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CHAPTER TWO:
BRANCHES OF BALLISTIC

LET US FIRST HAVE A REVIEW OF THE TOPICS WE DISCUSS IN LESSON ONE:

The term “Ballistics” is simple defined as the “science of the motion of projectiles”.
In which, Science, refers to the systematized body of knowledge while motion refers to the movement or mobility, and
projectile refers to the metallic or non-metallic objects propelled from firearms.

Question, is Ballistic a science? The answer is YES. Why? Because it evolved from systematic knowledge, research and
development, training, experience and education of those who pioneered in this field.

The meaning of the term, has greatly broadened since the development of ballistic and is now frequently used as
synonymously I the press and police parlance as “Firearms investigation and identification”. To be more specific, when we say
Ballistic, it refers to the “Science of firearms identification”. This scientific examination involves the conduct of examination of
ballistic exhibits/evidence such as fired bullet, fired shells, firearms and allied matter used in crimes. With application of science,
it would be possible to identify a certain evidence such as bullet or shell was fired from a particular gun.

Lesson 2.1: The Branches of Ballistics

The field of Ballistic begun with the inventions of the first muzzle loading cannons in 1200’s A.D.
Since then, people have been trying to maximize
 Accuracy
 Range
 Fire Rate
 Damage

The science of ballistics and firearms identification is divided into the following branches:
1. INTERNAL BALLISTIC
2. EXTERNAL BALLISTIC
3. TERMINAL BALLISTC, and
4. FORENSIC BALLISTIC

Lesson 2.2: The Internal Ballistics

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It is the study of motion of projectiles within the gun barrel. It includes the study of properties and
attributes (characteristics) to the projectiles (bullet) while still inside the gun. This extends from the
“breech” to the “muzzle of the gun (please see Illustration one). It involves all reactions that takes
places while the bullet is still inside the gun.
These includes the following:
 Firing pin hitting the primer
 Ignition of the priming mixture
 Combustion of the gunpowder
 Expansion of the heated gas
 Pressure developed
 Energy generated
 Recoil of the gun
 Velocity of the bullet in the barrel
 Engraving of the cylindrical; surface of bullet.

The time during which the projectile is influenced by Interior Ballistics is very short. From the
release of the firing pin to the moment the sound of the shot can be heard as it leaves the muzzle
occupies only about 0.01 seconds, in a modern rifle.
The projectile, or bullet, is initially contained within a cartridge, which is inserted into the weapon
for firing. Virtually all cartridges are similar in design, consisting of a shell casing that contains the
other components necessary to fire the bullet. At the base of the cartridge, there is a very reactive
chemical known as the primer. The firing pin from the weapon strikes the primer causing an explosion.
This explosion ignites the less reactive propellant powder, which is housed in the shell casing and
causes it to expand to fit the diameter of the barrel. The gases produced by the burning powder can only
escape by forcing the bullet down the barrel. As the bullet accelerates through the barrel, it acquires
spin from rifling, or spiral grooves, cut into the inner core of the barrel. Rifling increases the accuracy
and velocity of the projectile in flight and imparts certain markings on the bullet that can later be used
to identify the specific barrel that fired the bullet. Generally, a bullet will continue to increase its
velocity as long as it remains within the barrel because of the contained gases propelling it in the closed
space.

Figure 1: Internal Parts of the Firearm

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Interior ballistics deals with the temperature, volume, and pressure of the gases resulting from
combustion of the propellant charge in the gun; it also deals with the work performed by the expansion of
these gases on the gun, its carriage, and the projectile. Some of the critical elements involved in the study
of interior ballistics are the relationship of the weight of charge to the weight of projectile; the length of
bore; the optimum size, shape, and density of the propellant grains for different guns; and the related
problems of maximum and minimum muzzle pressures.

Note the following:

The British engineer Benjamin Robins conducted many experiments in interior ballistics. His
findings justly entitle him to be called the father of modern gunnery.

Late in the 18th century the Anglo-American physicist Benjamin Thompson made the first
attempt to measure the pressure generated by gunpowder. The account of his experiments was the most
important contribution to interior ballistics that had been made up to that time.

About 1760 French ballisticians determined the relationship of muzzle velocity to length of barrel
by measuring the velocity of a musket ball and cutting off a portion of the barrel before taking the velocity
of the next shot. By using the results of these experiments and advances in chemistry and thermodynamics,
ballisticians developed formulas showing the relationship between muzzle velocity and weight and shape
of projectile; weight, type, and grain size of powder charge; pressure and temperature in the barrel; and the
size of the powder chamber and the length of the barrel.

Related Terms in Interior Ballistics

1. Action – term referring to the mechanism of a firearm.

2. Burning Rate - An arbitrary index of the quickness that burning propellant changes into gas. Burning rate
is controlled by the chemical composition, the size and shape of the propellant grains, and the pressure at
which the burning takes place. IMR 5010 powder is very slow burning and Bulls eye is fast burning.
3. Bulk Density - The ratio of the weight of a given volume of powder vs. the weight of the same volume
of water.
4. Chamber Pressure – the pressure generated within the chamber erroneously called breeched pressure.
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5. Charge Weight to Bullet Weight ratio - This is the ratio of the weight of the powder charge to the weight
of the projectile.
6. Detonation – Chemical rearrangement of molecules into gas instead of solids to cause the high explosives
to exert full power of shock. The speed of detonation varies in different explosive but in some it is as high
as 7000 yards in a second.
7. Drop-Block Action- That type of action in which the breechblock rises and forces vertically in cuts in
the receiver side walls. Lever actuated as a rule.
8. Energy - is measured in foot-pounds, and one foot-pound means that amount of energy, which would be
capable of lifting a weight of one pound through a distance of one foot
9. Expansion Ratio - The ratio of the capacity of the powder chamber plus bore (in grains of water) to the
capacity of the powder chamber (in grains of water).
10. Foot – Pound - the amount of work required to raise one pound one foot high against the force of gravity.
11. Foot second - velocity expressed in foot per second.
12. Gas - a fluid resulting from the combustion of gun powder with a relatively great expansion and
spontaneous tendency.
13. Hangfire - Occurs when a cartridge fails to explode on time or delayed in firing.
14. Knocking Power - the power of the bullet which delivers a very heavy paralyzing blow that put the
victim down and may then recover if the wound inflicted upon is not fatal.
15. Loading Density - The ratio of the weight of the powder charge to the capacity of the powder chamber
(case). It is usually expressed as the ratio of the charge weight to the capacity the powder chamber in grains
of water.
16. Misfire – total failure of a cartridge to discharge. This is different from hang fire which merely a delayed
combustion, while misfire a complete failure eve to start combustion.
17. Powder Chamber Capacity - As with most interior ballistics capacity measurements it is usually
expressed in grains of water. It is determined by measuring the weight of water that a fired case from the
test firearm can contain with a bullet seated to its normal depth. Note that this varies with different bullets
or seating depth as well as the dimensions of the chamber, and the brand of case.
18. Pressure – Outward push of gases from powder combustion against cartridge case, chamber and bore.
19. Sectional Density - The ratio of the bullet's weight (in pounds) to its diameter.
20. PSI - Pounds per square inch. It is often seen designated as PSIA. This designation is now used to
signify a measurement of chamber pressure taken with a piezo-electric device. Piezo-electric units operate
in a similar fashion to the copper crusher units but use a reusable crystal "crusher" that changes its electrical
properties in response to pressure. When connected to suitable recording equipment the entire pressure
pulse history can be recorded or displayed. The peak pressure recorded by a piezo-electric peak device
usually reads about 5,000 psi higher than the figure determined by the copper crusher method.
21. Recoil – the equal and opposite reaction of the gun against the forward movement of the bullet during
the explosions.
22. Residual Pressure – the pressure remaining in the chamber after the bullet has left the barrel.

Lesson 2.3: The External Ballistics

External ballistics refers to the study of projectile behavior while in flight. It includes those factors
which impact forward motion and flight stability of the bullet. This includes the study of the attributes and
movements of the bullets after it has left the gun muzzle. It deals with the motion of projectiles from the
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time they leave the muzzle of the firearm to the time they hit the target. The flight of most bullet or projectile
does not exceed 30 seconds at maximum range, which for almost any firearms is obtained at an elevation
of about 33.

The following are the CONDITIONS (refers to the natural laws) of the bullet during its flight:
a. Velocity - speed per unit of time ex. M16 - 3,300 ft/sec.
b. Energy - fatal equivalent of a bullet.
c. Yaw - the unstable rotating motion of a bullet.
d. Gyroscopic action - refers to the stillness of its rotating motion and attained its highest momentum or
stability in flight and penetrating power.

In exterior ballistics, elements such as shape, caliber, weight, initial velocities, rotation, air
resistance, and gravity help determine the path of a projectile from the time it leaves the gun until it reaches
the target. But the concept of external ballistics, however, starts with an understanding of how the ballistic
coefficient, or the ability of a bullet to overcome air resistance, affects its flight characteristics. This is based
largely on the sectional density and shape of the projectile where pointed bullets encounter less air resistance
than round ones. Most modern bullets have a pointed shape with the notable exception of shotgun pellets,
which exhibit poor flight characteristics over longer distances.

Further, exterior (external) ballistics refers to the attributes and movements of the bullet after it has
left the gun muzzle. It includes:

1. Muzzle blast - the noise created at the muzzle point of the gun due to the sudden escape
of the expanding gas coming in contact with the air in the surrounding atmosphere at the muzzle point.
2. Muzzle energy - energy generated at the muzzle point.
3. Trajectory - the actual curved path of the bullet during its flight from the gun muzzle to
the target. The following are the kinds of trajectory: straight horizontal line - parabola-like flight - vertical
drop
4. Range - the straight distance between the muzzle point and the target.
a. Accurate (effective) range - the distance within the shooter has control of his shots,
meaning he can place his shots at the desired spots.
b. Maximum range - the farthest distance that a projectile can be propelled from a firearm.
* While the range at which the ordinary pistol and revolver are supposed to be effective in only 50-
70 yards, all of them can send their bullets much further than that and are capable of inflicting fatal wounds
at distances up to one mile, depending on the caliber and gunpowder content. Long barrel rifle – up to 3,000
yards accurate range and its hinge muzzle velocity of 1000-4000 ft./sec

5. Velocity - rate of speed of the bullet per unit of time.

* Bullets from rifled weapons spin at 2000-3000 revolutions per second, but over the first
few yards of trajectory – distance varies with the weapon – their flight is slightly unstable; the end
of the projectile wobbles before it picks up a smooth flight path. This phenomenon is called
“TAILWAG”, and is of considerable important in evaluating gunshot wounds. A bullet with
“tailwag” does not strike its target clearly.

6. Air resistance - resistance encountered by the bullet while in flight.

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7. Pull of gravity - downward reaction of the bullet while in flight.

8. Penetration - depth of entry on target.

Note on the following Terms in Exterior Ballistics:

1. Accuracy Range – The maximum distance at which a particular gun and cartridges will consistently place
all shots in the standard target for that distance.
2. Accurate Range – The distance within which the shooter has control of his shots.
3. Back Curve - This is that portion of the bullets trajectory that drops below the critical zone beyond the
point blank range. Past this point the trajectory begins to drop off very rapidly with range and the point of
impact becomes very difficult to estimate.
4. Ballistic Coefficient – The means that the bullet may lose its speed very rapidly during its flight the air.
This is a number that relates to the effect of air drag on the bullet's flight and which can be used to later
predict a bullet's trajectory under different circumstances through what are called "drag tables."
5. Bullet Energy – the power possessed by a moving bullet, or in other words, its ability to keep going when
it meets an obstacle and to do work on the obstacle is immense importance, for obviously the more power
a bullet has an the harder it is to stop the more effective it can be as a weapon
6. Bullet Trajectory - This is the bullet's path as it travels down range. It is parabolic in shape and because
the line of the bore is below the line of sight at the muzzle and angled upward, the bullet's path crosses the
line of sight at two locations.
7. Critical Zone - This is the area of the bullet's path where it neither rises nor falls greater than the
dimension specified. Most shooters set this as ± 3" to 4" from the line of sight, although other dimensions
are sometimes used. The measurement is usually based on one-half of the vital zone of the usual target.
Typical vital zones diameters are often given as: 3" to 4" for small game, and 6" to 8" for big game and
anti-personnel use.
8. Drift - is the curve taken by the bullet while in flight. A right hand rifling curves to the right while that
of the left and rifling curves to the left.
9. Effective Range- The maximum distance at which a bullet may reasonably be expected to travel
accurately and kill a particular type of live target
10. Extreme Range – The greatest distance the bullet will travel when the cartridge is fired.
11. Flat Trajectory - A comparative term used to indicate very little curvature in the flight in the bullet from
muzzle to point of impact. When the velocity is high, comparatively flat trajectory.
12. Gallery Range - The indoor target range. National rifle association of America, gallery rules required
stance from firing point to target of 50 feet or 75 feet for.22 rim fire riffle; 50 feet or 60 feet for .22rim-fire
pistols. On properly constructed indoor ranges, firing may be conducted with center fire pistol and revolvers
at ranges of 25 yards and 50 yards. Such installation are generally referred to as “indoor range” the term
“gallery” being applied usually only to the short range .22 caliber installation.
13. Initial Point - The range at which the bullet's trajectory first crosses the line of sight. This is normally
occurs at a range of about 25 yards.
14. Instrument Velocity - the velocity of a projectile measured by the scientific instrument called
chronograph, at a specified point on its trajectory. Always lower than the muzzle velocity.
15. Key-hole Shot – the tumbling of the bullet in its flight and hitting the target sideways as a result of not
spinning on its axis.
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16. Maximum Point Blank Range - This is the farthest distance at which the bullet's path stays within the
critical zone. In other words the maximum range at which you don't have to adjust your point of aim to hit
the target's vital zone. Unless there is some over riding reason to the contrary shots should not generally be
attempted much past this distance. In the words of the Guru, "It is unethical to attempt to take game beyond
300 meters." If you do, you should write yourself a letter explaining why it was necessary to do so. An
approximate rule of thumb says that the maximum point blank range is approximately your zero range plus
40 yards.
17. Maximum Range – the farthest distance that a projectile can be propelled from a firearm.
18. Maximum Ordinate - This is the maximum height of the projectile's path above the line of sight for a
given point of impact and occurs somewhat past the halfway point to the zero range and it is determined by
your zeroing range.
19. Mid-range Trajectory - This is the height of the bullets path above the line of sight at half way to the
zero range. It does not occur at the same range as the maximum ordinate height which can be greater.
20. Minute of Angle (MOA) - A "minute" of angle is 1/60 of a degree which for all practical purposes
equates to 1 inch per 100 yards of range. Thus 1 MOA at 100 yards is 1 inch and at 300 yards it is 3 inches.
The term is commonly used to express the accuracy potential of a firearm.
21. Point Blank Range – Popularly used to indicate the distance the bullet will travel before it drops enough
to require sight adjustment. A short fired so closed to the target that no sighting is necessary for effective
aiming.
22. Ricochet – The bouncing off or deflection of a bullet from its original trajectory (normal path) after
striking a resistant surface.
23. Shocking Power – the power of the bullet that results in the instantaneous death of the victim.
24. Stopping Power – the power of the bullet that put the victim out of action instantly. So it should be
understood that stopping power is not necessarily the same thing as killing power. However, stopping power
depends very largely on the location of the sot.
25. Target – an object at which the firearm is aimed and discharged.
26. True Drop – the actual distance the bullet falls during the time of flight to the target. This is not the
same as what we speak of when we discuss drop in the ordinary sense, which is more properly termed
effective or apparent drop
27. Zero Range - This is the farthest distance at which the line of sight and the bullet's path intersect.

Lesson 2.4: The Terminal Ballistics

It is the study dealing with the effect of the impact of the bullet on the target. Penetration of the
bullet is of prime interest. Penetration is important also in determining safety requirements for target
backstops. They are important to both sportsman and military.

TERMINAL BALLISTICS involves:

1. Terminal accuracy - size of the bullet grouping on the target.

2. Terminal energy - energy of the projectile when it strikes the target. Also known as striking
energy.
3. Terminal penetration - depth of entry of the bullet in the target.
4. Terminal velocity - speed of the bullet upon striking the target.
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Terminal ballistics also deals with the destructive actions and effects that occur at the end of the
projectile's flight as an integral and un-deformed body. The flight may end in one of two ways:

1. The projectile may strike a solid obstruction, or

2. Its metal case may be broken by the explosion of a bursting charge

SHOTS BALLISTICS - deals with the attributes and properties of shots and pellets.
Chilled Shot – shotgun pellets made from lead especially hardened by the addition of a slight amt. of
antimony.
Wound Ballistics/Medical Ballistic – It is the study of the effects of projectile to human body.
Gunshot Wound (GSW). It is an open wound produced by the penetration of bullet slug within
the tissues of the body. The bullet which was propelled from the gun as well as the flame from the
heated expanded gases in short range fire is the one that produces injury.

Three Basic Kinds of GSW Distinguished by the Proximity of the Weapon

1. Contact – gun muzzle pressed against, or within an inch or two, of the body.
2. Close discharge – 6 inches to 2 ft.
3. Distance Discharge – over 2 ft. or 3 ft.

Lesson 2.3: The Terminal Ballistics

It is the study of Firearm Investigation and Identification of firearms by means of ammunition fired through
them. This is the real branch of the science which the police use as their guide in field investigations. This
includes the following:

1. Field Investigations - conducted by the first officers on the case in the field when they investigate
a case or cases wherein firearms have been used. This is a routine job of the investigating officers, and this
involves recognition, collection, marking, preservation, and transmittal of ballistics exhibits like fired
bullets, fired shells, firearms and allied matters.
2. Technical examinations of the ballistics exhibits - This is the job performed by the firearms
examiners in the laboratory. It involves marking of the evidence firearms, test firings of evidence firearms
to obtain test bullets and test shells for comparative purposes, photomicrography under the bullet
comparison microscope, preparation of comparative charts, and the making of reports on the findings and
observations of the firearms examiners.
3. Legal proceedings - Court Trials - wherein the ballistics report of the firearm examiner and the
ballistics exhibits are presented during the trial of the case in a court of justice.

Take Note:
FORENSIC - As applied to ballistics, or to any other subject, suggest a relationship to
Courts of Justice and legal proceedings.

FORUM – It is a Latin word from which forensic was derived, meaning a marketplace,
where people gather for "public disputation" or "public discussion". Thus, the title
"Forensic Ballistics" aptly describes the subject under consideration - the science of
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investigation and identification of firearms and ammunitions used in crimes. The terms
"Ballistics", Forensic Ballistics" and "Firearms Identification", have come to mean one and
the same thing in the minds of the public, and they can be used interchangeably.

Studies concerning Forensic Ballistics

1835 - Henry Goddard. In one of his case in England, where a homemaker was shot and killed, he
was able to identify the mold mark – the mold is used to manufacture lead balls from molten leads – on the
field projectile. He was the bullet, which could be traced back to the mold. He also examined the paper
patch – the paper patch provides the seal between the ball gunpowder firearms – was able to identify it as
having been torn from a newspaper that was found on the room of the guilty servant.
Paul Jesrich. He took photomicrographs of two bullets to compare, and subsequently individualize
them through the minute differences.
1905 - Mr. Kockel. He published an article entitled “The Expert Examination of Fired Bullets”.
1912 - Professor V. Baltahazard. He devised a series of procedures to identify fired bullets to the
firearms from which they were fired. He studied the firearms by taking an elaborate series of photographs
of test fired bullet from the firearms as well as evidence bullet. He also applied these same specilalized
photographic techniques to the examination and identification of cartridge casings using firing pin, breech
face, ejection and extractor marks.
1913 - Professor Balthazard. Published the first article individualizing bullet markings.
1922 - Mr. C. Williams. He wrote an article entitle “Fingerprints on Bullets” which appeared in
Outdoor Life magazine.
1920 - R.E. Herrick. He published an article entitled “Ballistics Jurisprudence”.
November 1924 – Dr Sydney Smith. He wrote an article concerning the details of the investigating
that appeared in the British Medical Journal in January 1926. He relates that he believes that scientific
examination of firearms and projectiles in Great Britain had its beginning as a result of the publication of
his report on the case.
1920 - COL CALVIN H. GODDARD (M.D., U.S. ARMY) pioneered the introduction of this
science in Criminology courses in the different universities.
1947 - Col Goddard came to the Philippines when Gen. Castaneda was ambushed together with
his aid, Col Salgado in Kamias, Quezon City, both died.
1924 – Captain Edward C. ‘Ned’ Crossman. A well-known shooter and sports writer, examined
firearms evidence for the Los Angeles County Sheriff in April 1925, in New York City, New York (USA),
THE Bureau of Forensic Ballistics was established by C.E. Waite, Major (later Colonel) Calvin H. Goddard,
Philip O. Gravelle and John H. Fisher.
1934 - Major Sir Gerald Burrard. He wrote a book entitled “The Identification of Firearms and
Forensic Ballistics”, which discussed many early cases that occurred throughout the British Empire.
1935 Major Julian S. Hatcher. He wrote and published; “Textbook of Firearms Investigation,
Identification and Evidence” together with the “Textbook of Pistols and Revolvers.”
1944 – John E. Davis. He joined the Police Department in Oakland, California establishing its first
criminology laboratory.
Derechter and Mage. They wrote an article entitled “Communication on the Identification of Fired
Bullets and Shells”.
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Arthur Lucas. He published an article entitled “The Examination of Firearms and Projectiles in
Forensic Cases”.
Jack D. Gunther & Professor Charles O. Gunther. They published the entitled “The Identification
of Firearms”, which provided additional information about the principles of firearms identification with
approximately one-half of the book discussing in great detail the Sacco-Vanzetti case to include reprinting
large portions of the actual court transcript. They also discussed the need for the science of firearm
identification to utilize the scientific methodology.
1958 – John E. Davis. An eminent criminals and Director of the Oakland Police Department (CA)
Criminalistics Section (Crime Lab) wrote a book titled “An Introduction to Tool Marks, Firearms and the
Striagraph”. In his book, Davis provided excellent information about the examination and identification of
firearms and tool mark evidence.
1996 – Tom A. Warlow. He published a text on firearms identification titled “Firearms, the Law
and Forensic Ballistics”. Warlow has written a useful text that contains excellent information for firearm
and toolmark examiners.
1997 – Brian J. Heard. He published a text on firearms identification titled “Handbook of Firearms
and Ballistics Examining and Interpreting Forensic Evidence”.
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