Bes 141b1e

BES-141
Pedagogy of Science
Indira Gandhi
National Open University
School of Education
Block
1
UNDERSTANDING SCIENCE
UNIT 1
Science: Perspective and Nature 7
UNIT 2
Aims and Objectives of Science Teaching-Learning 31
UNIT 3
Process Skills in Science 48
UNIT 4
Science in School Curriculum 66
EXPERT COMMITTEE
Prof. I. K. Bansal (Chairperson) Prof. Anju Sehgal Gupta
Former Head, Department of Elementary School of Humanities
Education, NCERT, New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi
Prof. Shridhar Vashistha Prof. N. K. Dash (Director)
Former Vice-Chancellor School of Education
Lal Bahadur Shastri Sanskrit IGNOU, New Delhi
Vidhyapeeth, New Delhi
Prof. M. C. Sharma (Programme
Prof. Parvin Sinclair Coordinator- B.Ed.)
Former Director, NCERT School of Education
School of Sciences IGNOU, New Delhi
IGNOU, New Delhi
Dr. Gaurav Singh (Programme
Prof. Aejaz Mashih Co-coordinator-B.Ed.)
Faculty of Education School of Education
Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi
Prof. Pratyush Kumar Mandal
DESSH, NCERT, New Delhi
SPECIAL INVITEES (FACULTY OF SCHOOL OF EDUCATION)

Prof. D. Venkateswarlu Dr. Bharti Dogra
Prof. Amitav Mishra Dr. Vandana Singh
Ms. Poonam Bhushan Dr. Elizabeth Kuruvilla
Dr. Eisha Kannadi Dr. Niradhar Dey
Dr. M. V. Lakshmi Reddy
COURSE COORDINATORS: Prof. M. C. Sharma and Dr. Gaurav Singh

COURSE TEAM
Course Contribution CONTENT EDITING
Unit 1 Prof. V.P. Srivastava
Dr. Gaurav Singh Retd. Professor, Department of
Assistant Professor Education in Science and
School of Education, IGNOU Mathematics (DESM), NCERT
Dr. Rakesh Kumar New Delhi
Assistant Director, Capacity Building Cell
National Institute of Open Schooling, Noida LANGUAGE EDITING
Dr. Sunita Sundriyal
Unit 2 Assistant Professor, HLYBDC,
Dr. Gaurav Singh University of Lucknow
Assistant Professor
School of Education, IGNOU FORMAT EDITING
Unit 3 Dr. Gaurav Singh, SOE, IGNOU,
Ms. Divya Sharma New Delhi
Assistant Professor
Mata Sundari College, Delhi University PROOF READING
Unit 4 Asit Kumar
Mr. Ajit Kumar C. New Delhi
Assistant Professor
School of Education, IGNOU
Material Production
Prof. Saroj Pandey Mr. S.S. Venkatachalam
Director, SOE, IGNOU A.R. (Publication), SOE, IGNOU
April, 2017
 Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2017
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COURSE: BES-141 Pedagogy of Science
BLOCK 1: UNDERSTANDING SCIENCE
Unit 1 Science: Perspectives and Nature
Unit 2 Aims and Objectives of Science Teaching-Learning
Unit 3 Process Skills in Science
Unit 4 Science in School Curriculum
BLOCK 2: TEACHING-LEARNING OF SCIENCE

Unit 5 Organizing Teaching-Learning Experiences
Unit 6 Approaches in Science Teaching-Learning
Unit 7 Methods in Science Teaching-Learning
Unit 8 Learning Resources in Science
Unit 9 Assessment in Science
BLOCK 3: CONTENT BASED METHODOLOGY-I

Unit 10 Food
Unit 11 Material
Unit 12 The Living World
Unit 13 How Things Work
BLOCK 4: CONTENT BASED METHODOLOGY-II

Unit 14 Moving Things, People and Idea
Unit 15 Natural Phenomena
Unit 16 Natural Resources
COURSE INTRODUCTION
BES-141: Pedagogy of Science is one of the pedagogical courses being offered

in B.Ed. Programme. School of Education has adopted content-cum-pedagogy
approach in all the pedagogy courses, thus this course discusses not only the
pedagogical aspects of teaching-learning of Science but also some selected content
areas from secondary school curriculum, where a secondary school science teacher
may need some inputs for smooth transaction of the content.
Major objectives of the course are to help student teachers in:
• understanding the nature of science and its place in curriculum,
• appreciating the importance of development of scientific temper among
learners,
• identifying appropriate approach for teaching-learning of science,
• integrating suitable learning resources to facilitate learning in science,
• constructing appropriate assessment tool for assessing learner’s progress in
science, and
• revisiting few important concepts of science and integrate them thematically.
The Course is divided into Four Blocks.
Block 1: Understanding Science is dealing with issues related to Perspectives
and Nature of Science, science as a process of inquiry and value development
through science. It also discusses about aims and objectives of science teaching-
learning at secondary and senior secondary level, developing learning objectives
and shift in pedagogic approach from behaviourism to constructivism. Block
will facilitate you in developing scientific attitude and scientific temper, nurturing
natural curiosity, aesthetic sense and curiosity and scientific process skills among
your learners. It also gives you a brief about historical development of science
education in India and present status of science education in India.
Block 2: Teaching-learning of Science is focusing on facilitating teaching-

learning process in classroom. It discusses about learning objectives, identifying
skills to be developed, content planning and integration in 5-E model. It discusses
about inquiry approach, problem solving approach, cooperative learning approach,
experiential learning approach, concept mapping as an approach for planning
and transaction and about adopting critical pedagogy in science teaching-learning.
Various methods in Science teaching-learning like-Teacher-centric methods,
Learner-centric methods and Cooperative Learning methods are discussed in the
block along with strategies for practicing inclusion in Science classroom and
curriculum transaction. Block also discusses about identifying appropriate
learning resources. It will also facilitate you in assessing various process skills,
identifying and framing assessment indicators in science, using various tools
and techniques for assessment of scholastic and co-scholastic domains.
In Block 3: Content Based Methodology-1 and Block 4: Content Based

Methodology-II, selected Content from Secondary level curriculum of Science
has been taken under each theme and essential aspects of teaching-learning process
(i.e. planning, transaction and assessment strategies) have been discussed .
Block 3 is dealing with various concepts under the themes food, material, the
living world and how things work. Similarly, Block 4 deals with concepts under
the themes like moving things, people and Idea, natural phenomena and natural
resources. It is expected that these discussion will help you in planning and
adopting appropriate teaching-learning strategy while dealing with similar content.
Understanding Science
BLOCK 1 UNDERSTANDING SCIENCE
Introduction to the Block
Block-1 of the course is developed for providing you an understanding of various
aspects of science in order to understand nature of Science. This block focuses
on meaning and nature of Science. Block will also discuss about aims and
objectives and also about process skill, which are to be developed through science
teaching-learning. This block has 4 units.
Unit 1: Science: Perspectives and Nature will discuss in detail about meaning
and nature of Science. Common myths related to nature of Science will also be
discussed so that you can facilitate learners in resolving these myths in order to
understand true nature of Science. Unit will also explain the process of scientific
inquiry and deliberate on place of Science in society. Unit will propose that
Science has its own values system, which is to be developed through teaching-
learning of Science.
Unit 2:Aims and Objectives of Science Teaching-Learning will facilitate you

in understanding the aims and objectives of science teaching. The Unit will also
help you in formulating learning objectives according to Anderson and
Krathwohl’s taxonomy. Discussion on shift in pedagogical approach from
behaviorism to constructivism will help you in understanding changing nature
of teaching-learning of Science.
Unit 3:Process Skills in Science discusses on developing these scientific skills

of learners so that they can construct their own understanding of science by
using inquiry. Unit will discuss how learners can develop scientific attitude and
scientific temper while learning science. You have to facilitate learners to develop
aesthetic sense while learning science. Unit also discusses the interdependence
of all three aspects i.e. science is a body of knowledge, a way of thinking (that
needs development of scientific attitude), and a process of inquiry (that needs
nurturing of science process skills).
Unit 4: Science in School Curriculum starts with the discussion on the

development of science education and aspects related to teaching of science
mentioned in the NCF-2005. The unit will also discuss the status of science
education and perception about present science curriculum. Similarly, the unit
will also discuss the recent curricular changes in science, difference in science
curriculum at various stages of schooling and ways of integrating science to
other subjects while teaching.
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Science: Perspective and
UNIT 1 SCIENCE: PERSPECTIVES AND Nature
NATURE
Structure
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Objectives
1.3 Understanding Science
1.3.1 What is Science?
1.3.2 Myths about Nature of Science
1.3.3 Understanding Nature of Science
1.3.4 Domains of Science
1.4 How Science Works?
1.5 Science as a Process of Inquiry
1.6 Science in Society
1.7 Value Development through Science
1.8 Let Us Sum Up
1.9 Unit End Exercises
1.10 Suggested Readings and References
1.11 Answers to Check Your Progress
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Science as a discipline has its unique perspective. Science is not limited to
observation, experimentation and analysis only; rather it is a way of life. Science
is an expanding body of knowledge through process of inquiry. A Science teacher
should understand all its dimensions. Present unit will discuss in detail about
meaning and nature of Science and facilitate you in resolving myths related to
Science. The Unit also explains the process of scientific inquiry, as well deliberates
on place of Science in society. It will facilitate you in developing understanding
of relationship of Science and society in learners’ minds. Science has its own
values system, which will be discussed in this unit.
1.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
• facilitate your learners in understanding meaning of Science,
• explain various domains of Science,
• explain Science as a process of inquiry,
• identify and resolve myths related to nature of Science in learner’s mind,
• help your learners in realizing place of Science in the society, and
• identify and inculcate scientific values among your learners.
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1.3 UNDERSTANDING SCIENCE
Being a Science teacher, your first responsibility is to facilitate your learners in
understanding the Science. Science is not a new subject for them, as it has already
been introduced to them at upper primary (Class VI-VIII) level. The focus of
Science teaching at elementary level was on engaging learners in learning
principles of Science through familiar experiences, working with hands-on to
design simple technological units and modules and continuing to learn more on
environment and health through various activities (NCF-2005). At Secondary
level, you have to engage your learners in learning Science as a composite
discipline i.e. as an integrated discipline Science and not as segregated subjects
like Physics, Chemistry, Biology, etc. They need to understand the nature of
Science as well as what comes under domain of Science. Let us discuss, how
will you facilitate them in understanding what is Science?
1.3.1 What is Science?

Perhaps, India may be the only nation with a constitutional provision as
fundamental duty ‘to develop scientific temper’ among its citizens. Article 51A
(h) is: “To develop the scientific temper, humanism and the spirit of inquiry
and reform”. This reflects how we thought about Science. For us, Science is
neither a pedagogical discipline nor a group of certain subjects. We have perceived
Science as a way of life with rational thinking. This feeling and understanding
should be inculcated among learners since childhood so that they can perceive
Science as a part of their life. Our scientific traditions are ancient and our
perception about Science is associated with the notions like logic, rationality,
truth, knowledge and intelligence.
It is never easy to answer the question, what exactly the Science is. For some
Science is what the scientists practice. For others, it is organized knowledge
disciplines like Physics, Chemistry, Biology, etc., but no one can answer this
question exactly. This leads us to think bit deeper.
Etymologically word ‘Science’ has been derived from the Latin word ‘scientia’
which means ‘knowing’. Before the 18th century, Science was referred as ‘natural
philosophy’. Still for some, it is a title; for some, it is a concept, few perceive it
as a method or process while for some, it is inquiry. If we go through philosophical
origin and understanding of term ‘Science’, we can see various perceptions about
Science and this makes it more interesting and challenging. Similarly, when you
look back towards your own childhood and school days, you can find, what was
your own perception about Science.
When your teachers introduced Science as a subject for systematic study and
divided it into many areas like: Physics, Chemistry, Zoology, Botany, do you
think, at that time, you understood what Science is? Many of you may answer in
the negative. Now how will you answer the question: What is Science?
Let us reflect on it. Science is a process of learning. It is very different from other
areas of study because “the way to learn Science is to do Science”. You can
propose it as subject, which always tests ideas with the help of evidences collected
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from the worlds around us. Some of the important characteristics of Science Science: Perspective and
Nature
which need to be shared with learners are:
• You can help learners to understand that Science does not explain supernatural
myths rather it focuses on the natural world around them. For example,
Science helps to understand growth in plants, characteristics of animals,
etc.
• Learners should understand that Science is not merely a collection of
evidences of happenings; rather it attempts to understand happening through
analysis, testing and verification.
• You can give examples of Scientists working in different areas and ask
learners to find out what is common in their working. Learners will soon
realize that scientists work on testing of ideas, that are generated and their
verification with the help of evidences generated or collected.
Science is actually an integral part of our daily life. As a teacher you can help
learners to understand that scientists are as human as we. They also have feelings
of joy, rivalry, competition, success, failure, etc. as any human being.
As a teacher of Science at secondary level, you should ensure that learners should
overcome the traditional stereotype/mental blocks related to Science like Science
text books are heavy, scientists are persons wearing lab coats and working on
microscopes, a natural scientist works in the rainforest, or busy in writing some
equations and formula on a chalkboard…. all such images are the reflection of
one aspect of Science, but do not offer a full picture.
It is always a debate that what is Science and what is not. As a Science teacher,
we must think on certain issues like why there is no suffix ‘Science’ with subjects
like Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Zoology, Botany, etc., and why there is always
a suffix ‘Science’ with subjects like Social Science, Political Science, Management
Science, Environmental Science, Health Science, Library Science, etc.
In a public lecture at the Indian Institute of Science, Banglore, in January,

2010, David Gross, the celebrated theoretical physicist and winner of Nobel
Prize for Physics in 2004, narrated an interesting incident in the life of John
Nash. Nash was winner of ‘Nobel Prize for Economics’. One journalist
asked Prof Nash: “do you agree that economics was a Science?” (because
the prize was given for Economic Science.) Nash apparently replied that
any subject which needed to have the appendage ‘Science’ to it could not
really be a Science. Gross then went on to say how the disciplines of Physics,
Chemistry, Mathematics and Biology did not have the addition of ‘Science’
to them whereas ‘Social Science’ did.
Defining Science, p.1., in Sarukkai, S. (2014). What is Science?, NBT,
Indien
As teachers of Science, you should also reflect such questions and identify the
elements which justify the addition of ‘Science’ as suffix to any subject.
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Check Your Progress
Note: a) Space is given below to write your answer.
b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this Unit.
1) Do you agree that Library Science is a Science? Give arguments in
support of your answer.
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1.3.2 Myths about Nature of Science

In order to present nature of Science to learners, a teacher can keep in mind what
McComos (1998) proposed 15 incorrect ideas about Science.
Table 1.1: Myths about Nature of Science (McComos, 1998)

S.No Myth about nature of Science
1 Hypotheses become theories that in turn become laws.
2 Scientific laws and other such ideas are absolute.
3 A hypothesis is an educated guess.
4 A general and universal scientific method exists.
5 Evidence accumulated carefully will result in sure knowledge.
6 Science and its methods provide absolute proof.
7 Science is procedural more than creative.
8 Science and its methods can answer all questions.
9 Scientists are particularly objective.
10 Experiments are the principal route to scientific knowledge.
11 Scientific conclusions are reviewed for accuracy.
12 Acceptance of new scientific knowledge is straightforward.
13 Science models represent reality.
14 Science and technology are identical.
15 Science is a solitary pursuit.
It is important to understand the role of these myths in understanding the nature

of Science and in planning how these can be discussed with learners. What kind
of activities you will organize so that learners can understand that these statements
are only myths. Let us discuss a few myths as examples and discuss activities/
examples/illustrations, which can be used in the classroom.
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One of the most common myths about the nature of Science is that “a general Science: Perspective and
Nature
and universal scientific method exists”. Many times teachers and learners in
Science have the view that there is a common series of steps that scientists follow
in their investigations/research. In most text books of Science, initial chapters
talk about the general steps of a scientific method i.e. defining the problem,
forming a hypothesis, making observations, testing the hypothesis, drawing
conclusions and reporting results. Slowly classroom and laboratory practices
adopt this procedure of writing up the aims, hypothesis, method, results and
conclusion. This, in the long run, turns into a wrong belief that a general and
universal scientific method exists.
There is another common myth that “scientific laws and other such ideas are
absolute”. This has also taken the shape due to misconceptions and traditional
way of teaching Science. In teaching learning Science, our focus remains on
universal laws and theories. Even the cover page of various Science related books
often reflects some equations like E=mc2 and picture of law of gravitation or the
Archimedes principle. An emphasis on the principles and theories which are of
universal nature gives birth to such misconceptions.
As a teacher you need to appreciate that scientific knowledge is tentative not

absolute. An example like the journey of atoms to subatomic particles is a case
in point. Initially, atoms were considered as ultimate small particle of any
elements. Later discoveries of electron, protons and neutrons as sub atomic
particles. You must have read about the experiment in search of Boson or God
particle by collision of sub atomic particles. Another very interesting example
which you can use is the periodic table. Initially in Mendeleev’s table, the number
of elements was around 60, but the number has gone up to 118 and is still
increasing. Similar examples can be used to establish the tentative nature of
scientific knowledge.
1.3.3 Understanding Nature of Science

Generally speaking, nature of Science is a fundamental domain for guiding
Science teachers in accurately portraying Science to learners. Science learners
need to know not only facts/concepts but also about the processes through which
this knowledge is generated. Thus, appropriate knowledge of nature of Science
can help a teacher in enhancing her ability to implement conceptual changes and
also in understanding learners’ learning (Matthews, 1994).
Understanding nature of Science is important because if your understanding and

the Philosophy of Science is not congruent with the current interpretations of the
nature of Science, you will not be able to do justice to explanations and
interpretations of scientific issues in scientific terms.
With more focus of constructivist approach for knowledge creation, a teacher

has to understand various aspects of nature of Science so that s/he will be able to
create or generate opportunities for knowledge for learners. It has been observed
that introduction in Science imparted to learners depends upon the teachers’
own views of the nature of Science (Gill, 1977, p. 4). Hence, enhancing teachers’
understanding of nature of Science is clearly a prerequisite for effective teaching
learning process in Science.
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Understanding Science Understanding of nature of Science is also important for two reasons; one is
curricular, that is what kind and amount of content is appropriate according to
the cognitive level of learners and the second, to plan right kind of learning
situations for learners i.e. the teaching learning strategies to be adopted. It is
challenging task for a teacher to translate the understanding of Science into a
knowledge generation opportunity for learners. A broad understanding can help
you in designing meaningful situations and in selecting appropriate tools for
classroom transition.
What is nature of Science? This is a debatable issue since long but an accurate
description of the function, processes and limits of Science can engage learners’
interest in the issue.
Aspects of nature of Science have been identified and explained by many

researchers but the following list seems to be fit in our objective. Table 1.2 shows
the convergent aspects of the nature of Science (identified by Lederman,
1992;McComos, 1998).
Table 1.2: Aspects of Nature of Science

S.No. Aspects of Nature of Science
1 Scientific knowledge is long lasting yet tentative
2 Empirical evidence is used to refine and support ideas in Science
3 Social and historical factors play a role in the construction of scientific
knowledge
4 Laws and theories play a central role in developing scientific
knowledge, yet they have different functions
5 Accurate record keeping, peer review, and replication of experiments
help to validate scientific ideas
6 Science is a creative endeavor
7 Science and Technology are not the same, but they have impact on
each other
Let us analyze few of these characteristics.
Scientific Knowledge is Tentative

Scientific knowledge is subject to change. Why is it so? It is so because; we
make new observations and tend to reinterpret the existing observations.
• Solar system is a very common topic, while discussing the Solar system;
teachers can emphasize that now there are eight planets but earlier ninth
planet Pluto also existed. But in 2006 Scientists reclassified it as a ‘Dwarf
Planet’. Astronomers discovered an object in the Kuiper belt which was
larger than the former ninth planet Pluto and therefore Pluto was not given
the status of a planet. This means Science is tentative – its facts, theories are
subject to change in the light of new observations and new findings.
• Evolution and connecting links are some other common themes in Science.
The tentative nature of Science can be emphasized by discussing many more
examples. Let us discuss the case of ‘dinosaurs’. Dinosaurs were earlier
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believed to have evolved from reptiles (group to which lizards, snakes etc. Science: Perspective and
Nature
belong) but now the perception about their lineage has changed. Today
scientists are of the opinion that they have evolved from birds. Archaeopteryx,
a feathered dinosaur, was discovered in Germany in 1861. Archaeopteryx
forms a connecting link between two vertebrate groups – reptiles and birds.
It has some reptilian features like presence of teeth and beak. The avian
features include presence of wings and beak. John Ostrom from Yale
University in late 1960s found 22 features in the skeletons of meat-eating
dinosaurs which are only seen in birds. This forms the basis of bird lineage
of dinosaurs.
Above examples support the argument that Science is tentative and subject
to change but there are certain scientific ideas which have stood the test of
time. Sir Isaac Newton’s three laws of motion have survived the test of
time. Although these laws have also been modified, instead of force at a
distance, the concept of field has been introduced. As a Science teacher,
you have to present both sides of the coin because there are certain scientific
principles of universal application.
Activity 1
Present few examples to reflect that nature of Science is tentative and also
few examples to show universal nature of few scientific principles (From
Science text book of class IX or X. Ask your learner to compare both the
situations and enlist few key differences in them.
Observations of the Natural World

Learners should be given enough opportunities to understand the difference
between observations and inferences. For instance, you can show them different
types of plants like a desert plant, a water plant, a climber, etc. and ask learners
to make a list of observations about the these three different plants. Divide their
answers into two lists: one labeled ‘Observations’ and the other ‘Inferences.’
Table 1.3: Examples of Observations and Inferences

Observations Inferences
A Desert Plant
Very small sized leaves Small sized leaves help in reducing
loss of water
A Water Plant
Leaves are covered with waxy Waxy coating helps in preventing
coating decay in water
A Climbing Plant
Thread like spirally coiled structures These spirally coiled structures
are arising from the stem of the plant (tendrils) help in providing
support to the plant
As a teacher, we can see the difference between an observation and inference.
Observation is what one sees and inference is making a conclusion based on the
basis of what one has seen. Let us consider the following example.
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Case 1
Ms. Poonam is a Science teacher in a Nigam PratibhaVidhyalaya in semi
urban area of South Delhi. Once she arranged a fun trip to Qutub Minar for
her learners. In the Qutub complex, the learners saw an iron pillar. Ms.
Poonam asked the learners to note down the details displayed about the
pillar. It was stated that it is around 1600 years old and rust resistant. After
returning to school, Ms. Poonam asked the learners to enlist those iron items
in their house, which are being used regularly and are rusted. Learners
presented a number of examples. She then asked them to compare their
details about the iron pillar at Qutub complex with examples of iron items
at their house. Then she introduced the concept of rusting of metals.
As a teacher, you can identify and use many such opportunities from the nearby
region to introduce simple concepts of Science. At secondary level, Science should
be evolved from natural contexts of the learners and also from laboratory
experiments, theoretical principles and processes, but if examples are close to
their immediate natural environment, Science will become interesting and
understandable for learners.
Activity 2
Identify some topics from the Science textbook of class IX. Plan some visits
to the nearby areas to provide the learners a feel that the content in text book
is of their immediate use and they can observe its implications in the natural
environment.
Check Your Progress

5) List any five common myths about nature of Science.
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1.3.4 Domains of Science

To think of Science, we have to take into account its multidimensionality. All
though it is more application oriented, but also based on sound theoretical,
philosophical and sociological parameters. You must have gone through Unit 2
i.e. Perspectives of Disciplinary Knowledge (Course BES-125: Understanding
Disciplines and Subjects), where these aspects are discussed in detail. Whenever
we talk about Science, three interwoven domains come to our mind (as shown in
Figure 1.1).
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Nature
A Body of
Knowledge
A Way of A Process
Thinking of Enquiry
Figure 1.1: Three Domains of Science
Let us try to understand what these domains are. In order to do so, we have to
enlist various activities, facts, and processes related to Science. You can think of
scientific facts, concepts, theories, laws and some methods and processes.
However, when describing the nature of Science, educators have converged on a
key set of concepts, like: tentativeness, empirical evidence, observation and
inference, scientific laws and theories, scientific method, creativity, objectivity
and subjectivity,etc. All these can figure in the three major domains of Science,
as shown in Figure1.2.
A Body of A Process
A way of
Knowledge of Enquiry
Thinking
• Facts • Observing
• Definitions • Measuring • Based upon
• Concepts • Estimating evidences
• Theories • Inferring • Creatinve
• Laws • Classifying • Influenced by
• Hypothesizing background
• Experimenting knowledge
• Concluding
Figure 1.2: Nature of Science
Let us discuss each domain in detail:
Science as a body of knowledge

First domain represents the nature of Science as a body of knowledge. Generally
we take Science as a body, which includes facts, definitions, concepts, principles,
theories, laws etc. You must have come across many people talking about
‘Scientific knowledge’ about the planet, stars, etc. If you see any textbook on
Science, you can easily find various facts, concepts, definitions, principles and
theories associated with Science. A few of them have lasted long and have been
a part of scientific knowledge since generations. Some important characteristics
of scientific knowledge are:
• It is tentative
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Understanding Science • Scientific ideas are influenced by social and historical background.
• The Objective of Science is to provide explanation of natural phenomena
whereas the objective of technology is to provide solutions of problems
related to life.
Sometimes, while responding to the questions raised by learners, we try to satisfy
by telling them to just remember the fact or principle, if they are unable understand
it; do you ever think that only the factual information can satisfy them completely?
By emphasizing on theories and principles, you can provide only factual
knowledge to learners, which is of no use to them. This only creates a burden on
learners’ minds and gradually they start losing interest in Science (Larsen and
Cindy, 2011). It is the high time that you should come up with the strategy to
provide them with real experience of Science. You should provide learners an
opportunity to feel, experience, explore and analyze. They will themselves
generalize and develop their own body of knowledge. If you want to establish
Science as a body of knowledge, you have to plan such activities, in which learners
find out the concepts, principles and theories after generalizing by themselves.
Activity 3
Take the Science textbook of class IX. Enlist the facts, concepts, definitions,
principles and theories presented in the chapter ‘Acids, Bases and Salts’.
How will you present them as a body of scientific knowledge to your learners?
Science as a process of inquiry

Another domain is Science as a process of inquiry, though we will discuss it in
details in the next section of the Unit; let’s try to understand here, why Science is
considered as a process of inquiry.
When you start teaching and learning of Science in your class, you have to go
through various processes, which will allow your learners to investigate about
various important issues in their surroundings. Certain process skills have to be
developed like ‘Observation, Inference, Classification, Communication, Measurement,
Prediction’, etc. These skills will be discussed in details in the Unit 3.
The process skills are important for scientific investigations and in everyday
life. The learners should be able to establish causal relationships and distinguish
them from mere associations.
In a Science classroom, the teacher is expected to provide opportunities to the

learners to participate in some investigative activities which will help them to
understand the nature of scientific inquiry. Such practices will encourage the
learners to think about the relationships between facts, options, processes and
incidents. It is expected that you will encourage your learners to identify
relationships and analyze rationally the associated facts.
Science as a way of thinking

The third domain is Science as a way of thinking. Famous scientist Carl Sagan
says that “Science is more than a body of knowledge. It is a way of thinking.” On
a wider note, you have to work for development of scientific thinking among
your learners. Your success as a Science teacher will depend upon the degree of
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scientific thinking and scientific attitude developed in your learners. In previous
sub-sections, our focus was to establish Science as a body of knowledge and a Science: Perspective and
Nature
process of inquiry but both these aspects are closely related to third one i.e.
Science as a way of thinking.
Scientific way of thinking can be promoted by making our learners able to explore,
analyze, evaluate and work in a scientific manner. Scientific way of thinking
will make our learners collect evidence that can be physically observed and
measured. This is known as empirical evidence. Scientific way of thinking also
allows starting questioning why and how things are as they are.
Science as a way of thinking involves scientific temper, scientific inquiry, and a

sense of humanity, accepting that scientific ideas are tentative and control of
emotions while interpreting the evidences are its important ingredients. The
discussion above clearly indicates that no domain can be segregated from the
other and all three are integrated.
Check Your Progress

2) Suggest some classroom activities, which will demonstrate Science as
a body of knowledge, a process of inquiry and a way of thinking.
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1.4 HOW SCIENCE WORKS?

As a Science teacher, first myth you have to resolve in your classroom that Science
is not something that develops through scientific method only. There are examples,
where scientific discoveries and inventions are not a product of any systematic
scientific method. Examples given below can help you in resolving this myth
among your learners. Learners must have studied a traditional 5-step scientific
method which includes: ‘Problem, Hypothesis, Experimentation, Observation
and Results.’ It has been observed that many learners develop a misconception
that every scientific study takes place through these steps only. Your role as a
Science teacher is to help them in coming out of this myth.
Let us discuss few path breaking inventions and discoveries of Science and how
did they take place.
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Law of Gravitation
In the biography of Newton entitled Memoirs of Sir Isaac Newton’s Life
written by William Stukeley, an archaeologist and one of Newton’s first
biographers and published in 1752, Newton told the apple story to Stukeley,
who relayed it as such:
“After dinner, the weather being warm, we went into the garden and drank
tea, under the shade of some apple trees...he told me, he was just in the same
situation, as when formerly, the notion of gravitation came into his mind. It
was occasion’d by the fall of an apple, as he sat in contemplative mood. Why
should that apple always descend perpendicularly to the ground, thought he
to himself...”
Source: https://www.newscientist.com/blogs/culturelab/2010/01/newtons-apple-the-real-
story.html
Discovery of Penicillin
Scottish biologist Alexander Fleming took a break from his lab work
investigating staphylococci and went on holiday. When he returned, he found
that one Petri dish had been left open, and a blue-green mould had formed.
This fungus had killed off all surrounding bacteria in the culture. The mould
contained a powerful antibiotic, penicillin, which could kill harmful bacteria
without having a toxic effect on the human body.
Source: https://newhumanist.org.uk/articles/4852/Science-and-serendipity-famous-
accidental-discoveries
Radioactivity
French scientist Henri Becquerel was working on phosphorescent materials,
which glow in the dark after exposure to light. The chance discovery came
during an experiment involving a uranium-enriched crystal. He believed
sunlight was the reason that the crystal would burn its image on a photographic
plate.
One stormy day in 1896, he decided to leave it for the day and resume his
experiments when the weather was better. A few days later, he took his crystal
out of a darkened drawer. The image burned on the plate was “fogged” – the
crystal had still emitted rays, despite the lack of sunlight. It was clear that
there was a form of invisible radiation that could pass through paper, causing
the plate to react as if exposed to light.
His research was continued by Pierre and Marie Curie, who named the
phenomenon radioactivity.
The Microwave
The heating effect of a high-power microwave beam was discovered in 1945
by Percy Spencer, an American engineer working for the company Raytheon.
He was working on a magnetron capable of beaming high waves of radiation,
when he noticed that a chocolate bar in his pocket had melted. Curious, he
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placed a bowl of popcorn in front of the tube and it began to pop. Spencer Nature
then created a high-density electromagnetic field by feeding microwave power
from a magnetron into a metal box from which it could not escape. When
food was placed in the box, its temperature quickly rose. In October that
year, Raytheon patented the technology and it became available to the public
in 1947.
What inference your learners can draw from many such stories?
You can use many such stories to help your learners in understanding that every
discovery or invention is not a linear process. Sometimes, it is an observation
(like law of gravitation), sometimes it may a critical question or a systematic
inquiry (like radioactivity), which results into a discovery or invention, but yes,
they have to follow scientific method to test, validate or establish any theory.
As a teacher of Science, you should provide them opportunity to discover Science

in their surroundings by using a process of inquiry.
1.5 SCIENCE AS A PROCESS OF INQUIRY

Why moon usually comes at night? Why flowers are of many colours? Why we
feel hot or cold? How does it rain? etc. are a few questions, which teachers have
come across while dealing with learners in classroom. These questions are a
reflection of curiosity among learners about the incidents in their surroundings.
Being curious is a natural tendency of the learner, it drives him/her to find out
answer of these questions either by exploring something or asking adults and
teachers. This curiosity is at the center of inquiry.
Inquiry learning refers to finding an answer of a question in mind using various

resources from surroundings to access information, data, knowledge and idea.
These resources may be in the form of daily experiences, books, pictures, texts,
stories, local animals and plants, things around them, diagrams, animations, video,
movie clips, newspapers, etc. We can say that inquiry based learning promotes
knowledge formation and its generation. Scientific inquiry is a way to investigate
things and propose explanations for observations. When learners are engaged in
scientific inquiry, they may think that there is a usual set of procedures to follow,
that is the scientific method – suggest hypotheses, design an experiment, record
observations, get data, analyze it and firmly draw conclusions. But this is not
the only procedure. In scientific inquiry, they may follow other approaches to
solve a problem or to seek answer of a question in mind.
Scientific inquiry may be considered as an approach to reach to a solution of the

problem, but it is not essential that all people will follow the same route. In this
sense, it can be said that scientific inquiry provides freedom in approach to deal
with a problem. It is a process with many variations depending upon needs,
experience, prior knowledge, available resources, personal likings and objectives.
How does scientific inquiry work in young learners? Worth and Grollman (2003)
through a simple inquiry learning model, answered this question.
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Fig. 1.3: Inquiry Learning Cycle (Worth &Grollman, 2003, p. 19)
If you go through this cycle, you will observe that learners learn through inquiry
which begins with some incident they notice. It initiates a process of question
formation in their mind, which they ask to themselves first and then to elders. It
guides them to move on to next step of focused exploration and investigation.
They collect data, information and analyze it to draw a conclusion. They correlate
their observations with data, formulate patterns and find out relationships and
share their ideas with their peers as well as teachers. Similar procedure is adopted
by scientists, but yes with some sophistication.
Thus, we can say that scientific inquiry helps learners to develop a variety of
skills. Few of them may be like exploration of objects, things, incident,
questioning, careful observation, engaging in simple investigations, ability to
describe, compare, analyze and classify, recording observation, using tools for
data collection, identifying patterns and relationships, drawing out tentative
conclusions, etc.
In order to understand the process of scientific inquiry in more specific terms, let
us discuss various processes such as formulation of hypotheses, gathering of
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data, recording of observations, reaching to conclusions, etc. which one has to Science: Perspective and
Nature
undergo during scientific inquiry.
Constructing explanations and ideas
The very first process, which a learner undergoes in this process, is the
construction of explanations and ideas. Let us see, how it takes place.
In a Science class, the Science teacher Mr. Moin, brought some material. It
was a water bottle, a glass and a thick paper sheet. He poured water in the
glass and put the thick paper sheet on it. Slowly and carefully, he inverted
the glass and removed his hand from there. Learners were surprised that
paper had stuck on the glass and water is not coming out.
He asked learner to reflect on it.
Learners started discussing by giving explanations for their observation.
The responses were varied.
Some said that paper had glue inside.
Some said, it had stuck due to water inside.
Others whispered that there was some other thing in the water bottle.
For some it was a kind of a magical trick.
What are these comments? As a Science teacher, how can you use their comments
for generating interest in natural phenomenon?
These comments/observations are part of the process of developing ideas and

construction of explanations. As a teacher, you must have understood that Mr.
Moin was exhibiting the phenomenon of air and its pressure. You may not accept
these explanations of learners as ‘scientific explanations’ but you agree that this
is how the process of scientific explanations starts. In scientific process,
explanations are based on some scientific evidence and observations are supported
by theories and experiences.
During scientific explanations, scientists use evidence to establish relationships

and causes of phenomena. Scientific explanations must always be based on
evidence. These evidences can come from designing and conducting an
investigation; observing a demonstration; collecting specimens; or observing
and describing objects, organisms, or events.
In case of learners, their explanations may not be ‘scientifically sound’ but you
have to encourage them for generating explanations based on their observation
and previous scientific knowledge. How will you do this?
You will either ask them a few questions or give response to their questions in
scientific way. In both the cases, you have to know the art of asking question and
developing appropriate questions. In next subsection, we will focus on this very
aspect of scientific inquiry.
Asking questions and using appropriate questioning technique

Generally in a Science classroom, various ‘vague’ ideas and explanations proposed
by learners are not accepted by teachers. Learners have a natural tendency to ask
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Understanding Science questions. Teacher can also ask questions to learners as a part of scientific inquiry.
As a teacher of Science, you have to first understand a variety of question that
can be asked or answered. There are two types of questions that can be asked in
the classroom: Existence and Casual.
Existence questions start with why and are answered on the basis of recalling
factual knowledge a learner already have. On the other hand casual questions
begin with how, what if, does and I wonder, which are generally answered through
scientific investigations.
In scientific inquiry, questions are a bit different from the questions generally
asked. When a learner develops his/her understanding about scientific inquiry,
s/he is able to generate his/her own set of questions. Generally, following types
of questions are asked during scientific inquiry.
Testable Questions: These questions can be tested and can be answered

through evidence based on observations or experimentation. These question
lead to formation of hypotheses. For example, Can fish survive out of water?
Spontaneous questions: Questions raised by learners as reflection of their
natural curiosity towards any incidence or phenomenon. For example: Why
flowers are not green?
Stimulative Questions: These questions are generally asked by the teacher
to stimulate learner thinking, observation and reflection towards provided
material or demonstration. For example, the teacher may ask after a
demonstration: Why paper boat floats and paper sinks?
Factual questions: Questions related to any scientific fact to justify any
phenomenon.
Generally, learners ask factual questions as they are not aware about the actual
process of scientific inquiry. Factual questions are comparatively easy to generate.
As a teacher you have to encourage learners to ask more meaningful questions.
As soon as learners will learn to ask a variety of questions, they will also learn to
relate the questions with scientific inquiry process and investigations. They should
be provided opportunities to explore information related to their questions and
should be encouraged to find answers of their questions by themselves. Along
with it, the teacher should try to modify factual questions into testable questions
and provide opportunity to generate new questions.
Activity 2
Initiate a discussion on any topic (e.g. rain, air pollution, etc.) related to
Science in your class. List the questions asked by learners. Categorize these
questions into various types of questions mentioned above.
Developing testable questions and hypotheses

As discussed in the previous sub-section, in the process of scientific inquiry, the
teacher has to develop testable questions. We have discussed that testable
questions are answered through observations or experiments which provide
evidence.
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It is also suggested that you direct your learners to be able to distinguish between Science: Perspective and
Nature
testable questions and other forms of questions and factual questions asked by
learners should be modified into testable questions. Let us first try to understand
what is a testable question?
BSCS (2005, p. 30) has suggested that a testable question meets these criteria:
• The question centers on objects, organisms and events in the natural world.
• The question connects to scientific concepts rather than to opinions, feelings,
or beliefs.
• The question can be investigated through experiments or observations.
• The question leads to gathering evidence and using data to explain how the
natural world works.
Can you apply these criteria on the questions discussed in previous section?
Many times, you can observe that the questions are mostly related to an activity
but cannot be accepted as testable questions because these can’t be answered
through an experiment only. There are a few questions, which can be answered
on the basis of factual knowledge and explanation of cause-effect relationship.
Before answering the questions, the teacher has to provide an opportunity to

learners to predict/give the probable answers of their questions. Learners may
develop some predictions or tentative answers based on their observations. Some
of their answers may be testable or not, the teacher has to help them in identifying
the testable tentative answers. These tentative or testable answers to the testable
questions are often termed as hypotheses.
According to Heyer (2006, p.4), the four most important things to remember
about hypotheses are:
• A hypothesis should be consistent with existing observations and known
information regarding the question.
• A hypothesis must be presented as a statement of the predicted outcome, not
as a question.
• A hypothesis is formulated before the experiment, not after the experiment.
• A hypothesis must be specific and testable.
As a teacher you can create situations to encourage learners to form testable
questions and find out probable answers on the basis of their observations and
previous knowledge.
Activity 3
In order to encourage your learners for framing hypotheses, you can perform
activities in the classroom based on:
• The increase in the rate of evaporation of water with heat.
• Factors affecting growth of salt crystal.
• Factors affecting growth of plants/seed germination.
• Effect of exercise on rate of respiration.
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Understanding Science Planning, conducting and observing simple investigations
In order to test formulated hypotheses, you have to encourage learners to plan,
conduct and observe some investigations or simple experiments. Whenever an
investigation is to be carried out, it should be based on sound planning regarding
the role of the teachers and learners and their participation during the investigation.
While planning any simple scientific investigation, you should prepare yourself
by answering questions like:
• What is the objective of investigation?
• How is it related with scientific concept or theory?
• What are the required material/resources for investigation?
• Where will the investigation be carried out i.e. inside the classroom or outside
the class/school?
• What will be the level of involvement of the learners?
• What will be role of learners?
• What are the precautions to be kept in mind? And so on…
After planning, the next task is to conduct the activity i.e. executing your plan.
To encourage learners to be active participants of investigation, the teachers should
guide them to perform the investigation. The activity set by the teacher should
ensure the active and enthusiastic involvement of the learners in observation,
establishing cause-effect relationship, collecting information, arranging data in
sequential and logical manner etc. Teachers’ role should be of a vigilant observer
with minimum interference in the process of investigation.
It has been suggested that the teacher not only connects classroom teaching with
the physical surroundings but also promotes the investigation by learners, helping
them to establish a relationship with their surroundings.
As a teacher, you can perform many simple experiments in the classroom also.
Some of them could be:
• Take two test tubes leveled as A and B. In test tube A, put some boiled
rice, and in B, put the boiled rice after chewing it for 3-5 min. Add 3-4
ml. water in both. Now pour 2-3 drops of iodine solution in them. Ask
the learners to observe the change. You can explain the role of saliva in
breaking of starch into sugar.
• Take one iron rod. Apply wax on it and attach some nails with the wax.
Start heating one end of the rod. Ask the learners to observe the changes.
You can help them to understand the concept of flow of heat.
These are just a few suggestions; you can plan a lot more activities based on the
content of the prescribed Science Textbook. The objective of discussion in this
section is to sensitize you about making teaching learning more inquiry based
and making the learner an active constructor of scientific knowledge.
Constructing explanations and communicating results

After completing the investigation, encourage learners to communicate about
the conclusions obtained and justify the proposed explanations. You can tell
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them that conclusion is the culmination of the entire inquiry process. The Science: Perspective and
Nature
conclusion should include all aspects- from the observations that lead to questions,
investigation that leads to the hypothesis and the experiment and data which
leads to the determination if the hypothesis has been accepted or rejected. The
conclusion also includes other questions that may have arisen in learners’ mind
during the course of the experiment/investigation and the experiences they might
have undergone during the experiment.
After drawing conclusions, learners are expected to share and communicate the
results obtained. Communicating results is another important part of scientific
inquiry. Here it is not expected that learners should communicate the result in
same way as the scientists communicate their results, all though, they have to
learn to report their result in a sequential way in the light of objectives decided
earlier. The teacher can help learners to present the results of their inquiry in an
understandable form for others.
Solving problems
A learner of Science is expected to solve her/his day to day problems with a
scientific attitude. S/he should apply the process of scientific inquiry in
understanding, analyzing and solving a problem. As a teacher you have to create
situations, in which learners feel encouraged to analyze the problem in a scientific
process, apply scientific inquiry approach to understand it, formulate testable
questions and hypotheses, organize scientific investigation, draw a conclusion
and report it as a solution of the problem.
It should be remembered that scientific inquiry only leads us towards possible

solution of problems and we have to decide whether it is right or wrong based on
evidences, observations and experimentation.
The question is how can we motivate learners towards it? Through a problematic
situation of their day to day life, incidents from their surroundings, news clips,
newspaper reports, natural disasters, linkage of scientific concept explained in
text book with the examples of their life experiences, we can motivate learners.
Here are some examples given in the box, where a scientific concept can be
explained with the help of every day experiences.
Concept Example form daily life experience

Food material and sources Analysis of meals
Solute, solvent and solution During summer Home-made drinks
Separation of substances Tea separation, butter formation,
threshing
Different habitats of animals Visit to the zoo and close observation
of animals in their surroundings
Magnet Doors of refrigerators, pin holders
Food chain and food web Grassland, pond or forest visit
If you analyze the content given in your Science textbook, you can find many
such examples.
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Check Your Progress
3) What are the types of questions in scientific inquiry?
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4) What should be the characteristics of a good conclusion?
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1.6 SCIENCE IN SOCIETY

As a teacher of Science, your role is to help your learners in understanding the
relationship of Science with society. Science is not something which has emerged
on its own. There is an important role of needs and demands of society in
development of Science.
Science has developed for facilitating society in explaining various natural

phenomena. In our own Indian literature, there are examples from Rigveda, where
it has been explained that how Earth rotates around Sun in 12 months. There are
slokas and verses in Kalpsutra which have explained many relationships of
squares, triangles, circles, even many years before Pythagoras. How Aurveda
and Surgery were being used to help society in being healthy, there are books on
it. In modern Science, Have you read a famous book ‘A brief History of Time’
by Stephen Hawking, or can you imagine the impact of ‘Origin of Species’ written
by Charles Darwin. These are few examples to initiate the discussion on
relationship of Science and society. Science is a social enterprise; this is to be
explained for learners by you as a Science teacher.
Innovations and discoveries of Science have transformed the whole social

structure.
• Can you compare the society before and after the invention of mobile phone?
How mobile phone technology as changed the whole social structure.
• Can you compare the year when only books and newspapers were source of
information and now when internet and social media has become major
source of information?
26
• Can you imagine the contribution of Science in the area of medical Sciences, Science: Perspective and
Nature
where every day something new is being invented in form of vaccine,
medicines, surgical equipment, and diagnostic test kits, etc.?
• How do recent developments in Space and Atomic research affect the social
relationships in global world?
There are many such questions, which may emerge in your mind when you start
thinking about relationship of Science and society.
You will not find any aspect of social or personal life, which is not affected by
innovations and discoveries in Science.
Ask your learners to perform a small activity.
Ask your learners to list down various duties they perform as a member of
society, and also enlist the scientific discoveries/inventions which are helping
them in performing their duties:
Duty Their Role Scientific discoveries/inventions,

which help
You can organize many such activities where they can learn how important Science
is for the society. You can invite Doctors, Agriculture Experts, Engineers,
Environmentalists, etc. for talks so that learners can develop an understanding
of their contribution in the society.
Activity
Organize any of the following events at your school in collaboration with
society members:
• Science exhibition
• Discussion on role of various types of scientific discoveries/inventions
for benefit of society
• Small group projects on latest development in Science and technology
• Reading circles about contribution of various scientists to society
• Poster Competition on contribution of Indian Scientists to the world
These activities will help you a lot in developing a fair understanding of

relationship of society and Science among your learners.
1.7 VALUE DEVELOPMENT THROUGH SCIENCE

Value development is always an area of concern. Responsibility of value
development is on all teachers. There are values which are universal across the 27
Understanding Science disciplines as well as discipline specific also. There is a need to adopt integrated
approach for value development in which values should not be taught as content
rather they should be imbibed in the process and activities of various subjects.
Your role as teacher at secondary level is to facilitate learners with such activities
where they can not only create knowledge and develop understanding of scientific
phenomenon but also inculcate values among themselves.
A good Science curriculum should promote values like honesty, co-operation,

objectivity, freedom from fear and prejudice, and develop in the learner a concern
for life and preservation of environment (National Focus Group on Teaching of
Science, 2006, p. 3)
Let us discuss few activities through which a Science teacher can inculcate values
among learners. You have to complete the following table.
S.No. Activity Associated Value

1 Honesty
2 Interdependence
3 A group project on flora and fauna of tropical Co-operation
forest
4 Objectivity
5 Seed generation in a pot, Awareness campaign on Environmental
cleanliness, Role play for awareness about concern
wastage of water, Small project on natural
disasters and their impact on human life, etc.
6 Freedom from
prejudices
7 Inspirational short stories from life of various Concern for life
scientists like Jagdish Chandra Bose, C. V.
Raman, A.P.J. Abdul Kalam, Madam Curie, while
teaching the scientific concepts related to their
area of work.
With the help of this, activity you can understand that value development is
possible by visualizing and integrating value development with teaching-learning
process. You will also agree that a value cannot be developed by any one particular
activity or a section of content; continuous efforts are required for it. It is expected
from you being a teacher of Science that whenever you plan your teaching-learning
process for any content, you will also plan the value associated with it and also
the assessment strategy. If you keep it in mind during planning and transaction,
you will be able to develop desired values among your learners.
Check Your Progress

5) What are the major contributions of Science to modern Society?
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Nature
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6) What are the values, which you can plan to develop through teaching-
learning of Science at secondary level? Give suitable examples from
content of Science textbooks.
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1.8 LETS US SUM UP

Unit has discussed in brief about meaning and nature of Science. It is suggested
that as a Science teacher, you should help learners in understanding the Science
as a process of inquiry. Various myths about nature of Science are to be resolved
so that learners can understand true nature of Science. Learners also realize that
Science is not only the body of knowledge or a process of inquiry; rather it is a
way of thinking. Unit explains with examples that Science does not work only
through scientific method, rather it develops through process of inquiry. Unit
discusses in brief that Science has developed for facilitating society in explaining
various natural phenomena. With the help of inventions and discoveries, Science
has transformed the whole social structure. It is suggested in the Unit that there
are certain values, which are to be developed along with teaching-learning process
of Science. As a Science teacher, you have to integrate values development with
content transaction in Science.
1.9. UNIT END EXERCISES

1) What are various myths related to Science? How will you help learners in
resolving these myths? Give suitable examples.
2) Discuss various steps of inquiry with help of an example from secondary
level Science curriculum.
3) How will you develop values while teaching Science? Explain with suitable
examples.
1.10 SUGGESTED READINGS AND REFERENCES

• BSCS. (2005). Doing Science: The process of scientific enquiry. Colorado
Springs: NIH Publication
• Goldston, M. J. and Downey, L. (2013). Your Science Classroom: Becoming

an Elementary/Middle School Science Teacher, California: Sage.
29
Understanding Science • Heyer, B. (2006). The process of scientific enquiry– Collecting, graphing,
& interpreting data. Retrieved from http://www.facultyfiles.deanza.edu/
gems/heyerbruce/B11L02.pdf.
• Lederman, N.G. (1992). Students’ and teachers’ conceptions of the nature of
Science: A review of the research. Journal of Research in Science Teaching,
26(9), 771-783.
• McComas, F. W. (1998). The Nature of Science in Science Education:
Rationales and Strategies (Ed.). The Netherlands: Kluwer Publishers.
• McComas, W. (1998). The Principle Elements of the Nature of Science:
Dispelling the Myths. Retrieved from http://coehp.uark.edu/pase/
TheMythsOfScience.pdfon July 18, 2013.
• NCERT (2005). National Curriculum Framework (NCF-2005).
• NCERT (2006). Position paper-National Focus Group on Teaching of
Science, NCERT Publications.
• NCERT (2013). Pedagogy of Science: Physical Science Part-I, New Delhi:
National Council of Educational Research and Training.
• NSTA (n.d.). Science and Children: Methods and Strategies. Understanding
the true Meaning of Nature of Science. Retrieved from http://www.nsta.org/
publications/news/story.aspx?id=51055 on July 17, 2013.
• Settlage, J. and Southerland, S. A. (2012). Teaching Science to every learner:
using culture as a starting point (2nd Ed.). New York: Routledge.
• Shackle, S. (2015, April 2). Science and serendipity: famous accidental
discoveries, New Humanist, Retrived from https://newhumanist.org.uk/
articles/4852/Science-and-serendipity-famous-accidental-discoveries.
• UNESCO (1993). Strategies and Methods for Teaching Values in the Context
of Science and Technology, retrieved from http://www.unesco.org/education/
pdf/325_96.pdf.
• Worth, K., & Grollman, S. (2003). Worms, shadows, and whirlpools: Science
in the early childhood classroom. Washington, DC: National Association
for Education of Young Children. Retrieved from http://eric.ed.gov/PDFS/
ED481899.pdf.
1.11 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1) Answer based on your understanding of section 1.3.1.
2) Discuss one classroom activity each for explaining Science as a body of
knowledge, a process of inquiry and a way of thinking.
3) Testable Questions, Spontaneous questions, Stimulative Questions and
Factual questions.
4) The conclusion should include all aspects from the observations that lead to
the question, to the investigation that lead to the hypothesis and the
experiment and data which lead to the determination if the hypothesis has
been accepted or rejected.
5) Discuss major scientific contributions to society, which you observe.
6) Honesty, co-operation, objectivity, freedom from fear and prejudice, concern
30 for life and preservation of environment.
UNIT 2 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF Nature
SCIENCE TEACHING-LEARNING
Structure
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Objectives
2.3 Aims of Science Education
2.4 Objectives of Science Teaching-Learning
2.5 Developing Learning Objectives
2.5.1 Anderson and Krathwohl’s Taxonomy
2.5.2 How to Write Objectives
2.6 Shift in Pedagogic Approach
2.6.1 Effect on Nature of Teaching-Learning
2.6.2 Effect on Planning
2.6.3 Effect on Methods and Strategies
2.6.4 Effect on Assessment
2.7 Let Us Sum Up
2.9 References and Suggested Readings
2.1 INTRODUCTION
In unit one, we have discussed about the meaning and nature of science. This
unit aims to facilitate you in understanding the aims and objectives of science
teaching. As a science teacher, you should be aware of why science is placed in
secondary curriculum as an integrated area of study, how is it different from
elementary level, etc. The Unit will facilitate you in formulating learning
objectives according to Anderson and Krathwohl’s taxonomy. Unit also discusses
the shift in pedagogical approach from behaviourism to constructivism. How
constructivist approach has affected nature of science teaching-learning, planning,
methods and strategies and assessment, all such issues will be discussed in this
unit.
2.2 OBJECTIVES
• understand aims and objectives of science teaching-learning;
• compare teaching of science at elementary and secondary level;
• formulate learning objectives in science;
• understand the shift in science pedagogy from behaviourist to constructivist
approach; and
• analyse impact of constructivist pedagogy on nature of science teaching-
learning, planning, methods and strategies and assessment, etc.
31
2.3 AIMS OF SCIENCE EDUCATION
National Curriculum Framework (NCF-2005) proposed five guiding principles
for curriculum development:
i) connecting knowledge to life outside the school;
ii) ensuring that learning shifts away from rote methods;
iii) enriching the curriculum so that it goes beyond textbooks;
iv) making examinations more flexible and integrating them with classroom
life; and
v) nurturing an overriding identity informed by caring concerns within the
democratic polity of the country.
The entire teaching-learning process at school level revolves around these five
guiding principles. NCF emphasized that “teaching of science should be recast
so that it enables children to examine and analyze everyday experiences. Concerns
and issues pertaining to the environment should be emphasized in every subject
and through a wide range of activities involving outdoor project work. Some of
the information and understanding flowing from such projects could contribute
to the elaboration of a publicly accessible, transparent database on India’s
environment, which would in turn become a most valuable educational resource.
If well planned, many of these learner projects could lead to knowledge
generation.”
It means, science teaching should be organized around learners’ experiences and

opportunities should be provided to learners to explore science around them.
This marks a clear shift from classroom and laboratory centered science pedagogy.
Integration in science teaching-learning is very important and scientific knowledge
should not be compartmentalized in subject domains like physics, chemistry,
biology, environmental science up to secondary level.
NCF-2005 and Position Paper of National Focus Group on Teaching of Science

(2006) have proposed 6 criteria for validity of a science curriculum i.e. cognitive,
content, process, historical, environmental and ethical. On this basis, following
general aims of science education have been conceptualized:
Science education should enable the learner to:

• know the facts and principles of science and its applications, consistent
with the stage of cognitive development,
• acquire the skills and understand the methods and processes that lead to
generation and validation of scientific knowledge,
• develop a historical and developmental perspective of science and to
enable her to view science as a social enterprise,
• relate to the environment (natural environment, artifacts and people),
local as well as global, and appreciate the issues at the interface of science,
technology and society,
• acquire the requisite theoretical knowledge and practical technological
skills to enter the world of work,
32
Aims and Objectives of
• nurture the natural curiosity, aesthetic sense and creativity in science and Science Teaching-Learning
technology,
• imbibe the values of honesty, integrity, cooperation, concern for life and
preservation of environment, and
• cultivate ‘scientific temper’-objectivity, critical thinking and freedom
from fear and prejudice.
Aims of Science Education, Position Paper, National Focus Group on
Teaching of Science (2006) p. 11.
If you will analyze these aims in order to understand the nature of science teaching
learning at school level, you will find that:
These aims are suggesting organization of science curriculum at different levels

keeping in mind the cognitive levels of learners. You can recall and link levels of
cognitive development suggested by Piaget here.
There is an emphasis on linkage of scientific knowledge with society i.e. scientific

knowledge should be a part of society and also verified and authenticated by the
learners themselves. It focuses on development of scientific process skills along
with nurturing natural curiosity and aesthetic sense. Along with development of
scientific attitude, equal focus is on development of universal values.
Now it will be easy for you to understand the objectives of science teaching-
learning at different levels.
Check Your Progress

1) What are the aims of science education related to values and scientific
attitude?
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2.4 OBJECTIVES OF SCIENCE TEACHING-

LEARNING
First aim of science education discussed in section 2.1, i.e., “Science education
should enable the learner to know the facts and principles of science and its
applications, consistent with the stage of cognitive development”, guides that
objectives, curriculum, methods, assessments, etc. should be different for different
levels.
33
Understanding Science Main objectives of science curriculum upto secondary level is to make learners
‘scientifically literate” as science is a compulsory component of the curriculum
upto secondary level. Focus should be on “developing awareness among the
learners about the interface of science, technology and society, sensitizing them,
especially to the issues of environment and health, and enabling them to acquire
practical knowledge and skills to enter the world of work.” (NCF-2005).
Emphasis is more on acquiring process skills so that learners are able to deal
with every changing and expanding world of science. Keeping these key points
in mind, science curriculum at different level has been organized.
At the primary level, emphasis is on engaging the learners in joyfully exploring

the world around and harmonizing with it. The objectives at this stage are:
• to nurture the curiosity of the child about the world (natural environment,
artifacts and people),
• to have the child engage in exploratory and hands on activities to acquire
the basic cognitive and psychomotor skills through observation,
classification, inference, etc.;
• to emphasize design and fabrication, estimation and measurement as a prelude
to development of technological and quantitative skills of later stages; and
• to develop the basic language skills: speaking, reading and writing not only
for science but also through science.
At this level, Science and social science have been integrated as ‘Environmental
Studies’.
At the upper primary level, the emphasis is on engaging the learner in learning
principles of science through familiar experiences, working with hands to design
simple technological units and modules and continuing to learn more on
environment and health through activities and surveys.
As a science teacher, you will agree that scientific concepts are learnt better if
learners explore them through activities and experiments. Learners should be
given opportunity to explore science in their everyday experiences. You should
engage learners (preferably in groups) in meaningful investigations -particularly
of the problems they perceive to be significant and important.
As a science teacher, you should encourage discussions with the teacher and
peers. You can ask your learners to gather information from newspapers,
knowledgeable persons in the neighbourhood, and from easily available sources
and discuss about them in class with peers and teachers.
Role play, skits, cooperative learning strategies should be adopted to ensure larger
participation and sharing of learning outcomes. It is advised that biographical
narratives of scientists and inventors can be used. You should keep in mind that
efforts should be continued for development of the process skills of science.
It is suggested that at the secondary stage, you should engage your learners in
learning science as a composite discipline. As a science teacher at this level, you
should provide them opportunity to engage in activities and analysis on issues
surrounding environment and health.
34
As secondary stage, systematic experimentation is suggested as a tool to discover/ Aims and Objectives of
Science Teaching-Learning
verify theoretical principles, and working on locally significant projects involving
science and technology.
Concepts, principles and laws of science should be introduced at this level with
an emphasis on comprehension and not on mere formal definitions. At this stage,
those concepts, which are beyond direct experience, should also be introduced
and learners should make understand that all scientific phenomena are not directly
observable; science also relies on inference and interpretation.
You should use experimentation as an important tool to discover/verify theoretical

principles at this stage. At this level, you should organize co-curricular activities
like some small group projects on local issues and use problem-solving approach.
At the higher secondary stage, curriculum has adopted disciplinary approach

with rigour and depth. There is strong emphasis on experiments, technology,
and investigative projects. You should organize co-curricular activities at this
stage by adopting a problem-solving approach on local issues involving science
and technology; encouraging participation of learners through creative/
investigative projects in national science fairs and participation in science
Olympiads. You should provide opportunity to your learners for participation in
debates and discussions on issues at the interface of science, technology and
society.
At the higher secondary stage, a transition from general science to discipline-

based curriculum takes place. Physics, Chemistry and Biology are being offered
as an elective subject. At this stage, the learners choose any discipline, with a
purpose of pursuing their future careers in basic sciences or professional courses
like medicine, engineering, technology and studying courses in applied areas of
science and technology at tertiary level. Hence, at this level, the learners should
be provided with sufficient conceptual background of disciplines which would
eventually make them competent to meet the challenges of academic and
professional courses after the higher secondary stage. At this level, focus is on:
• developing conceptual competence among the learners and making them
realize and appreciate the interface of Physics, Chemistry or Biology with
other disciplines;
• exposing the learners to different processes used in industrial and
technological applications;
• developing process-skills and experimental, observational, manipulative,
decision-making and investigatory skills in the learners;
• promoting problem-solving abilities and creative thinking to develop interest
in the learners in the study of various disciplines;
• helping learners to understand the relationship between nature and matter
on scientific basis, develop positive scientific attitude, and appreciate the
contribution of different science disciplines towards the improvement of
quality of life and human welfare;
Teaching-learning of various science subjects at the higher secondary stage enables
the learners to comprehend the contemporary knowledge and develop aesthetic
sensibilities and process skills. The experimental skills and process-skills 35
Understanding Science developed together with conceptual knowledge prepare the learners for more
meaningful learning experiences and contribute to the significant improvement
of quality of life. The learners would also appreciate the role and impact of
science and technology, and their linkages with overall national development.
Check Your Progress

2) Compare the objectives of science teaching-learning at upper primary
and secondary level?
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2.5 DEVELOPING LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Discussion on aims and objectives of teaching-learning has given you a direction.
Now you should focus on developing teaching-learning objectives for science
classroom. We have discussed earlier that there is a shift in pedagogy in science
from behaviourist to constructivist approach due to which focus is now on
acquiring process skills. You have to formulate learning objectives in sync with
process skills to be developed while dealing with a particular content.
In your primary/elementary teacher education programme, you must have studied

about Bloom’s taxonomy of instructional objectives, which was suggested in
1956. In 2001, a new taxonomy of instructional objectives has emerged which
was proposed by Anderson and Krathwohl in their book “A taxonomy for learning,
teaching, and assessing: A revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational
Objectives.” Anderson and Krathwohl revised the Bloom’s taxonomy by
removing the anomalies and giving more emphasis on verbs.
2.5.1 Anderson and Krathwohl’s Taxonomy

Before starting discussion on new taxonomy, let us have a look at original Bloom’s
Taxonomy. In Bloom’s taxonomy, there were 6 categories under cognitive domain
i.e. Knowledge, Comprehension, Application, Analysis, Synthesis, and Evaluation.
Except Application, all other 5 main categories were further divided into
subcategories. It was a hierarchical structure where categories were arranged
from simple to complex and concrete to abstract. It was assumed that attainment
of one category is a prerequisite for next category.
36
KNOWLEDGE Science Teaching-Learning
• Knowledge of specifics
o Knowledge of terminology
o Knowledge of specific facts
• Knowledge of ways and means of dealing with specifics
o Knowledge of conventions
o Knowledge of trends and sequences
o Knowledge of classifications and categories
o Knowledge of criteria
o Knowledge of methodology
• Knowledge of universals and abstractions in a field
o Knowledge of principles and generalizations
o Knowledge of theories and structures
COMPREHENSION
• Translation
• Interpretation
• Extrapolation
APPLICATION
ANALYSIS
• Analysis of elements
• Analysis of relationships
• Analysis of organizational principles
SYNTHESIS
• Production of a unique communication
• Production of a plan, or proposed set of operations
• Derivation of a set of abstract relations
EVALUATION
• Evaluation in terms of internal evidence
• Judgments in terms of external criteria
Exhibit 2.1: Bloom’s Taxonomy of Cognitive Domain
If you recall the objective statements, you will find that there were two major
components of an objective:
a) Some subject matter content (A Noun or Noun phrase)
b) A description of what is to be done with or to that content (A verb or verb
phrase)
For example, “a learner will be able to define motion.” In this objective
statement the noun phrase is “motion” and the verb is “define.” In original
taxonomy, noun and verb aspects was part of knowledge dimension.
37
Understanding Science In the revised taxonomy, first change is that noun and verb dimensions are
separate. The noun is providing the basis for the Knowledge dimension and the
verb is forming the basis for the Cognitive Process dimension.
The Knowledge Dimension

The new knowledge dimension contains four categories i.e. factual, conceptual,
procedural and metacognitive. Metacognitive Knowledge involves knowledge
about cognition in general as well as awareness of and knowledge about one’s
own cognition.
A) FACTUAL KNOWLEDGE – The basic elements that learners must

know to be acquainted with a discipline or solve problems in it.
• Knowledge of terminology
• Knowledge of specific details and elements
B) CONCEPTUAL KNOWLEDGE – The interrelationships among the

basic elements within a larger structure that enable them to function
together.
• Knowledge of classifications and categories
• Knowledge of principles and generalizations
• Knowledge of theories, models, and structures
C) PROCEDURAL KNOWLEDGE – How to do something; methods

of inquiry, and criteria for using skills, algorithms, techniques, and
methods.
• Knowledge of subject-specific skills and algorithms
• Knowledge of subject-specific techniques and methods
• Knowledge of criteria for determining when to use appropriate
procedures
D) METACOGNITIVE KNOWLEDGE – Knowledge of cognition in

general as well as awareness and knowledge of one’s own cognition.
• Strategic knowledge
• Knowledge about cognitive tasks, including appropriate contextual
and conditional knowledge
• Self-knowledge
Exhibit 2.2: The Knowledge Dimension
The Cognitive Process Dimension
In this dimension, like the original taxonomy, same number exists in the revised
taxonomy also. Let us see the following table to understand the changes in revised
taxonomy.
38
Table 2.1: Objectives in Bloom’s Taxonomy and Revised Taxonomy
In above table, you can see that ‘knowledge’ category is renamed as ‘remember’,
‘comprehension’ is renamed as ‘understand’, ‘Application, Analysis and
Evaluation’ are retained but in their verb form i.e. ‘apply, analyze and evaluate’.
Evaluation was last category in original taxonomy but here it is at 5th place and
‘synthesis’ is replaced by a new category named as ‘create’.
All these 6 categories are further divided into 19 subcategories and renamed as
cognitive processes. Let us have an overview of these cognitive processes.
Remember Understand Apply Analyze Evaluate Create
Recognizing Interprecting Executing Differentiating Checking Generating

Recalling Exemplifying Implementing Organizing Critiquing Planning
Classifying Attributing Producing
Summarizing
Inferring
Comparing
Explaining
Another very important aspect of revised taxonomy is that here every objective
is represented in a “two dimensional table”. The Knowledge dimension forms
the vertical axis, whereas the Cognitive Process dimension forms the horizontal
axis. See the following table:
Factual
Knowledge
Conceptual
Knowledge
Procedural
Knowledge
Metacognitive
Knowledge
39
Understanding Science Let us examine following objectives:
1) Learners will be able to define the term speed.
2) Learners will be able to measure intervals of time in a wall clock.
3) Learners will be able to derive relationship between different units of speed.
Can you place all these objectives in the two dimensional table? If you start
placing them, you have to analyze every objective on knowledge dimension as
well as on cognitive process dimension. For example, in objective one, speed is
a concept, which will fall under conceptual knowledge and defining comes under
‘understand’ cognitive process, hence it will fall in as below. Try to analyze
other objectives also and fill the following table on your own.
Factual
Knowledge
Conceptual Objective 1
Knowledge
Procedural
Knowledge
Metacognitive
Knowledge
Activity 1
Select any topic from a science textbook of class IX or X. Formulate objectives
keeping in mind the nature of concept and cognitive process associated with
it. Analyze your objectives by placing them in the two dimensional table.
Check Your Progress

3) What are four major knowledge dimensions in Anderson and Krathwohl
taxonomy?
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4) What are the major differences between Bloom’s taxonomy and Revised
Anderson and Krathwohl taxonomy of objectives in cognitive domain?
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40
2.5.2 How to Write Objectives Aims and Objectives of
Discussion in section 2.5.1 will help to identify the cognitive processes and
knowledge dimension associated with any content. As a science teacher, you
have to formulate learning objectives in statement forms and also keep in mind
that they should be achievable.
Mager (1997, p. 4) identified three important characteristic of an instructional

objective:
• specific learning outcome (performance)
• circumstances under which learning occur (condition), and
• an element that specifies a level of proficiency (criterion).
Let us try to identify these elements with the help of few examples, which will
help you to improve your objective writing.
Objective 1: Learners will be able to understand the phenomenon of heat.

Can this objective help you to tell what the learners will understand? Will it be
concept or definition of heat, or heating effect? Will it be difference between hot
and cold? It is not easy to answer exactly what the learners will understand and
how you will assess it. The term “understand” lacks clarity and will not tell you
what and how learners will tell you what they know.
Terms which are not clearly stating “action” should be avoided. Many such terms
like “understand, know, appreciate, comprehend, learn, recognize” should be
avoided while stating an instructional objective. Let see an improved version of
objective.
Objective 1A: Learners will be able to list the hot and cold items based on
their daily experiences.
If you analyze above statement in the light of three elements suggested by Mager,
you will find that this objective is clearly stating the expected learner outcome,
i.e. listing hot and cold items. This statement also hints at the circumstances i.e.
learners’ daily experiences, but this statement is lacking on third criterion i.e.
element to specify the level of proficiency because one learner may list 2 items
each whereas other may list 5 items. This objective statement can be refined
further as:
Objective 1B: Learners will be able to list the three hot and three cold items
based on their daily experiences at home.
Now this objective statement has refined second element i.e. hinting at the
circumstances and included the criterion i.e. element to specify the level of
proficiency by asking three items each.
Let us examine few sets learning objective statements and decide which one is
better:
1A. Learners will be able to learn about soil profile.
1B. Learners will be able to level four horizons of soil in a diagram showing
soil profile.
41
Understanding Science 2A. Learners will be able to differentiate between amphibians and aquatic
animals on the basis of their breathing organs.
2B. Learners will be able to differentiate between amphibians and aquatic
animals.
3A. Learners will be able to demonstrate image formation by concave lens.
3B. Learners will be able to draw a ray-diagram showing image formation of
an object placed at 2F by concave lens.
In all three sets of objectives, you will find that 1B, 2A and 3B are better written
objectives. Can you identify the condition, performance and criterion elements
in these objectives? Let us do an exercise.
Activity 2
Go through the objective 1B, 2A and 3B and enlist the elements in the following
table:
Objective Condition Performance Criterion
1B
2A
3B
Sometimes you may find that all three elements are not present is an objective
statement, but you should ensure that at least condition and performance elements
are present in your objective statement. If you ensure presence of criterion element,
it will help your assessment more effective and objective.
Check Your Progress

5) What are three important characteristics of a learning objective
statement?
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2.6 SHIFT IN PEDAGOGIC APPROACH

Behaviourism and Constructivism are often considered as two different
approaches of learning, which superficially seems to be contradictory in their
philosophical considerations. Behaviourism treats the learner as an organism
and acting entity, on the other hand the cognitivist thoughts emphasize the
importance of the mind in making sense of the material which it is presented.
Nevertheless, it presupposes that the role of the learner is primarily to assimilate
42 whatever the educator presents.
If you go through the theoretical constructs of behaviourism and constructivism, Aims and Objectives of
you can easily interpret that the key difference between these two approaches.
Behaviourism is centred on transmission of knowledge from the instructor to
the learner (passive learner and a top-down or instructor-centred approach)
whereas constructivism is focused on the construction of knowledge by the learner
(active learner and a bottom-up or learner-centred approach).
Constructivism in education emerged after the behaviorist movement as a

welcome and refreshing view of learning that centres on the active learner within
the teaching-learning process. This emphasis on the individual (within the greater
social context) during instruction has drawn attention to the prior beliefs,
knowledge, and skills that individuals bring with them.
When National Curriculum Framework (NCF-2005) advocated the

constructivism, it highlighted following key aspects:
• Primacy of the active learner and Learner in context
• Teaching should be for construction of knowledge
These two points are like guiding principles, which have transformed all the
dimensions of teaching-learning process. For a science teacher, it is important to
understand the shift in various aspects of teaching-learning process, so that you
can organize learning experiences in more effective manner.
2.6.1 Effect on Nature of Teaching-learning

Recall your school or college days when teaching was the core activity at school
and teachers are supposed to transact the pre-identified knowledge with pre-
planned teaching-learning methods to achieve certain objectives. Focus was more
on teaching as it was believed that without teaching there is no learning.
Present discourse of learning has broken this jinx. Nowadays, focus is more on
learning. Teaching is not a stand-alone activity rather teaching is to facilitate
learning. In the constructivist perspective, learning is a process of the construction
of knowledge. Teaching has occupied a facilitating role.
A shift from teacher-centred instruction to learner-centred instruction is needed

to enable learners to acquire the new 21st century knowledge and skills.
In the following table, Sandholtz, Ringstaff, and Dwyer, 1997 have identified
the shifts take place due to changing from a focus on teaching to a focus on
learning.
Now analyze your role as a science teacher in the light of shift discussed in the
above table. You will find that shift of focus from teaching to learning has created
more interactive learning environment where learners can be engaged in
construction of knowledge more meaningfully and actively. This has transformed
the traditional role of teacher as well as perception about learner. Nowadays,
learner is perceived as active learner.
Role of teacher has also changed from transmitter of knowledge to facilitator

for knowledge creation. Now teachers’ role is assumed as facilitator, guide,
knowledge navigator and co-learner along with children. Teachers are supposed
to be involved fully as a part of group of learners and facilitate by creating
43
Understanding Science conducive learning environment where children can share, construct and reflect
on knowledge by their own. It does not mean that new knowledge will not be
introduced by teacher. A teacher’s role has changed and s/he has to create a
situation where children can explore, observe, identify and create the desired
knowledge with the support of teacher.
Table 2.2: Shifts in Role of Teacher and Learner
CHANGE IN ROLE OF TEACHER

A shift from A shift to:
Knowledge transmitter, primary Learning facilitator, collaborator,
source of information, content expert coach, mentor, knowledge navigator
and source of all answers and co-learner
Teacher controls and directs all Teacher gives learners more options
aspects of learning and responsibilities for their own
learning.
CHANGE IN ROLE OF LEARNER
A shift from A shift to:
Passive recipient of information Active participant in the learning
process
Reproducing knowledge Producing and sharing knowledge,
Learning as a solitary activity participating at times as expert
Learning collaboratively with others
For creating such learning environment, you as teachers need to acquire necessary
skills for planning, and designing learning situations where children can learner
on their own.
2.6.2 Effect on Planning

Planning of teaching-learning has also changed with shift towards constructivist
pedagogy. Classroom experiences are to be organized around learner and learner’s
experiences. Traditional unit planning has changed and is now uses concept
mapping strategy. Idea of concept mapping was proposed by a constructivist
thinker Joseph D. Novak. Novak (1982) was of the view that concept maps not
only represent changes in knowledge structure of learners but also helped them
“learn how to learn”. Concept map provides an opportunity to link various
concepts and sub-concepts and facilitate integration. Thematic approach in science
teaching-learning for class VI-X adopted by NCERT is promoting use of concept
mapping which is one of the major impact of NCF-2005 on science teaching-
learning. Unit 5 and 6 of Block 2 is discussing it in details.
Behaviourist lesson planning approaches like Herbert and Bloom have been
replaced with modern 5-E Approaches. 5-E is an inquiry based instructional
model where 5-E stands for Engage, Explore, Explain, Elaborate, and Evaluate.
In order to develop scientific process skills and using learners’ experiences and
knowledge for facilitating them in construction of new knowledge, 5-E is a very
useful lesson planning model. Unit 5 of Block 2 will discuss about it in more
44 details.
2.6.3 Effect on Methods and Strategies Aims and Objectives of
Along with shifts in planning, a major shift has been observed in teaching-learning
approach. Remember your school days, a number of competitions were the part
of school activities. Classroom was filled with a competitive environment.
Teachers gave lectures and gave some drill and exercises after explaining certain
concepts. Parents were obsessed with competitiveness and were after their wards
to make them more competitive by nature.
Under the influence of constructivist pedagogy, active learning is being promoted.

Child-centred learning methods to promote construction of knowledge by the
learners themselves are advised. Questioning and inquiry has become central to
the classroom. Development of scientific process skills has become the objective
of teaching-learning in science.
Cooperative learning strategy has brought a fresh air in the science teaching-
learning environment. Focus has been shifted to cooperative learning
environment. Social constructivist approach has emphasized that social contexts
of learning and the knowledge is mutually built and constructed. Peer tutoring
and cooperative learning become important methods of learning. You are expected
to follow these methods while designing learning experiences.
In a science classroom, experiential learning, problem solving, naturalistic inquiry,

investigatory projects are being promoted. All these have been discussed in detail
in Unit 7 of Block 2.
2.6.4 Effect on Assessment

Earlier practices were associating term “evaluation” with examination, grading
and resulting in anxiety and stress among children. Heavy load of examination
and fear of failure has brought a lot of criticism for our education system. Major
focus was on “assessment of learning.”
Now we have shifted from “assessment of learning” to “assessment for learning”.

Now assessment and evaluation has become integral part of teaching learning
and we are practicing a new system popularly known as “Continuous
Comprehensive Evaluation”.
The proposed benefits of launching new system were conceptualized as it is for:

(CBSE, 2010)
• reducing stress on learners so as to maximize learner’s educational output;
• constantly looking over learner’s performance at small intervals of course
for better growth of learner;
• preventing teachers on using negative comments on learner’s performance
so that he/she doesn’t get demoralized;
• teaching learner through various techniques and examples so that he/she
understands the concept completely;
• increasing the participation of learners in the learning process so they
experience everything themselves; and
• participation of learner in more and more co-curricular activities so as to
recognize the abilities of an academically non-performer into other fields.
45
Understanding Science It is your responsibility as a teacher to understand this idea and act on it effectively.
It has been observed that few teachers do not have epistemological understanding
of CCE and they are just replacing their earlier practices with the practices under
CCE. For example, monthly tests are being replaced by unit tests and trimester
examination by FA-1 or FA- 2. This was not conceptualized when CCE was
introduced. It’s a whole new philosophy was different and focus was on learner
and learning.
Different assessment strategies have been suggested for different levels. Focus
is on criteria based short tests in place of formal examination. It is also being
suggested to teachers that children’s own self-evaluation can be the part of report
card. Strategies like portfolio, worksheets, rubrics and informal observation are
being promoted for practicing assessment.
We will discuss about it in detail in Unit 9: Assessment in Science. It is expected

from you that you should apply the appropriate strategy and promote assessment
for learning.
Check Your Progress

6) What are shifts in role of a learner in constructivist pedagogy?
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2.7 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, discussion started with aims of science education as per National
Curriculum Framework (NCF-2005). These aims help in deriving objectives of
science teaching-learning at different levels. While formulating learning
objectives, you should use revised taxonomy of objectives, which has been
discussed in details. This revised taxonomy focuses on knowledge dimension
and cognitive process dimension both. Discussion in section 2.5.2 will help you
in how to write objectives in behavioural terms. It has been suggested that your
statement of objective should have condition, performance and criterion elements.
In last section of the unit, discussion is on pedagogical shift from behaviourist to
constructivist approach and how it has affected various aspects of teaching-
learning process like planning, selection of methods and strategies and assessment.
These will be elaborated in various units of block 2 in more details.
2.8 UNIT END EXERCISES

1) What are the five guiding principles of national Curriculum Framework-
2005? Critically analyze your secondary level science curriculum in the
46 light of these principles.
2) What are the major differences in objectives of secondary and senior Aims and Objectives of
secondary science curriculum?
3) Compare Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives with the revised
Anderson and Krathwohl’s taxonomy.
4) Critically analyze the effects of constructivist pedagogical approach on
various aspects of science teaching-learning.
2.9 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS

• Mager, R. (1997). Preparing instructional objectives: A critical tool in
effective instruction, Atlanta, GA: CEP Press.
• Goldston, M. J. and Downey, L. (2013). Your science classroom: becoming
a elementary/middle school science teacher, Sage Publication.
• Krathwohl, D. R. (2002). A Revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy: An Overview,
Theory into Practice, 41, (4), pp. 212-218.
• NCERT (2005). National Curriculum Framework (NCF-2005).
• NCERT (2006). Position paper-National Focus Group on Teaching of
Science, NCERT Publications.

1) The two aims are:
• to imbibe the values of honesty, integrity, cooperation, concern for life
and preservation of environment, and
• to cultivate ‘scientific temper’-objectivity, critical thinking and freedom
from fear and prejudice
2) At upper primary level, focus is on exploring science in surrounding whereas
as secondary level focus has been shifted on introducing scientific concepts
and phenomenon, through experimentation, exploration and observation.
3) Factual, conceptual, Procedural and Metacognitive
4) Analyze table 2.1 and answer.
5) The three important characteristics of an instructional objective are:
• specific learning outcome (performance)
• circumstances under which learning occur (condition), and
• an element that specifies a level of proficiency (criterion).
6) Analyze table 2.2 and answer.
47
UNIT 3 PROCESS SKILLS IN SCIENCE
Structure
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Objectives
3.3 Process Skills in Science
3.3.1 Basic Process Skills in Science
3.3.2 Acquiring Skills to Understand the Method and Processes of Science
3.4 Developing Scientific Attitude and Scientific Temper
3.5 Nurturing Aesthetic Sense and Curiosity
3.6 Interdependence of Different Aspects of Nature of Science
3.7 Let Us Sum Up
3.1 INTRODUCTION
While discussing about aims of science education in Unit 2, you must have noticed
that now focus is on development of process skills among learners. National
Curriculum Framework-2005 has also emphasized on developing these scientific
skills learners so that they can construct their own understanding of science by
using inquiry. Unit will discuss how learners can develop scientific attitude and
scientific temper while learning science. You have to facilitate learners to develop
aesthetic sense while learning science. Unit will help you in it. Curiosity initiates
inquiry. How can you nurture curiosity among science learners? Unit focuses on
this aspect also. While discussing nature of science in Unit 1, you have studied
that science is a body of knowledge, a way of thinking (that needs development
of scientific attitude), and a process of inquiry (that needs nurturing of science
process skills). This unit will help you in exploring interdependence of all these
aspects.
3.2 OBJECTIVES
• identify basic scientific process skills to be developed among learners;
• design and develop activities to help learners for developing process skills
in science;
• specify your role in nurturing scientific process skills among learners;
• describe the characteristic features of scientific attitude and scientific temper;
• suggest strategies to develop scientific attitude among learners;
• facilitate learners for nurturing aesthetic sense and curiosity; and
• explore the interdependence of various aspects of nature of science.
48
Process Skills in Science
3.3 PROCESS SKILLS IN SCIENCE
If you ask learners, what is science, you will find a common aspect in their
responses i.e. science is a process of inquiry. Science involves few processes
which may part of a “Scientific Method”. If you look into the way science is
done by scientists, you will find that there is no universal or specific scientific
method. Scientists approach problems by variety of ways which have several
processes common to them. These commonly used processes to conduct scientific
inquiries are termed as ‘Science Process skills’.
In simple words, Science process skills are the processes which are being used
by various scientists while doing science. Some common science process skills
are Observing, Classifying, Communicating, Measuring, Predicting and Inferring.
You may find in some examples some more advanced process skills sometimes
referred as integrated skills like identifying and controlling variables,
hypothesizing, interpreting data, defining operationally, experimenting and
constructing models. At secondary level, your focus should remain on developing
basic science process skills among learners.
Fig.3.1: Science Process Skills
3.3.1 Basic Process Skills in Science

Let us discuss about the basic science process skills, which as a science teacher,
you can develop in your learners.
Observing
Observing is the most basic process of science and creates a base for higher
scientific inquiries. If you ask your learners which sense they are using while
observing, many of them may reply: eyes.
49
Understanding Science You have to help them in understanding that “Observing means using our various
senses to obtain information (or data) about objects or events attended”.
Observations are not to be limited to seeing things only. We use more than one
sense organ to collect data (or information) about the objects in our daily acts.
Actions like- looking at the change of colour in litmus solution, feeling vibrations
in tongs by touching it, smelling odour of resultant gas during a chemical reaction,
hearing the change in pitch of sound in a musical instrument and tasting a solution
to find out if it has sugar or salt in it- involve observation using one or the other
sensory organ.
You must train your learners to use all their five senses (sight, hearing, taste,
smell and touch) in our science classes to help them become good observers.
That means, you should give them more and more observation based activities
to help them learn how to use sensory experiences to gather information about
their surroundings.
Properties of different objects like colour, size, shape, hardness, texture, lustre,
sonorous and density, etc. are all observable by using more than one sense.
Ms. Vandana, the science teacher in a secondary school in Noida, asked her
learners to fill in the table, what they will observe during following activities:
Activity Place of What do you Senses
Observation Observe? Involved
Cooking
Bird watching
Monitoring the class
Specimen of a fish
When they completed the table, she asked them to define observation in their
own words.
She further explained few characteristics of observation to her learners with
the help of examples from this activity.
Observation has following characteristics:

• Observation focuses on “What” and “How” and not on “why”.
• Observation is based on facts not opinions.
• Observation should have minimal bias i.e. it should be more objective.
• Observation is a continuous process i.e. it is not completed in one setting
only.
Learners should also understand that observations may be qualitative or
quantitative. For example, if you ask a learner to observe a cuboid-shaped object,
she can come out with both the qualitative as well as quantitative data. She may
tell you her observations about the shape, colour, material, texture (qualitative
data) and dimensions i.e. length, breadth & height, volume, weight (quantitative
data) of the object.
It is better if you provide a conceptual and contextual grounding for the

observations. Random observations may not help learners to attend to the relevant
50
details of the object or event. Such as, if you tell your learners to prepare a slide Process Skills in Science
of onion peel mount and ask them to observe under microscope, they may tend
to report the wrinkles of peel, other distortions or air bubbles as their major
observations and may overlook the typical arrangement of plant cells and its
features. However, if they have already seen the diagram of onion peel in their
textbooks or have read about the plant cells before this exercise, they carefully
look for similar structure under microscope and locate the correct object in their
slides. Helping learners develop a theoretical premise prior to observing an object
or event for scientific investigation is always better. This orients learners well to
attend to the relevant details of object/event under observation.
Activity 1
Design some activities through which you can help your learners in
understanding that:
• Observation involves many senses.
• Observation is based on facts.
Classifying
Classification of objects (or events) is a process of imposing order on collection
of objects (or events) based on similarities, differences, and interrelationships. It
is good to organize our observations in ways that carry some special meaning.
Learners in a secondary class have basic understanding of grouping objects into
general categories. Such as, they can classify fruits and vegetables, round objects
and square objects, wooden articles and plastic articles, stationery items and
play material, etc. based on their everyday observations and experiences. But,
they need to be given specific training for learning how to classify objects or
events into scientific categories.
The more they become acquainted with scientific concepts, the better they become
in classifying things/ events in appropriate categories. For example, learners tend
to classify all plants together based on their general features like green colour,
rooted in soil, having leaves, stems and branches, etc. similar to almost every
plant. At times, they call all huge plants as “Tree” and all smaller plants including
bushes and grasses as “Plants” since they group them based on height only.
As a science teacher, you know that this classification is not scientifically correct;
“Plant” being the concept that includes all living organisms which produce their
food through photosynthesis. At elementary level, they have learnt in their science
classes about different ways of classifying plants, such as: trees, shrubs and herbs,
flowering and non-flowering plants etc. at secondary level you have to introduce
some higher order classifications like monocots and dicots.
You must provide the learners with ample number of experiences to observe
similarities and differences among variety of plants found in their surroundings.
Learners must be able to understand the basis of every classification scheme to
classify the objects into correct categories. It is usually a good idea to include
classification activities together with observation activities in your day to day
science classes.
It is critical to ask learners why they grouped objects the way they did to discover
their thinking about the process employed. It helps them to reflect on the act and
51
Understanding Science identify the sorting errors, if any. The extent of classification depends on the
depth of similarities and differences observed among a group of objects/events.
You may arrive at parallel classification system or hierarchical systems of
classification. Generally, learners learn parallel classification system in early
grades that results into simpler categories; such as, one given below for example-
ACIDIC BASIC
Lime Juice Baking soda
Vinegar Bleach
.......... ...........
Gradually you can teach them to evolve hierarchical classification schemes also
where they would be able to look at similarities and differences together in a
given set of items. In that case, they learn that the main group starts with the
most general feature and gradually proceeds towards the specific features of
each subgroup it has within it. For example, look at the scheme of classification
given below:
This scheme of classification of matter is hierarchical in organisation, where

each subgroup has been further classified into its subordinate groups.
Activity 2
Ask your learners to classify the following materials as per the above shown
scheme:
Mercury, Soil, Table salt, Sugar, Rain Water, Coffee, Carbon-dioxide, Copper,
Tap water, 20 carat Gold, Iron, Glucose, Vinegar, Steel, Vegetable soup,
Urea, Fountain pen ink, Blood, Gravel
Measuring is concerned with the quantification of our observations. Initially, the

school learners learn to measure five basic entities while learning science- length,
volume, mass (or weight), temperature and time. They should be given ample
opportunities to quantify their data resulting from their observations and
experimentation. You should encourage them to measure entities by using non-
standard as well as standard units. Basically, the idea is to help them in adding
precision to observations, classifications and communications. More of
experiences should be provided for using standard scales and instruments such
as rulers, meter rods, balances, graduated cylinders, calculators, stop watch,
thermometers and electrical instruments, etc. to bring precision in measurements.
Gradually you can help learners to work with conversions of units, such as
selecting suitable units to express or compute the data by converting one unit
52 into another and even expressing conventional units into metric units. For
example, converting miles to kilometers, kilometers to meters, Fahrenheit to Process Skills in Science
Celsius, inches to centimeters, pounds to kilograms, grams to milligrams, liters
to milliliters, hours to seconds, minutes to hours, and so on. Further, you should
note that measuring skill requires not only the precision and accuracy in handling
of measuring devices, but also the ability to carry out calculations with such
instruments. Learners must learn to make judgments about which instrument
and units to be used and in which conditions. They must be able to understand
when to use approximate and when to accurately record a data. Ability to take all
such decisions is a part of measuring skills.
Activity 3
Ask learners to estimate the linear dimensions of their classroom in
centimeters, meters or inches and then tell them to measure it using meter
rod or inch-tape. Let the measurement be done by learners in groups and then
ask them to compare their results. They might not get uniform results in each
group. What could be the reasons? You should then discuss with them the
reasons of varying results and the ways to ensure accuracy in measurement.
Communicating
In most generalized form, communication means sending and receiving the
message through verbal or nonverbal means. People communicate in various
modes such as, speaking, writing, drawing, gesturing, acting, singing, modeling,
story telling, etc.
Communication in science is a specialized skill through with scientific knowledge

is being shared and communicated among scientific community. In order to
facilitate your learners about scientific communication, ask them to perform
following activity.
Activity 4
Ask your learners to collect some descriptions about medicines given in
packets of cough syrups or antibiotics, which they generally through when
they purchase such medicines. Similarly they should be asked to collect some
user manuals of electric equipments or mobile phone. They may be asked to
collect some reports on various diagnostics laboratories or ultrasounds.
Ask them to read all these and compare on following aspects’
Are all are written in same manner?
What are the similarities and differences in these reports?
Why a description of an antibiotic is not easily understandable to them where
as they read and understand a user manual well?
With such activities, you can explain following characteristics of scientific

communication:
– It is systematic.
– Scientific languages are different in different areas.
– Scientific communication varies keeping in mind the reader.
All scientific communication has certain set norms, which scientists try to follow.
Few are: 53
Understanding Science – All the procedures are communicated complete and in understandable
language. You can find many times, that most of the processes are
communicated step-by-step.
– In scientific communication, all observations are recorded and communicated
with accuracy.
– Scientific communications are more in scientific languages and always avoid
fancy and literary words.
– Scientific communications are not biased. They tend to be objective and
accepts all explanations for testing.
You have to help your learners in understanding that science as a discipline has
its own special set of symbols and modes that learners learn to become proficient
in communicating better with scientific community. You know that learners
verbally communicate in science classroom by talking to teacher, group
discussions during some collective task, individual and personal conversations
during an activity, giving oral presentation to whole class and so on. Written
communication in science classroom generally happens through creative writing,
making charts, graphs, posters, maps, diagrams, symbols, equations, etc. You
should develop communication skills in science by encouraging learners to
describe their observations as they perceive, define terms operationally, record
their observations in organized form such as observation tables, equations, use
of suitable charts and graphs, diagrams, and models to convey their understanding.
Inferring
Inferring is using logic to draw conclusions from what we observe and an
‘inference’ is an explanation to our observation about any object or event. In
other words, an inference is a person’s best guess about the cause of an
observation. It is generally based on some evidence also. Most of the time, our
inference is strongly conditioned by our past experiences and knowledge.
As a science teacher, your first task is to help your learners in differentiating

between observation and inferences. Let us see one example.
Ms. Shabina, a science teacher in Central School of Vijaywada, organised a
garden walk with learners and ask them to prepare a report on their visit.
Here are few paragraphs what different learners have reported:
• Today we were asked to walk in garden and observe various plants. I saw
various plants. Few were tall trees like mango and neems, few were shrubs
like rose and few were small herbs. I also noticed that there were very
few plants with fruits and flowers.
• When I walked today in garden, I noticed that most of plants and trees
were without flowers and fruits. This may be due to hot summers and sun
is shining brightly and there was no rain for last 2-3 months. Grass in the
garden has also turned brown; it is not as green as it looks in rainy days.
• Today Shabina mam asks us to visit the garden and prepare the report.
We visited the garden in small groups. In my group, there were 3 students.
We all divided the task on counting types of herbs, shrubs and trees. We
found that in garden, there are 4 types of herbs, 3 types of shrubs and 6
types of trees.
54
What do you understand by these examples? Are these simple reporting of facts Process Skills in Science
or do few learners try to infer something from observation. In second example,
learner explained her observation with some logic and facts. Here, she is trying
to draw inference whereas in other two examples learners have reported what
they observed.
You can give a variety of tasks to learners where they can practice skill of inferring.
It is necessary to help learners in making better inferences by guiding their thinking

and help them learn how to make logical conclusions about an observation. For
example, inferring the age of a tree from the tree rings is an activity in which
inferences are drawn by calculating number of annual rings on cross-sectional
pieces of a tree trunk.
Learners should realize that more than one inference can be drawn from a single
set of observations. Previous knowledge and contextual experiences could bring
this variation in inferences from person to person. For this, you should encourage
them to discuss their observations and logically explain their inferences to each
other. Also, they must gradually learn to accept that an inference can be revised
with newer observations and evidences. Such as, early experiences with floating
and sinking objects may lead to inference that heavy objects sink and lighter
ones float. But, when they are countered with other observations and their idea
of weight responsible for floating or sinking is challenged, then their inferences
about the floating/sinking behaviour of objects also get modified.
Predicting
Predicting is to forecast about what a future observation will be. Predictions are
based on our observations, measurements and inferences that we make about
relationships among various observed variables. They are our best guesses based
on the available information/data in hand. You can start with example of weather
forecasts, in which meteorologists predict the weather on the basis of available
information, observations, analysis and prior experiences.
It is essential to learn this skill of predicting for doing science and learners should
be encouraged to predict before they test something. For example, you can ask
them to predict:
• whether some object will sink or float;
• whether some object will be attracted or repelled by magnet;
• whether the bulb will glow or not in specific circuit;
• whether the seed get germinated in a specific condition or not, and so on.
You should help learners in bringing accuracy in prediction by encouraging them
to make careful observations and precise measurements.
Learners’ predictive thinking can be nurtured by asking them to review observed

properties about an object or event and then asking them to tell the future outcomes
if some sort of change is made. You should prompt them more and more for
making predictions by using appropriate questioning like:
• What would happen if you place the potted plant horizontally on surface
and let it grow for few days?
55
Understanding Science • What would happen if you put few drops of soap solution on a piece of cloth
stained with turmeric?
• What would happen if blue vitriol is stored in an iron vessel?
• What would happen if you place an onion peel in a hypotonic solution for
half an hour?
Activity 5
Design one activity each for developing following scientific process skills
among your learners:
Observing Measuring Predicting
Implement the activity and prepare a report on effectiveness of the activities
for developing these skills.
Check Your Progress

1) What are basic scientific process skills?
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2) What are important characteristics of scientific communication?
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3) What is the difference between inferring and predicting?
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56
3.3.2 Acquiring Skills to Understand the Method and Processes Process Skills in Science
of Science
Learners need to acquire basic science process skills in order to understand the
method and processes of science that are used by scientists to do science. Apart
from six basic process skills as described above, there are ‘integrated skills’ as
well in science- those are acquired later by learners once they have learnt using
basic process skills. Basic process skills are prerequisite for integrated skills.
Integrated process skills require higher order thinking and reasoning and hence
they are mainly practiced in upper grades. These integrated skills include:
• Identifying and controlling variables,
• Defining operationally
• Hypothesizing,
• Experimenting,
• Interpreting data,
• Constructing models, etc.
You cannot expect learners to excel in these skills unless they have experienced
or been allowed to practice them consistently. Instead you need to give them
multiple opportunities to work with these skills in different content areas and
contexts. In fact, you need to be patient with the learners having difficulties,
since it requires to have developed formal thinking patterns among them to
experiment in science successfully. The more you make your science classrooms
process oriented, more will be the possibilities for learners to learn ‘how science
is done’.
Your role as a teacher is very significant where you are required to keep in mind
few things while engaging learners in teaching-learning activities. For instance,
you should-
• train learners for use of senses to carry out focused and objective observations
in science;
• help learners learn to record their observations in both qualitative as well as
quantitative manner;
• enable learners to use measuring instruments precisely and using appropriate
units to present their data/ observations;
• encourage learners for communicating observations honestly without
hesitation and feeling no fear while reporting deviated results;
• use appropriate questions to guide learners for making authentic observations
and inferences;
• help learners to classify various objects or events and develop ability to
explain the underlying criteria;
• provide opportunities to use different means of communicating data/ results
of their investigations, such as charts, graphs, models, etc.;
• motivate them to share their observations and inferences with each other;
• encourage them to predict an event and then test it if it’s coming out to be
true or not;
57
Understanding Science • create ample opportunities for learners to use science process skills and
integrating them wherever is the scope.
Check Your Progress

3) What is the role of a teacher in developing science process skills among
learners?
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3.4 DEVELOPING SCIENTIFIC ATTITUDE AND

SCIENTIFIC TEMPER
Learning science does not only limit itself to acquisition of conceptual knowledge
or process skills. Having a scientific bent of mind is essential for persons doing
science so that they can evaluate their knowledge, actions and beliefs rationally
and act logically. It is very common to see that even in today’s world, many
people still believe in religious superstitions and baseless rumours. People can
be found believing in their lucky day, wearing lucky stone or lucky number.
They attribute success or failure to their good luck or bad luck rather than practice
or lack of efforts. Some superstitious practices like believing in bad omens- if
cat crosses your way or if you step out during eclipse or following some so
called Godmen blindly and even sacrificing innocent lives for bringing you some
good luck etc., are still prevalent among several people, whereas we claim that
we are living in age of science and technology. It is nothing but absence of
scientific reasoning and logical thinking among such people.
In fact, it is tragic to note that many educated people including those with science
background lack scientific temperament. Hence, it is considered to be an important
goal to develop scientific attitude and temper among school learners so that they
might develop into rational and logical beings and enlightened citizens in future.
It becomes imperative for you as a science teacher to help your learners in
development of critical thinking and logical reasoning through learning science.
Let us first look at the two terms mentioned here- ‘Scientific Attitude’ and
‘Scientific Temper’. These terms are used interchangeably in field of science and
encompass similar traits or features that are required to be developed among
learners through science teaching. Attitudes can be defined as ‘mental
predispositions toward people, objects, subjects, events, and so on.’ (Martin, et
al., 1998, pp.14). The scientific attitude is indicated by certain tendencies or
mental processes in a person, which include- critical and logical thinking,
curiosity, creativity and inventiveness, respect for evidence, open-mindedness,
persistence, truthfulness and honesty in reporting observations, scepticism,
58
perseverance, objectivity, universalism and willingness to suspend judgement Process Skills in Science
unless having sufficient evidences.
The term “Scientific Temper” was very prominently articulated by Pandit

Jawaharlal Nehru in his famous book Discovery of India (1946). In this book,
Nehru stated that “The scientific approach and temper are, or should be, a way
of life, a process of thinking, a method of acting and associating with our
fellowmen”. He further explained that the “scientific approach as the adventurous
and yet critical temper of science, the search for truth and new knowledge, the
refusal to accept anything without testing and trial, the capacity to change
previous conclusions in the face of new evidence, the reliance on observed fact
and not on pre-conceived theory, the hard discipline of the mind — all this is
necessary, not merely for the application of science but for life itself and the
solution of its many problems.”
Fig. 3.2: Attributes of Scientific Temper
Let us discuss these attributes in brief; it will help you to develop a clear
understanding.
Critical thinking
It is the ability to analyse our experiences and review our actions through reflecting
on them. It requires an abstract thinking to reflect on our actions. We use critical
thinking to evaluate whether something is adequate, correct, useful or desirable.
You can nurture critical thinking among your learners by encouraging them to
review their work for further improvement. You should discuss with them about
the failures or mistakes in previous work. Also, discuss the alternate ways of
approaching a given problem if one doesn’t seem working. It is better if you ask
open ended questions to encourage your learners to analyze the information and
critically think on the various aspects of a given problem or experience.
59
Understanding Science Logical thinking
It requires thinking with logical reasoning. Logical thinking is the essence of
having scientific temper as it makes you focus on your observations and organize
them carefully through reasoning before arriving at any conclusion. You should
give enough opportunities to your learners to reason out their observations.
Learners start looking for patterns in terms of cause and effects before concluding
once they start developing logical thinking.
Respect for evidence

Any judgment or conclusion in science should be based on suitable evidences.
In case, there are not enough evidences to support a conclusion, it cannot be
treated as valid scientific idea. Similarly, if there are evidences contradicting
some idea, then there should be willingness to change the idea itself in the light
of convincing evidences. You should help learners to collect evidences for
verifying and testing their ideas about any object or event and adequately help
them learn how to confront ideas with evidences.
Objectivity
This is referred to the ability of looking at things without preconceived notions,
prejudices or subjective biases. Objectivity will also help in developing respect
for evidences, since an objective person will only rely on unbiased evidences. If
somebody sets for a scientific enquiry with some preconceived notions in mind
then there are obvious chances to obtain biased results. It is better if you help
your learners learn to accept any idea only after testing and verifying it against
sufficient number of evidences.
Open-mindedness
An open-minded person listens to others and is willing to change her/his mind if
warranted. Scientific temper demands that the person should be open-minded
and flexible in her/his approach. The person is required to evaluate all
observations, inferences and explanations carefully; and then accept the ones
which are consistent with the evidences and offers best possible explanation of
the phenomenon. Open-minded person will accept a new theoretical framework,
model or paradigm over the other when she/he identifies the inconsistencies in
the existing theories or the ways of approaching and explaining a phenomenon.
You can help your learners to become open-minded by letting them share their
viewpoints with each other and evaluate them collectively. They should be helped
to show respect for best explanations and review their own conclusions if found
inconsistent with the upcoming observations/evidences.
Honesty in reporting observations

Sometimes you may find learners faking their observations and manipulating
their results while performing a given experiment. Have you thought about the
reason for which they do so? Answer is simple, that we never emphasize on
doing science experiments without fear of verifying or proving something right.
Why should the learners feel pressure of coming out with ‘correct’ results while
performing science experiments? Think of its impact on humanity if scientists
also start doing same in their investigations. Can we really afford its outcomes?
The answer is ‘No’ obviously. Then it is your duty as a science teacher to imbibe
the habit of carrying out a science experiment honestly and report the actual
60
results. Focus should be more on processes rather than the results of inquiry. Process Skills in Science
Deviations or discrepancies in the results are obvious but learners should not be
penalised for it. Rather, you should help them think of the possible reasons for
deviations in results obtained.
Scepticism
It is the ability to question accepted beliefs, ideas or facts prevalent in society on
the basis of scientific reasoning or investigations. You should help your learners
to develop this attitude of questioning widely accepted superstitions and myths
in our society in the name of religion, culture, magic and so on. It is better if you
give lot of space in your science classes about discussing such non-scientific
ideas and beliefs to help learners develop into logical and rational thinker.
Perseverance
It is the ability to carry out something with sustained and persistent efforts. History
makes it evident that lots of scientific inventions were the results of persistent
efforts of scientists and for some it took their lifetime even. You must help your
learners to accept their failures, learn from them and motivate for further trials.
Activity 6
Maintain a journal on “Major inventions in science”. Search for the scientists
and the stories behind those inventions from books, newspapers and internet
resources. Reflect on the attributes of scientific attitude and temper that were
evident in each story.
You must have understood that developing scientifically is basically acquiring

positive scientific attitudes. Since, attitudes influence the way people respond to
anything, therefore a child with a positive scientific attitude will perceive science
objects, content, activities, people, etc. positively. You cannot expect your learners
to develop these qualities overnight. The scientific attitude is nurtured over a
period of time resulting through a consistent engagement with relevant learning
activities; like performing various experiments, asking questions, reading
scientific literature, and making science learning more inquiry oriented.
Check Your Progress

4) What are the major attributes of scientific attitude?
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61
3.5 NURTURING AESTHETIC SENSE AND
CURIOSITY
A learner of science needs to have ‘aesthetic sense’ that enables her/him to
appreciate beauty of nature and ‘curiosity’ to understand natural phenomenon
that further motivates her/him to reveal mysteries of nature. Aesthetic sense is
concerned with the creation of something as well as ability to identify harmony,
regularity and patterns in the objects or events. We learn so many laws and theories
in science which indicate scientists’ constant quest for searching harmony, order
or regularity in nature and natural phenomenon. Be it Newton, Mendel or Darwin,
everyone had that aesthetic sense and hence was able to come up with theories to
explain that beauty of nature’s creation.
Since scientists possess an aesthetic sense to appreciate creation of nature and

natural phenomenon, therefore, they are able to identify and theorize about them.
Aesthetic sense in science provides you a different lens to look at nature and
natural phenomenon. Famous physicist Richard Feynman once quoted-
‘The world looks so different after learning science. For example, trees
are made of air, primarily. When they are burned, they go back to air,
and in the flaming heat is released the flaming heat of the sun which
was bound in to convert the air into tree, and in the ash is the small
remnant of the part which did not come from air, that came from the
solid earth, instead…These are beautiful things, and the content of
science is wonderfully full of them. They are very inspiring, and they
can be used to inspire others.’
Hence, the aesthetics and sense of wonder is significant for science learning.
You should be able to infuse this ability among your learners. You must encourage
them to read historical accounts of scientists and help your learners to appreciate
the aesthetic sense reflected in their work. While creating science models, toys
and gadgets to understand applications of science concepts, learners also derive
joy and satisfaction from their work. Such opportunities should be continuously
given to learners by you to nurture aesthetic sense among them.
Curiosity is another significant feature of scientists which drives them to solve

mysteries of the natural world. Similarly, learners are also curious to know
different things happening in their surroundings. You must have often found
learners engaged in exploring their environment and questioning ‘what’ and ‘why’
about it. Those teachers, who discourage learner’s questions in her/his class,
will eventually suppress their natural curiosity to know about their environment.
You must encourage them to put up their questions in class and help them to
inquire to find out their answers themselves. You should set up the enabling and
learner friendly environment in your regular classroom to nurture their curiosity.
Also, you should ensure designing your teaching activities to arouse learners’
curiosity in science. Organizing science fairs and science quizzes, taking them
to field visits, showing science movies/documentaries, visit to science centres
and exhibitions, talks with science experts and giving science literature including
books, magazines and newspapers, etc. are few strategies that you can employ to
nurture your learners’ curiosity in science.
62
Activity 7
While teaching a science unit, ask your learners to evolve a list of different
questions out of curiosity that come to their mind related to that unit. You
can paste a chart on a wall of your classroom where each of them can write
and read everyone’s question. Discuss their questions after completion of
the unit and encourage them to investigate for the answers through devising
appropriate strategies. You can ask them to take up small investigatory
projects to be done in small groups. Mentor their investigations and help
them share and appreciate the findings.
Check Your Progress

5) Why should we nurture curiosity of learners while teaching science?
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3.6 INTERDEPENDENCE OF DIFFERENT

ASPECTS OF NATURE OF SCIENCE
You might remember the three major aspects of nature of science we mentioned
in first unit i.e., scientific knowledge, science processes and scientific attitude.
Science can’t be defined in the absence of any of these aspects as they are very
much interdependent on each other. Scientific knowledge is acquired through
science processes and scientific attitude is necessary to deal with the content and
processes of science. Similarly, learning of science helps in development of certain
kind of scientific attitude and temper that helps learners to deal with their
environment more logically and sensibly.
Traditional science classrooms where the focus is only on memorizing scientific
laws, theories, facts and concepts don’t allow learners to acquire science processes
skills and don’t even lead to nurture scientific temper among learners. They
never learn the way a scientist would have approached the problem and inquired
into it. They receive all scientific knowledge in readymade form and memorize
it to clear school examinations only. Would it be called true science education
that you are supposed to provide your learners? Leave aside the science concepts,
would you expect those learners to critically think over everyday matters and
resolve their daily life issues rationally? By the end of this unit, you must be
agreeing that learning science in school should not just keep limited to ‘scientific
knowledge’ which is anyway tentative in nature. Rather, the focus of our science
teaching should be to enable learners “do” science like scientists would do and
“think” like scientists would think. In short, a learner in science must acquire all
of the aspects of science to understand science in its true nature. 63
3.7 LET US SUM UP
This unit has brought to light the different aspects of nature of science that are
necessary to be developed among learners apart from the content knowledge in
science. You have learnt about important objectives of teaching science that
emphasize on nurturing aesthetic sense, curiosity, scientific attitude and scientific
temper among learners. Development of process skills among learners is all the
more necessary to help them explore and understand their own environment. All
these aspects of science are important to be focused while teachings science and
you need to be strategic enough to provide ample opportunities to your learners
for the same.

1) Why is it more important to emphasize development of processes than the
content in school science?
2) Collect news reports on recent researches taking place in field of science.
Discuss few of them in your science class and help learners appreciate the
way scientists have identified and approached the given problem.
3) Suggest the ways you nurture aesthetic sense and curiosity among your
learners through teaching concepts of ‘heredity and evolution’.
4) Plan minimum four different teaching activities for class IX learners from a
unit to nurture different process skills in science. Clearly state expected
skills to be nurtured through each of those activities in terms of process
skill based objectives.

• Abruscato, J. (2004). Teaching Learners Science: A Discovery Approach.
USA: Allyn and Bacon.
• Collette, A. T. &Chiappetta, E.L.(Eds) (1994). Science instruction in the
middle and secondary schools (3rd Ed). New York: Macmillan Publishing
Company.
• Martin, D.J. (2012). Elementary science methods: a constructivist approach,
USA: Wadsworth.
• Martin, R. et.al. (1998). Science for all learners: methods for constructing
understanding, USA: Allyn and Bacon.
• Shirali, S. (2008). Aesthetics and the sense of wonder in the teaching of
science and mathematics, Journal of the Krishnamurti Schools, 12, 11-22.
• Tyagi, B.K. (2014). Fostering scientific temper, VIPNET News, 12 (2), 1-3.
Retrieved from- http://www.vigyanprasar.gov.in/vipnet/february-2014/
Vipnet-february-2014.pdf.
• Wellington, J. J. (Ed.) (1989). Skills and processes in science education,
London & New York: Routledge.
64
1) Observing, Classifying, Communicating, Measuring, Predicting and Inferring
2) It is systematic.
Scientific languages are different in different areas.
Scientific communication varies keeping in mind the reader.
3) Answer on the basis on your understanding of section 3.3.1
4) Attributes of scientific attitude include- critical thinking, respect for evidence,
logical thinking, open mindedness, curiosity, truthfulness and honesty in
reporting observations, scepticism, perseverance, objectivity, creativity and
inventiveness, persistence, universalism and willingness to suspend judgment
unless having sufficient evidences.
5) Curiosity leads to the questions of ‘what’ and ‘why’ in the mind of learners.
In quest for searching answers to these questions, learners feel naturally
motivated and interested to learn science concepts. And, we know that
learners learn more easily if they are interested to learn. Science teacher
must take advantage of this natural curiosity among learners about their
world by engaging them in scientific processes and investigations.
65
UNIT 4 SCIENCE IN SCHOOL CURRICULUM
Structure
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Objectives
4.3 Historical Development of Science Education in India
4.3.1 Science Education during Ancient and Medieval Period
4.3.2 Science Education during Modern Period
4.3.3 Science Education after Independence
4.4 Teaching of Science as Recommended in National Curriculum Framework-2005
4.4.1. Recent Trends in Science Curriculum
4.4.2. Science Curriculum at Various Stages
4.5 Correlation of Science with other Subjects/Disciplines
4.5.1 Types of Correlation
4.6 Let Us Sum Up
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The National Curriculum Framework (NCF)-2005 provide sample scope for the
holistic development of the learners. The NCF-2005 curriculum recommends
various initiatives and approaches such as activity based learning, experiential
learning, collaborative learning and so on. Also, the present curricular framework
keeps learners as the key player of the teaching learning process. The present
day curriculum and syllabus of school education is based on the NCF-2005.
Keeping the relevance of NCF-2005, apart from discussing the various aspects
of NCF-2005 with regard to science curriculum, the present unit will also touch
upon the developmental stages of science education and changes in science
curriculum advocated by NCF-2005. As we know, science has correlation with
various other subjects like mathematics, social studies, art and music etc. Thus
the unit will also discuss the correlation of science with other subjects citing
different examples from secondary level.
4.2 OBJECTIVES
• explain the developmental stages of science education;
• describe various aspects of teaching science recommended in NCF-2005;
• discuss the recent changes in science curriculum
• explain the recent trends in science curriculum;
• differentiate curriculum of science at various stages; and
• explain correlation of science with other subjects.
66
Science in School Curriculum
4.3 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE
EDUCATION IN INDIA
The famous scientist, C.V. Raman once said, “There is only one solution for
India’s economic problems and that is science, more science and still more
science”. As we know, the progress of any country has a close relationship with
the development of science. Being a science teacher trainee, you should be familiar
with the development of science education. The history of science has begun
with the human existence i.e. homo sapiens have utilized basic knowledge of
science for their existence while Palaeolithic’s tried to construct boats and houses
apart from crude stone arms for hunting, which is recognised as a science activity.
With the advent of human civilisation, people started to live in groups and science
has influence on much of their activities. They also began to admire movement
of heavenly bodies, invented mechanisms to calculate time, involved in
metallurgical associated bustles, invented medicines and so on. During 600 B.C,
science had grown as a theoretical entity. Excavations of Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa
and Indus valley civilisations show the existence of town planning, drainage
system etc.which require scientific skills and techniques.Aryabhatta,
Brahmagupta, Bhsakara, Varahmihira, Atreya, Susruta, Charaka, contributed to
the field of Mathematics, Medicine and Surgery. Thus we may conclude that,
most of the ancient day activities involve various concepts and ideas of science.
Now we will briefly discuss the major developments in science education by

categorising into three periods’ such as ancient and medieval period, modern
period and period after independence.
4.3.1 Science Education during Ancient and Medieval Period

In India, there were tremendous developments in the fields like mathematics,
astronomy, medicine, architecture and agriculture till 600 A.D. The medicine
related knowledge was adapted from Rig-Veda (assumed to be written about
4000 years back), Vaisheskia (one of the Upanishads) discusses atom and
formation of world, Sankhya philosophy resembles Darwinism and the Upa-
Vedas discuss about various sciences. The ancient period followed a tradition of
decanting knowledge from Guru to their best disciples. The two prominent ancient
universities Taxila and Nalanda were emerged as part of the effort for
institutionalising education. Thereafter, the invaders from various parts of the
globe like west Asia and central Asia, played major role in nurturing science
education apart from Arabic, Turkish and Persian languages.
4.3.2 Science Education during Modern Period

During British, newer branch of science; Modern Science was also introduced
along with study of foreign language (English). In modern science, experiments
were given prominence for acquiring knowledge. But they limited science
education to the elite sections of the society. Thus the country couldn’t progress
in scientific and technological development and secured a low position compared
to western countries. During modern period, India followed the developmental
process of science of western countries.
67
Understanding Science 4.3.3 Science Education after Independence
The education system prevailing in the country was influenced by the England
education system; but science education was not given much importance. The
University Education Commission (1948), though primarily constituted for
suggesting recommendations on higher education, emphasised inclusion of
general science as a course in secondary level. The Secondary Education
Commission (1953) advocated science subject, compulsory at both middle and
secondary level and diversification of science subjects at senior secondary level.
The All India Seminar on the teaching of science (1956) held at Tara Devi (Simla
Hills) discussed the probable difficulties of incorporating science at senior
secondary level and recommended a unique and uniform system of teaching
science across the country. Under the chairmanship of late Shri Lal Bahadur
Shastri, the Indian Parliamentary and Scientific Committee was set up in 1961
to study the problems of “Science Education in Schools”. In the 1963, the USSR
experts of UNESCO planning Mission, visited India and suggestive measures
were recommended to improve Science and Mathematics education. As a result,
the Department of Science Education started pilot projects in preparing new text
books and associated materials. The project was experimented in 20 schools in
Delhi.
Thereafter, Indian Education Commission (1964-66) recommended the following
measures for the improvement of science education;
• Science and Mathematics to be made compulsory subject during first ten
years of schooling
• Teaching is to be related with agriculture in rural areas and technology in
urban areas
• In lower classes, science should be taught by correlating it with environment.
• At higher classes, disciplinary approach is to be implemented
• Investigatory approach of teaching is advocated
• Science corner in lower classes and laboratory-cum-lecture room in higher
classes should be created
Then, based on the recommendations of Indian Education Commission, the
Ministry of Education and Social Welfare set up a committee to develop
curriculum for 10+2 pattern and NCERT developed a document titled “The
Curriculum for the Ten-Year School –A Frame work”. NCERT also prepared
syllabi and textbooks whichwere adopted by CBSE. But the textbooks have
invited lots of criticism for its theory dominated structure and limited scope for
experimental activities. To review the same, Ishwarbhai Patel Committee was
appointed in 1977. After that, based on the recommendations of Education Policy
(1968), NCF-1975 was developed. Then NCF 1988 was developed based on the
recommendations of Education Policy (1986) and was revised which resulted in
NCF-2000. In 2005, the National Curriculum Framework was put into practice
across the country. Based on NCF-2005, many state governments developed
state-wise curricular framework and the same is being followed till today. In
2014, the central government appointed a committee to draft new National
Educational Policy. The major recommendations of various NCFs have been
discussed in the coming sections of this unit.
68
Check Your Progress
1) Discuss the major developments in science education after
independence?
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4.4 TEACHING OF SCIENCE AS RECOMMENDED

IN NATIONAL CURRICULUM FRAMEWORK-
2005
Until 1976, Indian constitution allowed state governments to take decisions on
matters related to education and centre could only provide suggestions on policy
issues. At the same time, the National Education Policy (1968) entrusted NCERT
to develop Curriculum Framework and accordingly National Curriculum
Framework-1975 was developed. In the year 1976, constitution amended to
include education in concurrent list and as a result, for the first time, the country
could evolve a National Policy on Education in 1986. NCERT was entrusted to
develop curriculum framework. It was recommended that the curriculum should
have a core component to be followed across the country. Thereafter, National
Curriculum Framework for School Education (1988), Learning without Burden
(1993) recommended various suggestions to improve school education. NCERT
developednew National Curriculum Framework in the year 2005. The following
aspects related to science education have been discussed in NCF-2005:
Criteria of Ideal Science Curriculum: What is the ‘nature of science’? As we

know, the physical world is explored and understood with the help of science.
The facts, principles and theories of science are used to explain the physical
world. It is a fact that, science is an ever-expanding knowledge sphere; many of
the established universal laws are subject to change based on new observations
and experiments. Even then, it is concluded that, science in general is used to
explain the environmental phenomenon and physical world around us. Science
is also equated to technology; technology employs the various principles of
science. The relation between ‘nature of science’ and technology help us in
formulating the ‘vision of science education’. According to NCF-2005, good
science education is one that is true to learner, true to life and true to science.
Thus science education is intended to meet following criteria (validity) and science
curriculum should adhere to it.
• Cognitive validity requires that the content, process, language and

pedagogical practices of the curriculum are age appropriate, and within the
cognitive reach of the learner (NCF-2005). For example, the basic concepts
69
Understanding Science of electromagnetic induction have to be taught before introducing the electric
generator.
• Content validity requires that the curriculum must convey significant and
correct scientific and correct information. Simplification of content, which
is necessary for adapting the curriculum to the cognitive level of the learner,
must not be so trivialised as to convey something basically flawed and/or
meaningless(NCF-2005). What does it mean? The content transacted in the
curriculum should be significant and scientifically accurate. We teach
periodic table to learners just as an arrangement of elements. But it is
meaningless until you expose learners to the scientific basis of ordering
elements based on the atomic number (number of protons), electron
configuration, chemical properties, etc. Many more logical factors contribute
to the arrangement of elements in the periodic table and that must be
convinced.
• Process validity requires that the curriculum should engage learners in

acquiring the methods and processes that lead to the generation and validation
of scientific knowledge and nurture the natural curiosity and creativity of
the learner in science. Process validity is an important criterion since it
helps the learner in ‘leaning to learn’ science (NCF-2005). The curriculum
should engage learners in activities and experiments focusing the theory
“learning to learn” and thereby developing the cognitive skills, curiosity,
creativity and scientific knowledge. For example, chemical reaction is a
topic to be taught by demonstrating. At the same time learners need
opportunities to experience it. Thus the processes in science must be
demonstrated and experimented.
• Historical validity requires that the science curriculum be informed by a

historical perspective, enabling the learner to appreciate how the concepts
of science evolve over time. It also helps the learner to view science as a
social enterprise and to understand how social factors influence the
development of science (NCF-2005). The knowledge that, science and
scientific knowledge has historical evidence regarding its development and
curriculum should emphasise it. The efforts of scientists must be appreciated
by learners and they themselves have to emerge as scientists. For example,
while you teach different branches of science, you may explain the history
behind it.
• Environmental validity requires that science be placed in the wider context

of the learners environment, local and global, enabling him/her to appreciate,
the issues at the interface of science, technology and society, and equipping
him/her with the requisite knowledge and skills to enter the world of work
(NCF-2005). Science, technology and society are closely interrelated. The
growth and progress of science and technology should benefit each other.
The curricular learning experiences should relate to learners’environment.
For example, learners study the concept of ‘cell’ but they are less concerned
about faulty batteries. People throw away obsolete batteries which has
harmful effects to both environment and human life as it contains harmful
chemicals. Thus, while teaching science the interrelationship among various
components must be taught.
70
• Ethical validity requires that the curriculum promote the values of honesty, Science in School Curriculum
objectivity, cooperation, and freedom from fear and prejudice, and inculcate
in the learner a concern for life and preservation of the environment (NCF-
2005). For example while teaching the concept ‘nuclear bomb’; teachers
must be able to develop qualities like empathy, sympathy, etc. in learners.
Science Curriculum at Different Stages: While developing the curriculum of

various stages; the factors such as ‘general aims and objectives of science
education’, content, pedagogical practices and mode of assessment must be
considered. The various curricular activities recommended for primary, upper
primary, secondary and senior secondary stages in the NCF-2005 are discussed
in section 4.4.2.
Development of Inventiveness and Creativity: One of the major objectives of

teaching science is to develop among the learners the spirit of inquiry and
creativity. Hence, NCF-2005 recommends the following;
• Engage learners in learning activities, science fairs, experiments and
projectwork, learners’ science congress, co-curricular activities etc. to
promote curiosity, inquisitiveness and creativity.
• Organise science and technology fairs at local, district, state and national
level with coordinated effort of national and state level agencies, non-
governmental organisations and teacher associations.
• Develop experimental and technological modules along with text books
and develop internal assessment mechanisms for evaluation.
Textbooks: Textbooks are the core medium of transacting curriculum and thus
the following points must be taken into consideration;
• Promote extensive use of textbooks among learners and teachers. This also
calls for universalisation of science education.
• Incorporate diverse learning activities in the textbooks. The field experiences
of teachers must be considered while writing textbooks. Also ensure the
participation of teachers, state and national agencies during preparation of
textbooks.
Examination System: Learners are to be assessed at various stages of learning
to ensure the attainment of educational objectives. The following assessment
reforms are recommended in the NCF-2005;
• Internal assessment must be practised for experiments, learning activities
and technological modules even for secondary and senior secondary board
examinations.
• The theoretical examination should include questions to test critical
understanding, experimental skills, enquiry procedures and competency to
solve problems.
• To reduce stress, learners must have freedom to attend examinations at their
own choice and time and the credits could be accumulated.
Teacher Empowerment: The future teachers are trained and shaped at the teacher
education institutions. The quality of learner-teachers depends on the quality of
teachers by whom they are trained. In such a scenario, the following are
recommended for teacher education institutions; 71
Understanding Science • The teacher training practices requires a complete overhaul in training
programme, pedagogic practices, curriculum and training of science teachers.
Future science teachers must be oriented and given training in skills and
competencies in science teaching.
• Teachers who have school teaching experience must be appointed as science
teacher educators. Recruitment modalities must be modified to appoint
qualified teachers.
• Qualified and trained teachers must be attracted and appointed at various
levels of schooling. Academic autonomy could be provided to maintain the
quality of teaching.
• Implement measures to practice peer interaction among teachers and
exchange of teachers within and outside schools may be promoted.
• Discourage the practice of entrusting teachers with extracurricular duties,
reward and honour best practising teachers with incentives and promotional
schemes.
Equity: The disparity among poor and rich, caste inequalities, regional
indifferences, etc. hinders the economic and cultural development. Each school
subject should prepare learners fight against such anomalies. The following are
suggested to maintain the equality and removal of discrepancies;
• Use science education as an instrument to build awareness and removal of
caste issues, religious problems, gender divide, etc. This removes social –
economic divide and bring in social transformation among people.
• Even though curriculum is context focused, it should provide scope to respect
individual and diverse life styles.
• Implement suitable measures to sensitise teachers for a gender fair science
education, both at pre-service and in-service stages.
• Use of ICT as a medium to promote science education and to reach the
weaker and rural sections of the society thereby eliminating social divide of
deprivation of education.
Activities
1) Compare the NCF-2000 and NCF-2005 and critically analyse the
recommendations made on science teaching.
2) Collect views of your fellow teacher trainees about NCF-2005 and
prepare a report.
Check Your Progress

2) “According to NCF 2005, the science curriculum should meet different
criteria (validity)”. Discuss the statement.
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72
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3) Discuss the recommendations of NCF-2005 made on teacher
empowerment.
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4.4.1 Recent Trend in Science Curriculum

Today scienceis taught as ‘integrated science’ in secondary classes while at senior
secondary level learners study science as disciplines such as physics, chemistry
and biology. The syllabus at secondary level focus on themes like Food materials,
The world of living , Moving Things, People and Ideas and Natural resources,
etc. But disciplinary approach is followed at senior secondary classes. As we
know, a variety of changes has been brought in school curriculum from time to
time as result of various education policies and curricular frame works such as
National Education Policy (1975), National Curriculum Framework (1975),
National Policy on Education (1986), National Curriculum Framework (1988),
and National Curriculum Framework (2000 and 2005).
The NCF of 1975 recommended 10+2 pattern of school education with general
education of 10 years; science as a core subject as activity based integrated subject
till class X. The National Curriculum for Elementary and Secondary Education
(NCESE) of 1988 also suggested general science as a core subject up to class X.
The curriculum should be ‘learner centred’ aiming to develop abilities in cognitive,
affective and psychomotor domain of the learners. The learning of science at
secondary stage should help learners to develop the skills of problem solving
and decision making along with comprehension of key concepts across various
disciplines. The National Curriculum Framework for school Education (NCFSE),
2000 recommended teaching of science and technology in classes VI to X as
single disciplines and disciplinary approach in senior secondary level. NCFSE
also suggested to include ‘technology; in science courses as technology has
influence on life in varied ways.
The committee constituted to outline National Curriculum Framework-2005

remarks on science education “looking at the complex scenario of education in
India, three issues stand out unmistakably. First, science education is still far
from achieving the goal of equity enshrined in our constitution. Second, science
education in India, even at its best, develops competence but does not encourage
inventiveness and creativity. Third, the overpowering examination system is basic
to most, if not all, the fundamental problems of science education in India”. The
committee recommended various suggestions on science curriculum, pedagogy,
content, examination, teacher training processes, etc. NCF-2005 reinstates the
recommendations of NPE 1986; curriculum should have a common core and
other components that are flexible. The following are the recommendations
related to science education outlined in the NCF-2005.
73
Understanding Science Constructivist Approach of Learning: The NCF-2005 places learners at the
centre of teaching –learning process. NCF remarks, the knowledge construction
is an evolving process and learners constantly develop knowledge by actively
participating and utilizing his/her previous experiences. The active participation
of the learners in the teaching-learning process is a prerequisite for the construction
of knowledge. Thus the ‘constructivist approach’ of learning is emphasised by
NCF-2005.
Learner Centred Syllabus: The information load in syllabus is reduced by

considering the report ‘Learning without Burden’ and thus age appropriate
concepts are included in the syllabus. ‘Learner Centred’ syllabus has been
recommended that would enable learners to develop problem solving skills,
curiosity, inquisitiveness, etc. Food and Nutrition, Health, Population, Agriculture,
Environmental Protection forms the essential components of syllabus. The Learner
is expected to develop skills in process of science rather than acquaintance with
content of science.
Pedagogical Shift: Pedagogy deals with strategies and practices concerning

organisation of teaching learning activities in a classroom. The NCF-2005 has
recommended extensive changes in various pedagogical aspects. Acquisition of
knowledge by the learners is replaced with the approach of construction of
knowledge by the learners themselves. While planning teaching-learning
activities, the teacher has to consider the existing ideas of the leaner and must
facilitate, guide and support learners to construct new knowledge. In such
classrooms, learners are the key players and such pedagogy is called ‘learner
centred pedagogy’. Learner centred pedagogy is recommended by NCF-2005.
Thus the teaching centred classrooms have been shifted to learner centred
classrooms.
Assessment Mechanisms: The assessment of learners should include multiple

assessment strategies like assessing learning activities, experiments, portfolios,
presentations, project work, assignments, self-evaluation etc. The understanding
and application level of learners must be assessed in place of testing the rote
memorisation capabilities. The examination stress is reduced by implementing
continuous and comprehensive examination (CCE). Continuous refer to
assessment of learners throughout the academic year and comprehensive means
assessment of overall aspects of learners including curricular, co-curricular and
personality attributes.
Critical Pedagogy: NCF -2005 recommends sense of democracy in science

learning through the critical pedagogy approach. Critical pedagogy is a learner
centred pedagogy that considers the experience and perception of learners in the
teaching-learning process thereby making learning fear free and independent for
the learner. As we know, learners were considered empty slates to which the
teacher was pouring factual informations. But today, the knowledge given by the
teacher is critically analysed and learners construct their own knowledge. Teacher
has to motivate and facilitate learners to construct knowledge in a democratic
way.
Scientific Method and Scientific Inquiry: The learners must be engaged in

challenging situations so as to develop the skill of inquiry and to arrive at
reasonable answers employing scientific method. As learners explore answers to
74
problems, skills like observation, hypothesising, data collection, etc. are developed Science in School Curriculum
among them. Also the experience with problem solving situations helps learners
to explore the world around them. Thus NCF-2005 advocates experiential
learning in science classrooms.
Diversity, Inclusion and Planning Teaching Learning Activities: The

classroom normally consists of learners having multiple skills, intelligence levels
and learning styles. Also there are learners from different castes, religion,
backward classes; learners with learning disabilities and learners who need special
assistance. Since the classroom being diverse in nature, the teacher must plan
teaching learning activities that suits the individual needs of the learners and
promote meaningful learning of science
Use of Textbooks and Learning Materials: Textbooks function as an important

resource for knowledge construction. Textbooks should not be loaded with factual
information’s rather should provide learners challenging situations to actively
engage in learning processes and construction of knowledge. So textbooks and
other learning materials should be used.
Different Approaches and Strategies of Learning: The NCF-2005 recommends

different approaches and strategies for transaction of the curricular content to
learners. The approach and strategies includes constructivist approach, 5E learning
model, collaborative learning approach, problem solving approach, concept
mapping, experiential learning, inquiry approach, cognitive conflict, analogy
strategy, etc.
Use of Information and Communication Technology: Extensive use of various

ICT resources and e-learning applications are advocated as a supplement of
teaching-learning processes.
Check Your Progress

4) Discuss the recommendations of various NCFs on science curriculum.
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5) Explain relevance of ‘critical pedagogy’ in learning of learners.
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Activity
3) How will you ensure the learning needs of learners in an inclusive science
classroom? Suggest different approaches/strategies and prepare a report.
4.4.2 Science Curriculum at Various Stages

We have discussed the ‘criteria of validity’ of science curriculum, which forms
the basis of curriculum of science at various stages of schooling. A brief discussion
of curriculum at various stages is given below:
Primary Stage (Classes I to V): The curriculum of science at primary stage

should focus on the following aspects:
Ø To develop cognitive and psychomotor skills by engaging and exploring

nature, natural phenomena, hands-own activities, etc. This promotes the
curiosity among learners as they slot in observation, classification, drawing
inference, judging situation, estimation and measurements
Ø To help learners to internalise human values, cleanliness, honesty, cooperation,

truth, hygiene, social interaction, concern for life and environment, etc. Group
activities, situations to engage in activities outside classroom, opportunity
to interact with nature, plays, etc. is to be promoted.
Ø Primary stage emphasises language skills (3RC’s-Reading, Writing,

Speaking) through science learning, as one of the ways. Care should be
taken to transact teaching content in local language/mother tongue. The
teaching learning process must be unstructured giving freedom to teacher
to organise learning activities and accomplishment of overall objectives at
primary stage.
Ø The practice of teaching science as “Environmental Studies” is to be

continued but health education should find a prominent space. The criteria
for selection of content should be meaningful, relevant and according to the
interest of the learners.
Ø Even though teaching learning is unstructured, from class III onwards, a

structured way is advocated and assessment should be continuous. Up to
class II, formal assessment practice is not to be practiced. Formal periodic
tests, judging based on grades are to be avoided and no pass or fail system
is to be followed at the primary stage (Source: NCF-2005).
Upper Primary Stage (Classes V to VIII): The curriculum of science at upper

primary stage should focus on the following aspects:
Ø Learners have opportunity to explore various elements of science and starts
making sense of science in daily experiences and thus science education
transit from environmental studies to elements of science and technology at
the upper primary stage. Learners recognize science concepts through hands-
own activities and experiments, even then not necessary to strictly follow
the inductive approach of inquiry.
Ø The integrated approach of teaching is followed emphasising teaching
science as a single subject. Emphasise teaching biographies of scientists
76
and inventors to inspire learners and implement experiences to acquire Science in School Curriculum
different process skills. Apart from textbook knowledge, create opportunities
to explore, discuss, and debate environmental issues, problems of health,
drug related matters, etc.
Ø The problems that learners sense meaningful and significant (arrived through
discussions in the classrooms in the presence of teacher, communication
with elders, from newspapers, etc.) must be tested and experimented apart
from simple experiments and hands-own activities.
Ø The practice of pass and fail and no detention policy to be avoided but steps
may be implemented to organise periodic assessment of learners through
unit tests, term tests, etc. The weightage on annual examination should be
reduced and external examination must be discarded.
Ø The in-service teachers should prepare question papers that assess
learners’problem solving skills, data analysing skills, application of learned
knowledge in various situations, solving numerical problems, etc. The tests
should have both written and experimental components and open book
examination may be promoted to think beyond mere recalling conceptual
knowledge(Source: NCF-2005).
Secondary Stage (Classes IX and X): The curriculum of science at secondary

stage should focus on the following aspects:
Ø Disciplinary approach(such as physics, chemistry and biology) is to be
followed at secondary stage. In addition to learning definitions of science,
teaching is bestowed with focus on comprehension and attainment of higher
skills.
Ø Together with recognising theoretical knowledge, occasions are to be
organised to experiment the same and project methods also may be
emphasised. The curriculum should not be overloaded with teaching
contents.
Ø The participation of learners in co-curricular activities is promoted by
involving them in projects concerning local issues, environmental concerns,
etc.
Ø The board examination should include questions that test the experimental
knowledge and skills of learners(Source: NCF-2005).
Higher Secondary Stage (Classes XI to XII): The curriculum of science at
higher secondary stage should focus on the following aspects:
Ø The option of either academic or vocational streams recommended by the
NPE, 1986 may be reviewed to give chance to learners to select subjects of
their interest and choice.
Ø The disciplinary approach of teaching may be followed with syllabus having
gradual and steady flow of contents from that of secondary stage emphasising
experiments, investigatory projects and technology. Nevertheless the syllabus
should not be overloaded.
Ø The contents should be selected keeping in view the competence of learners,
depth of the content, delimitations, etc. But core areas must be included.
The contents must be systematically organised.
77
Understanding Science Ø The theoretical aspects of syllabus should emphasize conceptual
understanding, problem solving skills, and critical enquiry. Opportunities
must be provided to test the theories with scope to interpret, hypothesise
and develop results.
Ø To develop awareness and impact of environmental concerns, microchemistry
as a means for experimentation may be thought of as a branch of chemistry
and biology. Similarly use of micro chemical techniques may be promoted.
Ø Learners may be encouraged to participate in co-curricular activities such
as debates, discussions, mathematics and science Olympiads, informal
project works, etc. But it should not be considered for formal assessment.
Ø Periodic assessment in curricular activities must be practiced to reduce the
stress of annual examinations. The tests should contain questions to check
experimental/technology skills of the learners. ICT must be widely used in
whatever possible means to arouse enthusiasm and interest of
learners(Source: NCF-2005).
Activities
4) Organise a debate on the topic “employing ICT for teaching-learning at
higher secondary level”. Prepare the list of advantages and disadvantages.
5) Conduct an action research to find the difficulties of teachers in
organising classrooms based on collaborative learning approach. Prepare
a report on it.
Check Your Progress

6) Discuss the science curriculum recommended by NCF-2005 for higher
secondary stage? How it is different from secondary science curriculum?
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4.5 CORRELATION OF SCIENCE WITH OTHER

SUBJECTS/DISCIPLINES
As we know teaching is an art that encompasses various skills and competencies.
It requires expertise of teaching skills and knowledge in other subjects. A
successful teacher would be able to integrate information scattered around in
various subjects. This is the base of integrated teaching. Being a teacher trainee,
you must be acquainted with correlation of science with other subjects for planning
effective pedagogic strategies. Let us now discuss the correlation of science.
78
4.5.1 Types of Correlation Science in School Curriculum
Correlation of science is considered in three ways as given below:

• Correlation with daily life or environment
• Correlation within different branches of science
• Correlation with other subjects
Correlation with daily life or environment: In everyday life we utilize various
objects, articles, instruments, machines and so on. Have our learners ever thought
where such instruments or objects come from? If you ask a secondary learner,
how does pressure cooker work or can he explain the chemical reactions of battery
used in torches? Probably few may answer. The interesting fact is, we do come
across different science related objects and phenomena in our daily life but learners
rarely notice science behind it. For example, when a stick is put in a glass tumbler
filled with water, it seems bent; the stars twinkle, etc. are the result of the particular
phenomena associated with light, called refraction. The water we use is formed
by combining the elements hydrogen and oxygen in a particular proportion. Thus,
in many of our daily life activities/environment the presence of science is found.
Thus teachers should try to transact teaching concepts by correlating science
with day to day activities.
Correlation within different branches of science: Life science, zoology, botany,

physics, chemistry, physiology, agriculture, geology are the different branches
of science. Are these branches correlated? Can we say chemistry is not involved
in physics or vice versa? Of course not! Each branch of science is related. For
example, while we study osmosis (Spontaneous net movement of water across a
semi permeable membrane from a region of low solute concentration to a more
concentrated solution) in biology, the concept of both physics and chemistry
comes in. The composition of water is studied in chemistry and movement of
particles in physics. Similarly, the concept related to eye is studied with the help
of lenses explained in physics. Thus it is a fact that, knowledge is not separate
rather it must be taught as unified entity. It is to be kept in mind that, subjects
cannot be taught in isolation but through integrated approach.
Correlation with other subjects: Teaching can be made more meaningful as you
understand the correlation of science with other subjects. Here in this section,
we will discuss the correlation of science with other subjects separately.
Correlation of Science with Mathematics:Science and mathematics is closely

related and thus we say science is incomplete without mathematics. In every
branch of science mathematics occur in one way or the other in the form of
numerals, symbols, formula, computations, etc. For example in physics, the topics
like gravitation, motion, energy and power, heat and thermodynamics, waves
and oscillations, electricity, magnetism, electric current, optics etc. employ
mathematical symbols and calculations. In chemistry, structure of atoms, the
laws of chemical combination, elements and compounds make use of mathematics
equations, combinations and proportions. In biology and life sciences a large
number topics uses the principles of mathematics. For example, the arrangement
of human body structure, measurement of blood pressure and temperature involves
mathematics.
79
Understanding Science Correlation of Science with Social Studies: Social Studies are concerned about
historical events and happenings. Each discovery has a historical background.
But such stories are not paid explained in science classrooms. For example, the
stories of great scientists like Galileo, Pascal, Celsius, James Watt, Faraday,
Alexander Fleming, A.P.J. Abdul Kalam, C.V Raman, etc are unknown to learners.
The pain and struggle that the scientists put in to discover innovative theories/
machines has to reach the learners to develop a sense of inquiry and motivation
to pursue science. In geography, the evolution of different rocks and soils,
movement of heavenly bodies, change of seasons, phenomena like earthquakes,
landslides, eclipses, etc. are all related to science.
Correlation of Science with Language: The recent NCTE norms and standards
on teacher education (2014) emphasize “language across the curriculum” with
the view that language has importance in each subject. The theories and principles
of science, discovered after series of experiments must be expressed in a language
understandable to lay man/learner. Similarly, the same must be disseminated
and propagated for the betterment of the country and to develop a civilized society.
Thus language finds application at many places. The expressions, symbols,
formulas, theories, etc. that appear in every branch of science utilize language to
express it.
Correlation of Science with Art: Science and art are complimentary to each
other. How is it so? A science teacher , while drawing diagrams, charts, pictures
on the black board during teaching, need to know the basic skills of drawing
such as orientation of the figure, measurements, color combinations and so on.
At the same time, a professional artist has to have basic knowledge of length,
angle, 2D and 3D images etc. to draw a picture. The same is the case with
handcrafters, designers, beauticians, etc. In the case of musicians, they play
attractive music with the help of principles of sound and waves learnt in physics
and musical instrumentalist create beautiful rhythms applying the same principle.
Check Your Progress

7) What are the types of correlations in science? Describe with examples.
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8) How is science correlated with life and environment? Give examples.
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80
4.6 LET US SUM UP
Present unit has discussed about the stages of development of science education
in India. Discussion on place of Science in our ancient literature will help you in
developing a sense of pride among your learners towards rich Indian Scientific
contribution. Unit has explained in details about various aspects of teaching
science suggested in National Curriculum Framework- 2005. The issues of present
days’ science education and common perceptions about present science curricula
have been discussed at length, which will help you in overcoming the shortcoming
and facilitating for motivating the learners towards science. The Science
curriculum at different stages will help you in understanding the linear, spiral
and thematic approach, which all are adopted in designing Science curriculum.
You will able to help your learners in identifying the correlation of science with
other subjects also.

1) Analyse the major curricular reforms made on science curriculum since
National Curriculum Framework-1975 and prepare a report of it.
2) Critically examine the recommendations of National Curriculum
Framework-2005 on science curriculum of secondary stages.
3) How will you teach science by integrating it with art at higher secondary
level? Describe with examples.
4) Discuss the role of teacher in classrooms that follow constructivist approach
of teaching-learning.
5) How far the recommendations of NCF-2005 have been implemented?
Discuss.

Sharma, R.C.(2000). Modern science teaching. New Delhi: Dhanpat Rai
Publishing Company(P) Ltd.
Mangal, S.K.(2002). Teaching of science. New Delhi:Arya Book Depot.
Lederman, N. (1992). Learners’ and teachers’ conceptions of the nature of science:
A review of research. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 29 (4), 331-359.
Ministry of Education. (1971). Education and national development: Report of
the education Commission 1964-66. New Delhi:NCERT.
NCERT.(1975). The Curriculum for the Ten-Year School. New Delhi: NCERT.
NCERT.(1988). National curriculum for elementary and secondary education -
A framework (Revised version). New Delhi:NCERT.
NCERT.(2000). National curriculum framework for school education. New
Delhi:NCERT.
NCERT.(2005). National curriculum framework. New Delhi:NCERT.
81
Understanding Science NCERT.(2006). Position paper-National focus group on teaching of science.
New Delhi:NCERT.
NCERT.(2013).Pedagogy of science Textbook for B.Ed. New Delhi:NCERT.

1) Refer to section 4.4.3
2) Cognitive validity, Content validity, Process validity, Historical validity,
Environmental validity, Ethical validity- NCF-2005, mentions these criteria’s
must be met by the science curriculum.
3) Some of the recommendations are; teacher training practices needs to be
revised, teachers having school experience must be appointed as teacher
educators, qualified teachers must be appointed at school level, etc.
5) Critical pedagogy is learner centred pedagogy. Today learners come to class
with varied experiences and knowledge. In such a scenario, teacher must
consider those experiences to bring a sense of democracy in the teaching
learning process. The teacher’s role is to guide and motivate and thereby
help learners to construct their own knowledge.
8) a) Electric kettle uses current to heat water. Current is a topic of science.
b) Mangoes fall down due to gravity. Gravity is concept of science.
82

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BES-141

SPECIAL INVITEES (FACULTY OF SCHOOL OF EDUCATION)

COURSE COORDINATORS: Prof. M. C. Sharma and Dr. Gaurav Singh

BLOCK 2: TEACHING-LEARNING OF SCIENCE

BLOCK 3: CONTENT BASED METHODOLOGY-I

BLOCK 4: CONTENT BASED METHODOLOGY-II

BES-141: Pedagogy of Science is one of the pedagogical courses being offered

Block 2: Teaching-learning of Science is focusing on facilitating teaching-

In Block 3: Content Based Methodology-1 and Block 4: Content Based

Unit 2:Aims and Objectives of Science Teaching-Learning will facilitate you

Unit 3:Process Skills in Science discusses on developing these scientific skills

Unit 4: Science in School Curriculum starts with the discussion on the

1.3.1 What is Science?

In a public lecture at the Indian Institute of Science, Banglore, in January,

1.3.2 Myths about Nature of Science

Table 1.1: Myths about Nature of Science (McComos, 1998)

It is important to understand the role of these myths in understanding the nature

As a teacher you need to appreciate that scientific knowledge is tentative not

1.3.3 Understanding Nature of Science

Understanding nature of Science is important because if your understanding and

With more focus of constructivist approach for knowledge creation, a teacher

Aspects of nature of Science have been identified and explained by many

Table 1.2: Aspects of Nature of Science

Scientific Knowledge is Tentative

Observations of the Natural World

Table 1.3: Examples of Observations and Inferences

Check Your Progress

1.3.4 Domains of Science

Figure 1.1: Three Domains of Science

Figure 1.2: Nature of Science

Let us discuss each domain in detail:

Science as a body of knowledge

Science as a process of inquiry

In a Science classroom, the teacher is expected to provide opportunities to the

Science as a way of thinking

Science as a way of thinking involves scientific temper, scientific inquiry, and a

Check Your Progress

1.4 HOW SCIENCE WORKS?

As a teacher of Science, you should provide them opportunity to discover Science

1.5 SCIENCE AS A PROCESS OF INQUIRY

Inquiry learning refers to finding an answer of a question in mind using various

Scientific inquiry may be considered as an approach to reach to a solution of the

Fig. 1.3: Inquiry Learning Cycle (Worth &Grollman, 2003, p. 19)

Constructing explanations and ideas

These comments/observations are part of the process of developing ideas and

During scientific explanations, scientists use evidence to establish relationships

Asking questions and using appropriate questioning technique

Testable Questions: These questions can be tested and can be answered

Developing testable questions and hypotheses

Before answering the questions, the teacher has to provide an opportunity to

Constructing explanations and communicating results

It should be remembered that scientific inquiry only leads us towards possible

Concept Example form daily life experience

1.6 SCIENCE IN SOCIETY

Science has developed for facilitating society in explaining various natural

Innovations and discoveries of Science have transformed the whole social

Duty Their Role Scientific discoveries/inventions,

These activities will help you a lot in developing a fair understanding of

1.7 VALUE DEVELOPMENT THROUGH SCIENCE

A good Science curriculum should promote values like honesty, co-operation,

S.No. Activity Associated Value

Check Your Progress