Calligraphy

A Comprehensive Guide to Beautiful Lettering

Written and illustrated by

Jane Sullivan
Acknowledgments
My special thanks to Corinne de Montalembert, Colette Hanicott, Didier
Boursin, and François Junot.
Text copyright © 2016 Jane Sullivan
English translation by Jane Sullivan
Originally published in France as Calligraphie ©
Dessain et Tolra / Larousse 2011

Photo credits
page 12: ms NAL 2334, © Bibliothèque nationale de France;
page 22: Book of Kells, ms 58, fol. 104 r © Trinity College Library, Dublin;
page 32: ms Rawlinson B 502, fol. 33 v, © The Bodleian Libraries,
University of Oxford;
page 42: ms Add 47673, fol. 15, © British Library, UK;
page 52: ms 103, 13th-century Breviary, fol. 001 (2nd pagination): Beatus ©
Cambrai, Médiathèque municipale, cliché CNRS-IRHT;
page 64: LATIN 9474, © Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris;
page 74: LATIN 5713, © Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris;
page 86: The Universal Penman, engraved by George Bickham, London,
1743, Dover Publications, Inc., New York;
page 98: Masters of the Italic Letter by Kathryn A. Atkins, Allen Lane, © The
Penguin Press – 1998.
Copyright © 2016
Peter Pauper Press, Inc.
Manufactured for Peter Pauper Press, Inc.
202 Mamaroneck Avenue
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All rights reserved

Published in the United Kingdom and Europe by

Peter Pauper Press, Inc.,
c/o White Pebble International
Unit 2, Plot 11 Terminus Road
Chichester, West Sussex PO19 8TX, UK
This book is dedicated to Sully, my father,
who whispered words of encouragement in my
ear when, at the age of ten, I fell in love with letters.
In fact, these words only sounded in my heart, for my
father—an excellent calligrapher and an accomplished
artist—died when I was only 18 months old.
But he continued to influence my life through
his paintings and books, and through my mother’s
infinite and faithful love.
I also dedicate this English
edition to my beloved Michel.
ISBN 978-1-44132242-5
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication
Names: Sullivan, Jane, 1960-author.
Title: Calligraphy : a comprehensive guide to
beautiful lettering / written and illustrated by
Jane Sullivan.
Other titles: Calligraphie. English
Description: White Plains, New York : Peter Pauper
Press, Inc., [2016]
Identifiers: LCCN 2016010626 (print) | LCCN
2016011746 (ebook) | ISBN 9781441321855
(hardcover : alk. paper) | ISBN 9781441322425 ()
Subjects: LCSH: Lettering—Amateurs’ manuals. |
Calligraphy—Amateurs’ manuals.
Classification: LCC Z43 .S9313 2016 (print) | LCC
Z43 (ebook) | DDC 745.6/1-dc23
LC record available at http://lccn.loc.
gov/2016010626

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 Table of Contents

Introduction
Calligraphy Vocabulary
Unical Letters
Celtic Majuscule Letters
Celtic Minuscule Letters
Carolingian Minuscule Letters
Gothic Letters
French Bâtarde Letters
Humanist Minuscule Letters
Italic Letters
Copperplate Letters
Copperplate Majuscule Practice
Copperplate Minuscule Practice
Italic Majuscule Practice
Italic Minuscule Practice
Humanist Minuscule Practice
Humanist Minuscule Practice
Carolingian Practice
French Bâtarde Practice
Gothic Majuscule and French Bâtarde Practice
Gothic Minuscule Practice
Celtic Majuscule Practice
Celtic Minuscule Practice
Uncial Practice
 Introduction
owadays, putting pen to paper has almost become a curiosity. Few still
N write to their friends on stationery or record their thoughts in a personal
journal. One sends an email, or a text, or writes a hasty note with a
ballpoint or felt-tip pen, or whatever comes to hand. We often no longer teach
the fine art of cursive script at school, at least not as it was taught in previous
generations, when our grandparents and great-grandparents struggled with dip-
pens, “Sergent-Major” nibs, and bottled ink.
In the Middle Ages, carefully handwritten calligraphy was likewise beyond
the day to day experience of ordinary folk. Most of the population was illiterate,
and only the educated (and therefore rich) or those in religious orders had access
to this fine art. We have, in our time, come full circle in a sense, except that
today it is not due to a lack of education or social status that one fails to learn the
art of beautiful writing, but rather the pressure of an accelerated rhythm of life
and differing technology. There are fewer opportunities to experience the simple
pleasure of expressing ourselves—and also of exhibiting and celebrating our
individuality—in the mastery of our own style of handwriting or in the subtle
arts of calligraphy and illumination.
Perhaps consciousness of this state of affairs has sparked the current
renaissance in the arts of calligraphy and hand-lettering. We slow down time, or
so it seems, when we turn our attention to methodically writing letters, or
working on a final lettering project. Of course, we’re not about to replace our
emails with handwritten medieval scrolls, nor painstakingly write out our
shopping lists in Copperplate script! However, there is most certainly a renewed
interest in these graceful pastimes of lettering, illumination, and creative crafts
associated with papers and scripts.
As a hobby, calligraphy requires very little in the way of basic materials: pen
and ink, paper, a corner of a table and a good source of light. No particular
artistic skill is needed to master the techniques presented in this book. Naturally,
some styles of script are more demanding than others. But that said, everything
that is covered here is quite accessible to all. Practice with patience and delight,
and you’ll discover each day new reasons to continue your studies: the beauty of
the letters, their unique forms and applications, and the pleasure of using them to
express your heartfelt feelings and philosophies.
Our words, and the thoughts that lie behind them, charge the atmosphere
around us with a powerful energy. Let your words and thoughts flow from your
pen, influencing and enriching your world! You will feel your breathing grow
more peaceful, stress and tensions will be soothed, your negative thoughts will
retreat and—the cherry on the cake!—you will also be creating marvelous works
of art that allow you to share your serenity and your joy with others!
 Calligraphy Vocabulary:
Minuscule: Small letters, often what we think of as “lower case.” For much of
history, Minuscule and Majuscule letters were not mixed in the same alphabet.
Majuscule: Large letters, often what we think of as “upper case.”
Letterform: The shape of a letter in a particular script.
Lower writing line: The baseline on which your letters rest.
Upper writing line: Marks the height of letterforms without an ascender.
Descender: A portion of a letter that extends below the lower writing line.
Ascender: A portion of a letter that extends above the upper writing line.
Ascender line/descender line: The lines above your upper writing line and
below your lower writing line, to which ascenders and descenders extend.
Stroke: A mark made without lifting your pen off your paper.
Ductus: The order of the strokes used to write each letter.
Counter space: The empty or “negative” space inside a letter.
Bowl: The rounded space inside a letter, such as “d.”
Minims: The short verticals of a letter—vertical lines that aren’t ascenders or
descenders.
Terminal: An end of a line in a letterform.
Serifs: Lines or shapes, often formed with additional strokes, at the terminals of
a letter. Common serifs you’ll find in this book are hair lines (thin lines often
made with the side of the nib) and wedges (broad spatulate shapes).
Materials
With only a modest outlay, you will easily find all that you need to set off on a
voyage to the kingdom of traditional calligraphy! But it is crucial that you begin
with pen, brushes, and colors of quality.
 The first script presented in this book is Uncial. It is often written with a
“calame” or cut reed pen (the traditional and very ancient tool, still preferred by
many Middle Eastern scribes). You can often purchase these bamboo pens in art
shops, already cut and prepared. Or, you may choose to work with a modern
steel-nib calligraphy pen. For the Celtic scripts, and all the other medieval styles,
the traditional writing implement par excellence is the goose quill. I recommend
experimenting with this type of pen, as it is easy to prepare and it bestows a
lightness and suppleness to the hand that are quite unique.
In the following chapters, I use William Mitchell steel nibs, which are among
the most responsive of modern pens. It will take a little time to master writing
with calligraphy nibs, and to correctly dispense the quantity of ink required.
Other excellent brands of nibs are Brause, Tape, and Speedball.
I suggest, to get started, William Mitchell sizes 1.5, 2, 2.5 and a 3 or 4 (6 is
the smallest, and 0 the largest, or widest, of these nibs). For each nib, plan on
including a tiny slip-on reservoir and a pen-holder (plastic or wooden, according
to your taste). For the Copperplate script, you should use an “elbow” nib
(especially if you are right-handed), with which no reservoir is needed.
I like to write with Chinese ink, and with “artist’s quality” gouache (diluted
with water in a palette, or even in an oyster shell, to obtain the consistency of
ink). However, a standard bottle of permanent black India ink will do very well,
if you are careful to purchase only a quality product (if not, the nib may become
clogged, or you may find the ink too runny and prone to create “blots”).
Chinese ink in stick form is highly recommended. You can find this in most
fine art shops. It is not expensive, and is easy to use: You simply add a few
drops of water to the surface of the “ink stone” (usually sold with the stick),
grind the stick into the water by making circles on the rough surface of the stone,
and then fill the reservoir behind your nib using an old paint brush to drop the
ink in.
To facilitate your practice, you will find, at the end of this book, practice
pages that you can use as models to create your own. If you prefer, you can
purchase a sketchbook or layout paper and rule lines in pencil, in the dimensions
recommended for each style of script. For more ambitious projects, and for
illuminations with multiple layers of color, you will find that fine grain/hot press
watercolor paper is excellent. Vellum or parchment (specially prepared calf or
sheepskin) is the traditional “support” for calligraphy and illumination: a
marvelous surface to write upon, but very expensive! However, there also exists
a plant-based parchment that is very reasonably priced.
Your brushes for illumination may be the most expensive item in your kit.
You will need very fine points (0 or 00 at least) in sable, or a synthetic
equivalent. Use a larger, and cheaper, brush for filling your pen, of course, if you
are writing in gouache or Chinese stick ink.
Finally, there is one project that proposes the use of real gold leaf—loose or
transfer (see the chapter on Gothic script). You may substitute a gouache
pigment, in powder form, which is mixed with a little water, and comes in gold,
silver, and bronze colors. It gives an excellent result, and is a good substitute for
real leaf, which can be tricky to manipulate (but which gives very impressive
results!).
You will also need a selection of soft pencils (I like B, 2B, and 3B), and a
“kneaded” eraser, which will not damage the surface of your paper or vellum. In
addition , you will also find very good quality extra-fine felt-tip or fiber tip pens,
permanent and lightfast, handy for outlining your illuminated initials.
1 & 2 – Vellum
3 - Pastel paper
4 - Watercolor paper, hot-pressed
5, 7, & 9 - Parchment-style writing paper 6 - White drawing paper
8 - Watercolor paper
10 - Gold leaf
11 - Gouache
12 - Micro-line pen
13 - Drawing pencil
14 - Fine brushes
15 - Chinese ink stick and grinding stone 16 - Calligraphy nibs and reservoir
17 - Elbow-nib for Copperplate
18 - Left-hand nib, oblique cut
19 - Goose quill
20 - Reed pen
21 - Various pen-holders for steel nibs.

Now that you have met the “tools of the trade,” I must remind you that the
principal element in the art of beautiful writing is the calligrapher! Your
creativity and inspiration, your posture, and the position of your hand join with
the pen, ink, and paper to produce the final piece. Take the time to breathe
deeply, to reflect upon your work and the beauty of the letter forms, before you
touch quill to paper.
The Basics
The practice of calligraphy and illumination is, for me, akin to spiritual exercises
such as meditation, yoga, and prayer. But if you are more rational and Cartesian
than I, at least it is recommended that you approach your practice sessions with a
calm and centered attitude, confident and relaxed, and conscious of what you are
studying, and why.
It’s very simple! Set yourself up in a well-organized workspace: a table at
the correct height for you to sit comfortably, and upright, on your chair or stool.
Place both feet flat on the floor, or both on a support slightly above ground-level,
to ensure that your back and shoulders remain aligned. On the table, lean a flat
surface like a clipboard (choose one slightly bigger than your paper) on a small
pile of books or even a brick, to create a slanted writing surface (at an angle of
about 30°). This will greatly reduce back and eye fatigue, and will also
encourage your ink to flow better. The lighting should fall from the left, if you
are right-handed, to avoid shadows cast by your own hand. And don’t forget to
always keep a little square of blotting (or ordinary) paper under your writing
hand, as the natural oils from our skin will create a slippery surface on the paper
— most disagreeable to navigate!
 Before choosing a style of calligraphy and beginning to learn an alphabet,
get to know your pen. Just as a musician must play his scales, warm up your
hand as you familiarize yourself with the feel of the pen by doing a few basic
pen-strokes. Begin by ruling a couple of lines in pencil, and then fill your pen (or
reed or quill) with a measure of ink or gouache. Sometimes brand-new steel nibs
will resist your initial efforts and refuse to write. This will give you an excellent
opportunity to see if your attitude is truly “Zen”! To solve the problem, simply
readjust the pen to a more upright angle in your hand and make several tiny
back-and-forth movements at a 45° angle, pressing the thin edge of the nib
gently, but firmly, into the paper. Tap the point once or twice on the paper, and
repeat the movements on the diagonal. This will open the split in the nib
sufficiently to get the ink flowing. Even when you are ready to begin your
studies of the alphabet, or you are writing out a project, always keep a piece of
scrap paper beside you to test the ink flow each time you refill your pen.

The nine styles of calligraphy presented in this book require a variety of pen
angles (that is to say, the degree of slant in the diagonal created by the thin edge
of the nib). However, for your warm-up strokes, work with an angle of 45°. Hold
the pen so that the whole width of the nib is on a clear diagonal. This way, when
you draw the pen up toward the right you’ll create a thin line, and when you
descend toward the right (also on a diagonal, like an A without the bar) you’ll
create the thickest line possible with this nib. Do not change the position of your
hand. The upper surface of the nib should always stay oriented in the same
direction. It is the direction of each stroke—diagonal, horizontal, vertical, or
rounded—which produces the lovely play of thicks and thins characteristic of
calligraphy.
Unfortunately for left-handed calligraphers, medieval scripts in our
occidental tradition are always written with the nib angled along this diagonal
(never reversed). Therefore, if you are a left-handed scribe, you must pull your
elbow into the body a little, and turn your paper toward the right, in order to
compensate. However, you will find that the Uncial and the Celtic Majuscule are
easier, owing to their nearly horizontal pen angle. Copperplate (which is not a
medieval hand) will repay all your efforts, as the pen is oriented in the opposite
direction entirely (toward the “northwest,” as I like to say)!
On this page you’ll find a few basic pen strokes for your “scales.” Respect
the direction of each stroke, following the arrows, so that the pen is always
moving toward the right and is pulled (never pushed) to make a “thick” line.
(Exceptions to be found in the Celtic Majuscule!) Obviously, this means that
most letters must be constructed of several strokes. The order of these strokes in
any given letter is referred to as its “ductus.”
All’s well that begins well! Persevere with courage and joy.
 Uncial Letters

In Greek mythology, the alphabet, and writing itself, shone with a divine aura.
They were gifts from the gods. And, truly, in the hands of Grecian scribes, the
primitive letters inherited from the Phoenicians (1,000 years BCE)
metamorphosed into rounded forms, ample and gracious. By the 3rd century CE,
we see the beginnings of a calligraphy which will be chosen by the new
Christian Church for its first manuscripts in Greek. And with the increased use
of vellum (or animal skin) in place of papyrus (a paper made from layers of
leaves), and the diffusion of sacred texts throughout the following Roman
Empire (now in Latin), the Uncial hand became the calligraphic style of the
entire Mediterranean civilized world.
Thanks to its full, round shapes, Uncial, even when it is written relatively
small, retains the air of a majestic Majuscule script! This is perhaps why the
17th-century paleographer Mabillon applied to these letters the name given them
(somewhat critically) by Saint Jerome. He called them uncialis, or “of one
twelfth” (that is to say, one twelfth of a unit of measure, and therefore
“excessively large and pretentious”!). And it is true: its very extroverted and
confident character assured that Uncial remained the natural choice for titles, and
initials at the start of paragraphs or verses, through the centuries. In manuscripts
written in Carolingian Minuscule, for example, the colored capitals are still
Uncials. Later they lent themselves well to the style of illuminated letters called
“Versals” (see here ) and still later to the highly decorated Lombardic capitals of
the High Middle Ages.
 This alphabet is easily written with a modern steel nib like the William
Mitchell, but it is a pleasure to work with the more authentic reed pen or goose
quill. In any case, this is not a difficult hand to master, except perhaps in its later
more stylized forms. These are called “artificial Uncial” (7th to 9th centuries)
and demand a modification in pen angle from time to time, as well as a deft
manipulation of the nib for certain strokes. The classic Uncial of the 5th century
is presented here with one or two variations from other periods.
Keep the nib at an angle a little flatter than the 45° diagonal of your
warming-up exercises. The forms A, D, M, N, and H, which are quite distinctive
in this alphabet, are particularly beautiful. Pay close attention to the negative (or
interior) spaces of the letters, and let them be filled with all the warmth and light
of Greece and Italy!
The Ashburnham Pentateuch
This manuscript, now in the National Library of France, dates from the end of
the 6th century. It is also known by the name “The Pentateuch of Tours,” and
was in that city’s library until 1842 when it was stolen. In 1847 it was bought
back by the Englishman Lord Ashburnham and returned to France’s national
manuscript collection.
 This Pentateuch (that is, the first five books of the Old Testament) was
probably written in North Africa, in a center of Arab influence. In the
illuminations and illustrations, one finds Moorish motifs: geometric decorations
combined with highly stylized forms of acanthus leaves, as well as compositions
reminiscent of Spanish monastic art from this period. In any case, the fauna and
flora of its miniatures certainly suggest the desert, and this ambience is
reinforced by the style of the Uncial calligraphy. The letters are clear and almost
delicate, even while displaying their “majuscule” character. What is more, in this
period one begins to see elements of “artificial Uncial”: a somewhat affected
style in comparison with the earlier Uncial. The hand you will study in the pages
that follow is the simpler variety, but you will appreciate, in looking at the
document shown above, that certain letters (such as the f and the I , for example)
sport serifs (the embellished terminals of certain strokes) created by deft changes
of pen-angle.
The letters of this alphabet are not at all difficult to decipher. The only
confusion resides in the separation of words. The Latin text begins with two
words in colored Roman capitals: In principio (In the beginning), with a
magnificent illuminated I . Though very faint, one can just make out the next
line, creavit deus caelum et terram , appearing rather faded owing to the fact that
the vermilion ink does not contrast strongly with the color of the now-ancient
vellum. The text continues in Uncial, with the story of the Creation:
line 1: Terra autem erat inanis
line 2: et vacua. Et tenebrae
line 3: erant super faciem ter-
line 4: rae [in place of abyssi]: et sps di [spiritus dei] fe
line 5: rebatur super aquas
line 6: Dixitque ds [deus] fiat lux
line 7: et facta est lux …
So then, with this light (lux), I invite you to begin your journey into the
realm of the Uncial!

• Uncial Ductus
Mitchell nib 1.5
Lines: 11 mm (4.5 × the width of the nib)
Ascenders & Descenders:
4 mm (1.5 × the width of the nib)

letter a
Hold the nib's edge at an angle of 30° just below the upper writing line. Make a
descending diagonal stroke with a restrained upturn at the end. Make the loop of
the letter in a single stroke, with a slight “push” down toward the left to begin,
and an upward “push” to join it to the first diagonal.

letter b
Begin with a tiny ascending “hair-stroke” that immediately descends vertically,
turning to the right above the writing line, to form a gentle hook. The two bowls
of the b are done in a single movement.

letter c
This is a very round letter, made in two strokes. At the end of the second (upper)
stroke, turn the pen slightly in the hand to create a tiny “teardrop” hairline with
the corner of the nib.

letter d
The letters c, d , e , o , and q all begin with this half-circular stroke, executed—
if one were to imagine the face of a clock—from 11 to 5 o'clock. Visualize the
round “negative” space inside the letter before you begin.
letter e
The second and third strokes can be created without lifting the pen off the paper.

letter e, variant form:

This is an alternative that suggests the “artificial Uncial.” It has a “teardrop”
effect on the second stroke (like the c ).

letter f
The Uncial f descends below the lower writing line, and its bar rests on this line.
Notice the subtle terminal, toward the left, at the bottom of the first stroke.

lettre g
Begin the g like the c , but add, at 5 o'clock, a little “beard” that descends just
below the lower writing line.

letter h
The h , k , and l all begin at the ascender line, with a tiny diagonal hairline that
quickly turns to descend vertically, ending with a tiny upturn toward the right.
To begin the rounded second stroke, gently push the ink up from the middle of
this first stroke, so that the arch grows fluidly out of the vertical.

letters i & j
In this epoch, these two letters were one and the same. But here I have suggested
how one might vary the single stroke, to create two distinct forms. Very useful in
a modern text, for example.

letter k
This is a rather modernized version of the historical k , adapted to the height of h
and l . As with the a , don't allow the descending diagonal to become wavy, but
simply finish with a subtle upswing at the end.

letter l
Begin with the same fine hairline as in h and k , but just before reaching the
lower writing line, veer to the left (as in the tail of j ), then move to the right
with a slightly bowed horizontal, ending in a tiny dropped hairline.
letter m
The negative spaces inside the two arches of m are not so round as in the o or c .
Even though they are not quite symmetrical, allow a similar width for both.

letter n
Contrary to instructions for a and k , the diagonal stroke of n does indeed
resemble a “wave” (albeit relatively restrained)! The third and final stroke joins
this diagonal with a gentle sweep to the left, to show off its delicate point, which
just touches the writing line.

letter o
A very round form, in two strokes. Begin and end each half with very thin lines,
which are easier to join up without showing any sign of the letter's construction.

letter p
Begin as for the f , and follow up with a “bowl” similar to the h (growing fluidly
out of the first stroke). The finishing stroke is added toward the right, to avoid
pushing the nib.
letter q
The q begins like a c , but then you will add a vertical stroke which drops out of
a delicate hairline “lead-in,” and finishes with a somewhat pronounced
ascending hairline.

letter r
Begin as for an i , then create the “half-heart shape” for the head of the r , being
sure to touch the vertical stroke of the letter one third of the way above the lower
writing line. The following diagonal can be made without lifting the nib.

letter s
The s is made in three strokes. Though it follows a serpentine course, it occupies
the same space as an o . Its two negative spaces, or “bowls,” are similar in size,
balanced and fluid. Don't overlook the “teardrop” hairline, with its twist of the
nib, at the end of stroke three!

letter t
Uncial t is not an ascender! However, it is slightly higher than other “non-
ascenders,” in that its bar rests on the upper writing line. The form with a
vertical body terminates in a delicate hairline. The rounded “semi-Uncial” form
makes a nice variation.
letter u
Here you have two alternative forms of u . The first has a serpentine movement
in the first stroke. The second—with a short lead-in hairline and a rounded
“bowl”—is more classic.

letter v
The first variant form resembles u . The second is more modern. Keep the width
the same as other open letters. (Originally, u and v were the same letter, so these
forms are modern inventions.)

letter w
These two variant forms of w echo the forms suggested for the letter u .

letter x
This letter begins with a diagonal similar to that of a . The crossstroke can either
descend (as in the first option), or ascend, as in the second. Both second strokes
touch the descender line. Be sure that the intersection of the two strokes is clean
and not wavy.
letter y
As y does not normally occur in Latin, the Uncial y is borrowed from Greek.
Notice the change of direction in the middle of the first stroke. The second
stroke grows out of the “corner.” The modern variant is similar to the second
form of v , with a still delicate tail.

letter z
This lovely letter is created in a single stroke (although I have numbered each
change of direction separately).

ligature nt This is a common ligature in Uncial. The “roof” of the t is placed on

the ascender line, and drops down with a vertical stroke linking to the second
stroke of the n .

ligature ae A useful ligature for this diphthong, which begins as for an a , but
has the addition of a somewhat stylized e .
Numerals:
Note that only the 4 , 6 , and 8 ascend slightly above the upper writing line. Use
your knowledge of the Uncial letters to determine the ductus of these forms,
remembering that all strokes must flow toward the right, and never against the
nib.

• Versals
A versal is an enlarged, often decorated letter beginning a paragraph or verse in
a manuscript. In the first Uncial manuscripts, the initials used to indicate the start
of chapters or verses were normally Roman Square Capitals (the style of letters
that one finds carved in stone from the Roman Empire, which served as the
models for our modern uppercase printed alphabet). Shortly thereafter,
calligraphers realized the creative potential in the Uncial forms themselves: their
graceful, rounded shapes and their elegant balance of thick and thin strokes lent
themselves naturally to illumination and stylized treatments. From the 12th
century onward, we find these colored initials, based on the Uncial letterforms,
drawn with a pointed nib (or quill) and painted with a fine brush. This influence
of the Uncial alphabet on illuminated initials—often very highly decorated—
lasted throughout the Middle Ages, and up to our own time. These delightful and
imaginative forms have been used in printing, tapestry, and stained glass, and
appear alongside many genres of calligraphic script.

Here you see a basic alphabet in versals. Notice how the characteristics of
Uncial have furnished the starting point for an evolution of curves and arches,
with terminals that sprout leaves or turn in spirals. No straight lines exist, save
for the crossbar of one or two letters.
How to Draw Versals
1. To practice creating these letters, draw them freehand or trace the alphabet
below using a pencil. Then go over them with a fine nib, using either ultramarine
blue, vermilion red, or alizarin crimson. A rich blue, contrasted with red, was the
preferred medieval color scheme. The initial that begins a text in Uncial
calligraphy may exceed the limits of the normal writing lines. Inter-text capitals
may stand on the same line as the calligraphed letters—though it is for you to
judge their height, according to the spacing between your lines of writing.
2. Now fill in the letter in the same color gouache as the outline, using a fine
brush (0 or 00). In this way, you will obtain a letter in a unified color, without a
black, or pencil, contour.
• Illuminated Versals and Simple Interlace
Here is an example of more elaborate versals, or Lombard Capitals. This will
give you a few ideas for how you might vary your initials, and also introduce
you to the technique of over-painting a second layer of gouache onto the first
color. Obviously, there is no limit to your creativity! However, remain faithful to
the balance and placement of the thicks and thins shown on the previous page.
Letters with circular or oval bodies are always very narrow at top and bottom,
and more ample on the two sides. The negative space inside any letter must,
also, be well balanced and show no sudden angles. These letters do not tilt, but
are upright and stable, despite their tendency to dance and play!

Illuminated Versal S
1. Begin by drawing a circle very lightly in pencil, then position the central
“wave” and the two triangles of the serifs.
2. Still in pencil, darken the curves of the circle.
3. To finish, trace over the outline of the letter with your pointed nib, or a fine
brush if you are steady-handed! Fill in the “thicks” with the same color (in
gouache), and add the motifs which follow the sweep of the central wave. Finish
with fine lines of white gouache on the body of the letter.

Illuminated Versal Y
1. Create the basic form of your letter in pencil. Exaggerate the terminals as
shown.
2. Paint the body of the letter in one color and, when it is quite dry, add the
motifs on the left side of the “bowl” and the vertical, using a color slightly
deeper than the first.
Adding a second color to your versals, even simply one or two touches of white
gouache, has a surprisingly striking effect on a letter. (Use gouache, as it is an
opaque pigment, unlike the more transparent watercolors.) Instead of white, you
can also choose a complementary color (blue on orange, for instance, or green
on red, these being opposite colors on the color wheel, shown below). Another
option is to change the tone of the base color by adding a little white or black for
the second layer while the first is still wet.
You will continue to find applications for these versal letters throughout your
calligraphy studies, especially with Gothic and French Bâtarde letters. To
decorate your versals with simple interlace, why not transform a vertical into a
twist or a braid, using two or three colors that alternate in “overs” and “unders”?
An Origami Birthday Card
1. Use an 8½" × 11" or A4 sheet of paper. Fold the paper in half lengthwise, then
re-open. Fold in half widthwise.
2. Bring up one of the folded corners, folding along a line from the center to the
nearest open corner.
3. Fold this triangle back again, at about 6 mm from the last fold.
4. Fold back again at 12 mm, then in the other direction at 6 mm.
5. Repeat step 4 two more times.
6. Fold one last time at 12 mm, then unfold.
7. Turn the folds to the other side and open out the page, then refold lengthwise,
with all the folds on the same side.
Write your text between lightly ruled lines, and erase them afterward.
 Celtic Majuscule Letters

When Saint Patrick agreed to evangelize the people of Ireland, probably in the
year 432, he arrived with manuscripts from the Continent written in Semi-
Uncial, according to Roman usage of the time. In this epoch there was no
tradition of calligraphy in Ireland: a country with a highly evolved oral culture, a
rich druidic spirituality, and an already sophisticated taste in Celtic and
Germanic art and decoration. The Irish civilization welcomed with enthusiasm
the beautiful new art of the written letter, and—in fact—the creativity born of
this encounter inspired a veritable revolution in the history of calligraphy and
illumination.
Inspired by the Roman scripts and enriched by commercial and cultural
contacts with Middle Eastern and North African traders, the monks of the new
Irish monasteries (and soon also of the communities founded by them in what
are now England and Scotland) developed an extraordinary style of calligraphy
and illumination. Writing of an illuminated manuscript in this style (it may have
been the Book of Kells itself), the 12th-century historian Giraldus Cambrensis
claimed that the work was surely that of angels and not men! The Celtic
Majuscule script and its accompanying exuberant feats of illumination are at
once majestic, joyous, solid, and elegant, often bubbling over with a delightful
sense of humor!
Celtic Majuscule is also referred to as “Insular” Majuscule (that is, pertaining
to the “islands” of Ireland and Great Britain). It is, like Uncial, a complete and
distinct hand, not conforming to our modern notions of an alphabet in which
Majuscule is combined with Minuscule forms. These “capital” letters are used
for all the text, with the initials being larger and more elaborate versions of the
same forms. Majuscule hands were used for important or sacred texts, while
Celtic Minuscule was reserved for less lofty projects, and is rarely seen in the
same manuscript as the Majuscule hand. However, a scribe may sometimes
combine his Majuscules—for a title perhaps—with other styles of letters based
upon runic forms or transformed into the intertwining bodies of animals.
This is a formal alphabet, but nonetheless a joyous one! It marches along the
writing line with weighty feet (often termed “wedged”), confident and solid.
Ascenders and descenders remain short, close to the inter-line letters. Their tops
and tails are marked by the “insular wedge,” a spatulate or triangular motif
representative of the Celtic hands. But mixed with this heavy sensibility you will
find more delicate elements, as well as loops and waves, which add contrast and
vitality to this style.
The pen is normally held at a nearly horizontal writing angle of 10°, but in
certain instances it will change (as in the descenders of f, p, and q, and the fine
line of x). Be vigilant! Letterforms vary enormously in this script, from round to
oval, and sometimes even kidney-shaped. Not to mention the playfulness of
many letters that can be stretched and deformed in a myriad of ways! For the
Celtic peoples—and the scribes were no exception—everything is alive. Make
friends with these letters, and discover the personality of each one.
The goose quill is the tool that will give you the greatest suppleness and
scope for imitating the original Majuscule, but a modern steel nib, like the
Mitchell, Brause, or Speedball, will also serve admirably.
The Book of Kells
This famous manuscript is normally dated 790–830, and it represents the
summit of the Insular arts of calligraphy and illumination. The Book of Kells
contains the Four Gospels, together with certain related texts and commentaries.
It continues to generate much study, as well as frequent controversy regarding its
exact date and place of creation! It is associated with the medieval monastery of
Kells, in Ireland, where it may have been brought by the community of Saint
Columcille of the Island of Iona (in the Scottish Hebrides), to safeguard it from
the attacks of Vikings at this period. However, there is no definitive evidence for
its being written in Iona, and it may well have been a product of a scriptorium in
Ireland itself.
The calligraphy is confident and well-balanced, and simultaneously full of
contradictions! The book features the marriage of Semi-Uncial and Uncial
letterforms, letter variants (such as for the n or the d) appearing in the same line
and even sometimes in the same word, and a rigorous and rhythmic parade of
letters capable of suddenly transforming themselves into elastic and fantastic
line-fillers! The illumination is a teeming fantasy world of interlace and animal
forms.
Each illumination shown here is outlined with a series of tiny and regular red
dots, an Insular device to give definition and extra movement to an initial.
line 1: Uae autem praegnantibus et
line 2: nutriantibus in/illis diebus
line 3: Orate/autem ut/non fiat/fuga
line 4: uestra hime uel sabbato
line 5: Erit/enim tunc/tribulatio magna
line 6: qualis non/fuit ab/initio munline
line 7: di usque modo neque fiet

The words of this text are linked according to the rhythm in which they would
have been read. Line 6, which ends with the first syllable of the word mundi,
displays a ligature of the letters u and n, to save space. In line 7, the scribe has
used an ampersand (the abbreviation for et or “and”) for the et of fiet. The form
of q recalls our modern letter g, and has therefore been modified in the alphabet
presented on the following pages, to help avoid confusion.
The Book of Kells is housed in the Old Library of Trinity College, Dublin.
Other manuscripts where you will find good examples of Celtic Majuscule are:
The Book of Durrow, the Lindisfarne Gospels, the Macregol Gospels, the Psalter
of Saint Caimin, and the Gospel books of Echternach and of Durham.

• Celtic Majuscule Ductus

Mitchell nib 2
Lines: 10 mm (5 × the width of the nib)
Ascenders & Descenders: 6 mm
(3 × the width of the nib)
letter a
Hold the pen at an angle of about 10° to the writing line. If the nib moves
smoothly, push upward slightly at the end of the first stroke, to form the “tail.”

letter b
Begin with a hairline lead-in stroke toward the right, touching the ascender line,
then fill in this space with a small descending stroke to form the “wedge.” The
body of b is quite circular.

letter c
The c is precisely the same as the first two strokes of the a .

letter d – vertical
The bowl of this letter is identical to the c and can be open or closed. Construct
the “wedge” as in the b , but followed by a straight descent. Drag a little ink
upward for the “foot.”
letter d – horizontal
This traditional “Uncial” variant of d can be alternated with the preceding form
at will (even in the same phrase!). The “spatula” at left can be created in a single
movement, by twisting the nib as you write, but it is often simpler to fill in the
triangle using the corner of the nib.

letter e
This form is akin to the c . It is not a true half-circle, with a slight “bulge” in the
upper left. If this is the final letter in a word, end it with a long horizontal with a
tiny triangle. If not, its bar will touch the following letter.

letter f
Begin slightly below the upper writing line. Change the nib angle as you
descend, to arrive at the descender line with a pointed terminal. A decoration can
be added with the corner of the nib.
letter g
A uniquely Celtic letterform! For the spatulas on the horizontal stroke, see d and
e . Notice that the “tail” of the letter ends in a fine line that touches the body at
the height of the lower writing line.

letter h
The first stroke of this letter is identical to the vertical in the d . Begin the second
stroke well below the upper writing line, and push the ink to create a fluid arch.
This stroke ends with a “foot” like the first.

letter i
An excellent letter for practicing your top and bottom “wedges”!

letter j
At the time of this script's invention, the i and the j were still represented by the
same letterform. Here, I propose a letter to use when not writing in Latin.
letter k
Rarely found in the Latin texts of medieval manuscripts, this letter is somewhat
exotic and unique, as its two final strokes are a little more angular than most of
the rest of this alphabet.

letter l
This letter is the companion of the b , with which it shares this serpentine form.
Push upward slightly at the end of the circular base to form a wedged “tail.”

letters m & n
These letters are related in form to the h : the same wedges, and the same ductus
for the arches.

letter n “Uncial”
This n contrasts with the preceding Semi-Uncial form. The first stroke is similar
to that of f , except that it begins on the upper writing line. The parallel second
stroke is like an i . The bar of the letter normally retains the 10° pen angle. It
remains close to the lower writing line, tilting gently downward. When a scribe
wished to stretch this letter, the bar often became very fine (a flatter pen angle),
and it was often decorated with a “box” motif, like the f .

letter o
A very round letter. As the pen angle is quite flat, the “thins”—where the strokes
begin and end—will occur between 11 and 12 o'clock and between 5 and 6
o'clock on an imagined clock face.

letter p
This letter is the brother of f , with the same positioning of its first stroke, and
the same “twist” of the nib as it descends. To begin the bowl, push the ink up
from the top right-hand corner of the upper “wedge,” then continue in a
semicircle to the lower writing line. The finishing stroke is added from left to
right.

letter q
As explained earlier, I have modified the q of Kells, which resembles our
modern g . This letterform begins with a c , to which is added a vertical, very
like that of f and p , differing only in that it begins with a lead-in from the right.
letter r
Begin with a stroke like the i (which can descend below the writing line as in the
variant shown). Add the semi-circular “head” from the top of the wedge and join
it to the first stroke two-thirds of the way down. The “foot” of r is pushed
upward a little, to form its wedge.

letter s
Made in three strokes, the Insular s almost looks upside-down: the top “bowl” is
equal to or larger than the lower one, giving this letter a slightly top-heavy
appearance.

letter t
Another unique letter (though similar to the Semi-Uncial variant of Uncial t ),
this letter begins with the horizontal of the g , followed by the form of a c .
(Some calligraphers reverse this ductus, which is entirely permitted!)

letter u
Here is a little challenge: to construct the spatula or “wedge” on a slightly
rounded stroke! Push the end of this stroke upward, so that a fluid and rounded
“bowl” will be created when the second stroke (like an i ) is added.

letter v
In Latin calligraphy, this was the same letterform as u . Here you have two
modern variants. This first is closely related to the u , with a rounded second
stroke.

letter v “wide”
Based on the strokes found in the x , this exuberant letter may enliven a text.
Construct the central form first, to balance it on the line, adding the “wings”
afterward.

letter w
Here again, a letter not found in the original manuscripts. W is founded upon the
letter u . As the left-hand strokes are gently rounded, I suggest that you make the
first negative space slightly smaller than the second, to respect the letter's
balance.
letter x
The first two strokes create a wave. Add a “wing” at the upper right. Change
your nib's angle to 30° for the long fine line, which ends either in a small wedge
or an extra stroke coming in from the left.

letter y
The very unusual and lovely Insular y recalls the flow of the g , with a strange
little “tongue” two-thirds of the way between the two writing lines.

letter y modified
Here is a suggestion for a less eccentric y , based on forms found in the u and in
the f (with the same change of pen angle in the descent!).

letter z
Begin with a wedged horizontal stroke (as in the d ) and a slightly bowed
diagonal, descending below the lower writing line. The third stroke stops before
the upper writing line, ending in a short stroke from the left.

letter z “reserved”
This variant is not modern; it is found in Kells, in fact. Begin in the same manner
as for the preceding z , but keep your diagonal straighter (though still descending
below the line), and finish with a fluid “wave.”

letter e “tall”
A rather amusing variation from the Insular scribes: an e that rises up to the
ascender line in order to “bite” the horizontal of a following d , g , or t ! (Only
used with these letters.)

the ampersand
In the Latin Gospels, many a line begins with the word et (“and”). This symbol
for these two letters became a favored frame for illumination. The floating
horizontal suggests the bar of the t , and sweep at the end of the large e 's
“tongue” evokes the t 's rounded body.

Here are three Latin words to show you the traditional spacing of the letters
(very close, indeed usually linked wherever possible). In your modern texts, you
may wish to allow a little more air between the letters, to aid legibility.

• Illuminated Initials & Zoömorphics

In this alphabet, there are no distinct forms for capital letters and an initial is
simply distinguished by its size and decoration. This can include highly
imaginative elements, interlace, human and animal (zoömorphic) forms—none
realistic, but all fantastical and creative! The only constraint is to preserve the
basic form of the Insular letters as a point of departure. The Celtic illuminators
of the early Middle Ages were certainly familiar with the decorative art of the
Continent and North Africa, but they broke all precedents with the protean
variety and complexity of their art.

How to Decorate an Initial Letter

1. After having drawn in pencil an enlarged version of a Celtic Majuscule letter,
and added design elements adapted perhaps from these pages or from images of
authentic manuscripts, go over your outlines with black ink (either a fluid ink
applied with a pointed nib or a fine felt-tip marker). Then erase all remaining
pencil marks.

2. Lay down a first, very even coat of colors in gouache. Follow this with a
second coat to bring out nuances of lighter or darker shades on top of your
foundation colors.

3. With a very fine brush, add tiny details in either a contrasting color or white
gouache, and encircle the entire design with the classic series of red dots.

To Create a Monogram
Begin by freely drawing several rough versions of the two or three initials you
wish to combine. Remember, letter parts can interlace, or be connected by
“arabesques” that grow out of their natural flow and movement. The repertoire
of motifs that may be incorporated is vast— but always stylized and two-
dimensional. No knowledge of perspective or anatomical exactitude is needed
here! If you use “free” knotwork, like that shown in the combined letters VDL
above, you must respect the rule of “over-and-under” alternation at each crossing
(see here ). The addition of loops with pointed, spatulalike extensions is very
Insular.

• Interlace and Knotwork

Interlacing cords are fundamental to Celtic decoration. Many cultures use
designs that follow this “over and under” pattern, but in the Insular style one
encounters a vast array of variations, with cords turning back on themselves,
splitting, changing color at a whim, and sprouting animal heads and feet! In the
Book of Kells and other related manuscripts, artists would cover an entire page
with pure knotwork (no text); these are termed “carpet pages.” They would also
dedicate a page to a monogram such as the famous “Chi Rho” page in Kells,
with its two Greek letters, X and P.
How to Create a Panel of Knotwork
1. Draw a series of equidistant dots, shown here in black. A minimum of 3 × 3
makes a grid, but you can multiply this in either direction. I recommend starting
with 4 × 5.

2. Between each four dots forming a square, add a red dot in the center.
Visualize (but don’t draw) the diamond shape created by two black and two red
dots.

3. To begin placing the cords, choose one of these imaginary diamond shapes,
and draw two diagonal lines in the middle of it, without touching the dots. In an
adjacent diamond, do the same, but in the other direction. Continue filling in all
the diamonds this way (but do not add a pair of diagonal lines where there are
only three dots, or at the corners). Each cord should alternate passing under and
over the cords it crosses.

4. At each of the four corners, the cords should come to a point, touching the
corner dot. Along the sides of your panel, in each three-dot space, fill in arches
that connect the cords. In this way, the “unders & overs” are created
automatically. (We find grids of dots in the manuscripts of antiquity, so it seems
this is an authentic method.)
5. There are many options for adding color. The Celts were fond of bright colors,
but their palette was varied and often subtle. A little line of white in the center of
your cords can make them sparkle!

6. Now add complexity to your designs! To make interior changes of direction in

your panel, place “walls” here and there (not too close together) connecting two
black dots. When your “roadways” arrive at one of these “walls,” you must treat
them as corners, and loop the cord back again. You can also “jump” an exterior
dot to make a longer, extended arch connecting the cords.

7. Why not pencil in the entire panel very lightly, then take each intersection and
divide the cords in two? You will have to erase a little and carefully “weave” the
overs and unders four times for each little square “crossroads.” From there you
can continue around the panel with a double cord. Filling in the background of
your knotwork in black helps to make the definition of the cords more striking.
A Delicate Interlace Origami
1. Cut your paper to an exact square, 4 inches (10.5 cm) on each side. In pencil,
mark the points “a” and “c” as shown, 1 inch (3 cm) from the edge of two
opposite sides. With an etching needle, mark the lines from these points to the
two edges.

2. Repeat for the other two sides, creating the points “b” and “d,” and their
incised lines.
3. Still with the etching needle, connect the four points to form a central lozenge
or diamond.

4. In this lozenge, design a square panel of knotwork. Two examples are given
here, one using our dots method, the other simply aligning four triangular knots
around a central point. To finish, gently fold up the four corners using the
etching needle-marked lines, leaving the central square of interlace flat.
 Celtic Minuscule Letters

As we saw in the preceding chapter, the Semi-Uncial of the Roman Church at

the time of Saint Patrick (5th century) was the inspiration for Celtic Majuscule.
Very often, a formal script will generate more cursive styles. This was the case
in the Insular world, where one finds that a “parallel” script developed at the
same period as a formal script, a more informal hand that was better suited to
less important projects and to manuscripts in smaller formats. This style is
termed Insular, or Celtic, Minuscule.
All of these Insular or “island” scripts were little influenced by European
trends, owing to their relative isolation (at least at the stage of their initial
development). In continental Europe, cursive and even semi-formal hands were
molded by all kinds of regional tastes and exchanges, and—most importantly—
by the reforms that took place under Emperor Charlemagne. The Celtic
Minuscule remained untouched by all of this, and it became a national
calligraphy, recognized and later studied at many great centers of learning
throughout the Middle Ages (both in the British Isles and farther afield). For the
paleographer (a specialist in medieval manuscripts), elements of this style of
calligraphy can serve as an important clue in identifying a Celtic origin or
influence in a manuscript. And in Ireland, this alphabet lasted (especially for
writing the Irish language) well into the 20th century—making it the longest-
lasting of all Occidental calligraphic styles! With the peregrinations of Irish
monks to Scotland, Northumbria, and elsewhere in England, a distinctive version
of this hand evolved, the “Anglo-Saxon Minuscule.”
The angle of the nib to the line, for this Celtic Minuscule, is about 45°, but
you will notice that the “wedges” and spatulas of the Majuscule are still present
(only steeper!). Certain idiosyncratic “insular” letters remain, like the d, g, and t,
but the a is quite original, and the ampersand receives a completely different
treatment from that of its cousin in the Majuscule! In fact, this strange symbol
for et (or “and”) resembles a “7” in this script, and is called a “Tironian
ampersand” after its inventor, Tiron, amanuensis (copyist or secretary) to
Cicero.
According to the hierarchy of Celtic scripts, Majuscule and Minuscule forms
are rarely mixed. Therefore, when seeking a “capital” letter, you must simply
use the Minuscule, but written somewhat larger.

Manuscript Rawlinson B 502

A treasure of Celtic Minuscule, this manuscript is in the collection of the
Bodleian Library at Oxford University. Dating from the 12th century, it includes
texts in both Latin and Irish. In fact, this is an anthology: it contains a world
chronicle, genealogies, legal tracts, and commentaries on Irish saints and kings.
The folio above comes from “Saltair na Rann,” a retelling of parts of the Bible,
likely composed at the end of the 10th century.
Experts disagree over the provenance of this manuscript. Professor Pádraig
Ó Riain (of University College, Cork), hypothesized that Rawlinson B 502 may
be the long-lost Book of Glendalough. Regardless, this manuscript offers us a
magnificent glimpse of the Celtic Minuscule in the hands of an expert scribe.
The letters are angular, confident, and full of life, and the zoömorphic
illuminated initials are extraordinary.
Here is a transcription of verse XCIII, which describes the giant Goliath,
adversary of David, as “a furious hero.... He was a huge, ugly tree; a wild
slavering dog....” It begins with a wonderful illuminated T.
line 1 Tucsat leo trenfer n-irach diarb ainm Gola garbgnimack
line 2 Nirb fer suairc sochraid [d]o slog ba heo duairc [dochraid] dermor
I draw your attention to the s, usually seen here in its “tall” form (resembling
an f without its bar). This form is not included in the alphabet that follows, as it
is rarely comprehensible in modern calligraphic pieces.
Perhaps the greatest challenge for the reader of this text is to identify the
abbreviations and contractions (used constantly by the Insular scribes): a q with
a bar through its tail signifies ar (and with a tiny i above it, the syllable “air”); a
line above a letter usually indicates an m or n to follow; an i with a short line in
the middle jutting out to the right—all placed above a c— represents ck or ch;
and at the end of these two lines, one finds an r majuscule (but small), ligatured
with an o.

• Celtic Minuscule Ductus

Mitchell nib 1.5
Lines: 12 mm (5 × the width of the nib)
Ascenders & Descenders: 5 mm (2 × the width of the nib)
letter a
Although most of this alphabet is written at a 45° pen angle, increase this
slightly for the first downstroke of a , gently realigning your nib to the true
diagonal angle as you continue fluidly into stroke 2. This wave-like stroke
remains close to the lower writing line.

letter b
As in the Celtic Majuscule, the b and the l share the same slightly rounded
“spine.” In this script, however, the “bowls” are more contracted. The “wedges”
are constructed in the same way, albeit at a more pronounced angle.

letter c
This rather oval form, which touches the writing line and then rises diagonally
toward the right, is echoed in the d , e , o , q , and t . The c is capped with a
short, abrupt stroke.
letter d
The second stroke of this letter can lie flat on the upper writing line, or it can
have a more upright slope. Both are authentic, as a certain amount of variation is
seen during this hand's long history. But whichever you choose, it must remain
consistent throughout your chosen project or text.

letter e
As in the c , the e is an oval—not too pointed, not too rounded. Keep the “head”
of the e small, with the bar or “tongue” above the middle of the writing space.

letter f
The Insular f is always a descender, with a tail that either continues vertically,
tapering to a point with a twist of the pen in the scribe's hand, or—as shown here
—with a delicate hairline toward the left. Remember to keep an even tempo, and
never finish any letter with a quick “flick” of the pen!

letter g
The first stroke of g , its “roof,” is not wavy, but simply begins and ends with
hairlines. The negative space in the lower loop is oval in form, and lies along a
horizontal axis.
letter h
As the ascenders of this hand are not too high, be sure to make your “wedges”
tight, so that they do not occupy too much of the vertical strokes (either the
ascenders or the shorter verticals; the latter are termed minims ).

letter i
Note that the minim , or vertical stroke, of i curves ever so slightly.

letter j
As this letter is not found in Latin or in Irish, here is an invented form, using the
first stroke of the f as a model.

letter k
Also not a letter found in the original alphabet of this hand, this k combines a
first stroke like that of the h with a slightly “deformed” c !
letter l
Identical to the first stroke of b .

letter m
A short minim , followed by two arches reminiscent of that of h .

letter n
Keep the arches of n , m , and h consistent, and of the same width as the
negative spaces, or “counters,” of u , v , and w .

letter o
Even before you touch pen to paper, visualize the negative space of o : a neat,
fluid oval. This contributes enormously to the regularity, fluidity, and balance of
your o 's.
letter p
This letter is related to the f , and begins with the same ductus. The “bowl” of p
is generous. The final stroke must meet the third without a visible “join,” and
normally without touching the first stroke.

letter q
The first, and truly authentic, q shown here is clearly based upon the a , though
the counter is less wide. The tiny hairline at the end of stroke 2 must be well
accented.

letter q “modern”
A softer and more rounded alternative to the classic q , this letter is based upon
the c , to which is added a vertical stroke. Be careful to come into this second
stroke from the right, thereby leaving a clear little triangle of space just under the
upper writing line.
letter r
This is the historical form of r , and is included here as it is sufficiently
recognizable to be incorporated even into a modern text. Observe very carefully
the high pointed arch of the third stroke, and the almost straight “cascade,”
forming a very tight arch of negative space.

letter r “Uncial”
Also an authentic form, this alternative r begins with a wedged minim . The
“head” is narrow and not rounded, and it touches the vertical below the
midpoint, to continue into a restrained, not-too-wavy foot.

letter s
The central serpentine of the s , the first stroke, defines the width of the letter.
Visualize the two counter-spaces: small and bell-shaped above, a larger flattened
oval below.

letter t
Begin this letter with the same “roof” as for the g , and continue with a stroke
like the first half of the o or the c .
letter u
The two minims of the u both resemble the letter i , though the first is more
slanted.

letter v
A first stroke like the u , but this rather modern letterform then continues with a
rounded second minim.

letter w
In fact, a u plus a v ! Keep the three wedges identical and restrained.

letter x
Begin this beautiful letter with a descending diagonal, not a wave, and cross it in
mid-writing-space with a very fluid “arabesque”—which is, however, straight
and fine at the intersection of the two strokes. This second stroke descends
below the writing line.
letter y
Here is a y based on the u , with its right-hand stroke descending below the
writing line and curving gently to the left.

letter y “round-tail”
A more historical form, with a serpentine twist to the final stroke.

letter z
One of the prettiest letterforms in calligraphy! Keep the gentle curves of the
“roof” and the descending body stroke very controlled, to contrast with the
spiraling “tail,” the very end of which is executed with the corner of the nib.

Tironian Ampersand
The traditional sign for et (“and”) in this script, and still used sometimes in
Ireland. It “floats” between the two writing lines, and is always quite small.

numerals
This series of numbers has been adapted to complement the Celtic Minuscule,
and to be contained between the two writing lines. In deciphering their ductus ,
remember to always move in a right-hand direction, never pushing the nib
upward or to the left. Notice that the 1 retains the classic Insular “wedge.”

Here are some examples to illustrate possible letter and word spacing.

• Illumination and Text

When you lay out a project in Celtic Minuscule, be sure to leave the space of an
m between words, and do not crowd your letters together. Although most of this
alphabet is quite easily read, certain letters may cause confusion (such as the g or
the t).

Little Zoömorphics
1. Begin with a pencil-drawn version of one of the letters in this alphabet, but fill
out the “thins” created by the nib to make an animal body of consistent width.
2. At the “ends” of the letter, add head, feet, and/or tail. Notice the classic Celtic
style of the eye, forehead, jawline, and snout. These vary little throughout the
Insular world.
3. Departing from crest, tongue, or tail, indicate—still in pencil—the loops of
your knot as it passes around neck, body, or legs.
4. Erase the crossover points, and re-establish them in correct “under-and-over”
order.
5. With the ink of a fine marker or a pointed nib, go over the pencil work, not
forgetting to double the lines of the cords so they have more substance.
6. Add one or two layers of color to the animal’s body, to define the letterform
more clearly. A paler color, like a yellow, could be used on some parts of the
cords.
Minor initials or capital letters are, in this script as in the Celtic Majuscule,
simply larger versions of the standard letters in this hand.

Many forms of decorated initials were used throughout the history of this script,
but those in Rawlinson B 502 serve well as inspiration. They include animal
heads and paws, and freely drawn knotwork sprouting from ears, crests, tongues,
or tails!

• Circular Knotwork: A Celtic Mandala!

1. Using a compass and a pencil, position three equidistant, concentric circles on
a piece of watercolor paper. With a ruler, draw the two lines on the horizontal
and vertical axes, and then the two diagonals, equally spaced between them.
2. Without a ruler (no need to be too precise here!), add eight points on the
central circle, midway between the lines already in place. Use a ruler to draw
short lines at these distances between the first four division lines.
3. At each intersection of these lines, add a dot. In the center of each cell, place
another dot (here indicated in red). As with the panels of interlace on here ,
identify (but do not actually draw in) the diamonds or lozenges that would be
formed by two black and two red points. In these lozenges, begin creating your
alternating cords, not allowing the lines to touch the dots. You will notice that
these cords must be slightly curved to remain true to the irregular shape of the
lozenges.
4. Add the four “walls” as shown. When you arrive at these barricades, your
cords will have to loop back. Now complete all the pathways, as on here , with
larger arches on the outside of the exterior circle than on the inside of the
smallest one. Don’t forget to take the cords that arrive at “corners” out to the
black dot, to create spatula shapes.
5. Outline the mandala in permanent ink, but don’t fill in the background in
black yet. When the outlines are dry, use a largish brush to moisten the area
within the outlines. (You can cover the background too. No need to stay within
the lines!) Before this dries, paint on some watercolor or well-diluted gouache
and allow the colors to blend. When dry, go back and fill in all the inter-cord
spaces with black.
6. Using the compass, lightly draw two lines in pencil around the exterior of
your mandala, to guide your calligraphy. Erase when the writing is dry.
7. In the mandala’s center, you could add an initial, a knotwork motif, or an
abstract design of some kind. The example shown reflects the Celtic respect for
the number three. The text used is from the Prayer of Saint Patrick (5th century).
Birth Announcement
Origami Bird Motif
1. Begin with a thin rectangle of paper. The one I use here measures 8.3" × 2.9"
(21 x 7.4 cm). Fold down the upper left corner along a diagonal line, as shown.
2. Fold up the lower left-hand point, to cover the other half of the first fold.
3. Open out this last fold, as indicated, so that it lies flat.
4. Fold in the two corners of this small square so that they meet on the center
line, then unfold.
5. Pull up just the square’s top layer of paper from the lower right corner,
inverting the folds from the last step, and flatten out into a diamond shape.
6. Fold this section downward in two.
7. Make an “inverse fold”* to create the head, then bring up the fold for the wing
right to the upper edge, as shown.
8. Turn the entire left-hand part behind, then flip the paper over to see the final
front side.
* To make an “inverse fold,” press down the central fold to form a “valley,” so

that there are two “mountain” (peaked) folds on either side of it, and pinch to
close.
 Carolingian Minuscule Letters

The Semi-Uncial of Ancient Rome was the parent of many generations of

calligraphy. Celtic Majuscule and Minuscule are distinguished members of this
family of scripts, but the purest issue of this line of descent is surely the
Carolingian.
That said, many and varied Continental hands descended from the Semi-
Uncial. In fact, at the dawning of the epoch of Charlemagne (King, and later
Emperor, of the Franks toward the end of the 8th century and into the 9th), so
diverse and eclectic were the scripts of his realm that the written word was at
risk of becoming more of an obstacle than an aid to government and
communication. For this reason, toward the end of the 8th century, Charlemagne
called upon Alcuin of York, an erudite and already vastly respected monk, to aid
him in a general reform of education, literacy, and…calligraphy. Alcuin, later to
be made Abbot of Saint-Martin of Tours in present-day France, decided to return
to the roots of the mélange of regional calligraphic styles, to re-instate an
imperial hand with the purity and legibility of Semi-Uncial. With the eye of both
innovator and master calligrapher, Alcuin—and later his successor Abbot
Frédégise—created an alphabet at once clear, harmonious, elegant, and practical
for all occasions: the Carolingian (named after the Emperor, of course!).
This is a Minuscule hand. That is, it is an alphabet that contains ascenders
and descenders, which exceed the confines of the upper and lower writing lines
sufficient for a majuscule script. And, not unlike the Celtic, the Carolingian
ascenders have “wedges.” However, these are not triangular, but rather rounded
and smooth, in keeping with the fluid curves of this style.
To facilitate a certain speed in writing, the pen angle of this script (around
35°) is flatter than that of the Celtic Minuscule, and the letters slant very slightly
to the right. Traditionally, a generous space between lines of text is maintained,
to allow room for ascenders and descenders and to preserve the clear and airy
character of the Carolingian. The body height of the small letters, however, is
only 4 pen-widths.
You will find that the letterforms in this style are very familiar, owing to the
influence of Carolingian on the Humanists of the Renaissance, who in their turn
returned to the purity of “ancient hands” for their calligraphic reforms and used
their Carolingian-based scripts as the models for their first typefaces.
Nevertheless, some of these letters will remind you that you are still in the early
Middle Ages!
The Gospels of Schuttern
This Latin manuscript was written in the 9th century at the Benedictine
monastery of Schuttern, in Baden-Württemberg, Germany. The artist-cum-scribe
identified himself in a colophon (or “post-script” signature) as Deacon
Liutharius, who was working under the direction of Abbot Bertricus (abbot from
816 to 825).
 The Carolingian of Liutharius is neat and regular, with very high ascenders
and a tendency to pull out a thin stroke on letters at word or line ends (especially
on the ampersand!). These letters do not slant much at all, except perhaps in the
case of the long s. Where Liutharius desires a capital letter, he uses Uncial
forms, or—for titles—Roman “Rustic” capitals. His choice of colors is
particularly pleasing on this page of two text areas divided by decorated
columns: he paints his ribbon-and-plant motifs in sage green, pale violet, and
terracotta red.
Some pages of this book feature illuminated initials with interlace, sporting
images of animals or birds in an Insular style. This mixture of Carolingian and
Uncial scripts with Celtic motifs suggests an artistic exchange between the
scriptoria on the northwest margin of Europe and the Continent itself. We know
that Irish monks were present in regions of Germany at this period.
The folio above shows a simple interlace effect, with ribbons wound around
a central line, interspersed with flower forms—not Celtic at all. This reserved
design, with a limited palette, allows the Carolingian script to hold its own in the
composition.

• Carolingian Minuscule Ductus

Mitchell nib 2
Lines: 8 mm (4 × the width of the nib)
Ascenders & Descenders: 7 mm (3 × the width of the nib)

letter a
Begin just under the upper writing line, to allow room to sweep upward slightly
before creating the first diagonal stroke. By pushing the ink from the middle of
this stroke with the nib, you can make the small bowl of the a in a single
movement.
letter b
The vertical of b begins with a small “hook,” which is transformed into a
rounded “wedge” by the second stroke, which descends almost to the upper
writing line. All the Carolingian letters may be written at a slant of about 5°, or
they can remain upright—but you must be consistent in your choice!

letter c
A very rounded letter, written in two strokes, the c finishes with a tiny hair line.

letter d
Begin like the c , then connect the two ends of the “bowl” with the vertical.
Don't forget the “wedge,” as in b !

letter e
Unlike the c , the second stroke of e is rounded. Keep a light touch for the
“tongue,” which is slightly arched.
letter f
The “wedge” of f is placed just under the upper writing line, and its third stroke
must rise out of the corner of this wedge, to give the impression of a single
descending stroke. This letter, while an ascender, is not as tall as b or d .

letter g
This lovely letter begins with a small circular “head” which floats well above the
lower writing line, and then continues into a serpentine stroke for the “tail”
(hardly touching the first stroke). This “tail” ends with a rounded third stroke.
And don't overlook the little “ear” on the upper writing line!

letter h
The vertical of h just touches the writing line with the corner of the angle created
by the nib. Add the rounded “wedge,” and then push slightly up and to the right
to begin the graceful arch.
letters i & j
These two letters demonstrate the version of the “wedge” used on minims ,
which is a little shorter than that of the ascenders. Historically there was no dot
over these letters

letter k
Like the h , this letter's vertical touches the writing line on its “toes”! To create
the thin line at the end of the third stroke, lift the pen before adding the final
“foot” of the k .

letter l
The l touches the writing line with a gentle curve, but is not so rounded as the
first stroke of b .

letters m & n
The arch of the n , and the final one of the m , are both rounded, as in the h .
letter o
A very rounded letter, like the c . Be careful to retain the angle of 35° with the
nib, so that the thicks and thins are correctly placed.

letter p
Begin this letter like the f , with the wedge just under the upper writing line. In
the case of p , the third stroke leaves the vertical just below this line, ends at the
lower line, and is completed with a stroke that crosses the vertical at an angle,
from left to right.

letter q
A rounded “head,” like an o , transforms into a true vertical just below the upper
writing line, and ends on the descender line with a tiny hook.

letter r
The minim of this letter is like those of m and n , with a flowing “wave” (not too
long), which begins just below the upper writing line.
letter s
As in the previous scripts, the s is made in three strokes. Its overall width should
be the same as an o or an n .

letter s “long”
Historically, this variant of s was used only in the interior of a word, never to
begin or end it. In modern texts, it may cause confusion, as it resembles an f .
Use with parsimony!

letter t
The t is still not, at this epoch, an ascender. Its horizontal bar, with its tiny
hairline lead-in and exit strokes, is joined to a rounded stroke, like that in the c .

letter u
The base of the first minim of u extends into a rounded form, like the foot of l .
The second one is more hooked, like an i .
letter v
An invented form (as the u was used for both letters in the Middle Ages), this v
is based upon the form of the u .

letter v “modern”
To add a little variation to your texts, this modern form of v is harmoniously
adapted to this alphabet (without wedges).

letter w
A marriage of the strokes found in the u and the v .

letter x
The first stroke is like that of the a , followed by two curving strokes—which do
not meet in the middle! Be sure to leave little triangular negative spaces at the
top and bottom.
letter x “descending”
This form of x enlivens a page of text with its extended third stroke. The first
two strokes are identical to the preceding letter.

letter y
Begin with the “modern” v , and continue in an extended, sweeping “tail.” The y
of this script was traditionally written with a dot placed over it—probably to
distinguish it from an i and j (found in Germanic and Dutch texts of this epoch),
and perhaps retained for its decorative charm!

letter y “variation”
In this version of y , the first stroke is not wavy, and the tail turns toward the left,
necessitating two strokes. The tail is shorter than a standard descender of this
script.

letter z
Begin with a horizontal like that of the t , and notice that the second stroke
begins slightly to the left of the end of stroke one. The z finishes with a
restrained “wave.”

ampersand Here we have a new form for the ligature for et (“and”). Its first
stroke rises above the upper writing line, with a tiny “head” that does not touch
the ascender line. Notice that the end of the second stroke and that of the fourth
seem to be connected, but are in fact made separately (unless, if your nib accepts
it, you can “push” the ink upward).

The word-spacing for Carolingian is the width of an m . The letters themselves

may be closely written, as they are round and legible.

• Composition and Layout of an Illuminated Text

When you are ready to use the Carolingian script in a little project—with
lettering, illustration, and illumination—begin with several “thumbnails.” These
are little sketches where you indicate, very roughly, the orientation of the paper
(will it be portrait or landscape?), how you will align the text (all beginning on
the left, or all centered, for example), and the size and quantity of illuminated
and colored letters (one only at the beginning, or one for each verse, perhaps in
different sizes?). The capital letters usually employed with Carolingian are
Roman or Rustic Capitals or Uncials (as in this poem). The choice of form for an
illuminated initial can be any of these, or even a Carolingian letterform, drawn
and painted in a larger size.
In this lay (or poem) by Marie of France (a poetess from the North of France in
the 12th century), a lady who is held captive in a tower is visited by a great bird,
who changes into a noble prince. This verse, in Old French, could be translated
thus: “I have loved you long, and still I love you, and I have greatly desired you
in my heart. I have never loved another woman, and I never shall…”
It is recommended to lay out the composition in pencil, and then begin the
ink-work with the calligraphy. If you make a mistake in the calligraphy, it is
frustrating to redo the much more time-consuming illumination as well!

Decorating an Initial
1. Begin with the outline of the letter, in pencil, which in this case is an Uncial J.
(see here )
2. At the end of the loop of the letter, extend the lines, in fluid curves, in both
directions.
3. To these cords, add dots and then stylized leaves, or fleurs de lys , in pencil.
4. As you go over these lines in ink, weave the upper leaf under its cord, and add
panels in the interior spaces of the letter.
5. Each outlined space is colored in, and then—when dry—highlights in white
gouache are added. Use this same technique on the columns, the bird, and the
heart-motif.

How to Design the Columns

1. Draw the three verticals, the base, and the top of the column (all in double
lines, to be painted in later).
2. In pencil, draw the wavy ribbon—crisscrossing the central double-line five
times. (Notice that it is narrower where it touches the outer lines and thicker in
the center.)
3. The spaces between the waves are filled with flower motifs.
4. Now apply a first coat of solid color, followed by highlights in white, and
nuances of the base colors.

• Illuminated Letters with Interlace Motifs

Here are some ideas for illuminated letters that may be useful in your
Carolingian projects.
1. Always begin with a simple contour in pencil, to clearly see the balance and
harmony of your letter. Here the T and B are Versals, and the M is based on a
Roman Capital form.
2. Give free rein to your imagination when you add decorations: human, animal,
plant…or pure fantasy! Invite leaves and branches to grow out of terminals,
heads of dragons to sprout, the bodies of the letters to wind themselves into
knotwork…
3. Fill all the outlined forms with a coat of opaque gouache, and leave it to dry.
4. With a very fine brush, add tiny highlights in white, dots here and there, and
nuances of the foundation colors to give depth and movement to your work. This
is a magical moment: you are focused on the task before you, as each letter
reveals its individual personality to you. The text comes to life at the end of your
paintbrush!
A Card that Makes a Box!
1. Take a sheet of paper, 8. 5" × 11" or A4 in size, and cut in half lengthwise.
Fold this in half, and then fold along the dotted lines (dividing the spaces,
roughly, in thirds).
2. Fold this in half, with the openings on the outside.
3. On one side, open the “wings” while folding them along the triangles marked
here by dotted lines.
4. Open out the sides, and lay this half down flat.
5. Fold this side up, then turn the paper over.
6. Open out, and follow the instructions for this side as in step 3.
7. Open the sides, and lay this half flat.
8. Open out the center wings, and turn it over.
9. Fold the sides as indicated by the arrows.
10. Crease the diagonals as indicated. Grasp the points and pull them out toward
the exterior to reveal the box.
11. You can glue down the “wings” to simplify the usage of the box.
Rule double lines in pencil, to be erased later, and write your text to be
appreciated from any angle!
 Gothic Letters

A calligrapher needs to cultivate the ability to see many things at once: the
letterform itself; the negative or “counter” space within it; the balance of
vertical, horizontal, diagonal, and curved strokes; the slant of the script; and
even to visualize the flow of an arabesque or decorative stroke that will require
several separate strokes to “construct.” When the Carolingian was superseded by
the Gothic, another “vision” came into play, in greater force than ever before.
This was the appreciation of the texture of the entire page of script. This
heightened capacity to view the total composition created by a body of text was
at the heart of the “Gothic” revolution.
As you master, little by little, the gestures of each style of script, you will
become more and more conscious of this “rhythm” created by the marks you
make on the page. Each alphabet offers a different “music” to the eye. And this
is not to be judged letter by letter, but by the effect of many letters, and lines of
text, seen globally. From the 9th to the 15th centuries, scribes became very
attentive to this aspect of calligraphic composition, and to a richness of texture
which could be augmented by the use of design features such as tiny “diamonds”
on the ends of minims, “forked” ascenders and descenders, and a ductus
demanding many pen-lifts—so as to leave little “thorns” protruding here and
there on each letter! The result of all this affectation, and the emphasis on
horizontal and vertical force in the script, was that the page gave the impression
of being densely “woven.” Hence the name in Latin of textualis, which evokes
this characteristic.
Another image to help us to appreciate this transition in style is to compare
this calligraphy to the changes in architectural tastes of the period. The
Carolingian hand evokes the Romanesque churches, solid and rounded forms.
The Gothic leads us upward with soaring steeples, flying buttresses, intricate
stained glass, and delicate and almost “light” sculptures (albeit in stone!) that
display a lacelike intricacy. All this is coupled with strange and fantastic forms:
gargoyles and monsters, angels, and legendary beasts.
Notice how the letters of this alphabet keep their balance on tiny pointed
feet, and how the warp and weft of the strokes creates a rhythm of ink and paper
that is almost binary (the counter-space between two minims can be the same
width as the minim itself!). And, in the margins of the Gothic manuscripts, just
as on the exteriors of the great cathedrals, one finds a world of grotesque and
fabulous creatures, called “drolleries.”
The pen angle for Gothic varies between 35° and 45°, with subtle changes
sometimes in the same letter. However, this is usually an easy style to master: as
each stroke is separate, you learn to create the ductus “piece by piece.” At the
same time, you will train your eye to see the composition of a page of text. With
this upright and regular script, you will naturally find your own rhythm and
cadence. Welcome to the High Middle Ages!

The Breviary of Saint-Sepulchre of Cambrai

Today, the pretty little town of Cambrai, in the North of France, is perhaps best
known for its celebrated sweets (called “Bétises de Cambrai”)! But early in the
Middle Ages, Cambrai was famous as a center of learning, calligraphic art, and
music. This Breviary (a collection of prayers for ecclesiastics, rather than
laymen) dates from the 13th or early 14th century. It comprises two volumes
filled with miniatures, illuminated letters, and drolleries. Here, the art of
“marginalia”— decorations that occupy the margins of the page—reaches a
summit of creativity by turns comic and monstrous. Fantastic fauna and flora
encircle the sacred words of the text. This mixture of bizarre, humorous, or
terrifying imagery juxtaposed with sacred subjects is reminiscent of the
sculptured décor of the cathedrals of this period.
The illuminated page shown displays the initial B of Beatus , which opens
the Book of Psalms. In the two bowls of this letter, we see David playing his
harp, and his combat with Goliath. But with the following letter e, the wit of the
scribe becomes apparent! And in the branches that frame the text, one finds a
king transformed into a monstrous bird, a centaur brandishing a sword, colorful
birds, and even a tiny wolf frightening them at lower right! Gold leaf is used on
the background of the initial, for the minor capitals, and behind the branches.
The script is a formal Gothic in black, with the numbers of the Psalms in red. As
with the Celtic Minuscule, the “long s ” was in usage, but is not included in our
alphabet.
Here is a transcription of the first eight lines:
line 1 Beatus* Psalmus David*
line 2 vir qui non abiit in consi-
line 3 lio impiornm: et in via pec-
line 4 catorum non stetit. Et in ca-
line 5 thedra pestilenti e non sedit.
line 6 Sed in lege domini vo-
line 7 luntas eius: et in lege eius meditabitur die
line 8 ac nocte.
Note that a tiny diagonal stroke placed over an i helps to distinguish it from
other minims. The horizontal line over o is a “nasal suspension” and indicates a
missing m or n following. Two letters, like the o and the c of “nocte,” can share
a common stroke, and the r has a special form for its ligatures with o and d.

• Gothic Ductus
Mitchell nib 2.5
Lines: 9 mm (6 × the width of the nib)
Ascenders & Descenders: 8 mm and 7 mm
(5 × and 4 × the width of the nib)
letter a
Remember that the pen is lifted for each stroke, so that the “corners” of the
strokes are visible, giving this script its “thorny” effect. The diamond at the foot
of the first vertical stroke is well-centered. The fine line at the upper left of the
letter is made with the corner of the nib.

letter b
The first descending stroke begins with a tiny hairline from the right. Don't go
right down to the writing line with this stroke, but leave space for a balanced “v”
base to the letter. Add the little “thorn” on the vertical stroke with a small arched
stroke toward the right.

letter c
Four distinct strokes, with an even and confident rhythm!

letter d
Begin with the first three strokes of c , then add a graceful curving stroke (a nice
contrast to the many angular and straight strokes in the Gothic hand!) that will
create the upper right-hand portion of the letter's interior “hexagon.”

letter e
Again, the first three strokes are identical to the c , and the “head” and “tongue”
are made without lifting the pen.

letter f
Note that the bar of f is quite short; but if this is the last letter in a word, it may
be drawn out in a decorative flourish!
letter g
Visualize the interior “hexagon” created by the counter space of this letter before
you begin, and keep it narrow. Without lifting the pen, add to the fifth stroke a
rounded hook (on the lower writing line), and finish it with a half-circular, or a
wavy, stroke from left to right.

letter h
The forked ascender is like that of b , but the stroke continues almost to the
writing line, leaving just the room for a “diamond” foot. The minim of stroke
five ends with a comma-like form and a hairline that descends just below the
writing line.

letter i
The two “diamonds” at top and bottom of this simple minim are well-centered. A
third serves as a “dot,” with a tiny descending hairline on the bottom.

letter j
Based upon the form of the i , the j is a descender, with a restrained turn of the
“tail” to the left.
letter k
Pay special attention to the angle of the “head” of k (on a diagonal axis—and
with no change of pen angle). The “foot” of the letter begins with a curve, but
then descends vertically, until it turns again for the “foot” and hairline—many
changes of direction to fit into a small space!

letter l
An ascender identical to the vertical stroke of h or k .

letter m
A true Gothic letter! As the pen is lifted for each component of the m , this letter
requires eight strokes!

letter n
Very similar to m , but only five strokes this time! Be sure to keep the counter
spaces very narrow in both these letters.

letter o
Notice that the fourth stroke is slightly rounded, a feature in common with a , c ,
f , g , h , m , and n . This is an excellent practice letter to establish the width of
your counter spaces, and to explore the principle of separate pen strokes with
“thorns” at their corners.

letter p
This letter has a “forked” descending stroke, with the second “thorn” positioned
well above the first. Be sure to leave a clean angle at the lower right of the body
of p , where the fifth and sixth strokes are joined.

letter q
This letter is a combination of the strokes found in c and in p .
letter r
A minim like the i , with an extra diamond added on the right. Using the corner
of the nib, drag a little of the ink from this diamond downward in a tiny
decorative serpentine.

letter s
Notice that the first diagonal stroke of the s is not too curved. Although this
letter is made up of fluid, rather than angular, strokes, it must retain the same
overall width as the other letters.

letter s “angular”
Here is a challenge: This traditional form of s requires nine strokes! Be sure to
begin the sixth stroke above the level of the fourth, and to keep the diagonal
“cut” of the lower right-hand corner very clean.
letter t
At this epoch, the letter t begins to grow above the upper writing line, but not yet
by too much! The forked mini-ascender is intersected by a bar, which sits on the
line (not under it, as in the f ).

letter u
Like the other letters made of minims , place the upper “diamonds” in the center
of each vertical stroke. On the lower writing line, instead of diamonds, one finds
slightly extended diagonals, but they still touch the line only with the corners of
their strokes.

letter v
The last stroke of this letter, as for the w , provides one of the rare occasions in
Gothic to soften the angularity of the script.

letter w
Notice that the feet that touch the lower writing line are not “diamonds,” but
extended like those of u .
letter x
Although some of the strokes of this letter recall the a and the e , the third stroke
is unique, and must be kept short to preserve the balance of the letter.

letter x “variant”
Keep the first diagonal stroke quite steep, to ensure the overall width of this
letter matches the others in this alphabet. Notice that the two short “thin” strokes
do not touch in the middle of the letter!

letter y
A combination of the form of u and that of g (with the same choice in the shape
of the “tail”).

letter z and variation

Amazingly enough (for Gothic), the first form of this letter is made in a single
pen stroke! Keep an overall width consistent with the rest of the alphabet, and
notice that the curving “tail” begins between the two writing lines. For the
second form, the base must not be too wavy.

ampersand
This ligature (representing, as ever, the letters et ) is wider than most other
letterforms, especially when its “tongue” is elongated. It may also be used to
replace e and t within a word.

diphthong æ
A very elegant marriage of these two letterforms, representing a diphthong
commonly found in Latin, but—alas—not so frequent in English!

Here are a few decorative ideas for punctuation marks and line endings, based on
the repertoire of diamonds, angles, and flourishes found in the Gothic hand. (See
the project here for the Gothic numerals.)
Gothic and Bâtarde Majuscules
Below you will find two Majuscule alphabets. The first of each letterform is
intended to complement your Gothic Minuscule script, and the second is in the
style of French Bâtarde. Hundreds of variations on these capital letters exist.
During the medieval period there were already innumerable regional variations,
and right up to the present, Gothic, Fraktur, Bâtarde, and “Old English” styles of
calligraphy and typography have generated many more models. Often the
distinction between related families of scripts becomes blurred.
The pen angle remains between 35° and 45°, with—from time to time—a
rounded flourish, which requires that you turn the nib on its corner to pull out a
curved hairline stroke. (See, for example, the fourth stroke of the A Gothic, or
the third of the B Bâtarde.)
• Illuminated Letters Using Gold Leaf
In the Gothic period, illuminations were frequently enriched with gold, beaten
into a very fine sheet and fixed onto a base of gesso—a thick adhesive that
would dry leaving a form in relief on the vellum or parchment, onto which the
gold could be applied and then burnished until it shone brilliantly. In this
exercise I have replaced the traditional gesso with an ordinary wood glue (or use
a fabric glue). Gold leaf can be purchased in packs of sheets (transfer, rather than
loose, is used here). To burnish or “polish” the gold, one uses an agate burnisher,
which can be found in many art shops (though it is a fairly expensive specialist
tool!).

Illuminated “B,” Step by Step

1. Draw a Versal B for this exercise, using a soft pencil (2B). Add simple leaf-
forms and a partial frame. When you are happy with your design, go over it in
ink, and erase any pencil marks.

2. With a fine brush (but not necessarily top quality), paint glue onto the parts of
the design to be gilded. Work quickly, so that the mounded glue is smooth and
rounded, with no brush marks on its surface. Allow to dry for about 15 minutes.
3. Take a straw and blow onto the glue, at very close proximity, to re-humidify
the surface of the raised areas. Have your leaf of transfer gold handy!

4. Working on a very small area at a time, quickly place the gold onto the
slightly moistened or “tacky” surface of the glue, and gently rub the back of the
transfer paper with the rounded side of the burnisher. Repeat on all the glued
areas. On each area that you gild, it is recommended to lay four, five, or six
layers of gold leaf.

5. When all the glue has been covered, let the illumination “rest” for an hour or
two. Then, with the agate burnisher, gently rub and polish the surface of the gold
to achieve a mirror-like brilliance!
6. Choose your colors in gouache, and prepare them with a little water in a
palette. Using a fine brush, paint on the first coat of all the colors.

7. Finally, when these colors have dried, return with white or other light-colored
gouache, diluted with very little water, to add the filigree designs on the B and
the highlights on the leaves and vines.

• Illuminations, Interlace, and Drolleries

A world of wit and wonder, where fantastic creatures wander the margins and
tiny characters inhabit the counter spaces of the initial letters! Here is an exercise
in creating an enchanted page: a topsy-turvy hunt where the hare chases the
hound, a bluebird nips the tail of a passing stag, and a pretty mer-harpist floats in
a fishbowl U !
The text (in German) is taken from the writings of Jacob Grimm (one of the
Grimm Brothers of fairy-tale fame):
“There is a perfume of legend and song which lingers about all nonsensical
things, seen in nature or recalled by history, as the vastness of the sky throws a
delicate blue light around even the simple fruits and flowers. ”
In this project, it is the Versal letter itself which is gilded. Be sure to apply
the gold leaf before you do any of the adjacent painting, otherwise the gold may
adhere to the surface of the paint. Of course, the initial letter could also be
painted rather than gilded, or the gold used to decorate another part of the
composition, according to your taste. The interlace on the left-hand margin is
based on “diamond” forms, to echo the details of the Gothic script, and the vine-
and-leaf motifs are quite solid in character, rather than too fine or wispy. All the
colored areas are painted in at least two coats of contrasting or subtly varying
tones, to give richness and movement to the illustration.
Interlace Diamond Forms and Vine-and-Leaf Roundels
1. Even without using a ruler, you can position this series of diamonds, or
lozenges, between the two ends of their vertical line. Keep the diagonals fairly
parallel, and when you double the lines (to indicate “cords”), apply the “over-
and-under” rule of weaving, just as in the Celtic style.

2. The roundels of the vines are all drawn freehand, but they keep a certain
balance, unfolding first in one direction, then in the other. Mark the placement of
the leaves with tiny crosses. Double the pencil lines of the roundels to transform
them into vines, and create three points on each leaf. A leaf can also overlap the
vine or another leaf, if you wish.
3. These are not botanical illustrations, but imaginary or stylized plants that you
invent! Here is a selection of decorative leaf shapes to help you get started.
Notice how leaves can also sprout from the longer sweeping arms of the vines in
the margins of this page, and little knots can appear in the cords (such as that
between the hare and hound).

An Unusual Handmade Envelope

1. Begin with an 8.5" × 11" or A4 sheet of paper. Folding from the lower right,
bring the corner to a point on the central line of the paper.

2. Bring the lower left-hand corner up, folding along the diagonal indicated.

3. Fold down the upper left-hand corner so that it lies just alongside the first
fold.

4. Unfold the two sections indicated.

5. Fold the third fold back again.

6. Re-fold the bottom fold.

7. Fold along the line indicated, so that the last point extends just beyond the
bottom right-hand corner.

8. Folding this tiny corner over, slip the corner of the envelope between the two
sides of its folded point.

9. To seal this envelope, use a stamp on the upper corner, or sealing wax perhaps
on the back!
 French Bâtarde Letters

The influence of the Gothic hand was immense: From the 13th century onward,
one finds a host of regional styles developing throughout Europe. And, as we
saw in the case of the Celtic scripts, less formal, cursive variants appeared
alongside the more “aristocratic” parent hand, almost simultaneously. In
England, France, and Germany, these less “noble” (and less austere) alphabets
gradually began to influence their formal counterparts, and a “bastard” script
came into vogue: a mixture of courtly and sacred Gothic with the current local
styles of cursive writing. And the resulting styles, in their turn, became refined
into a new generation of calligraphy, the Bâtarde.
Here, we will be looking at the version of Bâtarde that developed in France,
and which by the 15th century had become, in its own right, a noble and
respected style for use in the richest of manuscripts. These letters preserve their
Gothic angularity, their thorns and points, but all is softened by curves and a
greater sense of freedom. Many variations are found within the Bâtarde hand,
with letters that slant (sometimes in the case of f and long s ), wider counter
spaces, and sometimes exaggerated ascenders.
Our inspiration for the alphabet presented here is the script of 15th-and 16th-
century France, employed in such prestigious manuscripts as the Hours of Anne
of Brittany and the “Très Riches” Hours of the Duke of Berry. As in the Gothic,
the Bâtarde requires many pen lifts in its ductus, and there are some interesting
elements (such as the decorative flourished ascender of d) that contribute to a
highly textured page of writing. That said, the Bâtarde explained on the
following pages is quite easy to master, with few changes of pen angle, and no
slanted letters.
As we are still in the Gothic family of scripts, it is important to remain alert
to the overall composition and rhythm of a page of Bâtarde, which is still quite
dense. However, your hand must be light, ready to affect several little “twists” of
the nib for hairline strokes. The general cadence of your writing should be a little
quicker than for the Gothic, and more relaxed. The Majuscules for this script are
found in the chapter on Gothic (see here ), and even the formal Gothic capitals
can be used with this hand. Illuminated initials can be Versals, with decorations
of foliage, in “grisaille” or in color.
Margins in the most prestigious manuscripts were often filled with incredibly
realistic images of flowers, fruits, leaves, butterflies and other insects, etc., with
cleverly painted shadows cast by these subjects onto the gold-leaf background.
For your projects, you can use real gold, or the excellent powdered metallic
pigments available in gold and bronze. And when an ascender or descender can
escape the confines of the text area, this script will invite you to create
wonderful “follies” of interlaced pen strokes!
The Book of Hours of Anne of Brittany
This sumptuous prayer book was commissioned by Queen Anne of Brittany
between 1503 and 1508. She invited the painter-calligrapher-illuminator Jean
Bourdichon du Val de Loire to reside at her château and to use its gardens, and
the culture of the surrounding region, as inspiration for his work. The
masterpieces contained in this manuscript are among the greatest treasures of the
National Library in Paris. Bourdichon was a highly respected artist of the courts
of Louis XI, Charles VIII, Louis XII, and François I. His illustrations show an
evolution from the Gothic style of art to that of the Renaissance, parallel to the
changes from Gothic script to Bâtarde in the domain of calligraphy.
The medieval Book of Hours was a collection of prayers for the layman (not
for ecclesiastics—that was the Breviary, upon which the format was modeled). It
contained the eight “offices” (or services) read at the liturgical hours throughout
the day and night. By the 13th century many such books were commissioned by
individuals (with texts often adapted to their personal tastes). This is why, even
today, the Book of Hours is the medieval “object” most prevalent on the market
for collectors.
To help you to read the page presented above, here follows the transcription
of a few of the lines, drawn from Psalms 84 and 128:
line 1 Conuerte nos deus salu
line 2 taris noster
line 3 Et auerte iram tuam
line 4 a nobis
line 5 Deus in adiutorium meum
line 6 intende
line 7 Domine ad adiuuandum me
line 8 festina
line 9 Gloria patri
line 10 Sicut erat Psalmus david.

• French Bâtarde Ductus

Mitchell nib 2.5
Lines: 8 mm (5 × the width of the nib)
Ascenders & Descenders: 8 mm and 6 mm
(5 × and 4 × the width of the nib)

letter a
Keeping the pen at a 45° angle, build the a with three curved strokes. The 1st
and 3rd are similar, and touch the lower writing line only with the pointed
corners of their strokes. The 2nd stroke is slightly concave.

letter b
Be vigilant! The first vertical stroke of this ascender is not, in fact, straight, but
very subtly undulating. As in its Gothic counterpart, you must anticipate the “v”
of the base, changing direction well above the writing line.

letter c
Identical to the first two strokes of the a .

letter d
The first stroke of d is like that of a , followed by the sweeping “s-shaped”
stroke which begins well to the left, on the upper writing line. To achieve the
tiny rounded hairline at the end of stroke 3, twist the nib onto its corner to draw
out a little ink.
letter e
Identical to c with the addition of a very fine diagonal, placed quite high up, to
create a delicate “head.”

letter f
This letter, and the q also, will necessitate a change of pen angle during the final
portion of the vertical descender. Not unlike certain strokes in the Celtic
Majuscule script, this pointed terminal demands a relaxed hand! In French, this
is called the lame d'épée or “sword blade.”

letter g
With initial strokes similar to those of a and c , the g should preserve the same
width as these letters in its counter space. Its 3rd stroke descends only to the
middle of the lower writing space, in a gracious curve, followed by a wavy
“tail.”

letter h
The “spine” of h is very like that of b , but it ends with a diamond foot (which,
unlike in Gothic, is created in the same stroke with no pen lift). Both the 2nd and
3rd strokes end with fine hairline extensions.
letters i & j
Both “first versions” of i and j begin with lozenges made with three tiny
directional changes (up-down-up) on the diagonal axes. These are followed by a
pen lift, to begin the gently curved minim in the lozenge's center. The two
simplified forms of these letters are made without lozenges, but retain the same
curve.

letter k
The spine of k is identical to that of h . The r-shaped body pushes up and out of
this vertical stroke from just below the upper writing line, and its “head” is
longer than its tiny diagonal “foot.”

letter l
Again, we find the same vertical (very slightly undulating) as seen in b , h , and
k .
letters m & n
The first two strokes of these letters may be made without lifting the pen.
Although different, keep the two arches of the m equal in width, and that of n
identical to the final arch of m .

letter o
With a pen angle of 45°, the “thins” of o , where the two strokes of its ductus
begin and end, are placed at 11 and 5 o'clock on an imagined clock face. In spite
of this “tilted” distribution of line weight, the o must be upright and neatly
balanced on its point!

letter p
This descender does not employ the lame d'épée twist of f and q , but instead
turns a little to the left at the end of its tail, as in the j . The 3rd stroke is well
arched.
letter q
This letter is a c to which is added the famous lame d'épée !

letter r
Quite a unique letter, the r begins with a hairline lead-in stroke, a slightly curved
minim , and a lozenge as on the feet of h , k , and l . The final stroke can be
tightly arched downward, or extended like the pointed “roofs” of m and n .

letter s
A slight modification of the historical form of s (compare with the letterforms
found in Anne of Brittany), this modern letter is the only one in this alphabet to
sit on the writing line with a curved base. Stroke 3 is concave, and the complete
form must remain the same width as an n .

letter t
The first variation of this letter is slightly taller than the second (but still short
for an ascender). In both cases, the vertical stroke is curved like the i . In the
second form, the two strokes touch at upper left to form a clean triangular joint.

letter u
This version of u is clearly a close relative to the first form of i , with similar
motifs in its ductus .

letter u variant
Notice the similarity between the base of this letterform and that of b . Also, it is
almost an inverted version of the n , and can be practiced in alternation with that
letter.

letter v
To create the unusual counter space of v , bring the 2nd stroke up and out of the
1st (which is like that of u ), before curving it downward to rejoin the point on
the lower writing line.

letter w
This version is based on the first form of u , and it offers the scribe a nice triple-
cadence in the rhythm of lozenges and minims .

letter w variant
And this is the version of w based on the other u ! Although not identical, keep
the two counter spaces equal in width and well balanced.

letter x
Surprisingly, the x does not cross in the middle, but is made in left and right
halves. It is often found without the central bar in manuscripts of the period, but
modern scribes find that the bar avoids confusion with the letter c .

letter y and variant

These two forms of y are respectively founded on the two forms of u (as is the w
). The two serpentine strokes (of the descending vertical and of the tail) recall
the g .
letter z and variant
These two letters are almost identical to their Gothic parent forms (see here )!

ligature or
A nice addition to your texts in Bâtarde, this form of r (like the head and tail of
k ) can be added to an o even when these two letters occur as part of a longer
word.

ampersand
As with the preceding ligature, the et can be used whenever these two letters
appear together, and not just to replace the word “and.”

These numerals are modernized. The ascenders 4 , 6 , and 8 are short. 1 , 2 , and
0 are the size of ordinary letters.
Word spacing in Bâtarde is the width of an m . Letters are close, but only touch
when a hairline stroke meets a rounded form.

Inter-line spacing must allow for tall ascenders, especially the d .

• Interlaced Flourishes on Minuscule Letters

In small-format Books of Hours in Bâtarde, even pages of simple text exhibit
delightful illustrations: couples courting, huntsmen with hounds, musicians, or
falconry and jousting. The complex style of knotwork developed in the late
Middle Ages transforms the ascenders and descenders of the Minuscule letters
into a new style of decoration.
Heart-shaped Knotwork “d”
The Minuscule d in Bâtarde is already quite exuberant! But here its looped
ascender becomes a vine-like cord that weaves itself into a heart.
1. Execute only the first and lower part of the second strokes of the d. With a
pencil, draw the heart and—from its center—the loops that complete the design.

2. Using a fine-point marker or small brush, go over all of these loops in ink,
creating the “overs-and-unders” as you proceed. It is not necessary to use a
calligraphy nib. Remember to leave room for the two leaf motifs on either side.

3. The leaves are part of the very fine lines that outline the thicker cord. These
fine lines follow the cord’s “overs-and-unders,” with the leaves positioned on the
curves of the heart.

An “h” with Loops and Diamonds

1. Create the h’s body, but bring the “spine” down in a long curve from the left.
Pencil in two little diamonds to the left, a larger arc that comes to a point and
turns back on itself, and then the overlapping series of loops and diamonds.

2. Ink the design with the calligraphy nib, always moving from left to right,
keeping the nib at a 45° angle so the thicks and thins of your knotwork will be
on the same axes as the letters.

• Illuminated Initials for Bâtarde

One finds several styles of decorated capital letters to complement this script.
Sometimes, these will be classic illuminations, filled with miniature worlds in
unbelievable detail, and gleaming with gold leaf. Other “minor” initials, to mark
chapters or verses, may be relatively simple. Here are three styles traditional to
Bâtarde, all based upon Uncial forms elaborated into Versals.

Leaf-Motif “S”
1. Position the preliminary curves in pencil.
2. Allow each curve to turn away from the other, without touching, and on
opposite sides draw the three points of the leaves. Add triangles to the terminals
at top and bottom.
3. Frame your S with free-form curved lines (allowing one terminal to “escape”).
4. The background of this illumination could be in gold leaf, or in powdered
pigment gold gouache. The S is painted in a medium green for the first coat,
followed by darker shadows, and then white highlights.

Classic “I”
1. Draw the central column of the letter and the horizontal extended serifs.
2. Position the two rectangular panels. All this work is, of course, in pencil.
3. Using a ruler, frame the composition in a neat rectangle, leaving a thin margin
around the letter and panels.
4. Again, your background color could be gold (leaf or gouache), or any other
pale shade that will allow the principal colors of rich red and blue to stand out.
As in the other letters you have painted, begin with a solid coat of the main color
for each area, allow it to dry thoroughly, and then add the delicate filigree
designs in yellow or white, using an extra-fine sable brush.
Grisaille “U”
1. Position the “U,” with its “roof.”
2. Transform the rounded stroke into a leaf form, and double the “back,” adding
a forked motif at the top. The “roof” can end in a teardrop or even a tiny leaf.
3. Frame this letter in a free-drawn square.
4. Paint the background in yellow or cream according to your taste. Paint the U
first in a medium blue, with second and third coats of darker blue, and white.
Add details on the background with gouache in a pointed nib, or using a brush:
first in white, and then one side of each stroke in medium blue. Add tiny dots
here and there in the blue.

An Origami Menu
1. Begin with an 8.5" × 11" or A4 sheet of paper. Crease the two folds to divide
it in thirds, and fold down the left side.
2. Fold down the upper triangle of the left third, to touch the point indicated.
3. Fold back this corner, leaving a band of about 8 mm or ⅓".
4. Unfold all of this third.
5. Refold with the triangle inverted along the creases, as shown.
6. Fold the right side back, then turn the paper over.
7. Fold up the top layer of the triangle at bottom left, as indicated.
8. As in step 3, crease the 8 mm or ⅓" fold, then unfold again. Refold with the
triangle inverted along the creases, as shown.
9. Unfold and refold the right side behind, opening the sheet out like a screen.
Practice the folds on a scrap page first, then complete your calligraphy before
doing the final version, as it will be simpler to work on a completely flat surface.
 Humanist Minuscule Letters

With this script, we arrive at the close of the Middle Ages! Numerous books
have been written about this important period of transition in Western history.
The dawn of a new era, with its fresh perspectives on life and art and literacy,
breaks during the 15th century. In the domain of calligraphy (and writing is
always symptomatic of the trends and tastes of an epoch), the blossoming of the
Renaissance signals the passing of the dense and heavy Gothic scripts and the
complexities of the Bâtarde, and welcomes a new clarity and legibility in a style
that mirrors the philosophy of the period.
The learned men of the 14th and 15th centuries, among them Francesco
Petrarch in Italy, had rediscovered the classics of antiquity (Greek and Roman),
preserved—above all—in the manuscripts of the Carolingian Empire (see here ).
It is even possible that the intellectuals of the Renaissance believed these 9th-
century redactions to have been produced by the Ancients. In any case, they took
the Carolingian Minuscule as the model for their own “reform” and a return to a
noble Roman hand. The fruit of their research and creativity was the clear and
aerated Humanist Minuscule, also known as littera antiqua (“letterforms of
Antiquity”).
Simultaneous to this “renaissance” of written letterforms was the invention
of printing, and the appearance of letters in type. Gutenberg, in Germany, had
created his first fonts based on the Gothic of his time and region, but others in
his wake—notably Nicolas Jensen (in 1470) and Aldus Manutius (in 1495), both
in Venice—developed their own typography, founded upon the new Humanistic
calligraphy. And thus the Renaissance has bequeathed to us typefaces found
today in our books and on our computer screens: the classic Roman Capital
forms combined with the Humanist Minuscule in such fonts as Palatino, Book
Antiqua, Garamond, and Times New Roman!
When practicing in this style, keep the pen at the 45° angle, and remember
that the Humanist is very upright, regular, and clean. Write slowly and
deliberately. Think of honoring the spirit of the Renaissance, which sought to
communicate ideas filled with a new light!

“History of the Peloponnesian War” by Thucydide
The French cardinal Jean Jouffrey commissioned this manuscript from
Vespasiano de Bisticci of Florence (known as the “Prince of Librarians, or
Bibliophiles”) as a gift to King Louis XI of France (1423–1483). Vespasiano
was not necessarily the scribe or illuminator of this work, but rather the agent for
finding the talent required among his brilliant entourage of artists and
calligraphers. He had already overseen the production of similar masterpieces.
Moreover, he had been the counselor to Cosimo de Medici (“the Elder”) for the
creation of the Laurentian Library in Florence.
 The latest fashion in illumination at this time was the bianchi girari , or
“white vine,” of the Florentine studios. Throughout the century, this striking and
intricate form of decoration diffused northward throughout Europe, and was
considered the sine qua non for all illuminated works from Classical authors.
Clearly, the innovators of this style were paying homage to the manuscripts of
the 12th century, where classical texts were presented alongside plant-inspired
interlace. The Humanists employed this style in a palette of blue, red, and green,
with uncolored vines. This became the identifying mark of a Humanist
manuscript.
This is the first folio of the manuscript. The titles are in Square Roman
Capitals, followed by Humanist Minuscule. On all the minims you will see the
tiny “feet” that turn to the right, and on the ascenders in this manuscript one
finds the rounded “wedges” of Carolingian Minuscule.
It is amusing to see how the illuminator dealt with the problem of the Q’s
tail. As Humanistic manuscripts usually allow a double space between lines of
text, he found that there was ample room for this bothersome appendage of his
beautifully illuminated initial to casually break through its frame and meander
off between the lines of script!

• Humanist Minuscule Ductus

William Mitchell nib 2
Lines: 10 mm (5 × the width of the nib)
Ascenders & Descenders: 6 mm
(3 × the width of the nib)

letter a and variant

Be sure not to modify the 45° angle of the nib when you make the “foot” at the
end of the first stroke. Notice that the “head” slants slightly downward in the
first variant of this letter. In the second it is rounder, but still made in a single
stroke.
letter b
Almost all of the Humanist vertical strokes begin with this little “hook.” The
first stroke finishes with a very rounded base, and the second stroke begins
below the upper writing line, creating a very round counter space.

letter c
Keep the round counter space in your mind as you make the first stroke of the c .
The second stroke remains on the upper writing line.

letter d
Although the first two strokes resemble a c , the second is in fact more rounded.
The vertical third stroke begins with a “hook,” and ends with a “foot,” but is
quite upright between the two.

letter e
Founded on the true form of the c , this letter simply extends the hairline of c to
make the “head” of the e .
letter f
The upper left-hand part of this letter should be nicely rounded, before its
descent in a clear vertical stroke. The bar is just under the upper writing line.

letter g
This g has a slightly different ductus from that in the Carolingian style, with its
serpentine tail beginning farther to the left. The small “head” is still suspended
above the lower writing line, and the “ear” is quite perky!

letter h
There are some subtle changes of direction in the h , with its initial “hook” and
its two “feet,” but do not alter the pen angle. Notice how the “hook” actually
begins just below the ascender line, to leave room for its graceful, rounded form.

letters i and j
Be sure not to squeeze together letters such as i , j , and l , as the rest of this
alphabet is so round and airy. A certain harmony between all the forms, though
they can be very different in width, needs to be respected.

letter k
The k is the only ascender that has no “foot” on the vertical, but simply
terminates on its “toe” (the form resulting from the 45° pen angle). Keep the
“head” relatively small, and the “wave” no longer than the width of an o (except
at word ends).

letter l
Like the i , this letter provides a good occasion to practice the changes of
direction required for the “hook” and the “foot” of this style.

letters m and n
These letters are excellent for training the eye in the spacing of minims , all
ending with “feet.” Note that the arches begin just below the upper writing line,
to give a smooth and rounded counter space below as they move up and out.

letter o
The basic shape behind all the letters of this alphabet, the o is round and—
despite the axis of its “thins” at 11 and 5 o'clock—well balanced and solid.

letter p
The descending vertical of p is like the ascender l , with a “head” reminiscent of
o (the second stroke of the letter begins below the upper writing line). Practice
the p with the d , to appreciate the harmony of their almost reversed forms!

letter q
Made in only two strokes, this letter demands that you visualize the round
interior space, in order to sweep around the counter and then descend vertically
into the descender.
letter r
A combination of the strokes found in i and c .

letter s
Begin the s with a rather flat serpentine stroke, so that—with the addition of the
2nd and 3rd strokes—the form will balance nicely, with a “head” smaller than its
base. Note that the third stroke remains on the upper writing line, and does not
curve downward. The width of the letter is the same as the o .

letter t
The Humanist t is still a small letter! However, it does invade the ascender space
with a tiny diagonal lead-in stroke that is closed into a triangular shape by the
second stroke (which is on, not under, the upper writing line).

letter u
The u and the n can be practiced together, like the d and the p . They make nice
inverted and balanced pairs! But be aware that the “hooks” occur only on the
tops of minims , and the “feet” only on the bottoms.
letter v
For the second stroke, push the ink up and out of the first, to begin the rounded
half-heart shape of this form.

letter v variant
An extra large form of v , which can add spice to a line of text!

letter w
The inspiration for the preceding variant of v is this lovely letter! Keep the heavy
diagonals of strokes 1 and 2 parallel and about the width of an n.

letter x
Notice that the 1st diagonal of x undulates very slightly, as opposed to the
“straight” diagonals of v and w . The 4th stroke is centered on the thin
descending line, and therefore requires a pen lift.
letter y
The first y is clearly based on the u , with a bowed descending stroke to place
the “tail” fully underneath the letter, and slightly above the descender line.

letter y variant I
This y , based on the first form of v , has a tail even shorter than the first, made
with a stroke from left to right of course!

letter y variant II
And this one is based on the second, wider v . You must visualize the width of
the letter in order to place the 2nd stroke on the upper writing line in a position
that will guarantee a balanced counter space!

letter z
Lift the pen to position the 2nd stroke, which begins just to the left of the thin
diagonal. The bar is optional.
ampersand One of the loveliest forms of ligature for et (“and”). Keep the
“head” of the e small, and the fifth stroke neither too curved nor too severe.

two ligatures of vowels Observe how the “thins” of the a and e do not touch in
the center of the first ligature, and how the second stroke of the oe ligature must
include two rounded forms but also a tiny portion of a quite straight vertical
stroke!

two ligatures of consonants

These are decorative, but not obligatory, when these letters occur together. In
both cases, the “chimney” on the head of the first letter requires that the second
begin halfway into the ascender space. Note that the bar of t , in this case, does
not protrude to the left at all.

numerals
These numerals are inspired by those of Claude Garamond (16th century), whose
name is also recalled in a well-loved printing (and computer) typeface. This is a
classic formula of sizes and heights of numbers (1, 2, and 0 are normal; 6 and 8
ascenders; and the others are descenders). These can be adapted to the Italic
script also, simply by making the counter spaces of the rounded numbers more
oval and slanting all of the forms slightly to the right.
Humanist Majuscules
The capital letters used with Humanist letterforms are based on Roman Square
Capitals (or “Capitalis Quadrata”), the forms carved in stone by the Roman
Empire—and ever since. The Roman forms give us the classic standards of
proportions in majuscule letters.
Below are two versions of Humanist Majuscules. The first is created with the
same nib used for the Minuscules. The second series of Majuscules have bodies
made with the calligraphic nib (always held at 45°), but their serifs (the pointed
terminals at stroke ends) are all added separately with a pointed nib. These
capitals closely resemble their Roman predecessors.
Traditionally, these forms were painted with a flat-ended brush before being
carved. If you are comfortable writing with a brush, use one to create the serifs
and the entire letter, twisting the straight edge of the brush as you write.
• White Vine Initials
The same erudite scholars who invented the Humanist hand by re-inventing the
Carolingian also found the inspiration for their new style of illumination by
returning to the sumptuous manuscripts of the Middle Ages. Perhaps they found
that the classic Roman capitals encircled by acanthus leaves in these manuscripts
evoked the marble columns of Ancient Roman architecture, made vibrant by the
foliage and vines that would have grown about them naturally in the warm
climate of Italy. In any case, illuminated letters in this style became the mark
whereby a true Humanist work could be recognized.
The letterforms are those of epigraphic Roman Capitals, drawn with their
serifs and the balance of “thick and thin” strokes as shown on the previous
pages. The “white vine” (or bianchi girari ) grows out of the letter, or from a cut
branch positioned alongside it, and the three classic colors are used to fill in
those spaces created by the loops of the vine. A band of deep ultramarine blue
outlines the capital either following its shape or approximating a rectangular
frame. Finally, all the colored areas receive a sparkling decoration of tiny white
dots, always grouped in threes. The vine itself is not painted, but merely
highlighted with pale yellow or ocher (with perhaps a touch of green on the
leaves).
• An Illuminated Poem
The model for this project is a poem by the 14th century Italian poet Francesco
Petrarch. This is Sonnet CCXLVI to Laura, which begins, “The breeze which
both laurel green and golden hair / So sweetly breathing stirs before our view.”
I have presented it with a partial white vine border (graced by a svelte little
green parrot, as in our manuscript example!), and a simple L initial in the same
style. Traditional looped interlace decorates the ends of the borders. Why not, in
this gentle love poem, modify the strong colors of blue, red, and green? I might
suggest an olive green, a dusky rose, and a paler blue.
Lay out the entire project in pencil, then begin the ink work by writing the part
in unadorned calligraphy. Then ink the initial and border, and finally paint them.
If you use real gold leaf, that must be laid in place before the painting begins.
Here I have used powder-gold gouache, diluted with water.
The pattern for the interlaced vines of the border is shown here. It is found
throughout the historical period of this script. Two vines meander in alternation,
going from side to side of the interior space of the frame. At each intersection, a
third vine arrives, now from one side, now from the other, to make a circle
around each “crossroads.” Little leaves and buds sprout here and there from the
vines. Be sure to respect the “over-and-under” weaving of all the vines as you
ink their outlines. After painting all the spaces created by the vines, the colored
areas are decorated, as for the initial letter, with groups of white dots (in threes).

Little Gift Boxes

1. Cut an A4 or 8.5" × 11" sheet of paper in half lengthwise. Mark, with a fold,
the middle of this long rectangle as shown.
2. Bring the lower right-hand corner to this middle point, folding along a line
from the upper right corner.
3. Imagining the continuation of the diagonal along the bottom of this half-
triangle, fold the full triangle down so that the upper corner touches the point at
the center of the bottom edge.
4. Fold this triangle once more, so that its corner point touches the point
indicated on the other edge.
5. Fold once more in this way, and then open out the entire paper.
6. Cut along the two outer lines as indicated. Now fold again in the order shown
by the arrows.
7. Mark the central point on each side of this small “triple-thick” triangle. Fold
one of the corners to touch the opposite point, then unfold.
8. Fold, and unfold, the two other points.
9. Now fold each point in to the exact center, and unfold.
10. Refold the entire box. Note that one of the small triangles is open on two
sides. Slip the two other triangles into these “pockets.” Open out the tiny box,
and decorate with simple Humanist monograms, then close.
 Italic Letters

As we have seen throughout the history of calligraphy, a formal hand will

usually give rise to a complementary variant that is more cursive and informal,
and can be written with greater speed. In 1420, Niccolo Niccoli found that the
new Humanist Minuscule was too slow and space-consuming for the documents
he was required to produce for the Italian chancellery. He therefore created the
Italic.
To increase the speed of writing, the letters were inclined to the right, almost
as if they were leaning forward on their “toes,” ready to run off! This slant of
about 10° permits certain letters (h, m, n, and r), which previously required a
ductus of two or more strokes, to be written in a single movement. To reduce the
space needed for a text, the rounded Humanist letterforms and counter spaces are
transformed into narrower ovals.
Conforming to this notion of an alphabet that is “running forward,” the
minims are not heavily anchored on the writing line, but rather rest lightly on
their almost pointed feet, turned quickly upward into little diagonal hairlines.
They are like so many ballerinas dancing in pointe shoes! You will find that this
quality of lightness and the little upstrokes for these “feet” will create a certain
rhythm in your writing. To help you be consistent in this rhythm, keep your eye
on the little triangles of white space created between two minims, such as
underneath the a and along the top of the m.
The Italic, in both its Minuscule and Majuscule forms, asks you to place a
great emphasis on legibility while—at the same time—allowing the letters to
express themselves. We are no longer in a world of formal and sober letters, but
rather in the presence of a calligraphy eager to express our sentiments and to
record our individual voices. For modern lettering artists, the Italic is often the
choice for poetic and romantic texts. But beware! Arabesques and flourishes are
the jewels on the ballerina’s costume, and must never be permitted to detract
from her fluid line and the movement of the choreography!

“Writing Manual” of Vespasiano Amphiareo
Yet another Vespasiano (see here )! Friar Vespasiano of Ferrara was a master of
the Italic hand in the 16th century. He followed the first wave of innovations in
the new style, notably those in the works of Arrigi, Tagliente, and Palatino. The
manuscripts of Vespasiano contain a breathtaking array of “cadels,” the pen-
drawn illuminated initials that often accompany texts in this hand.
In the fine Italic Minuscule of this “writing manual,” one finds elements of
cursive Bâtarde. Vespasiano’s Italic slants only very slightly to the right. Its
verticality is perhaps retained to better integrate it with the Humanist script used
for titles and headings. The “cadels” in this manuscript are unique in that they do
not use many crossed lines, but are instead built up with parallel pen strokes and
concentric curved “thicks,” surrounded by filigree made with a pointed nib.
 Generally speaking, the letters are easy to read. Some surprising forms may
be encountered, such as an r that resembles a 2. A tiny hairline poised above the
minim of i is the predecessor of our modern “dotted” i.
As seen with the Gothic, calligraphy may be viewed not only letter by letter,
but in its total composition on the page. In a page of Italic, the “warp” of the
fabric, created by parallel minims , ascenders, and descenders, should be clear.
The lines of text are balanced and fluid. When you wish to add a flourish,
visualize the complete flow of the motif—which may require several pen strokes
(all in a left-to-right direction).
Vespasiano was a Franciscan friar (the “frate” of this poem’s title). Here is a
transcription of the text:
line 1 Facilmente si comprendono gli intimi precordij delli huo
line 2 mini confabulando seco delli quottidiani ragionaméti
line 3
line 3
dalli loro inouimenti et d'altre mille soprauenienti occasio
line 4 ni. Onde gli sapientissimi et esperimentissimi Philosophi
line 5 insegnorono alla posteritate questi documenti per il che obli-
line 6 gatissimi sempre dobbiamo essere alle memorie loro
The alphabet shown below this poem provides an invitation to experiment
with the flourishes and arabesques so suited to the Italic script.

• Italic Ductus
Mitchell nib 2
Lines: 8 mm (5 × the width of the nib)
Ascenders & Descenders: 8 mm and 6 mm
(5 × and 4 × the width of the nib)

letter a
With this letter, establish the slant of the alphabet (about 10°), the width of all
the open letters, and the form of the stroke, which touches the lower writing line
(more or less pointed, according to your taste, it must remain constant
throughout your texts).

letter b
Notice how the counter space of b is a truer oval than that of a . The top of the
ascender can be simply a fine lead-in stroke from the left, or it can begin from
the right and be completed by a third, slightly rounded stroke.

letter c
Do not exaggerate the final hairline, or the c may be confused with an e !

letter d
Begin as for the a , and then you have a choice of two ascenders, as with that of
b . The final variation is quite a different form, based upon the o , with a
serpentine “back.”

letter e
Keep the “head” of the e small and delicate. Like the c , this letter does not rest
heavily on the writing line, but just touches it briefly before sweeping upward on
a thin diagonal.
letter f
The long first stroke of f requires a confident and stable hand! Keep the “roof”
small, and note that the “tongue” extends farther on the right-hand side of the
vertical than on the left.

letter g
A combination of strokes found in the a and the f .

letter h
This is one of the letters in Italic that can be made in a single stroke (not lifting
the pen between strokes 1 and 2 shown here), except—of course—if you choose
to add the extended “roof” of the variant form.

letter i
A good letter for practicing lead-in and exit hairline strokes! Instead of the tiny
diagonal over this letter (and the j ) seen in our manuscript, a more consequential
comma-shaped “dot” is used (so that a thin diagonal line can be employed for
accents, for example).

letter j
The “tail” is like that of f .

letter k
The same two choices for the top of the ascender are shown as for b and h . And
a further two variations are given for the body of the letter, both made in a single
movement. Keep the width of the k restrained, unless—at the end of a word, for
example—the tail becomes more exaggerated.

letter l
If you choose the second variation for the top of the ascender, be sure to keep the
vertical stroke truly straight rather than bowed, or the small l resembles a capital
C !
letter m
Easily executed in a single stroke, the ductus shown here is separated into its
constituent parts—a good way to begin your practice of this letter. The variation
given is best suited to word-ends, due to its greater width.

letter n
The n , like the m , must exhibit a clear “v”-shaped counter space on the upper
writing line, and minims must touch the lower line on their corners, or with a
marked up-turn toward the final diagonal hairline.

letter o
A key letter when practicing Italic, the o defines the oval form, and the width, of
many of the other letters, as well as the slant of the whole alphabet.

letter p
According to the line spacing of a given text, the tails of descenders can be
longer than those shown here. Two choices for the form of the tail are suggested,
plus an elegant form whose first stroke begins halfway into the ascender space.

letter q
Again, a choice of terminations for this descender, both of which clearly show
off the negative space between this stroke and the bowl of the letter.

letter r
Although shown here in two strokes, this is also a letter easily made in one. The
second form is normally reserved for word ends, where it will not upset the
rhythm of letter spacing within a word.

letter s
Notice that the first, central stroke is a very steep diagonal, and not too wavy.
Keep the other two strokes fairly horizontal, so as not to close the letter into a
figure 8.
letter t
Still a small letter, the t does, however, extend into the ascender space with its
first pointed stroke! The bar of the t is always placed on the upper writing line
(as that of f is always just under it).

letter u
An inverted n ! In fact, it is excellent to practice the two letters side by side, to
keep the negative “v” shapes, the diagonal hairlines, and the widths of the
counters identical.

letter v
The first stroke retains the normal slant of the alphabet, while the second is more
oblique (and therefore finer).

letter v variant
A traditional form of this letter, but one that requires restraint in keeping the tiny
horizontal from closing the interior space or widening the letter too much.
letter w & variant
Obviously based upon the two preceding forms of v , the w 's are best
constructed by making the parallel minims first along the correct axis of the 10°
slant, and then adding the final more oblique strokes.

letter x
The first stroke of the x is almost a straight vertical, very slightly tipped towards
the left. The short horizontals of the second stroke must begin and end with tiny
hairlines—quite a lot of changes of direction for a small space!

letter x variant
Here the second stroke of the letter is permitted to descend in a fluid—but not
too wavy!—movement from upper right to lower left.

letter y
Begin this letter as for a v (either of the two forms of that letter, in fact), and
finish the second stroke with a small turn back towards the right, in the center of
the descender space.

letter y variant
The form of a u , with the tail of a g !

letter z
Although the central stroke is thin and quite oblique, the overall balance of the z
must suggest the 10° slant of the alphabet.

ampersand I
This version of the sign for “and” is based on the form of the small e , with the
ligatured t suggested by the extended “tongue” and a reinforced downstroke.

ampersand II
With the Italic script, we begin to find this tall form of the ampersand more and
more employed. Although a complicated ductus , it adds a highly decorative
feature to a text. Be sure to make the first stroke curved, but not too rounded,
and keep the “head” small.

ligature st
A pretty alternative (but not obligatory) when these two letters appear together!
Compare the counter spaces and inclination of this ligature with that in the
Humanist hand (here ).

And here is the classic series of numerals, with their variations of ascenders and
descenders, to complement the Italic script. The first diagonal lead-in stroke of
the 1 can be reduced to a tiny hairline just before the descent of the minim .
Italic Majuscules
Here you have two versions of Italic capitals. The first is at 8 × the width of
the nib (not quite as tall as an ascender), giving a sturdy and yet elegant
alphabet of Majuscules for use with any Italic project. The second series is at
10 × the nib’s width, making these letterforms more feminine, airy, and
romantic! They are also taller (they would reach the same height as an
ascender) and are perfect for use in short texts containing flourishes on some
Minuscule forms as well. The underlying form of all rounded forms is the
oval, and details—such as the left-hand descending stroke on the first series’
letters or the looped flourish on the second—should remain constant
throughout your text.
• Embellishing Your Italic Letters
The fluid and graceful forms of this hand invite us to enjoy adding extra swirls
and curls to our letters! However, be sure to master the basics of the script before
going mad with flourishes, or the elegant clarity of these letters will become lost
in a whirlwind of secondary forms.
Do not be intimidated by the complex ductuses of these decorative letterforms.
Simply apply the rules of constructing letters with strokes that move to the right,
never pushing against the nib, and visualizing the placement of a completed
arabesque even though you know it will be built out of several separate strokes.
(Very few of these flourishes are made in a single sweeping gesture, even though
they are designed to give that impression!)

A Simple Cadel “F”!

1. In pencil, position the basic lines of your somewhat “Bâtarde” initial F .
2. With your calligraphy pen and ink, go over these principal lines (which define
the legible form of the letter). Move downward and to the right, and keep the
parallel lines very close together.
3. You can pencil in the curled decorative lines first, if you like, and then go
over them with the pen. Sometimes they will require two or three strokes for a
single arabesque.

A Cadel Letter “E” with Shadows and Foliage

1. Visualize the form of this letter E , and sketch in the lines in pencil, as shown,
that indicate the rounded “back,” the series of short strokes forming the “roof,”
and the seven strokes that will guide the creation of the “tongue.”
2. Still in pencil, link these primary lines with those moving in the opposite
direction to form the lozenges and loops indicated.
3. Now go over all of these lines in ink, using a nib wide enough to show off the
“thicks and thins” while still allowing an equal width of white space between the
lines. It is also possible to use your pointed nib for the thin lines, as they are
often rounded—which is difficult to achieve with the square nib, except by using
its corner. In pencil, indicate the position of some of the vegetation.
4. Using the pointed nib, add a thin shadow line to the right of each of the thick
strokes, and complete the garden of flowers and vines that sweeten this initial!
Here is a little exercise to perfect your creation of lozenges, loops, and shadows!
And a few motifs to use in your “garden.”
A Cadel with Text
Following the principles above, you can now embark upon this initial P : first by
indicating the major lines in pencil, and then some of the secondary parallels and
arabesques; then inking these lines, and penciling in some of the more
complicated decorations; and finally adding shadow lines, vines, flowers, and
dots. It is always a delicate balance to keep the letter legible and at the same time
to fill out the form with decorations that nonetheless respect the original play of
thick and thin strokes. The Italian text translated reads: “Door of my heart, kept
wide open for you / I seek you night and day.”

Elegant Origami for a Favorite Quotation

1. Fold a square page in half.
2. Fold along the dotted line, joining the points as indicated. Then reopen.
3. Repeat step 2 for a second fold, parallel to the first, then open out the page
again.
4. Reverse the direction of the first fold, pushing it in the other direction.
5. Now fold the upper triangle of paper a little toward the back.
6. Adjust the folds so that the triangle is pushed forward and sits comfortably
above the two folds.
 Copperplate Letters

The history of calligraphy is always linked to the events and society of its
time: politics, commerce, literature, religion, and spirituality. These elements
play an important role in the evolution of new styles of writing, and all the
scripts presented in this book owe their existence to one or more of these
influences.
Not least among these is the Copperplate, whose elegant, decorative, but also
very clear and efficiently executed letters grew out of the commercial climate of
its epoch. At the close of the 16th century, England (the supreme sea power of
the age, thanks to her victory over the Spanish Armada) established herself as an
important mercantile presence in Europe. Businessmen need documents,
accounts, and archives. To serve this need, a style of lettering was created that
could be written with hardly any pen lifts, was very slanted to be written quickly,
and yet could exhibit the nobility and integrity so cultivated in the society of pre-
industrialized England. This was the birth of Copperplate calligraphy.
To educate the public in this new style, writing masters sprang up throughout
the Empire, publishing books of models for students and scribes. Hundreds of
such manuals were produced by such gifted penmen as Ayres, Cocker, Seddon,
and Snell, as well as many others. In this period, printing was a laborious
process, involving the engraving of texts—in reverse—onto metal plates (hence
the name “Copperplate”).
In the spirit of commercial competition, these writing manuals vied for
superiority on the market, and more and more extravagant pages of penmanship
were produced! Many of these editions still exist, and continue to inspire
calligraphers today. In America, a slightly different style evolved, the
Spencerian—also very beautiful. Many of the models were presented in the form
of moralizing quotations and proverbs, and—especially on the Continent—this
style of calligraphy influenced sophisticated labels for wines of quality. Indeed,
the grand châteaux of France still often use this form of lettering for their
modern vintages!
Copperplate is the child of Italic, and you will find echoes of the letters of
the Renaissance in this hand. But the tool has changed with the times: no longer
written with a square-cut quill, Copperplate uses pressure applied to a pointed
nib rather than the “thicks and thins” created by the pen angle. The rule is
simple: each time the pen descends, press on the nib to open it, making a thick
line; and as it ascends, allow the nib to close for the thinnest stroke possible. The
letters are slanted to an angle of 55°, and the pen is oriented, not toward the left,
as in all other styles of calligraphy, but toward the upper right (or “northeast”).
To facilitate this strange technique, I recommend the “elbow” nib, which is
turned to the right and extremely supple. (Left-handed scribes will find this style
a delight!)
George Bickham, “The Universal Penman,” 1743
This is one of the foundational works of the new style, and is the masterpiece of
calligrapher and engraver George Bickham, who wished to gather a multitude of
representations of this script. This task has been described by later historians as
“monumental”: during a period of eight years he produced pages of printed texts,
alphabets, aphorisms, and quotations, scripted by a brilliant team of calligraphers
and engravers like himself.
Similar collections were compiled elsewhere, as this fashion seduced the
public as well as the merchants. The Netherlands featured exceptional
calligraphers, and in France artists such as Paillasson are noteworthy. However,
we will focus on the English variety of this script, which is fluid, legible, and
aesthetically pleasing.
 A form of Gothic was often employed alongside Copperplate, mainly for
titles, and a Bâtarde calligraphy was also used for initials, ornamented in a
Copperplate style with swirling arabesques (created with the pointed nib). In this
page from George Bickham’s work, we see the Gothic minuscules and Bâtarde
initials presented in the title, enveloped in a cloud of Copperplate arabesques!
This calligraphy is reputed to be a copy, by Bickham, of the hand of Zachary
Chambers, “Deputy Surveyor of His Majesty’s Lands.”
Notice the elegant long s (only used in the interior of a word), and the use of
flourishes that exploit the potential of a pen sensitive to pressure for its thick
strokes. And take the time, as well, to read the words: an ode to beautiful
penmanship to inspire your voyage into the world of Copperplate!

• Copperplate Ductus
Mitchell “elbow” nib
Lines: 6 mm
(but the same nib can be used for any height letter)
Ascenders & Descenders: 8 mm
Angle of slant to the right: 55° for all downstrokes

These letters are almost all made without lifting the nib, but here you will find
the strokes separated, for greater clarity. Keep the pen oriented toward the
“northeast.” Follow the fundamental rule of opening the nib with an even
pressure for all downstrokes, and allowing it to close to a fine point for all
upstrokes.
letter a
Begin by creating the form of the o : an oval, slanted on the axis of the alphabet,
and made in a counterclockwise direction from 2 o'clock and back to the same
point. The pressure on the nib, for the “thick,” is only between 11 and 7 o'clock
on this imagined clock face. Lift the pen to begin the back of the a , allowing the
nib to close for the fine exit stroke.

letter b
Many ascenders will begin with this thin stroke in two “bulges,” often termed
the “seagull.” Note that the central point is on the upper writing line, and that the
“seagull” is slanted even more than the 55° of the heavy downstroke—which
must touch its center point—and then continues up into the bowl of the letter,
ending with a tiny circular teardrop.

letter c
Begin the c with the same little circular movement of the b 's teardrop. Apply the
pressure on the nib as in the a (between 11 and 7 o'clock), and finish with a long,
fine exit stroke.
letter d
Very like the a , but with a “back” that begins two thirds of the way into the
ascender space.

letter e
This letter begins with a “mini-seagull,” which fits between the two writing
lines, but has the same slant and central point as its big brother. The heavy stroke
of the e is similar to that of c .

letter f
After positioning the “seagull,” continue with a heavy, even line until you are
two thirds of the way into the descender space. Stop the line neatly, with a clean
“cut,” by arresting the movement for a second. The bar of f is shown separately,
as it is a strange little form, beginning on the lower writing line.

letter g
Begin with an o , to which you add the back of a , but continue right down to the
lower descender line, releasing the pressure on the nib just before turning to the
left to ascend back up in a sweeping curve that crosses the heavy line a little
below the bowl of the letter.

letter h
There is, in fact, no pen lift between the “seagull” and the heavy descending line.
Nor is it necessary to lift the pen to add the arch of the letter (its form is shown
separately). Keep both the heavy lines parallel.

letter i
The little lead-in stroke of the i is found in many other letters. It is followed by a
heavy stroke, like the back of the a . To make a neat dot, turn the nib three times
on itself!

letter j
The tail of this letter is identical to that of the g .
letter k
Begin as for the h , then add this tight little form, which must follow the same
55° slant as the other downstrokes, but which includes a small “head” and
somewhat longer “foot,” both with equal pressure on the nib.

letter l
The ideal letter for practicing the “seagull,” and a steady, even downstroke on
the 55° slant!

letter m
The first two minims of this letter must touch the writing line with neat, squared
feet. To achieve this, pause for a moment at the line to allow the nib to close.
The third minim has the same form as the arch of the h .

letter n
Identical to the first and third minims of the m , the n is an excellent letter for
establishing the even spaces between parallel strokes on the 55° slant.

letter o
A fundamental letter for your practice, the o includes the oval seen in the a
(starting and ending at 2 o'clock), to which is added the circular teardrop— well
below the upper writing line.

letter p
Begin with the fine hairline already seen on several letters, but mount a short
distance into the ascender space before beginning the heavy line—which ends
neatly, two thirds of the way into the descender space (like the f ). The body of p
is made with the same form as the arch of the h (it is not closed in this alphabet,
though other variations do exist).

letter q
Very like the g , the tail of q , however, is turned toward the right (still touching
the heavy downstroke below the bowl of the letter), and finishing with a delicate
exit stroke.
letter r
Allow the lead-in stroke to gently arch into the short downstroke, and then return
to the upper writing line with this gently curved fine line, ending with a teardrop
on the upper writing line (form shown separately).

letter r “modern”
An alternative r , which rises slightly above the upper writing line. Notice that
the teardrop remounts toward the right (and is therefore a thin stroke) before
descending in a curved stroke (not a parallel downstroke, but nonetheless of
equal pressure).

letter s
This letter also rises slightly above the upper writing line before descending in
its downstroke (which, although curved, must evoke the 55° slant!). Here you
have three variants from which to choose!

letter t
The thin lead-in stroke rises to one third of the way into the ascender space. The
crossbar of the t is placed on the upper writing line.

letter u
As with the feet of m , pause for a second to achieve the neat, squared ends of
these minims , this time at their tops. Keep them parallel, and retain clear
negative triangular spaces between the curves and the lower writing line.

letter v
Begin with a form similar to the arch of the h , ending with a teardrop.

letter w
A combination of the forms found in u and v .

letter w variant
A traditional form of this letter, but to be used with parsimony—as it is not
always easily read!—this w begins with a form like the n , to which is added the
final stroke of v .

letter x
The first stroke of the x is new, but a little like a rounded form of s . The second
is identical to the c .

letter y
A combination of the strokes found in v and j .

letter z
Begin as for an x , but instead of the circular dot, make a tiny loop in the
descending stroke (the loop is a thin stroke), resting on the lower writing line.
Continue your descent into a looped tail (not as straight as those of other
descenders, but nonetheless respecting the 55° slant). The variant of z given here
is more modern, and begins with a rather heavy loop on the upper writing line.
Variations for your ascenders
If you choose to have all your ascenders without loops, and therefore not based
on the “seagull” form, they should be of the same height as the d .

Variation for your descenders

Here is an alternative “tail” for desenders—also extending only two thirds of the
way into its space. Be sure to finish the curves with tiny circular dots!

The numerals for Copperplate take many lovely forms. Here is a standard
version, with some variation in number heights and length of tails.

Copperplate Majuscules
Here you have two versions of capital letters to use with your Copperplate
Minuscules. The second series is somewhat more “baroque” than the first! These
Majuscules are normally written at the same height as the ascenders. Just as with
the Minuscule alphabet, these letterforms respect the rule of pressure on all
downstrokes, fine lines for all upstrokes, and a slant of 55°.
• Joining Letters, and a Decorated Bâtarde Initial
Although Copperplate would seem to be a cursive script, it is an artificial
cursive, which requires pen lifts and construction of forms that give the
impression of being created with fluid continuity. To write in Copperplate is
quicker than to do so in medieval calligraphy, but there is a rhythm and
regularity. Letters are not necessarily made in continuous strokes, and certain
rules exist for how different families of letterforms are joined. Why not practice
your Copperplate by writing and rewriting short phases like the following!

1. A letter that ends with a hairline exit stroke will join another letter that begins
with such a stroke by—naturally—combining the exit and entrance strokes into
one. Examples: an, ef.
2. A letter ending with a teardrop or high exit stroke followed by a letter
normally beginning with a hairline from the lower writing line can be joined by
dropping the exit stroke or the teardrop a little, to touch the downstroke of the
next letter. Examples: be, vi, fs.
3. A letter with a hairline exit stroke followed by an oval form (with no lead-in
stroke) is joined to it by touching the exit stroke of the first to the downstroke of
the oval. Examples: co, eg.
4. The s can be joined to a following letter with a lead-in stroke by that stroke
coming out of the body of the s, or it can simply be placed next to an oval letter
at the distance equal to letters that are connected. The variant form of s with an
exit stroke can lead in to a following letter, as shown.
Decorating a Bâtarde-style “B”
The Bâtarde Majuscules were a popular choice, among the Copperplate writing
masters, to complement this script. Here is a B written with the square nib of the
classic Bâtarde, and then decorated with the pointed “elbow” nib of Copperplate.
Begin by transforming the Bâtarde letter from its restrained original form to a
more elaborate style, inviting greater movement for the arabesques. Sketch the
basic swirls of these flourishes in pencil, and then go over these lines with the
elbow nib, respecting the direction of pressure, and adding circular dots at some
line ends. Such capitals can be quite simple, or more elaborate (as shown below).
• An Illuminated Copperplate Text
Try decorating a poem or quotation with a Bâtarde capital, or even a title or
name in Gothic, all embellished with the swirls of Copperplate arabesques! In
this short poem by William Blake (18th-century writer), notice the flourishes at
line ends, the L that descends below the minuscule writing line, and the use of
different nib sizes for the poem’s initial letter and the initials and Gothic
minuscules of the author’s name.

Ornamenting Minuscules
Flourishes are not just for capital letters and line ends, as you see! From time to
time, enliven a word with an arabesque that grows out of a minuscule letter. It is
wise to begin by drawing the whole form in pencil, to place the loops and spirals
harmoniously—and then return with the nib to ink the forms with the appropriate
changes of pressure. In time you will be able to execute such flourishes
spontaneously!

How to Create a Flourished Frame

1. Rule the double line for your text, and surround this with your frame, in
pencil.

2. Place the calligraphy, and some arabesques that flow from the letterforms, on
the lines and out into your frame.

3. With the elbow nib, write the word or words, and fill out the arabesques with
the same respect for descending heavy strokes and light upstrokes. The
flourishes do not need to be symmetrical, but it is vital that they are balanced and
harmonious.
An Envelope for a Wedding Invitation
1. Begin with an 8.5" × 11" or A4 sheet of paper, and place a ruler along the
diagonal, as shown. Folding along the dotted line indicated, join the two dots.
2. Fold down the opposite corner to touch the point indicated along the side of
the first fold.
3. Bring one of the unfolded sides in to the center, touching the two points
indicated.
4. Do the same with the remaining side, and then unfold the two sides of steps 3
and 4.
5. Now fold down the two corner triangles, as indicated by the arrows.
6. Refold the sides (from steps 3 and 4), inverting the folds of the triangles
opposite the ones you folded in step 5. as shown by the arrows, and exposing the
“wheel” of corners in the middle of the envelope, overlapping them in order.
Plan your monogram of initials to occupy the four overlapping corners in the
center of the envelope, and mark the names of the couple on either side. The
front of the envelope can be addressed in formal Copperplate.


About the Author

Jane Sullivan is a calligrapher, artist, and Medieval-style illuminator. Her recent
calligraphy endeavors include creating an illuminated psalter for the Abbey of
St. Martin in Ligugé, France. She has been a visiting scholar at Cambridge
University in the field of Early Irish Manuscript studies. Jane teaches the joys of
beautiful, intricate lettering in her workshops and courses.