1439/01/21

Outline
1. Introduction
- Machinability ‫دا ه ﯽ اراک‬
2. Cutting Tool materials and Tool Geometry ‫ وه ﺳﺎ ﺖ و ﻮ ﯿﺪ‬-‫دا ه ﮑﺎ ﯿﮏ‬
3. Mechanics of Cutting
- GEOMETRY OF CHIP FORMATION
- FORCES AT THE CUTTING TOOL ‫ﺗﻮاﻧﺎﻳﻲ ﻣﺎﺷﻴﻨﻜﺎري‬
- PRACTICAL MEASUREMENT OF CUTTING FORCES
4. Tool Life
Machinability
5. Surface Finish and integrity
6. Cutting Fluids
7. Machining Economics and Optimization
8. Cutting Process Simulation
‫دا ه ﯽ اراک‬

References
‫ﻧﺤﻮه ارزﻳﺎﺑﻲ‬
Machinery’s Handbook 28th Edition, Erik Oberg, 2008.
Metal cutting, Edward M. Trent, by Butterworth-Heinemann, 2000
Metal Machining, Theory and Applications, Thomas Childs Printed
%10 :‫ﭘﺮوژه ﻛﻼﺳﻲ‬ and bound in Great Britain by Redwood Books Ltd ,2000.
Metals Handbook, Volume 16 Machining, Ninth Edition 1997.
96/9/4 ‫ﺗﺎرﻳﺦ ﺑﺮﮔﺰاري ﺷﻨﺒﻪ‬- %25 :‫ﻣﻴﺎن ﺗﺮم‬ Metal Cutting Theory and Practice Manufacturing Engineering and
%65 :‫ﭘﺎﻳﺎن ﺗﺮم‬ Materials Processing, Stephenson, David, CRC Press 1997.
Modern Metal cutting, Sandvik Coromant, Technical Editorial Dept.,
‫ﺣﻀﻮر و ﻏﻴﺎب ﻳﻚ ﻧﻤﺮه‬ 1994
‫ دﻛﺘﺮ ﻣﺤﻤﺪرﺿﺎ رازﻓﺮ‬،‫ اﺻﻮل ﻣﺎﺷﻴﻨﻜﺎري و اﺑﺰارﺷﻨﺎﺳﻲ‬
‫ ﺗﺮﺟﻤﻪ دﻛﺘﺮ ﺣﺎﺋﺮﻳﺎن‬،‫ ﻣﻮاد و ﻓﺮآﻳﻨﺪﻫﺎي ﺗﻮﻟﻴﺪ ﺟﻠﺪ ﺳﻮم‬
3
4
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Why Machining is Important

Machinability
• Variety of work materials can be machined
– Most frequently applied to metals
• Variety of part shapes and special geometry features possible, such as:
• the term machinability refers:
– Screw threads
to the ease or difficulty with which a given – Gear cutting
– Accurate round holes
material (or group of materials) can be – Very straight edges and surfaces
machined . • Good dimensional accuracy and surface finish
• Wasteful of material
Disadvantages of Machining
– Chips generated in machining are wasted material, at least in the unit
operation
• Time consuming
– A machining operation generally takes more time to shape a given part
than alternative shaping processes, such as casting, powder metallurgy, or
forming
. Limitation to hard materials machining such as:
6 Super alloys, Tungsten carbide, Ceramics, … 5

Factors Affecting Machinability

Factors affecting machinability directly
Indirectly
Cutting Tool Geometry Machine Tool &
Work piece Conditions and Material Part fixture
Cutting Force • Mechanical
properties
• Cutting speed • Angles • Type of
operation
• Chemical • Depth of cut • Type
properties • Rigidity
• Physical
Cutting Mechanism properties
• Microstructure
• Feed rate

• Cutting fluid
• Coating of tool
• Work piece
holding device
• Composition
• Heat treatment
• Shape and
Cutting Temperature dimensions of
work..

8 7
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Machinability Tests
Tool life or tool wear rates

Cutting forces or power consumption

Chip form

Achievable surface finish

Surface Integrity

Achievable Tolerance

Cutting Temperature
10 9

Tool materials must have the following

properties:
 1. High penetration hardness at elevated temperatures to resist
abrasive wear;
 2. High deformation resistance to prevent the edge from ‫ﺟﻨﺲ اﺑﺰار ﺑﺮاده ﺑﺮداري‬
deforming or collapsing under the stresses produced by chip
formation; Cutting Tools Material
 3. High fracture toughness to resist edge chipping and breakage,
especially in interrupted cutting;
 4. Chemical inertness (low chemical affinity) with respect to the
work material to resist diffusion, chemical, and oxidation wear;

11
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Cutting Tools Material

Tool materials must have the following
1) CARBON AND LOW-ALLOY TOOL STEELS
2) HIGH-SPEED STEELS (HSS)
properties
- POWDERED METAL HIGH-SPEED TOOL STEELS
 5. High thermal conductivity to reduce cutting temperatures
- COATED HSS
near the tool edge;
3) CAST COBALT-BASED ALLOYS
 6. High fatigue resistance, especially for tools used in
4) CEMENTED TUNGSTEN CARBIDES
interrupted cutting;
- COATED CARBIDES
5) CERMETS  7. High thermal shock resistance to prevent tool breakage in
- TITANIUM CARBIDES interrupted cutting;
6) CERAMICS  8. High stiffness to maintain accuracy;
7) DIAMONDS  9. Adequate lubricity (low friction) with respect to the work
- SINGLE-CRYSTAL DIAMONDS material to prevent built-up edge, especially when cutting
- POLYCRYSTALLINE DIAMOND CUTTING TOOLS soft, ductile materials
8) CUBIC BORON NITRIDE (CBN) 14

There are four main properties that are

important to cutting tool materials:
 Wear resistance (the ability to stand up wear)
 Toughness (the strength to not break)
 Hot hardness ( the ability to retain hardness
and chemical stability at high temperatures)
 Recovery hardness (the ability to retain
hardness at room temperature after being
exposed to elevated temperatures)
16
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Hot hardness Recovery hardness

18 17

HIGH-SPEED STEELS (HSS) CARBON AND LOW-ALLOY TOOL STEELS

 The typical metallurgical composition of HSS was:  Prior to 1870, all turning tooling materials were
1.9% carbon, 0.3% manganese, 8% tungsten, and 3.8% produced from plain carbon steels, with a typical
chromium, with iron the remainder composition of 1% carbon and 0.2% manganese –
hot hardness: 538-593° C the remainder being iron.
 hot hardness: 200-260 °C
 By 1910, the content of tungsten had increased to 18%, with  Cutting speed:5 m/min
4% chromium and 1% vanadium, hence the wellknown18:4:1
HSS had arrived
New composition:
2% carbon, 1.6% manganese, 5.5%
 Powder Metallurgy (P/M) by metallurgical processing via Hot
Isostatic pressing (HIP), was introduced for the production of Tungsten and 0.4% chromium
HSS, Cutting speed was increased from 66.8 to 95 m/ min hot hardness: 300 °C
Cutting speed:8 m/min
 Coating by either single-, or multiple-coating has been shown Application:
to significantly enhance any tooling material titanium carbide Machining of soft, nonferrous metals such
(TiC) as brass
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CLASSIFICATION OF HSS’S
Effects of Various Elements on the
Performance of HSS.
W: Increases hot hardness and wear resistance
MO: Acts as a substitute for W (low cost)
C: Provides high hardness
Cr: Increases hardenability
V: Increases wear resistance
Co: Increases hot hardness

CAST COBALT-BASED ALLOYS APPLICATIONS OF HSS TOOLS

 Proprietary cutting tool materials are available  Despite the increased use of carbides and other
cutting tool materials, HSS’S are still employed
as cast from cobalt-chromium-tungsten alloys.
extensively—some estimates peg their use for about
60% of all metalcutting operations.

 Most drills, reamers, taps, thread chasers, end mills,

and gear cutting tools are made from HSS’S.
 They are also widely used for complexly shaped
tools such as form tools, parting (cutoff) tools for
which sharp cutting edges are required.
 Most broaches and many lathe and planer tools are
made from HSS’S.
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CEMENTED TUNGSTEN CARBIDES CAST COBALT-BASED ALLOYS

 The first cemented carbide
 High hot hardness and transverse
cutting tool material was rupture strength
developed in Germany and  good resistance to abrasive wear,
contained:  good resistance to thermal and
mechanical shock, and impact,
tungsten carbide (WC) with 4-
 low coefficient of friction against
13% cobalt (Co) as a binder.
Alloying of the two-phase WC-  They are used for a wide variety of
Co system is accomplished by tools including solid tool bits, brazed-
tip tools, toolholder inserts, cutoff
the addition of other carbides blades, grooving tools, spade drills,
such as titanium carbide (TiC) milling cutter inserts and blades
and tantalum carbide (TaC).

TiC Alloyed Grades ADVANTAGES OF CEMENTED CARBIDES

 High hardness at both room and high
temperatures The hardness of even the
 Reduction in the tendency toward built-up softest carbide used for machining is
significantly higher than the hardest tool
edges on the cutting tools steel. Hot hardness

 Higher cutting speeds.

 Reduction in the diffusion wear process at
 Cemented carbides are also characterized
the high temperatures by high compressive strength values. The
compressive strength is most influenced by
Co content.

 Improve the Hot hardness  The modulus of elasticity (resistance to
bending under load) of cemented carbides
is high—about 2-3 times that of steel. This
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The two most popular TaC Alloyed Grades

classification of cemented  Although TaC has lower hardness than TiC at room
temperature, the hot hardness is higher. Therefore,
carbide cutting tools
1) The International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
 TaC improve wear resistance at cutting temperatures.
 The coefficient of thermal expansion for TaC more closely
system, based on 1SO Standard 513-1975(E),which is matches that for WC-Co, thereby resulting in better resistance
widely used in Europe The ISO committee for this to thermal shock.
standard is considering eliminating the M classification
of carbides and adding a C to the ends of other  TaC is useful when added to WC-Co compositions to produce
designation numbers for coated inserts, grades for special applications. These applications include :
 trimming hot flash from welded tubes,
 deep slotting when heat generation is high and cutting fluid
application difficult,
2) The unofficial C-classification system initiated in the  machining uranium when chip adhesion is a serious problem.
U.S. automotive industry and more commonly used in
the United States  The high cost of TaC, however, has led some producers to use
substitutions, including niobium carbide (NbC), columbium
carbide (CbC), mixtures of TaC and CbC, or hafnium carbide
(HfC) and CbC.

COATED CARBIDES
 ADVANTAGES
 Improves wear resistance and provides longer life for the inserts
 High-strength, temperature-resistant.
 Higher speed operation, (recommended for improved
productivity and reduced costs).
 Increased versatility of coated carbide inserts. (Because the
available grades generally overlap several of the C
classifications for uncoated carbide tools). This simplifies the
selection process and reduces inventory requirements.
Most producers of coated carbide inserts offer three grades: one
for machining cast iron and Nonferrous metals and Two for
cutting steels..
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TYPES OF COATINGS COATED CARBIDES

 Titanium carbide (TiC) LIMITATIONS
 Titanium nitride (TiN)  Coated carbide inserts are not suitable for light finishing cuts,
 Hafnium nitride (HfN) including precision boring and turning of thin-walled
workpieces, usually require sharp cutting edges for
 Alumina (Al2O3)
satisfactory results.
 TiN(C, N) Titanium Carbonitride
 (Ti,Al) N , Titanium Aluminum Nitride  Most heavy roughing operations

 Coated carbide inserts are slightly higher in cost.

 Index able inserts intended for one-time use

Properties of TiN-coated Properties of TiC-coated

 TiN-coated is not as hard as TiC,  High hot hardness and chemical stability at
elevated temperatures,
 lower coefficient of friction
 Good wear resistance, TiC coatings are superior in
The TiN coatings is that they usually do not resistance to nose and flank wear
cause decarburization of the substrates,as  Low friction at the tool/ workpiece interface.
is the case with TiC coatings.
 TiC-coated carbide inserts permit an increase in
cutting speed of 50 100%,compared to uncoated
carbide inserts having the same strength. and at a
given speed,
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Properties of HfN-coated Properties of AL2O3-coated

 HfN coatings have a coefficient of  High hot hardness,

expansion that is almost the same as WC.  Better chemical stability under cutting
thus eliminating any danger of chipping conditions,
due to differential expansion at elevated  Excellent heat barrier provide the capability of
cutting temperatures. high-speed operation that is about twice the
speed possible for operations using TiC-coated
carbide inserts.
 HfN coatings include high stability and hot  The speed range of 305-549 m/min for cast irons
hardness, plus good resistance to wear and and 213-274 m/ min for cutting of steels.
cratering.

Cermet ‫ﺳﺮﻣﺖ‬ Properties OF COATINGS

 These tool materials derive their
name from the use of ceramic
materials with a metallic
binder.
 Titanium carbide
 Titanium carbonitride
Ti(C, N)+Ni/Mo
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APPLICATIONS ADVANTAGES
 Resistance to edge buildup and cratering High resistance to
wear (permits holding close tolerances on long finishing
cuts).
 TiC tools are widely used for finishing and  Capability of producing smooth surface finishes, often
eliminating the need for subsequent grinding.
precision machining of steels that require high
 The range of possible cutting speeds approaches the range
speeds and light-to moderate feed rates. used for ceramic tools, but superior strength permits heavier
cuts—resulting in the removal of more metal at the same
tool life.
 These were considered the only feasible  Compared with WC tools operating at equivalent speeds, TiC
applications for early available grades; because can provide longer tool life or faster cutting speeds at the
same tool life.
of this, the material has often been considered  TiC tools can tolerate wider variations in cutting speeds than
usable only in filling a gap between tungsten either WC or ceramic tools.
carbide and ceramic tools  TiC inserts are less expensive than those made of WC.

ADVANTAGES OF CERAMIC TOOLS Ceramic tools ‫اﺑﺰارﻫﺎي ﺳﺮاﻣﻴﻚ‬

 Aluminium base material
 High hot hardness
 Low coefficient of friction, -Alumina and Titanium Carbide
 High wear resistance. Al2O3-TiC(25 to 40 vol%)
 Chemical inertness -Alumina-Zirconia
 Low coefficient of thermal conductivity. (Most of
the heat generated during cutting is carried away Al2O3-ZrO2 (10, 25, 40 vol%)
in the chips, resulting in less heat buildup in the
workpiece, insert, and toolholder.)
 Smoother surface finishes aid size control.  Silicon Nitride base (Si3N4)
 Capability of machining many hard metals( often
eliminating the need for subsequent grinding).
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APPLICATIONS LIMITATIONS
 Ceramic cutting tools are used  Ceramic tools are more brittle than
successfully for the high speed carbides. Mechanical shock must be
machining of cast irons and minimized, and thermal shock must
steels, particularly those be avoided.
 Ceramic cutting tools are useful
for machining abrasive materials  They are usually not recommended
and most chemically reactive for heavy interrupted cutting.
materials, they are not suitable,
as previously mentioned, for  Another possible limitation of using
cutting refractory metals, such as ceramic tools is that thicker inserts,
titanium and reactive metal sometimes required to compensate
alloys, and certain aluminum for the lower transverse rupture
alloys. strength of the tools

ADVANTAGES SINGLE-CRYSTAL DIAMONDS

 Extreme hardness and abrasion resistance can
result in singlecrystal diamond tools retaining their  Diamond is the cubic
cutting edges virtually unchanged throughout most crystalline form of carbon
of their useful lives. that is produced in various
sizes under high heat and
 High thermal conductivity and low compressibility pressure.
and thermal expansion provide dimensional stability,  Natural, mined single-
thus assuring the maintenance of close tolerances crystal stones of the
and the production of smooth finishes. industrial type used for
cutting tools are cut (sawed,
 The diamond’s chemical inertness, cleaved, or lapped) to
 low coefficient of friction, and smoothness, chips do produce the cutting-edge
not adhere to its surface or form built-up edges when geometry required for the
nonferrous and nonmetallic materials are machined. application.
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APPLICATIONS LIMITATIONS
 Orienting the diamond in the soft direction will cause
premature wear and possibly flaking or chipping.
 Nonferrous metals such as aluminum, brass,  Tools with a low impact resistance require careful handling
copper, bronze, and other bearing materials. and protection against shock. Such tools should only be used
on rigid machines in good condition.
 Precious metals such as gold, silver, and
 Single-crystal diamond tools are not suitable for cutting
platinum. ferrous metals, particularly alloys having high tensile
 Nonmetallic and abrasive materials. including strengths, because the high cutting forces required may
break the tools.
hard rubber, phenolic or other plastics or resins,
 The diamond tends to react chemically with such materials,
cellulose acetate, compressed graphite and and it will graphitize at temperatures between 1450 and 1800°
carbon, composites, some carbides and F (788 and 982° C).
ceramics, fiberglass, and a variety of epoxies and  Single-crystal diamond tools are also not recommended for
fiberglass-filled resins, interrupted cutting of hard materials or for the removal of
scale from rough surfaces.

LIMITATIONS POLYCRYSTALLINE DIAMOND

CUTTING TOOLS
 They are not generally suitable for  An important advantage of polycrystalline diamond
cutting tools is that the crystals are randomly
machining ferrous metals such as steel and oriented so that the agglomerate does not have the
cast iron. cleavage planes found in singlecrystal diamond
cutting tools. As a result, hardness and abrasion
 Diamonds—both natural and synthetic—are resistance are uniformly high in all directions,
carbon, which reacts chemically with 

ferrous metals at high cutting temperatures  Polycrystalline diamond cutting tools often cost less
thansingle-crystal diamond tools
 The high cost of polycrystalline diamond
tools, as well as single-crystal diamond  The compacts are also tougher than single-crystal
diamonds and provide increased versatility,
tools, limits their application to operations permitting the production of a wider variety of
cutting tools with more desirable shapes.
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CUBIC BORON NITRIDE APPLICATIONS

 Cubic boron nitride (CBN), a form of boron

nitride (BN), is a superabrasive crystal that is  Tools made from polycrystalline diamond are most
suitable for cutting very abrasive nonmetallic
second in hardness and abrasion resistance
materials, such as carbon, presintered ceramics,
only to diamond. fiberglass and its composites, graphite, reinforced
plastics, and hard rubber; nonferrous metals, such
as aluminum alloys (particularly those containing
silicon), copper, brass, bronze, lead, zinc, and their
alloys; and presintered carbides and sintered
tungsten carbides having a cobalt content

ADVANTAGES
 Greater heat resistance than diamond tools.
 High level of chemical inertness. This provides greater
resistance to oxidation and chemical attack by many
workpiece materials machined at high cutting
temperatures—including ferrous metals.
 Aplication
 Compacted CBN tools are suitable, unlike diamond tools,
for the highs peed machining of tool and alloy steels with
harnesses to RC70, steel forgings and Ni-Hard or cast
irons with harnesses from RC45-68, surface-hardened
parts, and nickel or cobalt-based superalloy. They have
also been used successfully for machining powdered
metals, plastics, and graphite.