamea ends the Syrian

188 BC
War
187 - 173 BC Ligurian Wars in Spain
Construction of the Via Aemilia

187 BC
Lepidi
186 BC The Bacchanalian conspiracy
Construction of the first basilica, the

M. Porcius Cato the Elder is elected
Basilica Porcia in Rome. The censors
184 BC as censor, and is known afterwards as
cut off all water supplied to private
Cato the Censor
homes from the public aqueducts
Death of the Roman general P.
Cornelius Scipio Africanus, in
Laternium, Campania. Death of
183 BC
the Carthaginian general Hannibal
Barca, who poisons himself in order
to avoid capture by the Romans
Dedication by prostitutes of the
Beginning of the First Celtiberian
181 BC Temple of Venus Erycine built near
War
the Colline gate
A shrine to Hygea (the consort
or daughter of Aesculapius).
The lex Villia annalis is passed by a
180 BC Destruction of the Pythagorean
tribune of the plebs L. Villius
Books discovered at the foot of the
Janiculum
Censor Marcus Fulvius Nobilior
builds the Basilica Fulvia in the
Forum Romanum, along with the
Macellum on the site of the Forum
Piscarium. However, before they
179 BC End of the First Celtiberian War are completed he dies, leaving his
colleague Marcus Aemilius Lepidus
to finish construction and the Basilica
is eventually known as the Basilica
Aemilia. Aemilius also builds Rome's
first stone bridge, the pons Aemilius
The Temple of Venus near the
178 BC
Forum Romanum burns down
Expulsion of the Epicurean
175 BC
philosophers from Rome
The Circus Maximus in Rome is
rebuilt after suffering major structural
174 BC damage. Walls are built around the
Emporium to prevent thievery. The
streets of Rome begin to be paved
212 Ubi fumus, ibi ignis – Where there’s smoke, there’s fire
171 - 168 BC Third Macedonian War
Battle of Callicinus at which Perseus

171 BC of Macedon defeats a Roman army
under Publius Licinius Crassus
The Basilica Sempronia is built by
The lex Voconia de milierum
169 BC the censor Tiberius Sempronius
hereditatibus is passed
Gracchus
Defeat and capture of the
Historian Polybius is brought to
Macedonian King Perseus at Pydna,
Rome as a hostage from Megalopolis
168 BC by the Romans under Lucius
in Greece and is made a guest of
Aemilius Paullus Macedonicus, thus
Scipio Aemilianus
ending the Third Macedonian War
Epirus plundered. Macedonia Taxation of Roman citizens is
167 BC divided into four parts, Illyricum abolished. Taxation now falls only
into four upon allies
Greek orators and philosophers are
161 BC
(vainly) expelled from the city
A water clock is installed in the
159 BC Laws are passed against bribery
Basilica Aemilia
Campaigns in Dalmatia and
157 - 155 BC
Pannonia
The first stone theatre begins
construction in Rome. However,
Moratorium passed preventing the
the consul Scipio Aemilianus in his
155 BC future construction of permanent
backlash against Hellenistic culture,
theatres
appeals to the senate to pull the
building down
154 - 138 BC Lusitanian War
The King of Cyrene, Ptolemy VII

Euergetes Physcon, makes his will, in
154 BC The via Cassia, is built
which he promises to bequeath his
kingdom to Rome
153 - 151 BC Second Celtiberian War
150 - 148 BC Fourth Macedonian War
The Third Punic War. Siege of

149 - 146 BC
Carthage
The lex Calpurnia is passed, which The Origines a history of Rome
149 BC establishes the first permanent law written by Cato the Censor, is
court published
At the second battle of Pydna,
the forces of the Macedonian
pretender Andriscus are defeated
The Regia (house of the Pontifex
148 BC by the Romans under Quintus
Maximus) burns down
Caecilius Metellus in the decisive
and final engagement of the Fourth
Macedonian War
Macedonia annexed as a Roman
147 BC
province
Scipio Africanus Minor captures and The first Roman temple to be built
destroys Carthage, ending the Third from marble, the temple of Jupiter
The senate publishes a set of
Punic War. Africa annexed. Battle Strator, is dedicated and built by Q.
regulations known as the leges A great amount of Greek art is
of Corinth - Romans under Lucius Caecilius Metellus Macedonicus after
146 BC provinciae, which were basically introduced to the city from the spoils
Mummius defeat the Achaean League his Triumph, along with the Temple
constitutions and laws for each of Corinth
forces of Critolaus, who is killed. of Juno Regina and the enclosing
province
Corinth is destroyed and Greece Porticus Metelli. The 'evocation' of
comes under direct Roman rule. the Carthaginian deity Tanit to Rome
Ubi maior, minor cessat – The weak capitulate before the strong 213

Construction begins on the Aqua
Marcia, the longest aqueduct yet
144 BC
built, by the praetor Quintus Marcius
Rex
Third Celtiberian War (also called
143 - 133 BC
Numantine War)
The Pons Aemilius, the first stone
142 BC Censorship of Scipio Aemilianus
bridge, is built over the Tiber
Expulsion of eastern astrologers from
139 BC
the city
Defeat and surrender of Mancinus
137 BC
in Spain
135 - 132 BC Slave revolts in Sicily
King Attalus of Pergamum

bequeaths his kingdom to Rome in
his will. After opposing the legislation
of Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus,
a fellow tribune named Octavius
is voted out of office by Gracchus,
133 BC
setting a precedent in Roman history.
Death of Ti. Gracchus, clubbed
to death by the consul P. Cornelius
Scipio Nasica and other members
of the senate fearing a demagogic
uprising
The leges tabellariae is passed by the The 'Daily Acts', message boards
tribune G. Papirius Carbo, allowing which post the results of trials and
131 BC
secret balloting in Rome for the first other legal proceedings, are erected
time in the Forum Romanum
Annexation of the Roman provinces
129 BC
of Asia and Illyria
Construction of the Aqua Tepula by
126 BC the censors G. Servilius Caepio and
L. Cassius Longinus
M. Fulvius Flaccus, an adherent
of the ideals of G. Sempronius
125 BC
Gracchus, proposes a bill to
enfranchise the Latin citizens of Italy
War against Arverni and Allobroges
124 BC
in Gaul
Tribunate of Gaius Sempronius
Gracchus, who introduces many
social reforms benefiting the lower
123 BC classes of Rome, including an
agrarian policy to return ownership
of public lands to the Plebeians –
incensing the Senate
G. Gracchus elected tribune for the
second time. After passing a law in
the plebeian assembly, he reduces
Gallia Narbonensis made a province. unemployment with massive public
122 BC War again breaks out with the works on roads, harbours and baths,
Arverni at great expense to the State. For the
first time, the juries of the courts are
taken away from senators and given
to the equestrians
214 Ulula cum lupis, cum quibus esse cupis – Who keeps company with wolves, will learn to howl

Failing to be re-elected for the third
time due to a proposal of granting
full citizenship to all the Italian allies,
Gaius Gracchus leads a protest of
thousands of his angry supporters A road, the via Domitia, is built
in the streets of Rome. The Senate after the conquests of Gn. Domitius
The Gallic tribe of the Arverni are The Temple of Concord rebuilt
passes the Ultimate Decree of martial Ahenobarbus, running along the
121 BC subjugated by the Roman general by the consul L. Opimius, after the
law (Senatus consultum ultimum de coastline of Italy and southern Gaul.
Gn. Domitius Ahenobarbus murder of Gaius Gracchus
res publica defendenda) and leads an Consul L. Opimius builds the Basilica
armed militia to slaughter the mob. Opimia
G. Gracchus is murdered in the grove
of Furrina and 3,000 of his suspected
supporters are rounded up and
executed by strangulation
Approximate date of the construction
120 BC of the Temple of Hercules Victor in
the Forum Boarium
Tribunate of G. Marius, and
119 BC abolition of the Gracchus land
reforms
The Temple of Castor and Pollux is
reconstructed and enlarged by Lucius
117 BC
Cecilius Metellus Dalmaticus after his
victory over the Dalmatians
115 BC The Pons Mulvius is rebuilt in stone
A temple to Venus Verticordia is built

and dedicated, at the instruction of
114 BC the Sibylline Books to atone for the
unchastely conduct of three Vestal
Virgins
Germanic Cimbri and Teutones
113 - 101 BC
invade Roman territories
Cn. Carbo defeated at Noreia by the
113 BC
Cimbri
112 - 106 BC Jugurthine War. Jugurtha sacks Cirta
111 BC The Temple of Cybele burns down
The consul Q. Caecilius Metellus is

appointed as the new commander
in the Jugurthine War and has
Metellus restores the Temple to
109 BC some success. A Roman force under
Cybele
Marcus Junius Silanus are defeated
by the Helvetii at the Battle of the
Rhone River
At the Battle of the Muthul, Roman
forces under Caecilius Metellus fight
108 BC
indecisively against the forces of
Jugurtha of Numidia
First consulship (of seven) of Gaius
Marius, who is given command in
107 BC war against Jugurtha. Consul L.
Cassius Longinus is defeated by the
Tigurini at the battle of Burdigala
G. Marius makes reforms in the
107 - 101 BC
Legions
Usus magister est optimus – Practice makes perfect

215

King Jugurtha is betrayed by his
brother-in-law King Bocchus of
106 BC
Mauretania. He is captured by the
quaestor Marius, L. Cornelius Sulla
Cimbri and Teutones completely
destroy the Roman army of Gnaeus
105 BC
Mallius Maximus at the Battle of
Arausio
104 BC Death of King Jugurtha of Numidia
104 - 100 BC Second Sicilian slave war
The lex Domitia de sacerdotiis is

104 BC
passed
Riots instigated by Gaius Norbanus,
a tribune of the Plebs
Marius with Q. Lutatius Catulus
Caesar defeats the Teutones at the
102 – 101 BC battle of Aquae Sextiae, after which
there are mass suicides amongst the
captured women
Battle of Vercellae in which the
Romans under Gaius Marius
101 BC defeat the Cimbri, who are entirely
annihilated. Cilicia is annexed as a
province of Rome
After a failed insurrection, the
demagogue Lucius Appuleius
Saturninus and his surviving partisans
Approximate date of the construction
are held captive in the Curia Hostilia Riots of Saturninus, order restored
100 BC of the Temple of Portunus in the
awaiting trial, whereupon they are by Marius
Forum Boarium
'stoned' to death by a mob who cast
down the roof tiles of the Curia upon
the prisoners
Publius Furius is brought to trial for
98 BC Revolt in Lusitania, Hispania his acts whilst tribune and is murdered
in the assembly. Riots follow
Q. Caecilius Metellus Nepos
97 BC
conquers Crete
The last Ptolemy ruler of Cyrenacia
96 BC
dies, and it is willed over to Rome
Sulla is sent to Cappadocia to
place King Ariobarzanes on the
95 BC
throne after he is deposed by King
Mithridates of Pontus
T. Didius completes a victory over the
93 BC
Celtiberians in Spain
Social War between Rome and its
91 - 88 BC
Italian allies
Second Sicilian Slave war ended by
Roman general Manius Aquillius. The tribune of the plebs M. Livius
91 BC The Italian city of Asculum Drusus tries to legislate for total Adoption of the hypocaust
massacres its Roman citizens and Italian citizenship
prepares for Roman reprisals
The consul L. Julius Caesar passes
The legate Gn. Pompeius Strabo a law, the lex Julia de civitate Latinus et
90 BC creates a blockade around the city of sociis danda, which gives citizenship
Asculum to those Italian allies who have not
taken up arms against Rome
216 Ut amicum habeas, sis amicus – To have a friend, you should be a friend (Pylades)
89 - 85 BC First Mithraditic War
Roman victories at Nola and

Corfinium. L. Cornelius Sulla
captures the rebel Italian city of
Bovianum Vetus. Battle of Fucine
Lake where Roman forces under
89 BC
Lucius Porcius Cato are defeated by
the Italian rebels. The Roman army
of C. Pompeius Strabo decisively
defeats the rebels at the Battle of
Asculum
Q. Caecilius Metellus Pius meets Publius Sulpicius Rufus uses his
and is defeated by the army of the tribune powers to eject Senators from
Italian Q. Pompaedius Silo. The the Roman Senate until insufficient
proconsul M. Aquillius invades the remain to form a quorum. Violence
Pontic territories with the militia erupts in the Forum as the senators
of Asia Province and the army attempt to publicly lynch Sulpicius,
88 BC
of King Nicomedes of Bithynia. who protects himself with a large
King Mithridates of Pontus invades bodyguard of armed gladiators.
Greece and issues an edict that all L. Cornelius Sulla leads an army
Romans and Italians are to be killed. directly into Rome to restore control,
The number of dead reaches about the first Roman since the founding of
110,000 people. the Republic to do so
Marius marches on Rome with L.
Cornelius Cinna. After a short battle,
he occupies the city and orders the A riot breaks out between the
deaths of the leading supporters followers of the two consuls Gnaeus
of Sulla. However things spiral out Marius and Cinna are made joint Octavius and Lucius Cornelius Cinna
87 BC
of control and after five days of consuls over land redistributions proposed
rioting, the rampaging soldiers are by Marius. Over 10,000 die in the
rounded up and killed, leaving 100 resulting insurgence
senators and equites dead, along with
countless other citizens
The orator M. Tullius Cicero
completes his first work on rhetoric,
De Inventione Rhetorica. The
historian Sallust using his wealth
Proscriptions against Sulla's
Sulla conquers Athens, and defeats extorted as governor of the province
supporters cease when Marius dies
86 BC Mithridates' forces led by Archelaus of Africa Nova (Numidia), starts
of a third and fatal stroke, during his
at the Battle of Chaeronea building landscaped pleasure gardens
seventh consulship
known as the Horti Sallustiani
between the Pincian and Quirinal
hills. They are finally finished in
34 BC
Sulla again defeats Archelaus in the
85 BC decisive battle of the First Mithridatic Treaty of Dardanus with Mithridates
War
The new Italian citizens enfranchised
by the lex Julia, lex Pompeia and lex
84 BC
Papiria are redistributed throughout
all 35 tribes of Rome
L. Cornelius Sulla lands in Italy
at the port city of Brundisium, The Temple of Jupiter Optimus
The Roman governor of Spain and Much of the city burns down as a
and wages a civil war against the Maximus burns down, consuming
83 BC future triumvir M. Licinius Crassus result of civil unrest. Birth of Marcus
remaining Marian forces. L. Licinius the Sibylline Books which are lost in
joins forces with Sulla Antonius
Murena starts a second war against the flames
Mithridates
Ut sementem feceris, ita metes – You’ll reap what you sow (Cicero)
217

The battle of Clusium, which is
indecisive, occurs under the Marian
general Gn. Papirius Carbo against
L. Cornelius Sulla. Battle of Faventia
L. Cornelius Sulla and Mithridates
where the Sullan general Q. Caecilius
agree to a new peace treaty. Gn.
Metellus Pius defeats the army of Gn.
Papirius Carbo flees to Sicily, where
82 BC Papirius Carbo. After suffering defeats Start of the Ludi Victoriae Sullae
he is captured by the Sullan general
by Mithridates, Murena is recalled to
Gn. Pompeius Magnus and executed
Rome on the pretext of celebrating a
in the town of Lilybaeum.
triumph. L. Cornelius Sulla emerges
victorious in the decisive battle of the
Civil War, when he recaptures Rome
at the Battle of Colline Gate
Sulla appointed dictator and reforms
the constitution. Julius Caesar
81 BC ordered to divorce his wife by Sulla.
He refuses, flees to Asia and joins in
the campaign against Mithridates
The start of the Sertorian revolt
80 - 72 BC under Q. Sertorius in Spain, one of
the remaining Marian generals
Rebel forces under Quintus Sertorius
defeat the legal Roman forces of
Lucius Fulfidias at the Battle of the
M. Tullius Cicero has his first major
Baetis River in Hispania. G. Julius
case defending Sextius Roscius
Caesar goes with an army under L. Lucius Cornelius Sulla restores and
80 BC against the proscriptions of Sulla. He
Licinius Lucullus to suppress a revolt enlarges the Curia Hostilia
wins, and publishes the trial as Pro
at the city of Mitylene on the island
Sextius Roscius Amerino
of Lesbos. He is awarded the corona
civica (oak crown) for saving a cohort
from destruction.
The city of Nola surrenders during
79 BC the Italian War and the city is razed Sulla resigns the dictatorship
to the ground
Death of L. Cornelius Sulla, in a villa
outside the city of Puteoli. Revolt of The Tabularium, the bureaucratic
P.Servilis starts three year campaign
the anti-Sullan consul M. Aemilius and official records office of Rome is
78 BC against pirates, accompanied by
Lepidus, who is routed by Q. Lutatius built in the Forum Romanum, on the
Julius Caesar
Catulus at a battle near the Quirinal front slope of the Capitoline Hill
hill at Rome
The remnants of the defeated army of Julius Caesar conducts his first trial.
the rebel Lepidus join the forces of Q. He prosecutes the governor of
77 BC
Sertorius in Spain. Gnaeus Pompeius Macedonia, Gn. Cornelius Dolabella
Magnus (Pompey) arrives in Spain Minor
Metellus Pius inflicts a minor defeat
on the Sertorian lieutenant L.
Hirtuleius. P. Servilius Vatia ejects the
76 BC
pirates from Pamphylia, destroying the
stronghold of a pirate admiral known
as Zenecities
Q. Caecilius Metellus Pius annihilates
the army of the Sertorian lieutenant
Lucius Hirtuleius at the Battle of Civil discord erupts over a shortage
Segovia. The Roman general Gn. of grain, prompting the consul Gaius
75 BC Pompeius Magnus is defeated in a Aurelius Cotta to make a speech to
battle with Q. Sertorius near the River the assembly of the people to calm
Sucro and later enters an indecisive the plebeians
battle near the town of Saguntum.
Caesar captured by pirates
218 Ut sis nocte levis, sit cena brevis! – That your sleeping hour be peaceful, let your dining hour be brief !
74 - 64 BC Third Mithradatic War
Creation of the new Roman

province of Bithynia. Cyrenaica
also made a Roman province. The
Roman consular M. Aurelius Cotta
is defeated in a battle near the town
of Chalcedon and also loses his
74 BC entire fleet. Roman forces under
Lucius Lucullus defeat the forces
of Mithridates VI of Pontus at the
Battle of Cyzicus. M. Antonius makes
slight inroads into the pirate menace
in the western seas, thereby helping
Pompeius Magnus against Q. Sertorius
73 - 71 BC Slave war of Spartacus
L. Licinius Lucullus defeats a Pontic

The Temple of Castor and Pollux is
73 BC squadron off Lemnos under an
restored by Gaius Verres
admiral named Archelaeus
End of the Sertorian War. Q. Sertorius
is killed in Spain, murdered by his
legate M. Perperna Viento. Lucullus
again defeats Mithridates at the Battle
of Cabira, overrunning Pontus. M.
Antonius transfers his fleets to the With the aid of his legions,
Aegean region, where he firstly suffers Crassus builds a 60 kilometre long
72 BC a naval defeat off the island of Crete fortification and wall across Bruttium,
and then is defeated again in a land from the Tyrrhenian to the Ionian
battle on Crete. The slave revolt led Sea, to entrap Spartacus
by Spartacus defeats a Roman army
led by Gellius Publicola and Gnaeus
Cornelius Lentulus Clodianus at the
Battle of Picenum. He then defeats
another Roman army at Mutina
End of the Third Servile War, when
Spartacus' army is defeated at the
Battle of Silarus River in Lucania by
71 BC M. Licinius Crassus. 6,000 survivors
are crucified down the length of the
Via Appia. Capture of the town of
Heraclea by M. Aurelius Cotta
The consuls are M. Licinius Crassus
The defeat of Mithridates' forces near and Gn. Pompeius Magnus, both
the fortress of Cabira. The kingdom elected for the first time. Passing
Birth of the great Roman poet Virgil,
70 BC of Pontus is annexed and added to the of the lex Aurelia. Marcus Tullius
near Mantua, in Cisalpine Gaul
province of Bithynia by L. Licinius Cicero prosecutes the governor G.
Lucullus Verres for over taxation on behalf of
his Sicilian clients
Pirates attack the port of Ostia. L.
Licinius Lucullus invades Armenia
and defeats the army of Tigranes
69 BC II at the Battle of Tigranocerta,
for harbouring his father-in-law
Mithridates VI of Pontus. Pirates
sack Delos
The ex-consul Q. Caecilius Metellus
fights two hard campaigns against the
68 - 67 BC
pirates of Crete, subdues the island
and annexes it as a Roman province
Uva uvam videndo varia fit - A grape changes colour in seeing another grape
219

L. Licinius Lucullus defeats the Julius Caesar marries Pompeia Sulla,
68 BC combined forces of King Mithridates the granddaughter of Sulla and a
and King Tigranes near Artaxata relative of Gn. Pompeius Magnus
Following a law reserving the front
The tribune A. Gabinius passes his
Mithradates defeats Lucullus at Zela. 14 rows of seats at the theatre for
lex Gabinia, granting Gn. Pompeius
Lucullus stripped of command. the exclusive use of the equites,
67 BC Magnus unlimited imperium on
Pompey takes command in the east the plebeians start a riot, requiring
water to fight against the growing
and creates the province of Syria. a public address from the praetor
pirate menace
Marcus Tullius Cicero to suppress
A law passed by a tribune of the
plebs, the lex Manlia, gives Pompey
Gn. Pompeius Magnus decisively the command against the two kings
defeats King Mithridates at the Mithridates and Tigranes. Rioting
66 BC Battle of Dastria in the Lycus valley. occurs at the trial of Caius Cornelius
Mithridates VI flees, effectively when he is accused of sedition
ending the Third Mithridatic War (maiestas) by the brothers Cominii.
The trial is abandoned after the
brothers are forced to flee the city
First Catilinarian Conspiracy, in
which Lucius Sergius Catilina
angered by his failure to be elected
consul by accusations of ambitus
64 BC
(electoral corruption), conspires
with other dissatisfied designates to
slaughter the new consuls, then claim
the consulships for their own
Death of Mithradates, who commits
Birth of Octavian (Augustus) and
63 BC suicide. Cicero elected Consul.
Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa
Caesar elected Pontifex Maximus
At the Battle of Pistoria the forces of Julius Caesar is elected as praetor.
the conspirator Catiline are defeated Still failing to win an election to The Pons Fabricius a stone bridge
by the loyal Roman armies under consul, Cataline organises the second connecting Tiber Island with the
62 BC
Gaius Antonius. Pompey settles Catilinarian Conspiracy to overthrow Campus Martius is built by Lucius
matters in the east, returns to Italy the senate, is discovered and flees Fabricius
and disbands his army Rome to lead a military uprising
The Horti Lucullani, landscaped
gardens, are laid out by Lucius
Licinius Lucullus as an extension of
60 BC
his patrician villa on the Pincian Hill.
A wooden theatre collapses during a
violent storm
Birth of the Roman historian
Caesar elected Consul and the First
Livy the Elder, born in the city
Triumvirate is formed between M.
of Patavium, Italy. Julius Caesar
Licinius Crassus, Gn. Pompeius
expands the content of the 'Daily
59 BC Magnus, and G. Julius Caesar. Lex
Acts' message boards to include
Vatinia was passed, which gives
news about the games, gladiatorial
Caesar the governorship of Cisalpine
contests, society gossip and
Gaul and Illyricum for five years
astrological omens
G. Julius Caesar wars against the
58 - 51 BC
Gauls
Cyprus annexed by Clodius, which is
overseen by M. Porcius Cato. At the
Battle of the Arar, Caesar defeats the During his Aedileship, Marcus
migrating Helvetii, finally subjugating Cicero exiled. King Ptolemy Auletes Aemilius Scaurus erects a temporary
58 BC
them at the Battle of Bibracte. He of Egypt is driven out of Alexandria wooden theatre which is criticised for
then decisively defeats the forces of its wasteful magnificence
the Germanic chieftain Ariovistus
near modern Belfort
220 Veni, vidi, vici! – I came, I saw, I conquered (Julius Caesar)


Publius Claudius Pulcher purposely
G. Julius Caesar subdues the tribes
incites his partisans to violence to
of the Belgae. At the Battle of the
prevent the passing of a bill to recall Gangs under P. Clodius Pulcher
Axona he defeats the forces of
57 BC Marcus Tullius Cicero to Rome. and T. Annius Milo start open street
the Belgae under King Galba of
Many people die as the assembly flees warfare in Rome
Suessiones. After this Caesar defeats
the pre-planned bloodshed. Cicero
the Nervii at the Battle of the Sabis
eventually returns
Caesar suppresses the revolt of the Conference of the First Triumvirate
56 BC
Gallic Morini at Luca
Caesar defeats two immigrating The river Tiber floods. Gn. Pompeius
German tribes, the Usipetes and Pompey dedicates a temple to Venus Magnus builds the first stone theatre
55 BC Tencteri, and bridges the Rhine to Victrix atop of his theatre in the in Rome near the Campus Martius.
invade Germania (the first Roman to Campus Martius M. Tullius Cicero writes his work, De
do so). He then invades Britannia Oratore.
Caesar's second invasion of
Britannia. Crassus prepares for war Construction of the Forum Caesaris
54 BC against Parthia. A. Gabinius is sent begins, extending the Forum
to Egypt to restore King Ptolemy Romanum further North and East
Auletes to his throne in Alexandria
The Nervii revolt in Gaul and others
Major rioting in Rome. Scribonius
force Caesar to abandon Britain. The tribune P. Licinius Crassus
Curio hosts funeral games in
Vercingetorix revolts in Gaul. Defeat Dives causes panicked riots after he
memory of his father, erecting a pair
53 BC of Roman Army at the Battle of proposes that Gnaeus Pompeius be
of wooden theatres which can be
Carrhae against the Parthians under appointed dictator to restore public
rotated and joined together to form
the Triumvir M. Licinius Crassus, who order
an amphitheatre
is killed in the battle
T. Labienus defeats an army of Gauls
under the command of Camulogenus
near the site of Lutetia. Caesar builds
two sets of fortifications 42 miles Rioting runs rampant when the news
long and lays Siege to Alesia. Greatly Gn. Pompeius Magnus is elected of Clodius' death reaches Rome. The
outnumbered he besieges 100,000 as consul without a colleague in Curia Hostilia is burned down when
52 BC
Gauls within the fort and holds off an attempt to prevent him from a mob cremates the demagogue's
250,000 men in a relief force on the assuming the dictatorship body inside it. The flames spread and
outside, defeating the Gallic rebel also consume the Basilica Porcia
Vercingetorix. The provinces of
Belgica, Aquitania and Lugdunesis
are created
The Parthians invade the province of
51 BC
Syria after the defeat of Crassus
Civil War between Caesar and the
49 - 45 BC
Republican forces of Pompey
Caesar crosses the Rubicon and
marches into Rome. He then
surrounds the Pompeian commander
L. Domitius Ahenobarbus and three
legions at Corfinium. At the Battle of
Utica in North Africa, G. Scribonius
Curio defeats a large number of The temple of Quirinus on the
Numidian horse and foot sent by Quirinal hill is again struck by
49 BC
Juba I of Numidia to aid Attius lightning, burning down the temple
Varus. However he is later defeated and its surroundings
at the Battle of the Bagradas River
by Pompeians under Attius Varus
and commits suicide. The Pompeian
legates M. Petronius and L. Afranius
are defeated by Caesar at the battle
of Ilerda
Venies sub dentem – You will come under [my] tooth

221

Caesar is defeated at the Battle
of Dyrrachium in Macedonia but Caesar vows the construction of a
Death of Pompey the Great,
48 BC then decisively defeats Pompey at temple to Venus Genitrix at the Battle
decapitated in Egypt by Ptolemy XII
Pharsalus, who promptly flees to of Pharsalus
Egypt
While in Alexandria to sort out
the dynastic dispute between the
Ptolemies, Caesar is attacked and
trapped in the palace quarter of
Alexandria by the young King
Ptolemy XII. Battle of Zela, with
47 BC
Caesar and his army against
Pharnaces II of Pontus, a son of
Mithridates and his army. The tenth
legion, Caesar's favourite from the
Gallic Wars, mutinies and marches
on Rome. Caesar stops the mutiny
The Forum Caesaris is finally
Caesar reforms the Roman calendar completed and dedicated to the name
via Egyptian astrologists. The and deeds of Julius Caesar. The
Caesar loses a third of his army
Julian calendar is introduced, and Basilica Julia is initially dedicated by
to Titus Labienus at the Battle of
the month of Caesar's birthday, Julius Caesar but is not completed
Ruspina. However, at the Battle
46 BC Quinctillis, is renamed as Julius until the reign of Augustus. Caesar
of Thapsus, Caesar defeats the
(July). The Temple of Venus excavates an artificial lake on the
Pompeian garrison army of Q.
Genitrix is completed and dedicated, Campus Martius upon which he
Metellus Scipio in North Africa
accompanied by the Ludi Veneris displays a great naumachiae (naval
Genetricis battle). He also builds the first
permanent wooden amphitheatre
Battle of Munda, Ceasar defeats the
Pompeian forces of Titus Labienus The Lex Iulia Municipalis restricts
and Gnaeus Pompey the Younger commercial carts to night-time access
45 BC Cicero publishes his work, Academica
in Hispania. Labienus is killed in to the city and within a mile outside
the battle and the Younger Pompey the walls
captured and executed
Cicero completes his work De
Caesar is murdered by Brutus,
Officiis. Rioting follows the oration
Cassius and their co-conspirators
of Marcus Antonius at Julius Caesar's
acting for the 'good of the Republic'.
funeral, where he reads Caesar's will
Octavian returns from Greece.
44 BC and displays the bloody toga, naming
M. Tullius Cicero delivers the '12
the perpetrator of each stab wound.
Phillipics' against M. Antonius, in
The crowd assault the property of
order to urge the senate to declare
the conspirators who flee the city in
war against him
fear of their lives
Battle of Forum Gallorum in which
M. Antonius, besieging Caesar's
assassin Decimus Brutus in Mutina,
defeats and kills consul Pansa, but
is then immediately defeated by the
army of the other consul, Hirtius
Murder of Cicero. Founding of
accompanied by Octavian. In the Birth of the Roman writer Ovid, in
43 BC the Second Triumvirate between
following Battle of Mutina, Antony is the city of Sulmo, Italy
Octavian, Antonius and Lepidus
again defeated in battle but Hirtius is
also killed. Octavian takes control of
the army and negotiates a truce with
Antonius. Decimus Brutus' troops
desert to Octavian and he himself is
assassinated whilst leaving Italy
222 Verbum semel emissum volat irrevocabile – A word, once emitted, flies irrevocably (Horace)

First Battle of Philippi where the
Triumvirs Marcus Antonius and
Octavian fight an indecisive battle
with Caesar's assassins Marcus Brutus Julius Caesar is deified and Octavian
and Cassius. Although Brutus defeats begins construction of a temple to
42 BC Octavian, Antonius defeats Cassius, him. Octavian vows to build a temple
who commits suicide. At the second honouring Mars Ultor (Mars the
Battle of Philippi - Brutus's army Avenger) during the battle of Philippi
is decisively defeated by Antonius
and Octavian. Brutus escapes, but
commits suicide soon after
The Perusine war in Italy, Lucius
Antonius (brother to Marcus) is
defeated by Octavian. Although
41 BC
Lucius and his wife are pardoned,
the town of Perugia is sacked and the
town magistrates put to the sword
Reconfirmation of the Second
Triumvirate between Octavian, M.
A Parthian invasion, under Pacorus
40 BC Antonius, and Lepidus. Herod is
of Syria takes place
appointed as king of Judaea by the
Senate
An army of reinforcements under
P. Ventidius defeats the Parthian The Hut of Romulus on the Palatine
39 - 38 BC
invasion at the battles of Mt. Amanus burns down
and Mt. Gindarus
The Roman poet Horace begins
37 BC Antony marries Cleopatra at Antioch
writing his Satires
The son of Pompey, Sex. Pompeius
Magnus Pius is defeated by M.
Vipsanius Agrippa, the legate of The Regia once again burns down
Triumvirate breaks up when M.
Octavian, at the naval Battle of and is rebuilt by Gnaeus Domitius
36 BC Aemilius Lepidus is removed from
Naulochus. Battle between M. Calvinus. Consecration of the site of
power by Octavian
Antonius and a Parthian army under a Temple to Apollo on the Palatine
the command of King Phraates IV
near Phraaspa
T. Statilius Taurus begins building
34 BC the first stone theatre in the Campus
Martius
Expulsion of the Chaldean Magi
L. Marcius Philippus builds temple
from Rome. As Aedile Marcus
and portico of Heracles Musarum in
Agrippa repairs the aqueducts,
33 BC the Campus Martius. L. Cornificius
sewers, fountains and streets of the
builds a temple to Diana on the
city; and starts the construction of
Aventine
the Aqua Julia
Octavian rebuilds the temple of
Destructive floods wash away the
32 BC Jupiter Feretrius on the Capitoline
Pons Sublicius
Hill
During riots, a fire begun in the shops
of the Circus Maximus spreads up
At the naval Battle of Actium, the Aventine hill, burning numerous
A great conflagration consumes the
Agrippa defeats Antonius and residential buildings and continues
31 BC temple of Ceres, the temple of Spes
Cleopatra, and Octavian effectively between the Aventine and Palatine
and the temple of Janus
takes control of the entire empire hills destroying everything in its path,
including the Forum Holitorium, till
it reaches the Tiber
Veritas numquam perit – Truth never perishes (Seneca)

223

Dedication of the Taurus Theatre.
Egypt is annexed as an imperial Death of Antony and Cleopatra in The Roman writer and poet, Horace,
30 BC Triumphal arch built by Octavian in
province of Rome Alexandria completes his work the Epodes
the Forum Romanum
For only the second time in Rome's
history the doors of the temple of
29 BC Janus are closed ushering in a well-
deserved period of peace. Dedication
of Temple of Divus Julius
Restoration of 82 temples in the city.
28 BC Octavian named Princeps Senatus
Dedication of the Temple of Apollo
Octavian named Augustus
Destructive flooding as the Tiber
and declares the Pax Romana.
27 BC overflows its banks. Restoration of
Establishment of the Praetorian
the Via Flaminia
Guard
224 Veritas odium paret – Truth creates hatred (Terence)

Mythic Rome: Appendices
Appendices
Appendix I - Bibliography Greece and Rome at War – Peter Connolly. The classic
source book for military information, covering everything from indi-
The following is a list of different media and entertainments
vidual battles to equipment and includes lots of pretty illustrations.
which cover the subject of pre-Imperial Rome.
Religion and the Romans – A thin, but very academic book
whose value lies in the fact it talks about real Roman religion and
Annals
does not just regurgitate the usual Hellenic excuses.
The annals are Roman written histories. This list focuses on the
Rome in the Late Republic – Mary Beard and Michael
earliest surviving works by authors who wrote about periods con-
Crawford. Another scholarly work, which explains in greater detail
temporary to their time. Online copies may be found at the websites
the political, religious and cultural drives of the Republic.
given further down. All of these works are great sources for NPCs,
surprising anecdotes, and scenario ideas. Fiction
Caesar – The Gallic Wars and The Civil Wars, which cover The next list contains historical, Sci-Fi and crime novels set in
both politics and military campaigns Republican Rome.
Livy – Ab Urbe Condita, from which most of our knowledge of The Eternal City – Edited by David Drake. A collection of
early Rome comes from Sci-Fi stories which spread across Roman History.
Plutarch – Parallel Lives, although written post Republic, it The Last King: Rome’s Greatest Enemy – Michael Curtis
contains many entertaining biographies Ford. A novel covering the Mithridatic Wars, depicting Mithridates
Polybius – The Histories, good coverage of the military cam- as a heroic liberator seeking freedom from the Republic. Lots of
paigns about the time of the Punic Wars battles.
Sallust – Catiline’s War, the political machinations and grow- Imperium – Robert Harris. The entertaining novelisation of
ing social unrest which led to the ineffectual coup Cicero’s rise to the consulship.
The Emperor series – Conn Iggulden. A romanticised story
Books
of Julius Caesar’s life, of dubious historical accuracy and rather
This list covers the key scholarly books used to research this sup-
superficial style. Not really recommended, but may be a gentle intro-
plement, which might interest Games Masters wishing to do greater
duction to Roman history to hook players. The books are The Gates
research on specific subjects.
of Rome, The Death of Kings, The Field of Swords and The Gods
A History of Rome – Marcel Le Glay, Jean-Louis Voisin,
of War.
and Yann Le Bohec. A general and easy to read book covering the
The Masters of Rome series – Colleen McCullough. Excel-
whole of Roman History.
lently researched historical novels covering the period from the rise
Ancient Rome on Five Denarii a Day – Okay, it’s not a book
of Marius to the defeat of Antony. Lots of wonderful plot ideas and
on the Republic but great fun to read and presents a view of Rome
an accessible insight into the gritty, self-serving details of Roman
from a tourist’s perspective, rather than a scholar’s.
politics. The books are The First Man in Rome, The Grass
Atlas of the Roman World – Tim Cornell and John Mat-
Crown, Fortune’s Favourites, Caesar’s Women, Caesar, The
thews. Full of political and geographical maps covering the growth
October Horse, and Antony and Cleopatra.
of the empire and an in-depth history explaining it all.
Hannibal’s Children, The Seven Hills – John Maddox Rob-
Chronicle of the Roman Republic – Philip Matyszak. A
erts. Two alternate history books set in a timeline where Carthage
useful series of biographies of the foremost Romans of the Repub-
won the 2nd Punic War.
lic. Illustrates the political and family connections linking the period,
The SPQR series – John Maddox Roberts. Very fun crime
which can be mined for campaign ideas.
novels set at the end of the Republic. The writing style is punch-
Gladiators and Caesars – The best book I have read on the
ier than the Roma Sub Rosa novels but squeezes in more informa-
whole subject of gladiatorial combat, beast hunts and chariot racing.
tion about everyday Roman life. Its fictional hero Decius Caecilius
It strips out the sensationalist hype and presents the facts.
Metellus is a better representation of the Roman attitudes at the
Vincere scis, Hannibal, victoria uti nescis – You know how to win victory, Hannibal, you do not how to use it (Livy)
225
time. The books are The King’s Gambit, The Catiline Conspir- Scipio Africanus – This 1937 fascist Italian epic depicts the
acy, The Sacrilege, The Temple of the Muses, Saturnalia, story of the one Roman general able to defeat Hannibal. Vaguely
Nobody Loves a Centurion, The Tribune’s Curse, The River faithful to history, it is one of the most accurate movies in terms of
God’s Vengeance, The Princess and the Pirates, A Point of costume, architecture and military tactics, and presents truly violent
Law, Under Vesuvius, and Oracle of the Dead. and epic battles with many of the elephants reputed to have been
The Roma Sub Rosa series – Steven Saylor. An enjoyable actually butchered.
and evocative series of crime novels centring about a man called Spartacus – A cast of thousands, Spartacus is one of Holly-
Gordianus, who seems to get involved in every major event in late wood’s greatest classics. Once again not true to history, it still engen-
Republican history. Many of the novels are useful in illustrating the ders the salient points and is a great introduction for campaigns
depth of superstitious fear and belief the Romans had towards the focussing on slave rebellions.
supernatural. The books are Roman Blood, The House of the The Fall of the Roman Empire – The original movie which
Vestals, Arms of Nemesis, A Gladiator Dies Only Once, Cat- inspired Gladiator. Also some excellent chariot racing outside of a
ilina’s Riddle, The Venus Throw, A Murder on the Appian stadium and well as glorious battle scenes.
Way, Rubicon, Last Seen in Massilia, Mist of Prophecies, The The Robe – Set in the Rome of Caligula, it concerns the
Judgment of Caesar, and The Triumph of Caesar. redemption of an army tribune who believes himself cursed by
Roma – Steven Saylor. Although not part of his Sub Rosa the robe Jesus wore to his crucifixion, which he wins in a gambling
series, this stand-alone novel covers Rome from the founding of the game. More watchable for the stunning visual aspects, rather than
city to the end of the Republic, in a series of snapshots of criti- its attention to detail.
cal points in its history. A must read for Games Masters who want
to select which precise period of early Rome they wish to set their Poetry
campaign in. Also an excellent insight on the growth of myth from Reading poetry? You have to be kidding. Well, that is what I
mundane events. thought before writing this supplement. Although most available
translations of Latin poetry use the flowery old fashioned language
Movies of the 18th and 19th centuries, some modern versions are more
Very few good movies have been set in Monarchic or Republican accessible. The best Latin poetry to read is probably the satires and
Rome. Most of the big productions are set in later periods but since the obscene, erotic poetry. Both types are highly amusing revelations
they are still very enjoyable, I have included the best of them below. of Roman gripes and crudity – which seem little different to those
A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum – The of our modern society.
musical epitome of the plays of Plautus. Funny and fun, with wild The most readable Republican poets are:
chariot pursuits and the first depiction of Rome as a real, dirty and Catullus – Love poetry which includes some very obscene and
cluttered city. erotic verses.
Barabbas – The 1962 epic starring Anthony Quinn, where the Horace – The odes are very mythic but a little hard to begin
convict freed in place of Jesus becomes a gladiator in Rome; the with, but the satires are very good
movie has some excellent arena scenes. Virgil – The classic Aeneid tells one of the founding stories of
Ben Hur – Mandatory viewing for those Games Masters wish- Rome
ing to run a chariot race, both the 1959 Charlton Heston version, These next poets lived after the Republic but their work is very
and the 1925 silent movie which actually killed several horses and a entertaining and evocative:
stuntman during the filming of the racing scenes. Ovid – Another erotic poet, whose Metamorphosis is an epic
Cleopatra – One of the most expensive movies ever made, the concerning witches, magical transformations and mythology
production is an amazing spectacular epic. Paying lip service to real Juvenal – Somewhat sexist satires reflecting male attitudes of
history, it is still an entertaining introduction for players. the time
Demetrius and the Gladiators – The 1954 sequel to The Martial – Wonderful satires of city life and a lot of humorous
Robe, where Victor Mature (the now freed slave of the previous obscene epigrams
movie), loses his Christian faith and becomes a successful gladiator. Petronius – The Satyricon is a comic look at faithfulness and
No historical accuracy, but lavish gladiator scenes. lower class life
Duel of Champions – Another sword and sandal movie retell-
ing the legendary tale of the three Horatii brothers sent to duel the TV Series
Curiatii triplets in order to determine the fate of Rome and Alba. Unfortunately as with epic movies, only a single TV series has
Hero of Rome – A sword and sandal epic staring Gordon Scott focussed on early Rome. However, the following are the best of the
as the assassin Mucius Scaevola striving against the Tarquins at the bunch, illustrating politics, warfare, and everyday Roman life.
start of the Republic. Rome – The stunning production depicting the end of the
Gladiator – Russell Crow in the striking remake of The Fall of Roman Republic. Although the first series took some liberties with
the Roman Empire. recorded history and the second cut out huge swathes, both were
Quo Vadis – The colourful story of the Christians plight under generally excellent in terms of portraying Roman social life, beliefs,
Nero, it does however have an excellent sequence where Rome slavery, celebrations, costumes, furniture, architecture and graffiti.
burns, which should be educational to players about exactly how As an introduction to role-playing in ancient Rome it is perfect and
frighteningly dangerous city fires were. reflects the colourful, crowded, dirty and quite frankly brutal nature
Satyricon – Loosely based on Petronius’s book, it is an outra- of city life. A must-watch.
geous depiction of decadence and debauchery at the time of Nero.
226 Vincit qui patitur - He who perseveres, conquers

I Claudius – The British TV series, which focussed on character General Insults
acting rather than visual sets, illustrating the labyrinthine machina- These are common everyday gibes which can be used without
tions of early Imperial affairs of state, which are the fading shadow being overly crude.
of Republican politics
Masada – Although overly patriotic, the siege and fall of Arde in regnum phasmatis – burn in hell
Masada is an excellent series showing life as a soldier, and illustrating Barcala – idiot
the fight for independence against Roman rule Baro – blockhead
Quo Vadis – Although set at the time of Nero, the 2001 Polish Bustirape – tomb robber
production is far better than the original movie and contains good Caenum – scum
portrayals of various aspects of Roman life Fur – thief
Hircus – lecherous goat
Web Sites Lupa - slut
There are countless web sites devoted to Roman history, mostly
Lustror – haunter of brothels
focussed on the Imperial period. A few are good but most are pretty
Lutum lenonium / lenarum – filthy pimp / madam
awful. If Games Masters need such things as a list of consuls and the
Matris prolapsus – son of a female dog
years they ruled, then it is easy enough to find something applicable.
Merda – excrement
The following websites give free access to English translations of
Moecha – adulteress
Latin works.
Perite – drop dead
The Lacus Curtius site < http://penelope.uchicago.edu/
Plenus stercoris es – you are full of faecal matter
Thayer/E/Roman/home.html > is by far the best online resource
 Porcus obesus – fat pig
for interesting historical texts. It includes invaluable cross-linking
Puellarius – effeminate
with William Smith’s Dictionary of Greek and Latin Antiquities,
Sociofraude – backstabber
making it easy to look up quotes and references.
Spurius – bastard
The Perseus Digital Library < http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/
Stultus - stupid
hopper/ > is another valuable site for translations of lesser known
Trahax – sticky-fingered
Latin works. The server is rather slow though, so it is best to tem-
Vae – damn
porarily save individual pages if you need to repeatedly reference
them. Sexual Acts
The Roman Law Library < http://droitromain.upmf-greno- Insulting graffiti often utilises the sexual acts. Whilst a man may
ble.fr/ > is the best place to find complete copies of Rome’s leges, freely perform penetrative sex (on men or women), it is unmanly for
especially the Laws of the Kings and the Twelve Tables which are a male to take the submissive or feminine position and hence many
fundamental parts of Roman law. Make sure you select ‘Lingua insults revolve about the role taken during intercourse. All oral sex
Anglica’ for the English translations. was frowned on by polite society, due to its fouling of the mouth, an
important consideration since public kissing was the common form
Note that the web addresses of these sites may change over time. of greeting.
If they don’t work for you, try searching by name.
Catamitus – a catamite
Appendix II - Latin Profanity Cevens – a man who shakes his buttocks invitingly
Swearing in most cultures is a de facto part of life and the Cinaedus – an effeminate man who takes the passive role during
Romans were masters of it. Many examples have come down to sex
us from the myriad of graffiti, which was continually daubed upon Cunnilingus – a man who is orally ‘penetrated’ by women
the walls of their cities, and the obscene poetry they published. This Fellator – a man who is orally penetrated by men
section is included for mature players who wish to add an element of Futue te ipsum – go have intercourse with yourself
fun into their games and learn a bit of Latin on the side. Fututor – a vaginal penetrator in its crudest sense
Although it is common to insult those of high rank by associating Irrumator – an oral penetrator. In an odd way the Romans some-
their name with that of a famous prostitute, stronger slurs can be times considered the irrumator to be the passive role (if the part-
implied by naming a person directly as a type of whore. Many of the ner was performing the motion) and thus being branded as an
names for types of prostitute (see Prostitution page 31) are utilised irrumator could be worse than being a fellator
for such foul slander. Matris fututor – someone who copulates with their mother
Mulier secutuleia – nymphomaniac
“Atia amat omnes” - Atia ‘loves’ everyone. Obscenus – pervert
Pathicus – one who submits to anal copulation
To escape possible censorship, the English versions of some of Pedicator – an anal penetrator
these insults have been given a rather dry translation... But most Scortari - to prostitute oneself
readers should be able to figure out the correct stronger phrasing. Tribas – a lesbian, viewed as distasteful by Romans
“An refert, ubi et in qua arrigas?” - Does it make any difference
to me who made you horny, or when?
Vir prudens non contra ventum mingit – Wise man does not urinate towards the wind
227
Organs and Bodily Functions agreement they enter into, it shall be considered just, and
Other obscene words mainly involved reproductive body parts, shall be confirmed
and the natural processes of excretion. ΩΩ If the plaintiff and defendant do not settle their dispute,
as above mentioned, let them state their cases either in the
Cacare – to defecate Comitium or the Forum, by making a brief statement in
Clunes – buttocks the presence of the judge, between the rising of the sun and
Coleus – the scrotum noon; and, both of them being present, let them speak so that
Culus – the behind each party may hear
Cunnus – vagina ΩΩ In the afternoon, let the judge grant the right to bring the
Fimus – bodily filth action and render his decision in the presence of the plaintiff
Landica – the clitoris (very obscene in ancient Latin) and the defendant
Lotium – urine ΩΩ The setting of the sun shall be the extreme limit of time
Mentula – penis, but often used to indicate someone is a dick within which a judge must render his decision
Mingere – to urinate
Pedere – to fart Table II. Concerning judgments and thefts
Podex – anus
Sopio – an abnormally large penis ΩΩ When issue has been joined in the presence of the judge,
Sputare – to spit sureties and their substitutes for appearance at the trial must
Stercus – manure be furnished on both sides. The parties shall appear in per-
“Culus tibi purior salillo est, nec toto decies cacas in anno” - Your arse is son, unless prevented by disease of a serious character; or
purer than the salt-cellar; you probably don’t even take a dump ten times a where vows which they have taken must be discharged to the
year. Catullus Gods; or where the proceedings are interrupted through their
absence on business for the State; or where a day has been
Appendix III - The appointed by them to meet an alien

ΩΩ If any of the above mentioned occurrences takes place, that
Twelve Tables is, if one of the parties is seriously ill, or a vow has to be per-
formed, or one of them is absent on business for the State, or
The following are the remaining fragments of the Twelve Tables,
a day has been appointed for an interview with an alien, so
Rome’s original laws. They are presented to help Games Masters
that the judge, the arbiter, or the defendant is prevented from
visualise the oddities and strictness of Roman rules and give some
being present, and the furnishing of security is postponed on
devious ideas for scenarios based around an unusual point of law.
this account, the hearing of the case shall be deferred
Table I. Concerning the summons to court ΩΩ Where anyone is deprived of the evidence of a witness let
him call him with a loud voice in front of his house, on three
ΩΩ When anyone summons another before the tribunal of a market-days
judge, the latter must, without hesitation, immediately appear ΩΩ Where anyone commits a theft by night, and having been
ΩΩ If, after having been summoned, he does not appear, or caught in the act is killed, he is legally killed
refuses to come before the tribunal of the judge, let the party ΩΩ If anyone commits a theft during the day, and is caught in
who summoned him call upon any citizens who are present the act, he shall be scourged and given up as a slave to the
to bear witness. Then let him seize his reluctant adversary; so person against whom the theft was committed. If he who
that he may be brought into court, as a captive, by apparent perpetrated the theft is a slave, he shall be beaten with rods
force and hurled from the Tarpeian Rock. If he is under the age of
ΩΩ When anyone who has been summoned to court is guilty of puberty, the Prætor shall decide whether he shall be scourged,
evasion, or attempts to flee, let him be arrested by the plaintiff and surrendered by way of reparation for the injury
ΩΩ If bodily infirmity or advanced age should prevent the party ΩΩ When any persons commit a theft during the day and in the
summoned to court from appearing, let him who summoned light, whether they be freemen or slaves, of full age or minors,
him furnish him with an animal, as a means of transport. and attempt to defend themselves with weapons, or with any
If he is unwilling to accept it, the plaintiff cannot legally kind of implements; and the party against whom the violence
be compelled to provide the defendant with a vehicle con- is committed raises the cry of thief, and calls upon other per-
structed of boards, or a covered litter sons, if any are present, to come to his assistance; and this is
ΩΩ If he who is summoned has either a sponsor or a defender, done, and the thieves are killed by him in the defence of his
let him be dismissed, and his representative can take his place person and property, it is legal, and no liability attaches to the
in court homicide
ΩΩ The defender, or the surety of a wealthy man, must himself ΩΩ If a theft be detected by means of a dish and a girdle, it is the
be rich; but anyone who desires to do so can come to the assis- same as manifest theft, and shall be punished as such
tance of a person who is poor, and occupy his place ΩΩ When anyone accuses and convicts another of theft which is
ΩΩ When litigants wish to settle their dispute among them- not manifest, and no stolen property is found, judgment shall
selves, even while they are on their way to appear before the
Prætor, they shall have the right to make peace; and whatever
228 Vir sapit qui pauca loquitur – It is a wise man who speaks little
be rendered to compel the thief to pay double the value of in the Forum, he shall be condemned to be reduced to slavery
what was stolen by him to whom he was delivered up; or, if the latter prefers,
ΩΩ Where anyone secretly cuts down trees belonging to another, he can be sold beyond the Tiber
he shall pay twenty-five asses for each tree cut down ΩΩ Where a party is delivered up to several persons, on account
ΩΩ Where anyone, in order to favour a thief, makes a compro- of a debt, after he has been exposed in the Forum on three
mise for the loss sustained, he cannot afterwards prosecute market days, they shall be permitted to divide their debtor
him for theft into different parts, if they desire to do so; and if anyone of
ΩΩ Stolen property shall always be his to whom it formerly them should, by the division, obtain more or less than he is
belonged; nor can the lawful owner ever be deprived of it entitled to, he shall not be responsible
by long possession, without regard to its duration; nor can it
ever be acquired by another, no matter in what way this may
Table IV. Concerning the rights
take place
of a father, and of marriage
ΩΩ A father shall have the right of life and death over his son
Table III. Concerning property which is lent born in lawful marriage, and shall also have the power to ren-
der him independent, after he has been sold three times
ΩΩ When anyone, with fraudulent intent, appropriates property ΩΩ If a father sells his son three times, the latter shall be free from
deposited with him for safe keeping, he shall be condemned paternal authority
to pay double its value ΩΩ A father shall immediately put to death a son recently born,
ΩΩ When anyone collects interest on money loaned at a higher who is a monster, or has a form different from that of mem-
rate per annum than that of the unciae (twelfth part), he shall bers of the human race
pay quadruple the amount by way of penalty ΩΩ When a woman brings forth a son within the next ten months
ΩΩ An alien cannot acquire the property of another by usucap- after the death of her husband, he shall be born in lawful
tion; but a Roman citizen, who is the lawful owner of the marriage, and shall be the legal heir of his estate
property, shall always have the right to demand it from him
ΩΩ Where anyone, having acknowledged a debt, has a judgment
rendered against him requiring payment, thirty days shall
be given to him in which to pay the money and satisfy the Table V. Concerning estates and guardianships
judgment ΩΩ No matter in what way the head of a household may dispose
ΩΩ After the term of thirty days granted by the law to debtors of his estate, and appoint heirs to the same, or guardians; it
who have had judgment rendered against them has expired, shall have the force and effect of law
and in the meantime, they have not satisfied the judgment, ΩΩ Where a father dies intestate, without leaving any proper heir,
their creditors shall be permitted to forcibly seize them and his nearest agnate, or, if there is none, the next of kin among
bring them again into court his family, shall be his heir
ΩΩ When a defendant, after thirty days have elapsed, is brought ΩΩ When a freedman dies intestate, and does not leave any
into court a second time by the plaintiff, and does not sat- proper heir, but his patron, or the children of the latter sur-
isfy the judgment; or, in the meantime, another party, or his vive him; the inheritance of the estate of the freedman shall
surety does not pay it out of his own money, the creditor, or be adjudged to the next of kin of the patron
the plaintiff, after the debtor has been delivered up to him, ΩΩ When a creditor or a debtor dies, his heirs can only sue, or
can take the latter with him and bind him or place him in fet- be sued, in proportion to their shares in the estate; and any
ters; provided his chains are not of more than fifteen pounds claims, or remaining property, shall be divided among them
weight; he can, however, place him in others which are lighter, in the same proportion
if he desires to do so ΩΩ Where co-heirs desire to obtain their shares of the prop-
ΩΩ If, after a debtor has been delivered up to his creditor, or has erty of an estate, which has not yet been divided, it shall be
been placed in chains, he desires to obtain food and has the divided. In order that this may be properly done and no loss
means, he shall be permitted to support himself out of his be sustained by the litigants, the Prætor shall appoint three
own property. But if he has nothing on which to live, his cred- arbiters, who can give to each one that to which he is entitled
itor, who holds him in chains, shall give him a pound of grain in accordance with law and equity
every day, or he can give him more than a pound, if he wishes ΩΩ When the head of a family dies intestate, and leaves a proper
to do so heir who has not reached the age of puberty, his nearest
ΩΩ In the meantime, the party who has been delivered up to his agnate shall obtain the guardianship
creditor can make terms with him. If he does not, he shall be ΩΩ When no guardian has been appointed for an insane person,
kept in chains for sixty days; and for three consecutive mar- or a spendthrift, his nearest agnates, or if there are none, his
ket-days he shall be brought before the Prætor in the place other relatives, must take charge of his property
of assembly in the Forum, and the amount of the judgment
against him shall be publicly proclaimed
ΩΩ After he has been kept in chains for sixty days, and the sum
for which he is liable has been three times publicly proclaimed
Virtus praemium est optimum – Virtue is the highest reward (Plautus)

229
Table VI. Concerning ownership Table VIII. Concerning the

and possession laws of real property
ΩΩ When anyone contracts a legal obligation with reference to ΩΩ A space of two feet and a half must be left between neigh-
his property, or sells it, by making a verbal statement or agree- bouring buildings
ment concerning the same, this shall have the force and effect ΩΩ Societies and associations which have the right to assemble,
of law. If the party should afterwards deny his statements, can make, promulgate, and confirm for themselves such con-
and legal proceedings are instituted, he shall, by way of pen- tracts and rules as they may desire; provided nothing is done
alty, pay double the value of the property in question by them contrary to public enactments, or which does not
ΩΩ Where a slave is ordered to be free by a will, upon his com- violate the common law
pliance with a certain condition, and he complies with the ΩΩ The space of five feet shall be left between adjoining fields, by
condition; or if, after having paid his price to the purchaser, means of which the owners can visit their property, or drive
he claims his liberty, he shall be free and plough around it. No one shall ever have the right to
ΩΩ Where property has been sold, even though it may have been acquire this space by usucaption
delivered, it shall by no means be acquired by the purchaser ΩΩ If any persons are in possession of adjoining fields, and a dis-
until the price has been paid, or a surety or a pledge has been pute arises with reference to the boundaries of the same, the
given, and the vendor satisfied in this manner Prætor shall appoint three arbiters, who shall take cognizance
ΩΩ Immovable property shall be acquired by usucaption after the of the case, and, after the boundaries have been established,
lapse of two years; other property after the lapse of one year he shall assign to each party that to which he is entitled
ΩΩ Where a woman, who has not been united to a man in mar- ΩΩ When a tree overhangs the land of a neighbour, so as to cause
riage, lives with him for an entire year without the usucaption injury by its branches and its shade, it shall be cut off fifteen
of her being interrupted for three nights, she shall pass into feet from the ground
his power as his legal wife ΩΩ When the fruit of a tree falls upon the premises of a neigh-
ΩΩ Where parties have a dispute with reference to property bour, the owner of the tree shall have a right to gather and
before the tribunal of the Prætor, both of them shall be per- remove it
mitted to state their claims in the presence of witnesses ΩΩ When rain falls upon the land of one person in such a
ΩΩ Where anyone demands freedom for another against the quantity as to cause water to rise and injure the property of
claim of servitude, the Prætor shall render judgment in favour another, the Prætor shall appoint three arbiters for the pur-
of liberty pose of confining the water, and providing against damage to
ΩΩ No material forming part of either a building or a vineyard the other party
shall be removed there from. Anyone who, without the knowl- ΩΩ Where a road runs in a straight line, it shall be eight feet, and
edge or consent of the owner, attaches a beam or anything where it curves, it shall be sixteen feet in width
else to his house or vineyard, shall be condemned to pay dou- ΩΩ When a man’s land lies adjacent to the highway, he can
ble its value enclose it in any way that he chooses; but if he neglects to
ΩΩ Timbers which have been dressed and prepared for building do so, any other person can drive an animal over the land
purposes, but which have not yet been attached to a building wherever he pleases
or a vineyard can legally be recovered by the owner, if they
are stolen from him
ΩΩ If a husband desires to divorce his wife, and dissolve his mar-
Table IX. Concerning public law
riage, he must give a reason for doing so ΩΩ No privileges, or statutes, shall be enacted in favour of private
persons, to the injury of others contrary to the law common
Table VII. Concerning crimes to all citizens, and which individuals, no matter of what rank,
have a right to make use of
ΩΩ If a quadruped causes injury to anyone, let the owner ten- ΩΩ The same rights shall be conferred upon, and the same laws
der him the estimated amount of the damage; and if he is shall be considered to have been enacted for all the people
unwilling to accept it, the owner shall, by way of reparation,
surrender the animal that caused the injury
ΩΩ If you cause any unlawful damage... accidentally and unin-
tentionally, you must make good the loss, either by tendering
what has caused it, or by payment
ΩΩ Anyone who, by means of incantations and magic arts, pre-
vents grain or crops of any kind belonging to another from
growing, shall be sacrificed to Ceres
ΩΩ When a patron defrauds his client, he shall be dedicated to
the infernal gods
230 Virtus, non copia vincint – Courage, not multitude, wins

residing in and beyond Latium, that have been enacted for the corpse is at his home, as well as when it is borne away; so
good and steadfast Roman citizens that, during his obsequies, he may enjoy the honour which
ΩΩ When a judge, or an arbiter appointed to hear a case, accepts in his lifetime he acquired by his bravery or his good fortune
money, or other gifts, for the purpose of influencing his deci- ΩΩ Only one funeral of an individual can take place; and it shall
sion, he shall suffer the penalty of death not be permitted to prepare several biers
ΩΩ No decision with reference to the life or liberty of a Roman ΩΩ Gold, no matter in what form it may be present, shall, by all
citizen shall be rendered except by the vote of the Greater means, be removed from the corpse at the time of the funeral;
Comitia but if anyone’s teeth should be fastened with gold, it shall be
ΩΩ Public accusers in capital cases shall be appointed by the lawful either to burn, or to bury it with the body
people ΩΩ No one, without the knowledge or consent of the owner, shall
ΩΩ If anyone should cause nocturnal assemblies in the City, he erect a funeral pyre, or a tomb, nearer than sixty feet to the
shall be put to death building of another
ΩΩ If anyone should stir up war against his country, or delivers ΩΩ No one can acquire by usucaption either the vestibule or
a Roman citizen into the hands of the enemy, he shall be approach to a tomb, or the tomb itself
punished with death ΩΩ No assembly of the people shall take place during the obse-
quies of any man distinguished in the State
Table X. Concerning religious law
ΩΩ An oath shall have the greatest force and effect, for the pur-
Table XI. Supplement to the five preceding ones
pose of compelling good faith
ΩΩ Where a family adopts private religious rites every member of ΩΩ Affairs of great importance shall not be transacted without
it can, afterwards, always make use of them the vote of the people, with whom rests the power to appoint
ΩΩ No burial or cremation of a corpse shall take place in a city magistrates, to condemn citizens, and to enact laws. Laws
ΩΩ No greater expenses or mourning than is proper shall be per- subsequently passed always take preference over former ones
mitted in funeral ceremonies ΩΩ Those who belong to the Senatorial Order and are styled
ΩΩ No one shall, hereafter, exceed the limit established by these Fathers, shall not contract marriage with plebeians
laws for the celebration of funeral rites
ΩΩ Wood employed for the purpose of constructing a funeral
Table XII. Supplement to the
pyre shall not be hewn, but shall be rough and unpolished
ΩΩ When a corpse is prepared for burial at home, not more than five preceding ones
three women with their heads covered with mourning veils ΩΩ No one shall render sacred any property with reference to
shall be permitted to perform this service. The body may be which there is a controversy in court, where issue has already
enveloped in purple robes, and when borne outside, ten flute been joined; and if anyone does render such property sacred,
players, at the most, shall accompany the funeral procession he shall pay double its value as a penalty
ΩΩ Women shall not during a funeral lacerate their faces, or tear ΩΩ If the claim of anyone in whose favour judgment was ren-
their cheeks with their nails; nor shall they utter loud cries dered after the property had been illegally seized, or after
bewailing the dead possession of the same had been delivered, is found to be
ΩΩ No bones shall be taken from the body of a person who is false, the Prætor shall appoint three arbiters, by whose award
dead, or from his ashes after cremation, in order that funeral double the amount of the profits shall be restored by him in
ceremonies may again be held elsewhere. When, however, whose favour the judgment was rendered
anyone dies in a foreign country, or is killed in war, a part ΩΩ If a slave, with the knowledge of his master, should commit a
of his remains may be transferred to the burial place of his theft, or cause damage to anyone, his master shall be given up
ancestors to the other party by way of reparation for the theft, injury, or
ΩΩ The body of no dead slave shall be anointed; nor shall any damage committed by the slave
drinking take place at his funeral, nor a banquet of any kind
be instituted in his honour
ΩΩ No wine flavoured with myrrh, or any other precious bever-
age, shall be poured upon a corpse while it is burning; nor
Appendix IV - Minor
shall the funeral pile be sprinkled with wine Roman Deities
ΩΩ Large wreaths shall not be borne at a funeral; nor shall per- The following is a fairly comprehensive list of the minor dei-
fumes be burned on the altars ties recorded in Roman annals, tomb inscriptions and shrines. Since
ΩΩ Anyone who has rendered himself deserving of a wreath, as Romans are openly polytheistic they are free to make sacrifices
the reward of bravery in war, or through his having been the to whichever gods they wish. Daily life is a constant succession of
victor in public contests or games, whether he has obtained it prayers for aid or protection, from the gods of the household to the
through his own exertions or by means of others in his own multitudes of small shrines scattered throughout the streets of the
name, and by his own money, through his horses, or his slaves, city.
shall have a right to have the said wreath placed upon his In the beliefs of the time, no particular god or goddess is stronger
dead body, or upon that of any of his ascendants, as long as or more powerful than another. Basically the city has an egalitarian
Vitanda est improba siren desidia – One must steer clear of the wicked temptress, Laziness (Horace)
231
divine ecology. The major gods are elevated in their worship only Devera - goddess of purification brooms
because they are specifically sponsored by the State, in return for Deverra - goddess of midwives
which Rome is granted their blessing. Dius Fidus - god of oaths
By the end of the Republic, most of these deities have at least a Disciplina - goddess of discipline
single shrine in the city, and some have many. A few are important Discordia - goddess of discord
enough to have small temples built to them, Heracles for example. Dis Pater - god of wealth and the underworld
Games Masters are encouraged to prompt their players into build- Domiduca - protector of children returning home
ing shrines to show their piety and characters could even claim a Domiducus - goddess of brides travelling to their husbands’ house
particular god as the founder of their family. Domitius - god of respectful wives
Edusa - goddess of nourishment
Abeona - protector of children outside the home Edesia - goddess of banquets
Abundantia - goddess of abundance and prosperity Egeria - water nymph
Acca Larentia - goddess of wheat fields Empanda - goddess of generosity
Adeona - protector of children returning home Epona - goddess of equines
Aeolus - god of winds Eventus Bonus - god of agriculture and commerce.
Aera Cura - goddess of the underworld Fabulinus - god of children
Aequitas - goddess of fair trade Facunditas - god of bountiful harvests
Aesculapius - god of health and medicine Fama - goddess of fame
Aeternitas - goddess of eternity Fauna - goddess of vegetation
Africus - god of the southwest wind Faunus - god of flocks
Alemonia - goddess of pregnancy Faustitas - protector of livestock
Angerona - goddess of pain relief Favonius - god of the west wind
Angita - goddess of witchcraft Febris - goddess of fevers
Angitia - goddess of snakes Felicitas - goddess of success
Anna Perenna - goddess of the year Feronia - goddess of woods and fountains
Antevorta - goddess of the future Fides - goddess of loyalty
Apeliotus - god of the southeast wind Fontus - god of wells and springs
Aquilo - god of the north wind Fornax - goddess of bread and baking
Arimanius - god of the underworld Fraus - goddess of treachery
Aurora - goddess of the dawn Fulgora - god of lightning
Auster - god of the south wind Glycon - god of snakes
Averna - goddess of the underworld Gratiae - The Graces
Averruncus - god of childbirth Hercules - god of strength
Bellona - goddess of war Herulus - god of underworld darkness
Bromius - god of wine Hespera - goddess of dusk
Bubona - goddess of cattle Hippona - goddess of horses
Caca - goddess of the hearth Honos - god of military honours
Cacus - god of fire (See Creatures page 155) Hora - Quirinus’ wife
Caelius - god of the northeast wind Imporcitor - god of harrowing
Camenae - the four goddesses, Carmenta, Egeria, Antevorta, and Postvorta. Indiges - the deified Aeneas
Candelifera - goddess of childbirth Insitor - god of crop sewing
Cardea - goddess of thresholds Intercidona - protector against evil spirits
Carna - goddess of the heart and organs Inuus - god of sexual intercourse
Caurus - god of the northwest wind Invidia - goddess of envy
Cinxia - goddess of marriage Justitia - goddess of justice
Clementia - goddess of mercy Juturna- goddess of fountains, wells, and springs
Cloacina - goddess of sewers Juventas - goddess of youth
Concordia - goddess of harmony Lactanus - god of prospering crops
Consus - god of grain storage Larentina - goddess of death
Convector - god of the harvest Lares - the household gods
Cuba - goddess of sleeping infants Laverna - goddess of thieves
Cunina - protector of infants Levana - goddess of newborns
Cupid - god of love Liber - god of fertility
Cura - goddess who created humans Libera - goddess of earth
Dea Dia - goddess of growth Liberalitas - goddess of generosity
Dea Tacita - goddess of the dead Libertas - goddess of freedom
Decima - measurer of the thread of life Libitina - goddess of death and funerals
Dei Lucrii - gods of commerce and trade Lima - goddess of thresholds
232 Varium et mutabile semper femina – Woman is always a changeable and capricious thing (Virgil)
Lua - goddess of captured weapons Runcina - goddess of reaping and weeding
Lucina - goddess of childbirth Rusina - protector of fields
Luna - goddess of the moon Rusor - god of agriculture
Lupercus - god of shepherds Salus - goddess of public welfare
Mana Genita - goddess of burials Sancus - god of oaths
Manes - the souls of the dead Sarritor - god of weeding
Mania - goddess of the underworld Securita - goddess of security
Mantus - god of the underworld Semonia - goddess of sowing
Mater Matuta - goddess of mariners Sentia - goddess of mental development
Mefitis - goddess of poisonous and volcanic vapours Septentrio - god of the south wind
Mellona - goddess of beekeeping Silvanus - god of woodlands and forests
Messor - god of harvesting crops Somnus - god of sleep
Moneta - goddess of prosperity Sors - god of luck
Mors - god of death Spes - goddess of hope
Morta - severer of the thread of life Spiniensis - god of thorny bushes
Murtia - goddess of sloth Stata Mater - protector against fires
Muta - goddess of silence Statanus - god of standing up
Mutinus - god of fertility Statina - wife of Statanus
Naenia - goddess of funerals Sterquilinus - god of fertilisation
Necessitas - goddess of destiny Strenua - goddess of endurance
Nemesis - goddess of revenge Suadela- goddess of persuasion
Nemestrinus - god of woods and forests Summanus - god of nocturnal thunder
Nerio - goddess of martial valour Tellus - goddess of the earth
Nixi - goddesses of childbirth Tempestes - goddess of storms
Nodutus - god of wheat stalks Terra - goddess of the land
Nona - spinner of the thread of life Terminus - god of boundaries
Nox - goddess of night Tiberinus - god of the River Tiber
Obarator - god of agriculture Tibertus - god of the River Anio (a tributary of the Tiber)
Occator - god of harvesting Tranquillitas - goddess of peace
Orchadis - god of olive groves Trivia - goddess of magic
Orbona - goddess of orphans Ubertas - god of prosperity
Pales - god of shepherds and livestock Unxia - goddess of marriage
Parcae - the goddesses of destiny, Decima, Morta, and Nona Vacuna - goddess of sheep
Partula - goddess of the length of pregnancy Vagitanus - god of children
Patalena - goddess of flowers Vediovus - god of the underworld
Paventia - goddess of comforting frightened children Venti - the gods of the winds, Africus, Apeliotus, Aquilo, Auster, Caecius,
Pax - goddess of peace Caurus, Favonius, and Vulturnus
Penates - household gods of the storage cupboard Veritas - goddess of truth
Picumnus - god of matrimony Verminus - god of cattle worms
Pietas - goddess of duty Vertumnus - god of the seasons
Pilumnus - protector of infants at birth Vervactor - god of the first ploughing
Poena - goddess of punishment Victoria - goddess of victory
Porus - god of plenty Viduus - separator of the soul from the body
Porrima - goddess of the future Virbius - god of forests
Postverta - goddess of the past Viriplaca - goddess of marital strife
Potina - goddess of children’s drinks Virtus - god of strength and bravery
Priapus - god of the shade Volumna - goddess of nurseries
Promitor - god of growing crops Voluptas - goddess of pleasure
Prorsa Postverta - goddess of women in labour Vulturnus - god of the east wind
Providentia - goddess of forethought
Pudicita - goddess of chastity
Puta - goddess of pruning
Quiritis - goddess of motherhood
Redarator - god of ploughing
Robigo - goddess of blight
Robigus - god of blight
Roma - personification of the Roman state
Rumina - goddess of breastfeeding
Vulpem pilum mutat, non mores – A fox may change its hair, not its tricks
233
Mythic Rome: Index
Index
A Animal Scenarios 176 Army During the Early Repub- Basilica Aemilia 52, 212, 213
Abacus 59 Animal Shows 77 lic 90 Basilica Julia 52, 222
Abeona 232 Animal, stealing or killing an 22 Army during the Mid-Republic Basilica Opimia 52, 215
Ablutions 63 Animistic Deities 3, 108 95 Basilica Porcia 52, 69, 212, 221
Abnormalities 112 Anio Vetus 62, 205 Army During the Monarchy 89 Basilica Sempronia 52, 213
Abollae 42 Antonius, Marcus 192 Army, the 88 Basilisk 155
Abortion 140 Antony, Marc 192 Arson, punishment for 22 Bathing 35
Abudia 125 Apartments 57, 70 Art 2, 36, 59, 127, 129, 131, 133, Baths 2, 11, 18, 31, 33, 34, 35, 36,
Abudius 124 Apodyterium 64 178, 179, 180 40, 48, 56, 57, 62, 63, 64,
Academics 153 Apollo 108 Artist 126 65, 70, 100, 126, 175, 176,
Accensi 92, 95 Apollodoros 31 Arts, performance 28 194, 214
Accolade 182 Appian Way 48, 226 Arval Brethren 110 Bears 149
Accolades 102, 123 Appius Claudius 37, 48, 62, 72, Ascaules 29 Beast Hunter 127
Accommodation 57, 134 100, 183, 184, 203, 204, Assassination 169 Beastmen 166
Accommodation & Property 136 206, 210 Assassins 65 Bedroom 57
Accountants 61 Apuleius 30, 119, 145, 147, 162 Assemblies, the 7, 15, 17, 132 Beds 59
Accounting 129, 131 Aqua Anio Vetus 62 Astrologers 140 Beef 45
Accusations 13, 106, 118, 220 Aqua Appia 62, 183 Astrology 141 Beer 46
Aconite 147 Aqua Julia 62, 223 Atheneaus 34 Beggar 127, 180
Actor 126 Aqua Marcia 62, 214 Athlete 126 Bell 29
Actors, famous 30 Aqua Tepula 62, 214 Athletics 2, 66, 78, 80, 126, 127, Benches 24, 44, 55, 59, 66, 67, 68,
Adultery 25 Aqueduct 33, 48, 62, 176, 183, 128, 130, 149, 150, 151, 69, 79
Aedes 2, 50 203, 205, 214 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, Ben Hur 226
Aemilianus, Publius Cornelius Aqueducts 2, 62 157, 158, 159, 160, 162, Blessings of the Gods 141
Scipio 186 Aquilifer 98 163, 164, 166, 167, 179 Board Games 34
Aeneid, the 4, 31, 66, 119, 144, Arcae 59 Atrium 56 Board games, rules for simulat-
155, 158, 159, 193, 209, Architecture 37 Augurs 109 ing 35
226 Argiletum 51, 64 Augury 141 Boars 150
Aequi 90 Armament of the 1st c Roman Aulos 29 Bodily Functions 228
Aesculapius 72 Army 98 Aulus Gellius 16 Bodyguard 127
Aesopus 30 Armament of the 3rd – 1st Centu- Ave Imperator 83 Bona Dea 108
Afer, Publius Terentius 186 ry Gauls 93 Bread 44
Africana, Cornelia 186 Armament of the 3rd Century B Breakfast 44
Africanus, Publius Cornelius Roman Army 95 Bacchanalia 117, 122 Brennus 183
Scipio 185 Armament of the 3rd c Macedo- Bacchanalian Conspiracy 171 Bribery 23
Agrarian Cycle 116 nian Phalanx 94 Bacchus 30, 46, 108, 117, 118, Bridges 2, 49
Agrippa 53, 62, 64, 103, 124, 139, Armament of the 4th – 3rd Cen- 122, 165, 172, 174 Brothels 31
192, 194, 220, 223 tury Samnites 93 Bachanalia 118 Brutus, Lucius Junius 182
Agrippa, Marcus Vipsanius 194 Armament of the 4th Century Backgammon 35 Brutus, Marcus Junius 192
Aithiopian Bulls 153 Gauls 91 Bagpipes 29 Bulls 149
Alae 56 Armament of the 4th Century Ball games 34 Bureaucrat 127
Albans 47, 181, 195 Roman Army 92 Balneae 2, 64 Burglars 65
Aleae 34 Armament of the 5th Century Hill Bandit 65
Alimenta 43 Tribes 90 Banker 126 C
Alternate Timeline 173 Armaria 59 Banquets 8, 29, 43, 46, 81, 100, Cabinets 59
Amphisbaena 154 Armilustrium 116 113, 122, 129, 232 Cacare 228
Amphitheatres 2, 31, 54 Armour 138 Barabbas 226 Cacus 155
Ancestor Worship 3, 26, 108 Arms and Armour 135 Barber 126 Caecus, Appius Claudius 183
Ancus Martius 47 Army 3, 7, 16, 19, 88, 89, 90, 92, Barca, Hannibal 185 Caelian hill 47
Animal Displays 75 95, 96, 97, 98, 125, 221 Basilica 2, 52, 69, 212, 213, 215, Caepionis, Servilia 189
Animals 149 221, 222 Caesar 6, 7, 8, 13, 15, 16, 19, 31,
234
Mythic Rome: Index
50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 67, 68, Ceremonies 110 Cloacae 2, 63 Cremation 27
75, 76, 77, 82, 84, 85, 88, Ceres 108 Cloaca Magna 64 Crepidae 41
96, 100, 101, 104, 105, Cerialia 116 Cloaca Maxima 20, 48, 63, 64, 70, Crimes 230
114, 116, 124, 134, 171, Cetos 157 176, 182, 196 Crime Scenarios 175
172, 182, 183, 188, 189, Cevens 227 Cloacina 63, 232 Criminal courts 23
190, 191, 192, 193, 194, Champions and Challenges 91 Cloaks 41 Crispus, Gaius Sallustius 191
207, 216, 218, 220, 221, Changing Forms 147 Clothes 136 Crocodiles 150
222, 223, 225, 226 Characteristics 123 Clothing 40 Crotalum 29
Caesar, Gaius Julius 190 Characters 123 Clothing and Fabric 135 Crupellarius 85
Calcei 41 Characters, Cast of 178 Clunes 228 Cthulhu 172
Calculi 35 Charioteering Scenarios 174 Cocles, Horatius 182 Cubicula 56
Calendars 3, 120, 121 Charioteers 53, 79, 91, 127, 144, Coinage 133 Culina 56
Cales 202 174 Colchicum 147 Cultural Differences, compre-
Caligae 41 Chariot Race, rules for 80 Coleus 228 hending 7
Calling upon the Gods 140 Chariot Racing 4, 31, 52, 75, 80, Collegia 7 Culture 28
Camillus, Marcus Furius 183 168, 225, 226 Collegium Pontificum 109 Culus 228
Campaigns 168 Chariots of the Gods 141 Collina 49 Cunnilingus 227
Campania 48 Cheese 44 Columella 24, 36, 124 Cunnus 228
Campus Martius 15, 31, 33, 48, Chests 59 Combat 170 Curia 2, 47, 52, 67, 69, 124, 178,
49, 52, 53, 54, 64, 69, 75, Chicken 45 Combat Style & Traits 89 195, 216, 218, 221
79, 85, 114, 115, 116, 126, Children, social class 25 Comedies 30 Curiae 2, 13, 52
177, 184, 208, 220, 221, Children, unwanted 10 Comitas 13 Curia Hostilia 47, 52, 67, 69, 195,
222, 223 Cicero 8, 9, 10, 13, 15, 19, 21, 22, Comitia Centuriata 7, 15, 17, 19, 216, 218, 221
Candelae 59 24, 29, 30, 31, 32, 35, 36, 22, 199 Curia Iulia 52
Candles 59 43, 56, 61, 65, 67, 78, 83, Comitia Curiata 13, 14, 15 Curia Pompeii 52
Cantus 29 86, 103, 107, 108, 109, Comitia Tributa 16, 18, 22 Curse Tablets 143
Capes 41 110, 112, 115, 124, 126, Command 131 Cursing 3, 129, 130, 131, 139,
Capitoline Hill 47, 48, 62, 111, 131, 139, 141, 142, 143, Commerce 131 143, 144, 180
176, 183, 195, 197, 199, 144, 145, 146, 159, 184, Commonwealth, the 21, 22, 24, Cursor, Lucius Papirius 183
209, 218, 223 188, 189, 190, 191, 192, 36 Cursus Honorum 16, 17, 18, 168,
Capua 82 203, 205, 217, 218, 219, Concilium Plebis 14, 15, 16, 18, 185, 187, 189, 190, 198,
Carbatinae 41 220, 221, 222, 225 21, 197 200, 201
Carmenta 108 Cicero, Marcus Tullius 190 Concilium Plebis, the 14, 15, 16, Curtains 60
Carpets 59 Cinaedus 227 18, 21, 197 Curule Ædiles 18
Carry On Up the Tiber 173 Circus 2, 28, 31, 48, 49, 52, 53, 54, Conditoria 61 Cybele 29, 30, 76, 108, 117, 211,
Carthaginians 52, 78, 96, 97, 113, 64, 69, 70, 75, 76, 77, 78, Coniugium 2, 25 215
150, 184, 196, 205, 206, 116, 127, 149, 153, 172, Conscription 98, 125, 131 Cycle of War 115
207, 209, 210 173, 174, 176, 182, 184, Constrictor Snakes 153 Cymbals 29
Carus, Titus Lucretius 190 195, 196, 202, 208, 211, Consualia 116 Cymbalum 29
Cassius Dio 16, 23, 24, 54, 55, 212, 223 Consuls 17
67, 69, 77, 85, 104, 114, Circus Flaminius 53, 54, 64, 184, Consus 52, 116, 232 D
118, 139 208 Coriolanus, Gaius Marcius 183 Daemones, Etruscan 157
Castanets 29 Circus Maximus 2, 31, 48, 49, 52, Cornu 29 Daemones, Sylvan 165
Castigatio 100 53, 54, 64, 69, 75, 76, 77, Corona 102, 103, 106, 175, 186, Daily Acts 51
Castor 53, 63, 67, 197, 215, 219 78, 116, 127, 149, 172, 187 Dancer 127
Catamitus 227 173, 174, 176, 182, 195, Corporal Punishment 100 Dancing 2, 30, 137, 149
Catilina, Lucius Sergius 189 196, 202, 211, 212, 223 Corvus, Valerius Maximus 183 Dates 120
Catiline 21, 168, 170, 171, 172, Citizenship 8 Cosmetics 43 Deadly Nightshade 147
189, 190, 191, 220, 225, City During the Monarchy 47 Cotton 39 Death 2, 26, 71, 147, 152, 153,
226 City During the Republic 48 Couches 26, 44, 55, 57, 59, 111, 155, 156, 157, 159, 212,
Catiline Conspiracy 171 City, the 47 113, 135 214, 216, 218, 220, 222,
Cato 12, 16, 25, 30, 37, 38, 42, 45, Civic Order 169 Couches, dining 44 224, 225
46, 52, 119, 124, 128, 185, Civil Disorder 70 Counterfeiting 23 Death Cap Mushrooms – 147
189, 190, 191, 192, 193, Civil War of Caesar and Pompey Courtesan 179 Death sentence, the 23
212, 213, 217, 220 171 Courtesy 13 Decemviri Stlitbus Iudicandis 19
Catoblepas 156 Civil War of Marius and Sulla 171 Courtyard 32, 56 Decimatio 101
Cato, Marcus Porcius 185 Clan, the 6 Craft 131 Decimation 101
Catullus 30, 31, 102, 192, 226, 228 Clemency 13 Craftsman 127 Decoration 2, 59
Catullus, Gaius Valerius 192 Clementia 13 Crassus 9, 45, 67, 68, 103, 124, Decorations 102
Cavalry 16, 89, 92, 93, 94, 96, 97, Cleopatra 226 143, 187, 188, 189, 190, Demetrius and the Gladiators 226
99, 138 Cleromancy 141 191, 210, 213, 217, 219, Dendromancy 141
Cellae 56 Clientela 2, 7 220, 221 De Re Rustica 12, 24, 36, 120, 150
Celsus 33, 124 Client System, the 2, 7 Crassus, Marcus Licinius 188 Designing a Roman Campaign
Censors 2, 14, 19 Clivi 49 Crates of Mallos 63 168
Census, the 2, 7 Clivus Publicius 69 Creation of the Republic 171 Diana 43, 48, 53, 54, 108, 109,
Central Heating 70 Cloaca Circus Maximus 52, 64 Creatures 149 111, 182, 188, 195, 223
235
Mythic Rome: Index
Dice 35 Etruscan and Latin Wars 171 Foreigners 10 Garum 45
Dictator 2, 17, 18, 19, 27, 42, 66, Etruscan Daemones 157 Forgers 65 Gaul 84
91, 131, 204, 209 Etruscan Priests 110 Fortuna 68, 108 Gauls 68, 91, 93, 96, 97, 98, 105,
Dignitas 12 Evil Eye 143 Forum 10, 16, 27, 42, 48, 49, 51, 111, 114, 150, 171, 183,
Dignity 12, 28, 47, 109, 123, 188 Exedra 56 52, 53, 54, 62, 63, 64, 66, 184, 190, 199, 200, 201,
Dilettante 127 Exercise 2, 33 67, 68, 69, 72, 75, 76, 77, 202, 204, 205, 208, 209,
Diluvia 2, 69 Expenses 101 81, 114, 116, 135, 146, 211, 220, 221
Dimachaerus 85 Extortion 23 149, 151, 156, 173, 174, Genera Bonitatis 11
Dining Room 57 176, 178, 182, 195, 196, General Expenses 136, 137
Dinner 44 F 197, 198, 200, 201, 206, General Goods 137
Diodorus Siculus 91, 93 Fabric 136 210, 211, 212, 214, 215, Genius 108
Dionysius of Halicarnassus 76 Fabrics 38 216, 217, 218, 221, 222, Gens 6
Di Penates 107 Facinus 65 223, 224, 226, 228, 229 Germania 43, 88, 97, 98, 221
Disasters 171 Faithful Slave 179 Forum Boarium 49, 51, 53, 62, Germanic Threat 171
Disaster Scenarios 176 Faith in the Family 12 64, 68, 69, 81, 114, 135, Gladiator 128
Disease 2, 70, 71, 159, 167 Falacer 108 149, 156, 195, 206, 210, Gladiator, combat styles 84
Disease Rules 71 Falernian, fable of 46 211, 215, 216 Gladiatorial Scenarios 173
Dishonourable Discharge 100 Fall of the Roman Empire 226 Forum Cuppedinis 51 Gladiators 2, 81, 82, 84, 128,
Districts 49 Family 6, 168 Forum Holitorium 51, 68, 69, 225, 226
Divination 3, 52, 110, 111, 115, Fantasy 173 210, 223 Gladiators, types of 84
127, 129, 130, 131, 139, Farces 30 Forum Julium 51 Gnaeus Naevius 30
140, 141, 142, 143, 180 Farmer 128 Forum Piscarium 51, 68, 210, Goddess of Fever 70
Divine blessings 113 Fashion 2, 38 212 Goddess of Purification 70
Diviner 127 Fauns 165, 166, 171 Forum Romanum 10, 16, 27, 42, God of Microbes 70
Divorce 25 Febris 70 51, 52, 54, 63, 64, 66, 68, Gods 6, 12, 13, 19, 21, 26, 30,
Doctor 128 Felix Sex 35 69, 72, 77, 81, 116, 151, 37, 40, 44, 46, 47, 48, 49,
Doctor Who? 70 Fellator 227 176, 178, 182, 195, 196, 50, 51, 52, 56, 58, 62, 68,
Dogs 150 Feminae 8 197, 198, 200, 201, 210, 69, 70, 75, 76, 80, 81, 91,
Domi 2, 56 Feralia 115 212, 214, 218, 221, 224 102, 104, 105, 107, 108,
Dowry 25 Feriae Marti 115 Forums 2, 51 109, 111, 112, 113, 114,
Dragons 157 Festivals 3, 27, 28, 114, 115, 122 Founding of Rome 171 115, 116, 118, 119, 122,
Draughts 35 Fetiales 110 Fountains 2, 63 129, 134, 135, 137, 139,
Dried Food 136 Fidelity, in marriage 25 Fowl 45 140, 141, 142, 143, 155,
Drink 2, 43 Fides 12, 232 Fraud 23 159, 168, 170, 172, 173,
Drive 131 Fighting Quadrupeds 149 Freedmen 9 174, 175, 179, 180, 181,
Drug overdose, punishment Fimus 228 Fresh Food 136 183, 184, 186, 187, 193,
for 22 Fire-fighting 68 Frontinus 62, 63, 88, 94, 99, 100, 230, 231, 232, 233
Drums 29 Fires 68 102, 184, 185 Goods and Services 134
Drusilla, Livia 194 Firmitas 12 Frugalitas 12 Government 13
Drusus, Marcus Livius 186 Firmness of Mind 12 Frugality 12 Governmental Procedure 16
Duodecim Scripta 35 First Triumvirate 171 Fruits 44 Government, structure of 15
Duumviri Viis extra Urbem Fish 45 Fulvia 193 Gracchi Reforms 171
Purgandis 19 Fistula Obliqua 29 Funerals 2, 26 Gracchus, Gaius 186
Dyeing Fabrics 39 Fistula Panis 29 Furrina 108 Gracchus, Tiberius Sempronius
Dyes 39 Five in a Row 35 Fustuarium 100 186
Flaccus, Quintus Horatius 193 Futue te ipsum 227 Graffiti 55, 57
E Flamen Dialis 109 Fututor 227 Grains 44
Eagle, legionary 98 Flamen Martialis 109 Gravitas 12, 13
Eale 157 Flamens 50, 120 G Great Drain 64
Early Republic, the 3, 5, 90, 125, Flamines Minores 109 Gaius Maenius 54, 200, 201 Grypes 158
138 Flaminius, Gaius 184 Gambling 34, 35, 78, 81, 86, Guardian of the Family 108
Education 2, 24 Flaminius, Titus Quinctius 185 141, 149, 174, 179, 191, Guilds 7
Elephants 3, 97, 150 Flogging 100 192, 226 Gymnasiums 33
Embezzlement 23 Floods 2, 69 Games 2, 4, 5, 7, 10, 18, 22, 29,
Emblemata 38 Flora 108 31, 34, 35, 48, 52, 54, 66, H
Emporium, the 52 Floralia 116 70, 71, 75, 79, 80, 84, 85, Habitus 38
Ennius, Quintus 185 Flute 29 88, 97, 105, 107, 110, Hannibal 76, 88, 91, 96, 105,
Entrance Hall 56, 57 Fly Agaric Mushrooms 147 119, 121, 122, 123, 130, 111, 133, 134, 150, 171,
Epicureanism 119 Fondi 202 131, 132, 133, 134, 149, 172, 184, 185, 206, 207,
Epirus, Pyrrhus of 184 Fontes 2, 63 152, 153, 155, 157, 158, 208, 209, 210, 211, 212,
Equiria 115 Food 2, 3, 43, 135, 136 162, 165, 168, 169, 170, 225, 226
Equus Octobris 116 Footwear 41 171, 172, 173, 177, 195, Harp 29
Eruditio 24 Fora 2, 51 225, 226, 227, 228, 232 Harpastum 34
Esquilina 49 Forbidden Religions and Rites Games, the 75 Harpy 159
Esquiline hill 48 117 Gang Leader 179 Haruspication 141
Estates and Guardianships 229 Fordicidia 116 Gangsters 65 Haruspices 110
236
Mythic Rome: Index
Hastati 92 213 Lex Aquilia 21 Lyra 29
Hats 41 Jupiter 26, 47, 48, 49, 53, 63, 69, Lex Aurelia 21 Lyre 29
Hazards of City Life 65 70, 75, 76, 103, 104, 107, Lex Canuleia 21
Head-wear 41 108, 109, 110, 111, 113, Lex Claudia 21 M
Hemlock 147 116, 126, 141, 173, 176, Lex Falcidia 21 Mafia, the 19
Henbane 147 181, 182, 184, 195, 196, Lex Hortensia 21 Magic 3, 5, 23, 107, 131, 132,
Hercules 37, 53, 111, 114, 118, 200, 201, 213, 217, 223 Lex Iulia Municipalis 50, 222 139, 142, 144, 145, 146,
129, 155, 156, 183, 215, Jupiter Feretrius 195 Lex Julia de Civitate Latinus 21 148, 149, 150, 151, 152,
232 Juvenal 28, 33, 50, 51, 57, 61, 64, Lex Julia Municipalis 21 153, 154, 155, 156, 158,
Hercules Custos 53 65, 68, 83, 122, 226 Lex Liciniae Sextiae 21 159, 160, 162, 163, 164,
Hills and Districts 49 Juventas 52, 195, 232 Lex Ogulnia 21 165, 166, 167, 170
Hippocrates 13 Lex Poetelia 21 Magicians, types of 140
Hippopotami 150 K Lex Valeria 21 Magic, legality of 139
Historical Sources 172 King of Rites 109 Lex Voconia 21 Magistrate 129
Histriones 31 Kissing 24 Liberalia 116 Magistrates 2, 10, 16
Holidays 28 Kitchen 56, 82, 188 Libertini 9 Magistrates, Curule 17
Honestas 12, 13 Kithara 29 Life of Numa 7, 49, 110, 181 Magistrates, Major 17
Honour 2, 11 Knucklebones 35 Linen 39 Magistrates, Minor 17
Hoplomachus 85 Kynoprosopoi 159 Lions 151 Magnus, Gnaeus Pompeius 189
Horace 7, 24, 25, 31, 41, 46, 54, Literacy 131 Major Flamines 109
60, 69, 82, 105, 110, 113, L Literature 2, 38, 131, 178, 179 Malaria 70
119, 134, 146, 152, 161, Labourer 128 Litters 50 Malaria 71
175, 193, 222, 223, 224, Lacernae 41 Lituus 29 Mandrake 147
226, 231 Lactantius 32, 76, 111, 119 Livestock 136 Maniples 90, 92, 95, 96, 98
Horatius Cocles 49, 182 Lacus Curtius 63, 227 Livius Andronicus 30, 207 Mantichora 162
Horn 29 Lamia 160 Livius, Titus 194 Marcellus, Marcus Claudius 184
Horseman 84 Lamia of Lybis 161 Livy 17, 19, 23, 24, 47, 48, 52, Marcius, Ancus 181
Horses 150 Lana 38 53, 54, 63, 66, 68, 69, 70, Marines 96
Hostilius, Tullus 181 Landica 228 72, 75, 77, 79, 81, 82, 88, Marius, Gaius 187
Hours of the Day 120 Language 131 89, 90, 91, 92, 100, 101, Maro, Publius Vergilius 193
Houses 2, 48, 56 Laquerarius 85 102, 103, 105, 108, 109, Marriage 2, 14, 25, 26, 110, 129,
Humanitas 13 Lares 107 111, 112, 113, 114, 117, 134, 145, 177, 189, 191,
Hydraulus 29 Lars Porsenna, king of Clusium 118, 121, 141, 146, 168, 193, 194, 198, 229, 230,
Hyenas 151 49 169, 171, 172, 173, 184, 231, 232, 233
Hypocaust 56, 64, 216 Late Republic, the 5, 97, 125, 185, 194, 220, 225 Mars 4, 47, 53, 79, 108, 109, 110,
131, 138, 225 Lochoi 89 113, 114, 115, 116, 120,
I Latin Guide 5 Lock Picking 131 141, 181, 223
Incendia 68 Latrunculi 35 Locks 56 Martial 25, 31, 33, 59, 134, 226
Industria 12 Laundries 40 Longinus, Gaius Cassius 192 Masseur 36
Industriousness 12 Law 131 Lore 131 Mater Matuta 68
Infantry 16, 91, 93 Law and Order 2, 19 Lost Properties 57 Matris fututor 227
Insulae 2, 57 Law Enforcement 20 Lotium 228 Meal Etiquette 44
Insurrection 66 Laws 2, 21, 22, 213, 227, 231 Love potions 146 Meal Times 43
Interrex 2, 13, 19 Laws of Real Property 230 Luceres 13 Meats 44
Irrumator 227 Lawyer 128 Lucernae 59 Medicamenta 43
Isis 42, 118 Lectisternium 113 Lucullus, Lucius Licinius 188 Medicine 131
Iudicia 22 Leges 21 Ludi Apollinares 75, 76 Memorabilia 6
Ius 2, 10, 19 Leges Corneliae 21 Ludi Cereales 76 Mentula 228
Leges Provinciae 21 Ludi Circenses 75, 76, 78 Mephitis 70
J Leges Tabellariae 21 Ludi Florales 76 Merchant 129, 179
Jaculus 159 Legionary 128 Ludi Gladiatorii 82 Mercury 108
Janus 108 Legions 4, 15, 16, 17, 95, 96, 98, Ludi Megalenses 76 Meretricia 31
Jewellery 2, 42, 135, 137 99, 101, 104, 105, 114, Ludi Plebeii 75, 76 Mesian Forest 47
Judgments and thefts 228 116, 125, 135, 171, 178, Ludi Plebii 53 Metelli, Clodia 191
Jugurtha 11, 42, 103, 187, 215, 179, 186, 187, 188, 189, Ludi Romani 75, 76 Meteromancy 141
216 190, 192, 193, 194, 196, Ludi scaenici 75 Metius Curtius 63
Julius Caesar 6, 7, 8, 13, 16, 31, 206, 209, 219, 221 Ludi Taurii 53 Middle Republic, the 5
50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 67, 75, Legion Scenarios 175 Ludi Victoriae Caesaris 76 Military decorations 102
76, 77, 82, 84, 85, 88, 96, Leisure 2, 28, 162 Ludi Victoriae Sullae 75, 76 Military Discipline 99
101, 104, 105, 114, 116, Lemur 145 Ludus Aemilius 82 Military Officer 179
134, 182, 183, 188, 189, Lemures 161 Luncheon 44 Military Tribunes 2, 18
190, 191, 192, 193, 194, Lemuria 108, 115, 177 Lupercalia 117 Minerva 108
207, 216, 218, 220, 221, Letters to Atticus 13, 191 Lupercalia, the 30 Mingere 228
222, 223, 225 Leucrocota 162 Luperci 110 Misericordia 13
Juno 4, 32, 53, 54, 108, 109, 120, Lex Acilia 21 Lycanomancy 141 Missio ignominiosa 100
134, 178, 183, 195, 199, Lex Aebutia, 21 Lychnomancy 141 Monarchy 171
237
Mythic Rome: Index
Monarchy, the 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 47, Organ, water powered 29 Pipes, lead 62 Porticus Pompeius 52
63, 89, 109, 125, 138, 171 Ornatrices 43 Plautus 20, 30, 34, 39, 97, 108, Portunes 109
Money and Possessions 133 Ostia 45, 47, 49, 176, 181, 202, 125, 140, 173, 179, 184, Potions 146
Months 120 211, 219 207, 226, 229 Power Games, Political 18
Morals 6, 10, 19, 24, 25, 58, 122, Ovid 4, 6, 21, 31, 39, 40, 43, 58, Plautus, Titus Maccius 184 Praemia 102
139, 170, 174 76, 78, 79, 90, 112, 116, Plebeian Ædiles 18 Praeneste 82
Morbus 70 118, 120, 140, 161, 165, Plebeians 2, 8, 21, 133, 196, 198, Praetorian Guard 20, 224
Mosaics 38 222, 226 214 Prætor Peregrinus 17, 23, 192
Mosquitoes 70 Ownership and Possession 230 Plebeii 2, 8, 75, 76, 209 Prætors 17
Movies 226 Pliny the Elder 12, 20, 25, 27, Prætor Urbanus 17, 23, 187,
Muggers 65 P 36, 37, 38, 39, 42, 43, 45, 192, 194
Mulier Secutuleia 227 Paenulae 42 46, 49, 52, 54, 56, 58, 59, Prayers 112
Mundus Patet 115 Painting 37 62, 64, 78, 79, 81, 102, Pre 4th Century Roman Army
Murcia 52 Palatina 49 117, 133, 143, 148, 150, 89
Murder 23, 169 Palatine 42, 47, 49, 52, 62, 69, 151, 154, 155, 157, 162, Priapus 32, 112, 233
Murmillo 85 109, 114, 115, 140, 155, 164, 166 Price and Value Lists 136
Mushrooms 147 191, 195, 211, 223 Pliny the Younger 8, 52 Priest 129
Music 2, 28, 29, 129, 137 Palatua 109 Plot Hooks 2, 3, 85, 105, 122, priestesses 109, 116, 174
Musician 129, 180 Pallor 47, 195 148, 165 Priesthood, the 8, 49, 109, 110,
Mus, Publius Decius 184 Pan Pipes 29 Plot Seeds 173 111, 116, 129, 148, 190
Mutilation, punishment for 22 Panther Cap Mushrooms 147 Ploutonia 158 Priests 39, 72, 76, 103, 107, 109,
Mythological Creatures 153 Panthers 151 Plucked Instruments 29 110, 111, 112, 114, 120,
Pantomimes 30 Plunder 101 122, 129, 130, 148, 158,
N Paraphernalia 135 Plutarch 7, 9, 24, 26, 27, 49, 66, 181, 184
Names 123, 124 Parentalia 115 67, 68, 81, 94, 98, 101, Principes 92
Naming of Weapons 88 Parilia 116 110, 114, 120, 143, 169, Priscus, Lucius Tarquinius 181
Naturalis Historia 12, 20, 25, Parthia 187, 188, 189, 192, 221 172, 181, 182, 183, 187, Privernum 202
27, 36, 37, 38, 39, 42, 43, Partisans of Clodius 69 188, 190, 192, 193, 225 Processions 2, 76
45, 46, 49, 52, 54, 56, 58, Passions 132 Pluto 109 Profanity 227
59, 62, 64, 78, 79, 81, Paterfamilias 6, 7, 10, 25, 42, 58, Podex 228 Professions, for characters 125
102, 133, 143, 148, 150, 108, 112, 115, 168 Poet 129 Professions, honourable 12
151, 154, 155, 157, 162, Pathicus 227 Poetice 31 Property 137
164, 166 Patience 12 Poetry 2, 31, 38, 129, 131, 178, Property which is Lent 229
Naumachiae 85 Patientia 12 226 Proserpina 109
Naval Battles 85 Patricians 8 Poisoning 23 Prostitute 129
Navigation 132 Patricii 8 Political Scenarios 178 Prostitutes, types of 33
Neades 162 Patron 178 Politics 13, 132, 170 Prostitution 2, 27, 31, 32, 40,
Necromancy 130, 132, 139, 144, Patron Scenarios 177 Pollio, Marcus Vitruvius 193 227
145, 161, 179 Paulla, Aemilia 185 Pollux 35, 53, 63, 67, 197, 215, Prostitution, dangers of 32
Necropolises 2, 61 Pavor 47, 195 219 Provocator 85
Neptune 53, 108, 109, 111 Pecunaria multa 100 Polybius 13, 22, 55, 88, 94, 95, Prudence 12
Nero 37, 64, 125, 210, 226, 227 Pedere 228 96, 100, 108, 132, 172, Prudentia 12
Nervii Revolt 221 Pedicator 227 185, 186, 211, 213, 225 Public Feasts 75
Netman 85 Pegasi 164 Pomona 109 Public Law 230
Nobility 2, 10 Pensions 102 Pompae 76 Publicola, Life of 27, 125, 182,
Nuts 44 Peregrini 10 Pompey 15, 25, 52, 54, 77, 104, 219
Perfume 26, 43, 231 144, 151, 171, 187, 188, Publicola, Publius Valerius 182
O Period, Historical 171 189, 190, 191, 192, 194, Public Pool 63
Oboe 29 Peristylium 56 218, 220, 221, 222, 223 Public Works, financing 48
Obscenus 227 Personality Traits 12 Pompilius, King Numa 7 Publius Syrus 9, 154, 182, 202,
Octavian 105, 140, 171, 190, Petronius 29, 46, 102, 118, 161, Pompilius, Numa 181 211
192, 193, 194, 220, 222, 167, 221, 226 Pomponia 184 Pugilism 132
223, 224 Phalangite 94, 97 Pons Aemilius 49, 214 Pulcher, Publius Appius Claudi-
Octavianus, Gaius Julius Caesar Phalanx 89, 90, 91, 92, 94, 96, Pons Cestius 49 us 184
193 185 Pons Fabricius 49, 51, 220 Pulcher, Publius Clodius 191
Officials, lesser 19 Pharmacy 3, 130, 132, 139, 145, Pons Mulvius 49, 210, 215 Punic 5, 37, 42, 65, 88, 94, 95,
Oil lamps 59 146, 179 Pons Sublicius 49, 51, 64, 114, 96, 97, 99, 101, 105, 112,
Old Friend 179 Philosopher 129 181, 182, 195, 223 132, 134, 157, 171, 172,
Opalia 117 Philosophies as Passions 119 Pontes 2, 49 184, 185, 186, 206, 207,
Ophies 163 Philosophy 3, 118 Pontifex Maximus 109 208, 209, 211, 213, 225
Opiconsivia 116 Pickpockets 65 Pontiffs 109, 110, 112, 120 Punic Wars 5, 101, 132, 171,
Opium 147 Pictura 37 Populace, the 8 172, 225
Ops 108 Pietas 12, 53, 233 Populares, the 15, 170 Punic War, second 37
Optimates, the 15, 170, 189, 190 Piety 12 Pork 45 Punishments 23, 100
Organs and Bodily Functions Pila 34 Porsena, Lars 182 Pyrrhus Campaign 171
228 Pipes 29 Porta Carmentalis 51 Pythagoreanism 119
238
Mythic Rome: Index
Q 172, 191, 217, 225 Sibylline Books, the 111 Superstition 5, 70, 79, 112, 139,
Quæstors 2, 14, 17, 18 Salonius, Marcus Porcius Cato Sidonius 34, 79 148, 168, 190
Quattuor Praefecti Capuam 191 Silk 39 Superstition 3, 111, 139
Cumas 19 Salubritas 12 Singing 29 Swamp of the Goats 64
Quattuorviri Viis in Urbe Pur- Samnite 84 Sistra 29 Sylvan Daemones 165
gandis 19 Samnite Wars, the 48 Skepticism 119 Syracuse 37, 102, 184, 205, 206,
Quinquatrus 115 Saturn 109 Skills 130 207, 209, 210
Quirinal Hill 47, 48, 49, 195, Saturnalia 117 Slave 130
217, 218, 221 Satyricon 226 Slave, killing a master 22 T
Quirinus 109 Satyrs 76, 91, 165, 166 Slavery 9 Tabernae 2, 56, 60, 61
Quo Vadis 226 Saylor, Steven 51, 107, 226 Slaves 9, 137 Tablinum 57
Scaevola, Gaius Mucius 182 Slaves and Livestock 135 Tabula 35
R Scholar 129 Slaves and Trials 21 Tacitus 32, 37, 50, 100, 114, 125
Ramnes 13 Schools 24, 82, 83, 118, 133, 141 Snails 45 Tali 35
Ranged Weapons 138 Science Fiction 173 Snakes 152 Tambourine 29
Rattle 29 Scipio Aemilianus 28, 54, 186, Snobbery 126 Tapetes 59
Regina 53, 109, 213 213, 214 Socci 41 Tarentum 39, 184, 202, 205, 210
Religion 3, 30, 107, 141, 195, Scorpions 152 Social Class 123 Tarpeian Mount 48
196, 197, 198, 199, 200, Scortari 227 Social Structure 6 Tarquin 48, 182
201, 202, 203, 204, 205, Scribonius Curio 54, 193, 221 Society 6 Tarquinius Superbus 48, 90,
206, 207, 208, 209, 210, Sculponaeae 41 Soleae 41 182, 196
211, 212, 213, 214, 215, Sculpture 37 Soothsayers 110, 118, 127, 140, Tavern Keeper 130
216, 217, 218, 219, 220, Seamanship 132 141, 142 Teacher 130
221, 222, 223, 224, 225 Second Triumvirate 171 Sopio 228 Teacher, punishment for brutal-
Religious Law 231 Secutor 85 Sorcerer 130 ity 22
Religious Scenarios 174 Seditiones 65 Spartacus 82, 86, 99, 103, 171, Temple of Vesta, the 68
Remus 4, 31, 47, 49, 144, 145, Self defence 22 173, 188, 189, 219, 226 Temples 2, 50, 51, 107, 195, 196
171, 181, 195 Sellisternium 113 Spartacus Revolt 171 Tenements 2, 57
Respublica 13 Senate, powers of 16 Spes 68 Terence 30, 62, 84, 94, 98, 126,
Restrictions of Priests 110 Senate, the 2, 7, 8, 11, 13, 14, Sphinxes 164 128, 151, 186, 224
Retiarius 85 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 21, 31, Spina 52, 53, 79 Tertullian 79
Rewards 102 52, 54, 70, 95, 99, 100, Spirits 3, 107, 144 Tesserae 35
Rex Sacrorum 50, 109, 196 102, 103, 105, 108, 111, Sports 2, 33 Texta 38
Rhetoric 132 117, 118, 119, 122, 123, Sputare 228 Thanksgiving 112
Rhinos 152 126, 127, 132, 133, 139, Starting Equipment 134 Theatre 30
Rights of a Father 229 140, 169, 171, 172, 174, Stator 53, 113, 141 Theatres 2, 31, 54
Riots 65 178, 179, 181, 183, 185, Statuaria 37 Theatrum 30
Riots, rules for 66 186, 187, 188, 189, 190, Status 132 Theatrum Scauri 54
Rise of the First Triumvirate 171 191, 192, 193, 197, 198, Stercus 228 Theocritus 11
Rite of the Argei 115 202, 203, 207, 214, 215, Stipendium 101 Theology 3, 129, 132, 137, 139,
Robe 226 217, 223 Stoic, Cato the 191 140, 141, 179, 180
Robigalia 116 Senator 129 Stoicism 118 Thief 130
Roman Deities, Minor 231 Senator’s Wife 179 Stola 40 Thief, punishmen 22
Roman Government, evolution Senatus Populusque Romanus 4 Stoning, death by 100 Thorn Apple 147
of 13 Seneca 16, 19, 25, 32, 34, 39, 53, Stools 17, 55, 59, 66 Thracian 84
Roman Way, the 10 83, 88, 101, 118, 125, Strabo 64, 99, 113, 125, 158, 190, Tiber 2, 3, 23, 28, 33, 45, 47, 48,
Rome - HBO TV Series 7 132, 138, 141, 147, 150, 216, 217 49, 51, 52, 54, 63, 64, 67,
Romulus 4, 31, 47, 49, 63, 89, 161, 162, 178, 181, 208, Street Crime 65 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 83,
108, 109, 110, 111, 116, 223 Streets 2, 49 114, 115, 118, 173, 176,
120, 144, 171, 181, 191, Sepulcra 2, 61 Streetwise 132 181, 186, 195, 199, 200,
195, 223 Serapis 30, 118 Strix 165 201, 204, 209, 210, 211,
Rorarii 92 Sertorius, Quintus 188 Suburana 49 212, 214, 220, 221, 223,
Roscius 30 Servi 9 Suetonius 38, 43, 52, 75, 82, 83, 224, 229, 233
Rugby 34 Servian walls 49 101, 104, 124, 140, 193 Tiber Island 49, 220
Services 135 Suicide 2, 13 Tibia 29
S Servius Tullius 48, 89, 182, 195 Sulla 16, 17, 23, 27, 38, 51, 67, Time 120
Sabines 47, 63, 102, 182, 195, Severitas 12 69, 76, 77, 98, 118, 125, Timeline 195
204 Sewer 20, 48, 63, 64, 70, 176, 196 139, 140, 151, 171, 187, Tintinnabulum 29
Sabine women, rape of 195 Sewers 2, 52, 63 188, 189, 190, 193, 216, Tities 13
Sacrifice, human 113 Sexual Acts 227 217, 218, 220 Toga prætexta 17
Sacrifices 112 Shape-shifting 132, 139, 170 Sulla, Lucius Cornelius 187 Togas 40
Sagittarius 85 Shaving 42 Summons to Court 228 Tombs 2, 61
Salii 30, 110, 115, 116, 181 Shellfish 45 Superbus, Lucius Tarquinius 182 Torches 59
Salinae 68 Shields 138 Supernatural Beings 107 Torquatus, Manlius 102
Sallust 11, 21, 88, 103, 168, 170, Shopkeeper 129 Supernatural Creatures 171 Trabea 40
Shops 2, 60 Supernatural Scenarios 177 Trabeae 41
239
Mythic Rome: Index
Track 132 Villas 2, 58
Tragedies 30 Viminal hill 48
Training Schools 82 Vinalia 116
Transport 135, 137 Vinum 46
Treason 23 Virgil 4, 11, 31, 71, 80, 83, 112, 125, 146, 153,
Trials 2, 21, 22 155, 158, 159, 160, 193, 206, 209, 219,
Triarii 92 226, 232
Tribas 227 Virtues, the 11
Tribunes 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 21, 22, 52, 67, Virtus 12
95, 98, 100, 101, 104, 143, 178, 183, Volcanus 109
189, 197, 198, 199 Volsci 90
Triclinia 57 Volturnus 109
Triclinium 57 Vomitoria 54
Trigon 34 Vulcan 53, 155, 182
Trigonum 29
Triumphs and Ovations 103 W
Triumviri Capitales 19 Wages 101
Triumviri Monetales 19 Warding potions 146
Tropa 35 War with Jugurtha 103
Trumpet 29 Wastrel 179
Truthfulness 12 Wealth 169
Tuba 29 Weapons 138
Tuberculosis 71 Wedding Ceremonies 26
Tubilustrium 116 Weddings 2, 25, 26
Tullius, Servius 182 Week, length of 120
Tullus 23, 47, 52, 70, 181 Werewolf 167
Tunics 26, 40, 65, 66, 79, 100, 103, 110, 116, White hellebore 147
136, 192 Wife, duties of 25
Twelve Tables, the 22, 228 Wind Instruments 29
Tympanum 29 Wine 46
Typhoid 70, 71 Wine and Oil 136
Tyrian Purple 39 Witches 140
Wolves 153
U Women 8
Unicornis 166 Wool 38
Urine, value of 40
Y
V Years, marking 121
Valeriae Horatiae 21 Yew 147
Valerius Maximus: Memorabilia 6
Varro 42, 70, 109, 111, 115, 120, 125, 150, Z
188, 209 Zither 29
Varro, Marcus 70
Varro, Marcus Terentius 188
Vegetables 44
Vela 41, 54, 60
Velites 95
Venalia 51
Venationes 77
Venomous Snakes 152
Venus 109
Venus Victrix 54, 221
Verberatio 100
Veritas 12
Verminus 70
Verrucosus, Quintus Fabius Maximus 184
Vesta 107, 109
Vestal Virgins 8, 23, 39, 50, 109, 114, 115,
116, 174, 181, 189, 190, 215
Vestibulum 57
Vestis 40
Viae 50, 158
Via Nova 50
Via Romana 10
Via Sacra 50, 67, 176
Villae 2, 58
240
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Mythras - Mythic Rome

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Mythras - Mythic Rome

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Quick Latin Guide

The Family (Familia) The Clan (Gens)

Client System HBO TV series ‘Rome’, which is a reasonable introduction to Roman

The Census (Census)

8 Alea iacta est – The die is cast (Julius Caesar)

The Roman Way

Anguis in herba – A snake in the grass (Virgil)

restricted by law. 2 Comitas Comis Taetricus

3 Dignitas Dignus Indignus

19-20 Choose or Roll Again

Audiatur et altera pars! – Let us hear the opposite side!

The Senate (Senatus)

Aut disce aut discede – Either learn or leave

Tribunes 01-15 Lesser Official

Interrex Law and Order (Ius)

Elementary schools (ludi) simply taught reading, writing and

Marriage and Children produced by marriage inherited the social class of

Death and Funerals

26 Caeci caecos ducentes – Blind are led by the blind

Cave ab homine unius libri - Beware the man of one book

28 Cave canem - Beware the dog

Roman musical instruments are categorised as either wind,

Cedant arma togae – Let armaments yield to the toga

By the mid-Republic, just as with the playing of musical instru-

“…Flutes and pipes and piccolos sounded a very soothing harmony. An

However singing was often a common pastime amongst for-

Civis Romanus sum – I am a Roman citizen (Cicero)

32 Clara pacta, boni amici – Clear agreements, good friends

ΩΩ Attempting to cheat requires the player to roll against their Sleight

Latrunculi (Draughts) Felix Sex (Advanced Backgammon)

Consuetudinis magna vis est – The power of habit is great (Cicero)

Once nicely relaxed you could seek the services of a masseur

“Many persons quite pride themselves on enduring the heat of mineral

Painting (Pictura) Architecture (Architectura)

The Oppian law was eventually repealed under the pressure of

Whereas men visited barbers, women employed dedicated ward-

Cosmetics came in several varieties: face paints and powders

Pork was the most popular commonly available meat, coming

The City During name of the Curia Hostilia”

After a period of 240 years of almost constant wars and con-

“Or one may come upon an entire temple,

However, Rome possessed many altars

“One may step down a narrow winding street in

Some examples of Graffiti;

“Cornelius made me pregnant.”

Divide et impera – Divide and rule

Docendo discimus - Teach in order to learn

Dosis facit venemon – it is the dose that makes the poison

Shop Owners and Tradesmen (Tabernarii) Jewelers (anularii)

Dum spiro, spero – While I breathe, I hope (Cicero)

Et tu, Brute! – You too, Brutus! (Shakespeare)

ΩΩ 98 BC – Publius Furius is brought to trial for his

“While Octavius was still at home awaiting the result,

Ex nihilo nihil fit – Nothing comes from nothing (Lucretius)

“Crassus missed no chance to accept or buy any properties. Further, seeing

70 Exitus acta probat – The results justify the deed

Experto credite – Believe me, for I have experienced (Virgil)

Some epidemics were so deadly that the city became severely

Eventually, during one epidemic in 293 BC the senate ordered

The temple of Aesculapius became the centre of healing in the

Facta, non verba – Deeds, not words

Ludi Megalenses (4-10 April) Ludi Victoriae Caesaris (20-30 July)