BIOL 103: GENERAL ECOLOGY

MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION TO GENERAL ECOLOGY

2ND SEMESTER | S.Y. 2021-2022 TRANSCRIBED BY: KATE LINDSAY MONTESCLAROS
LECTURER: MR. ARCHIE ALONG

ECOLOGY DEFINITIONS ecosystems can change quickly while some

❖ Ecology is an environmental science in its most remain constant over longer periods.
literal sense – the study of environments and the
A HISTORY OF ECOLOGY
entities within it.
❖ The word “ecology” comes from the Greek and
means “house study” or “living relations study”. ANTIQUITY TO 1900
That essentially defines what it is – the study of ❖ The philosophy behind the various and
relationships between those who occupy a sometimes disparate sciences emerged in the late
home. 19th century out of the growing interest in natural
❖ Ecology is the scientific study of interactions sciences – botany, zoology, and
which determine distribution and abundance of environmentalism mostly.
organisms (Krebs, 1792) ❖ Some argue that awareness of species and their
❖ Ecology deals with the prediction of biomass, relationships began with Aristotle, although his
productivity and diversity (Peters, 1980) writings on the matter are largely lost.
❖ Ecology deals with the description, explanation ❖ Aristotle’s student – Theophrastus described
and prediction of individuals, populations, and relationships between plants and animals but this
communities in space and time (Begon, Harper was from a philosophical rather than a scientific
and Townsend, 1986) perspective.
❖ The first true ecological study as we would
WHAT IT IS, WHAT IT ISN’T
understand it is arguably the Park Grass
❖ Ecology studies organic life, examining such
Experiment which began in 1856 by John B.
elements as spatial distribution (local or general)
Lawes and Joseph H. Gilbert, and to date in 2018,
abundance and their relationship with the
is ongoing.
environment.
➢ This includes their interaction with other
organisms within that environment –
essentially their “interrelatedness” as a
functioning network.
❖ It is considered a form of environmentalism and it
is usually associated with these sciences, but it
also includes aspects of biology, botany, zoology,
genetics, bacteriology, chemistry and physics.
➢ Ecology is about biodiversity in a given
environment. It has as much in common with
physiology, behavioral sciences and the
evolutionary sciences as it has with
environmental sciences in concerning time
❖ Two of Charles Darwin’s contemporaries also
and space.
made their own contributions.
❖ Its main areas include:
❖ His friend Alfred Russell Wallace looked at the
➢ The process that makes up biological life
geography of animal species. There was a growing
including adaptation
movement within the biological sciences that
➢ Distribution, abundance and spatial
recognized how species did not exist in a bubble –
concentration, and biodiversity
that they were dependent on each other.
➢ How and why ecosystems begin or are
changed when subject to external pressures
➢ Changes to and movement of, energy and
materials through an ecosystem. Some
 ❖ Arthur Tansley coined the term “ecosystem”.
Tansley’s important work was in presenting
ecology as a philosophy. This alone perhaps
permitted its adoption into the theories of many
scientific disciplines.
❖ Also, in the early part of the 20th century, American
botanist Henry Chandler Cowles effectively
founded the concept of “dynamic ecology”. His
work demonstrated how environmental influences
❖ The second contemporary was Johannes Eugenius change a landscape; unlike his contemporary
Warming. botanist, he was largely interested in landscape
❖ For the first time, the change as an influencer of botanical profiles.
scientific community started
to consider the importance of
environmental factors on the
biological systems within it.
Warming is now considered to
have created Botanical
Geography (known also as
biogeography and today as a
division of ecology) and contributed greatly to the
modern discipline.

20TH CENTURY TO THE MODERN ERA

❖ Tansley’s and Cowles’ work broadened the scope f
❖ This was when the term “biosphere” was coined
ecology.
and the recognition of the strict chemical
❖ Also, in the first half of the century, Charles Elton
balances required for life to evolve and sustain
began animal ecology, but the real breakthrough
itself was identified.
was the work of British-born ecologist G. Evelyn
❖ Vladimir I. Vernadsky, a Russian geologist who
Hutchinson and his work across New England.
defected to France around the time of the Russian
❖ Under his work, ecology became an applied
Revolution, wrote extensively about the
science as well as theoretical. His work impacted
biosphere in the aptly titled study “The
many subdisciplines including biogeochemistry
Biosphere” published in 1926.
(the impact of geological, biological and chemical
❖ He did not coin the term. That honor goes to a
actions on the environment), entomology
fellow geologist by the name of Eduard Suess, an
(insects), genetics, limnology (inland water
Austrian, in 1875. The concept of the idea of our
bodies), and population dynamics theory.
planet and the biological systems within it making
up part of a whole was born.
 FATHER OF ECOLOGY - Identified many rules of heredity. These rules
❖ ERNST HAECKEL is the FATHER OF ECOLOGY and determine how traits are passed through
a writer of popular science. generations of living things.
❖ HANS DRIESCH is a student of Haeckel and the Carl Ludwig Willdenow (1765-1812)
author of A History and Theory of Vitalism. - One of the early plant geographers.
❖ C.K. OGDEN translates Driesch’s book in 1914. - He pointed out that similar climates
supported vegetation similar in form,
even though the species were different.
❖ EUGEN P. ODUM is the FATHER OF MODERN
ECOLOGY. Freidrich Heinrich Alexander Von
Humboldt (1769-1859)
Ecology is the study of structure and function of - Plant geographer
nature or the study of ecosystems (Odum, 1972) - He spent 5 years exploring Latin
America, including the Orinoco and
Amazon Rivers.
OTHER SCIENTISTS
- He correlated vegetation with environmental
❖ Ecology was originally coined in 1866 in General
characteristic and coined the term Plant Association.
Morphology, a book on biology and philosophy by R.A Lindeman (1915-1942)
Prof. Ernst Haeckel. - He traced “energy-available”
➢ Haeckel defined it as “the comprehensive relationship within a lake community.
science of the relationship of the organism to - His 1942 paper, “The Trophic-Dynamic
the environment.” Aspects of Ecology”, marked the
❖ The first usage was in a letter by Henry David beginning of ecosystem ecology, the
Thoreau in 1858. study of whole living systems.
Thomas Malthus (1766-1834)
Jean Baptiste de Lamarck (1744-1829) -An economist
evolution by acquired characteristics - Advanced the principle that
populations grow in a geometric
fashion, doubling at regular intervals
Charles Darwin (1809-1882) until the outstrip the food supply.
-Considered as the founder of the William Wheeler – studied the behavior of ants.
modern theory of evolution Charles Carpenter – studied the behaviors of South
-developed the Natural Selection Theory American Monkeys
- In 1859, he published “On the Origin of Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tindergen – gave a strong
Species by Means of Natural Selection” importance to the field with their pioneering studies
Alfred Russel Wallace (1823-1913) in the role of imprinting and instinct in the social life
- He was a British naturalist, explorer, of animals, particularly birds and fishes.
geographer, anthropologist, and
biologist.
- He is best known for independently THE ECONOMY OF NATURE
conceiving the theory of evolution ❖ The investigation of the total relations of the
through natural selection; hispaper on the subject animal both its inorganic and its organic
was ointly published with some of Charles Darwin’s environment; including, above all, its friendly and
writings in 1858. inimical relations with those animals and plants
- FATHER OF BIOGEOGRAPHY with which it comes directly or indirectly into
- He made many other contributions to the
contact.
development of evolutionary theory besides being
➢ In a word, ecology is the study of all complex
co-discoverer of natural selection; the concept of
warning coloration in animals, and the Wallace interrelations referred to by Darwin as the
effect, (hypothesis on how natural selection could conditions of the struggle for existence.
contribute tospeciation by encouraging the DIFFERENT WAYS OF APPROACHING THE STUDY
development of barriers against hybridization.) OF ECOLOGY
❖ Kinds of Ecology as defined by concept and
Gregor Johann Mendel (1822-1884)
perspective
- Founded the science of genetics
➢ Landscape
- FATHER OF GENETICS
➢ Ecosystem
➢ Physiological
 ➢ Behavioral among organisms and parts of the
➢ Community environment.
❖ Kinds of Ecology as defined by organism ➢ Physiological – Physiological ecology is the
➢ Plant study of how individual organisms interact
➢ Animal with their environment to carry out the
➢ Microbe biochemical processes and express the
➢ Zooplankton behavioral adaptations that accomplish
➢ Human homeostasis and survival.
➢ Deer ➢ Behavioral – The goal of behavioral ecology is
➢ Tree to understand how a plant or animal’s
❖ Kinds of Ecology as defined by habitat behavior is adapted to its environment. That
➢ Terrestrial is, behavior is understood to be the result of
➢ Lakes and streams (limnology) an evolutionary process.
➢ Marine (oceanography) ➢ Population - Population ecology focuses on
➢ Arctic how and why populations change in size and
➢ Rain Forest location over time.
➢ Benthic thermal vents ➢ Community – Community ecologists examine
➢ Urban the patterns and interactions seen in groups,
❖ Kinds of Ecology as defined by application or aggregations, of different species. The
➢ Theoretical distribution of species is influenced both by
➢ Conservation biological interactions (such as predation and
➢ Agricultural competition) and by environmental factors
➢ Public Policy (such as tempt, water and nutrient
➢ Academic availability)
➢ Management
TECHNIQUES SPECIFIC TO DIFFERENT KINDS OF
➢ Restoration
ECOLOGY
ECOLOGICAL CONCEPTS: THE KINDS OF ECOLOGY ❖ Landscape – Satellites, photos, maps, and
❖ Ecology – the study of the relationships, computers are essential, especially for geographic
distribution, and abundance of organisms, or information system (GIS)
groups of organisms, in an environment ❖ Ecosystem – Calorimeter pressure bomb,
❖ People and Nature – All environments change, quantitative chemical analysis
and people have been important forces shaping ❖ Physiological – Respirometer, treadmill, infrared
these changes for only a tiny fraction of Earth’s gas analyzer (IRGA), stable isotope chemistry,
history. light sensors, thermocouples
➢ Historical ecology examines these ❖ Population – Sampling traps, computers
environmental changes by focusing on ❖ Behavioral – Video equipment. Event recorder,
questions about how humans have affected binoculars, radiotags, geographic position
the environment, how our cultural attitudes satellites, computer, DNA fingerprinting
affect how we do ecology, and the history of ❖ Community – Quadrat sampling, species
how humans have attempted to manage the identification book, enclosures
environment.
IMPORTANCE OF ECOLOGY
❖ Landscape – the landscape can be thought of as
❖ Ecology is important because of the insights it
being made up of different patches, characterized
provides about the ways in which people and
by different organisms and environments.
nature depend on one another.
❖ Ecosystem – Ecosystem ecology is the study of the
❖ Understanding the workings of ecological systems
interactions of organisms with the transport and
more completely allows for predictions about the
flow or energy and matter.
ways human activities affect the health of the
➢ Ecosystem size and shape depends on the
earth over time.
specific questions being asked about energy
❖ LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION – is a hierarchy of
flow or chemical cycling.
organization in the environment
➢ The “system” part of an ecosystem is a
description of how energy or matter moves
 HOW TO STUDY ECOLOGY? THE EFFECTS OF SCALE
1. The technology does not exist to recreate ❖ In spatial ecology, scale refers to the spatial extent
ecosystems or even individual species. of ecological processes and the spatial
2. Having convinced governments of the value of interpretation of the data. The response of an
biodiversity, we now have to determine just organism or a species to the environment is
how far ecosystems can be altered before the particular to a specific scale and may respond
cease to function in an acceptable way. differently at a larger or smaller scale.
3. Good arguments can be made against ❖ Scale is continuum (a range or series of things that
ecological mismanagement and loss of biotic are slightly different from each other and that
diversity on moral and ethical grounds. exist between two different possibilities)

MORAL AND ETHICAL GROUNDS

❖ Tom Regan – A philosopher, argue that animals
are to be treated with respect because they have
a life of their own and therefore have value apart
from anyone else’s interests.
❑ Can animals or plants ‘count’ in their own
right?
❑ Can wildlife count for more than humans in
some cases?
❖ Perhaps one of the soundest arguments for
conservation of biodiversity is that, at the least,
it keeps our options open for the future.

THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD 5 MAJOR POINTS (CONTINUUM TO BE

1. Question RECOGNIZED)
2. Hypothesize 1. A space occupied by a single individual sessile
3. Experiment organism or a space in which mobile organism
4. Observe & record spends its entire life.
5. Analyze 2. A local patch occupied by many individuals.
6. Share Results 3. A region large enough to include many patches
❖ For many years, scientists have tried to correct or population linked by dispersal.
the idea that the scientific method is the only 4. A space large enough to contain a closed
correct way to do science. ecosystem (one receiving no migration) – an
❖ This “a method of science” has a strong hold in unlikely scenario in practice.
science teaching but is not science. 5. A biogeographic scale, large enough to
❖ Posters are still hung in science classrooms listing encompass different habitats and climates.
the steps of the scientific method and are still
EFFECTS OF SCALE ON ECOLOGICAL
used to judge students’ procedures in science fair INVESTIGATIONS
competitions. 1. Individual space
❖ There is no logical or procedural method by which ➢ Physiological ecology, socio-biology, foraging
the pattern is suggested because If there is, then ecology, reproductive biology
it goes against the creative nature and element of 2. Local patch/ecological neighborhood
science. ➢ Predation, herbivory, parasitism, and
❖ Scientific papers seem to follow the scientific pollination
method but are reconstructed to account for key 3. Regional scale
elements of the study. ➢ Immigration, emigration, outbreaks, habitat
❖ The actual events for any investigations vary preference
considerably and may take many wrong turns and 4. Closed system
dead ends. ➢ Nutrient cycling, ecological energetics
5. Biogeographical scale
➢ Climatic limits, evolutionary ecology
❖ LIFE
❑ Order
❑ Regulation
❑ Energy Processing
❑ Growth and Development
❑ Reproduction
❑ Response to the environment
❑ Evolutionary adaptation

EVOLUTIONARY HISTORY: HOW DID LIFE FORM?

❖ Theories on the Origin of Life:
1. Spontaneous Generation
2. Primordial Soup
3. External Sources

HOW VARIATION ORIGINATES?

❖ It is genetic variation that can produce either an
increase or a decrease in the variability of a
population.
❖ In all organisms (except RNA viruses), the genetic
material is DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
❖ In prokaryotes, the DNA exists in the form of a
single circular chromosome, in eukaryotes it is
arranged into a set of linear chromosomes that
reside in the cell nucleus.

HOMEWORK 001
1. How variation is maintained without selection?
a. The Hardy-Weinberg Theorem
b. The Effects of Non-random Mating
c. Environmental variance
2. How variation is maintained with selection?
3. How much variation exists in Nature?
4. What is inbreeding?
5. What is genetic drift?
6. What is bottleneck effect?