I.

INTRODUCTION
Global energy consumption in 2001 was estimated at 13.9 trillion kilowatt-hours. If the
present demand continues, it is estimated that the global demand by 2025 the world will be
using 23.7 trillion kilowatt-hours (EIA, 2006).

Buildings require huge amount of energy both in their construction and more so during
its lifetime. Thus, our buildings collectively account for a substantial portion of global energy
consumption.

According to the International Energy Agency (IEA), buildings are responsible for
consuming more than half of global energy and one-third of energy resources from natural gas.
The IEA also notes that buildings are responsible for releasing one-third of total greenhouse gas
emissions.

With rapidly increasing demands, swiftly dwindling resources and increasing impact of
global warming, energy efficiency has become a paramount issue on a global scale these days.
It has transformed the idea of energy conservation from a “choice” to a “growing necessity”.

“The purpose of a building is to perform a function “ (Salvadori, 1990)

In the presence of vast numbers of design considerations and details, it is common for
practitioners of Architecture these days to overlook one of the most basic facts about buildings.
When man first began to build structures, we were merely satisfying our needed to provide our
relatively frail bodies with a shelter to protect it from the elements of nature.

Although we have seen enormous leaps in building technology, the fact remains that
our buildings continue to serve one of its most basic functions since our sedentary existence
began and that is “to provide humans with shelter”.

However, because of variations in climatic conditions we can see the responses to the
necessity of “providing shelter” vary greatly. Example of this is the Igloo and Adobe Mud Hut.
Both structures are meant to provide shelter for its occupants but vary greatly in the elements
in which it must “fight against”. This great difference in its design response brought about the
equally great difference in the climate on which the buildings are built. The Igloo is an
exemplary demonstration in taking advantage of the freezing arctic conditions. The Adobe Mud
Hut on the other hand creates a “thermally heavy-weight structure” that is able to maintain a
constant internal temperature (Battle-McCarthy,1999).
source:cdep notes
II. CLIMATIC DESIGN FACTORS
Buildings are constantly subject to several climatic and environmental elements. From
wind, sunlight, temperature, rain and other factors, buildings across the globe interact uniquely
with the different elements of their surrounding climate. Because of this, building design and
construction methods vary from one place to another to accommodate different challenges.

1. Wind

Wind is a significant factor in building and construction because of its destructive

capability. Both average wind speeds and prevailing direction must be considered in the
design process for the building to be able to withstand the peak of wind forces.
Building features like roofs and cladding are most vulnerable to wind. Residential
buildings, in particular, are designed to resist wind forces with ridge and hip designs.
Underneath, strong and durable dry hip systems provide resistance against uplift forces.

2. Rainfall

Rainfall is also an important consideration for building projects. Accumulation of

rainfall can be detrimental to the integrity of a building, hence why more buildings in
wetter regions of the world are built with gable or hip roofs as opposed to flat roof
systems.
Protecting internal structures and materials from rainfall is also essential, again
relying on a solid roof barrier and underlying membrane.

3. Temperature

Temperature has a significant influence on the materials used in a building

project. Air temperature determines the materials used for the above-ground structure,
while soil-temperature plays a big role in the choice of foundation.
The average air temperature also determines the use and thickness of insulation
in a building, with colder climates needing more insulation to retain heat.

4. Sunlight
 Sunlight is an important consideration because of the role of the sun’s energy.
Warmer regions of the world, namely areas nearer to the equator, adopt different
building practices and designs to block more sunlight. For example, smaller windows are
used to limit the amount of sunlight entering a building, as opposed to colder regions
where the window to wall ratio changes to harness more sunlight.
Designing buildings to face a certain way is also an important task for architects
to capture light at certain times of the day and avoid it at others.

5. Humidity

Finally, humidity is a significant factor when choosing building materials and

designing structures. Higher levels of humidity increase the likelihood of
condensation and water erosion in buildings, so water-resistant and anti-corrosive
materials are chosen to limit this issue. Furthermore, circulation in buildings with higher
internal or external humidity is a more significant consideration to protect the structural
integrity.

https://www.build-review.com/what-climate-factors-are-important-considerations-for-building-projects

III. INTRODUCTION TO CLIMATIC DESIGN

III.1. History and Background: Types of Climates and
Corresponding Characteristics
CLIMATE - Defined as the integration in time of weather conditions,
characteristics of a certain geographical location. The average weather condition of a
place, usually measured over one year.

* Weather is the day to day condition of the atmosphere, includes temperature,

rainfall and wind

There are 4 major climate zones:

1. Tropical zone(Hot humid) from 0°–23.5°(between the tropics)
In the regions between the equator and the tropics (equatorial
region), the solar radiation reaches the ground nearly vertically at
noontime during almost the entire year. Thereby, it is very warm in these
regions. Through high temperatures, more water evaporates and the air
is often moist. The resulting frequent and dense cloud cover reduces the
effect of solar radiation on ground temperature.
2. Subtropics(Hot Arid) from 23.5°–40°
The subtropics receive the highest radiation in summer, since the Sun's angle at
noon is almost vertical to the Earth, while the cloud cover is relatively thin. These
regions receive less moisture that increases the effect of radiation. Therefore, most of
the deserts in the world are situated in this zone. In winter, the radiation in these
regions decreases significantly, and it can temporarily be very cool and moist.

3. Temperate zone from 40°–60°

In the temperate zone, the solar radiation arrives with a smaller angle, and the
average temperatures here are much cooler than in the subtropics. The seasons and day
length differ significantly in the course of a year. The climate is characterised by less
frequent extremes, a more regular distribution of the precipitation over the year and a
longer vegetation period - therefore the name "temperate".

4. Cold zone from 60°–90°

The polar areas between 60° latitude and the poles receive less heat through
solar radiation, since the Sun has a very flat angle toward the ground. Because of the
changes of the Earth axis angle to the Sun, the day length varies most in this zone. In
the summer, polar days occur. Vegetation is only possible during a few months per year
and even then is often sparse. The conditions for life in these regions are very hard.
The characteristics of the climate zones change with great altitude differences
within a small area, like in mountain areas, since temperatures decrease rapidly with
altitude, changing the climate compared to valleys.
General climate zones – meteoblue https://content.meteoblue.com › meteoscool › general-cli..
 *TROPICAL DESIGN is concerned with countries where discomfort is due to heat
and humidity and are the predominant problems

III.2. Climatic Data, Comfort and Analysis

Macro Climate – climate of a region and/ or the entire country.

It provides the basis upon which micro-climate can be estimated.
Micro Climate – climate of a site and its immediate environs.
Dry Bulb Temperature (DBT) – measurement of air temperature measured under a
shade.
Relative Humidity (RH) – amount of moisture in the air
Sky or celestial dome - is everything that lies a certain distance above the surface of
Earth, including the atmosphere and the rest of outer space. It
is here defined as only the denser portions of the
atmosphere. Some of the natural phenomena seen in the sky
are clouds, rainbows, and aurorae. Lightning and precipitation
can also be seen in the sky during storms. Due to human
activities, smog during the day and light pollution during the
night are often seen above large cities.

The design of buildings that respond to the environment involves the use of :
- Principles of solar design
- Detailed understanding of the complex relationship between architectural
design, building materials, human behaviour and climatic factors
- Utilization of all forms of natural energy to provide required comfort
conditions within the built-up space defined as climatic design.

Before elaborating on the ways and means to achieve human comfort in the
built-space, it is useful to define what exactly constitutes comfort.
Comfort Levels are influenced by three (3) main factors:

1. Mean Radiant Temperature (MRT)

Temperature is one of the main parameters on which comfort of the inhabitants
depends.
MRT is a measure of the average temperature of the surfaces that surround a
particular point, with which it will exchange thermal radiation. If
the point is exposed to the outside, this may include the sky temperature and solar
radiation. Measured using a globe thermometer.
https://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Mean_radiant_temperature

2. Humidity
It is the moisture content present in the air.
The level of humidity greatly influences evaporative cooling. The greater the
moisture content in the air the lesser is the effect of evaporative cooling. Therefore
efforts to reduce humidity levels within a space result in better conditions.

3. Air Movement or Ventilation

It can be used to considerably cool the interiors of a building.
 Air movement over the skin results in Evaporative cooling – as the air moves
over the skin, the perspiration on the skin surface evaporates leading to cooling of
the surrounding area.
Air movement also affects conductive-convective heat transfer between the skin
and air. The velocity of the air is also important as stagnant air creates a suffocating
effect as the air turns stale due to respiration, foul odors, smoke, etc.
Therefore removal of this air and its replacement with fresh air is very important
which directly depends on adequate cross ventilation of the spaces, which results in
proper air movement and velocity.

* Modifying Factor is Air Temperature

A combination of the three factors is responsible for the maintenance of proper
living conditions within the space.
Therefore it is possible to maximize the cooling effect of these factors by making
use of proper design elements and the principles of solar Architecture to reduce our
dependency on external energy to maintain a comfortable living environment.
IV. CLIMATIC ELEMENTS AND FACTORS

COMMON CLIMATIC ELEMENTS

FOR BUILDING DESIGN

1. TEMPERATURE – annual, monthly and diurnal maximum and minimum

Temperature
2. Humidity – early morning relative humidity (in %), early afternoon relative
humidity (in %)

A relative humidity of 100% means that the air can't hold any more water
vapor. It's totally saturated. When this occurs, it can rain. The relative humidity
must be 100% where clouds are forming for it to rain.

High relative humidity means the air is saturated with water vapor thus
our sweat won’t evaporate. Giving us a hotter feeling than the actual
temperature. Low relative humidity make us feel cooler than the actual
temperature because sweat evaporate s more quickly because of the dry air.
 3. Solar Radiation (Sunlight) – monthly mean daily total (in Wh/sq.m.)
4. Wind – prevailing wind speed (m/s) ,direction , frequency and force of the wind
throughout the year
5. Rainfall – monthly total (in mm)

FACTORS AFFECTING CLIMATIC DESIGN

1. Topography – the elevation, slopes, hills and valleys, ground surface conditions
2. Vegetation – height, mass, silhouette, texture, location, growth patterns
3. Built forms – nearby buildings, surface conditions
4. Major thermal design factors such as solar heat gain, conduction and ventilation heat flow
5. Shape – surface to volume ratio, orientation, building height
6. Building fabric – materials and construction, thermal insulation, surface qualities, shading and
sun control
7. Fenestration – the size, position and orientation of windows, window glass materials, external
and internal shading devices
8. Ventilation- air tightness, outdoor fresh air, cross ventilation and natural ventilation

V. MICROCLIMATIC CONSIDERATIONS
Micro climate is any climatic condition in a relatively small area, within a few
metres or less above and below the Earth’s surface and within canopies of vegetation. It
also applies to the surface of terrestrial and glaciated environments and could also
pertain to surfaces of oceans and other bodies of water.

Microclimatic conditions depend on the following factors:

1. Temperature – dry-bulb temperature

2. Humidity – expressed as relative or absolute humidity
3. wind – wind speed and direction
4. turbulence
5. Dew
6. Frost
7. heat balance
8. evaporation

Large scale microclimates - are affected by Topography, Large bodies of water and
urban areas
Small scale microclimates - are affected or created by items such as houses, fences,
rocks, ponds, raised beds, soil types and paved surfaces.
VI. TROPICAL DESIGN CONCEPTS , STRATEGIES AND THEORIES
VI.1. PROBLEMS IN AREAS WITH TROPICAL CLIMATES
1. HIGH TEMPERATURE LEVEL (HEAT)
 Heat gain due to direct solar radiation
 Heat gain due to reflected solar radiation
 Heat gain due to long wave radiation
 Heat transfer (convection )
 others
2. HIGH HUMIDITY LEVELS
 Water content in the air and on the body does not evaporate as
fast resulting in very low comfort levels
3. SLOW WIND VELOCITY
4. HIGH PRECIPITATION LEVELS DURING RAINY DAYS
5. HIGH INCIDENCE OF TYPHOONS
6. ABUNDANCE OF INSECTS AND RODENTS DUE TO DAMP GROUND
CONDITIONS

VI.2. DESIGN OBJECTIVES IN TROPICAL CLIMATES

1. MinimizeHeatGain
 Protectfromdirectandreflectedsolarradiationwithinagivenurbanorinteriorspace.
 PreventoccurrenceoflongLongWaveRadiationwithinagivenurbanorinteriorspace.
 Preventmaterialsfromstoringheat/protectmaterialsfromheatgain.
2. MaximizeVentilationbutprotectfromtyphoonwind
3. Preventunnecessaryincreaseinhumiditylevels
 Avoiduseofwaterelementswithinagivenurbanorinteriorspace
4. Haveagooddrainagesystemstoaccommodatehighannualprecipitation.
5. Protectspacesfrominsectsandrodents.

VI.3. CONCEPTS AND STRATEGIES

2 General Approaches in Ecological Building Design
1. Passive Design System – a low energy design that uses a building’s
morphology and construction to maintain a comfortable temperature within
the building.
Example:
Proper Building Orientation - in tropical climates, the West-facing
side of a building receives large amounts of heat from the afternoon
sun. By locating service spaces on this side of the building, the habitable
spaces will remain cool and require less energy for air-conditioning.
 Sun Shading devices – By having adequate sun-shading devices,
the interior spaces of a building are protected from solar heat gain thus
also for savings in energy required for air conditioning.

Yeang (2000) lists 8 passive systems that can be used in building

design:
1. Passive Design by Building Configuration
2. Passive Design by Built Form Orientation
3. Passive Design by Façade Design
4. Passive Design through Solar Control Devices
5. Passive design Concepts
6. Passive Design by Color of Building Envelope
7. Passive Design by Vertical Landscaping
8. Passive Design by Use of Wind and Natural Ventilation

Similarly, The Department of Energy (DOE) of the United States

government through its Federal Energy Management Program presents
seven (7) basic techniques to increase the energy efficiency of buildings.
1. Siting and organizing the building configuration and massing
to reduce loads.
2. Reduce cooling loads by eliminating undesirable solar heat
gain
3. Reducing heating loads by using desirable solar heat gain.
4. Using natural light as a substitute for (or complement)
electrical lighting.
5. Using natural ventilation whenever possible
6. Using more efficient heating and cooling equipment to satisfy
reduced loads.
7. Using computerized building control systems

Likewise, Hui (1997) notes that there are six (6) planning concepts that
affect the energy performance of a building in passive design:
1. Site selection
2. Site Layout
3. Building Configuration
4. Building Shape
5. Building Orientation
6. Spacing and spatial relationships with other buildings

2. Active Design System – achieved through electro-mechanical means.

Although these systems require energy to function, they are designed to cause
a general reduction in the building’s total energy consumption.
 Examples:
 Daylight Sensors – regulates artificial light depending on amount
of natural light entering the building.
 Automatic Blinds – protects interior spaces automatically from
the afternoon sun
 Rain Sensor – automatically deactivated the Automatic Irrigation
System of the gardens to save on water consumption
 Motion Detectors – switches off lights in areas with no
movement to reduce light consumption
 Integrated Lighting Control System - allows programming of
building lights to conserve on energy consumption
 The Carbon Monoxide (CO) Monitoring – operates fans to flush
out Carbon Monoxide when levels exceed 15 ppm
 Integrated Building Management System (BMS) –monitors and
controls the mechanical and electrical (M&E) equipment to
optimize their operation of the systems.
 The Variable Air Volume (VAV) terminal units of the Air
Conditioning and Mechanical Ventilation (ACMV) System –
optimized the volume of air supplied to each space
 Pressure Sensors on Escalators – detects pressure and operates
escalators only when someone uses them.

PASSIVE COOLING CONCEPTS

1. PASSIVE COOLING THROUGH ORIENTATION

2. PASSIVE COOLING THROUGH SITE LAYOUT
3. PASSIVE COOLING THROUGH FAÇADE DESIGN
4. PASSIVE COOLING THROUGH SOLAR CONTROL DEVICES
5. PASSIVE DAYLIGHT CONCEPTS
6. PASSIVE COOLING BY VERTICAL LANDSCAPING
7. PASSIVE COOLING BY WIND AND NATURAL VENTILATION

source:cdep notes