Bionics and Sustainable Design

Environmental Footprints and Eco-design
of Products and Processes
Felipe Luis Palombini

Subramanian Senthilkannan Muthu Editors
Bionics and
Sustainable
Design
Environmental Footprints and Eco-design
of Products and Processes
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Subramanian Senthilkannan Muthu, Head of Sustainability - SgT Group and API,
Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong
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Felipe Luis Palombini ·
Subramanian Senthilkannan Muthu
Editors
Bionics and Sustainable

Design
Editors
Felipe Luis Palombini Subramanian Senthilkannan Muthu
Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul SgT Group and API
Porto Alegre, Brazil Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong
ISSN 2345-7651 ISSN 2345-766X (electronic)

Environmental Footprints and Eco-design of Products and Processes
ISBN 978-981-19-1811-7 ISBN 978-981-19-1812-4 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-1812-4
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Contents
Sustainability in the Biom* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Nancy E. Landrum and Taryn Mead
Two-Way Bionics: How Technological Advances for Bioinspired
Designs Contribute to the Study of Plant Anatomy and Morphology . . . . 17
Felipe Luis Palombini, Fernanda Mayara Nogueira,
Branca Freitas de Oliveira, and Jorge Ernesto de Araujo Mariath
The Maniola, Lycaenidae, and Other Lepidoptera Eggs
as an Inspiration Source for Food Storage and Packaging Design
Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Massimo Lumini
Transport Package and Release of Ladybug Larvae
with Biomimetic Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Fernando José da Silva, Cynara Fiedler Bremer,
Sofia Woyames Costa Leite, and Verônica Oliveira Souza
Characterization of the Gradient Cellular Structure of Bottle
Gourd (Lagenaria Siceraria) and Implications for Bioinspired
Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Danieli Maehler Nejeliski, Lauren da Cunha Duarte,
Jorge Ernesto de Araujo Mariath, and Felipe Luis Palombini
Bamboo-Based Microfluidic System for Sustainable Bio-devices . . . . . . . 141
Omar Ginoble Pandoli, Sidnei Paciornik, Mathias Strauss,
and Murilo Santhiago
Sustainable Biomimetics: A Discussion on Differences in Scale,
Complexity, and Organization Between the Natural and Artificial
World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Valentina Perricone, Carla Langella, and Carlo Santulli
v
vi Contents
Bionics for Inspiration: A New Look at Brazilian Natural

Materials for Application in Sustainable Jewelry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Mariana Kuhl Cidade, Janaíne Taiane Perini, and Felipe Luis Palombini
Pherodrone1.0: An Innovative Inflatable UAV’s Concept, Inspired
by Zanonia Macrocarpa’s Samara Flying-Wing and to Insect’s
Sensillae, Designed for the Biological Control of Harmful Insects
in PA (Precision Agriculture) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Massimo Lumini
Exploiting the Potential of Nature for Sustainable Building Designs:
A Novel Bioinspired Framework Based on a Characterization
of Living Envelopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Tessa Hubert, Antoine Dugué, Tingting Vogt Wu, Denis Bruneau,
and Fabienne Aujard
Bio-inspired Approaches for Sustainable Cities Design in Tropical
Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
Miguel Chen Austin, Thasnee Solano, Nathalia Tejedor-Flores,
Vanessa Quintero, Carlos Boya, and Dafni Mora
Pho’liage: Towards a Kinetic Biomimetic Thermoregulating Façade . . . . 367
Lise Charpentier, Estelle Cruz, Teodor Nenov, Kévin Guidoux,
and Steven Ware
About the Editors
Felipe Luis Palombini is a Post-Doctoral Researcher in the Graduate Program of

Botany (PPGBot) at the Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), in
Porto Alegre (Brazil). He received his M.Sc. and his Ph.D. in the Graduate Program
in Design (PGDesign), in the School of Engineering (UFRGS). His main research
topics are focused on bionics, sustainability, design, and materials selection and
characterization via finite element analysis and X-ray microtomography. He is asso-
ciated with the Design and Computer Simulation Research Group (DSC), and the
Plant Anatomy Laboratory (LAVeg), at UFRGS.
Dr. Subramanian Senthilkannan Muthu currently works for SgT Group as Head
of Sustainability and is based out of Hong Kong. He earned his Ph.D. from The
Hong Kong Polytechnic University, and is a renowned expert in the areas of Envi-
ronmental Sustainability in Textiles & Clothing Supply Chain, Product Life Cycle
Assessment (LCA), and Product Carbon Footprint Assessment (PCF) in various
industrial sectors. He has 5 years of industrial experience in textile manufacturing,
research and development, and textile testing and 7 years of experience in life cycle
assessment (LCA), carbon and ecological footprints assessment of various consumer
products. He has published more than 100 research publications, written numerous
book chapters, and authored/edited over 100 scientific books in the areas of Carbon
Footprint, Recycling, Environmental Assessment, and Environmental Sustainability.
vii
Sustainability in the Biom*
Nancy E. Landrum and Taryn Mead
Abstract Bioinspired innovation is a growing field and is often attributed to sustain-

able design outcomes. After reviewing existing literature in bionics, biomimetics,
and biomimicry, a comparative analysis was used to compare and contrast these
subdisciplines. This theoretical analysis aims to reveal differences between bioin-
spired design approaches to show that each is distinct and to position bioinspired
design approaches along the sustainability spectrum. This research contributes to
the conceptualization of sustainability within bioinspired innovation and advances
nuanced perspectives for scholars and practitioners in this field.
Keywords Biomimicry · Biomimetics · Bionics · Bioinspired design · Sustainable

design · Eco-design · Responsible design · Strong sustainability
1 Introduction
Early design work encouraged consumption which contributed to environmental

degradation through the extraction of raw materials and accumulation of waste [11,
29, 44]. It was the critical work of Papanek [44] that called for improvements in the
design profession. Early responses to this call focused on reducing the environmental
impact of products but each approach, such as green design and ecodesign, had
shortcomings [8]. A later wave of design approaches for sustainability turned to
nature-inspired design [8].
This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial,
or not-for-profit sectors
N. E. Landrum (B)
Independent Scholar, Leipzig, Germany
e-mail: [email protected]
T. Mead
Western Colorado University, 1 Western Way, Gunnison, CO 81231, USA
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 1
F. L. Palombini and S. S. Muthu (eds.), Bionics and Sustainable Design, Environmental
Footprints and Eco-design of Products and Processes,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-1812-4_1
2 N. E. Landrum and T. Mead
Nature-inspired or biologically inspired designs are now present in many fields,

including architecture, industrial design, engineering, medicine, urban planning,
materials science, management, agriculture, and more. Research has shown that
exposure to biological examples increased novelty in design ideas while exposure to
human-engineered examples decreased variety in design ideas [64]. Nonetheless, it
has also been shown that designers do not always make analogous use of biological
phenomena [9] and that a better understanding of biological phenomena could help
designers improve the application of biologically inspired, or bioinspired, design.
There are three bioinspired design approaches that are commonly referenced
interchangeably: bionics, biomimetics, and biomimicry. Researchers and practi-
tioners alike have called for research that offers a clearer delineation between
these approaches based on factors such as methodology, origins, and connections
to sustainability [24, 25, 36, 53]. Using comparative analysis of the existing litera-
ture, the aim of this chapter is to reveal differences and similarities between these
three bioinspired design approaches to illustrate the ways in which each is distinct and
represents varying degrees of sustainability, thus responding to the call of Papanek
[44] to make design more responsible. While it is widely recognized that the afore-
mentioned terms are used interchangeably in many contexts, we believe that addi-
tional analysis is necessary to develop and define the unique, nuanced trajectory of
each discipline in its respective field and toward sustainability. We propose to advance
the relationship between bioinspired disciplines and sustainability and further differ-
entiate between the dichotomous categorization of “weak vs. strong” biomimicry
categorization [7] by applying a phased model of sustainability. The rest of this
chapter is organized as follows. In Sect. 2, we review the three bioinspired design
approaches of bionics, biomimetics, and biomimicry. A brief history of each design
approach is presented and practical examples are offered. In Sect. 3, we introduce
strong sustainability theory, the sustainability spectrum, and a corresponding five-
stage model of sustainability. In Sect. 4, we place each of the design approaches
along the sustainability spectrum and explain how these design approaches can be
positioned from less sustainable to more sustainable and showing that, ultimately,
only one of these design approaches is sustainable. Section 5 discusses the practical
value of this comparative analysis for the field of design studies. Section 6 suggests
the limitations of our work and future directions for sustainable design research.
Finally, Sect. 7 offers our conclusion.
2 Bioinspired Design
Bionics, biomimetics, and biomimicry are biologically informed disciplines that

lead to bioinspired design solutions [24]. All three share a common approach toward
design: (1) observation of biological models, (2) translation of biological principles
or strategies, and (3) application of biological principles or strategies to design [19,
63]. Despite their similarities, we will demonstrate that each term has unique aspects.
Sustainability in the Biom 3
2.1 Bionics
Jack Steele, formally trained as a medical doctor, is credited with coining the term
bionics in 1958, a combination of biology and technics. His work on bionics and
cybernetics was the inspiration for science fiction books and television shows of the
1970s. Werner [41] and others further advanced bionics into a field of study. It is
also noteworthy that the term “bionik” is the German language interpretation of the
concept overall, with Nachtigall relying on this as his first language.
Experts place bionics within the fields of biology, medicine, and engineering,
viewing bionics as a sub-field of engineering that is focused on robotics and
mechanics [24]. Bionics is the Anglo-Saxon term used in medicine, however, it
is also the term used for the overall discipline in German-speaking countries [54].
Bionics employs the principles of physics for creative problem-solving, is practiced
by functional biologists and engineers in the fields of medicine and cybernetics,
specializes in technical complexity and innovation, and seeks mechanically inno-
vative solutions [24]. Practitioners study mechanics and processes in nature and
replicate those processes in engineering and computing design. Bionics focuses on
nature’s mechanical abilities or technology without regard for ecology [24] and is a
“prediction and control approach to learning from nature” ([61], p. 292). The prac-
tice of bionics fails to consider sustainability, ecology, or society and can ultimately
lead to unsustainable solutions [24, 61]. The intent of bionics is to extract physics
principles found in nature and apply them to solutions [24] by using nature only
for the inspiration it can provide in developing technical design [41]. Thus, bionics
extracts physics principles to create technical solutions that perform the same func-
tion as nature but does not imitate those principles in the same way as found in
nature. The innovation culture and narrative of those who adopt bionics don’t have
a clear motivation for sustainability beyond learning from nature [34]. Rather, the
emphasis in developing the innovation is on immediate return on investment and
taking advantage of strategic business opportunities [34].
Examples of bionics include researchers who are studying the echolocation of
bats to integrate similar mechanical functions into drones for improved navigation
[15, 39]. Popular applications of bionics are those in which robotic movements
mimic those of humans, such as the prosthetic arm and hand system developed for
veterans [47]. Another bionics example might be a building developed by architects
and designers that is inspired by the form of termite mounds [54].
2.2 Biomimetics
Otto Schmitt, a biophysicist formally trained as an engineer, is largely credited

with launching this field of study in the 1950s; in 1969, he coined the term
biomimetics from the roots bios (life) and mimesis (imitate) [59]. Schmitt (founder
of biomimetics) and Steele (founder of bionics) were colleagues in the 1960s at
Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, but each took his work in a different direction,
thus separating biomimetics from bionics.
Experts place biomimetics within the discipline of engineering [24]. Practitioners
study and imitate nature in design [8] and engineering [20], the focus is predomi-
nantly on the mechanical capabilities of the structure–function relationship [2, 24].
Biomimetics employs principles of biology [2], is practiced by biologists, engineers,
and designers in the fields of medicine, information technology, economics, and
systems science; specializes in mechanical abilities, technical complexity, and inno-
vation; and seeks to imitate nature without a focus on sustainability [24]. Biomimetics
not only draws inspiration from nature’s designs, like bionics, but focuses on the
application or replication of nature’s design, unlike bionics. Research into the process
of biomimetic innovation frequently focuses on the analogical transfer of biological
strategies (e.g., [9, 21, 55]), rather than broader reaching metaphorical inspirations
that are frequently applied in biomimicry. And while there is great “promise” that
biomimetics will produce more sustainable results, these results are frequently called
into question [17].
Examples of biomimetics can be found in stronger fibers modeled after spider
webs, multifunctional materials modeled after nature’s efficient creation of mate-
rials that form multiple functions, and superior robots that mimic both shape and
performance of biological creatures [2]. Continuing with our earlier bionics example
of a building with constant temperature, while bionics would mimic the structure,
biomimetics would mimic the structure and the function of the termite mound chim-
neys to help vent hot air out and keep the interior temperature constant. This design
was mimicked in the Eastgate Centre shopping mall in Harare, Zimbabwe, and main-
tains a comfortable inside temperature year-round without the use of traditional
heating and cooling systems [16].
2.3 Biomimicry
The term biomimicry is generally acknowledged to have first appeared in a doctoral

thesis in 1982 [38] but was conceived in its modern interpretation by Janine Benyus in
1997. Benyus [3] defines biomimicry as “the conscious emulation of life’s genius”
(p. 2) and a science that imitates nature’s models, uses an ecological standard to
measure what is sustainable, and values nature as a mentor for learning. Though
biomimicry was likely practiced throughout history prior to the industrial revolu-
tion [8], Benyus was the first to connect bioinspired solutions to the evolutionary
sustainability of the human species.
The terms biomimetics and biomimicry are often used interchangeably [3, 7,
31, 57, 58]. In fact, some refer to biomimetics as “reductive biomimicry” [3, 49].
However, biomimicry goes one step further than biomimetics in that biomimicry
uses nature as a model and mentor but adds the dimension of “measure” to determine
what is sustainable [3, 12, 13]. Biomimicry doesn’t focus only on the mechanics or
process but also includes mimicking form or shape and as well as interactions within
and between systems. Therefore, not only do we learn from and imitate nature, but
biomimicry designs create conditions that are conducive to life. This means pursuing
efficiency in using benign materials and renewable energy in a closed-loop system
without producing waste [3, 42] and also designing with regeneration in mind [61].
The nature-focused ethos and the realization that humans are part of nature is what
separates biomimicry from the other terms [24]. The intent of biomimicry is not to
just extract biology principles found in nature but to learn from nature and develop
solutions that are life-sustaining [3, 13, 24, 50]. Biomimicry has been described as an
approach for more holistic systems design [1, 6], suggesting a more encompassing
perspective than the simple analogical translation of biological functions.
It is for these reasons that some refer to biomimicry as “sustainable biomimetics”
[25] and “holistic biomimicry” [3] although much of what passes for biomimicry
today would more accurately be defined as biomimetics. Wahl [61] argues that
biomimicry is ecologically informed, more holistic, and simultaneously considers
humans, ecosystems, social systems, and economic systems, this would be described
as a co-evolutionary level of sustainability [28]. That is, modern interpretation and
practice of biomimicry have co-evolved with our sustainability challenges and the
ongoing adaptation of the concept of sustainability in ever-changing global realities
[14, 30, 48].
Experts place biomimicry within the fields of design, business, architecture, and
philosophy [24], though there are exceptions, e.g., in engineering [49] and chemistry
[59]. Practitioners mimic complex living systems which are supportive of life on
earth to solve design challenges. Biomimicry employs biological and life-sustaining
principles, is practiced by ecologists, environmental scientists, designers, architects,
economists, and biologists; incorporates a nature-focused ethos with minimal tech-
nical complexity; and designs solutions focused on life-sustaining principles, but
which might lack real-world applicability [24]. Biomimicry draws inspiration from
nature’s designs (like bionics and biomimetics), focuses on the application or repli-
cation of nature’s design (like biomimetics), but unlike either bionics or biomimetics,
biomimicry incorporates sustainability into the design as an explicit component of
the methodology [5]. Those who adopt biomimicry have innovation cultures and
narratives that can be described as “aspirational” in that they are ambitious and seek
to “be like nature,” sustainability is the purpose and is intrinsically motivated, and it
is setting a model for others in its sustainability orientation [34].
An example of biomimicry is the “Factory as Forest” initiative [18]. This work
began as a project between consultancy Biomimicry 3.8 and carpet manufacturer
Interface and continues with other companies through Project Positive [4]. The
goal is to mimic interactions between systems with the explicit goal of achieving
sustainability. This work focuses on transforming the built environment to become
an active participant in its surrounding ecosystem. Continuing with our example of
a building that is self-regulating in temperature, biomimicry designers would ensure
the building and its materials are life-sustaining in a way that allows self-sufficiency,
self-regulation, zero waste, and participation in its surrounding ecosystem, such as
the Factory as Forest concept at Interface.
It is precisely because these three terms are often confused and used interchange-
ably that we focus on revealing differences between these three bioinspired design
approaches. We summarize these differences in Table 1.
Equipped with this knowledge, we can now offer a simplified yet more nuanced
definition of the three bioinspired design approaches showing how each adds a
progressive layer toward achieving sustainability (Table 2). Bionics gains design
inspiration from nature through the utilization of physics principles in technolog-
ical design but does not mimic nature. Biomimetics gains inspiration from nature
and mimics natural design through increased control of mechanics and structure in
technical design. Biomimicry gains inspiration from nature, mimics natural design,
and uses nature as a measurement against which to define sustainability through a
nature-based ethos applied to design.
Table 1 Differences between bioinspired design approaches

Bionics Biomimetics Biomimicry
Intent Employs principles of Employs principles of Employs biological
physics [24], inspiration biology [2] for principles and
from nature to develop increased prediction, life-sustaining
technical design [41] manipulation, and principles [24] for
control [61] human adaptation [3]
Disciplines and Functional biologists, Biologists, engineers, Ecologists,
practitioners engineers, medicine, designers, medicine, environmental
cybernetics [24] information technology, scientists, designers,
economics, systems architects, economists,
science [24] biologists [24]
Specialization Technical complexity & Mechanical abilities Nature-focused ethos
innovation [24] with technical with minimal technical
complexity & complexity [24]
innovation [24]
Solution Creates mechanically Solutions that imitate Solutions that adhere to
innovative solutions that nature but lack life-sustaining
lack sustainability [24] sustainability [24], principles but may lack
though with the real-world applicability
aforementioned [24]
exceptions
Adapted from Bar-Cohen [2], Iouguina et al. [24], Nachtigall [41], Wahl [61]
Table 2 Defining characteristics of bioinspired design approaches

Gains design inspiration from nature x x x
Nature serves as a model of design x x
Nature serves as a mentor for learning and a measure of x
sustainability
3 Bioinspired Design and Sustainability
While intentionality can be a useful indicator of sustainability-oriented innovation,

it provides little indication of the systemic impacts of any innovation, bioinspired or
otherwise. Some methodologies specifically indicate steps and criteria for sustainable
design (e.g., Biomimicry 3.8’s Design Toolbox), but this is not a guarantee of better
performance when the innovation outcomes are scrutinized in a social and ecological
life-cycle analysis. Despite the “Biomimetic Promise” of superior innovation perfor-
mance [17], assumptions that innovations are inherently sustainable because they
somehow emulate a biological strategy result in a naturalistic fallacy that because
something is “natural,” it is inherently better [7]. It has been shown that bioinspired
approaches can generate both positive and negative impacts [40], therefore, these
assumptions about sustainability are worthy of further analysis and consideration
[8]. Given this wide array of approaches and perspectives [35, 36], proposed that
rather than viewing bioinspired approaches in a dichotomous frame of an innovation
being unsustainable or sustainable, it is more useful to gauge the sustainability of a
bioinspired innovation along a gradient of less to more sustainable [33] as shown in
Fig. 1.
3.1 Sustainability Spectrum
Sustainability can best be understood as a gradient ranging from less sustainable to

more sustainable which leads us to understand that each gradient holds different
meanings for different people. As such, the sustainability spectrum proposes a
continuum of worldviews within environmentalism to help us understand the varying
positions along the gradient. The original spectrum of sustainability included four
worldviews: very weak, weak, strong, and very strong [43, 45, 46, 56]. Landrum [28]
expanded the model to include an intermediate position.
DICHOTOMOUS (OR BINARY) ORIENTATION OF SUSTAINABILITY IN BIOM*

Unsustainable Innovation ----------------|--------------- Sustainable Innovation
GRADIENT (OR RELATIVE) ORIENTATION OF SUSTAINABILITY IN BIOM*

Less Sustainable Innovation <---------------------------> More Sustainable Innovation
Fig. 1 Dichotomous versus gradient orientation. Adapted from Mead et al. [35]
Very weak sustainability. Very weak sustainability is a worldview that sees the natural
environment for its instrumental value to humans. The focus is on human-made
technocentric solutions to our sustainability challenges that have been extracted from
nature (a more exploitative orientation) and a belief in the ability of humans to develop
technological solutions that are superior to nature, and which will improve life [43,
45, 46]. In corporate contexts, this is defined by compliance-based decision-making
and strongly influenced by external factors that force change [28]. Examples may
include using bioinspiration to innovate new materials to replace previously used
materials that have been banned.
Weak sustainability. Weak sustainability is a worldview that is less exploitative and
has taken a more accommodative orientation. This worldview sees more value, albeit
self-serving, in adopting solutions from nature, such as reduced costs, new markets, or
improved reputation. However, this stage is still a “manipulative and technocentric
position” ([43], p. 88) in that it uses natural resources to develop solutions based
upon human ingenuity and technology. Also called business-centered sustainability
in relation to corporate environments, this position views sustainability as internally
driven by the reduction of costs and eco-efficiency [28]. An example of bioinspiration
applied through a weak sustainability lens might be a structural color coating that
mimics the Morpho butterfly wing but relies on toxic materials to produce the effect.
Both very weak and weak sustainability worldviews are technocentric in that they
view humans as dominant over nature and seek technological solutions to environ-
mental problems. These positions view nature for its instrumental value and allow
for human-made solutions that can improve upon nature.
Intermediate sustainability. Landrum [28] posits that there exists an intermediate
worldview between weak and strong sustainability that has characteristics of both
strong and weak sustainability but is not clearly situated on either side of the spectrum.
In this worldview, there is an emphasis on systems-level sustainability that goes
beyond a single organization or product. Also referred to as systemic sustainability
in a business context, this position looks outside the company and works with others
to improve conditions within its sphere of influence [28].
One example of intermediate sustainability can be found in global efforts to reduce
single-use plastics. This movement has led designers to create many plastic alterna-
tives. Biobased plastics attempt to create systemic change away from fossil fuels but
they also have negative environmental impacts. Eating utensils made from sugar cane,
for example, are chemically identical to polyethylene terephthalate (PET) plastic, do
not biodegrade, and create the same long-term waste as plastic from fossil fuels [27].
Polylactic acid (PLA) biobased plastic is recyclable, biodegradable, and compostable
if commercially composted [27]. However, if they are discarded in the conventional
waste stream, they produce the same environmental problems as traditional plastic
[27].
Strong sustainability. Strong sustainability is a worldview that is more radical and
considers self-sufficiency and cooperation [44]. Landrum [28] describes further,
equating strong sustainability with regenerative approaches to innovation, design,
and operations. A regenerative approach is characterized by the goal of repairing

and restoring human and natural systems. This might be exemplified by Interface’s
“Net-Works” program which collects, cleans, and upcycles discarded fishing nets
from beaches and oceans and remanufactures them into bioinspired carpet tiles [23].
Very strong sustainability. Very strong sustainability sees the intrinsic value of nature
and believes in the need for humans to co-evolve alongside nature. This position
supports “obedience to natural laws” ([43], p. 91) and the maintenance of life-
sustaining conditions. Landrum [28] also refers to this as the co-evolutionary phase
of sustainability within corporate contexts where companies view themselves as
reintegrating with natural systems using science-based approaches and steady-state
economics. An example of this is Biomimicry 3.8’s application of Ecological Perfor-
mance Standards that redesign operations of factories and cities to use “nature as
measure” and systematize integration with ecological systems [18, 62].
Both strong sustainability and very strong sustainability worldviews are ecocentric
in that they view humans and nature as co-existing and seek solutions that allow
humans and nature to flourish together. These worldviews believe nature has intrinsic
value and that man-made solutions are not superior to nature’s solutions.
4 Positioning Bioinspired Design Approaches
Drawing from prior work on the sustainability spectrum [43, 45, 46, 56] and the stages
of corporate sustainability [28], the concept of “weak” versus “strong” biomimicry
has also been proposed as a way to differentiate between those innovations that aim to
make some gains in sustainability versus those innovations that have no such intention
[7]. When we view nature simply as a source of inspiration for human design, we
develop solutions that are technocentric rather than ecocentric [7]. These designs
are anthropocentric and focus only on humanity’s needs and nature’s instrumental
value to humans [32]. This “weak” biomimicry allows us to design solutions that
serve human needs and continues to advance the notions of human separation from
nature and human control over nature, in fact viewing nature’s designs as deficient
and our technological designs as supplementary [7]. “Strong” biomimicry, on the
other hand, enables us to design solutions that are situated within nature and in
harmony with ecosystems [7], an approach that positions humans and nonhumans
in a bioinclusive relationship where our focus is not to reduce human impact but to
have a generative impact on nature recognizing our interconnected life system needs
and the intrinsic value of nature [32]. For example, the natural world has been the
inspiration and model for military technologies, spacecraft, nanomachines, and even
surveillance cameras [31] and has been interpreted as merely another methodology
for the enslavement of nature [26]. But replacing a conventional climbing robot with
a gecko-inspired climbing robot [37, 51] or developing a painless needle that imitates
a mosquito’s stinger [10] does little to advance sustainability and may, in fact, create
a rebound effect that drives more consumption.
Table 3 Bioinspired approaches and sustainability

Gradient Less sustainable Mixed More sustainable
Sustainability Very weak Weak Intermediate Strong Very strong
spectrum
Stage of Compliance Business Systemic Regenerative Co-evolutionary
corporate centered
sustainability
Worldview Technocentric Mixed Ecocentric
Based upon our analysis, we can position the three bioinspired design approaches
along the sustainability continuum (Table 3). Bionics solves human-defined problems
by looking to nature for solutions. It is an anthropocentric and technocentric approach
that extracts design ideas from nature and applies them to design solutions without
necessarily replicating the mechanics of nature. For this reason, we classify bionics
within the very weak and weak sustainability worldviews.
Biomimetics extracts design ideas from nature but without consideration of the
sustainability of the design. However, biomimetics focuses more on the adoption of
nature’s mechanics and, for this reason, we classify biomimetics as an intermediate
sustainability worldview.
Biomimicry seeks nature-defined solutions to apply to human problems.
Biomimicry is ecocentric and is not focused on extraction but rather on learning
from nature in terms of form, process, and system and ensuring the sustainability
of the design. Therefore, we classify biomimicry within the strong and very strong
worldviews.
5 Discussion and Implications
There is growing interest in sustainable design. Bioinspired approaches for sustain-

able design include bionics, biomimetics, and biomimicry but the terms are often
confused and erroneously used interchangeably. Although [62] believes it is of
limited use to distinguish between these various approaches because they all
contribute a degree of sustainability, experts agree that clearer distinction is needed
between these concepts [24, 25].
Contrary to [62], our comparative study shows that these three bioinspired sustain-
able design approaches do not each contribute a degree of sustainability. Our analysis
shows that bionics, biomimetics, and biomimicry are distinct terms regarding intent,
disciplines and practitioners, specialization, and solutions. This allows us to identify
more nuanced differences and to develop more precise descriptors for each bioin-
spired approach toward design. Given that sustainability is a much-contested concept
[22], we show how [28] five-stage model can be used as a framework to illuminate
a path toward sustainable bioinspired design. Using this framework, we can order
these three bioinspired design approaches along a gradient of less sustainable to
more sustainable following the sustainability spectrum [43, 45, 46, 56]. On the left
side of the spectrum, bionics is classified within very weak sustainability and weak
sustainability and do not contribute to sustainability. Therefore, this design approach
is appropriate when designers are not seeking sustainability but, nonetheless, want
a design inspired by nature. Biomimetics is an intermediate position between weak
and strong sustainability. This design approach is appropriate when designers create
a design inspired by nature and which uses models found in nature but is not made
with sustainable materials or in a sustainable way. On the right side of the spec-
trum, biomimicry is classified within strong sustainability and very strong sustain-
ability and does contribute to sustainability. This design approach is appropriate
when designers are seeking a design that is inspired by nature, follows models found
in nature, and uses nature’s measure of sustainability in methods and materials.
For design and innovation practitioners seeking sustainable solutions, the nuanced
distinction of the different phases of sustainability is a necessary inclusion in the
design process. Understanding the differences between bionics, biomimetics, and
biomimicry approaches can be useful to designers and to the field of design in deter-
mining which approach to use depending upon the desired outcome. Designers can
choose bionics for novel designs inspired by nature, or they can choose biomimicry
for a sustainable design inspired by nature.
Cooper ([11], p. 15) posits that the future of design “offers the significant potential
of design to change the world at all levels and to do so in an ethical, trustworthy and
collaborative manner.” To do this, design must be sustainable. Of all the bioinspired
approaches, only biomimicry will lead to sustainable design and only with intention
and accountability toward sustainability.
6 Limitations and Future Directions
The authors recognize that several attempts have been made to classify and distin-
guish between the bioinspired disciplines as they relate to sustainability. While we
have attempted to be inclusive in our selection of literature reviewed, we recognize
this is a vast and evolving conversation, with both memes and specific words quickly
evolving.
Further research is needed to aid in delineating the variety of bioinspiration terms
that are often misunderstood or used interchangeably, such as those highlighted
here. In addition, future research would benefit from the application of [28] staged
sustainability framework to new and existing case studies of bioinspired design to
better exemplify how it can be relevant for designers. Finally, the staged sustain-
ability framework [28] can be applied to other sustainable design approaches beyond
bioinspired design methods to assess their contribution toward sustainability.
7 Conclusion
Victor Papanek proclaimed that few professions are more harmful than indus-
trial design while simultaneously advocating that design is the most powerful tool
for shaping our environment [44]. Papanek called for responsible design that had
purpose, served humanity, and protected the environment; design that could change
the world [44]. Since that time, numerous sustainability elements have entered
the design profession. Of interest here are the bioinspired approaches of bionics,
biomimetics, and biomimicry. These concepts are related and often used interchange-
ably, leading to confusion. Designers have called for better clarity between these
terms [24, 25]. This is the goal of the current chapter: to provide clarity.
Our comparative analysis of the terms bionics, biomimetics, and biomimicry uses
sustainability theories and frameworks to provide clarity. We define bionics as a
design method that gains design inspiration from nature, biomimetics goes one step
further to use nature as the design model, while biomimicry extends both concepts and
exclusively uses nature as a mentor and measure of sustainability (Table 2). We also
show that it can be useful to think of sustainability as being along a gradient of less to
more sustainable [35], as shown in Table 3. Using the sustainability spectrum [43, 45,
46, 56], we applied [28] framework of five stages of corporate sustainability to define
a placement for each of the three terms, bionics, biomimetics, and biomimicry. From
this exercise, we show that bionics is less sustainable, adopts a technocentric world-
view, represents weak or very weak sustainability, and is aligned with compliance
and business-centered stages of sustainability. Biomimetics represents intermediate
sustainability with mixed technocentric and ecocentric worldviews that are some-
where between less and more sustainable, and is aligned with systemic sustainability.
Biomimicry is most sustainable, adopts an ecocentric worldview, represents strong
or very strong sustainability, and is aligned with regenerative and co-evolutionary
stages of sustainability. Improved understanding of these terms reveals that they are
distinct concepts with each subsequent approach building upon the other. This under-
standing can help designers choose appropriate methods suitable to their intended
purpose. It is clear that if the design intends to be sustainable, biomimicry is the only
solution.
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Two-Way Bionics: How Technological
Advances for Bioinspired Designs
Contribute to the Study of Plant
Anatomy and Morphology
Felipe Luis Palombini, Fernanda Mayara Nogueira,

Branca Freitas de Oliveira, and Jorge Ernesto de Araujo Mariath
Abstract Bionics is fundamentally based on the development of projects for engi-

neering, design, architecture, and others, which are inspired by the characteristics
of a biological model organism. Essentially, bionics is based on a transdisciplinary
approach, where teams are composed of researchers trained in a variety of disci-
plines, aiming to find and adapt characteristics from nature into innovative solutions.
One of the key steps in a bioinspired project is the comprehensive study and analysis
of biological samples, aiming at the correct understanding of the desired features
prior to their application. Among the most sought natural elements for a project
to be based on, plants represent a large source of inspiration for bionic designs of
structures and products due to their natural efficiency and high mechanical perfor-
mance at the microscopical level, which reflects into their functional morphology.
Therefore, examining their microstructure is crucial to adapt them into bioinspired
solutions. In recent years, several new technologies for materials characterization
have been developed, such as X-ray Microtomography (µCT) and Finite Element
Analysis (FEA), allowing newer possibilities to visualize the fine structure of plants.
Combining these technologies also allows that the plant material could be virtually
investigated, simulating environmental conditions of interest, and revealing intrinsic
F. L. Palombini · J. E. de Araujo Mariath

Laboratory of Plant Anatomy – LAVeg, Graduate Program in Botany – PPGBot; Institute of
Biosciences, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul – UFRGS, Av. Bento Gonçalves, Porto
Alegre, RS 9500, Brazil
F. M. Nogueira (B)
Laboratory of Algae and Plants of Amazon – LAPAM, Federal University of Oeste do
Pará – UFOPA, Campus Oriximiná, Rodovia PA-254, 257, Oriximiná, Brazil
F. L. Palombini · B. F. de Oliveira
Design and Computer Simulation Group – DSC, School of Engineering, Graduate Program in
Design – PGDesign, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul — UFRGS, Av. Osvaldo Aranha
99/408, Porto Alegre, RS 90035-190, Brazil
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-1812-4_2
18 F. L. Palombini et al.
properties of their internal organization. Conversely to the expected flow of a conven-

tional methodology in bionics—from nature-to-project —besides contributing to the
development of innovative designs, these technologies also play an important role in
investigations in the plant sciences field. This chapter addresses how investigations
in plant samples using those technologies for bionic purposes are reflecting on new
pieces of knowledge regarding the biological material itself. An overview of the use
of µCT and FEA in recent bionic research is presented, as well as how they are
impacting new discoveries for plant anatomy and morphology. The techniques are
described, highlighting their potential for biology and bionic studies, and literature
case studies are shown. Finally, we present future directions that the potential new
technologies have on connecting the gap between project sciences and biodiversity
in a way both fields can benefit from them.
Keywords Biomimetics · Biomimicry · X-ray microcomputed tomography ·

Finite element analysis · Monocotyledons · Bamboo · Bromeliaceae · Micro-CT
1 Introduction
Based on billions of years of life and natural selection, bionics takes advantage of the
attributes that made each species successful to this day. This field of applied sciences
is fundamentally associated with the development of bioinspired solutions based on
a certain aspect or characteristic extracted from the natural world. Such solutions
can be used on and applied into projects from a variety of fields [6]: from product
design [60, 92], architecture [61, 70, 101], engineering [20, 95], and materials science
[31, 144, 145] to biomedicine [53, 128], management [105], and robotics [100].
Having its origins focused on applications in military projects, mainly marked by the
development of the SONAR, according to [136], bionics can be defined “as the study
of living and life-like systems with the goal to discover new principles, techniques,
and processes to be applied in man-made technology”. One of the forerunners of
this branch of development was the then-Major from US Air Force Jack Ellwood
Steele, who coined the term “bionics” in 1958 through the Greek term βίoς, from
“life”, and the suffix ˘ικ óς, as “related to” (or “pertaining to”, “in the manner of”),
in order to promote it as a new science [42]—the same etymology is also found, for
example, in words like “mechanics” (related to machine), “mathematics” (related to
knowledge or learning), “dynamics” (related to power), and “aesthetics” (related to
the perception of the senses). Besides, the term “Biomimetics” (as what is “related to
the imitation of life”) was also proposed by the polymath Otto Herbert Schmitt, also in
the late 1950s [135]. Either way, despite preferences, both terms are equally important
and are known to be referred to the same connections between bioinspiration and
applications, aimed at benefiting society:
Let us consider what bionics has come to mean operationally and what it or some word
like it (I prefer bio-mimetics) ought to mean in order to make good use of the technical
skills of scientists specializing, or, more accurately, despecializing into this area of research.
Presumably our common interest is in examining biological phenomenology in the hope of
Two-Way Bionics: How Technological Advances for Bioinspired Designs … 19
gaining insight and inspiration for developing physical or composite bio-physical systems
in the image of life. [114]
From that moment onward, it can be emphasized the realization of different scien-
tific events that sought to disseminate these new areas of research—like the first
Bionics Symposium, entitled “Living Prototypes—the Key to New Technology”,
which occurred in Dayton (OH, USA), in 1960 [38]. More recently, in addition to
those terminologies’ appearance in popular media, more terms have gained attention,
particularly in research papers. Biomimicry and bioinspiration are examples of other
names that can be emphasized. Therefore, despite those and more popular terminolo-
gies, all of them tend to represent the same goals of performing technical analyses
of natural elements with aims at their application through multiple technologies for
innovative results. Considering new research findings in scientific publications, the
growth in bionic-related papers is remarkable. Figure 1 shows the annual number
of papers published that contains some of those “bio*-related” terms, from 1990
to 2020 including bionics, biomimetics, biomimicry, bioinspiration, etc. It is note-
worthy that in the past decade the average number of bio*-related papers has grown
from around 3,000 to 10,000, yearly, according to the Web of Science™ platform.
And not only when considering scientific publications, the presence of bio*-related
works is noticed. When analyzing the total number of published patents, following
data retrieved from the same platform, in 1990, approximately 0.002% of all glob-
ally published pieces were related to bionics. As for 2020, that segment increased
to about 0.074%. While the annual number of published patents increased about 14
times from 1990 to 2020, the annual number of bionic-related patents increased 395
times, i.e., the growth rate of patents that use nature as a source of inspiration is over
26 times greater than all other areas in the past three decades. That emphasizes the
impact R&D in bionics has on innovation.
From trabeculated bone tissue and biomechanics of animals to the cellular arrange-
ment and seed dispersal of plants, nature has come a long way in discovering
Fig. 1 Total number of papers published containing bio*-related terms, from 1990 to 2020, and
registered in Web of Science™ platform
different measures to help to protect from predators, attracting pollinators, rein-

forcing against weather conditions, moving efficiently, saving energy, among many
others. Regarding the characteristics that make biological compounds, materials,
structures, arrangements, or systems so interesting for applications, they can be found
in all magnitudes of scales: from the biochemical composition of biopolymers (e.g.,
collagen, melanin, suberin, cellulose, lignin, etc.) [37, 131], to the complex equilib-
rium of entire ecosystems [110]. Hence, there are equally many ways to investigate
a certain natural characteristic and, depending on the level of which it is presented
or intended to be inspired on, we have to adopt particular approaches, in terms of
techniques, equipment, and research protocols to analyze it properly. If researchers
choose wrong or incomplete investigation procedures, there is a chance that some
vital details regarding the desired characteristic would remain unresolved or unex-
plored, impairing the correct understanding of the “hows” or the “whys” of the exam-
ined biological sample, and consequently the correct application of it in a bioinspired
project. Another key aspect to be considered during this type of investigation is being
able to count on a transdisciplinary team. Even if the correct approaches and tech-
niques are followed, the natural object of study would also require the interpretation
of a biologist. Much more than assisting on the explanation of some specific analyzed
characteristic, a biologist can also provide new directions from which the research can
proceed to address the issue at hand. Therefore, finding the most adequate methods
and specialists is as important as the objects of study themselves.
One of the most fascinating biological objects of study for their complexity in
a multitude of levels of hierarchical organizations is plants. They can be consid-
ered fantastic examples of how an organism can adapt to several adversities of
external conditions in order to prosper in its environment. For instance, by efficiently
depositing and shaping biopolymers, cells, and tissues where they are most mechani-
cally needed. In his work “Plant Biomechanics—An Engineering Approach to Plant
Form and Function”, Karl [82] emphasized that “plants are the ideal organisms in
which to study form-function relations”. Their shape is primarily based on the direc-
tion and rate of their growth [59], being this immediately related to characteristics
of each type of biological component, as well as how they are arranged throughout
the individual. Such arrangement influences several physiological features of plants,
from molecular and chemical, to physical and mechanical. And it is the complexity of
this organization that gives plants their fascinating attributes as materials. Mechani-
cally, for instance, the hierarchy levels of plants, from the cell wall to the organiza-
tion of supporting tissues, are the foundation of their properties [112]. The gradient
distribution of the material in the stem of plants can also be found in multiple scales,
from the macroscopic level to the microscopic and molecular ones [120]. One of the
main examples of plants with outstanding and highly efficient structural properties
is bamboo. Macroscopically, the hollow stem of this monocot is periodically divided
into solid cross sections, called the diaphragm, in the nodal regions. These perpen-
dicular reinforcements act like ring stiffeners, increasing the overall flexural strength
of the plant, by preventing the stem from failing by ovulation of its cross section
during buckling or bending [138]. When a ductile thin cylindrical structure is bent,
its failure is usually reached in buckling when part of its length collapses, due to the
initially circular section becoming elliptical and unstable [129], i.e., the longitudinal
forces of local tension and compression in the tube also tend to ovalize its cross
section, thus precipitating the elastic deformation and reducing the flexural stiffness,
known as the “Brazier effect” [10]. Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) demonstrated in
1638 that materials applied in the periphery—rather than in the center—of construc-
tions provided more resistance to bending forces, using hollow stacks of grasses
to illustrate it [83], which is aligned to the effect described almost 300 years later.
Microscopically, when analyzing the stem’s cross section, the scattered distribution
of the vascular bundles in monocots, named atactostele [29]—in which they are
bigger and dispersed in the inside and smaller and clustered in the outside—concen-
trates more material, with a higher relative density, in the regions under which they
are subject to the greatest stresses [68, 92]. The higher the relative density, the higher
the elastic modulus, therefore the plant is stiffer on the external side, increasing the
moment of inertia of the stem [37]. Despite the sclerenchyma bundles being scat-
tered, the parenchyma ground tissue can act as a matrix, in a composite analogy, by
distributing stresses throughout the plant, even if a local pressure is applied [92].
Furthermore, combining the sclerenchyma bundles with the low density, foam-like
ground parenchymatic material [22], this gradient distribution in the cross-section
direction also contributes to the plant’s high efficiency, i.e., considerable stiffness
and strength along with reduced weight. Even the actual geometry of each scle-
renchyma bundle was verified as having a role in the performance of the stem by
increasing the local compressive strength of the fibers [95]. Despite cylindrical struc-
tures being considered more efficient in bending when the direction of the lateral load
is unknown [37], the different shapes of the vascular bundles of bamboo [69] can be
particularly efficient due to their radial orientation in the culm. Given the fact that
individual fiber bundles tend to locally bend toward the center, during the universal
bending of the stem they contribute by micro-stiffening the structure [95]. Therefore,
most failure modes noticed on bamboo culm during bending or compression is due
to fiber splitting [117], when the sclerenchyma is detached longitudinally from the
parenchyma [41]. And even this failure characteristic is somewhat reduced in the
plant by the arranging of the vascular bundles in the nodal region, at which they
translate horizontally and interlace themselves in the longitudinal bundles, when
connecting to new branches or leaves, and thus preventing them from detaching
completely [96, 99, 143]. All those features represent a number of possibilities to be
applied on bioinspired solutions. Consequently, once studied, they can be explored,
either individually or combined, as a source of inspiration for the development of
analogous bionic projects like beams, columns, and thin-walled structures designs,
bioinspired in bamboo [18, 33, 57, 71, 146]. And, as previously mentioned, prior
from applying the characteristics of a certain biological material in the design of a
bionic or bioinspired project, the sample first have to be investigated, by means of
observation, analyses, or simulations. In order to benefit from such complex features
of plants, engineers and designers have to consider how to approach the investigation,
by the selection of the appropriate equipment as well as count with the presence of a
specialist from biological sciences—just like in most bamboo-inspired design cases,
a botanist was involved.
It is easy to link up that the growing knowledge in plant anatomy and plant
morphology was due to technological advances in biological imaging (bioimaging).
Considered of primary importance for all lines of research in plant sciences [29],
plant anatomy has its first investigations dating back to the seventeenth century [27].
In the middle of that century, with the first developments of early microscopes,
Robert Hooke (1641–1712) introduced the term “cell” in his book “Micrographia”
[54]—derived from the Latin “cella”, as a small enclosed space [37, 141]—when
observing cork samples, in reference to the small cavities surrounded by walls [27]. A
few years later, Nehemiah Grew (1655–1703) first described plant tissues in his book
“The Anatomy of Plants” [40], published in English in 1682 [64]. While writing his
book, Grew actually searched for the advice of Hooke in explaining how cells expand
and why some tissues are stiffer and stronger than others [83]. Grew also identified
that plant tissues needed to be conceptualized in 3D because they were composed
of microscopic structures with distinct spatial relationships [13]. In 1838, botanist
Matthias Schleiden (1804–1881) expanded the characteristics of cells by reporting
that all plant tissues consist of organized masses of cells, which was later extended by
zoologist Theodor Schwann (1810–1882) to all animal tissues, and these basic units
do not differ fundamentally in its structure from each other. Therefore, in 1838, the
cell theory of Schleiden and Schwann was proposed for all forms of life [28, 64, 137].
And this was also the formal statement of “cell biology” as a newly created and still
unexplored field of science [1]. The next major step—the understanding of its basic
principles and functions—occurred when advances in staining, lighting techniques,
and optics increased the contrast and resolution view of the cell’s internal structures,
especially after the introduction of the transmission electron microscopy (TEM) at the
beginning of the 1940s [1]. The evolution of photomicrography followed the studies
of Thomas Wedgwood (1771–1805), William Talbot (1800–1877), and others, where
images were captured with solar-based microscopes (Overney and [88]. In modern
times, the digital system and image processing have overcome the human eye limi-
tations, like low brightness and small differences of light intensity in a luminous
background, so the modern CCD (charged-coupled device) and CMOS (complemen-
tary metal-oxide semiconductor) had become an integrating part of the microscope
system. Besides, since the acquisition of images is in digital format, different soft-
ware became able to correct brightness, contrast, and noise in the images, allowing
the reduction of artifacts and limitations of the optical system and the human eye.
More recently, advances in bioimaging technologies have pushed the boundaries on
new interpretations and insights regarding the structure and morphology of biological
samples. In the modern timeline, we can point out the discovery of X-rays in 1895, by
German engineer and physicist Wilhelm Röntgen (1845–1923) [109], which rapidly
led to the proliferation of this type of equipment in medicine, by allowing a clear
visual separation between soft and hard tissues [4]. Later, physicist Ernst Ruska
(1906–1988) and electrical engineer Max Knoll (1897–1969) presented the first full
design of the electron microscope [63], after years of development of electron-based
imaging [39]. In 1936, the first commercial transmission electron microscopy (TEM)
was presented in the UK, despite not being completely functional, and only becoming
available by commercial companies after the end of World War II [139]. In 1935,
Knoll also presented a prototype of the first scanning electron microscopy (SEM),
which was improved by Manfred von Ardenne in 1938, and became functional by
Vladimir K Zworykin and his research group at the Radio Corporation of America in
1942 [72]. Even though both TEM and SEM techniques required specific protocols
for sample preparation [2], the technology became one of the most important pieces
of science equipment for the study of materials in plant sciences and many other fields
up to the present day [15]. However, important details of microstructures in TEM and
SEM still required trained eyes in order to be reconstructed and volumetrically visu-
alize the observed specimen in 3D [50]. More recently, preliminary works employing
Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) were published in the mid-1990s, mainly focusing
on the topography of pollen grains [19, 111]. However, the authors stated that despite
the high resolution, the 3D presentation of the surface, and the absence of specific
preparation methods, generally AFM was still limited by its depth of field. The work
of Minsky searching the three-dimensional structure of neural connections led him to
propose in 1957 the principles of confocality, and since then, the basic principles are
used on all confocal microscopes. The modern confocal laser scanning microscopy
has been a powerful tool in elucidating 3D complex internal structures of cells and
tissues, allowing studying dynamic processes visualization in living cells, like rear-
rangements of cytoskeleton and chromosomes. Despite its benefits, the technique has
a limited penetration depth ranging from 150 to 250 µm [23, 89]. It is noteworthy
that the methodology choice is an important step to be followed by the research team,
considering each one has advantages and limitations owing to the image resolution,
sample size, and physical preparation, in addition to the need for sectioning [48].
Simultaneously, resources were applied to the progress of 3D imaging. In this regard,
mathematical models were also critical for allowing us a better comprehension of the
complexity of the biological world. In 1917, Austrian mathematician Johann Radon
(1887–1956) proved [106] that an “infinite” object (N ) could be reconstructed based
on a “finite” number of projections (N − 1) of it [116]. Such mathematical and
physical bases, especially with the works of English electrical engineer Godfrey
Hounsfield (1919–2004) and South African physicist Allan Cormack (1924–1998),
resulted in the development of the first feasible X-ray computed tomography (CT)
scanners, in the early 1970s [56].
In addition to the findings in biomedical sciences, the dissemination of new 3D
observation technologies added new levels of comprehension in many disciplines,
including traditional fields such as plant sciences. Consequently, once enough infor-
mation from a certain biological sample is gathered, improvements and entirely new
concepts on bionic designs can be proposed. However, despite the “biology–tech-
nology–bionics” direction being well established, its orientation can be questioned.
This chapter addresses how technological advances are contributing not only to inno-
vation in bioinspired design but how bionics—as a multidisciplinary approach—is
acting as the driving force behind discoveries in plant anatomy and morphology. First,
some state of the art, 3D technologies for analyses, and simulations are presented,
with a focus on X-ray microtomography (µCT) and Finite Element Analysis (FEA),
including examples of recent research studies that are benefiting from both multidisci-
plinary teams and technological advances. Secondly, the role of biomedical imaging
in botany investigation is discussed, showing the importance of 3D technologies for

new insights, and how they are improving biodiversity as a whole. Finally, the last
topic gives an overview of upcoming technologies and the panorama of future studies
in plant sciences and bionics.
2 3D Technologies: Analyses and Simulations
As the awareness of the inherent complexity of biological materials increases—

particularly regarding plants—the need for 3D technologies for observing and
analyzing samples became more evident. During the pioneer studies in plant anatomy
of Hooke and Grew the need for a higher optical magnitude was necessary to
allow visualization of small structures like tissues and cells. However, in the past
decades, this demand has shifted to also understanding the 3D hierarchy and orga-
nization of those fine details, leading to a new comprehension of plant anatomy and
morphology. In addition, in-depth functional analyses and simulations have been
leading to insights regarding plant physiology, as well as mechanical and physical
responses to external stimuli.
Advances in technologies are making them more accessible to researchers from
many fields, which contributes directly to findings in many areas. Generally, plant
materials have the intrinsic characteristic of presenting a fine, detailed architecture, a
complex arrangement of structures, multiple levels of hierarchy, as well as a combina-
tion of delicate and soft with stiff and hard cells, tissues, and organs. One of the main
ways of documenting, analyzing, and transmitting knowledge in botany is by means
of illustrations, which can be found in a major part of specializing literature [27].
In possession of instruments such as microtomes and microscopes, anatomists are
able to observe thin sections, which reveal valuable information about the constituent
tissues and cells. The registers of each individual section can be done manually or
digitally, in order to understand the entire structure. However, traditionally, the volu-
metric reconstruction of the general aspect of the biological material is done based on
the deduction of the researcher, through the interpretation of the observations of the
sequential sections [115]. Therefore, having the ability to investigate the biological
material with a high-resolution and non-destructive technique is key not just to ensure
the integrity of the sample but to facilitate the comprehension of its true morphology
[93]. In this topic, we cover two of the main 3D technologies for investigating plants,
both for qualitative and quantitative analyses, along with numerical simulations.
2.1 X-Ray Microtomography (µCT)
With the first developments of X-ray-based imaging in 3D, with computed tomog-
raphy (CT) equipment in the mid-1970s [55], the technique has become a well-
established and regularly employed modality in current diagnostic radiology in hospi-
tals worldwide [45]. Shortly after its popularization, CT imaging has evolved with a
focus on improving the resolution of the scans, giving birth to the now-called X-ray
microtomography (or microcomputed tomography), or µCT. Stock [126] highlights
that µCT technology has developed at a slower rate compared to that of clinical CT,
because of clear economic reasons—i.e., investments in more expensive technolo-
gies are far more acceptable in hospitals, with straightforward benefits to patients
than in research centers, where µCT is most commonly employed. However, it was
with the need for investigating small animals for the study of human diseases that
biomedicals started to emphasize the application of higher resolution CT scans,
leading to investments in commercial µCT equipment, in the mid-to-late-1990s
[126]. The development of more affordable lab-scale µCT technology was also a
crucial step for the democratization of the technology. Once restricted to a small
number of large synchrotron-based research facilities, high-resolution X-ray scanners
have gained attention to major manufacturers, such as Bruker™ (Kontich, Belgium),
Zeiss™ (Pleasanton, CA, USA), North Star Imaging™ (Rogers, MN, USA), General
Electric™ (Wunstorff, Germany), and others.
It is noteworthy the recently growing number of research papers that utilize X-ray
microtomography as the primary source of investigation methods, in a variety of fields
[91]. Assessing them is rather difficult, though, due to the numerous nomenclatures
used to define the technique—e.g., X-ray microcomputed tomography, X-ray micro-
tomography, high-resolution computed tomography, X-ray nanotomography, X-ray
microfocus, just to name a few—and even several abbreviations of the method: µCT,
micro-CT/micro-CT, nCT, HRCT, HRXCT, and others. Even between µCT manufac-
turers, the terminologies used are diverse: micro-CT (Bruker™), X-ray microscopy
(Zeiss™), X-ray system (North Star Imaging™), microfocus CT (General Elec-
tric™), etc. Still, the advantages of employing the technique in the research method-
ology workflow in plant sciences are vast. Firstly, there is the capability of digitalizing
a biological sample volumetrically, instead of just superficially, similar to what can
be found in other observation techniques, such as scanning electron microscopy and
atomic force microscopy. This “bulk”, volumetric scanning is particularly impor-
tant to avoid multiple passes of superficial digitalization in the same sample (like
with SEM, o AFM), where each one is performed with the removal of some mate-
rial. Second, differently from conventional clinical CT, µCT utilizes a smaller X-ray
focal spot size and higher resolution detectors, among others, achieving a much higher
level of details in the obtained virtual model. Evidently, to avoid working with huge
bioimaging datasets, the higher the chosen spatial resolution, the smaller the field
of view needs to be. Third, just like clinical CT, nevertheless, µCT also allows the
digital sectioning of the 3D model in virtually any plane, allowing the researcher
to investigate the sample without the need to destroy it. When working with fragile
or delicate specimens, like many plant-based materials, this is utterly important to

ensure the integrity of cells, tissues, and structures. Forth, besides the realization of
morphological analysis, binarization and segmentation procedures can be followed
for the division of the 3D model into regions of interests (ROIs), which allows quan-
titative data to be collected and assessed, such as counting (number of cells), sizing
(volumes, lengths, surface areas), and others, utilizing a number of proprietary soft-
ware suites or open-source alternatives like Fiji, a distribution of ImageJ [113]. Many
µCT types of equipment also include in situ capabilities of micro- and nanomechan-
ical testing—including compression, tension, and indentation—while scanning, for
the sample to be digitalized throughout the experiment. Fifth, unlike many lab-based
techniques used in plant sciences, sample preparation often requires little to no addi-
tional steps prior to scanning—e.g., fixation, inclusion, staining, and metallization.
The usage of contrast agents (e.g., phosphotungstate, osmium tetroxide, bismuth
tartrate, and others) is sometimes followed, however with up-to-date µCT features,
such as phase contrast and dark field, soft tissues can be distinguished more easily
in untreated samples.
The functioning of µCT scanning relies on the effect electromagnetic waves in the
X-ray spectrum has on the matter, and the digitalization procedure is often confused
by researchers. Fundamentally, image acquisition is performed by the irradiation of
the sample by the X-ray source, which is relatively attenuated by different local densi-
ties and captured by a detector (scintillator coupled to a CCD sensor), forming a 2D
projection of the sample, perpendicular to the X-ray beam. The sample is then rotated,
and a new set of 2D projections is captured. After a full—or half—rotation, all projec-
tions are combined with a particular CT algorithm that verifies regions with similar
density patterns, merging them into a 3D representation. Finally, this 3D volume can
be exported into a stack of grayscale slices—where the darker the value of each pixel
the lower its density—which can be worked in the post-processing procedure, recon-
structed in 3D—where each slice pixel would be treated as a voxel—and used for
qualitative and quantitative analyses. In the X-ray tube, the higher the potential differ-
ence (voltage) between the cathode and anode, the higher the kinetic energy of the
electrons and, consequently, the emitted photons. When striking the target in the X-
ray tube (typically made out of tungsten due to its high atomic number and melting
point), the electrons decelerate, producing Bremsstrahlung (continuous spectrum)
and characteristic radiation (peak). In addition to tube voltage, the current—estab-
lished by the electron fluency in the tube—and the exposure—defined by the time at
each projection—are the main µCT parameters to considerer. In the short term, the
higher the current-exposure time, the higher the number of photons focusing on the
sample, which may reduce noise, but can also decrease visual resolution due to scat-
tering, and the higher the tube voltage, the higher the X-ray energy and the broader
its spectrum, which can be suited for larger samples, but may decrease the contrast
levels due to saturation of the detector. As a rule of thumb, for plant samples, it may
be interesting to define relatively small values for voltage (~70–80 kV) and current
(~90–130 µA), based on the size of the specimen, due to the general low density
of the material; besides, working with smaller samples is preferable for obtaining
a higher resolution during digitalization, with less noise and more contrast ratio.
Further µCT physical principles are beyond the scope of this chapter and can be
consulted in the works of [8, 45, 87, 126].
Many recent papers in plant sciences have been applying µCT as an innovative
method for discovering or better comprehending features in a variety of samples.
It is noteworthy still that, just like in bionic-related works, most research groups
count on the presence of professionals with multiple backgrounds, like in engi-
neering, physics, and design, to assist in the research workflow—ever since the set
of acquisition parameters in the digitalization, to the post-processing and analyses
steps. For instance [84, 86], studied the 3D architecture of congested inflorescences
in Bromeliaceae that accumulate different amounts of water, in multiple Nidular-
ioid genera (subfamily Bromelioideae). Authors segmented those regions based on
high-resolution µCT images, and described their morphology, volume, and orienta-
tion in individuals, allowing the interpretation using a typology-based comparative
approach of inflorescence development and branch patterns in this group that presents
an obscured morphology to interpret with traditional methods. Due to the congested
morphology of inflorescences, investigating their anatomical features and performing
precise measurements would be rather difficult to realize via manually sectioning.
Pandoli et al. [97, 98] explored ways of preventing microbial and fungal proliferation
in bamboo, utilizing silver nanoparticles. Authors used µCT to analyze the distribu-
tion of antimicrobial particles in the vascular system of the plant, which contributed
not only to increasing the protection of the natural material but to better understand the
distribution of particles in its vascular anatomy. Brodersen et al. [11, 12] investigated
the 3D xylem network of grapevine stems (Vitis vinifera) and found that these connec-
tivity features could contribute to disease and embolism resistance in some species.
The authors mentioned the benefits of applying µCT: “selected vessels or the entire
network are easily visualized by freely rotating the volume renderings in 3D space
or viewing serial slices in any plane or orientation” and that the automated method
generated “orders of magnitude more data in a fraction of the time” compared to the
manual one. Teixeira-Costa and Ceccantini [130] analyzed the parasite–host inter-
face of the mistletoe Phoradendron perrottetii (Santalaceae) growing on branches
of the host tree Tapirira guianensis (Anacardiaceae through high-resolution µCT
imaging. Authors also highlighted the difficulties in “imbedding and cutting lignified
and large materials”, therefore manually performing such complex 3D investigation
would require a “huge series of sequential anatomical sections”; the authors even
mentioned the previous work of [17], where the anatomy of the endophytic system
of Phoradendron flavescens required hundreds of anatomical sections. Investigating
the intricate distribution of fine arrangements in 3D is one of the main advantages
of employing µCT for the study of plants. More recently, for example, Palombini
et al. [96] studied the complex morphology of the vascular system of the nodal region
of bamboo with the technique. When comparing their findings with previous serial
sections based on illustrations (Fig. 2) it is clear that the scattered arrangement of
the atactostele distribution of monocots is hard to be spatially understood in 3D by
using just anatomical sections (Fig. 2a). Even if the segmentation procedure after
µCT imaging acquisition can also be labor intensive—authors had to manually select
each one of the hundreds of vascular bundles, separating them into the corresponding
Fig. 2 Technological improvements for detailing the complex anatomy of vascular bundles of the
nodal region of bamboo: a hand illustration of nodal reconstruction based on serial cuts by Ding
and Liese [21], b actual morphology based on X-ray microtomography of the nodal region, where
the bundles of each secondary axis are shown with a different color, and the ones of the primary
axis are faded
axis (Fig. 2b)—due to the difficulties in automatizing the process, at the very least
the obtained virtual morphology remained intact and undamaged, allowing it to be
anatomically accurate represented.
2.2 Finite Element Analysis (FEA)
As seen before, the segmentation process of a µCT-based investigation permits the 3D

visualization of a specific ROI of a sample along with morphologically accurate qual-
itative and quantitative analyses. Once the region of interest has a segmented mask,
it is considered binarized, i.e., it is no longer represented by means of a grayscale
image, at which the contour of a certain region gradually fades as it approaches its
physical end—as we can originally find in an unprocessed µCT stack—but as a set
of black and white voxels. What it means is that a region in a binarized stack can be
spatially defined with the precision of a voxel: if the binarized, segmentally masked
region is set, it can be distinguished by white voxels, otherwise, it is viewed as a
black region, just like the background in µCT. And it is this absolute division between
black and white voxels that make a region discrete, allowing further calculations and
analyses to take place. Furthermore, since the masked region is spatially—i.e., math-
ematically—defined, it can be exported to be used for other purposes. One of the
main file extensions used in µCT post-processing is STL, a superficial mesh with
universal compatibility. For instance, a µCT-based STL mesh can be 3D printed for
educational uses [93], allowing a microscopic, morphologically accurate region to
be significantly magnified and physically handled by students. Like most biolog-

ical materials, plants exhibit an intrinsic and complex hierarchical level of elements,
arrangements, shapes, and materials that extend from the macro- to the nanoscopic
world. Despite being fundamentally constructed by a small number of basic compo-
nents, it is their build-up that adds natural materials to their remarkable properties
and makes them desirable as both a straightforward building material and a source
for bioinspiration projects [3, 123]. However, their heterogeneity and intricacy also
make biological materials difficult to be accurately investigated, for instance, in
terms of predicting their mechanical performance. This is the main reason why they
present a natural variability in properties, and thus often require a sufficient number
of individuals for the data sampling to be meaningful [46]. Therefore, another major
possibility of employing 3D biological models obtained via µCT is their use in
numerical analyses.
An important characteristic of scientific reasoning is the process of dividing a
larger, complex problem into smaller, simplified components, which can then be
separately resolved more effortlessly and, once combined, be used as an estimated
solution for the original issue. If a problem—or a numerical model—is obtained
with a finite number of components, it is called “discrete”. On the other hand, if a
model is considered so complex that it could be indefinitely subdivided, it would
require it to be defined by assessing its infinitesimal parts, leading to the need for
differential equations, and thus being called “continuous” [147]. This is the essence
of the Finite Element Method (FEM) at which in the 1940s mathematicians, physi-
cists, and particularly engineers worked on techniques for the analysis of problems in
structural mechanics, and later applied them to the solution of many different types
of problems [5]. Simplifying, the procedure is based on the division of a contin-
uous problem into a finite number of elements, in the process called discretization,
leading to the procedure known as Finite Element Analysis (FEA). It is worth noting
that despite the assistance of desk calculators in the 1930s, FEA only had its most
significant improvements with the upsurge of digital computing, at which a set of
governing algebraic equations could be established and solved more effectively,
leading to real applicability [5]. The origins of the subdivision of continuum prob-
lems into finite elements set are arguable, though. With the multiple solutions for the
brachistochrone problem—i.e., finding the fastest descent curve between two non-
superposed points with different elevations in the same plane—initially proposed by
Johann Bernoulli (1667–1748), his brother Jacob Bernoulli (1655–1705) along with
other known personalities like Galileo Galilei (1564–1642), Gottfried Leibniz (1646–
1716), and later Leonhard Euler (1707–1783), it was observed that it would require
reducing the variational problem into a finite number of equidistant problems [125].
Gadala [35] comments on even older possible roots of the discretization process,
dating back to early civilizations, like Archimedes’ (ca. 287–212 BC) attempts to
determine measures of geometrical objects by dividing them into simpler ones, or
the Babylonians and Egyptians search for the ratio of a circle’s circumference to
its diameter, i.e., π . As for the present day, numerous commercial software solu-
tions are available, including Abaqus™ (Dassault Systèmes™, Vélizy-Villacoublay,
France), ANSYS™ (Canonsburg, PA, USA), COMSOL™ (Stockholm, Sweden),
Nastran™, and others, for areas varying from structural mechanics to fluid dynamics,
electromagnetics, and heat transfer.
Finite element analyses can be applied into a number of fields, from facilitating
the resolution of well-defined CAD-based geometries to the simulation of specific,
more abstract scenarios which otherwise could be considered much more difficult
to achieve. The basic process of conducting an FEA is based on the definition of
three essential sets of variables: geometry, constitutive properties, and boundary
conditions. The first one is related to the shape, dimensions, and relative organization
of the 3D model. As mentioned, the geometry can be obtained employing CAD
software or, in the case of biological samples, via digitalization. Recently, µCT-based
models are being increasingly used in FEA in many fields of biomedical research,
allowing organic and complex geometries to be investigated and simulated in silico. In
the process of discretization (Fig. 3), at which the original µCT image stack (Fig. 3a)
is converted into a mesh suitable for FEA, two basic methods can be followed, voxel
based and geometry based [9, 94]. The first one is the most straightforward due to
the direct conversion of the image stack voxels into elements (Fig. 3b). As for the
geometry based, the selected regions must first be segmented and then transformed
into an FEA mesh (Fig. 3c). The main differences are that in the voxel-based meshing
there is no need for segmentation processes, but the resulting mesh tends to be much
Fig. 3 Discretizing methods of µCT-based finite element analysis: a original µCT of bamboo
parenchyma; b voxel-based discretization, with detail c1 of voxel mesh; c geometry-based
discretization, with detail c1 of tetrahedral mesh
larger depending on the number of µCT slices in the stack and the resolution of each
slice, i.e., the greater the stack size and resolution, the greater the number of voxels
and elements in the mesh. As for the geometry-based method, once the mesh is
defined automatically, users must also ponder the refinement-performance balance,
whereas on the one hand a finer mesh would represent more accurately the original
geometry, yet it would consume more computational resources. Another point worth
mentioning is that the geometry-based mesh tends to be much more universally
accepted in a variety of FEA solvers, consequently allowing a wider range of several
types of analyses to be executed.
The second basic set of parameters required in any FEA is the constitutive prop-
erties. They are related to the physical characteristics of the geometry regarding its
mechanical (elastic modulus, yield strength, dynamic viscosity…), thermal (thermal
conductivity, specific heat capacity…), and electromagnetic (electrical conductivity,
magnetic permeability…) properties, among others. Since the resulting µCT images
are defined in the grayscale, at which the whiter the color the denser that region
(Fig. 3a), the constitutive properties of a voxel-based analysis can be extracted
directly from the images, like in Fig. 3b, where the warmer colors represent a denser
material, i.e., higher values of mechanical properties were attributed. As for the
geometry-based method, once the region is homogenized, so must be its proper-
ties for the analysis to be accurate [94]. The last main parameter to be config-
ured is the boundary conditions, i.e., all the external parameters that affect the
analyzed geometry, e.g., loads (including pressures, forces, temperatures, electric
potentials…), displacements, and constraints, among others. Once defined all param-
eters, the analysis can be solved. FEA is a complex and comprehensive field of
research and many other fundamentals and parameters should be considered, like
non-linearities (geometric, constitutive, and boundary conditions), types of analyses
(implicit, explicit, thermal, modal, buckling, vibration…), types of mesh elements
(tetrahedra, hexahedra…), and more, which are also beyond the scope of the chapter,
and in-depth information can be accessed in the works of [5, 65, 107, 147].
Despite being less commonly found in the plant sciences fields, the numer-
ical analysis still appears in many important research studies, particularly when
combined with biomedical imaging. As discussed before, the main advantages of
a µCT-based FEA in plants are the ability to carry out investigations where (i) an
accurate morphology is needed; (ii) the potential of conducting experimental anal-
ysis (i.e., with real samples) is somewhat difficult or impossible to accomplish due
to limiting factors like diminished sample size, lack of control of boundary condi-
tions, restrictions to perform experiments with quick modification of variables, etc.
Still, similar to the process of applying the upcoming obtained knowledge in bionics,
the investigation of µCT-based FEA itself also benefits from a team with multiple
backgrounds, as may be seen by some examples. For instance [92], assessed the
structural role of bamboo parenchyma as an important tissue in the plant using µCT
and FEA. Due to its matrix-like behavior, in a composite analogy, the ground tissue
distributes local stress into a larger region so the sclerenchyma bundles can act like
reinforcements for greater stiffness and strength. The authors also observed, using
the same set of techniques [96], that bamboo tends to spread compression stresses
into secondary branches in order to preserve the main axis. Due to the resolution of
workable fibers as well as the complexity of the vascular arrangement in the plant,
only µCT-based FEA could be used for this type of analysis. Nogueira et al. [85]
presented the first known literature application of a heat-transfer FEA based on µCT
of biological material. In this research, the authors utilized high-resolution scanned
images of a Bromeliad inflorescence to investigate the role of the accumulated water
in the inflorescence tank of the plant, identifying it as acting as a thermal mass, by
absorbing the external temperature and preventing internal structures to overheat.
This feature results in the protection of the inflorescence and flower components,
preserving it without the appearance of injuries and necrosis in bracts and leaves.
Even though the authors also utilized an experimental procedure to complement the
findings of the numerical analysis, the in silico tests were crucial for a fine assessment
of the inflorescence internal structure’s temperatures as well as the replication of the
tests with the modification of multiple variables. Forell et al. [30] explored ways to
prevent lodging at maize stalks for bioenergy, by means of altering morphological
characteristics. Using µCT-based FEA, authors could digitally modify individual
stalk variables like diameter and rind thickness to assess its performance modifi-
cations. By highlighting the benefits of using non-traditional, engineering-related
techniques like FEA in plant analyses, authors state that “collaborations between
plant scientists and biomechanical engineers promise to provide many new insights
into plant form and function”.
3 Bionics: From Design to Biodiversity
As seen before, bionics or biomimetics is fundamentally based on the relationship

of knowledge interchanging between natural and applied sciences, and how it can be
achieved is via technology. Not only a better understanding of organisms and biolog-
ical materials can be obtained with unusual techniques of observation and analysis,
but interdisciplinary teams in the context of bionics or biomimetics are also ensuring
a more sustainable development [79], which also reflects into gains for biodiversity
as a whole. From unraveling signals used by flowers to attract pollinators [102] to
assessing the role of parenchyma wall thickness for the mechanical properties of
bamboo [22], techniques considered almost exclusive to engineering, design, and
architecture are unveiling new applications in the biological world. Likewise, tech-
nologies originally intended for the development of new bioinspired products are
also a way to promote unexpected insights into the natural world [121], thus paving
the street two ways: from nature-to-project and project-to-nature. This concept is also
known as “reverse biomimetics” which was defined in a guideline for biomimetics
from the Association of German Engineers (VDI or Verein Deutscher Ingenieure):
Over the last few years, it has become apparent that knowledge gained through the imple-
mentation of biologically inspired principles of operation in innovative biomimetic products
and technologies can contribute to a better understanding of the biological systems. This
relatively recently discovered transfer process from biomimetics to biology can be referred
to as “reverse biomimetics”. [134]
By employing a “two-way bionics” like philosophy, research groups are able

to discover new tools, techniques, equipment, and methodologies, that otherwise
may never be considered for solving scientific inquires in a variety of disciplines.
Different from interdisciplinary, the transdisciplinary approach lies not only in the
interconnection among different disciplines, but in the total removal of the boundaries
between them [81], i.e., treating it as a uniform, homogeneous macro-science, where
no method is unique and immutable. And by considering the applications of digital
technologies, enabling the exchange in knowledge between fields of sciences is
becoming more accessible than ever, particularly regarding bionics and biomimetics
[62]. 3D technologies and numerical simulations are becoming more “integrated” and
more “integrative” in the scientific problem-solving workflow, iteratively questioning
the object of study and the object at which the natural characteristic is supposed to
be applied. “Within this so-called process of reverse biomimetics, the functional
principles and abstracted models (typically including finite element modeling) are
repeatedly evaluated in iterative feedback loops and compared with the biological
models leading to a considerable gain in knowledge” [122].
An organism, an animal, or a plant is a package of its adaptative history, written
in its genes, and seen as its phenotype. Each one of them brings itself its ecolog-
ical history, strategies of reproduction, responses to the environment, and charac-
teristics that make this unique organism well succeed today. In the same way that
our knowledge about the relationship in the life tree has grown with advances in
the techniques and analysis of molecular systematics, the understanding of biolog-
ical morphology was also improved using new technologies, like confocal laser
scanning microscopy, nuclear magnetic resonance imaging, microcomputed tomog-
raphy, and others. Nevertheless, knowledge about biodiversity is not a one-way street,
and related or even distant areas end up benefiting from technological advances in
different fields. For example, several well-succeed lineages distributed today have
some morphological feature associated with their evolutionary success, this morpho-
logical adaption or phenotype is also called “key innovation” [58]. This “new” feature
could occur in a specific lineage, like the evolution of the tank habit in Bromeliaceae
[118], or could be recovered to a large group, as the diversification of different flower
morphology among the Angiosperm lineages [26, 142]. Recovering these traits’
origins is one of the main challenges to reconstructing the life history in different
groups, and the fossil record is an essential step to our understanding of evolution
and diversification of these features, especially in groups that have low preservation
or do not have totally preserved specimens, like the monocotyledons [74, 119]. In
this sense, the use of µCT have been changing the fossil analysis, not only in plants
but in different fields of biodiversity, since using this tool is possible to visualize
internal delicate features without the need for a destructive or invasive preparation
[51, 127]. Using this approach, a new fossil botanical genus was proposed, Tanis-
permum, related to the extant Austrobaileyales and Nymphaeales, based on some
particular features of the seeds [32]. In the same way, [36], analyzing an inflores-
cence fossil of Fagales, present several distinct features of flower components, the
inflorescence arrangement, and characteristics of the stem useful to understand the
diversification of the stem, the evolution of pollination modes, and other character
evolution in Fagales. On the other side of biodiversity research [14], studied the
semicircular canals of the endosseous labyrinth of living and fossil Archosauria,
represented today by birds and crocodylians, in order to understand several aspects
of locomotor system diversification, and if shapes variation of this structure could be
related of locomotor changes, like flight, semi-aquatic locomotion, and bipedalism.
The authors bring to light several aspects of this structure evolution, showing high
divergence in this trait and that the differences in the semicircular canal are related to
spatial constraints among the analyzed lineages, besides the higher degree of diver-
gence in this structure appeared early in the divergence of bird-crocodylian. The most
interesting aspect of these discoveries in biodiversity research using 3D technolo-
gies, like µCT, is how significant three-dimensional analysis is for understanding
each group. This means that the individual or the structure is three dimensional and
the understanding of its form, function, physiological process, size, strain limitation,
and growth form is difficult to be inferred by only using 2D images.
Indeed, images are everything, especially nowadays, and all of the images gener-
ated by these new technologies are in digital format. This information brings to us
another important topic to three-dimensional approaches, which is the “Digitaliza-
tion of the Biodiversity Collections” and how 3D technologies could be associated
with the storage, shared, and popularization of these collections. The natural collec-
tion worldwide holds billions of specimens of biodiversity, including information
like taxonomic position, geographic location, ecological, and temporal data [90]. In
recent years, many institutes and initiatives concentrate efforts to digitalize speci-
mens of natural collections. The reasons are the most diverse, like understanding
the taxa distribution through time, climate change, the dynamic of invasive species,
and others [75, 90]. One of these efforts is coordinated by the Rio de Janeiro Botan-
ical Garden, in partnership with the CNPq—Brazil (National Council for Scientific
and Technological Development), with the so-called “REFLORA” program. Its goal
is the historical rescue or the repatriation of the specimens of the Brazilian flora
deposited in foreign herbaria, through the digitalization with high-resolution images
used to construct the “Virtual Herbaria Reflora”. Besides, the program also includes
the digitalization of the Brazilian Herbaria, allowing that researchers worldwide work
in this platform, as they do in the physical collections [108]. This step of digitaliza-
tion, which includes the digital image of the specimen and associated metadata, like
taxonomic position and geographic location, is the first step to digitalizing a natural
collection. However, with the improvement of technologies, like computed tomog-
raphy, those specimens digitalized could provide much more details complementing
this digital imaging, so the data associated with the specimen using, for example,
µCT can be virtually analyzed, dissected, and manipulated by researchers worldwide
[47]. Furthermore, the µCT digitalized models could be used for 3D printing, which
can be employed as a didactical tool or for sharing these specimens. Recently [7],
proposed a 3D model equivalent of a real and unique object, called VERO, which
stands for “Virtual Equivalent of a Real Object”, being proposed as a non-fungible

token (NFT). In this model, the VERO and the NFT are interlinked, i.e., through
this system, the VERO is transformed into a type of NFT. In accordance with the
authors, “VEROs can be produced by museums to enable recreational collectors
to own NFTs that represent virtual versions of the objects housed within museum
collections”. In this way, the idea of having the natural collections digitalize through
high-resolution morphology using 3D technologies of the specimens also presents
some opportunities for the popularization of the specimens held in these collections,
especially that ones that present risk of degradation, such as fossils and unique and
delicate specimens. Another major contribution of setting VERO is the possibility of
raising funds for maintaining vulnerable or under-resourced collections, museums,
and institutions. By defining it as NFTs, with the use of blockchain technology,
buyers can both (i) ensure it is an original artwork, by preventing forgeries, which
ownership can be traced back to its institution, and (ii) being a digital object, its trade
avoids complicated copyright issues that can be quite common with physical objects
[7].
4 Conclusions and Future Directions
Bionics and biomimetics should be considered as a means to obtain interchangeable

pieces of knowledge between the “project” and the “object” of study. By blurring the
lines dividing the work activities of scientists of classical fields and design engineers,
we can gain access to new ways to promote more sustainable development, either
by (i) better comprehending the functioning and requirements of the natural world
as a way to reduce the human impact in nature and furthering healthier biodiver-
sity, and by (ii) creating more environmentally sound projects, which includes more
efficient materials and structures, and more ecologically integrated organizational
systems. Increasing access to state-of-the-art technologies is a way to ensure a more
transdisciplinary approach between sciences, favoring unified teaching and research
[91]. µCT has been shown a versatile tool in plant research, due to its non-invasive
character and, in most cases, due to the lack of intensive preparation requirements for
samples. Some of the advantages of using this approach include high morphological
resolution of complex and delicate internal structures, like visualizing the complex
vascular system in the nodal region of bamboo [96], obtaining details of the 3D archi-
tecture, and the modeling of gas exchange in leaves [24, 52, 73], in addition, some
opportunities as in vivo measures and experiments are possible [25]. However, the
technique usually requires a long image acquisition time, and the ionizing radi-
ation dosage difficult to repeat the imaging acquisition of some delicate speci-
mens. Besides, some plant tissues like meristems present low density which reduces
X-ray attenuation-based contrast, thus requiring a sample preparation to increase the
contrast [124].
Available methodologies for imaging samples with different compositions that

follow three-dimensional approaches include confocal imaging, Magnetic Reso-
nance Imaging (MRI), Optical Projection Tomography (OPT), Macro-Projection
Tomography (M-OPT) [66, 67, 104, 132], and other examples in [103]. The selec-
tion of the imaging method in biodiversity research is a matter of scale and resolution.
The researcher needs to previously know the limitation of each technique and the
trade-offs between the benefits and limitations of the methodology employed. For
example, confocal microscopy and OPT present the opportunity for imaging live
plants with restrictions of sample size [66, 104]. M-OPT allows imaging of large
sample size, presenting 3D digitalization of the morphology of the samples, including
visualizing of gene activity and internal details of structures histochemically marked
[67]; however, it is limited by the field of view and the processing artifacts that affect
morphology due to the partial cleaning of tissues [43]. MRI allows non-invasive
and non-destructive analysis of intact and living plants [132], despite limitations in
resolution. The technique is used to measure different physiological processes, like
measuring and quantifying fluid movement in the xylem and phloem [140], and the
development of embolism in vessels [34, 76]. Besides it also allows repeated access
to plant organs development, revealing details of its morphology and anatomy [49,
78, 80, 133]. The main drawback of conventional MRI can be overcome by newer
high-resolution magnetic resonance imaging techniques (or µMRI). However, the
higher the intended resolution in the analysis, the more powerful (and expensive)
the magnet of the equipment has to be, which increases the costs of the procedure,
in addition to not achieving the same spatial resolutions [43] as in X-ray nanoto-
mography (nCT) systems. Some recent works utilize combined approaches in order
to compare size, resolution, and the procedures, showing that the advantages and
limitations of each technique can be complemented when used in a combined way
[16, 44, 77]. Overall, there is no one perfect technique that can be employed in every
investigation, sample, or analysis, and therefore it is up to the scientist to choose the
most suitable method or combination of methods to reach the research goals. Further-
more, a broader diversity in the members’ training backgrounds in a research group
must be seen as a possibility to accomplish more in-depth analyses, benefiting the
whole knowledge transferring process between nature and project and contributing
to a better relationship of humans with the environment.
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The Maniola, Lycaenidae, and Other
Lepidoptera Eggs as an Inspiration
Source for Food Storage and Packaging
Design Solutions
Massimo Lumini
Abstract Eggs are nature’s successful evolutionary design tricks, well designed
to deliver multi-task biofunctional strategies for life’s challenges. They appear in
the vital scenario in the form of original and surprising bio-tech design solutions
affected by the genetic and environmental constraints they are called to interact
with. For these basic survival needs, the eggs must work very well: capturing the
sperm of the male for a correct optimization of the fertilization processes, protec-
tion from physical and mechanical trauma, climatic mediation, and fine aeration of
the internal larvae. These surprising embryo packagings are a sort of lifeboat laid
down and often left alone by females in front of the intricate, complex, and highly
wild food interweaving the planet’s ecosystems. We found eggs in the reproductive
cycles of many living species: fish, cephalopods, birds, and above all, individual
insects. Butterfly eggs constitute a class of exciting and still little studied solutions,
considered for possible bionic and biomimetic inspirations. Many Lepidoptera eggs
generally have an external textured shell, the chorion, made up of waxed surface
keratin, which maintains the correct humidity of the egg throughout the growth
cycle. Keratin is a fibrous protein rich in sulfur amino acids, cysteine, and self-
assemble into fiber bundles. It has the characteristic of a very tenacious mineralized
fabric and is remarkably impermeable to water and atmospheric gases. Each egg is
glued by the mother’s butterfly to the support of branches or leaves of the nourishing
plants by a gluey substance of chemical still largely unknown constitution, so adhe-
sive that it is impossible to detach the eggs if not breaking them. In some butterfly
species, like the Maniola and Lycaenidae family, the shell’s structure has a spatial
organization in the form of complex geodesic ribbed micro domes that resemble
Buckminster Fuller’s geodesic structures. Another exciting aspect of butterfly’s eggs
design concerns the micropyle and aeropyles layers system, which ensure the proper
introduction of the male sperm, air, and oxygen needed to larva’s growth. This study,
conducted by the BionikonLab&FABNAT14 laboratory of Iglesias-SU Italy, considers
the structural, morphological, and geometric aspects of some types of butterfly eggs
M. Lumini (B)
BionikonLab&FABNAT14, IIS “G.Asproni,”, Iglesias, SU, Italy
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-1812-4_3
46 M. Lumini
that await internal ventilation. The purpose is to define a list of essential design
problem-solving concepts that apply to creating food packaging, considering the
crucial aspects of preserving freshness and commercial and nutritional qualities,
reducing food waste, and the additional use of chemicals, antioxidants, and plastics
packs.
Keywords Bionics · Biomimetics · Chemical food preservatives reduction ·

Chorion · Jun mitani · Origami · Food packaging · Food home preservation ·
Lepidoptera · Plastic waste reduction · Tsutsumu
1 Biomimesis: Hints of History and Methodology
Searching technological solutions inspired by observing and studying organisms’

forms and living processes has its oldest roots in the mimesis process of Greek
aesthetic thought. For the ancient classical culture, the terms art and technique, which
they translate as téchne, were an ordinary meaning of knowing how to do and knowing
how to work, referring to a set of rules applied and followed in the performance of
creative and craft activities. With the development of technical and technological
knowledge, this complex and refined set of procedures that guided thought became
more complex and sophisticated. Its development has concretely contributed to the
emergence of a methodological scientific doctrine. Historically, and without going
into the complexities of specific epistemology, we find the result of two procedural
processes to arrive at rational solutions and theories: the inductive and deductive
methods. These two methodological procedures are somehow translated into the two
research systems: top-down and bottom-up as briefly represented in Fig. 1.
In general, design research on a contemporary bionic and biomimetic basis makes
use of these two particular thought processes. These different approaches develop
opposing research streams, but in R&D practice, they very often become complemen-
tary to each other. In a typical bionic problem-solving process, they often interact with
each other, complementing and integrating through different feedback steps. Let’s
consider a typical top-down industrial design process. The creative path focuses on
the definition of one or more specific technical and technological design problems
and esthetic-functional aspects of form and function that create a plan of potentially
acceptable solutions. This initial level may consist of the need to completely rethink
and redesign a specific aspect of an object or existing technical or technological
performance or develop ideas that are essentially linked to the innovation of strategic
and functional needs in a human context. Implementing top-down methodological
process cycles is expected to lead to the conception of entire classes of new and
competitive useful objects and performances, prototypes, patents, and other types of
R&D solutions. In summary, after the narrowing down of the problem domain in ques-
tion, we move through cascade steps to the realms of natural technology in searching
for possible biological morphological-functional analogs. This information, appro-
priately contextualized and transferred to the design context, can inspire potential
The Maniola, Lycaenidae, and Other Lepidoptera Eggs … 47
Fig. 1 Step by step of Problem-Setting and Problem-Solving in bionics’ and biomimetics’ research
technical and functional solutions. The designer must carefully manage the possible
analogies between the two technological levels, natural and artificial. The inoppor-
tune transference of biological principles into inappropriate design contexts can lead
to forced, scale-less design solutions of considerable aestheticizing bio-formalism.
In this sense, through successive processes of abstraction and sublimation of biolog-
ical models, they overcome the slavishly imitative tout court and formalistic aspect
of natural models. Interesting in this context is the concept of lightweight structures
developed in the 1960s by the German architect Frei Otto, co-founder of the Biologie
und Bauen design group [1].
In the conception of this pioneering group of designers and biologists, the mimetic
research does not place the natural organism on a primary or antithetic level to
the human, technical and technological product. BuB’s investigation leads to the
discovery of unprecedented principles of observation and analysis and laboratory
experiments that reveal surprising functional and structural similarities between the
constructs of nature and technology. The bottom line is that if you compare a blade
of grass and a high voltage tower and properly contextualize them in terms of their
specific dimensions and structural levels, they must function in terms of parameters
and operating conditions in which the physical forces, resistance, applied loads,
and optimization structure of the materials behave according to similar static and
structural models and schemes. The famous models of minimal membranes made
of soap bubbles and films used by biology and construction clarified and guided in
architectural and civil engineering problem-solving both the static and performance
behavior of the morphology of a spider web or a biological membrane and that
of a circus tent or a tensile structure of a textile roof of an airport terminal or a
stadium. From the 1970s onwards, these concepts are stigmatized by Frei Otto in his
48 M. Lumini
conception of innovative architectural and engineering intuitions such as gridshells

and strain architectures [2].
Proper analysis of the allowable stresses imposed by a shape or configuration
of a given material and the structural design of an optimized static response is
essential for creating natural organisms and human engineering. The German group
had understood how to develop a correct biodesign methodology long before the
current development of a design culture based on bionics and biomimetics, which
explores transversal solutions between biology and design. This bionic estheticism
trend of digital decoration [3] appears in some design approaches that, through a
creative process that can be defined as digital rococò [4], risk becoming a kind of
aesthetic rhetoric that itself refers to Biomimicry [4].
A significant tendency in the design culture of design, engineering, and archi-
tecture was born and developed thanks to the viral diffusion on the Internet, of
studies and creations inspired by the imitation of SEM images of extraordinary
microorganisms such as radiolarians and diatoms and their brilliant siliceous ultra-
structure. This contamination of biology domains into the design Imaginarium not
always correct sustainable and functional inspiration has been unleashed, leading
to a slavish and detached transposition and morphological translation of natural
microstructures, lifted from the realms of the invisible until they reach the physical
and tectonic consistency of a human scale of function. Biologist and innovator Janine
Benjus define Biomimicry as:
a technology-driven approach that focuses on putting nature’s lessons into practice, seeing
nature as model, benchmark, and mentor," then proper design aimed at truly sustainable
architecture and design must move beyond evocative esthetic proposals to mimic nature to
produce a world of artificial objects that know how to respond in the most natural, and thus
environmentally friendly, way to the challenges that human and terrestrial evolution will
soon require. [5]
It is worth remembering as possible anticipation of these contemporary bioin-

spired hypotheses that in the theory and practice of ancient design, the three cardinal
principles of human technè (Latin tr.ars-artis), closely linked to the imitative source
of nature, were established by the architect and historian of architecture Marco
Vitruvio Pollone in his treatise De Achitectura:
Haec autem ita fieri debent, ut habeatur ratio firmitas, utilitas, venustatis. [6]
The iconography, later taken up by Renaissance treatises, describes this concept

with the vertices of an equilateral triangle to illustrate the equivalence of each of
them in the complexity of their dynamic relationship. The balance and harmony of
classical art and some of Renaissance’s cultural aspects are partly due to this proxemic
conception of the design approach’s variables. The equidistance of the vertices of the
equilateral triangle requires that the practical and utilitarian aspects necessary for the
execution of an artificial artifact (utilitas, from utilis-utility) are necessarily balanced
and balanced with the aesthetic ones (venustas, from Venus-Veneris-Vinus like the
goddess of beauty) and technical-engineering (firmitas, from firmus-solid). None of
the three fields of action should surpass the others in importance: the triangle that
Fig. 2 The Vitruvian

equilibrium of design
activity
connects them should never turn into an irregular, scalene triangle in which one side
arrogates to itself the right to enlarge itself to the detriment of the size of the other
(Fig. 2).
It is necessary to propose a three-dimensional update of this Vitruvian method-
ological model in light of the current global environmental imbalance affecting planet
Earth and the heavy responsibilities and complexity of designing. The new figure,
which could rework the contemporary methodological vision of a unique harmony
between Man and Nature, is a tetrahedron, the first of the Platonic polyhedra. Starting
from the Vitruvian triangular base, let us imagine adding a fourth vertex in space
equidistant from the other three: a tetrahedron has been created. In this new 3D point,
we place the influence of the domain of propinquitas, a term translated from Latin-
propinquus as kinship, affinity, consanguinity, and, by inference, closeness. This latest
acquisition ensures that in each design methodology, all the specific aspects of the
project (technical, functional, and aesthetic) must necessarily evaluate the network
of causes and effects that trigger each other, taking into account the consequences
of artificial impacts in terms of proximity ecological and fraternity between human
beings and natural creatures (Fig. 3).
An authentic natural, bionic, biomimetic, or bioinspired future design approach
must go beyond bio-formalist proposals’ risky aestheticizing and fashionista infat-
uations. The culture of the project, combined with the needs of the economy, mass
production, and consumption, must know how to experiment and accept the great
challenge of sustainability. The future urgently requires a vision of global propin-
quitas; a deep, renewed, and healthy balance between the effects of doing and the
utilitarian interests of technoscience and economic profit, mediated with the vital and
aesthetic needs of human and earthly communities, in a renewed, more harmonious
and balanced relationship. Let us now return to the broken thread of the analysis
Fig. 3 Updating the

Vitruvian triadic model
50 M. Lumini
of the top-down working method. After defining the field of interest of the techno-
logical problem, a process of research of possible biological analogies develops. A
series of suitable design principles emerge from this phase of specialist research.
Through successive processes of abstraction, geometrizations, and formal and func-
tional passages that strictly distance design from the biological model, we arrive at
a possible hypothesis of contextualization in artificial domains and the definition
of a sustainable concept of bio-inspiration. The following engineering, modeling,
CAD/CAM prototyping, testing, and design corrections through feedback and the
checklist perfect the product. Finally, the project is communicated through graphic
models, mockups, or virtual digital or augmented reality renderings. The bottom-
up complementary process rides in a diametrically opposite way, intercepting in
a biological database one or more organisms that represent exciting solutions that
may concern the various bionic and biomimetic application domains: morphological,
techno-technological, chemical-physical, and functional [3].
An iconic case is the invention of Velcro© adhesive strips by G. De Mestral, at
the forefront since the post-war period in developing a methodology for scouting
potential patents inspired by natural solutions. Biomechanical, functional, morpho-
logical, and anatomical aspects are defined based on research and biological obser-
vations. In the context of industrial design, the molecular and nanotechnological
elements, which refer to mimetic analysis at the level of physical chemistry and
material science processes, are neglected. These forays through biological analyzes
define a set of fundamental design principles that, when appropriately subjected to
processes of abstraction and geometrization, lead to a progressive detachment from
the original natural model. The concepts developed are implemented technically and
technologically to bring the R&D process to defining precise design solutions. The
bottom-up approach requires long lead times, as typically, three to seven years may
elapse between identifying a biological function or structure of interest for technical
development and the actual production of an innovative biomimetic product inspired
by it. The top-down process can lead to the development of efficient solutions in a
relatively shorter time frame, estimated at six to eighteen months. In this regard, the
research presented in this paper developed within the didactic and design activities
of BionikonLab&FABNAT14. It is an experimental design laboratory located inside
a public scientific and artistic high school in Sardinia-Iglesias SU (Italy). We are
skilled in teaching the methodologies of the bionic and biomimetic basic design
approach. The work team is formed by teachers, architects, and designers, supported
by expert biologists and zoologists who work with students aged between 14 and
18. Early BionikonLab was founded in 1996; since 2014, it has been supported and
integrated with FABNAT14 a maker-space for 3D-Printing.
We use rapid prototyping technologies available in the laboratory to develop
prototypes and mockups (Figs. 4 and 5). BionikonLab & FABNAT14 is a unique
educational project of its kind in Italy. The students can develop a set of design skills
more typical of the world of university and specialist research (such as in high schools
of architecture, engineering, and design). The open space of the laboratory allows
working groups, coordinated by teachers and designers, to carry out various activities
Fig. 4 The BionikonLab&FABNAT14’s working space layout
Fig. 5 The BionikonLab&FABNAT14’s working space layout

52 M. Lumini
Fig. 6 This infographic illustrates the main research and design steps, based on the application of
a bottom-up design workflow
simultaneously: web research, meetings, brainstorming activities, lectures, worksta-

tions for CAD drawing, and different CAD-CAM fixtures for rapid prototyping and
3D digital microscopic observation.
The methodological approach followed by the teamwork to develop this specific
research, based on the observation of the morpho-functional characteristics of Lepi-
doptera eggs, can be described as a bottom-up method. The inspiration that triggered
the flow of analysis, research, and design solutions start from research on butterfly
eggs. The designers defined a blueprint of different analog concepts related to the
food packaging sector through creative brainstorming sessions. Follow the workflow
below in Fig. 6, which exemplifies the application of the steps suggested by the
bottom-up design methodology.
2 Eggs in Nature
Eggs are a successful evolutionary nature’s trick. They are designed and built to
provide multifunctional strategies for overcoming life’s challenges. More than 99%
of all animals that have ever lived on planet Earth hatched from an egg at the first
moment of life. An egg is an organic vessel that contains the zygote in which an
embryo develops until it can survive on its own. The fertilization of an ovum forms
an egg. The evolutionary design concept underlying the idea of the egg is to package
their reproductive genetic material in the most efficient and optimized way possible,
beyond the individual specific needs that have led living things to create millions
of different solutions. There are interesting similarities between problem-solving in
embryo packaging and natural protection and the need for safety in food packaging:
preservation of hygrometric data, protection from microbial attack, mold, fungi, and
contaminants. For this reason, eggs must perform very well: capturing the male’s
sperm for a proper fertilization process, protecting the zygote from physical and
mechanical environmental trauma, climatic mediation, and satisfactory ventilation
of the interior laid by females and often left alone, from the intricate, complex, and
highly wild food interrelationships of planet Earth’s ecosystems. They emerge in
the vital scenario related to the birth and evolution of insects, the oldest fossil of
which is currently Rhyniognayha hirsti, a creature that dates back to the Devonian
era, some 396–407 million years ago. The evolution of eggs continued 350 million
years ago, laid by the Captorhinidae, the most primitive reptilian group. One of the
essential evolutionary inventions occurs in the Carboniferous: giant reptiles evolve
a solution that allows them to perform the delicate phase of reproduction regardless
of the presence of water. The embryo in the egg was initially enclosed only by a
membrane. Then a rigid, thin, and porous shell is formed, which protects the genetic
content from moisture loss and proper oxygenation while protecting it from predators.
Inside, a store of nutrients such as fats, proteins, and sugars is created. Thanks to
this innovative solution, the embryo can reach a higher level of development than the
larvae of amphibians. Isolated and protected in the healthy habitat guaranteed by this
safe spaceship, the creature has a good chance of survival even in a dry environment.
Birds are one of the animal groups that have adopted and maintained the solution of
the egg during their evolution, which began about 200 million years ago, to ensure the
continuity of species. Bird eggs have a rigid, multilayered, biomineralized eggshell
(calcium carbonate) with three layers: an outer cuticle, a biomineralized layer, and
the outer and inner shell membranes of collagen fibers. The calcareous shell has a
resistance that in some respects surpasses that of ceramics and concrete: it is a highly
resistant material to compression, tension, and bending loads. Although a fragment
of the shell of a bird, such as a chicken, is extremely thin, it obtains data of excellent
resistance when subjected to a compression test in the longitudinal direction. On
the other hand, when stressed perpendicular to its structure, it is fragile and can
easily be cracked by the delicate beak of a small unborn child. The bird’s egg has an
overall asymmetrical shell structure with a sharper upper pole than the base, which is
perfectly designed to withstand the compressive loads exerted on the surface by the
muscles of the anal oviducts as they are expelled from the female body. At the same
time, as being highly resistant to impact, it must ensure easy breakage by the chick
that bursts the egg to hatch. You can quickly try out this extraordinary resistance
in terms of geometry and shape that an egg has by taking a chicken egg, placing
it in the hollow of one palm, and at the same time applying firm vertical pressure
with the other palm. It is almost impossible to break it. The structure combined with
the chemical-physical and morphological properties of the building material is very
resistant to compressive forces. When you apply a load to the poles, the shell is
54 M. Lumini
mainly subjected to compression because the bending stress is proportional to the

distance between the axis on which the load is applied and the egg’s surface furthest
from it. If you compress the egg from its equator, the distance to the poles is much
greater, and the bending stress, which is proportional to that distance, is many times
greater, making the egg much less resistant. When we compress an egg in this way,
and the tensile stresses that are discharged radially in the shell reach a critical level
equal to the tensile strength of the calcium carbonate, the egg breaks. Thus, it is not
the vertical compressive stresses that break the structure but the radially generated
stresses. Some tests on chicken eggs have shown that their compressive strength is
more than 100 pounds, while ostrich eggs have values of more than 1000 pounds.
Understanding the biomechanics of eggs could lead to exploring more effective
forms of packaging and industrial handling. Some sources indicate that 83.1 billion
consumer eggs were produced in America in 2015, of which about 4/6% were broken
or damaged between production and reaching the consumer. Using the unit cost of
an egg of $2.47 equates to a loss of over a billion dollars per year in the United States
alone [7].
On the contrary, if we exclude the species that give birth to their young, almost
all reptiles also produce eggs. Still, unlike those of the hard-shelled birds, they are
soft and leathery, created by a protein cast coated with calcium carbonate crystals,
and only occasionally do the minerals present in the shell make it similar in biome-
chanical characteristics to those of birds. Reptile eggs are teleolecitic (eggs with
large yolk in the vegetative hemisphere and scarce in the animal pole, therefore
with marked polar differentiation), with many nutritional reserves, making them
hatch at very advanced stages of embryo development compared to amphibians,
for example. Unlike the bird’s egg, it lacks an air chamber. It has a shell that is
permeable to oxygen but such as to avoid internal dehydration. It generally consists
of a membrane (chorion) covered with a limestone coating of aragonite or calcite
units. An underlying membrane called amnios, a true evolutionary innovation of
reptiles for land conquest, protects the embryo from dehydration and mechanical
shocks. Gelatinous albumen provides an additional nutritional reserve of proteins,
isolates the embryo mechanically, hydrates it, and protects it from microbial infec-
tions. There is a large egg cell (yolk or yolk sac) composed of lipids and proteins and
an extensive membrane called allantoid, which has the dual function of collecting
the semi-solid urine of the embryo and coming into contact with the shell to ensure
respiratory exchanges: carbon dioxide comes out, and oxygen enters. From a bionic
and biomimetic point of view, the chemical-physical nature of the egg itself generates
a whole series of possible inspirations for engineering and design studies and appli-
cations. Insect eggs, of which approximately 900,000 species represent the largest
phylum on Earth, constitute another massive class of differentiated solutions both
in morphology and in the functional specificities of adaptation and environmental
competition. From various research sources in the zoological field, it was possible to
obtain a series of data, information, and images, which guided the subsequent devel-
opment phases of the various design concepts. In particular, the essay “Evolution
of Oviposition Techniques in Stick and Leaf Insects” (Phasmayodea) was of great
interest and usefulness [8]. Phasmayodea are an order of insects whose members are
variously known as stick insects, stick-bugs, walking sticks, stick animals, or bug
sticks. The accurate images of the eggs produced by these families of tropical insects
by the French entomologist François Tetaert describe in detail the incredible and
imaginative variety of types and morphologies [9]. The creativity of natural design is
expressed here with such characteristics, which translated into human imagination,
have led us to define this incredible world of biodesign and eco-styling as Atelier
Embryo (Fig. 7). In insects’ crowded and competitive universe, laying, fertilizing,
and hatching eggs represent the crucial node within the individual life cycles. The
efficiency of these phases marks the success or failure of the evolutionary process of
each individual, inserted in the articulated and complex dynamics of the hierarchies
of the victim-predator ecosystemic food cycles. From this need for significant biolog-
ical differentiation, the world of insects offers us an impressive variety of formal and
functional solutions. The study and classification of their morphological matrices are
highly interested in analyzing the factors that guide natural design [10].
Within the boundless universe of insects, this research has focused on Lepidoptera.
This is a vast order of insects to which more than 158.000 species belong, known
as butterflies and moths, and their name, from the Greek lepis-scale and pteron-
wing, literally means wings with scales, concerning the presence of minute shaped
structures that cover their wings. These microscopic elements are arranged one on
top of the other similar to the roof tiles. Seen with the naked eye, they appear as a sort
of dust. Thanks to the current development of electron scanning microscope-SEM
Fig. 7 An alienating Atelier Embryo

56 M. Lumini
imaging techniques and other refined digital microscopy techniques, this ultra-thin
powder, which in the popular imagination is linked to the butterflies’ flying power,
has shown extraordinary morphological and ultrastructural complex hierarchies and
unveiled a microworld of exceptional beauty and efficiency. Butterflies have become
the subject of in-depth bionic and biomimetic research. In their fascinating high-
tech performance, there are still many unexplored aspects that present potential for
transferring ideas in industrial production processes. The present research, for its
part, has focused on the analysis of the particular metamorphic life cycle that the
Lepidoptera have created in the millions of years of their evolution, focusing on the
structural and functional nature of their eggs, the interest in the bionic specific.
3 The Butterfly Egg Effect
One of the first studies concerning the description of the world of insects and Lepi-
doptera was published in 1669 in Italy. The essay, written by the doctor and father
of microscopic observation in medicine, embryology, histology, and physiology,
Marcello Malpighi, is dedicated to the study of Bombix mori, and which contains the
first scientific documentation of ovarioles and mature eggs of a Lepidopteran species.
But another astonishing text is undoubtedly that due to the talent of Maria Sybilla
Merian. Maria Sybilla, daughter of the German publisher and engraver Matthäus
Merian, was a researcher of excellence, a reference point for naturalists and illustra-
tors of the old continent who carved out a space of great prestige and authority in a
universe of purely male scientific research. Self-taught, Maria Sybilla challenged the
common belief that she wanted insects, defined as beasts of Satan, to be born by spon-
taneous generation originating from the putrefaction of organic matter. She devoted
herself with enormous care and scientific value to observing the life of caterpillars;
she discovered that they were born from eggs and then described their metamor-
phic cycle up to the butterfly stage with graces and splendidly illustrated plates. In
1679 and 1683, she published the two volumes of his book: Der Raupen wunder-
bare Verwandelung und sonderbare Blumennahrung, in which, through detailed texts
and beautiful watercolor engravings, she described the metamorphosis of over one
hundred species of butterflies [11].
A growing interest in insects developed throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth
centuries, and real entomology was born. Despite the limitations due to the optical
instruments of microscopy, the descriptive and artistic work of the entomologists of
the time gave us images of great interest and scientific precision. In recent years,
thanks to the advanced technologies of SEM magnification, digital visualization,
and sophisticated video shooting techniques, the study of insects and butterflies, in
particular, is offering research ideas of extreme interest for biomimicry. Generally,
the life cycle of insects is particularly fascinating and complex as it passes through
complex metamorphoses. Metamorphosis is a Greek word that means transformation
or change in shape and into an insect’s world are present two common types of
this. Some individuals like grasshoppers, crickets, dragonflies, and cockroaches have
incomplete metamorphosis. The young nymph usually looks like small adults but
without wings. The complete cycle of metamorphosis is observable in butterflies,
moths, beetles, flies, and bees. The young larva has a very different morphology from
the adult insect and usually eats different food types. The complete cycle is organized
into four stages: egg, larva, pupa, and adult. The life cycle can take over a year in
some species, while in most specimens, it ends in a much shorter period, ranging
from two weeks to a month. The relatively few earliest known Prodryas persophone
butterfly fossils are from the mid-Eocene epoch, between 40 and 50 million years
ago, but their development is closely linked to the evolution of flowering plants since
both adult butterflies and caterpillars feed on flowering plants (Fig. 8) [12].
Many scientists suggest this specialized association between Lepidopteran groups
and flowering plants, developed during the Cretaceous Period, often called the Age
of Flowering Plants, 65–135 million years ago, dinosaurs also lived on the earth.
Entomologists do not sufficiently understand this fact, and recent theory suggests
that the origin of butterflies started 200 million years ago, in the Triassic period,
from an obscure moth family, the Hedylidae. Scientists in 2018 found fossilized
butterfly scales the size of a speck of dust inside ancient rock from Germany. This
fact can reveal that butterflies came first, even before flowering plants, but a scientist
says that modern colored butterflies evolved only after dinosaurs’ mass extinction
(Schootbrugge 2018) [13, 14].
Butterfly eggs vary in size from about 1 to 3 mm. in diameter, they are oval
or spheroidal in shape, and their external structure of the chorion eggshell can be
smooth or textured. The colors vary from yellow, white, green, and others typical
Fig. 8 Prodryas persophone. Credit Illustration by author’s pencil drawing from fossil photography
58 M. Lumini
Fig. 9 Schematic representation of the main chorion sculpturing types
for each species. As we will see below, our research interest for a specific species of
moths (Lycanidae, Libytheinae, Hesperidae, and Pieridae)) arose from the particular
morphological conformations that their eggs have (Fig. 9).
Eggs appear in the life cycle of a butterfly, usually in springtime, when the
female and the male coming out of the larval cocoon, attract each other through
their pheromones in delicate and ephemeral dances that are a prelude to mating that
can take place in the air or on the ground. Mating is achieved by joining the extrem-
ities of the abdomen for a few minutes or hours, depending on the species. After
mating, the female secretes the eggs made by keratin through the ovarian follicular
cells, which can vary from 100 to 300, and lays them. Some butterflies lay their eggs
directly on particular plants that will house the voracious larvae. Females choose
the most suitable ones thanks to very sensitive taste sensors present in their legs,
laying a few eggs on the underside of a leaf of a specific plant of the species, to
increase the chances that the larvae have sufficient food resources, thus guaranteeing
their survival. The butterfly’s eggs are typically attached to the plant, leaves, stems,
or branches, with a special bio-glue. This natural adhesive is powerful; it works so
well that it is impossible to remove an egg from a leaf surface without destroying
the egg itself. The female of Opodiphtera, an Australian endemic moth belonging
to the Saturnidae family, has been the subject of careful studies to understand the
superpower of eggs’ gluing [15].
The researchers analyzed the characteristics of the adhesives produced by more

than 32 insects and found that the strongest was the egg attachment glue produced by
saturniid gum moths of the genus Opodiphtera. This adhesive is made by a protein
bio-complex hydrogel and is similar to the consistency of molasses, and once released
by the female collateral glands, it undergoes an irreversible orange-brown gelling,
which shows a very remarkable adhesive power. According to the research team, the
recombinant mimics of this material could be functional as adhesives for biodegrad-
able raw materials or as specialty biomedical products. This trend direction of bionic
and biomimetic research of naturally inspired super glues can be found in many scien-
tific publications that take into consideration both the characteristics of the eggs of
butterflies, moths but also insects with exciting morphological characteristics, as in
the case of Phyllium Philippinicum (Phasmatodea: Phyllidae) generally known as
leaf insects [16].
The adhesive capacity of the bio-glue used by this insect has been subjected to
very sophisticated investigations and measurements that promise open scenarios for
developing bioinspired materials. It is fascinating to analyze the chemical relation-
ships between the laid eggs and the host leaves. The butterfly lays tiny eggs that stick
to the leaf margins. Consequently, the plant tries to adopt biochemical defenses to
eliminate the intruder, such as, for example, activating rotting areas corresponding
to the areas infested by egg-laying to try to damage the future intruder. Instead of
laying their eggs on leaves and branches, some butterflies spread them in flight,
leaving the larvae to choose their host plant. The interest in possible inspirations
of bionic or biomimetic basic designs that consider the eggs of moths appears to
be a relatively new sector. There are few detailed descriptions of eggs’ surface and
structure morphology of a closely related butterflies group based on scanning elec-
tron microscopy. Our first interest in addressing research on the morphological and
functional characteristics of butterfly eggs was inspired by the presentation in a TED
on Instagram of a documentary shot by director Louie Scwartzberg: Hidden Mira-
cles of the Natural World. Louie Schwartzberg is a cinematographer, director, and
producer who captures breathtaking images that celebrate life, revealing connections,
universal rhythms, patterns, and beauty [17].
Through the use of sophisticated shooting directing and digital rendering tech-
nologies, Louie’s work shows the incredible beauty and complexity of the natural
technologies at work, such as the production of filaments by the silk glands of spiders.
In this video, some stunningly beautiful sequences show the structure and surface
pattern of an enlarged, high-resolution butterfly egg. This visual material has trig-
gered the desire to deepen the interest in this still underdeveloped naturalistic aspect
and prompted us to search for possible technological and design transfers of a bionic
and biomimetic matrix. One of the first specific studies we have found and consulted,
devoted to the surface morphology of Lepidoptera eggs, is the research work of
Thomson [18] of the Department of Biological Science University of Stirling, Scot-
land [19]. This essay considers the external morphologies of the eggs of 14 butterflies
belonging to the Satyridae species Manioline, examined through the use of SEM-
scanning electron microscope technology. In addition to the considerable amount
of specific zoological and biological information that it was possible to obtain from
60 M. Lumini
Fig. 10 Manióla cypricola

chorion’s egg
its reading, the aspect that we found most interesting for the biomimetic-inspired
process of a particular problem-solving and basic design is linked to the images and
the concept re-edited by Thomson of egg’s surface chorionic sculpturing, used by
Abrogast [18] (Fig. 10).
Every species of Maniolina butterfly, M. jurtina, M. megala, M. chia, and M.
telmessia and all those subjected to photomicrographic analysis reveal morphological
variants of the basic design structure). This structural model, which we could define
as the egg dome, is described and classified variously as spherical, truncated conical,
subspherical to subcylindrical, barrel, and subcylindrical to truncated conical shaped.
This first classification of the spatial geometric typologies assumed by the various
chorions allowed us, in the design phase, to create a typological matrix that identifies
the standard variants present in the production of lepidopteran eggs (Fig. 11).
Exciting, in the bottom-up process, was the evaluation, present in all the analyzed
chorions, of the presence of a series of micropyle canals, primary cell petals, polyg-
onal surface prominences, and curved ribs. Subsequently, we have deepened the
knowledge related to the functional conformation of a moth egg to understand in more
depth the design concept that underlies this natural artifact. Butterflies entrust the
possibility of their evolutionary success to the careful construction and engineering
of their eggs. To rationally and aesthetically fulfill this fundamental ecosystem func-
tion, over the evolutionary arc of millions of years, a dome morphology has been
maintained and tested that originates from a spheroidal morphing, which is necessary
as a genetic packaging for energy optimization of the volume/surface. The geometric
Fig. 11 Chorions’ basic 3D-shapes on CAD rendering
and structural researches of the first observations of Thompshon (1917) and, in partic-
ular, the full development of the synergetic geometry and geodetic architecture of
Buckminester Fuller and Frei Otto have established how the optimization of a dome
shape satisfies more than others possible potential spatial schemes, to the fulfillment
of a checklist of energy and functional performances [20].
However, the whole dome architecture is referable to the energetic-spatial
behavior of soap bubbles, foams, the surface tension of liquids such as water, and
minimal soapy membranes. Inside and outside the genetic capsule of the butterfly
egg dome, these are the best functional responses.
3.1 Ensure a Resistant Bond to the Lower Surface

of the Sheets or Stems from Counteracting Gravitational
Forces
The gluing aspect was previously introduced in the course of the discussion. Since
these data await a technical and exquisitely biochemical analysis, they are beyond the
scope of our research, and therefore we leave to the bibliographic notes the possible
insights for different bionic and biomimetic concepts.
3.2 Optimization of the Closet Package of the Spatial

Distribution of the Aggregation of the Brood
of Numerous Eggs on the Target Support
On the topic of spatial optimization of spherical or spheroidal cells or domes, there

are numerous analyses and research papers, starting with the theoretical schemes
62 M. Lumini
proposed by Thompson of the hexagonal arrangements of cells that are like the closest
geometric packaging of 2D discs. By putting a series of equal circumferences on a
surface in tangential contact, a specific geometric structure of spatial optimization
with a hexagonal matrix is generated. The female butterfly that lays a series of
eggs, as occurs in an infinite variety of oviparous larval deposition morphologies
(see mosquitoes, frogs, and amphibians, spiders, etc.), sequentially expels from the
ovarian duct a continuous jet of hundreds of elements that initially they appear to
be in a gelatinous, semi-dense state. This sort of 3D-bioprint produces modules that
are all hypothetically identical, which, in the space time intended for the deposition
function, must adhere tenaciously to the leaf support. In a short time in contact with
the air, they begin to dry and harden, taking on the typical shape of the species. The
deposition takes place through groupings of eggs in small clusters that are arranged
spatially in such a way as to guarantee the efficiency of future vital functions. In
particular, the correct interstitial space must be provided for energy optimization of
the hot/humid exchange, aeration, and oxygen/carbon dioxide gas exchange (Figs. 12
and 13). Starting from the construction of the base of every single egg, the shape
that we find in all the models analyzed starts from a system of foundations that are
practically, ideally, perfectly circular. From this planimetric system, which is subject
to the law expressed by Thompson, extruding into space, the eggs assume, as already
mentioned, infinite spatial variants of spheroidal, truncated cone, dome, which in
most of the morphologies chosen, in principle resemble the shape adopted in the
paper construction of the lampshade and flying Chinese lanterns.
Fig. 12 Eggs’ arrangements

on a leaf’s surface
Fig. 13 Eggs’ arrangements

on a leaf’s surface
3.3 Offer Mechanical Protection from External Physical

Agents (Wind, Compressions, Impacts, Etc.)
Making a thin material shell a resistant spatial structure involves interesting prob-
lems both at the micro-scale of insects and at the macro scale of human architec-
tural designs. Considering the due differences in dimensional scale about the action
of gravitational and static and mechanical forces on the structures and materials
adopted in the two construction domains, the problem of optimizing lightweight
frames appears to be a similar case between insects and humans. Biological engi-
neering tends to work by adopting a series of structural solutions which, in compliance
with the limitation of the previous point, provide for the creation of specific design
strategies such as the creation of surface embossing, conveying, texturing, or radial
ribs that shape and the fundamental spatial matrices identified to vary. The trend is
to develop spatial structural models that offer effective resistance to form. We have
already encountered the efficacy of resistant shell structures in terms of shape, talking
about the static behavior of the body of birds’ eggs. This structural aspect can be
easily verified by experimenting with the resistance to the compressive forces acting
on a simple sheet of paper resting on the ends of two vertical supports as if it were
a horizontal beam or slab. In BionikonLab the student-researchers work to design
and make simple structures by folding A4-size cardboard sheets in such a way as to
resist the stresses of weight strength. Structural analogies are then observed in some
natural living models, such as the leaves of cabbage or other broad-leaved plants, in
which the veins help to make fragile leaf surfaces resistant (Fig. 14).
In this extremely thin horizontal structure, the distribution of the construction
material through the dimensional ratio between the width, the depth is such that
it flexes under its weight, assuming a configuration of reaching static equilibrium,
64 M. Lumini
Fig. 14 Simple and intuitive resistance tests by bending cardboard surfaces
typically catenary. In mathematics, the catenary is a particular hyperbolic plane

curve, the trend of which is the characteristic one of a homogeneous, flexible and
non-extensible rope, bound to two vertical supports and subject only to its weight,
as happens for example to an electric cable between two pylons. If we want to allow
the sheet of paper to resist at least its weight, we are led to introduce a fold along its
entire length. Thanks to the fold, the sheet will change its static behavior and will be
able to maintain a perfectly horizontal spatial configuration. The introduction of a
series of parallel folds creates a surface treatment such that the sheet, from a fragile
structure, unable to support its weight, without adding reinforcement material, is
transformed into a horizontal layout as well resistant to be able to carry additional
loads. By experimenting with various configurations of folds, it is possible to study
the efficiency of resistance to compressive forces. Folding structures, and Origami
patterns, help apply thin and resistant industrial materials such as variously folded
and corrugated sheets (Fig. 15).
The analysis of the ribs and embossing present in a chorion, gives the idea of how
the moths make the structures of the tiny eggs extremely resistant by acting on the
surface structure [21].
In nature, this resistance behavior due to shape is observed in the folds and veins
present in the leaves, especially in the extensive and thin ones such as in the banana
plant, in all palms like Saw palmetto genre.
Fig. 15 Some basic design models of paper folding structures (shape memory surfaces)
In structural engineering, a shell construction model is a structural body generated

starting from a circular or curvilinear surface, whose thickness is minimal concerning
its dimensions, just precisely like butterfly eggs. Due to their structural character-
istics, the shell structures are not very suitable for supporting concentrated loads
but only distributed loads. The loads applied to the shell surfaces are transferred
to the ground by developing compressive tensile. Tangential stresses are acting in
the tangent plane locally to the surface, given the complexity of a geometric design
66 M. Lumini
capable of opposing an appropriate resistance by shape to the compressive forces of

the smooth spheroidal model, which for example, in the case of the hen’s eggshell,
requires sophisticated engineering of super materials, in the eggs of Lepidoptera it
is rarely encountered. Furthermore, butterflies’ eggs present the urgent need for a
support base that is stubbornly glued to flat support. The forms that present appro-
priate chorion sculpturing is much more widespread through the introduction of
concave/convex models, ribs, embossings, and various surface corrugations that guar-
antee a better structural stiffening and the absorption and structural discharge of the
tension forces along the lines of the meridian and the transversal ones along the
circumferential or parallel lines. In a hemispherical shell, the direct efforts according
to the meridians are always compressive, while the direct efforts according to the
parallels can be both traction and compression. The meridians tend to open in the
lower area, and the circling forces acting at the base are traction (Fig. 16).
This fact explains how in the structure of the Lepidoptera eggs, a sort of foun-
dation ring is adopted, glued to the base plane and to the leaf margin, necessary to
absorb the horizontal thrusts of the shell. The chorion’s surface shows a system of
concave-convex ribs and corrugations, both along the meridians and the parallels.
Nature adopted shell structures to design and construct exoskeletons of insects and
arthropods, in the abdomen of various insects, spiders, claws and carapaces of crabs,
and arthropods in general. As we have seen, in the eggshells of birds, the design of
the shape and engineering of the materials probably reaches the heights of efficiency
and the most performing formal purity. Shell structures are also found in the bones
of the skull or shoulder blade, in the carapaces of turtles, in mushroom hats, in the
pneumatic forms of jellyfish, to name a few. In human technique and technology, we
ascertain the use of shell structures in the design and construction: of domes, silos,
deposits for hydrocarbons and other materials, in inflatable marquees for ephemeral
and temporary coverings of sports fields, concerts, stands, etc., in the creation of
handicrafts such as pots, bowls, tableware and more and the rounded bodies of auto-
motive and industrial bodies in general. In practice, it can conclude that the need to
build a dome shell with relatively thin walls in elevation by the light structure code
Fig. 16 Static behavior of the compressive forces acting on a dome

Fig. 17 Morphological affinities between a Lycaenidae egg and a michetta bread, due to the need
to organize the surface of a dome-shaped structure through a polygonal mesh
leads both in natural and human design, with due differences in scale, to a series of
similar structural solutions [22].
It is amazing to note some morphological similarities between a typical form of
Italian bread, the Milanese michetta bread (a crunchy shell of flour and yeast, light,
empty, and thin walls), with those of some eggs studied, Lycaenidae particularly
(Fig. 17).
As will be seen later, in the course of our research, an interesting exploratory
aspect led us, in the basic design experimentation phase, to deepen, starting from the
use of a sheet of paper, the possibilities of spatial construction of shell structures using
the refined folding techniques of modern Origami. The shell structure generates a
series of complicated structural requirements. In the history of architecture, we find
many examples of dome and shell structures, starting with the Mycenaean tholos,
passing through the structural masterpieces of Roman engineering that see the highest
peak in the Pantheon. All Gothic architecture led to considerable development in the
construction of ribbed lightweight membranes structures. The reinterpretation of
Gothic structural engineering by the Catalan architect Antonì Gaudì was also made
possible by adopting funicular models based on the properties of the catenaries
to respond to traction loads which, by inverting the arrow, could be assumed as a
response curve to compression loads. The domes with more excellent light were
divided mathematically and structurally into beams and ribs as in the extraordinary
construction of the Centennial Hall in Wroclaw (1911–1913), up to the emblematic
cases of structures such as the Zeiss dome-shaped planetarium built in Jena in 1924.
With a span of 25 m, it has a shell thickness of only 6 cm. One of the most sophisticated
fields of development that offers many natural mimetic implications is Buckminster
Fuller’s structural geodesic research and Pier Luigi Nervi’s extraordinary reinforced
concrete architecture.
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3.4 Maintain the Correct Initial Permeability to the Male

Sperm Flow to Ensure the Fertilization of the Genetic
Material
The SEM analysis of the chorion reveals the presence on its surface of numerous
micropyle (from the Greek mikros, small and pulé, gate), a sort of micro openings
that allow male gametes to enter and fertilize the ovum found in a wide diversity
of taxa, including insects, fishes, cephalopods and plants. Among insects and Lepi-
doptera orders, micropyles exhibit considerable variation in position, arrangement,
and number. In some species, such as Drosophila, micropyles protrude from the
egg chorion on stalks in Lepidoptera are located in micropylar pits while others
are superficial [23]. Some research shows that in some cases, an attractive chemical
agent appears to act by the micropyle to better direct and channel the male sperm
inside the egg [24]. The reproductive biology of egg formation in Lepidoptera and
generally of insects had an intense development in the Twentieth Century. Even if the
in-depth study of these complex and fascinating subjects of zoology is beyond the
scope of this study, we consider it interesting to cite an essay that shows and clarifies
the fundamental aspects of morphology and physiology related to the production of
eggs in Lepidoptera [25].
3.5 Guarantee the Conservation of the Correct Internal

Valuable Humidity for the Vital Processes of the Larva
and Allow the Metabolic Gaseous Oxygen/Carbon
Dioxide Exchanges
Generally, every single egg represents in the butterfly’s life, and all oviparous beings,
the guarantee policy for the survival of their species. For this crucial evolutionary
reason, its functioning has been optimized and tested over millions of years to allow
the best reproductive success. The tiny nurse-capsules of the dome chorion are
survival craft launched into its ecosystem’s wild and unknown space. Each butterfly
abandons its offspring to its destiny, and for this fundamental survival need of the
same species, it tries to offer the best conditions of defense and protection to the
growing small embryo. The control of the microclimate and indoor gas exchanges
represents one of the most delicate problems of environmental engineering that the
chorion has to face. The surface of the chorion, often within the various ribs, is dotted
with a layer of other inputs called aeropyle. Insects use an aeropyle design system to
allow the larva to breathe and aerate the internal egg space to optimize gas exchange
with the environment, whether the egg is dry or wet. The formation of this layer acts
as an efficient distribution system of gases for the developing embryo, as is found in
some insects, including Drosophila [26].
Very accurate SEM scans show, through splendid photographic images, the variety
of solutions adopted in the yards of animal life [27].
Egg chorion of castor butterfly Ariadne merione exhibits well-organized regional
and radial complexity [28].
The chorion surface bears longitudinal ridges, grooves, protuberances, and several
respiratory filaments bearing aeropyles to make correct gas exchange egg’s outdoor-
indoor. A cross-section of tiny keratin chorion’s membrane through SEM analysis,
shows an ultrastructural bio-materials sandwich created by four distinct layers:
• Internal layer
• Trabecular layer having trabecular air spaces
• Principal layer
• External layer.
The particularly chorion’s air spaces system offers analogies with the aerenchyma,
or aerial parenchyma, a spongy plant tissue, like mangroves aerial roots, mainly
composed of air spaces enabling gas exchange to take place by diffusion underground.
This functional aspect has been considered in the design abstractions to stimulate
new ideas on the possible engineering of foods-box and particular food preservation
films, replacing the PVC-made products widely used by the mass market and the
agri-food industry. In these products, the addition of chemicals such as phthalates
causes contact with foods and food products containing lipids, their solubility, and the
consequent release of toxic contaminants and harmful to human health. Therefore,
in addition to the architectural and structural suggestions of the overall morphology
of the eggshell domes as a source of design inspiration, this extraordinary functional
aspect present in the ultrastructures of the eggshell designed to guarantee perfect
control of the internal microenvironment of the tiny butterfly eggs, has focused in
particular the transfer design interests of our bottom-up process. BionikonLab’s work
teams, through creative passages of brainstorming sessions, decontextualized a series
of functional and formal analogies from chorion’s eggshell technologies. They then
elaborated a series of practical and morphological metaphors useful for transferring
chorion eggshell technologies to potential design solutions for the proper storage of
food, fruit, and vegetables through their micropyled-aerial food packaging.
3.6 Offer the First Food to the Caterpillar Immediately

upon Hatching
The fertilized eggs hatch after an incubation which varies according to the species and
sometimes also by the temperature from the environmental hygrometric conditions
and is generally between a few days and 2–3 weeks. When the cleft is approaching,
the eggs change color and become darker and reveal the small caterpillar that lives and
moves inside them. The eggs do not tear apart violently as the caterpillar carefully
carves a sort of circular porthole in the upper part of the chorion cap, pushing it
70 M. Lumini
outwards, making an opening, and coming out with a little contortion. This birth
phase is very delicate as the caterpillar is very vulnerable and needs food to strengthen
itself. Nature provides its first food with the shell of the egg itself that the caterpillar
eats greedily to have the first energy to face the difficulties of the world it will have
to enter. Once the caterpillar has consumed its first meal, it immediately searches
for new food, which is usually provided by the tender leaves that have housed the
colony of laid eggs.
4 The Lycanidae’s Construction Eggs Design
The Lycanidae is the second-largest family of Lepidoptera, comprising several 6.000

species worldwide. They are brilliantly colored, and the adult individuals are gener-
ally under 5 cm. in size with a rapid flight. This family comprises seven subfami-
lies, including the blues (Polyommatinae), the coppers (Lycaeninae), the hairstreaks
(Theclinae), and the harvesters (Miletinae). The whole life cycle of Lycanidae offers
fascinating behavior and functional aspects that demonstrate the complex evolution
of terrestrial ecosystem relations between individuals of different species. The cater-
pillar born from the eggs has a cylindrical shape with often mimetic colors and, in
general, numerous pearls and bristles along the whole body. It moves whit three
pairs of short thoracic legs, and to move quickly on the vegetation, it uses partic-
ular false abdominal legs provided with a structure similar to a sucker. Its buccal
chewing apparatus is equipped with powerful jaws capable of finely chopping the
leaves of the host plant. The caterpillar grows very quickly, and during its life cycle, it
performs a series of 4–5 molts until it turns into a pupa or chrysalis. The Lycanidae’s
complex metamorphic process exposes them to a thousand dangers due to the attack
of parasites and predators. But nature has provided these extraordinary creatures
with many vital tricks. Both the caterpillars and the pupae, for example, possess
glands that secrete secretions capable of attracting and conditioning the aggressive
attitude of the ants toward them and being able to receive mutual protection against
parasites and predators from them. Individuals of some species harassed by parasites
or predators, thanks to particular structures placed on the eighth abdominal tergite,
can emit specific chemical signals that alert the ants that rush to their defense. Some
larvae can produce vibrations and a low range of sounds that are transmitted through
the substrates they inhabit to communicate with the sentinel ants. The type of social
behavior that Lycaenidae establish with ant communities is particularly complex and
varies according to the species: in some, the relationship (myrmecohily) can be mutu-
alistic, parasitic, or predatory. The larvae that establish a positive symbiosis with the
ants while feeding on the leaves of the host plant receive protection as if they engage
a sort of private army of mercenaries in their pay. The currency with which they repay
these services by the army of ants is a particular sugary substance that they sell and of
which the ants are very fond. Sometimes some larvae, after a first leaf phase, manage
to illegally settle inside the precious nest of the anthill, parasitizing the community
that will continue to look after the pupa until the butterfly is born, which takes place
inside the anthill. Upon exiting the chrysalis cocoon, the adult butterfly remains with
its wings folded and dangling, drying in the sun and pumping hemolymph inside
the wing ribs, like an inflatable, to take off the nuptial flight. Beyond all this inter-
esting zoological information found on this important family of butterflies, the most
significant aspect of the bottom-up research within this study was that related to the
analysis of the particular morphology that their eggs present. To accompany us in
the knowledge of the structural details of the design of the construction site of the
Lycanid’s domes was, on the one hand, consult a series of specialist entomological
researches and, on the other hand, learn about an interesting biomimetic work by the
designer Tia Kharrat [29].
In 2016 Kharrat developed the design concept Metamorphosis: Inception, an
architectural structure based on mimicry of the shape of Lycanidae butterflies egg as
a University of Westminster graduate. As seen previously, each species of butterfly
produces its particular interpretation of the fundamental design matrix of the egg-
shaped dome. The Hesperidae explore a variant of a smooth chapel-like dome-shell
chorion with little sculpturing, the Nymphalidae concentrate around a sort of barrel
shape with ribs and various ribs, Satyridae produce eggs with forms reminiscent of
vases with elaborate lids and finally the Pieridae that create tapered eggs, rich in ribs
and sculpturing surface. But is the family of Lycanidae that have the most geomet-
rical and intricate egg shape like: L. tityrus, L. virgaurea, L. alciphron, Surendra
vivarna amisena, Arhopala abseus, Miletus biggsii, or Megisba malaya sikkima. Tia’s
research starts from considering that the metamorphosis of butterflies is a well-known
and studied entomological aspect, but few know about the start of this journey: the
caterpillar egg. The designer applies several methodologies of geometrization and
basic design to describe the morphological chorion sculpture belonging to basic
bionic and biomimetic design methods. The tiny keratin constructions of Pratapa
deva relata, the Singaporean White Royal Butterfly, presents complex patterns and
geometric progressions of the Fibonacci Sequences and the domes geodesics Bucky
Ball. Through spatial subtraction of negative spherical tiling and rendering in 3D
printing, Tia gets closer to the ratio that structures the geodesy of the egg. Analyzing
the patterns that govern these chiseled eggs’ structural and spatial organization as
jewels continue with identifying subdivisions that can be described and modeled
using fractal logics and Lloyd’s algorithm to create more uniform Voronoi polygons
iterations. The Kharrat project, after various steps of successive geometric abstrac-
tions that provide, for example, the CAD graphic rendering of a series of Voronoi
meshes and offsets in iterations, produces a whole series of CAD-CAM models of
mapping patterns, extruded patterns, and Lloyd’s patterns that come to an interesting
final consideration. They created subdivisions of the concave-convex surfaces of the
chorion through a generative model in a self-referential mode that activates a series
of infinite subtraction schemes of spheres at an increasingly reduced dimensional
scale. Using the same rules of increasing the density toward the edges, as presented
with Lloyd’s Algorithm, a pattern can be produced that resembles that of the original
White Royal Egg chorion’s structure. Through further iterations of the fractal process,
the abstraction of the model continues up to the final result of a design concept of
a sculptural installation in which people can interact with live butterflies. This idea
72 M. Lumini
stands as a work of denunciation regarding the ever-declining numbers of butterflies

worldwide and in the UK to raise awareness of more significant conservation and
education on eco-sustainability. The author imagines an ethereal space filled with
dappled light where people can come for contemplation and perhaps their metamor-
phosis. This concept results from our research to be the only bioinspired bionic and
biomimetic design linked to the study of butterfly eggs’ morphological and functional
characteristics, excluding some still pioneering research works, which try to reveal
the biochemistry of super-adhesiveness that allows gluing of their cylindrical bases
to the leaf surfaces of the host plants. Our work has moved in a completely different
direction, which concerns the theme of food design packaging and conservation, as
mentioned several times in the course of the discussion.
5 Food Storage and Conservation in Human and animal’s

Eating Behaviors
The need for food’s preservation, storage, packaging, and transportation has afflicted
human civilization since the dawn of time, like hunger and thirst. In every step,
country, and society of history, human inventiveness has devised many efforts, tech-
nical solutions, and design inventions to set aside food resources safely, often linked
to the seasonal or periodic availability of water, fruit, vegetables, etc. cereals or
animal’s bodies parts. The development of the various preservation technologies
has made it necessary to experiment and test solutions capable of guaranteeing the
conservation of biochemical characteristics, hygienic safety, and the pleasure of the
taste of daily consumption. Over time, countless gimmicks, technological cycles,
and food processing methods have been tested. These multiple food technologies
inventions they depended on and have been heavily conditioned by several aspects
like:
• climate regional conditions;
• food typology disponibility;
• energy and water resources availability;
• hygienic, cultural, and religious conditioning;
• level of one’s technoscientific evolution;
• economical and marketing global scales strategies.
Dehydration through solar energy in tropical and warm climates, artificial heating
and smoking by fire in areas with wood availability, cooking in modified atmosphere,
salting among the coastal peoples, glaciation with ice and snow in cold countries, and
many other culinary arts tricks like fermenting, pickling, curing or canning have been
experimented to ensure food’s organoleptic characteristics. Food’s edible quality and
flavor preservation were designed not only for actual human survival. Economic and
market strategies consider very carefully the aesthetic treatment, custom differen-
tiation of social and financial classes, and pure eating pleasure behavior related to
the consumption of foods. Food preservation and backlog are aspects that also affect
many other living beings on the planet. Surviving in the wild is a challenge for all
animals, even for those that live at the top of their ecosystem food chain, and one
strategy that animals use is storing food for the future time. Storage food behavior
is a result of the survival instincts of all living creatures, and they hold resources to
consume later in possible seasonal changes or to evade the presence of competing
for other animal species in the same territory. Can find many examples: tayra (Eira
barbara) is a mustelid that lives in Central America; it is an omnivore but is partic-
ularly greedy for fruit and picks unripe bananas and keeps them until they ripen.
The exciting thing is that tayra seems to demonstrate a temporal knowledge linked
to the passage of time, as they collect banana food that they would like to eat in the
future when it is ripe. Ants store food in their gaster (drop or social stomach) and
can share this food with other ants, and will do so when requested; Myrmecocystus
mexicanus lives in arid regions where water and food are in short supply. However,
the spreading areas of these ants are affluent in resources during the wet seasons, at
which time all the food surplus produced by the colony is stored inside the honey
ants. Honey ants are specialized individuals that act as living pantries; they accu-
mulate water and honey resources in their abdomen, swilling like a wineskin and
hanging from the ceiling of the burrows of the colony nest. When the workers-ants
need food, they have to feed the food regurgitated from this living container. Dogs,
especially terriers, dachshunds, beagles, are more predisposed than other dog breeds
to hide food reserves like bones in burrows dug into the ground. This custom could
improve the taste of food, like our raw ham preservation technologies, for example.
In this way, they can build food reserves for the low season, keeping it cool and out
of sunlight. Squirrels hide seeds and other food in pantry hiding places for the winter
season. Many birds also behave similarly, creating food stacks as a food supply. Some
birds show extreme behavior, as in the case of having it (Lanius), which impales its
prey on thorny stems, leaving them to dry to obtain a convenient pantry of food to
nourish its chicks. If the caiman (Melanosuchus) captures a large prey, they keep it
underwater for a certain period to dry it to make it softer.
5.1 The Fragile Ecosystem of the Domestic Refrigerator
The creation of preserves and iceboxes to refrigerate food is lost in the mists of time.
The Romans, for example, kept ice, snow, and salt in underground tanks made of
masonry to preserve perishable foods such as fish or meat. The first domestic iceboxes
were called neviere (snow), which appeared in early 1600, there were sellers of ice
who took it from mountain areas, and especially in the summer season, they sold it
on the street, trying to preserve it with salt and woolen pieces. The first domestic
refrigerators are cabinets with a zinc-coated interior in which ice blocks refresh
food and drinks. In 1875 the inventor James Harrison, applying the expansion pump
designed by Jacob Perkins fifty years earlier, conceived a prototype of a refrigera-
tion cabinet. Later, Carl von Linde patented the liquefied gas exchanger. The fluid
74 M. Lumini
to be compressed and expanded was methyl ether, which had the defect of being
easily explosive. Linde replaced it with ammonia, others with sulfur dioxide and
metichloride. These gases did not explode but being poisonous if they escaped from
the pump, they caused massacres. The first electric refrigerator was invented around
1913 by Fred W. Wolf, but the product was not initially very successful. Later, in
1915, the American inventor Alfred Mellowes was the first to build refrigerators
similar to modern ones, equipped with a compressor to produce cold locally and
independently. More than a million units of this appliance were sold, thus consti-
tuting the first mass refrigerating appliance. In 1926 Alber Einstein and his pupil Leò
Szilárd conceived the so-called Einstein-Szilárd cooler, subsequently patented in the
United States in 1930. It was a design of an absorption cooling device, operating at
constant pressure and which required exclusively a source of heat and as an alter-
native to the device invented in 1922 by the Swedes Baltazar von Platen and Carl
Munters. He was also inspired by a news case that told of the death of a Berlin family
killed by the toxic fumes of ammonia leaking from their refrigerator due to a broken
gasket. The two physicists thought of an apparatus without moving parts capable
of significantly reducing the deterioration of the seals. It also worked without using
electricity. The system patented by Einstein-Szilárd was simple but was beaten by the
American invention of the non-toxic Freon gas with the characteristics of greater ther-
modynamic efficiency, which became the gas used by all the compressors of modern
refrigerators. Only a few decades ago, scientists discovered that Freon destroys the
atmospheric ozone layer, and now its use has been banned, and by 2030 it will have
to stop its production. All these green anti-time aspects that characterize Einstein’s
invention have interested a group of Oxford scholars led by researcher Malcolm
McCulloch, who in 2008 took up this patent, perfecting some parts to make it usable
for the appliance market. Indeed the rapid spread of domestic refrigeration technolo-
gies from the second post-war period to today has improved things. The refrigera-
tion industry continuously develops technological innovations to obtain a product
with increasingly functional and energy consumption characteristics evolved. Poor
storage of food and domestic foods causes food waste that reaches 50/70% in the
most developed countries. In contrast, in the rest of the world, the problem of food
hygiene is linked to difficulties in accessing domestic refrigeration technologies. And
still causes enormous damage to the health of billions of human beings. The correct
technology of domestic and professional food refrigeration (canteens, restaurant
kitchens, fast-food distributors, etc.) provides for strict protocols in almost all coun-
tries of the world (HCCP). Despite everything, the general problem is still far from a
solution since, in addition to the technological aspects of the refrigerator appliance, it
is necessary to evaluate the incorrect storage behavior by consumers. Recent studies
show that many pathologies linked to allergies and food poisoning derive either from
inefficiencies of household appliances or from errors in methods and storage cycles.
These diseases generally increase during the summer and are linked to the consump-
tion of cold dishes and cross-contamination between foods due to poor storage and
hygiene of nutrition and food products. Diseases due to the consumption of contam-
inated food constitute one of the world’s most widespread public health problems.
In industrialized countries alone, 30% of the pool is affected by food poisoning.
One of the most common and harmful bacteria is Listeria (Listeria monocytogenes)
which comes from the soil and animal feces and which proliferates in fresh foods
such as cured meats, raw and undercooked meat, cheeses made from unpasteurized
milk, soft paste, milk vegetables, and in frozen products as it tolerates salty envi-
ronments and at temperatures between +2 and 4 °C. The internal environment of
a domestic refrigerator, where we store food of various types, origins, and organic
consistencies, is comparable for the complexity of the environmental variables and
the relationships between the parts, like a proper natural-artificial ecosystem. Heat,
cold, humidity, thermal exchanges due to the very characteristics of food preservation
induce particular cyclical events and interrelationships between these. If we don’t
consider these complex elements with due attention, the food stored inside can dete-
riorate and create an altered, toxic, contaminated, and dangerous microenvironment
for the consumer’s health. The domestic refrigerator is suitable for storing perish-
able foods in general for a relatively short period as due to its construction type and
frequent openings, it is unable to maintain a uniform temperature, with dangerous
and continuous changes in degrees and contamination due to the external environ-
ment and the constant changes in time, food, and food products. A first general rule,
straightforward, to guarantee correct preservation of the food inside is the first in, first
out one: take out and consume first the foods that we placed in the fridge first. Should
always put recently purchased foods behind those already purchased for the longest
time. This mode helps to consume old food and reduce the amount of food you will
have to throw away. The right temperature for a domestic refrigerator is generally
+5 /7 °C on the central shelf and +8 °C on the upper ones; the middle area is the
most suitable for hosting dairy products, cold cuts, and cakes. Above the vegetable
crate, the lower shelf is the coldest (+2°/4°). Should store fresh meat and fish in this
part of the fridge. The lower boxes have temperatures around +10 °C and are suit-
able for preserving fruits and vegetables that a colder temperature would damage.
Compartments, shelves, and crates placed inside the door are the hottest points of the
refrigerator (10°–15 °C) suitable for soft drinks, preserved sauces, and other liquids.
The refrigerated compartments should not be crammed with goods as it is neces-
sary to ensure the correct circulation of air and the homogeneous distribution of the
various temperatures. Frost and ice, which generally form on the back wall in no frost
systems, hinder internal refrigeration, causing condensation and poor storage with
the formation of dangerous molds. Many vegetables and fruits, such as exotic ones,
are best stored out of the fridge. The management of leftovers needs some rules: they
must be placed in the fridge within two hours to avoid spores, bacteria contamination,
and degenerative processes. It is good practice to wrap or cover foods to prevent them
from losing moisture and flavor and store them in special low food containers with
lids. Covering bowls and plates with food film also helps preserve them correctly,
avoiding biological cross-contamination and odors. Boiling or too hot foods should
never be stored in the fridge and keep the door open for long periods. Proper main-
tenance and periodic internal hygiene also guarantee the correct conservation of the
refrigeration ecosystem. Finally, it is necessary to remember all the problems of the
freezer compartment, which, through sub-zero cooling, allows food and food to be
stored for long periods. A separate discussion concerns the correct conservation of
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cheeses, which in the specific case of this research constitutes the type of food that
has mainly focused on the analysis and production of design concepts. Upstream of
the problem of proper domestic storage, all the issues related to the needs of trans-
port, storage, display, sale of food in large and small commercial networks and the
complex world of industrial packaging act.
5.2 Sustainability in the Food Packaging and Preservation

Sector
Packing, storing, and food delivery are actions and technologies accompanying daily
and domestic humanity’s gestures and rituals for millennia. One of the anthropo-
logical and cultural aspects that we found most interesting in our search concerns
Tsutsumu, the art of Japanese packaging (Fig. 18). Tsutsumu, which means to wrap,
to tuck in, is authentic traditional art, linked to the great tradition of Origami, Ikebana
and other Japanese aesthetic and design forms, which attaches great importance to
respect for a specific object through a rigorous and elegant packaging process with
appropriate and harmonious wraps and materials [30].
The original ideogram shows two curved lines that wrap around each other and
come from the logogram of the fetus enclosed by a radical covering it as if it were
in the mother’s womb; that is the image par excellence of care and love [31].
Oka Hideyuki lists three constant characteristics found in traditional packaging:
• Almost exclusive use of natural or derivative materials such as straw, leaves,
bamboo cane, fabrics, and papers;
• Aesthetic awareness of decoration that has its roots in Japanese Shinto religious
thought, which considers the act of wrapping as a ritual that delimits pure and
impure areas that, separating the inside from the outside, purifies it through order
and cleanliness;
• The extreme care with which each material is manipulated through a patient,
skilled manual wisdom means giving great importance and respect through the
gift to its recipient.
With the progress and the advent of synthetic materials of these three fundamental
characteristics for standard packages, only consideration for the recipient survives in
the modern culture of mass production. In fact, in modern Japanese packaging, the
reference to natural materials remains persistent, and the attention to food’s orderly,
rational, and hygienic handling. However, packaging, especially food and dispos-
able packaging, is considered one of the leading causes of environmental pollution
and aesthetic degradation. Every day in the world, millions of packaging, primarily
made of plastic materials, are poured into the soil and waters that constitute massive
landfills that tragically impact the planet’s social contexts and natural ecosystems.
Food packaging in particular, however, plays a fundamental role in the protection
of human health, as it prevents and limits the possible serious diseases linked to
Fig. 18 Flayer of Oka’s

traditional Tsutsumu
collection held at Meguro
Museum of Art, 2021
pathogenic contamination and incorrect forms of conservation of products related

to the human nutrition of billions of individuals in the world. Due to the enormous
socio-economic impact of the sector, new areas of research are developing world-
wide that converge in redefining a possible overall redesign of the packaging itself
and the consumption and use rites associated with it toward greater sustainability.
Sustainable Development has been defined since 1987 as:
development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs. [32]
This definition is of particular interest if we consider the growing trend of the world
population, which is estimated to reach 10 billion individuals by 2050, a process that
will trigger enormous pressures on global production chains, while every year, a third
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of all the food produced for human consumption. Nowadays, the publication of the
2030 Agenda and its 17 SDG sustainable development goals aims:
• to end hunger, achieve food security, improve nutrition and promote sustainable
agriculture (Obj 2);
• to guarantee a healthy life and promote the well-being of all at all ages (Obj 3);
• to ensure sustainable consumption and production models (Obj 12).
In this context of a future marked by the general development of sustainability,
food packaging, thanks to its primary functions, such as the preservation, protection,
and ease of distribution of food, can play fundamental importance in improving the
sustainability of the food sector. A turning point that could slow down and reverse the
current trend of severe environmental pollution is represented by a total rethinking of
the entire supply chain even if many controversial and contradictory aspects remain.
In fact, on the one hand, sector legislation is focused on supporting forms of preven-
tion and reduction of the quantities of material plastic, incredibly disposable, given
the problematic issue of its disposal and recycling. On the other hand, recent scien-
tific studies show that food packaging can bring environmental benefits through the
correct storage of food and, therefore, food waste. It is necessary to develop inte-
grated and systemic intervention models that consider all these aspects in a sustain-
ability model that evaluates the interrelationships between environmental, social, and
economic factors: People, Planet, and Profits. Life Cycle Initiative, coordinated by
UNEP (United Nations Environment Program), defines the Life Cycling Thinking
approach in this regard. In the logic of this approach, a sustainable future for Food
Packaging must always foresee and integrate the following aspects:
• Strategic tools for sustainability
• Innovative packaging materials
• Packaging design features
• Shelf-life optimization
• Consumer’s behaviors.
The life cycle assessment or Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) methodology is
currently one of the most used in determining the environmental impacts of products
or services. Thanks to its results, it can guide the choices for stakeholders in preparing
and managing new options of sustainable strategic decisions. In particular, it appears
essential in the impact assessment of the food packaging sector. It is possible to eval-
uate, in an integrated way, those that are considered as direct effects with indirect
effects. In food’s packaging researches they’re necessary five challenges to arrive at
the evaluation of natural, sustainable solutions [33, 34]:
• Identify and obtain specific data on the functions of the packaging that influence
food waste;
• Understand the total environmental impact of packaging-food systems by evalu-
ating trade-offs between product protection needs and its environmental impact;
• Understand how should consider the functions of packaging in environmental
impact studies;
• Improve the characteristics of the packaging solutions bearing in mind the possible
reduction of food waste;
• Studying incentives for stakeholders to reduce food waste.
In particular, the correct conservation cycle and the package of food products of
animal origin, such as meat and cheeses, generally have a high degree of environ-
mental impact, can lead to an overall environmental benefit. The rethink in LCA’s
forms of usual aspects of packaging, such as materials, technologies, and design,
could positively influence food waste. Several elements seem to be crucial in this
process: intervening on the shelf life of the product, rethinking the technologies and
functionality of food preservation systems, especially in the home, and influencing,
through forms of food education, the behavior of consumers toward correct methods
of food’s conservation and consumption with a higher rate of organic deterioration.
In this research, we have acquired them to configure the contours of the general
problem-setting and the framework of possible alternatives and solutions through a
series of bioinspired design problem-solving concepts. From a methodological and
didactic point of view, after the bottom-up biological analysis phase, which made
it possible to identify some central aspects of the problem, such as natural aera-
tion systems and technologies, the meta-design phase began. The first step of this
research step start from a creative brainstorming set of question to define our level
of perception of the problem, of which the most significant were:
• How significant is the impact of packaging on the psychological perception, the
choice, and sale of a food product?
• Does packaging influence the perception of healthy food?
• How much does the current food packaging system contribute to global pollution
due to its packaging, transport, storage, sale, consumption, and disposal?
• What styles of use and conservation of food do we adopt every day?
• Do we think alternatives are possible?
Initially, all these questions were filtered by our experience as consumers who
daily contact food, drinks, and derivatives and their package design and commu-
nication system. Once we analyzed our behaviors and styles of consumption, we
made a checklist and then compared them with a series of sector studies. Most food
products are packaged for sale, and their environmental footprint depends not only
on the product itself but also on its package. To reduce the environmental footprint,
you can modify both intrinsic attributes and extrinsic attributes of the product. Most
products are packaged in an attractive casing, often to seduce consumers’ attention,
indispensable to store and protect a product and ensure its hygiene. At the same time,
the container informs the consumer about the product’s characteristics and prevents
the content from coming into unwanted contact often, however, the packaging is
only noticed at the end of life, when it is transformed into waste to dispose of once
its contents are used. Companies of any merchandise consider packaging to be a
fundamental element for consumers’ perception of the brand, positively impacting
its value and recognizability. Its function goes beyond the purely practical aspect
of protecting and transporting the product. It has the task of differentiating it on
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the shelf of shopping and, above all, of significant distribution, where the shape,
material, and overall graphic element must be beautiful. Guided by this series of
considerations, we explored and identified the main aspects that characterize food
packaging, focusing in particular on those that in some way recalled the character-
istics of vital conservation that we had found in the functional design of eggs in
general and of moths in particular. Like the tiny larva that inhabits the inside of the
chorion, food, in particular fruit, vegetables, dry foods, grains, meats, and cheeses,
can be considered as a living organic material, whose vital characteristics must be
preserved at the highest level. Rice and pasta do not grow and develop in a vital
metamorphosis inside their packaging, even if they undergo a series of molecular
transformations and degradations over time. They often don’t need to breathe; in
fact, the packaging techniques try to avoid the harmful and destructive oxidation of
contact with air, oxygen, and bacterial loads of the external environment for most
food products. The recent vacuum technology, which involves the forced extraction
of the air inside the plastic bags that contain the food, combined with the technology
of the cold cycle in the case of fish, meat, and cheese, has solved many diseases. It is
a food preservation technology that limits the use of preservatives that are harmful
to human health and the pockets of manufacturing companies. Depending on the
food considered, vacuum technology can lead to a third, double, or even three times
the storage time compared to standard refrigeration. In considering the conservation
needs of the organoleptic qualities of foods and their safety and hygiene standards,
we have evaluated that the functionality of the chorion is a source of bionic and
biomimetic inspiration that may initially seem a contradiction. The aerophilic layer
system manages the gas fluxes, to breathe and expel carbon dioxide, internal–ex-
ternal gas exchanges of the egg as the larva needs oxygen. The Chorion aeropyle
layer system and the vacuum refrigeration technology seemed to position themselves
at the antipodes of the scale of values adapted for a bottom-up transfer. But in the
research continuation, we discovered that in the correct conservation of some foods,
the management of the aeration is a fundamental aspect of their organoleptic preser-
vation, as in the particular case of cheeses. The aeropyle layer system manages the
indoor-outdoor gaseous exchanges of the egg as the larva needs oxygen to breathe
and expel carbon dioxide. Chorion aeropyle layer system and vacuum-refrigerated
technology seemed to position themselves at the antipodes of the scale of values that
can adapt for a bottom-up transfer. Some foods in which aeration management is a
fundamental aspect of their conservation, as in the particular case of cheeses.
5.3 Cheese and Other “Living” Food
Cheese is a dairy product obtained from the acid or rennet coagulation of whole milk,
partially or full skimmed by coagulation of caseins, with the addition of enzymes
and table salt. Western European mythology traces the origin of cheese to Aristeo,
son of Apollo and the nymph Cyrene. In reality, the origins of the cheese get lost in
the notes of the times, and it has deep roots in the civilizations of the Mediterranean
basin, in North Africa, and Asia Minor. Its discovery is probably due to the sense of
seeing in the herding culture of curdled milk in the bowels of animals slaughtered
during lactation. From the production of the curd, the following types of cheese are
obtained:
• Soft paste (stracchino, brie, quark)
• Semi-hard paste (fontina, provolone, pecorino)
• Hard cheese (Grana Padano, Parmigiano Reggiano).
Due to their delicate organoleptic characteristics, cheeses are one of the most
challenging types of food to preserve, as they are live foods, subject to continuous
changes in their very chemical constitution. They oxidize quickly on the surface,
hardening. Phenomena such as proteolysis and the increase of olfactory and gustatory
notes can reach harmful and unpleasant levels for the taste and human nutrition. The
sun’s rays and UUVV rapidly degrade its fatty substances and vitamins in its organic
mass. In the peasant and rural world, the ideal place for storing cheeses as well as
cured meats and wines were and are the cellars and pantries, generally underground
places or located in particular areas in the house, which have unique constructional
characteristics of isolation and orientation in terms of temperature, humidity, and
air circulation. The cellar generally has a temperature between 10° and 15° and a
humidity rate between 80 and 90% and guarantees proper ventilation that does not
have to foresee violent flows of air and sudden temperature changes. For some soft
cheeses, temperatures drop between 5° and 10°, while for cooked cheeses, more
temperate cellars are needed, between 12° and 20°. The basement for the maturing
and professional preservation of cheeses is a natural ecosystem. Its delicate balance
and a slight variation of its parameters are enough to alter the proportions between
the various species of molds and bacteria, negatively impacting some cheese taste.
In practice, the perfect conservation of the cheese, even for domestic use, should
simulate as much as possible the characteristics of these unique places. The complex
techniques of creation and aging of the hundreds of types of products available on
world markets were born and developed and refined precisely based on this extreme
variability in temperatures, acidity, contacts with air and oxygen, of the molecular
chemical system of the milk and its dairy products. Most dairy products sold in large
food distribution chains and cheeses are vacuum packed, in polystyrene containers,
and wrapped in PVC films or bags. Once purchased, the conservation of the cheeses
requires the use of the refrigerator, in particular refrigerated areas, and generally in
closed containers for food, as the smell they emanate is powerful, characteristic, not
always appreciated by the modern sense of smell and thus risks contaminating the
characteristics of all the other foods in the refrigerator or pantry. The enemies of
cheese conservation are:
• Excessive contact with the air and therefore excessive drying causes it to harden
and rapidly lose those qualities of flavor and fragrance that are typical of it;
• The lack of air that suffocates and prevents its natural fermentations;
• The excess of cold that blocks its organoleptic qualities;
• Excess heat accelerates excessive fermentation.
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As you can see, cheese is a type of food that requires constant isolation from the air,
unlike many others, requires controlled ventilation. Neither too much oxygen nor too
little, and for this reason, the home preservation of the purchased cheese, can therefore
represent a problem on which to develop biomimetic problem-solving. There are,
therefore, rules to ensure good home and catering conservation of particular foods
such as cheeses, capable of maintaining the flavors and organoleptic qualities typical
of their food status as unaltered over time as possible:
• Temperature: fresh cheeses must be placed in the coldest area of the fridge (2–4°);
The aged cheeses with pasta cooked in the less cold one (10–12°) while the other
types in the compartment at temperatures between 6°and 8°. The sudden changes
in temperature are very harmful and often affect the organoleptic characteris-
tics of the product and even in some cases lead to the formation of pathogenic
microorganisms for human health;
• Freezing: the cheese must never be frozen, as the subsequent defrosting irreme-
diably alters the molecular structure of the pasta, compromising its gustatory and
olfactory quality characteristics;
• Counter cut cheeses: the slices must be stored wrapped in greaseproof paper to
maintain the proper humidity and never in transparent PVC films, as the phthalates
present in the plastic material to soften it, react with the fats, releasing toxic
substances;
• The ideal of conservation, according to the most accredited gastronomic traditions,
involves the use of moistened linen cloths to wrap the cheese that is stored under
glass bells, suitably closed to allow the dispersion of condensation water (the
cheese must breathe);
• To let the cheeses breathe, we recommend quick storage in perforated polyethylene
sheets to ensure a certain air circulation or in food-grade paper bags, which are
porous and gradually permeable to oxygen;
• Since the correct tasting of most cheeses is around 16°, the cheese must be removed
from the refrigerator at least ½ h 1 h before being consumed;
• Limit the vacuum storage of hard cheeses to short periods and never for soft
cheeses.
In the ways of preserving the past and in the old-style culinary traditions that
remain, stored the cheeses in special containers, the so-called cheese safe, cheese
cage, moscaiola (fly cage), cave a fromage (Fig. 19).
These objects, prevalent in kitchens and pantries worldwide before the advent
and widespread diffusion of domestic refrigerators, were used and placed in a niche
of the walls more exposed to the North, where even in summer, the temperature
could be lower and higher humidity. Made of wood and with a thin metal mesh,
it allowed the aeration of the cheeses and cured meats stored inside, preventing
unsanitary contact with insects such as flies, midges, ants, cockroaches, moths, etc.
From the construction point of view, most of the models analyzed correspond to
small cabinets equipped with one or more shelves and with walls made of metal
mesh framed by wooden frames. There are also other table solutions, such as the
paramosche food covers that function as a kind of openable umbrellas placed on
Fig. 19 Different vintage cheese safe models
a serving dish to defend it from the attacks of insects and dust, and other hostile
environmental agents. Like the small butterfly eggs, these simple objects with an
anonymous design solve some problems related to the correct conservation of living
foods such as cheeses. The research phase on packaging and food containers also
provided interesting images of objects conceived on an industrial level and created to
address this type of problem within the space of the domestic refrigerator. In most of
the models analyzed, the basic idea is a transparent box usually made of glass or PVC
with a lid. Some models integrate a removable grid-like bottom to ensure ventilation
of the parts in contact. In some models, there is a cutting board made of either wood or
plastic materials, designed to present cheeses directly on the consumer’s table. There
is the possibility of ensuring ventilation through adjustable micro-perforated hatches
in specific models, but without these solutions relating to a strategic and specifically
designed distribution of the ventilation system. In general, we can conclude that the
sector does not offer particular design innovations and shows inevitable poverty of
ideas and alternative solutions with a more specific design. Our concept fits precisely
into this production niche, experimenting with a series of hypotheses and solutions
that take formal and functional cues from the results and bio inspirations of bottom-
up research and the conservation solutions adopted in the past and current products
used for the preservation of food, especially in the context of domestic refrigeration.
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6 Design Inspirations
6.1 Bee’s Wrap® and Other Bees’ Wax Food Package
Specific market research on alternative products to PVC and aluminum food films
has allowed us to collect many valuable suggestions for the definition of our problem-
solving. For years, a whole series of food packaging and storage products has been
on the market, made from natural and sustainable materials such as organic cotton
and beeswax, which, when properly used, are proposing themselves as valid, totally
recyclable, and sustainable alternatives. To products based on synthetic polymers.
These products for household packaging are organic cotton cloths soaked in a mixture
of beeswax, which, when cooled, becomes waterproof and flexible. It is used by
heating them with the heat of the hands and modeling them around foods or containers
for food storage, constituting an ecological and natural alternative to aluminum and
plastic films. Bee’s Wrap® proposes using reusable and compostable products is a
small yet meaningful step toward reducing single-use plastic and food waste. It is
not recommended for preserving meat or fish, incredibly if raw. Similar products
are making their appearance in world markets by proposing a sustainable and, in a
certain sense, Tsutsumu-oriented approach to the daily life of gestures linked to food
consumption by billions of individuals in the world. In addition, several studies have
shown that beeswax-based films help fight bacteria and microbes in food, and their
breathable properties favor the preservation of food that remains fresh and fragrant
for longer. Bee’s Wrap© , beeskin® , and many other similar products, now available
on the international market, are sustainable and 100% natural product and does
not derive from industrial processes and hydrocarbon derivation. They have been
washable and reusable for a long time, reducing domestic storage costs. Projects for
the inclusion of this technology in large-scale distribution cycles are being studied.
6.2 Origami, Kusudama, Oribotics, Snapology, and Other

Paper Folding Techniques
In addition to the aforementioned Japanese Tsutsumu Art of packaging, we have

considered another series of sources of inspiration for our project, such as the in-depth
study of particular artistic paper folding techniques such as Origami or Kusudama,
especially in the more advanced contemporary versions.
6.2.1 Origami
The traditional Japanese art of Origami, from ori-folding and kami-paper

(kami changes to gami due to rendaku), dates back to the Edo period, around
1600 AD. In modern usage, Origami is an inclusive term for all folding practices,
regardless of their culture of origin. This technique of paper manipulations aims

to transform a flat square sheet of paper into a finished 3D shape through folding
and sculpting techniques. Traditional Origami start from a square sheet of paper,
and modern origamists, generally discourage using cuts, glue, or markings on the
forms. We can combine the small number of basic origami folds in various ways
to make intricate designs. The principles of Origami help designers and engineers
create a new approach in stents, packaging, robotics, and other engineering appli-
cations. The potentialities inherent in the various paper folding techniques and the
fabric materials are currently mainly developed thanks to many studies and research
from academic fields of structural engineering, mathematics, industrial design, and
computer science [35].
The Japanese computer engineer Jun Mitani, Professor of Computer Engineering
at the University of Tsukuba is one of the most interesting contemporary origamists.
His work was of great help in the basic design and engineering phase of our projects.
Mitani has also developed various open-source software, thanks to which it is possible
to create quickly, particularly complex spherical and 3D curved origami forms [36].
Through a series of simple tracing of mountain and valley folds, Jun developed an
unseen world of 3D shapes. The similarity of many of Mitani’s models to the primary
morphologies found in the analysis of the Lepidoptera chorion appears extraordinary.
These two-dimensional media folding techniques support the creation of possible
innovative solutions for industrial packaging products. Another valuable source of
suggestions for constructing exciting and unpublished 3D models is undoubtedly
the site origamitutorials.com, which proposes a series of models to realize complex
geometries that have many affinities with the morphologies of the analyzed butterfly
eggs.
6.2.2 Oribotics
Oribotics [laboratory] is a project of collaboration between Matthew Gardiner and

Aphids, especially Artistic Director David Young as Composer. It was shown over
two nights at the Asialink center at Melbourne University in 2005. Oribotics is
a concept created through the fusion of Origami and technology, specifically “bot”
technology, such as robots or intelligent computer agents known as bots. Ori-bots is a
joining of two complex fields of study. Robotics is Origami that is controlled by robot
technology; paper that will fold and unfold on command. An Oribot, by definition, is a
folding bot. By this definition, anything that uses robotics/botics and folding together
is a robot. This search includes some industrial applications already in existence, such
as Miura’s folds taken to NASA’s space design high-tech tricks. Robotics is a field of
research that thrives on the aesthetic, biomechanical and morphological connections
between nature, Origami, and robotics. At the highest level, Gardiner’s Oribotics
tech evolves toward the future of self-folding materials, and the focus of the author
is the actuation of fold-programmed materials like paper and synthetic fabrics. The
design of the crease pattern, the precise arrangement of mountain and valley folds,
and how they fold and unfold directly informs the mechanical design, so a critical
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area of current research is discovering patterns that have complex expressions that
can be repeatedly actuated. Studying the potential inherent Oribotics technology has
allowed us to deepen the self-folding and shape memory characteristics inherent in
particular materials. It has been of great use in redesigning the home packaging and
storage foods using PVC and aluminum rolls-films.
6.2.3 Kusudama
Kusudama derives from the Japanese words for medicine and ball and alludes to the
fact that it was traditional to create spheres of herbs considered medicinal in ancient
times. Introducing the popular culture of paper objects folded into spherical shapes,
scented and enriched with incenses and balms slowly replaced this custom. Since the
various modules are tied together with threads or glue, purists tend not to consider
this simple origami technique.
6.2.4 Crumpling
This technique consists of crumpling and reopening a sheet of paper several times and,
at the same time, creating a series of particular models with a solid natural appearance
of the surface and shape to obtain “organic” figures and objects. Proposed for the
first time by Paul Jackson, the French Vincent Floderer developed it.
6.2.5 Curve Folding
We can find the first examples of curved paper folding starting from some experiments
in the Bauhaus design courses around the 1920s. Pioneers of this surface modeling
approach were Ron Resch and David Huffman. A lot of interest has been created
around this technique and its potential, especially from the academic world, and
worthy of note are the works of Ekaterina Lukasheva and Philip Chapman-Bell.
6.3 Design Concept: ChorionPack© —3D-Textured

and Ventilated Bees-Waxed food’s Cardboard Emballage
6.3.1 Premise
The first food films were produced using cellophane, a transparent cellulosic mate-
rial whose synthesis was discovered in the early twentieth century. In the decades
following it, various other organic polymers such as polyethylene were joined to
produce food films. Starting from the 1930s, PVC began to be made, which in the
remainder of the twentieth century dominated the materials used for this purpose
thanks to its cost-effectiveness and ease of use. In recent years, due to the recog-
nized danger of the additives used in the production of PVC film, the share of food
films produced with other plastic materials has increased considerably, including,
in particular, polyethylene and EVA (ethylene vinyl acetate). For several years it
has been known that the use of some types of plastic films can cause the contam-
ination of stored food with substances harmful to health. In particular, phthalates,
a class of substances added to PVC to improve its flexibility and mouldability, are
under accusation. The risk of contamination is more excellent in foods that contain
a significant amount of lipids, in which phthalates are more easily soluble. The
percentage of these substances added in the films has been very limited by current
legislation, and various companies market polyethylene-based films in which PVC
is absent. Alongside PVC film, in the post-war period, the use of thin aluminum
foil, also known as aluminum foil, was imposed to preserve food at home in many
homes, kitchens, and markets around the world. Recent studies show that this food
preservation system also hides a danger to the environment and human health. From
a production point of view, aluminum produces a lot of pollution and consump-
tion of primary energy. Furthermore, its contact with acidic foods causes chemical
processes of molecular degradation and risks transferring aluminum microparticles
into protected foods. Aluminum is a highly toxic metal for the human body. If taken
in excess, it can affect the bones and central nervous system. As previously consid-
ered, for some years now, on the market for products intended for home preservation
of food, there are a series of substitute products, more ecological, which use eco-
sustainable materials such as whole cotton fabrics, essential oils, etc., and beeswax.
The design concept that we propose through this article, is inspired on the one hand by
the bottom-up analysis of the chorion, with particular reference to its internal aeration
and ventilation by aeropyle layer and, on the other, by the paper folding techniques
suggested by the research by Jun Mitani and contemporary origamists. The novelty
is to imagine producing rolls of sheets for food, based on recycled cardboard, which
is industrially punched according to the upstream fold patterns as in Origami. The
sheet’s surface has a series of micro-perforations and, employing the shape memory
property impressed in the sheet through the series of folds, by manipulating them
quickly, it is possible to obtain Origami/Tsutsumu type envelopes of various sizes.
After analyzing multiple construction schemes proposed by Jun Mitani and tutorials
of origami sites, we have developed a series of prototypes designed through specific
software. The final idea is to replace PVC films and aluminum foil for preservation
whit an ecological package system. We checked different forms of models, inspired
by the morphology of the eggs, creating packages of various sizes. One aspect of
our design research considers the properties of high environmental sustainability
and potential alternatives to plastic films in these products. In the context of this
research, we have developed a problem-solving concept for the industrial creation of
a series of packages. The ChorionPack © is a way of packaging and home storage of
solid foods that need to breathe, such as hard and semi-hard cheeses. This system can
store food inside and outdoors, like in cheese-cages and the refrigerated environment.
Custom packages are inspired by the Tsutsumu philosophy, which envisages giving
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particular attention to the ritual of food packaging. Greater attention and respect
in the handling and conservation and presentation at the table of the food we eat
daily is a guarantee of education and hygiene of the body and mind and regards
the saving of food waste for the improvement of the state of the environment and
the economy. In addition to the Tsustumu inspiration, the suggestions offered by
the potential of Jun Mitani’s innovative cylindrical-spherical origami were essen-
tial to creating personalized homemade packages with an original folding design
in paper impregnated with beeswax and essential oils. The ChorionPack © system
exploits the shape memory that can be imposed on ecological cardboard sheets by
punching and creasing the surface according to the origamic scheme of mountain-
valley folding. Inspired by Chorion sculpturing and aeropyle layers, the various sides
of the package have a series of small holes to allow the aeration of the internal food
content. Let’s think about the ChorionPack © structure differently. The first hypoth-
esis involves making this domestic package system through industrial processes or on
a semi-artisanal scale, using sheets of full organic, 100% ecological cardboard with
a weight of around 200gr./mq., which are industrially impregnated with beeswax and
essential oils, compatible with contact food fats. Specifically, we propose evaluating
the opportunity to experiment and transfer the wax impregnation technology from
the organic fabric, and beeswax packaging system, to the cardboard material. This
innovative domestic food packaging and storage system is particularly suitable for
cheeses, fruits, vegetables, and foods that require a ventilated storage environment.
This whole new design approach can be defined as ShapeMemoryPackagingSystem© .
The concept proposed by the BionikonLab&FABNAT14 teamwork opens a possible
alternative direction to aluminum foil emballage and plastic boxes in creating and
developing new self-assembling packaging methods. This new design area would be
part of the current research in bionics and biomimetics solutions that, by combining
origami and nature, create industrial solutions inspired by orobots. The predispo-
sition of an original folding system in the packaging material, mainly cardboard
and cardboard-waxed fabric couplings, could quickly guide the user’s handling in
creating customized food-preservative home containers. Different starting formats
with various sizes could be created and offered to the consumer. Each of these is
useful for realizing different final 3D shapes of packaging and storage.
6.3.2 Problem-Solving
The first problem-solving step was to generate an accurate morphological analysis of

the geometry of a butterfly chorion. For the characteristics identified in the checklist
of the problem-setting relating to the aerated domestic packaging and storage of
particularly delicate foods, fruit, and vegetables, the choice fell on the Maniola
genus eggs and others (Figs. 20, 21, 22, 23 and 24)
They have a cylindrical-barrel shape whit aeropyle layers, which lends itself
to generating interesting types of cardboard-waxed drilled boxes. Their chorion
appears, in SEM enlargements, scaffolded through a sequence of vertical ribs (we
Fig. 20 Morphological
analysis and CAD rendering
of Maniola’s and other
butterfly species chorion
sculpturing
counted 15–17) which, like staves of a barrel, stiffen and shape the chorion sculp-
turing. This system of ribs, which initially appeared to us placed on an orthogonal
plane at the base. Upon closer observation, they suggested a slightly curved trend to
give a kind of rotation to the whole structure. A rib-depression etched system into the
tiny keratin chorion’s surface is comparable to an Origami mountain-valley folding
paper. We have observed that the various ribs that run along the entire longitudinal
surface of chorion, tend to give a twisted organization, as shown in Fig. 25.
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Fig. 21 Morphological analysis and CAD rendering of Maniola’s and other butterfly species
chorion sculpturing
chorion sculpturing
chorion sculpturing
This image has been associated, by formal analogy, to the characteristics of folded
cardboard model, proposed by Japanese Prof. Jun Mitani. This particular spherical
3D pattern is generated by the twisted spiral motion of various impressed onefold-
ribs on its surface (Fig. 26). We made a prototype of it, using Mitani’s origamic
software. The 3D shapes created by Mitani works based on what we define as Shape
Memory Packaging System© (Fig. 27). These rotational spherical shapes are easily
obtained by manipulating a structured cardboard cylinder with a series of folds.
Combining it with a compression and rotation action of the two hands makes it easy
to impart a rotation generator to the entire surface. From a tubular folded shape,
a spheroidal corrugated shape is created. Subsequently, the design process was to
generate, with the use of ORI-REVO© software, a series of morphological variants
of the basic barrel model. The set of programs developed by Mitani (ORI-REVO© ,
ORI-REVO-MORPH© , and ORI-REF© ) are available on the web and can generate
different folding plans, and their effectiveness verified. The ORI-REVO© program
allows us to create a 3D shape generated by drawing more or less curved lines over
a two-dimensional grid. A real-time rendering model shows the effect of tracing red
and blue lines (fold mountain and fold valley) in a rectangular sheet and a render
3D model. By saving the file in the.obj extension, it is possible to view it in other
CAD-CAM software. With ORI-REVO© we can generate a folding model of a sheet
with cylindrical projection up to a maximum number of faces of 32 (Figs. 28, 29,
30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36 and 37).
92 M. Lumini
Fig. 24 Morphological
analysis and CAD rendering
of Maniola’s and other
butterfly species chorion
sculpturing
Fig. 25 In this Maniola’s

egg, fifteen ribs adorn the
chorion sculpturing in a
twisted direction
Fig. 26 Example of Jun

Mitani’s spherical Origami
model handling. The design
was generated through his
ORI-REVO© software
We subsequently made a series of cardboard prototypes using a cutting plotter to

ascertain the idea’s feasibility. Depending on the weight and volume characteristics of
the food to be preserved, the consumer can choose the better ChorionPack © typology.
By manipulating the S model, the smallest, a sheet of 18 × 29 cm., for example, we
can obtain a spherical envelope of 10 cm. about in diameter, which can contain a
portion of cheese around 150/200 gr. The following models M, medium, large, and
XL, can accommodate a quantity of food up to 500 gr. (Figs. 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43,
44, 45, 46, 47, 48 and 49).
Alternatively, we envisioned creating a sort of coupled material, with a second
heat-sealed inner layer, made with a sheet of ecological cotton fabric, also perforated,
impregnated with beeswax and essential oils compatible with contact with fatty foods.
Its contact surface can be easily washed and sanitized with a cloth moistened with
warm water and well wrung out. In this way, following small maintenance attentions,
94 M. Lumini
Fig. 27 Example of shape memory proprieties, applied to cardboard folding shape. Credit
BionikonLab photo archive
Fig. 28 CAD rendering of morphological variants of different chorion eggs shapes

Fig. 30 CAD rendering of

morphological variants of
different chorion eggs shapes
96 M. Lumini
the ChorionPack © can be reused several times according to the product characteristics
of the bee’s-wax system. Alternatively, we envisioned creating a sort of coupled
material. The supporting structure is a punched non-impregnated cardboard folding
chorion. A second heat-sealed aeropyle-inner layer, made with a sheet of ecological
cotton fabric, also micro-perforated, is impregnated with beeswax and essential oils
compatible with contact with fatty foods. Its contact surface can be easily washed and
sanitized with a cloth moistened with warm water and well wrung out. In this way,
following small maintenance attentions, the ChorionPack © can be reused several
times according to the product characteristics of the beeswax products system. The
last alternative can foresee that the supporting structure of the package is waxed to
increase its duration and for better hygienic maintenance.

98 M. Lumini
Fig. 35 CAD rendering of

morphological variants of
different chorion eggs shapes
7 Conclusions
Since 2019, still coordinated by Prof Massimo Lumini, BionikonLab&FABNAT14’s

work team of designers, teachers, and students, analyzes the morphology and physi-
ology of some particular Lepidoptera’s eggs. They have produced over time, a series
of observations that have been transformed into a problem-solving design concept,
linked to the problems of packaging and preservation of particular foods, fruits, and
vegetables through a bottom-up process of bionic research. In particular, we have
focused on the problems of foods that must breathe as they require proper ventilation
during their storage outdoors or in the fridge. Some original considerations have been
developed and are defined as copyright, such as the ShapeMemoryPackagingSystem©
Fig. 37 Fibonacci spiral CAD rendering of the ribs’ textures on a chorion surface (Lycaenidae).
Credit E. Manconi
concept. The ChorionPack © system, as presented in the general guidelines in this

publication, is also bestowal pending. The general idea tends to transfer some solu-
tions developed in the folding tech sector, particularly the orobotics field. This storage
system, which seeks to propose a possible replacement for traditional refrigerated
boxing systems in plastic or aluminum foil packaging in a better sustainable way, was
initially designed for domestic users. Nothing prevents us from imagining locations
in large-scale distribution scenarios.
100 M. Lumini
Fig. 38 The model is drawn

in CAD and a cardboard
mockup is cut out using a
craft plotter. The sheet’s
waxed surface of a
ChorionPack. © is
perforated to ensure proper
aeration of the inner food.
The mountain/valley folds
obtained mechanically,
generate a memory of shape.
To obtain the packaging, the
two margins of templates are
glued together (ShapeMemo-
ryPackagingSystem© )

waxed surface of a
ChorionPack. © is

waxed surface of a
ChorionPack. © is

waxed surface of a
ChorionPack. © is
102 M. Lumini
Fig. 42 The bottom of the ChorionPack. © closes quickly by moving the palm in the correct
direction. Once the bottom is closed, and the food to be stored has been inserted, the upper parts
of the package are rotated in the opposite direction to the bottom. The opening and closing of the
container are reversible
104 M. Lumini
Fig. 45 The bottom of the

ChorionPack. © closes
quickly by moving the palm
in the correct direction. Once
the bottom is closed, and the
food to be stored has been
inserted, the upper parts of
the package are rotated in the
opposite direction to the
bottom. The opening and
closing of the container are
reversible
Fig. 46 The
waxed-cardboard sheet of
the ChorionPack © , before
being glued can be boxed in
a cylindrical package for its
sale and home storage. A
variant of the chorion, with a
flat bottom; this and all the
models can be made in
various typologies and sizes
106 M. Lumini
Fig. 47 The
waxed-cardboard sheet of
the ChorionPack © , before
being glued can be boxed in
a cylindrical package for its
sale and home storage. A
variant of the chorion, with a
flat bottom; this and all the
models can be made in
various typologies and sizes
Fig. 48 A variant of the

basic model
Fig. 49 A variant of the

basic model
Acknowledgements Prof. Massimo Lumini is the only author and editor of the present chapter but
some inspirations, CAD rendering, and design suggestions, come from the results of several lectures,
workshops, and bionics and biomimetics training courses held during the schools-years 2019/2020 e
2020/2021 at BionikonLab&FABNAT14 in Iglesias-SU Italy. All the infographics, photos, images,
and cardboard-origami prototypes accompanying the text, are original artwork of the author, except
CAD in Fig. 39 (Emanuela Manconi). The author is thankful for the BionikonLab&FABNAT14
team, including the teachers Emanuela Manconi and Silvia Musa, and students Francesco Concas,
Giovanni Concas, Enrico Congia, and Valerio Antonio Filippi.
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Transport Package and Release
of Ladybug Larvae with Biomimetic
Concepts
Fernando José da Silva, Cynara Fiedler Bremer, Sofia Woyames Costa Leite,
and Verônica Oliveira Souza
Abstract Agrotoxics, pesticides, and other agricultural chemical inputs have long
been used for pest control in crops and plantations around the world. As people have
become aware of this problem of food with pesticides, the demand for vegetables and
greens produced in gardens, with natural pest control, without the use of pesticides,
has increased. The Biofábrica de Joaninhas (Ladybug Factory), an agency linked
to the city of Belo Horizonte/MG, produces and distributes ladybug and chrysopid
larvae, to communities and vegetable gardens, with the aim of protecting the produc-
tion of vegetables, respecting the environment and people’s health in general. This
project was inspired by a similar work in Caen, France, started in 1980. The first
official distribution to the local population took place in 1984 and remains a public
policy in that country to this day. The objective of the work presented here was the
development of an alternative packaging, produced with biodegradable materials,
avoiding environmental problems, instead of the plastic ones normally used; the
process was inspired by nature’s solutions, and is able to transport the larvae of these
insects from the Ladybug Factory to the vegetable gardens, facilitating the handling
during the release of these insects, avoiding losses, and also protecting them.
Keywords Biomimetics · Nature-inspired · Design · Packaging · Ladybug ·

Cycloneda sanguinea · Pests · Environmental control
F. J. da Silva · C. F. Bremer (B) · S. W. C. Leite · V. O. Souza

Escola de Arquitetura, Departamento de Tecnologia do Design, Universidade Federal de Minas
Gerais, da Arquitetura e do Urbanismo. Rua Paraíba, 697 - Savassi, Belo Horizonte/MG. CEP
30130-141, Brazil
F. J. da Silva
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-1812-4_4
112 F. J. da Silva et al.
1 Introduction
For a long time now, agrotoxics, pesticides, and other agricultural chemical inputs
have been used for pest control in crops and plantations all over the world, and
unfortunately, recently in our country, dozens of these toxic materials are being
released for use in agriculture. These inputs not only compromise the quality of
the vegetables produced but also harm the health of the people who work there, the
health of their families, children, the elderly, and anyone else who comes to consume
the products, in addition to contaminating the groundwater of the region with the
infiltration of the products by rainwater.
It is also observed that as people become aware of this problem of food with
pesticides, the demand for vegetables produced in organic gardens has increased,
and many of them are community gardens near the concentration of residential
neighborhoods in the cities [5].
With the challenge of these community gardens to produce organic products
without the use of pesticides, a way out has been the use of insect larvae that predate
pests without damaging the vegetables. These are the so-called “good insects”,
such as the well-known Ladybugs (Cycloneda sanguinea), and the Chrysopids
(Chrysopidae) [2].
According to these authors, the Institute Ladybug Factory, an agency linked to the
Prefecture of the city of Belo Horizonte/MG, produces and distributes the larvae of
these insects, to communities and vegetable gardens, in order to protect the production
of vegetables, respecting the environment and the health of the people involved and
the final consumers, since they do not use pesticides for this environmental control
of pests.
However, observing the traditional prismatic packaging system and model used,
part of the larvae cannot survive the transport and the way of release in the garden
itself. Thus, the goal of this project is the development of a packaging, inspired by
nature’s solutions, able to transport the larvae of these insects from the Ladybug
Factory to the vegetable garden, facilitating the handling during the release of these
insects, reducing losses and protecting them, being produced with biodegradable
materials, avoiding environmental problems.
2 Pesticide Use Versus the Health of Living Beings
With the increase in population all over the planet, there is the need to generate food
for all, in order to ensure the continuity of life. However, this need to have food has
caused producers around the world to use pesticides of all kinds to control pests and,
consequently, increase production [7].
In Brazil, it has been no different: Grigori [16] shows that in the Bolsonaro govern-
ment, in 2018, there was an increase in the authorization of pesticide use, an addition
Transport Package and Release of Ladybug Larvae … 113
of 998 new items, totaling 3,064 types currently marketed in the country, which
represents a growth of more than 50% compared to the previous government.
It is noteworthy here that the indiscriminate use of artificial toxins in an attempt to
combat pests brings immeasurable damage to adjacent populations and consumers.
The high exposure to pesticides can bring symptoms such as poisoning at various
levels, depending on the proximity to the pesticide, type and amount, causing aller-
gies; gastrointestinal, respiratory, endocrine, reproductive, and neurological disor-
ders; neoplasms; accidental deaths; even influencing suicides. It affects mainly
agricultural workers, professionals who apply the pesticides, children, women of
reproductive age, pregnant, and lactating women, the elderly and individuals with
biological and genetic vulnerability [9]. In addition to the factors directly impinged,
consumers are also prevented from accessing with transparency the chemical
quantum present in their daily food [8].
Minas Gerais ranks as the state with the highest recorded growth in organic
agriculture [27] a milestone to be celebrated and expanded. In this sense, it is of
extreme importance and relevance the investment in research and development of
more sustainable alternatives that assist in combating the advance of such systemic
pests, in an effective, cheap, and accessible way. Some considerable advances have
been achieved; as pointed out by Primavesi [24] and the EMBRAPA [14] report, the
biological control of pests in human environments such as the ladybug plant.
Currently, there is great governmental fomentation in the form of subsidies for the
diffusion of agrotoxics in the country, an investment choice with a very high envi-
ronmental and social cost. The current list of these products is immense: according
to MAPA [19], 2300 pesticides are registered in Brazil, being one of the largest
consumers in the world.
Thus, with the large use of pesticides in agriculture, Aires [1], warns of the prob-
lems related to damage to people’s health, as well as to insects and nature itself,
because “one of the most common problems is the contamination of soil, ground-
water, and rivers and lakes. With the rain or the irrigation used, the chemical reaches
the soil, and infiltrates, reaches the local water, intoxicating the environment and the
life present there.
As for the poisoning of small animals, Sánchez-Bayo and Wyckhuys [25] warn
that currently, 40% of all insect species are at risk of extinction due to pesticides—
especially neonicotinoids, since they are the most widely used insecticides on the
planet. And without insects, much of the pollination of food-producing plants ceases.
In the case of bees, the most common effects identified are disorientation in flight,
nervous and digestive system disorders, and consequent death (Fig. 1).
The huge use of pesticides by large producers ties into the approval of the Pesticide
Regulatory Framework [12], which included proposals to change terminologies to
soften the perception of the toxicity involved in these chemicals:
...the project provides, for example, the change of the name “agrotoxics” to “pesticides”,
which should facilitate the registration of products whose formulas, in some cases, are
composed of substances considered carcinogenic by regulatory agencies. Previously, the
proposal was to change the nomenclature to “phytosanitary product”. [10]
Fig. 1 Dead bees. Source https://www.flickr.com/photos/32454731@N00/3804300714
Fig. 2 Manual and mechanized application of agrochemicals in crops. Source a https://encurtador.

com.br/bpwDL; b https://encurtador.com.br/jstL5
Figure 2a, b show manual and mechanized application of agrochemicals on farms:

In large cultivable areas of agriculture, the mechanical application of pesticides is
an activity analyzed as a major villain of pollution and poisoning in the production of
soybeans, corn, rice, citrus, with about 63 million hectares (2017), and 158 million
hectares of pastures [3].
Linked to this huge agribusiness is the advance of deforestation, land concentra-
tion, the depletion of soil and water resources, and the threat to traditional and native
regional populations. It is also observed that high exposure to pesticides can bring
symptoms such as poisoning at various levels, depending on the proximity to the
pesticide, type and amount of the toxin, causing various allergic reactions; respira-
tory, endocrine, gastrointestinal, reproductive and neurological disorders; neoplasms,
accidental deaths, even influencing suicide cases [6].
3 Organic Gardens and Natural Pest Control
As an alternative for access to good quality food, without the added costs of logis-
tics and the dangerous and uncontrolled presence of pesticides, organic gardens
have been spreading in urban regions and population proximities, presenting them-
selves as an option for a healthy return to the relationship between man–nature,
besides promoting subsistence conditions and human dignity to the families involved,
combating unemployment and social exclusion [5].
There has been an increase in demand for garden crops and in small spaces
[14], and discussions regarding public health and access to food and water become
frequent, especially when it comes to increasing immunity by favoring healthy
habits. Thus, urban agriculture becomes ecological and sustainable, and has been
gaining space and incentives by government sectors, including regulatory stan-
dards. São Paulo had its first regulation concerning urban agriculture in 2004 (Law
13.727/2004), regulated by Decree 51.801, of 09/21/2010 [23]. Other metropolises,
as highlighted by Lima [18], already had this context, as is the case of Lisbon, which
since 2007 has been encouraging community gardens and currently has 14 sets of
urban gardens. Still according to Lima, Madrid currently has 39 of these gardens,
and Barcelona 14 gardens with community empowerment that resists real estate
speculation.
In Belo Horizonte, the local government [21] currently has 51 productive urban
community units (Fig. 3), divided into nine regions. In addition to these units, the
city also has School Agroecological Systems, involving more than 160 projects in
UMEIS (Municipal Education Units), besides the private network [5].
In this sense, the Prefecture of Belo Horizonte [22] has been developing since
2017, a project called Biofábrica, to raise ladybugs (Cycloneda sanguinea) and
Chrysopids (Chrysopidae), Fig. 4, aimed at donation to community gardens and
small farmers. This project was inspired by a similar one in Caen, France, which
started in 1981 in the city’s Botanical Garden, having the first official distribution to
Fig. 3 Community gardens.

Source https://encurtador.
com.br/apE15
(a) (b)
Fig. 4 Ladybugs/crisopids. Source a https://encurtador.com.br/joyMX, b encurtador.com.br/ghjIS
the local population in 1984 and which remains as a public policy to this day and
years later served as the basis for the implementation of federal policy for total elim-
ination of pesticide use in France [11]; in Belo Horizonte, the project also helped to
control the population of the whitefly, which attacked the ficus present in the capital
in the year 2019.
In Caen, until 2009, the insects were packaged for distribution in their larval form
in plastic jars with lids, using wheat husk and sawdust as substrate for accommodating
the insects. In the following years, the insects were distributed in tissue paper and/or
cut into squares, which proved to be effective. But it still presents the issue discussed
in this article of creating future problems such as inadequate disposal and the safety
of the small insects during transportation.
These insects, while in the larval stage, are natural predators of aphids, enemies
of vegetables, acting as natural controllers of these pests. In 2020, even with the
pandemic (Covid-19), the Biofábrica’s production and donation reached 40 thousand
ladybugs (number initially planned only for 2021), and the tendency for demand is to
increase, due to the success with the educational projects developed by them, aimed
at raising awareness among the population and schoolchildren. Unfortunately, with
the increase in the number of COVID cases, Biofábrica was paralyzed and had its
activities restarted only in October 2021 with a forecast of expansion, having as a
goal for the next year to produce about 50 thousand ladybugs and deliver more than
5 thousand kits.
This type of natural biological control of environmental pests has been known
since the late nineteenth century. Amaral et al. [2] show that in 1887, ladybugs were
used to control pests in citrus plantations in California (imported from Australia).
And, in Brazil, there are records of natural control of whitefly and mealybugs since
1921. They also explain that the chrysopids act more efficiently still in the larval
stage, when they need proteins and carbohydrates, feeding mainly on aphids, mealy-
bugs, whiteflies, psyllids and mites. Both ladybugs and chrysopids have a life cycle
with complete metamorphosis (egg, larva, pupa, and adult), and consume their prey
throughout their cycle, besides having fast development, thus becoming great options
for the regulation of pests.
4 Need for Appropriate Packaging for Transport

and Release of Larvae
Observing the growing dissemination of sustainable and nature-protective tech-

niques, naturally controlling pests in vegetable gardens with the use of predatory
insects (as is the case of ladybugs and chrysopids), several entities have distributed
packages containing larvae of these insects, in programs that have advanced for
decades [2].
However, the packages used are taken from plastic objects available in the market,
and that were not designed for such use, not ergonomically suitable, not appropriate
for the actions of insertion of inputs, insertion of the larvae, ease of aeration to not
suffocate them, and ease of handling in the release of the larvae in the appropriate
places in the gardens.
Figure 5a–c show examples of the use of plastic containers, which end up polluting
the garden, after their inappropriate disposal.
Figure 6a shows the activity of inserting inputs and larvae inside the packaging;
and Fig. 6b shows another type of packaging affixed to plants, opened to release
larvae, which can also be disposed of inappropriately near the garden, causing
pollution because it is non-biodegradable plastic material.
Fig. 5 Plastic packaging. Source The authors

(a) (b)
Fig. 6 a Insertion of elements into the packaging. b Availability of packaging next to the plant.
Source The authors
5 Principles of Biomimetics
Biomimetics is an old and recently rediscovered research area, which deals with the
analysis of natural systems by applying their resolution principles to projects, be
they in Design, Architecture, Engineering, or any other area of knowledge. In the
late 1990s, this subject gained new life, with the publication of Janine Benyus’ work
in 1997, and in the last decade there have been forums, congresses, and symposia
spreading with this theme. Benyus shows that adaptations make possible the creation
of forms and uses of principles of functions or behaviors present in nature and that are
used as analogies and patterns, be they geometric or mathematical. These principles
are identified as models, as measures or as mentors, “being a new way of seeing and
valuing nature (…) whose foundations lie not in what we can extract, but in what we
can learn from it” ([4], p. 8).
As an elementary form in nature we can observe the figure of the circle, which
can insert within it the figures of the triangular plane, square, pentagon, and hexagon.
Of these natural figures, the hexagonal figure and prism are shown to have better use
of space, less expenditure of material and greater volume, with golden ratios in their
interior proportions ([13], p. 9). Bees build their alveoli, adopting this shape (Fig. 7),
optimizing the space and having economy of wax, without loss of space.
Observing the protective aspects of seeds and fruits in nature, one can also notice
the geometric configuration that, besides spatially organizing the elements present,
originally saves material resources in its formation. In Fig. 8, some geometric and
protective forms in Brazilian seeds can be seen.
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 7 a Hexagonal shape of the honeycombs; b and c Golden rectangle in the formation of the
hexagon. Source a https://www.encurtador.com.br/jnuvG, b and c elaborated by the authors
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 8 Geometric elements and protective forms in Brazilian seeds. Source a https://www.encurt
ador.com.br/eDLM6, b encurtador.com.br/avGHJ, c encurtador.com.br/ghosF
6 Process and Packaging Design
For the new packaging proposal, with the principles and objectives already described,
observing some conventional design processes, it was chosen the development of
alternatives to the packaging for transportation and release of larvae based on the
concepts of Munari [20]. In this methodology, starting from a problem, knowing its
components, analyzing data related to it, and developed alternatives with creativity
and various experiments, from drawings to three-dimensional models. Thus, after
analyzing the developed generations, the solution presented in this work was reached.
Figures 9 and 10 show a series of alternatives developed in the proposal for the
packaging of Ladybug larvae, or Chrysopids, to control vegetable plagues.
From the alternatives generated, three-dimensional models were built (Figs. 11
and 12) in order to better evaluate the possibilities of implementing the proposal, and
then sent to Biofábrica for initial testing and prototype adjustments.
Figure 13 shows the model of the chosen proposal, in test simulation for the
package opening system and release of the ladybug larvae.
Figure 14 shows details of the simulation in the final alternative model, regarding
the internal movement system for the release of the ladybug larvae.
Fig. 9 Generation of alternatives. Source Elaborated by the authors
Fig. 10 Generation of alternatives and planning. Source Elaborated by the authors
Fig. 11 Modeling of alternatives. Source Elaborated by the authors

Fig. 12 Modeling of alternatives. Source Elaborated by the authors
Fig. 13 Final proposal model. Source Elaborated by the authors
In this case, with an internal element that can be made of the same material as
the packaging, in biodegradable paper, and that can have a vertical movement in the
module for removal and release of the larvae directly on the foliage of vegetables
with aphids that will be preyed on by the ladybugs.
7 Final Considerations
In this work, the development process of packaging was characterized, a product

based on the Science of Biomimetics, demonstrating to have several possibilities for
favorable solutions, involving formal and functional characteristics present in nature.
As part of this process, it was observed the generation of various alternatives and
then the choice of an idea being developed also with the use of three-dimensional
models, exploring construction and detailing, enabling simulation of use.
Fig. 14 Final proposal model. Source Elaborated by the authors
It is noteworthy, however, that this proposal is currently being evaluated and

adjusted according to the demands of the professionals at Biofábrica, an agency
linked to the Municipality of Belo Horizonte. These adjustments are related to the
size, mobile, and functional elements of the proposal, as well as the quantity and
types of larvae/insects to be transported, for subsequent insertion in the production
activities and donation to the vegetable producers, favoring the natural control of
pests without the use of pesticides.
The partnership Design/Biomimetics also enables a range of opportunities and
applications with the sectors of society, involved in the search for practical, fast, and
efficient solutions to the challenges encountered, whether in the public or private
sector, and that become examples to future professionals, designers, architects,
engineers, agronomists, among others.
Acknowledgements The authors’ team would like to thank the collaboration of Professor Dany
Silvio Amaral, from the Management of Actions for Sustainability of the Environment Depart-
ment of the Belo Horizonte City Hall, and especially, the professor and biologist Wagner da Costa
Resende, graduated in Biological Sciences at the UFMG, administrative servant of the Belo Hori-
zonte City Hall and one of the responsible persons for the Biofábrica project, who unfortunately
died of COVID-19 in April 2021 and did not follow the final version of the package developed. Our
sincere thanks and condolences to his family and friends at PBH.
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Characterization of the Gradient
Cellular Structure of Bottle Gourd
(Lagenaria Siceraria) and Implications
for Bioinspired Applications
Danieli Maehler Nejeliski , Lauren da Cunha Duarte ,

Jorge Ernesto de Araujo Mariath , and Felipe Luis Palombini
Abstract Cellular materials can be found in numerous ways in nature, presenting

interesting properties for applications in many fields, such as engineering and design.
By combining a low density with a rigid structure, their macroscopic properties
can essentially be derived from their microstructure, which can be classified into
open- and closed-cell arrangements. Besides directly employing them in projects,
synthetic polymeric alternatives have been developed, such as those bioinspired in
their natural counterpart. Plant-based materials are originated from either wild or
cultivated plants, which can be used as a raw material in product design after a few
processes. They are considered mostly heterogeneous, biodegradable, and renewable
materials. Bottle gourd (Lagenaria siceraria—CUCURBITACEAE) is a plant-based
cellular material used empirically. After harvesting and drying, the fruit becomes
hollow, with porous mesocarp and impermeable exocarp. Present on all continents,
even before human presence, the fruit was one of the first domestic plants, exhibiting
the characteristics of easily adapting to any climate, presenting high productivity
and its annual production cycle configures it as a renewable raw material alternative.
D. M. Nejeliski (B)
Design School, Pelotas Campus; Federal Institute Sul-Rio-Grandense of Education, Science and
Technology (IFSul), Praça Vinte de Setembro, 455, Pelotas, RS, Brazil
L. da Cunha Duarte
Engineering School, Materials Department, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS),
Av. Osvaldo Aranha, 99, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
J. E. de Araujo Mariath
Laboratory of Plant Anatomy – LAVeg, Graduate Program in Botany – PPGBot; Institute of
Biosciences, Department of Botany, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul – UFRGS, Av.
Bento Gonçalves, Porto Alegre, RS 9500, Brazil
F. L. Palombini
Design and Computer Simulation Group – DSC; Laboratory of Plant Anatomy – LAVeg, Graduate
Program in Botany – PPGBot, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul – UFRGS, Av. Bento
Gonçalves, Porto Alegre, RS 9500, Brazil
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-1812-4_5
126 D. M. Nejeliski et al.
Among its many applications, people use bottle gourd as vases, musical instruments,
buoys, and masks; in southern Brazil—along with Argentina and Uruguay—the fruit
is the main raw material for the manufacture of cuia, a container used for chimarrão,
a traditional tea-like beverage (mate). The application of bottle gourd in the design
of new products depends on the study of its structure and properties. This chapter
presents the characterization of bottle gourd cellular structure regarding the material’s
gradient porosity—from open to closed cells—with aims at bionics, using scanning
electron microscopy and transmission light microscopy. The analyses showed the
exocarp as a thin layer of compact closed cells, thus being waterproof, and the
mesocarp formed by parenchyma cells that progressively increase in size towards the
center, characterized by large empty spaces with thickened and lignified cell walls
and intercellular communication channels, making the material water permeated.
Overall, the material’s microstructure is presented as a functionally gradient material,
leading to newer possibilities for the development of bioinspired cellular materials.
Keywords Biomimetics · Plant anatomy and morphology · Natural materials ·

Sustainability · Bottle gourd · Lagenaria siceraria · Cellular materials · Material
characterization
1 Introduction
Cellular solids are an important structural classification of various types of materials

that generally combine a number of interesting physical and mechanical properties
with a low density. By definition, it is essentially a porous material whose microstruc-
ture is composed of an internal arrangement of open or closed cells, which only
contains solid material in the edges or walls of the unitary cell, respectively [6].
Cellular materials can be divided into two main groups: honeycombs and foams.
The first one is known as a two-dimensional cellular solid, having aligned pris-
matic cells which usually have a hexagonal shape in materials found in nature. The
second group is known as three-dimensional cellular solids, consisting of polyhe-
dral cells arranged in a more complex way. Biomimicking of cellular materials is
a key area of study for the development of more lightweight, efficient, or insu-
lated designs [7]. Since the main properties of cellular solids are derived from their
microstructure—or morphology in the case of biological materials [11], compre-
hending their microscopic arrangement is fundamental for studying their possible
bioinspired applications.
The bottle gourd, scientific name Lagenaria siceraria, is the fruit of a plant of the
cucurbit family, which also includes pumpkin, melon, watermelon, and other widely
used in food. The structures of the plants of this family are very similar to each other,
with large leaves, growing near the soil. However, in relation to the fruits, it has very
peculiar characteristics [10]. When the fruit ripens and is harvested, if allowed to
dry in the shade for a few months, the placenta with the seeds dries and the fruit
becomes hollow. The inner part of the shell acquires characteristics similar to wood
Characterization of the Gradient Cellular Structure … 127
and the outer skin, extremely thin and smooth, becomes impermeable and with a
brown coloration, and when polished it acquires a marked brilliance. Due to the hard
shell, it is known as gourd in several regions of Brazil, being the term porongo most
used in the southern region of the country.
The cultivation of porongo is an important agricultural activity being widely used
for the manufacture of containers for chimarrão and handicrafts [4]. The fact of
being basically associated with the production of artifacts of the local culture ends
up restricting cultivation in other regions of the country, as well as its use as raw
material for the manufacture of other products, yet it is the main source of income
for dozens of small producers in Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil [15]. Using it on new
products such as containers for food and beverages, the demand for growing the fruit
would increase, encouraging family farming as a whole.
2 Bottle Gourd (Lagenaria Siceraria)
2.1 Origins of the Oldest of Domesticated Plants
Bottle gourd belongs to the family of cucurbits (CUCURBITACEAE), one of the

most important families of plants used by man, providing food and fiber. These
plants are related to the origin of agriculture and human civilizations, being among
the first species to be domesticated [3]. The pumpkin, the cucumber, the melon, and
the watermelon, important foodstuffs, and also the bottle gourd, used for various
purposes, belong to the family. Samples dating back to 11,000 BC were found in
East Asia. In the American continent, they were used from at least 10,000 BC [8].
Regarding specifically South America, the records date from 6,000 to 5,000 BC,
however, there is no safe argument that can resolve the issue of the unusual bi-
hemispheric distribution of the fruit [3].
In the phylogenetic tree, it can be observed that a common ancestor originates two
others, A and B, from which all the other Asian and African variations are generated,
respectively. A wild African specimen is the origin of everything, related in the
first name of the list (wild Zimbabwe), and appeared approximately 250 thousand
years ago. The bottle gourds of the American continent share a common ancestor
with Africans between 60,000 and 103,000 years ago, long before the first men who
migrated to the Americas, which happened about 15,000 years ago. That is, the bottle
gourd arrived in the American continent without the interference of humans [8].
The theory of transport by sea is one of the explanations for the spread of the
species. The seeds may have been transported by sea, as computational models of
sea currents indicate that it would take only a few months for the seeds of wild gourds
to reach the American continent [8]. The hard, impermeable shell would retain the
seeds and, once out of the ocean, they would have sprouted. While Alaska would
have been an inhospitable place for bottle gourds to grow, places with a tropical
climate such as Florida, Mexico, and Brazil would have been ideal [8].
Africa was probably the first place where porongo was domesticated. [8] suggest
that different groups of people may have come across different wild populations of
the plant and selected those with the hardest shell to use as containers. Moreover, in
Asia the fruit is among the earliest domesticated plants, being brought by the first
Polynesians to settle in New Zealand thousands of years ago. The bottle gourd was
the first plant propagated from seeds by people in New Zealand soils [5]. The Maoris,
a native people of New Zealand, use containers made from the fruit.
In New Zealand, the bottle gourd was also valued as a food plant. The young fruits
resemble a zucchini and were cooked in a hangi (a traditional cooking method that
uses natural vapors from the soil of volcanic terrain). However, it also provided the
natives with a wide range of containers, floats, musical instruments, ornaments, and
masks. Its use spread rapidly in Eastern Polynesia because their clay sources were
scarce and over time the ceramic techniques were forgotten. Hence, the importance
of a plant that could annually produce a series of containers of different sizes [5].
In Africa, in addition to being used in the production of food and beverage
containers, its excellent acoustic properties have been exploited for thousands of
years in the making of musical instruments. The fruit is used in the manufacture
of a range of flutes, drums, and stringed instruments in India, where it is used as a
resonance chamber for the sitar and other musical instruments [5].
With regard to the dissemination of the bottle gourd in South America, more
specifically in southern Brazil, the fruit was already known to the Guarani people
in the year 1580, when the Jesuits arrived in the territory now corresponding to
the Brazilian state of Rio Grande do Sul [9]. The chimarrão itself was a habit of
the natives that the Europeans assimilated. But the Indigenous people and the first
immigrants of the region did not use the fruit only for the making of containers for
chimarrão. Instead, they used it for the production of other containers, as can be seen
in the permanent collection of the Parque Gaúcho museum, in Gramado/RS. The
museum goes back to the origins and habits that formed the people of Rio Grande
do Sul, and together with leather and ceramics, porongo was one of the main natural
materials employed in the production of everyday artifacts, such as containers for
food (Fig. 2a) and water (Fig. 1b).
The bottle gourd is part of the history and evolution of countless peoples and
cultures. It has maintained its main aesthetic and functional characteristics intact
for thousands of years and continues to serve as an interesting raw material for the
production of manufactured goods today, as it did at the beginning of civilizations.
Its triumph has long impressed scientists, among domesticated species, only the dog
has spread more widely on the globe [8].
2.2 From Planting to Fruit
The information regarding the planting refers to the cultivation in the central region
of the RS state. For the sowing of the fruit in the region seeds are selected in the
crop itself, according to the size and shape of the fruit, without any attribution to the
Fig. 1 Guaraní people containers made from bottle gourds: a Food containers; b water container.
Source By the authors
Fig. 2 Morphological variations of the bottle gourd. Source By the authors
plant, being a phenotypic selection of individual fruits. It is not known the origin of
the populations used in the region [14]. The growth habit of the plant is climbing
and remains low in the absence of a support structure, which has the advantage of
greater control of the final fruit format [16].
Regarding its structures, the plant has a well-developed and branched root system,
the stem is herbaceous and firm, from which originate the leaves, shoots, inflores-
cences, and tendrils. Regarding the leaves of the bottle gourd plant, they are usually
simple, reniform, undulated, with an entire margin. It is a monoecious plant, in
which the male and female gametes are separated, the flowers have a white corolla
with five petals. The fruit is classified as a berry of the pepônio type, because of its
hard and resistant hull, the term gourd refers to the hard shell. As for the internal
morphology, the fruit presents exocarp, mesocarp, and endocarp [16]. The species
Lagenaria siceraria has a great variability of fruit shapes and sizes (Fig. 2), hull
thickness, length, symmetry, width, and the number of seeds [14].
The positioning of the fruit in the soil, when small, must be vertical to position the
base of the bottle gourd in the correct form. Fruits kept in the horizontal position can
bend and lose quality as a chimarrão container [16]. The harvest is performed after
the natural senescence of the plant, in which the fruits are harvested and huddled in
the shade to dry slowly. The drying process in the shade may take more than 6 months
to allow the ripening of the material. The green aspect of the outer epidermis will
disappear and the fruit will lose 90% of its weight with the water evaporation. When
the bottle gourd is completely dry, the seeds will shake inside it (Fig. 3) and the pulp
will detach from the mesocarp (Fig. 3).
The importance of knowing the harvest season is directly related to the quality of
the fruit, since drying in the field after this phase increases the risk of necrosis of the
material caused by fungi, with external and internal browning and loss of quality. In
the research conducted by [16], the end of the cycle occurred at 195 days, the author
developed a technique that relates the harvest point to the color of the fruit pedicel.
According to [2], the average productivity of porongo reaches 12,000 fruits per
hectare. The research carried out by [16] aimed at the management of the crop in order
to increase the productivity and quality of the fruit. In the experiment performed by
the author, the number of fruits per hectare varied according to the density of plants,
being between 9,000 and 10,000 samples. At the end of the research, he concluded
that the low yield of marketable fruits is related to the genetic variability of the
species.
Fig. 3 Longitudinal section of the porongo after the drying process: (1) Endocarp; (2) Seeds; (3)
Mesocarp; (4) Encounter of the mesocarp with the endocarp. Source By the authors
3 Characterization of Bottle Gourd and Implication

for Bionics
3.1 Materials and Methods
The samples of the fruits used in this research were collected in the city of Santa
Maria (state of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil), in 2015. Samples were prepared out of four
different fruits, based on the NBR 7190–1997 standard: Design of wooden structures
[1]. The standard establishes that wooden specimens must have a rectangular cross
section measuring 20 × 30 mm, and length along the fibers of 50 mm. As the bottle
gourd has concave shapes and irregular skin thickness, measures were adapted to
50 mm in the transversal direction of the fruit, 30 mm in the longitudinal direction,
and 5 mm in thickness. In total, 36 samples were made.
In order to analyze the microstructure of the bottle gourd, characterization was
performed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmitted light microscopy.
SEM is a non-destructive method that allows visualizing the surface morphology of
materials from solid samples. TM3000 equipment (Hitachi® High-Technologies
Corp., Tokyo, Japan) was used, located in the Design and Materials Selection Lab
(LDSM) at the Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS). The acceleration
of the electron beam used was 15 keV, and the equipment operates with image
magnification of up to 30,000 times. Backscattered electron images were obtained.
To observe the morphology and histology of the bottle gourd, a botanical proce-
dure was followed, in which semi-permanent slides were prepared for visualization
under light microscopy, at the Laboratory of Plant Anatomy (LAVeg/UFRGS). To
prepare the sections, porongo samples were previously immersed in 10% ethylene-
diamine for 48 h. Samples taken from the solution were dried in a controlled environ-
ment at 20 °C with 50% humidity. For the procedure, they were hydrated in water for
24 h at room temperature. The hydrated samples were then sectioned with a Ranvier
microtome and subsequently hand-cut with blades with a thickness between 15 and
8 µm, approximately.
Afterward, the slices underwent the staining process on the Kline plate. Tolu-
idine Blue dye 0.05% was used to observe the presence of lignin in the sample,
and Safranin, a reddish dye, to better visualize the parenchyma walls and phenolic
compounds, such as lignins. The images were generated in BX41 microscope
(Olympus® Co., Tokyo, Japan), using a digital camera model AxioCam ERc5s,
at LAVeg/UFRGS.
3.2 Characterization of the Gradient Cellular Structure
Some characteristics of the porongo can be visualized without the aid of magnifi-
cation equipment, such as the clear distinction between the bark and the inner part
(Fig. 4). One of the main aspects is the coloration, which is darker on the outside than
Fig. 4 Observable differences between the exocarp and the mesocarp of the bottle gourd: a Exocarp
(dark coloration) and mesocarp (light coloration); b detail of the pores after the sanding process.
that seen on the inside, which is light in color. The difference in thickness between
these two zones is also observable, as the shell is constituted by a layer of a micro-
metric magnitude, in which its proportions can only be quantified using microscopy
techniques, the inner porous layer covers the almost totality of the material, reaching
several millimeters in thickness. Another striking difference is regarding textures.
The skin is extremely smooth and homogeneous to the touch, in contrast to the internal
part, which is irregular and has a rough surface (Fig. 4a), as it has the function of
holding the placenta with the seeds when fruit.
The characterization of the bottle gourd initiated with the analysis of the
microstructure with aims at identifying the differences between the structure of the
shell and those observed inside. The observation of structures on a micrometric scale
helps the visualization and identification of the basic units that compose the mate-
rial’s microstructure and thus contributes to understanding how these units provide
the material its behavior and interesting properties. One of the techniques used was
scanning electron microscopy, as described above.
In the fruits of angiosperms, the wall of the fertilized ovary is transformed during
development into the pericarp of the mature fruit, which normally develops into three
distinct layers: exo-, meso-, and endocarp [13]. The exocarp is the outermost layer,
while the mesocarp develops into a fleshy layer and the endocarp has the function of
protecting the seeds. In the bottle gourd, the mesocarp is the dominant porous part,
and the endocarp is the innermost layer, which is located between the mesocarp and
the seeds, which is usually sanded to make products.
The difference between the exocarp and the mesocarp in the bottle gourd is easily
noticeable, the outer wall of the fruit is darker and more compact, while the inner layer
is lighter in color and porous (Fig. 5a). These differences become more accentuated
when the microstructure is observed. The exocarp is seen as a compact structure with
the presence of clear spots, which are inorganic materials (Fig. 5a). The mesocarp,
on the other hand, is presented as a network of pores, with variable size and shape
and different elongation directions (Fig. 5b), which defines it as a less compact
Fig. 5 SEM of the bottle gourd: a Exocarp, compact and homogeneous layer, with bright spots
of inorganic materials; b mesocarp, open-cell foam-like structure formed by parenchymatic cells.
Vascular bundles are highlighted in white circles. Source By the authors
and less dense structure than the exocarp. As a cellular solid, the mesocarp can be
characterized as a three-dimensional cellular material, defined as an open-cell foam.
According to [13], the mesocarp often develops as a fleshy ground tissue, the
parenchyma, being made up of large isodiametric cells, with more or less thin walls
and large vacuoles. In the case of the bottle gourd, the observable porous structures
in the mesocarp are the parenchyma cells of the fruit (Fig. 5b). In young fruits, the
peripheral parenchyma is usually rich in chlorophyll and carries out photosynthesis.
In the bottle gourd, when the fruit is collected and passes through the drying process,
the parenchyma cells die and their walls are lignified while the cells internal space
is emptied. The vascular bundles are scattered along the mesocarp (highlighted by
white circles in Fig. 5b).
Larger magnifications (Fig. 6) of the exocarp showed that the inorganic compo-
nents that constitute the spots mapped in lighter tones in the BSE-type images indicate
Fig. 6 Exocarp of the bottle

gourd, where the
homogeneity of the outer
layer, dense and compact, is
emphasized. Inorganic
materials enclosed in the
exocarp cavities are
highlighted in white circles.
Fig. 7 Detail of the

parenchyma elements: (1)
Parenchyma cell, where the
pits are the conducting
elements; (2) Intercellular
space; (3) Orifice through
which the phloem passes; (4)
Conductor cells. Source By
the authors
that they are constituted by chemical elements distinct from those of the matrix and
that they are enclosed inside the cells and dispersed along the entire length of the
outer wall.
Parenchyma cells are distributed around the vascular bundles (Fig. 7) and in most
of the mesocarp. It can be recognized that parenchyma cells have an isodiametric
structure while vascular bundle cells are elongated. Intercellular spaces are frequent
among these cell types [13], being of micrometric order of magnitude. Parenchyma
cells are constituted by a thickened wall and have pits through which each cell
connects with neighboring ones. This communication mechanism makes the bottle
gourd an extremely porous material, which results in the permeability of the material
to fluids.
Regarding the vascular bundles, they are composed of phloem (Fig. 7) and xylem
(Fig. 7). In the image, the phloem appears as an empty space, as it is constituted by thin
primary cell walls, which degrade when in contact with the 10% ethylenediamine
solution, used for sample preparation. The phloem is responsible for transporting
the elaborated sap. The xylem cells, which are opposed to the phloem, transport
water and mineral salts. The vascular bundles are collateral and are spread over the
mesocarp [13]. This explains the fact that, in a single cut, vascular bundles can be
sectioned in different orientations, transverse, longitudinal, or intermediate.
Parenchyma cells have a different structure from those that constitute the
conductive cells, with the parenchyma cells having pits between neighboring units
(Fig. 8), while the inner wall of the xylem elements presents cell-wall thickening,
characteristic of tracheal elements (Fig. 8).
To identify whether a pattern of cell growth and orientation can be noticed along
the pericarp of the bottle gourd, BSE-like images of a sample were grouped, covering
different portions of the fruit, from the outermost part of the exocarp to the inner
part closer to the endocarp. The selection of images includes the exocarp (Fig. 9a),
the central portion (Fig. 9b), and the innermost portion (Fig. 9c) of the mesocarp.
As the cells’ location moves to the inner part, the dimensions of the parenchyma
Fig. 8 Outer walls of mesocarp cells: (1) Parenchymal cell, with cavities that connect the cells; (2)
outer wall of conductive cells with tracheal features. Source By the authors
Fig. 9 Progressive increase in the dimensions of the cells: a Exocarp; b center of the mesocarp
and; c inner part of the mesocarp. Source By the authors
cells and the density of void spaces increase. In the outermost portion of the exocarp,
which includes the outer skin, there is a very compact layer of cells, where no
intercellular space is visible (Fig. 9a). Those cells are showed very densified and
packed together, which explains the impermeability of the skin. This situation is
different as the innermost portions are observed, with a progressive increase in cell
dimensions (Fig. 9a–c), with different orientations.
Differences in cell dimensions are easily noticed (Fig. 9), which results in different
relative amounts between cellular material mass and empty volumes in each analyzed
sector. This reason is related to the density of the material, which can lead to it being
considered as a material with heterogeneous density. Regarding the study of cellular
solids, this relationship is known as relative density, or the ratio between the density
of a cellular region to that of the material of which the cell wall is made; therefore, it
can also be defined as a volume ratio or the inverse of the porosity [12]. In addition,
as observed in the SEM images, the closer to the exocarp, the denser the material,
whereas in the inner portions the cell dimensions increase, thus reducing the density
Fig. 10 Thickened walls of the parenchyma: a In detail, the communication channels can be seen,
which are the dark horizontal lines; b on the left, a vascular bundle in the longitudinal direction,
with its tracheal structure, and on the right, a parenchyma cell in a longitudinal section, with the
communication channels. Source By the authors
of the material. The diameter of the cells was assessed with the BSE-type images, and
in the outermost portion, closer to the exocarp, pores have values ranging between 24
and 55 µm, and the ones of the pores located in the innermost part of the mesocarp
are between 67 and 93 µm.
In order to better visualize aspects that do not appear clearly in the MEV, such
as cell details and lignin in the walls, transmitted light microscopy was employed.
Parenchyma cells and the pits that serve as communication between neighboring cells
(Fig. 10) are observed. These cells have a thickened wall, impregnated with lignin,
which is responsible for the hardness and strength of the material. Characteristics of
the structures observed via transmitted light microscopy are like those analyzed via
SEM, however, some details such as thickened walls are well evidenced here.
The distribution and arrangement of cells from the exocarp to the mesocarp are
also well evident (Fig. 11). In this situation, the outermost part, the exocarp, can
be seen as a thin, impermeable micrometric layer that is difficult to visualize under
a microscope magnification (Fig. 11). The first layer of the mesocarp, formed by
sclereids or stone cells, which are cells with a very thicker wall, are very closely
arranged so that there is no intercellular space between them (Fig. 11). In the second
layer of the mesocarp, the parenchyma cells appear larger, with less thicker cell walls,
and with a greater presence of vacuoles, increasing progressively as they are located
inwardly to the endocarp (Fig. 11). Regarding the endocarp, it was not possible to
visualize it, as it is a very thin layer, between the mesocarp and the seeds, formed
by very large and dispersed cells, which ended up deteriorating in the preparation of
the samples.
Lignin can be observed by adding dye (as described in the methods), which
favors visualization. In the exocarp (Fig. 11), a very dark greenish color is observed,
indicating the greater presence of lignin. As the mesocarp position moves inwardly,
the cell walls get less thicker, and the greenish hue becomes lighter, indicating a
Fig. 11 Distribution and arrangement of cells from the exocarp (left) to the mesocarp (right): (1)
Outer layer of exocarp, thin and compact; (2) Mesocarp sclereids; (3) Mesocarp, where a progressive
increase in the dimensions of the parenchymal cells can be observed towards the inner part. The
arrow indicates the intercellular communication channels, known as pits. Source By the authors
progressive reduction in lignin in the innermost layers. The amount of lignin in the
dried fruit is relative, depending on the moment it matures.
3.3 Implications for the Study of Bionics
From the analysis of the bottle gourd microstructure, it was possible to better under-
stand the behavior of the material in different situations. Based on the characteris-
tics observed, one can define parameters that could contribute to the development of
newer materials, according to a methodology of bionics. Two factors are fundamental
for defining the main properties of the material: the difference in density between the
exocarp and the mesocarp, as well as the gradient changes in the network that forms
its structure. The compact cell distribution in the exocarp explains the impermeability
of the skin, while the large empty cells of the parenchyma justify the high porosity
of the highly hydrophilic material, as well as the reduced density of the inner part of
the fruit.
According to the characteristics analyzed, the bottle gourd can be classified as
a cellular material with a unique organization of its unitary components. On the
outermost part, the cells are so tightly packed together that they present an elevated
level of impermeability, whereas in the inner part cells are much larger and sparse,
allowing the development of a complex network of intracellular communication via
cell pits, leading to a permeable surface. Moreover, due to the gradient distribution
of lignin in the cell walls of the material, the fruit develops a much harder and
stiffer periphery, while its interior remains softer. This gradient in the structural
characteristics also contributes to the maximization of the weight of the fruit, since
more material—especially lignin in the cell wall—is deposited in the regions where
mechanical loads are greater.
In terms of bioinspired designs, the fruit being the solution developed by nature
can lead to some key features that could be explored. Foremost, not only the gradient
distribution of cells can have an effect on the structural efficiency of a bioinspired
material but can also propitiate distinct levels of water absorption or impermeability.
This is particularly interesting for the design of panels for architecture and civil
engineering, where moister is desired to be kept on one side of a surface while the
other remains waterproof. Synthetic bottle stoppers as cork replacements can also be
developed with this gradient distribution of water absorption and mechanical resis-
tance capabilities. Even small kitchen accessories, like potholders, cutting boards,
and oven mitts can benefit from these characteristics.
4 Conclusions
The bottle gourd can be found in different countries and continents, each place with
a different vernacular name. Because the fruit originates from a plant that has spread
to the continents before men, its history as a raw material for the production of
artifacts goes back a long time. Due to its almost ubiquitous presence, the diversity
of products made from is quite variable. In the Brazilian state of Rio Grande do Sul,
Argentina, and Uruguay the dried fruit is used for the production of containers for
the chimarrão, while in Africa, it is employed in the creation from food containers
to musical instruments, to name a few examples. The diversity of surface design
techniques is also diverse, as is the list of artifacts made from it.
Due to its peculiar characteristics of shape, structure, and surface, it can be
considered a differentiated natural cellular material. Although it is an extremely
ancient crop, from which numerous artifacts are produced, there is still little scien-
tific research for its use as a material. The objects made from the fruit are handcrafted,
based on empirical knowledge. In the places where it is cultivated and processed, it
is a source of income for the farmers who cultivate the plant and also for the artisans
who manufacture the products from it. With better use of the fruit in the making of
other artifacts, the entire production chain increases, as well as the number of people
benefited by the process.
The use of natural materials as a raw material in product design, in general, is a
more complex and variable labor when compared to the use of materials developed
and produced industrially. When working with natural materials, automatically a
network of people is involved, starting with those responsible for planting or even
extracting the material from nature, through the initial processing, the artisans who
create products from the raw material, and by those who sell their products. They
are also required to adapt to the natural variabilities of the material, where changes
in shape, structure, colors, and textures can be expected. It is an intricate process,

but inherently more sustainable, because it creates a value chain that benefits all
involved, and often minimizes the production of contaminant waste. In this sense,
the valorization of the characteristics of natural materials from different regions, as
well as the community involved, is just another possibility of design operation.
The use of natural materials from renewable sources as well as promoting local
development is an alternative to non-renewable resources that are doomed to extinc-
tion. However, the feasibility of applying biological materials in the manufacture
of products like containers for food and beverages, depends on some factors, such
as the identification of basic properties, so that it can be characterized as material
and potentiate its use in other products; and the application of treatments that may
increase durability and extend the useful life of the material by virtue of its organic,
degradable nature.
Another important application of natural materials, like the bottle gourd, is by
means of analyzing and exploring its characteristics as a source of inspiration. The
methodology of design based on the study of bionics allows the transposition of
features found in nature to the development of newer products, structures, and mate-
rials. As observed in the case of this chapter, the properties of the fruit can be
explored as its natural gradient anatomy leads to regions from high stiffness and
impermeability to soft and permeable surfaces.
References
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Bamboo-Based Microfluidic System
for Sustainable Bio-devices
Omar Ginoble Pandoli , Sidnei Paciornik , Mathias Strauss ,

and Murilo Santhiago
Abstract Using conventional microfabrication processes to obtain well-aligned

arrays of microfluidic channels is very challenging and costly. Nature, on the other
hand, is unique in creating complex hierarchical architectures. For instance, some
wood-derived materials have aligned microchannels that may be explored to add new
functions to these biological templates, expanding their uses toward greener elec-
tronic, biological, and energy devices. To explore novel hierarchical architectures,
the 3D anisotropic structure of bamboo has been recently used as a bio-template for
the fabrication of functional bio-devices, adding new functionalities to this natural
material. Bamboo is a monocotyledon plant that shows high growth speed and that
is widespread in tropical regions. It is considered an abundant and low-cost lignocel-
lulosic natural resource that possesses fast microfluidic dynamics, good mechanical
strength, lightweight, and high content of crystalline cellulose. Moreover, it can
be pyrolyzed to become thermally and electrically conductive. From the anatomic
point of view, bamboo is an anisotropic gradient functional material with an atac-
tostele microarray channel system constituted by a complex of vascular bundles
O. Ginoble Pandoli (B)

Department of Chemistry, Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio de Janeiro (PUC-RIO), Rua
Marquês de São Vicente, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]
Dipartimento di Farmacia, Università degli Studi di Genova, Viale Benedetto XV, Genova, Italy
S. Paciornik
Chemical and Materials Engineering Department, Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio de
Janeiro (PUC-RIO), Rua Marquês de São Vicente, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
M. Strauss · M. Santhiago
Brazilian Nanotechnology National Laboratory (LNNano), Brazilian Center for Research in
Energy and Materials (CNPEM), Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
M. Santhiago
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-1812-4_6
142 O. Ginoble Pandoli et al.
(metaxylem, protoxylem, and phloem) protected by lignocellulosic fibers (scle-

renchyma) embedded into a matrix of living cells tissue (parenchyma). The vascular
vessels are radially distributed from the inner to the outer wall of the internode culm
with diameters ranging from 50 to 200 μm. As the bamboo microchannel arrays
allow the flow of different types of fluids, passively or actively, through capillarity,
vacuum, or pumping, this opens a plethora of possibilities. The lignocellulosic walls
of the microchannels and the parenchymatous living cells can be functionalized
to build up novel devices for environmental, health, chemical, and energy applica-
tions. Natural bamboo bio-templates decorated with plasmonic nanoparticles (Ag
and Pd-NPs) have been used as a plasmonic system for solar steam generation.
Conductive silver ink was used to achieve a regioselective coating of the 3D hollow
channel for the prototyping of electric circuits, microfluidic heaters, and fully inte-
grated micro electrochemical cells. Finally, new chemical functionalities have been
added to the bamboo bio-template to obtain a chemical platform for analytical appli-
cations and click chemical reactions. Bamboo carbonized by pyrolysis was used as a
3D solar vapor-generation device for water desalination and also as a monolithic air
cathode for microbial fuel cell applications. Therefore, bamboo stands as a promising
natural template for devices that demand and take advantage of hierarchical archi-
tectures and microarray channels. It can be explored as raw or as carbonized material
for scalable production of eco-friendly, sustainable, low-cost, and portable chemical,
electronic, and electrochemical bio-devices. These bioinspired solutions could fulfill
industrial demands for greener chemical, electronic, and energy applications.
Keywords 3D structure · Lignocellulose polymer · Vapor-generation device ·

Monolithic air cathode · Modeling analytical platform · Catalytic microreactor ·
Electrochemical cell · Microfluidic heater · Bambootronic
1 Introduction
Bamboo is considered a biological structural material that has inspired designers,

engineering, and chemists to understand its structural-property relationships. The
complexity of this natural material is based on 3 key factors: anatomy, chem-
ical composition, and hierarchical architecture from nano to macroscale level [1].
Recently, bamboo has attracted scientific interest in the emerging fields of bioin-
spired design and biomimetics. The main goal is to discover a practical biomim-
icking fabrication of a biological composite with a defined 3D structure for the
scalable production of engineered products. Up to now, we are far away from repro-
ducing synthetically a similar man-made multifunctional “superior” material, which
combines biological and/or mechanical functions. In this case, what we can do is to
study from a different point of view: the single constituents at a molecular level, and
the whole hierarchical architecture at a macroscopic scale. With a whole overview, we
will understand the efficiency and effectiveness of bamboo 3D structure, considered
a biologically evolved structural system [2].
Bamboo-Based Microfluidic System for Sustainable Bio-devices 143
Bamboo belongs to the grass family Gramineae (Poaceae), subfamily Bambu-

soideae, tribe Bambuseae. Bambusoideae include two tribes: Bambuseae (wood
bamboo) and Olyreae (herbaceous bamboo). All Bambuseae are native in trop-
ical and sub-tropical countries and are classified into 80 genera and an esti-
mated 1200 species [3]. The most important giant bamboos include Phyllostachys
pubescens (Moso), Guadua angustifolia (Guadua), and Dendrocalamus gigan-
teus (Dendrocalamus). Depending on the species, bamboo reaches its maximum
height between 3 and 8 months and its complete maturity in 4 years. After that, it starts
slow biodegradation. 36 million hectares of bamboo forests are distributed worldwide
in China (24 million hectares, 65%), America (10 million hectares, 28%), and Africa
(2 million hectares, 7%).[4] With a high yield per hectare, fast harvesting, without
deterioration of the soil, bamboo is an exceptional candidate as abundant, sustainable,
and renewable lignocellulosic polymers resources with a potential economic impact
for undergoing economic developing countries in Asia, Latin America, and Africa.
The traditional bamboo use in indigenous cultures has been replaced (housing and
utensils) with new industrial and economic opportunities as a substitute of wood for
agroforestry, textile, reinforced composite materials, charcoal, pulp, paper, laminated
board, and new engineered materials.
Bamboo macrostructure is constituted by a hollow tube-like structure named culm
that is divided into transversal nodes and longitudinal internodes. The diameter and
the thickness of the culm decrease along the bamboo length. From the ground to the
top head of the culm the thickness of the woody wall is constituted by longitudinally
vascular bundles (metaxylem, protoxylem, and phloem) protected by lignocellulosic
fibers (sclerenchyma) embedded into a matrix of living cells tissue (parenchyma).
The morphology and the spatial distribution of vascular bundles into the longitudinal
axis and radial axis are not homogenous and well ordered, indicating an atactostele
distribution [5]. Indeed, the bamboo structure is more heterogeneous than wood [6].
The density of the vascular bundles with its sclerenchyma tissue is graded and the
shape changes as well. The volume fraction of the vascular bundles and their solid
fraction of the cellulose fiber increase radially from the inner to outer part across the
transversal section of the culm. More gradually the density of the fiber increases from
the bottom to the upper part of the bamboo. Contrarily, the density of parenchymatous
matrix cells increases from the outer to the inner region of the bamboo culm.
Concerning stiffness and strength, the mechanical properties show significant vari-
ations depending on the measurement positions, both radially and longitudinally [7].
The exceptional anisotropic mechanical properties are determined by a more evident
radial density gradient in the bamboo culm [8]. The distribution of Young’s modulus
and tensile strength along the transverse section of bamboo culm varies from about
5 to 25 GPa, and from about 100 to 800 MPa, respectively [9]. This asymmetric
behavior similar to a cantilevered structure is useful to absorb the highest stress at
the bottom, and lowest stress at the top head of the bamboo [10]. For these reasons,
bamboo is well-known as an intelligent functional gradient material [9]. The gradi-
ents and the heterogeneities in all living organisms allow obtaining different high-
performance biological materials. The gradients are the combinations of different
factors: (i) variations of chemical composition and constituents; (ii) dimensions
Fig. 1 The hierarchical structure of bamboo. Reprinted with permission from [1]. Copyright 2014,
Nature Publishing Group
and orientations of the molecular building blocks; (iii) complex arrangements of

hierarchical structures from nano to macroscale level (Fig. 1) [11].
The chemical composition varies depending on the species, growth conditions,
bamboo age, and part of the culm [12]. The main constituents of bamboo are holocel-
lulose 65–75% (cellulose and hemicellulose); lignin 20–30%; extractive 5% (resins,
fatty acids, essential oil, tannins, etc.) and ashes 2% (inorganic substances such as
potassium, sodium, calcium, silicon, magnesium, iron, aluminum, zinc, phosphor)
[13]. The D-glucose unit (C6 H10 O5 ) is a molecular building block of the cellulose
polymer. The linear long-chains composed of β-1,4 glycosidic bonds are nanostruc-
tured in microfibrils alternating amorphous and crystalline regions packed inside
fibril aggregates (macrofibrils). The fibrils are enveloped in a complex lignin and
hemicellulose matrix, called lignin-carbohydrate complex (LCC) [14]. LCC works
as a binder material inside the macrofibrils. The fibril matrix is a constituent of the
cell-wall layers that are assembled in different orientations to obtain a protective
sclerenchymatous tissue (fiber) organized in a honeycomb-like structure around the
hollow channels. The microarray of channels is straight and parallel to the longi-
tudinal axis of the internode. The internal diameter of the channels increases from
the outer to the inner wall, from 50 to 200 μm, across the transversal section of the
culm. Each vascular bundle is embedded in the parenchyma cells tissue with variable
square-like shape and volume of 1000–2000 μm3 .
The hierarchy of cellulose from the molecular level to the higher structure is of
paramount importance for the anisotropic mechanical properties of bamboo [15]. The
Young’s modulus of crystalline cellulose is estimated at 200 GPa, but experimentally
the value for the microfibrils decreases to 50–70 GPa, depending on the species.
The consequence of the hierarchical organizations of the fiber and parenchyma
structures is the loss of stiffness with an increase in toughness. The origin of the
strength and stiffness of bamboo is hidden at a molecular level and was revealed with
different theoretical atomistic/molecular modeling [14, 16]. The impressive mechan-
ical behavior, particularly its flexibility, depends on the supramolecular interactions
of hydroxyl groups between stacked biopolymers. The dynamic hydrogen bonding
between the cellulose polymers plays an important role to absorb energy avoiding
fracture and preserve the structural integrity [17]. The integration of the supramolec-
ular structures [18] within its hierarchical material is the key strategy of nature to
balance strength, stiffness, and toughness [19, 20].
Similar to a bone, bamboo shows another interesting characteristic concerning the
ability to adapt its growth to external stimuli. This adaptability is a feature of a living
organism to build up its hierarchical structure depending on the loading charges [21].
The optimization of the chemical constituents for self-assembling into determined
arrangements is a key factor to obtaining a determined structural design [2]. Bamboo
is considered a self-optimizing graded material built by a cell-based mechanosensory
system. It uses loading external stimuli to shape the volume density of the fibers,
their distribution, as well as the thickness of the culm. The remarkable piezoelectric
behavior of the bone to model its skeleton structure was demonstrated for bamboo
as well [9].
Several 2D techniques have been used to get information about the nanoscale
topography, chemical and physical properties of different bamboo species, such as
peak-force quantitative nanomechanics atomic force microscopy (PF-QNM-AFM)
[22], scanning thermal microscopy (SThM) [23], scanning electron microscopy
(SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM),[24] mapping confocal Raman
spectroscopy [25] and confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) [26]. With the
aims to study the width and length of cellulose crystallites, the crystallinity and
the orientation of the microfibril angle, X-ray diffraction (DRX), small-angle X-ray
(SAXS), and wide-angle X-ray scattering (WAXS) have been used to reveal the
anisotropic arrangement of crystalline cellulose fibers [10, 27, 28]. More recently,
X-ray computed microtomography (μCT) has been employed as a non-invasive
approach to visualize and analyze the biological structure of bamboo, such as the
vascular bundle system [29], and the degree of fibril orientation [30], High-resolution
X-ray μCT with nonlinear finite element analysis (FEA) was used for the reconstruc-
tion of a complex vascular system of the node [31] and to evaluate the strength of
parenchyma and sclerenchyma structures [32]. μCT images have been useful to
rebuild the physical 3D structure of the parenchyma by stereolithography printing,
to characterize its mechanical properties and structure-property relationships [33].
μCT has also been used as a powerful tool to identify a regioselective metal coating
into bamboo biological structures, such as vascular bundles[34, 35] and parenchyma
cells [26, 36].
This chapter will present several 3D devices obtained from two kinds of engi-
neered bamboo-based biomass: natural bamboo and carbonized bamboo. The func-
tionalized natural bamboo-based is built adding new functionality through chem-
ical and physical functionalization of the lignocellulosic internal channels. First, we
report lignocellulosic-based chemical platforms for copper-catalyzed organic reac-
tions[34] and analytical detection for safe water and urinalysis [37]. Second, we
describe the possibility to graft plasmonic nanoparticles (Ag and Pd-NPs) for self-
floating bamboo solar steam generation [38]. Third, with a simple and low-cost silver
ink internal coating it is possible to transform an insulating natural bamboo into a
high conductive biocomposite material for electric and electrochemical applications.
Bambootronics devices will be described, such as electrical 3D circuits, a microflu-

idic heater, and a fully integrated micro electrochemical cell [35]. To improve the
electrical and photothermal properties of bamboo, pyrolytic processes are explored
to transform the crystalline phase of cellulose into conductive graphitic carbon. Two
devices based on carbonized bamboo will be presented: a solar vapor-generation
device for water desalination [39] and a monolithic air cathode for microbial fuel
cell applications [40].
2 Natural Bamboo Bio-templates for Chemical Platform,

Steam Generation, and Electric and Electrochemical
Devices
The world of plants is full of examples that allow us to create biomimetic materials
for specific purposes and spin-off a new global market for advanced functional mate-
rials, such as superhydrophobic surfaces with lotus leaves effect or greener composite
material for harvesting solar energy [41]. Plants, as a biological evolution system,
use hydrophilic microenvironment channels to flow, in and out, water, nutrients, and
synthetic bioproducts. Similarly, a man-made microfluidic reactor (Lab-on-Chip)
allows to carry out chemical reactions that can be tuned by designing the size, shape,
and polarity of the microreactor channels [42, 43]. In the last 20 years microre-
actor fabrication technology (MRT) was able to design and prototype several artifi-
cial microfluidic systems with several aims: increasing diffusion mixing of reagents
and heat transfer; decreasing of reaction-time and waste; high-throughput chemical
synthesis; increasing productivity and scalability of chemical production in flow
mode [44].
The deposition of catalyst in the flow reactor design opened up an emergent
research field named heterocatalysis in microfluidic reactors [45, 46]. At the same
time MRT was applied in the field of sensors incorporating sensitive material for
bioanalytical applications [47]. The bottleneck of MRT is the cost of fabrication
technology that in several cases includes the use of clean rooms and expensive facili-
ties. Another problem is the cost of the materials for the chip fabrication [48]. Glass,
silicon, thermoplastic, elastomers, and paper have been used for different designs
of microfluidic chips [44, 49]. The idea of exploring the natural 3D microarray
channels of bamboo to create a bio-microfluidic system will avoid some expen-
sive microfabrication steps and will minimize the costs of the laboratory facilities.
With this aim, a proper functionalization of channels’ walls of the vascular bundles
should be addressed for the prototyping of two kinds of chemical platforms: (i) a
lignocellulose-based microreactor for continuous flow organic reaction [34], and (ii)
a lignocellulose-based analytical device for chemical detection [37].
2.1 Copper-Functionalized Lignocellulosic Microreactor

(Cu-LµR)
A functionalized biological microreactor device will be a novel class of cheaper

and sustainable bio-microfluidic devices compared to current artifact flow chem-
ical systems. If bio-microfluidic is an emergent research field that applies bioma-
terials and biologically inspired design (biomimetics) to microfluidic devices [50],
another approach to developing a microfluidic device is using the renewable and
biodegradable hierarchical structural directly imprinted into a 3D natural specimen
of bamboo. Without the need to fabricate artificially microsized polar channels, the
natural bamboo structure with its microarray of vascular bundles can be directly
prototyped as chemical flow reactors to continuously inject reagents for aqueous
reactions or in other greener solvents (Fig. 2a) [45, 51].
Figure 2b depicts the fabrication sequence for lignocellulose-based microreactors
(LμRs) from bamboo internodes consisting of:
(i) cutting of the internode with different types of rotary saws to obtain a
cylindrical shape of 3 cm length and 5 mm diameter;
(ii) cleaning of the channels with water penetration under negative pressure and
drying in an oven;
(iii) reduction of the diameter extremities; and
(iv) gluing and insertion of the two syringe needles as inlet and outlet for
polyethylene tubes.
a b
Fig. 2 a μCT image of the internal structure of bamboo with its vascular bundles (metaxylem,
phloem, and protoxylem), sclerenchyma, and parenchyma tissue. Reprinted with permission from
[36]. Copyright 2016 Royal Society Chemistry; b Fabrication of lignocellulose-based microreactors
(LμRs) from bamboo internode 7. A tutorial video is available in the supplementary information of
reference [34]. Reprinted with permission from [34] Copyright 2019 American Chemical Society
a b
Fig. 3 a Functionalization with copper ions of LμR. b μCT images of Cu-LμR: transversal and
longitudinal cross-sections of bamboo culm (A–B); 3D image with and without the vegetal biomass
(C–D). A dotted circular yellow line with an internal diameter of 4.2 mm corresponds to the internal
area of flow injection. Insight of the metal deposition onto microchannels (metaxylem, phloem,
protoxylem) are highlighted with red lines. Reprinted with permission from [34]. Copyright 2019
American Chemical Society
A peristaltic pump is used to inject and recycle pure water or other solutions from
a reservoir at different flow rates (from 0,1 to 2,0 mL min−1 ). Up to 2,0 mL min−1 a
very low back pressure (5 psi) and no leaching at the bamboo-needle connector nor
along the external walls of the bamboo-based device was observed.
The chemical functionalization of the LμRs is presented in Fig. 3a. First,
chemoselective oxidation of the hydroxyl carbon 6 with the formation of carboxy-
late functionalities is carried out recirculating an oxidative solution containing
TEMPO/NaClO/NaBr for 4 h at 0,1 mL min−1 . Second, the cation exchange and
the complexation of copper ions are obtained with the injection of CuSO4 solution
(2 h at 0,1 mL min−1 ). Third, water (100 min at 0,1 mL min−1 ) was used to wash the
microchannels and be ready for the use of the Copper-functionalized lignocellulosic
microreactor (Cu-LμR). The metal coating of the microsized wall was character-
ized by X-ray μCT. The transversal and longitudinal sections in Fig. 3b show a
brighter contrast due to the metallization of the internal wall of the vascular bundles.
In Fig. 3b, image processing steps allowed us to segment and observe the hollow
channels with a deposited copper layer with 21 μm thickness.
As a proof-of-concept study, copper(I)-catalyzed 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition
between azide and terminal azide (CuAAC) was selected to test the effectiveness
of the fabricated bamboo-based microreactors. A series of 1,4-disubstituted triazole
derivatives were yielded in flow regime with an aqueous-methanol solvent with good
efficiency (60–96%) and minimal leaching of copper (5 ppm) (Fig. 4a). To evaluate
the contribution of the leached copper to the formation of the product 3aa in homoge-
nous catalysis instead of the heterocatalytic regime, the following experiment was
considered (Fig. 4b). The reaction mixture was pumped through the Cu-μLR for 2 h
with a product yield of 16%. Then the system was stopped and the reaction mixture
was maintained under stirring for 6 h without contact with the Cu-μLR, leading to a
small increment of the yield of ca. 2%. Finally, the reaction mixture was recirculated
through the Cu-μLR for 6 h with a final product yield of 80%. This result indicated
the effective contribution of the heterocatalysis in the flow regime and the minimal
a b
Fig. 4 a Scope of the CuAAC flow procedure with Cu-LμR. a 1a (0.14 mmol), 2 (0.12 mmol),
sodium ascorbate (10 mol%), 2:1 MeOH-H2 O (3 mL). b Isolated Yield. b Evaluation of the contri-
bution of homogeneous catalysis (leached copper) to the reaction outcome of the optimized flow
process with Cu-LμR. c Reusability of Cu-LμR and quantification of leached copper (ICP-MS
analysis). Reprinted with permission from [34]. Copyright 2019 American Chemical Society
contribution of the leached copper to the catalytic process. The reusability of the Cu-
LμR up to 5 cycles was tested keeping a good reaction yield (80–73%) (Fig. 4c). The
maintenance of the process efficiency demonstrated the long-term operation of the
novel copper-functionalized lignocellulosic microreactor. Jointly with a cheaper and
sustainable scalability production of the bamboo-based bio-microfluidic devices, a
new biological chemical platform was demonstrated as a potential alternative to the
established market of microreactor fabrication techniques.
2.2 Lignocellulose-Based Analytical Devices (LADs)
Alternatively, to pump solution inside the vascular bundles system, it is possible to

explore a passive absorption of analytes into the 3D bamboo biomass for analytical
detection [37]. Lignocellulose-based analytical devices (LADs) were demonstrated
for several biochemical analyses. Bamboo biomass was impregnated with colori-
metric indicators to analyze food and water safety (i.e. nitrite assay and bacterial
detection in water), and complete urinalysis (i.e., nitrite, urobilinogen, and pH assays
in human urine). Figure 5 shows, in sequence: (I) the fabrication of the device drilling
a V-shaped reaction zone; (II) the immobilization of the detection reagents into the
reaction zone; and (III–IV) easy operability of the LADs for colorimetric recognition.
A pre-treatment of bamboo with deionized water at 100 °C for 5 h was necessary
to remove unknown chemicals and starch granules. Then the LADs were dried at
Fig. 5 Schematic fabrication process of LAD: (I) drilling a reaction zone; (II) immobilization of
the colorimetric reagents; (III) immersion of the LAD into the target sample; (IV) colorimetric
recognition of the results into the reaction zone. Image by [37] licensed under CC-BY
50 °C for 8 h. After the optimization of the fabrication process and the colorimetric
signal output, it was chosen to build the device with a reaction zone 3 cm from the
absorption end. For each kind of analysis, the reaction zone was functionalized with
a specific reagent. The LADs were soaked into the specific solution target for several
minutes (5–15 min) waiting for a different time for each specific reaction in the
reaction zone (7–55 min). Then, the images of the reaction zone were captured with
a digital camera, and the color intensity was analyzed by ImageJ software to create
a calibration curve and to determine the limit of detection (LOD) for each analysis.
The nitrite analysis was based on the Griess reaction. The reagent solution (3 μL
of sulfanilamide, citric acid, and N-(1-naphthyl)-ethylenediamine dihydrochloride)
was deposited into the reaction zone and the LADs were dried at room temperature
for 15 min. The device was immersed in the sample target for 7 min and the images
were taken after a 20-min wait to complete the reaction (Fig. 6a).
The bacterial detection of E. Coli was based on the oxidation-reduction of the
indicator (3-[4,5-dimethylthiazol-2yl]2,5-diphenyltetrasodium bromide, MTT) in
the presence of the electron mediator (phenazine methosulfate, PSS). The device
was dried for 2 min and then was immersed in the target sample for 5 min. Before
image acquisition, the LAD was kept for 35 min until the chemical reaction was
completed (Fig. 6b). The schematic representation of the PMS-MTT assay for bacte-
rial detection in water is shown in Fig. 6c. The LOD for the nitrite assay in deionized
water was 0.06 mM and compatible with the typical paper analytical device (PAD).
The LOD for the bacterial detection in drinking water was in the range of 1.8 ×
104 –9.3 × 104 cfu/mL. In this case, the LOD for this assay is higher compared to
the LOD of available point-of-care of lab-on-chip (POC-LOC).
The Urobilinogen assay was based on the Ehrlich reaction using 4-
dimethylaminobenzaldehyde. The reagent solution (3μL) was deposited into the
reaction zone of the LADs followed by drying at 25 °C for 5 min. For the pH assay, a
reagent solution (3 μL of bromothymol blue and resazurin sodium salt) was immo-
bilized in the reaction zone, followed by 5 min of drying at 25 °C. For both the
urinalysis, urobilinogen, and pH, the LADs were immersed for 7 min, and then it
was necessary to wait 20 min for the chemical reaction process to take place and
observe the colorimetric results shown in Fig. 7a–d. The LODs for the urinalysis of
Fig. 6 Colorimetric results for a nitrite assay and b bacterial detection in drinking water (PMS-
MTT assay). c Schematic representation of the PMS-MTT assay. Image by [37] licensed under
CC-BY
nitrite and urobilinogen were respectively 0.06 mM and 0.16 mg/mL. The LADs were
reliable for a urine pH range from 4.0 to 8.0 (Fig. 7c). Since there is no transversal
flow between parallel vascular bundles, it was possible to include two reaction zones
for multiple detections on different sides of the LADs. Figure 7e shows multiple
detections of nitrite and urobilinogen from human urine. The red box indicates that
the measurement was in a normal human urine sample; the blue box indicates that
the measurement was in human urine spiked with 1.25 mM nitrite and 1.25 mM
urobilinogen.
Recently, the anisotropic behavior of water and moisture sorption at various struc-
tural levels—cell walls and bamboo blocks—was demonstrated. The study revealed
different sorption directions, longitudinal (L) and transversal (T), for a saturated salt
solution and water vapor. These results will be very useful to understand the water
transport in bamboo, aiming at more efficient drying and impregnation processes
Fig. 7 LADs for urinalysis of a nitrite, b urobilinogen, c pH with d the colorimetric results of
different assays. e Multiple detections of nitrite and urobilinogen on two sides of the LDA with the
colorimetric results in red and blue boxes. Image by [37] licensed under CC-BY
for future applications [52]. Because of their abundant and independent longitudinal
microfluidic channels, LADs analytical platforms show rapid passive transportation
with the capillary action of different solutions in selective reaction zones. These new
lignocellulosic-based analytical devices have been demonstrated as potential low-
cost engineered materials to advance microfluidic development compared to PADs
[53], wood-microfluidic systems [6, 54], and PDMS-based microfluidic devices [55].
2.3 Solar Steam Generation
Another application exploring water transportation through the capillary effect is

the production of a plasmonic bamboo device for solar steam generation (Fig. 8)
[38]. Inspired by the transpiration of the natural bamboo culm, oriented bamboo was
decorated with plasmonic metallic nanoparticles (Ag and Pd-NPs) for solar energy-
based seawater desalination. Light energy was converted into heat energy under local
surface plasmon resonance. A nest of bamboo rings floating on the water allowed an
upward flow by capillary action and the heat vaporized water to form steam.
The synthesis and the deposition of the plasmonic NPs (Pd and Ag) were executed
in-situ through a chemical reduction of salt precursors, PdCl2 and AgNO3 respec-
tively. The function of the NPs is to convert the sunlight into heat. The photothermal
behavior showed a high light absorption efficiency with a solar energy conversion
of 87% under the intensity of 10 suns. The plasmonic bamboo performance for
water desalination under different seawater conditions was stable for 140 h under the
intensity of 5 suns. Considering the long-term operation of the engineered bamboo
Fig. 8 a–d Schematic fabrication of plasmonic bamboo. e Light energy was converted into heat
energy by local surface plasmon resonance. f Photothermal effect under irradiation and water trans-
portation into the microchannel converted to vapor. Reproduced with permission [38]. Copyright
2019, Elsevier Ltd.
plasmonic device, the natural oriented hydrophilic microchannel, good water trans-
portation, biocompatibility with the NPs and water, self-floating property, and the
low cost of the support material, bamboo is a promising material for an efficient solar
steam generation without any support system [38].
2.4 Electrical 3D Circuits
The fabrication of electrical circuits is a crucial aspect in the development of elec-

trical and electrochemical devices on lignocellulosic substrates, such as bamboo [35].
Bamboo offers a unique platform to create a plethora of devices with unique proper-
ties when compared to traditional substrates, such as paper. For instance, the paper
has been widely used in the fabrication of flexible electronic and electrochemical
devices. However, the fabrication of three-dimensional (3D) devices is very chal-
lenging and there are only a few routes to enable this process [56, 57]. These routes
are based on creating hydrophobic walls on paper followed by delivering precursors
or conductive materials by using capillary flow. As can be observed in Fig. 9a, b,
the width of conductive channels is in the mm range, which negatively impacts the
miniaturization of devices. In comparison, bamboo-based devices offer two main
advantages against classical paper substrates, (i) high lateral resolution and (ii) high
density of channels per area. For instance, we can find more than 40 microchannels
in a diameter of 5 mm [35]. The aligned channels can be viewed as templates for the
fabrication of conductive tracks. Figure 9c shows an optical microscopy image of a
transversal cut of a bamboo culm. The vascular bundles (phloem and metaxylem) are
isolated from each other by crystalline cellulose fibers (sclerenchyma tissue). The
brownish-yellow color represents the living cells of bamboo, namely the parenchyma
tissue.
Fig. 9 a Three-dimensional organic conductive tracks on paper using polypyrrole. (i) schematic
view of the conductive tracks (black regions), (ii) LED device being activated. Reprinted (adapted)
with permission from [57]. Copyright (2016) American Chemical Society. b Three-dimensional
conductive paper-based device. (i) Picture of the paper sheet containing hydrophilic channels. (ii)
Cross-sectional view of the device and flowing direction of PEDOT:PSS. (iii) Picture of the 3D
device lighting up a LED and iv) Circuit diagram. Reproduced with permission [56]. Copyright
2016, WileyVCH. c Optical microscopy of bamboo. The scale bar is 500 μm. d Schematic view
of the Ag-coating method. e–f SEM image of the transversal cut of bamboo modified with Ag
highlighting the channels and its respective Ag mapping using EDS. Scale bars are 100 μm. g, h
X-rays microtomography (μCT) 3D images of the pristine bamboo template before and after silver
coating. Scale bars are 500 μm. (i) 2D μCT detail of a single vascular channel with its internal wall
metal modified (thickness 10.3 ± 2.2 μm). Scale bar is 100 μm. Reproduced with permission [35]
Copyright 2020, RSC
In theory, the channels can be filled with many different conductive materials to
create highly conductive tracks. For instance, low melting temperature metal alloy
(Sn-Bi) can be impregnated inside the channels to obtain high conductivity (5.4
× 104 S m−1 ) [58]. One of the issues of this route is that the resulting channels
are clogged after impregnation, thus limiting many applications that require hollow
channels. In this regard, one of the possibilities to keep the channels hollow while
adding conductivity consists in the deposition of conductive materials only at the
walls of the channels.
Figure 9d shows a schematic figure of a vacuum-assisted coating method that
ultimately results in highly conductive walls. In brief, the method consists of flowing
silver ink inside the microchannel arrays by vacuum pumping, as schematically
shown. In the next step, the excess solvent is removed by flowing N2 inside the
channels. This simple yet effective method results in the formation of silver coating
of the microchannels’ inner walls. The presence of hollow channels after modification
with silver ink can be assessed by SEM-EDS and μCT. Figure 9e, f shows the SEM
image and its respective Ag mapping using EDS. As can be observed, the entrance of
the channels contains silver only at the inner walls. To confirm that the entire length
of the channels is hollow, μCT 3D images of the same bamboo specimen before
and after silver coating were obtained, as shown in Figs. 9g–i. In addition, the white
contrast observed in the images is due to the presence of silver coatings formed at
the inner walls along the entire length of microchannels. The thickness of the silver
coating is ~10 μm.
Since silver coatings are only formed at the inner walls of bamboo channels and
these channels are aligned, one can expect the electrical conductivity to be extremely
anisotropic. For example, electrical measurements showed that Ag-coated bamboo
is highly conductive along the microchannel direction, as schematically shown in
Fig. 10a. The conductivity of the channels was 9.3 (±4.0) × 105 S m−1 , which
is the highest value reported so far for cellulose-based ordered materials. When
the electrical test probes are placed at the bottom and top surfaces, the resistance
achieves its minimum values. On the contrary, when the measurement is performed
orthogonally to lateral surfaces the electrical resistance is ultra-high even with a short
distance between probes.
A remarkable feature of these highly conductive structures is the absence of short-
circuit between microchannels, making it possible to create several electrical and
electrochemical devices. The high anisotropy of bamboo combined with electrically
addressable microchannels enables the fabrication of many functional 3D devices.
By creating contact pads on single channels or groups of channels it is possible to
fabricate complex electrical circuits in bamboo.
For instance, Fig. 10b shows an electric circuit in which the current starts at the
bottom face of bamboo, reaches the top surface by flowing through the microchannel,
lights up the LED, and then returns to the bottom face. Even though the lateral surface
of bamboo is not conductive, small cuts in the lateral surface can locally assess the
conductive microchannels, as shown in Fig. 10c. Depending on how deep the cuts
are, inner channels can be assessed by this simple strategy.
Another example illustrated in Fig. 10d shows even more complex 3D electrical
circuits. In this case, a serpentine-like circuit was fabricated, showing the potential
of connecting multiple faces, such as the bottom, top, lateral and inner regions.
In addition, two pieces of bamboo can be combined to light up specific LEDs by
rotating vertically aligned bamboo pieces. Figure 10e shows pictures of the devices.
A triangular area was patterned with silver ink at the bottom of bamboo (i) and
Fig. 10 a Schematic layout of the Ag-coated bamboo (∅ = 6 mm and L = 20 mm) and its anisotropic
electrical properties. b–e Schematic figure of different circuits and photos of the devices at ON and
OFF states. Reproduced with permission [35]. Copyright 2020, RSC
bamboo (ii) contains three independent circuits that can be activated when the Ag
contact pads perfectly match during rotary stepwise movement. Figure 10b–e also
shows the ON and OFF states.
2.5 Microfluidic Heaters
In the previous section, we showed the fabrication of 3D electrical circuits that have
a hollow structure, which means it is possible to flow gases and liquids through
the microchannels and explore the electrical circuits for new applications [35]. 3D
fluidic devices can be fabricated by using other routes like soft photolithography and
3D printing, for instance. Fabrication of 3D devices on PDMS is time-consuming
and the layered patterning process limits the final structure that can be obtained. The
continuous advance in 3D printed routes enables the fabrication of fluidic arrays with
excellent features.
On the other hand, we can mention bamboo as a uniquely sustainable and raw
bio-template for microfluidic applications. For instance, most 3D printers and micro-
fabrication routes have issues achieving centimeter-long highly oriented arrays of
microchannels (up to 50 cm) that are naturally found in the full extent of the bamboo
culm. The conductive Ag-coated bamboo can be used as a Joule heater to boost
the kinetics of chemical transformations or to increase the temperature of fluids.
Figure 11a shows a picture of Ag-coated bamboo where all the microchannels
were short-circuited. By increasing the current flows through the microchannels it
is possible to tune the bamboo temperature, as shown in the infrared thermographic
images in Figs. 11b–d. The homogeneous thermal images at different currents are
also a good indicator of the uniform metal coating distribution in the microchannels.
Figure 11e shows a bamboo-based microfluidic device that was used to heat
water. An external thermocouple was placed at the end of the device to measure the
temperature. As also shown in Fig. 11e, the water temperature becomes constant after
approximately 4 min. The equilibrium temperature can also be tuned by adjusting
the flow rate and current, as shown in Fig. 11f. It is possible to increase the water
outlet temperature by applying higher electric currents. In addition, by increasing
the flow rate the temperature measured at the end of the channels decreases. In this
configuration, the temperature can be set from 25 to 55 °C, which is suitable for
several organic reactions in flow mode [56].
Fig. 11 a Microfluidic heater using bamboo (∅ = 6 mm and L = 20 mm). b–d Infrared thermo-
graphic images during application of different currents. e Water temperature versus time. The inset
photo shows the open channels. Scale bar is 1.0 mm. f Water temperature at different currents and
flow rates. g Joule heating efficiency. Reproduced with permission [35]. Copyright 2020, RSC
Figure 11g shows energy efficiencies (EE) for two different microheater setups
to highlight the unique advantages of Ag-coated bamboo systems. In one example,
current flows through the array of channels (internal heating) while in the other
example the current flows on the outer Ag-coated surface (external heating). As can be
viewed in Fig. 11g, in both cases EE increases since higher flow rates led to an increase
in forced convection that ultimately results in a higher heating transfer coefficient
between water and the heating source. However, by comparing both conditions, EE
can be 20% higher for internal heating at higher flow rates. Such differences observed
in EE can be explained by the low thermal conductivity of lignocellulosic materials.
Thus, in the case where the heating step is performed at the external region, bamboo
poses higher resistance to deliver energy to heat-up water inside microchannels. By
using external heating, some part of the heat that should be delivered to the inner
regions of bamboo is lost to the environment. This heat transfer issue can be even
more problematic for thicker pieces of bamboo, thus highlighting the importance of
preparing conductive coating on the walls of the microchannels.
2.6 Fully Integrated Electrochemical Cells
Another additional advantage of the hollow conductive channels of bamboo is the

possibility of incorporating conductive pastes to fabricate fully integrated electro-
chemical cells [35]. Figure 12a shows the step-by-step fabrication process. The first
step consists of spreading an epoxy resin in the bamboo face where the electrodes will
be fabricated. Before resin curing, nitrogen gas is flowed through bamboo channels
as schematically shown in Fig. 12a. Most of the channels remain unclogged and can
be filled with carbon black nanostructures to fabricate an array of microelectrodes.
In this way, carbon pastes (carbon particles + mineral oil) are excellent alternatives
to fabricate electrodes. They are low cost, have simple fabrication, have low back-
ground current, and many modifiers can be added in paste formulation. Figure 12b–d
show the face of bamboo filled with carbon black paste at different magnifications.
Figure 12e shows the cyclic voltammogram obtained using a bamboo sample modi-
fied with carbon black paste as the working electrode. In this experiment, Pt wire was
also used as counter electrode and saturated calomel electrode (SCE) as reference.
The carbon electrodes showed a well-defined electrochemical response when tested
using established redox probes, such as ferri/ferrocyanide.
As demonstrated in the previous section, the Ag-coated microchannels are not in
short-circuit and can be individually addressed. Thus, by creating electrical contact
pads in groups of channels it is possible to fabricate a fully integrated electrochemical
cell, as shown in Fig. 12f. The setup illustrated in this figure is only possible due to
the unique architecture of bamboo. As mentioned before, carbon pastes can be easily
modified with catalysts, redox mediators, and many other compounds. As a proof-
of-concept, carbon paste was modified with Prussian blue, which is known to work
as a redox mediator to detect hydrogen peroxide at low potentials. Figure 12g shows
Fig. 12 a Schematic fabrication process. b Stereomicroscope image of the bamboo after modifi-
cation with carbon paste. c–d SEM Images of one microelectrode. Scale bars in Figures c–d are 50
and 5 μm, respectively. e Cyclic voltammograms using modified bamboo as working electrodes.
f Schematic layout of a bamboo-based electrochemical cell with working, counter, and reference
electrodes fully integrated into one single bamboo specimen. g Cyclic voltammogram of the inte-
grated electrochemical bamboo cell. The carbon paste was modified with Prussian blue (Black
curve). The red curve shows the voltammogram in the presence of hydrogen peroxide (5 mM).
Reproduced with permission [35]. Copyright 2020, RSC
the curves in the absence and presence of hydrogen peroxide. As can be observed, a
large current is obtained at potentials around −0.15 V versus Ag/AgCl.
3 Devices Based on Carbonized Bamboo
As mentioned before, bamboo vegetable anatomy, structure, and hierarchical archi-

tecture, together with the chemical and mechanical properties given by its compo-
sition based on biopolymers and biomolecules such as cellulose, lignin, and hemi-
cellulose are critical characteristics that make it stand as a unique bio-template for
the fabrication of functional bio-devices. However, raw bamboo has very deficient
electrical, thermal and solar radiation absorption properties that hinder its full explo-
ration in devices for electro, electrochemical and photothermal applications. One
way to overcome these limitations is the carbonization of bamboo, which leads to
the transformation of its structural organic components into carbonaceous materials

that present electrical and photothermal properties associated with the formation of
conducting graphitic domains and increased light absorptivity respectively.
Carbonized bamboo has historically found uses as an energy resource [59, 60],
raw material for the production of activated carbon [61, 62] and other porous mate-
rials for environmental remediation [63], gas adsorption [64, 65], catalyst supports
[66, 67], and materials for batteries and supercapacitors [68–70]. However, none
of the applications makes rational use and takes great advantage of the hierarchical
structure and arrangement of the bamboo channels. One of the most efficient ways
to obtain carbonized bamboo without the loss or drastic alterations of this functional
architecture is through pyrolysis. Pyrolysis is a well-explored thermochemical route
to convert several types of solid organic matter into carbonaceous materials through
several simultaneous and sequential chemical reactions on which organic matter
chemical bonds are broken and formed toward its final carbonized product.
The use of controlled pyrolysis parameters, such as adequate heating rates and
target temperatures, applied to non-meltable organic precursors, such as cellulose and
lignin from bamboo, are likely to result in carbonaceous materials which mimic the
morphology and architecture of the starting organic material. Febrianto and collab-
orators [71] have studied the physical and anatomical characteristics of different
types of bamboo carbonized at 200, 400, 600, 800, and 1000 °C. An increase in
carbonization temperature led to a decrease in the volume and weight of carbonized
samples. The greater change occurred between 200 and 400 °C as at this tempera-
ture range cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin from bamboo experience the highest
degradation and mass-loss rates. The density of all carbonized bamboos decreased
after carbonization between these temperatures and then became almost constant
for higher temperatures. Anatomical observation of carbonized bamboo showed that
the vascular diameter decreased with the increase of carbonization temperature, and
shrinkage in radial and tangential directions followed the same trend. The author
found by statistical analysis that there was a significant correlation between physical
contraction and anatomical contraction.
In a similar study involving pyrolyzed bamboo samples at temperatures between
300 and 950 °C, Krzesinska discussed in more detail the structural anisotropy of
carbonized bamboo. He explored a macro scale description based on physical param-
eters measured along basic directions of samples and microscopic analysis of the
skeleton structure [72]. The temperature of pyrolysis and the heat rate were found
again as critical parameters affecting the structure of carbonized bamboo [73]. An
increase in pyrolysis temperature led to increased samples’ true density as observed
also by Febrianto et al. As pyrolysis temperature evolved the highly anisotropic struc-
ture of raw bamboo was transformed into low-temperature carbons with a disordered
nearly isotropic structure which developed into ordered turbostratic carbon clusters
at temperatures above 600 °C. Krzesinska concluded that the electrical and elastic
modulus anisotropy of carbonized bamboo structure is mostly due to its pore system,
rather than from some microstructural arrangement of the solid carbon skeleton,
which is nearly isotropic.
3.1 Solar Vapor-Generation Device for Water Desalination
As mentioned before, there is still plenty of room to be explored in applications that

take advantage of the hierarchical structure and arrangement of bamboo that remains
intact after carbonization by pyrolysis under controlled conditions. A very interesting
example is presented by Shulin Gu and collaborators who have used carbonized
bamboo to fabricate a 3D solar vapor-generation device (Fig. 13) [39]. Solar-driven
vapor-generation devices have become a smart alternative and an energy-efficient
way to produce clean water and tackle the global challenges of water scarcity. So
far, several devices based on 2D structures have been reported for this purpose on
which improvement of the vapor-generation efficiency is achieved, enhancing the
Fig. 13 a Bamboo carbonization for 3D solar vapor generator and water pathways at the natural
structure, b schematic of the heat behavior in the 3D carbonized bamboo-based solar vapor generator.
Temperature changes of c bulk water d and 2D carbonized bamboo over time under 1 sun, e
temperature distribution of the outer surface of 3D carbonized bamboo in dark and after illumination
under 1 sun for 3600 s. e, f Images of carbonized bamboos with 2D and 3D structure in a wet state
and the corresponding infrared photos under 1 sun for 1 h. The photos, in order from left to right,
correspond to t = 0, 240, 600, 1320, and 3600 s after illumination. Reproduced with permission
[39]. Copyright 2018, Wiley-VCH
solar absorbance, heat confinement, continuous water replenishment, and quick vapor
transportation. Moreover, other alternatives have been explored considering materials
with lower cost, better mechanical stability, and larger active area, well fulfilled by
3D carbonized wood generators [74–76].
Authors have demonstrated that the 3D solar vapor-generation device based
on carbonized bamboo offers an extremely high vapor-generation rate of
3.13 kg m−2 h−1 under 1 sun illumination [39]. Such a high evaporation rate is
achieved due to the unique natural structure, properties, and hierarchical cellular
architecture of carbonized bamboo such as.
(i) hydrophobicity;
(ii) numerous aligned microchannels that enable rapid water transport;
(iii) high light absorptance which covers a broad range of the Solar spectrum;
(iv) reduced thermal radiation heat losses;
(v) lower average temperature than the environment;
(vi) reduced vaporization enthalpy of water confined in the cellular structure;
(vii) remarkable mechanical properties;
(viii) the ability of salt self-cleaning;
(ix) good scalability and low cost.
From a mechanistic point of view, good performance occurs because the inner
wall of bamboo recovers the diffuse light energy and thermal radiation heat losses
from the 3D bamboo bottom, while the outer wall captures energy from the warmer
surrounding environment (Fig. 13a–c). Moreover, water confinement effects in the
bamboo cellular structure mesh reduce its vaporization enthalpy increasing the evap-
oration rate. In this sense, carbonized bamboo presented great characteristics and
favorable overall performance as a solar vapor generator standing as an attractive
alternative for desalination and industrial and domestic wastewater treatment [39].
3.2 Monolithic Air Cathode for Microbial Fuel Cell

Applications
As mentioned, in addition to maintaining almost unaltered morphological and

anatomical characteristics, bamboo pyrolysis leads to the formation of carbonaceous
materials that contain conductive graphitic domains that can be explored in electrical
and electrochemical devices [77]. Such devices play a pivotal role in biomedical and
environmental technologies as well as in the transition to sustainable technologies
for energy generation and storage.
Microbial fuel cells are examples of bio-electrochemical devices that use the
degradation of organic matter by bacteria metabolism and simultaneously generate
bioelectricity. They are considered both wastewater treatment and electricity gener-
ation technologies. Microbial fuel cells based on air cathode have great potential for
practical utilization due to their simple design and direct use of oxygen in the air as
electron acceptors. However, commercial applications of such devices still depend
on lowering fabrication costs for scaling up, high electrocatalytic activity as well as
easily fabricated design and porous structure. Some of these issues were tackled by
Qiang Liao and collaborators who have made use of a carbonized bamboo tube as the
air cathode of a microbial fuel cell taking advantage of its anatomical and structural
characteristics (Fig. 14) [40].
They used a bamboo charcoal tube obtained by carbonization at 900 °C in N2
atmosphere followed by a heat treatment at 350 °C for 2 h under air to increase
porosity. This bamboo charcoal tube was coated with PTFE and then directly used
as the air cathode of a microbial fuel cell. This device has achieved a maximum
power density (Pmax ) of 40.4 ± 1.5 W m−3 which is slightly higher than 37.7 ±
2.5 W m−3 found for a standard noble metal-based electrocatalyst (Pt/C), at the
same operating conditions. The abundant porous structure of the carbonized bamboo
led to an increase in triple-phase interfaces (TPIs) for the oxygen reduction reaction
(ORR), contributing to its higher performance. Besides, the lowest oxygen mass
transfer coefficient (KO2 ) values observed for the bamboo charcoal tube compared
to the Pt/C cathode provided a lower oxygen leakage from the cathode to the anode
resulting in a comparable power generation with a high coulombic efficiency of 56%.
Due to these results, the bamboo charcoal tube cathode stands out as a low-cost,
simple fabrication, and high-performance alternative for the cathode in microbial
fuel cells and other electrochemical devices [40].
Fig. 14 a Schemes of the preparation process of the bamboo charcoal tube cathode and the
microstructure formed, and b a microbial fuel cell built with a bamboo charcoal tube cathode.
Devices performance tests: c Power density curves, d polarization curves, and e removal and
coulombic efficiencies (at 50 ). Image by [40] licensed under CC-BY
4 Remarks and Potential Future Applications of Bamboo

Bio-templates
Bamboo-based electrochemical devices are still at a very early stage in their devel-
opment. In this chapter, we showed some of the applications that can be explored
by coating the inner channels with silver ink, for instance, 3D circuits, joule heaters,
and fully integrated electrochemical cells. Regarding the electrochemical cells, the
interface where the redox reaction occurs is still at the external region of bamboo.
There is a lot of room to perform electrochemical reactions that take place inside
of the inner channels. For instance, other metal coatings (Au, Pt, Ni) and carbon
could be used to create hollow channels to conduct electrochemical reactions in flow
conditions. Since the channels are highly-aligned, the product of these electrochem-
ical reactions can be directed to specific compartments. This could be interesting for
application in the field of energy. For instance, water splitting will generate H2 and
O2 at the cathode and anode, respectively, and such products could be transported
by the bamboo channels.
We foresee the integration of bamboo-based electrodes with the plethora of 2D
materials available. These materials are very promising for hydrogen evolution reac-
tions and the fabrication of supercapacitors. Their integration into bamboo channels
can be achieved by flowing a dispersion of these materials. In addition, by applying
a potential onto the conductive channels it is possible to reduce some 2D materials,
such as graphene oxide, and these materials will be deposited at the walls of the
conductive channels. In general, there are many possibilities to functionalize the
walls of the conductive channels by many different routes and such modifications
may help to push the field for many new technologies using conductive bamboo.
5 Conclusion
Bamboo is a hierarchical, anisotropic, graded, and hygroscopic biocomposite mate-

rial. Its complex 3D structure has inspired designers and engineers to reproduce a
similar bioinspired structural material. Still far to mimic its biological and functional
properties, many works have been presented exploring one of the most important
characteristics of bamboo: the microarray of hydrophilic, parallel, and longitudinally
oriented microchannels.
The bottom-up approach of nature to build hierarchical 3D structures from D-
glucose molecular building blocks is very difficult to mimic. To obtain a man-
made multifunctional material that encompasses extraordinary mechanical prop-
erties, thermal stability, biocompatibility, and fast fluid dynamic behavior is not
trivial. One way to bypass these difficulties is to use biomass as a bio-template to
build engineered bamboo-based devices for chemical, electric, and electrochemical
applications.
Lignocellulosic-based chemical platforms, with metal catalysts and specific

colorimetric reagents, have been presented for organic synthesis and analytic detec-
tions. A regioselective coating of the vascular bundles’ system with commercial
conductive silver ink allowed to convert insulating biomass into a highly anisotropic
conductive composite material to prototype electric 3D circuits, microfluidic heaters,
and integrated electrochemical cells.
Decorating the bamboo matrix with plasmonic metal nanoparticles or through
pyrolysis of the bamboo, different designs of solar steam generation for water
desalination were developed. The transformation of the lignocellulosic biomass into
carbonaceous conductive material has added new electric and photothermal prop-
erties with important applications for energy transformation such as microbial fuel
cells. We think that the use of bamboo, such as other wood-based materials, can lead
to new applications by fine-tuning a selection of catalysts, indicators, redox medi-
ators, metals, and conductive polymers which could be incorporated into its highly
oriented 3D hollow structure.
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Sustainable Biomimetics: A Discussion
on Differences in Scale, Complexity,
and Organization Between the Natural
and Artificial World
Valentina Perricone, Carla Langella, and Carlo Santulli
Abstract Biomimetics emerges as an effective approach to identify functional bio-

inspired solutions for the development of original design applications. This approach
does not necessarily result in sustainable products and processes, which are frequently
made of petroleum-based materials fabricated with non-renewable and high-energy
consuming technologies. Nevertheless, the inspiration from nature has a great poten-
tial in terms of sustainable innovation, taking into consideration not only analogies but
also the differences between the natural and artificial world. In this regard, the present
contribution aimed to highlight the differences between biological and human indus-
trial systems in scale, complexity, and organization, encouraging new sustainable
biologically inspired designs increasingly close to the construction law of organisms.
The result of this comparison emphasized nature’s intelligence concerning balanced
source consumption and regeneration of ecosystems as well as the effective adapta-
tion of organisms to natural cycles in time and space. A biomimetic approach that
combines the use of bio-based materials with a coherent use of bioinspiration is here
identified as a future sustainable and effective strategy to design a new human world,
which does not impose on nature but is inspired and integrated with it.
Keywords Bioinspiration · Bio-based · Life cycle · Circularity · Heterogeneity ·

Organismal design · Waste valorization · Sustainable design
V. Perricone (B)
Department of Engineering, University of Campania Luigi Vanvitelli, Via Roma 29, 81031
Aversa, Italy
C. Langella
Department of Architecture and Industrial Design, University of Campania Luigi Vanvitelli, Via
San Lorenzo, 81031 Aversa, Italy
C. Santulli
School of Science and Technology, Università di Camerino, via Gentile III da Varano 7, 62032
Camerino, Italy
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-1812-4_7
172 V. Perricone et al.
1 Introduction
Nature is the best source of inspiration for designing environmentally sustainable

artifacts that are compatible with the complexity of the present world dynamics
[1]. Design projects in collaboration with biology can offer a valuable contribution
to the evolution of sustainable design culture, eco-oriented marketing strategies,
and environmental awareness with novel conceptual tools inspired by nature and its
resilience [2].
Design for sustainability seeks solutions to resolve problems with minimal envi-
ronmental impacts. In this regard, the transfer of logics found in nature to solve
similar problems could be very useful. Artifacts designed using biological struc-
tures, materials, and working principles as models are certainly more performing
and respectful of earth resources and its limits since they refer to strategies selected
by nature and validated by millions of years of evolution.
Humans have always been inspired by nature to design artifacts that satisfy their
needs improving their life. Many of the important achievements in technology,
design, and art have been generated by imitating biological models. However, only
current conditions, in terms of knowledge and tools, allow the creation of products and
artifacts that could conceptually and concretely reproduce some of the most complex
biological qualities hidden in the natural world. Indeed, the intersection between the
progress of contemporary biological knowledge, together with new production tech-
nologies, proposes innovative and unique perspectives on the relationship between
design and biology.
The interdisciplinary approach that combines the understanding of the natural
world with its abstraction and translation into technological applications is known as
“Biomimetics” [3, 4]. The biomimetic approach is increasingly spreading within the
design culture at different dimensional scales from the development of nanotech-
nologies to systemic urban design. The acquisition of the biomimetic paradigm
offers a valuable opportunity to draw new principles, strategies, and logics to
make more environmentally sustainable products. However, it is not certain that
the inspiration or imitation of nature always results in an improvement of the
environmental/eco-friendly performance.
Biomimetics is not always a synonym of sustainability. Frequently, it is exclu-
sively used as a method to increase the functional efficiency of man-made products,
relying on Darwinian principles of progressive organismal functional adaptation in
response to external conditions and stress. Sometimes the application of biomimetic
models even implies an increase in environmental or economic costs. In well-known
biomimetic products, such as Fastskin fabric or Velcro, the functional efficiency does
not coincide with the increase of environmental safety using eco-friendly materials
and production processes. Polymer-based self-cleaning coatings based on the lotus
effect can even affect the environmental impact at the last lifecycle stage when there
is no compatibility in terms of recycling.
Nonetheless, the inspiration from nature has great potential in terms of sustain-
able innovation. It can lead to the generation of products in which the increased
Sustainable Biomimetics: A Discussion on Differences … 173
performance, material innovation, productive technologies, and reduction of lifecycle

environmental impact converge in a synergic manner.
The logics observed in biology, such as time cyclicity, energy efficiency, recovery,
and regeneration of waste, and its difference with the artificial ones can guide design
projects toward new sustainability scenarios. The concept of degrowth is replaced
by a principle of sustainable evolution in which people can rediscover more natural
behavioral and consumption models in harmony with the environment. Therefore,
biomimetics can also lead the industrial product dimension closer to the more natural
needs of people and the environment with an outlook on a human-centered ecological
transition.
The possibility of transferring from biology principles and logics to reduce the
environmental impacts of artifacts is strongly linked to the relationship between the
size scale of the inspiring biological system and the artificial one; particularly when
physical effects are linked to size. For example, the inspiration of principles based on
optical or hydraulic phenomena observed in different organisms oriented toward the
use of climatic resources such as solar radiation or rainwater, e.g., light transmission
enhancement of window-leaved translucent crystals [5] or water distribution ability of
the thorny devil desert lizard through its skin interscalar spaces [6]. This transfer could
be very complicated and sometimes result in a reduction of effectiveness. Hence, the
evaluation of the effects and changes in scaling biological working principles to the
final project dimension is crucial for any biomimetic transfer process success [7].
Nonetheless, the main differences in scale, complexity, and organization between
organismal design and artifacts can also provide new design perspectives in the
sustainability of man-made products and productive processes.
In this context, the present contribution aims to provide a critical discussion on a
series of key concepts regarding lifecycle and characteristics in which the biological
world differs from the artificial one, encouraging a new cutting-edge and sustainable
biologically inspired design increasingly close to the construction law of organisms.
Additionally, a series of experimental case studies is provided, in which design
projects are oriented toward effective integration of natural concepts, materiality,
and processes.
2 Life Cycles
In nature, each organism goes through a specific life cycle, i.e., a continuous sequence
of changes during its life from a primary form (gamete) to the reproduction of the
same primary form. These formal transitions may involve growth, asexual or sexual
reproduction. In these cycles, all “waste” turns into nutrition for other cycles creating
a complex interconnection. In the food web, organisms are connected by trophic
linkages and levels (autotrophs and heterotrophs): there are hierarchical organizations
and conceptual scales. The first level is composed of basal species, such as algae,
plants, and other vegetables, which do not feed on any other living creature on the
web. Basal species can be autotrophs or detritivores. Apex predators constitute the
top level and are not eaten directly by any other organisms. The intermediate levels
are composed of omnivores that feed on one or more trophic levels and are themself
eaten, causing a trophic energy flow. In trophic dynamics, energy transfer from one
level to another is a unidirectional and noncyclic pathway with a loss of energy
from the base to the top. Each organism is also characterized by a unidirectional
energy flow, which typically includes ingestion, assimilation, non-assimilation losses
(excrements), respiration, production (biomass), and mortality [8]. Nonetheless, the
energy loss is always balanced in time by trophic relationships and organismal life
cycles.
Conversely, the flow of mineral nutrients is cyclic and represents the recycling
system of nature. Mineral cycles include for example the carbon, sulfur, nitrogen,
and phosphorus, which are continually recycled into productive ecological nutrition.
This recycling is mainly regulated by decomposition processes and relies on the
biodiversity of the food web.
In human industrial systems, recycling differs from the natural one in scale,
complexity, and organization. The industrial recycling systems seem to work inde-
pendently from the food web without considering the waste restitution to different
trophic sectors as well as source and energy regeneration time. This together with
the increasing greenhouse gases concentrations owing to human combustion of fossil
fuels and ecosystem degradation lead the industrial and in general the human world
to be based on competitive and parasitic processes toward natural ecosystems [9, 10].
Major lifestyle and conceptual productive systems changes are needed and inevitable.
In this context, the theme of environmental sustainability applied to the design
culture raises important issues centered on the difficult relationship between human
activities and nature’s delicate balance. Biological systems survive because of their
life adaption and evolutionary processes becoming an integrating part of their envi-
ronment. Organisms use local resources to build themselves (e.g., skeleton, shells,
etc.) and their constructions (e.g., nests, traps, etc.), all of which are capable of
complete recycling with continuous reuse and regeneration of their waste materials.
They can conduct dynamic and adaptive management of both material resources
and quantities of energy used for vital functions. Consumption and regeneration are
always in balance, waste disposal is not necessary because everything is re-used and
reintegrated into natural cycles in time and space.
2.1 Use of Resources
Organisms adapt their design and functioning to local resources and environmental
biotic and abiotic characteristics, creating cascades of nutrients at the end of their
lifecycle. Conversely, biomimetic products and materials such as synthetic spider
silk-like materials, mechanically and optically adaptive materials, self-healing elas-
tomers and hydrogels, and antimicrobial polymers have often been made using
petrochemical origin materials, which have devastating effects on terrestrial and
ocean life other and furthermore an inherently toxic life cycle from production to
the final disposal. Society increasingly pushes toward ecological transition resulting
in a closer look at the development of sustainable polymers from renewable natural
products or biomass. Diverse bio-based and biohybrid materials are rising as greener
alternatives to their petroleum-based counterparts. In particular, bio-based materials
consist of substances naturally or synthetically derived from living matters [11],
whereas biohybrid or living building materials are based on microorganisms and
used in construction and industrial design exhibiting biological functional proper-
ties [12]. Bio-based and biohybrid materials are therefore based on inert or active
natural components that produce little or no waste using small amounts of energy
and producing multifunctional and adaptable systems.
In the biomimetic field, the use of these materials is however limited due to their
complexity. Particularly, the non-homogeneity leads to difficulties in experimental,
computational, theoretical calculation, and predictability response of these materials.
Moreover, they are difficult to manage and design at a molecular level. One of
the most effective biomimetic material research projects refers to the optimization
of crosslinking/networking processes, dynamic interactions, and self-assembly (or
phase separation) of synthetic polymers [13].
Additionally, Ganewatta et al. [13] pointed out that natural polymers or bio-based
compounds do not inevitably result in materials necessarily more sustainable than
those based entirely on synthetic polymers. The overall sustainability of a material
can only be assessed through a life cycle analysis that considers each stage’s impact,
such as pre-production, production, distribution, use, disposal, and end of life. A
material that has a sustainable start in life, because based on highly renewable and
easily accessible raw materials or not requiring energy-intensive processing and
environmental emissions, may not be durable, well-performing, or need treatments
that compromise recycling.
2.2 Time and Scale
Time is a crucial factor in nature. All organismal components and constructions

in the natural world are at the right time biodegradable, becoming a source and
food for other ecological chains. The degradability is a function of their time and
utility. For example, the difference between a paper wasp and honeybee in construc-
tions and material choices are related to the time of their social persistence. Social
paper wasps live in brief annual communities and construct their nests using wood
fibers (dead wood and plant stems) mixed with saliva resulting in a paper-like mate-
rial, whereas honeybees build pluriannual colonies and use beeswax to construct
high-resistant and durable nests. Materials and structural configurations differ in
organismal design with different life perspective duration, besides protection needs.
For example, bivalves that can have a relatively long survival time protect them-
selves with shell composed high-structured hierarchical ceramics [14]. The shell
is realized by the continuous addition of materials necessitating constant strength
throughout organismal life: any breaking or cracking will always constitute a point
of weakness. Conversely, lightweight, and rapidly biodegradable polysaccharide-

based materials are employed in seasonal cycles. For example, deciduous tree leaves
quickly disintegrate after falling ending their function.
In this regard, one of the main human technology errors lies in the unbalanced
connection between material choice and time of use in products and processes. Small
scale disposable products, e.g., plastic bottles and flatware, have been made of mate-
rials that require 100–1000 years to degrade. This is an example that results in the
need to use biodegradable materials with short disassembling and degradation time.
On the contrary, fast biodegradability emerges as a paradox in the scale of architec-
tural design, in which case the disposal time should be extended as much as possible
since the structures are intended to last.
2.3 Use of Waste
Nature is based on completely zero-waste systems: the waste of one system becomes
food for another. This smart cyclicity of nature is one of the most important logics to
be transferred to the biomimetic design of artifacts. It induces the recovery and regen-
eration of material waste after production or consumption through reuse, recycle, or
upcycling strategies. From this point of view, designers could be involved in the
identification of waste types most suitable to be ennobled through bioinspiration.
Biomimetic design can raise the final aesthetic, economic, ethical, and environmental
value of wastes conceiving attractive and desirable products such as jewelry, furni-
ture, and fashion accessories making upcycling processes convenient and profitable
[15]. In this sort of project, designers are asked to analyze production processes,
with particular attention to local activities, and to interpret waste transformed into
resources in terms of technical characteristics, perceptive qualities, and process-
ability. Thus, it is possible to identify new applications that maximize their potential
by reducing their limitation impacts, transforming them into factors of specificity
and originality [16]. In upcycling, biomimicry is an important added value in terms
of marketing because it produces attractive and desirable products for the market
and, therefore, economically viable. The increasing awareness of climate and envi-
ronmental issues together with the impact of lifestyle on health and well-being leads
people to choose what they perceive to be most natural and akin to their biological
roots, preferring products that implement a biological factor in terms of raw mate-
rials or design inspiration. In a market that is progressively inclined to choose low-
impact products, bioinspiration is proposed as an effective strategic vehicle to char-
acterize, identify, and promote eco-sustainable products and eco-oriented innovation
actions [17]. For these reasons, companies and commercial organizations are now
aware of the great competitive potential of bioinspiration in terms of attractiveness,
perceived value, and marketing, underpinning studies on bio-oriented entrepreneur-
ship, referred to as biopreneuring [18], resulting in a biomimicry and upcycling
synergy.
2.4 Production
Nature has been criticized for not producing enough and too slowly for the industrial
productive standards, which conversely require efficient, rapid, precise, calculable
processes and results. The productive scale and time of human technology seem
not to be comparable with natural ones. This assumption seems to be true when
a ceramic object produced at 1000 °C is compared with the productive time of a
bivalve shell. However, the advantages in terms of time and efficiency are taken less
for granted considering that a ceramic industry requires materials extracted from
worldwide caves, which need to be imported and processed at high temperatures,
pressures, and energies and furthermore must be transported and delivered to clients
[19]. In nature, local extraction is part of the productive process and energetic costs
are notably reduced.
Organisms produce biomaterials at local pressure and temperature conditions
using locally available raw materials; in industrial production, artificial temperature
and pressure conditions are often obtained by using great amounts of energy as well
as raw materials generally transported from remote locations. Hence, the comparison
between the natural and industrial production scale processes leads to another quanti-
tative aspect. The number of natural creations depends on physical forces respecting
the environmental carrying capacity in a potentially infinite cycle, while industrial
processes are based on high-energy loss and resource depletion.
3 Biological Versus Artificial
During millions of years, organisms evolved complex shapes, structures, and

processes generally tending to optimize the cost-benefit ratio and minimize energy
and materials to be used for their construction, development, and maintenance. In a
constructional perspective, they respond to principles of lightness, resilience, flex-
ibility, resistance, and efficient logics oriented to ensure the high performance of
organisms in their environment. Organisms are in this respect of particular interest
for design, architects, civil engineers, and many other technical disciplines since they
provide new technical and sustainable methodological strategies that can be trans-
ferred based on analogies as well as differences between the natural and technical
world.
In particular, numerous differences emerge in the comparison between organ-
ismal design and human artifacts and technologies, which can lead to a change in
perspective and to a design possibility and sustainability expansion.
A primary concept of sustainability emerges in terms of energy and produc-
tive processes: humans consume a vast amount of energy (60% of the time) to
develop numerous diverse materials with novel properties; whereas organisms invest
minimum energy (5% of the time), using few materials and synthetic processes,
wherein energy contribution is high, and utilizing more structural organization (e.g.,
hierarchy, strategical porosity, textures), wherein energy is negligible [20]. In this

regard, Vincent et al. [20] stated that “instead of developing new materials each time
we want new functionality, we should be adapting the materials we already have”.
Analogies and differences in scaling between organisms and artifacts can encourage
cutting-edge, sustainable, and biologically inspired designs increasingly close to the
construction law of organisms. The solution lies in the identification of functional
strategies and properties that can add mechanical resistance and multi-functionalities
to materials that have been already developed.
Numerous are the interesting differences between natural and artificial materials
that can lead to other interesting insights regarding sustainability. Firstly, the genesis
of biological structures is not based on a mere assembly of parts, rather it consists of a
continuous growth process, i.e., a self-assemble automatism that generates structures
with full functionality and integrity at all different stages of life. Secondly, organisms
use basic, autochthonous, and sustainable materials that require neither excessive
energy-consuming methods for their realization (working at environmental temper-
ature and pressures) nor long-distance transportation. Lastly, biological structures
are perfectly integrated into their environment and continuously interact and react to
its biotic and abiotic components. In addition, many other functional features char-
acterize biological structures, such as heterogeneity, anisotropy, hierarchy, modu-
larity, adaptability, self-healing, and multifunctionality, which are still needed to be
explored in-depth and employed as technical solutions.
3.1 Heterogeneity
Heterogeneity is a widespread characteristic in natural materials (e.g., soils, geolog-

ical formations, biological tissues) occurring at different scales: from molecular to
macroscopic. Organisms are characterized by a remarkable material and geomet-
rical differentiation of their structural components as well as local adaptations of
their physical and chemical properties.
Being based on biological matter, bio-based materials are generally characterized
by a high heterogeneity (Fig. 1), which limits their application, particularly on large
scales (e.g., building construction). Indeed, this characteristic determines notable
complexity and limits in experimental, computational, theoretical calculation, and
predictability response of these materials. Nonetheless, the non-homogeneity of these
materials can be valorized and enhanced in some design projects, generating multiple
unique features, such as light effects and transparencies, multisensorial connotation,
colorful effects, thickness differentiation, and singular textures (see sector 5). On the
other hand, geometrical heterogeneity combined in an organized structure (achieved
for examples with controlled porosity configuration) might also result in some bene-
fits, such as crack propagation blunting and energy dissipation in bone ceramics
[21].
Fig. 1 Bio-based composite

material heterogeneity.
Bioplastic matrix based on
starches and waste liquid
from buffalo mozzarella
production and hemp fibers.
Retrieved from: https://www.
hybriddesignlab.org
3.2 Anisotropy
Anisotropy derives from the uneven distribution and organization of materials; thus,
each direction in the material has different properties and behavior. In nature, the
anisotropic feature is generally exploited by combining different structural organiza-
tions that can result in emerging properties, e.g., movements, and lead to lightweight
and efficient structures: e.g., the cellulose fiber orientations determine the shape and
kinematics of plant cells and tissues as well as the anisotropic trabecular architecture
resisting to predicted directional stresses [22]. Indeed, organismal design is adapted
to forces that very seldom have the same intensity in all directions; therefore, it
generally requires an adapted anisotropy. This stands for diverse natural structures:
two examples are body tissues, where anisotropy is required for repair purposes [23],
and rice leaves, where directional forces are related to water surface tension [24].
3.3 Hierarchy
Organisms are characterized by a multilevel organization from nano-to macroscale

(Fig. 2). Increasingly sophisticated intelligence emerges from hierarchies, leading
to different emerging functional properties. Emergent properties of a system arise
from the interactions of its interrelated elements and cannot be reduced to or derived
from the sum of the single element properties. Emergence is related to hierarchical
organizations and occurs at all scales in nature, mainly: atoms, molecules, cells,
tissue, organs, systems, organisms, populations, communities, ecosystems [25]. All
these elements together determine unique properties and behaviors non-deductible
Fig. 2 Hierarchical porosity

in diatom valves. SEM
Micrograph made by
Valentina Perricone at
Stazione Zoologica Anton
Dohrn, Naples, Italy
by a single component. For example, different organs constitute an organism that

interacts with the environment trying to preserve itself and reproduce; while different
organisms constitute a community that interacts and creates a stable environment for
its members. The properties emerging from the organism and community are not
deducible from their single constituents. Material science is currently working with
hierarchical controlled gradients and configurations at a different scale to create
high-performance materials with unique emerging properties (e.g., micro- and nano-
structured materials to create structural colors). Numerous studies have been carried
out at nano- and microscale, however, the introduction of these structural materials
on large scales, such as building construction, is still very challenging [26].
3.4 Modularity
A common strategy of organismal design is modularity at different scales. Modules

are functional units that generally implement and satisfy local needs with some degree
of self-maintaining and self-controlled properties. For example, the liver system can
operate controlling nutrients in the blood in relative independence from the central
nervous system [27]. Moreover, the subdivision of the body in a series of segments is
a common phenomenon in nature, known as metamerisms. An outstanding example
is the subdivision of the worm body in multiple meters with a repetition of organs
and muscles. Modules or segments have a proper problem-solving intelligence and
are independent of external changing conditions. Modularity is also used in arti-
facts and their fabrication processes based on the assembling of units that provides
differentiation of materials, reproducibility adaptability, and easy substitution. This is
however based on inert modules that create a final configuration by a mere assembly
Fig. 3 Echinoid test

tessellation. SEM
Micrograph of Paracentrotus
lividus ambulacral plates
made by Valentina Perricone
at Stazione Zoologica Anton
of parts. There is often no intelligence, self-maintaining or self-controlled proper-

ties. Nonetheless, natural modularity can lead to functional strategies that can inspire
effective biomimetic configurations. For example, diverse studies have been carried
out on the modular structures that combine hard and soft materials (tessellations)
that characterize numerous invertebrate and vertebrate biomaterials and structures
(Fig. 3). The studies reported how tessellation can optimize mechanical configura-
tion, e.g., maximizing mechanical material toughness with minimum expenditure of
stiffness or strength [28].
3.5 Adaptability
Organisms and systems in nature vary their properties according to predictable

external constraints to which they are subjected during growth and/or throughout their
life cycle. For example, vertebrate bones are made of composite material (mainly hard
hydroxyapatite and elastic collagen) creating a complex internal trabecular system
that varies in porosity and orientation according to the main stress trajectories; this
allows to create of an adaptive, lightweight, and resistant skeleton able to withstand
both tensile and compressive internal and external forces.
Conversely, industrial products generally consist of repeated parts with identical
properties that are not able to adapt, rapidly becoming waste. As stated by Oxman
[29], design should create new concepts of formation, in which products adapt and
perform, i.e., behave, rather than form and absolve a unique function.
Fig. 4 Echinoid spines.

SEM Micrograph of Arbacia
lixula spines made by
Valentina Perricone at
Stazione Zoologica Anton
3.6 Self-healing
In case of fractures, amputation, or damages, organisms adopt specific self-repairing,

self-healing, and regeneration mechanisms. For example, rapid self-sealing and self-
healing prevent plants from desiccation and infection. The repairing properties are
frequently related to the damage extension as well as organismal component and
complexity: sea urchins can repair their test (endoskeleton) only if the damage is
circumscribed and can entirely regenerate their spines (Fig. 4), whereas sponges can
completely regenerate from fragments or even single cells.
In material science, synthetically created materials have been developed with
the ability to automatically repair damages. These materials are usually polymers,
metals, ceramics, or cementitious materials. A self-healing concrete has been also
realized using bacteria that are able to precipitate calcium carbonate in concrete
sealing micro-cracks [30]. This innovative concept has been successfully applied at
small or lab-scale tests. However, some limitations have been identified in large and
real-scale applications [31].
3.7 Multifunctionality
Natural materials and structures are multifunctional, i.e., they do not absolve a single
role but generally provide diverse important properties that are useful to enhance
organismal survival and reproduction. For example, sharkskin with its texturized
denticles is able to provide, e.g., fluid drag reduction, anti-fouling, and antimicro-
bial functionalities. Compared to biological ones, artificial materials appear to be
less effective and wasteful [32]. These materials are discrete solutions generated
to absolve one or a few rigid and distinct functions. Their diversity is achieved
by sizing rather than by substance variation, and is typically mass-produced and
not customized [32]. Presently, material scientists are however designing and fabri-
cating multifunctional composites for various applications taking inspiration from
hierarchical micro/nanostructures and biological functions (see [33] for a review).
4 Hybrid Design Lab: Experimental Designs Closer

to Nature
The Hybrid Design Lab (HDL) is a laboratory of the Department of Architecture and
Industrial Design of the University of Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”, founded in 2006
and dedicated to bio-inspired design and the relationship between design and science.
The HDL interdisciplinary team aims to transfer theoretical and experimental
research, achieved in biosciences, new materials, and technologies, to the design
innovative and sustainable products and services. The following examples show
how different functional biological features can be applied, often complementing
each other, in sustainable bio-inspired designs.
4.1 Designing Bio-based Products on Life Cycle Disposal

Zeit
HDL carried out different projects aimed to develop products with natural materials
coherent with their time of use. Orthopedic supports are examples of reduced life
cycle products used in a limited therapy time; nevertheless, they are usually produced
using conventional polymeric materials with high-temporal disposal processes.
Thumbio emerged as an example of a promising bio-based orthopedic brace for
hand and wrist immobilization in case of inflammatory, degenerative diseases, and
small fractures (Fig. 5). This brace was produced using a biodegradable composite
made of a bioplastic matrix based on starches and waste liquid from the buffalo
mozzarella production and hemp fibers (heterogeneity) to modulate stiffness and elas-
ticity according to the degree of immobilization indicated by the orthopaedist. The
arrangement of the fibers in the bioplastic depends on the location of the type of lesion
or inflammation and, therefore, on the movements that must be prevented and the
micro-movements that can be allowed (anisotropy, adaptability). The bio-composite
is also functionalized with natural anti-oedematous and anti-inflammatory herbal
ingredients which slowly release phytotherapeutic principles during the healing
process, avoiding the use of creams (multifunctionality). At the end of its short life,
the product can be composted, releasing no harmful substances for the environment
due to its fertilizing properties [34] (Fig. 6).
Fig. 5 Thumbio. Bio-based orthopedic brace for hand and wrist immobilization. Credits: Clarita
Caliendo (Design); Carla Langella (Scientific coordination); Carlo Santulli (Material engineering);
Antonio Bove (Orthopedics)
4.2 Designing and Valorizing Waste
Other than being reduced, waste can be also valorized by transforming it into a
new resource enhancing its unique characteristics in an expressive way. Based on a
learning from nature approach, inspired by the ability of natural systems to reuse and
regenerate materials and energy, the project “+Design − Waste” carried out by HDL,
was aimed to design products developed by reinterpreting different types of waste.
Through a multidisciplinary approach, which involves design, material science, and
biology, waste was nobilitated raising the final economic value through the project of
products such as jewelry, furniture, fashion, and accessories. In the Diaglass project,
glass waste obtained from broken building glass was upcycled and enriched with
gold flakes (heterogeneity) through a specific heating process giving life to precious
jewels inspired by diatom material and forms (Fig. 7).
By imitating nature, upcycling products should remain in the production envi-
ronment in which they originated to minimize transport environmental costs. In the
Flora project, waste from floriculture production was used to make biodegradable
pots sold in the nurseries to contain plants (Fig. 8). The presence of coarse fragments
Fig. 6 Thumbio and different material solutions showed in the international itinerant exhibition
“Italy: The Beauty of Knowledge”, Farnesina, Rome 2018
Fig. 7 Diaglass. Jewels inspired by diatom material and forms made of upcycled broken building
glass enriched with gold flakes. Credits: Serena Miranda (Design); Carla Langella (Scientific
coordination)
Fig. 8 Flora. Biodegradable

pots made of bioplastics with
fragments of floral petals and
leaves. Credits: Maria
Petrillo, Lorenzo Villani
(Design); Carla Langella
(Scientific coordination)
of petals and leaves in the bioplastic provides strength, color heterogeneity, clearly
communicating the ethical value of upcycling.
4.3 Designing Bio-inspired Variability
Non-homogeneity, cyclicity, and hierarchization of biological structures can be

emulated in sustainable design by using bio-based materials and alternative produc-
tion processes to generate multiple unusual features, such as discontinuous light
effects and transparencies, multisensorial intensity, color variegation, thickness
differentiation, and singular textures. In this regard, HDL in collaboration with the
CNR- Institute of Polymers, Composites, and Biomaterials (IPCB) developed 60
new bio-inspired material samples with a design-driven approach, starting from raw
materials of marine origin including algae, mussel shells, and shrimp, incorporated
in biodegradable polymer matrixes (Figs. 9 and 10). The samples were developed
within the European project PIER framework led by Città della Scienza. One of its
main specificities was that new materials were created by designers and personally
produced in a chemical lab with the supervision of chemists. In this experience, the
Fig. 9 Materials from the sea. Bioinspired material samples realized with raw materials of
marine origin including algae, mussel shells, and shrimp, incorporated in biodegradable polymer
matrixes. Credits: Francesco Amato, Clarita Caliendo (Design); Carla Langella (Scientific Design
coordination); Mario Malinconico (Science material coordination)
material design, conducted from the designers’ point of view, chose to favor percep-
tive, experimental, and functional qualities required by the application field (furni-
ture, accessories, packaging), rather than the homogeneity and isotropy that chemists
and material engineers generally give priority to. The material design was inspired by
biological structures and their properties, favoring discontinuity over continuity, dis-
homogeneity over homogeneity, color shades and opacity gradients over chromatic
and optical uniformity, and the modulation of mechanical performance in relation
to expected stress. The samples were conceived by giving particular attention to the
aspects of environmental sustainability, the enhancement of natural materials, and the
interpretation of biological materials from a design point of view. The relationship
of these projects with nature is therefore bivalent since the new materials developed
contained raw materials of natural origin as well as were inspired by principles and
logics studied in biology. The samples were exhibited in Città della Scienza museum
in 2014, and in the itinerant exhibitions “Italy: The Beauty of Science” from 2018
to 2020 and “Italy: The Art of science” in 2021 (Fig. 9).
Heterogeneity and structural hierarchy biological features were also applied in an
auxetic 3D printed collar aimed to safeguard the well-being of the neuromuscular
system of the cervical spine [35]. The collar had a preventive purpose because it
dissuaded the user from keeping his head tilted forward induced by the use of portable
devices. It also had a therapeutic function for cervical pathologies with no serious
Fig. 10 Material sample composed of PCL and algae. Design: Francesco Amato e Clarita Caliendo.
Design coordination: Carla Langella. Science material coordination: Mario Malinconico
alterations as the chin was slightly supported, partially unloading neck muscles from
the mechanical stresses due to head support.
Auxetics are meta-materials observed in nature in the skins of some reptiles such
as the salamander, but also in the stems of various plant species. The auxetic structure
provides these tissues with greater extensibility and mechanical strength, preventing
them from tearing, even when subjected to sudden and intense stress. The auxetic
behavior derives from the morphological structure and not from the chemical char-
acteristics of the material. Specifically, a meta-material is defined as auxetic when it
has a negative Poisson’s modulus. The Poisson’s modulus is defined as the ratio of
the transverse and parallel deformations with respect to a load applied to the section.
The term auxetic derives from Auxesis, a Greek word meaning to grow, which
refers to the increase in cell size when structures are subject to tensile stress.
Generally, when we solicit a material with a positive Poisson’s modulus to uniaxial
tensile stress, it expands in the stretching direction and thins in the cross-section.
Similarly, a material subjected to compression contracts in the direction of force and
expands laterally.
A negative Poisson’s modulus, on the other hand, means that materials also expand
in the orthogonal direction when subjected to a tensile force and contract on all sides
when subjected to compression.
The use of the auxetic structure in the collar, compared to conventional materials,
results in more resistance, flexibility, breathability, and adaptability to the anatomy of
the neck in different postures, like a second skin. The auxetic structure developed by
the designer in the final project is a hybridization of two types of auxetic geometries
observed in nature: indented cells and rotating cells. In the collar structure, different
cell shapes were organized in a strategic position array to differentiate stiffness
according to the orthopedical therapeutic indications. This structure resulted in a
more effective and sustainable collar compared to the traditional one, allowing the
use of less material that can be recycled to produce new 3D printing filaments at the
end of its life cycle (Fig. 11).
5 Conclusions
In this complex framework, the need to design biomimetic materials and construc-
tions based on intelligent and coherent use of resources, scale, and function emerges
as a priority, including product duration, type and intensity of use, application context,
and disposal choice. These parameters strongly influence the characterization of the
life cycle and artifact performances such as the renewability of raw materials or
biodegradability at the end of life.
Bio-based materials are encouraging for a sustainable future and their limits
should be overcome by enhancing their unique properties creating new ones. New
resistant and lightweight configurations, multifunctionality, regeneration properties,
circularity, and sustainability can be applied to bio-based materials taking inspiration
from organismal designs and working principles. Indeed, organisms also use natural
materials often fragile (e.g., biogenic high-magnesium calcite of echinoid skeleton
or silica of diatom valves); however, they optimize and adapt their materiality to
scale, functionalities, and environmental context using more structural organization
(e.g., hierarchy, strategical porosity, textures). Hence, a biomimetic approach that
combines the use of bio-based materials with a coherent use of bioinspiration can be
configured as a future sustainable and effective line of human design able to integrate
and imitate nature through multiple dimensions.
Recent technological advances seem to have opened a new biomimetic era. Tech-
nologies such as computational design and fabrication allow the design of complex
structures that can perfectly reproduce biological-like functions, whereas material
Fig. 11 Auxetic neckbrace, a detail of the heterogeneous structure. An auxetic 3D printed

collar aimed to safeguard the well-being of the neuromuscular system of the cervical spine.
Credits: Martina Panico (Design); Carla Langella (Scientific coordination); Carlo Santulli (Material
engineering)
scientists lead to the design of new bio-based materials by integrating sustainability

and biological materiality into design products. Therefore, the differences between
natural and technical entities can now encourage new cutting-edge and sustainable
biologically inspired designs increasingly closer to the construction law of organisms.
From a methodological point of view, sustainable biomimicry can be established
on the mutual collaboration between disciplines such as biology, material science,
engineering, and design [36]. The synergy between disciplines can lead to the aware-
ness of real possibilities of transferring constructional and adaptive characteristics
of organisms, scaling them up with respect to the context and dimensions of the final
application. Without this synergy, conceptual and sustainable limits can emerge in the
design of artifacts, processes, and services since the biological logics and the physical
principles are deviated or not fully comprehended. At the same time, biologists and
engineers cannot foresee with sufficient reliability the way in which products will be
used, maintained, and finally discarded, because these factors are closely linked to the
knowledge of market, lifestyles, user attitudes, and, finally, design strategy. An effec-
tive collaboration must be mutual [37] and synergic, and not linear and progressive,
but interactive, with continuous back-and-forth, trial-and-error paths, as in nature.
This mutuality can be necessarily achieved by facing and overcoming disciplinary

specificity, such as differences in objectives, tools, timeframes, and languages [38].
The possibility of developing products and materials inspired by nature and inte-
grated with the environment also emerges from the application of biological complex
logics such as cyclicity, adaptability, self-organization, redundancy, hierarchy, and
non-homogeneity. These features applied to bio-based materials and artifacts can
result in more resistance, durability, originality, and attractiveness, thus suitable for
responding to the complex needs of contemporary living. Logics that until a few years
ago were impossible to replicate due to their complexity, today can be applied to arti-
facts increasingly closer to biological ones. Nature can be part of the product and a
source of inspiration as well as an active agent, as in the case of materials made by
bacterial fermentation or cell culture [39]. In the next sustainable future, biomimetic
artifacts will be shaped on the use of renewable and controlled biodegradable mate-
rials or waste-based ones. Additionally, they will probably be dis-homogeneous,
anisotropic, multi-colored, and biologically produced [40].
In the history of mankind, nature has always been a source of inspiration. The
future perspective foresees a new fundamental step forward, leading to the human
world in overcoming the negative dichotomy between nature and artifice. In this
regard, biomimetics can assume an important role in bringing new knowledge and
awareness of the environment, human health, and social equity into the lives of
people, offering new and concrete prospects for integrating sustainable strategies,
increasing awareness, and improving life quality. Biomimetics must encourage the
creation of a human world increasingly closer to nature construction laws that do not
impose themselves on nature but are inspired and integrated with it.
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Bionics for Inspiration: A New Look
at Brazilian Natural Materials
for Application in Sustainable Jewelry
Mariana Kuhl Cidade, Janaíne Taiane Perini, and Felipe Luis Palombini
Abstract Natural material is the classification given to those retrieved from nature,
whether of plant, animal, or mineral origin. Essentially, after extraction, they are
characterized by requiring little or no additional processing prior to their application
in a project. Since the beginning of humanity, nature-sourced elements have been
used as tools and weapons, and manufacturing techniques have been perfected by
civilizations, due to humans’ wonder and curiosity about them. In addition to their
mechanical properties of interest, natural materials are still valorized by their unique-
ness and aesthetics—with their perfection through imperfection—giving individu-
ality and character to each piece produced. Bionics is defined by the use of features
from natural elements, such as shape, structure, organization, and aesthetics, in many
fields such as design, engineering, and architecture, among others. This application
can be realized directly or via a source of inspiration, through observations, adapta-
tions, and parameterization. Brazil has one of the richest biodiversities in the world,
with a great variety of both fauna and flora species, as well as rocks and minerals.
In the country, there are many examples of different representative natural mate-
rials, such as golden grass (S. nitens—ERIOCAULACEAE), sisal (A. sisalana—
AGAVACEAE), bottle gourds (L. siceraria—CUCURBITACEAE), mane and tail
hair of horses, sheep wool, agate, opal, amethyst, Paraiba tourmaline, among others;
many of which come from renewable sources, and others that are underutilized,
M. K. Cidade (B)
Department of Industrial Design, Federal University of Santa Maria — UFSM, Av. Roraima, nº
1000, Prédio 40, Sala 1136, Santa Maria, RS 97105-900, Brazil
J. T. Perini
Industrial Design Undergraduate Course, Federal University of Santa Maria — UFSM, Av.
Roraima, nº 1000, Prédio 40, Santa Maria, RS 97105-900, Brazil
F. L. Palombini
School of Engineering, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul — UFRGS, Av. Osvaldo Aranha
99/408, Porto Alegre, RS 90035-190, Brazil
Laboratory of Plant Anatomy – LAVeg, Institute of Biosciences, Department of Botany, Federal
University of Rio Grande do Sul – UFRGS, Av. Bento Gonçalves, Porto Alegre, RS 9500, Brazil
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-1812-4_8
196 M. K. Cidade et al.
leading to a large amount of wasted residues. Furthermore, little has been studied
and explored regarding the aesthetic value of those materials. For instance, contem-
porary jewelry is defined by the application of unusual materials, techniques, and
creative processes, redefining concepts and exploring new ways for a sustainable
luxury. This chapter proposes a new look at Brazilian natural materials from renew-
able sources and waste, focusing on their use in two ways, (i) as raw material and (ii)
as a source of inspiration. Brazilian natural materials from animal, plant, and mineral
sources were collected and examined via light microscopy for the search of morpho-
logical characteristics and colors to be employed in a creative process. Collected
samples were also employed as highlighted raw materials for the manufacturing of
a jewelry collection, aiming to valorize and emphasize the usage of those materials
that already comes from an inspirational origin.
Keywords Renewable materials · Waste · Biomimetics · Design · Microscopy ·

Natural materials · Natural fibers · Contemporary jewelry
1 Introduction—Natural Materials
Natural materials play a key role in the development of all civilizations and
humankind as a whole. Among the first objects ever used by humans, we can point
out woods, rocks (particularly flint), skins (furs and leathers), bones (including horns,
tooth, and tusks), shells, and several types of natural fibers [12] that have been used
for the manufacturing of tools, weapons, ornaments, clothing, buildings, and many
other types of products [8, 55]. In terms of relative importance, they had endured for
millennia as the main source of raw materials [7, 12], prior to the age of metals—
with the exception of gold, which due to its chemical stability it could be found
in nature as metal form, instead of ore minerals like aluminum, copper, iron, etc.
[8]. Only much later did humans begin to explore chemical and physical experi-
ments for the development of synthetic materials, like metals and alloys, ceramics
and glasses, polymers, and, in the last century, composites. Despite industrialization
and modern technologies which lead to the development of advanced materials and
manufacturing processes, natural materials have kept significant importance in many
industries throughout the years. Even though the existence of synthetic alternatives
in the present day, there are still examples of those materials that are largely used and
commonly found in many applications, such as latex, bovine leather, and cork, in
addition to wood and bamboo as building materials in houses, scaffoldings, besides
furniture and a variety of utensils. However, despite the fact that they are almost
omnipresent at every home or workplace, the very definition of the term “natural
material” can sometimes be confusing and misleading.
Classic material selection in engineering and design literature and textbooks, like
the pioneer works of William John [75] to Michael Farries [5], divide materials into
four main classes—Metals, Ceramics, Polymers, and Composites—as a reason of
the “common underlying structural features (the long-chain molecules in polymers,
Bionics for Inspiration: A New Look at Brazilian Natural Materials … 197
the intrinsic brittleness of ceramics, or the mixed materials of composites) which,

ultimately, determine the strengths and weaknesses (the “design-limiting” proper-
ties) of each in the engineering context” [9]. Later on, those classes were expanded
into general families with the inclusion of separate divisions for Elastomers, Glasses,
and Hybrids. This time, instead of simply assorting materials because of their struc-
tural characteristics, the families were chosen due to the similarity of properties,
processing routes, and, often, applications [6]. Because of the complexity and the
fine line between one class of materials to another, it is becoming more common to
separate them according to their origin. Chris [56], for instance, utilizes the macro-
grouping of “grown materials”, “oil-based materials”, and “mined materials”. The
author utilized these sections with aims at sustainably in a way to highlight and
better control the resources for each type of material, once their availability is likely
to change drastically in the upcoming decades, either from the scarcity of oil to the
development of new materials from renewable sources, like fungi [43], algae [49],
and plants [65].
1.1 Classification of Natural Materials
Regarding natural materials, they can be roughly classified according to their origin,
whether they are mineral or biological. The first group, also known as geological
materials, can be divided into rocks and gemstones, in addition to meteorites and
metal alloys [27]. While rocks and gemstones can be better interpreted as natural
materials, due to their straightforwardness usage, others would still require some
level of processing prior to being ready for application. A traditional classification
in gemology separates minerals according to their chemical composition: silicates
(the largest group), sulfides, carbonates, oxides, halides, sulfates, phosphates, and
native elements [62]. Among naturally occurring metals, known as native metals,
gold is a noticeable exception due to its chemical stability in its pure form; therefore,
despite also being found in nature alloyed with silver, this precious metal does not
require the same ore processing as others that are much more reactive in nature.
Gem is a classification intended for highly prized minerals, due to their beauty,
durability, and rarity [62]. Usually, they are classified as gems after being cut and
polished, but in archeology, gems may refer to engraved stones (cameo, intaglio,
seals, etc.) [27]. A more commercial classification divides gemstones into groups
that share similar characteristics [83]: “best known gemstones”, traditionally traded
or generally known gemstones (like diamonds, rubies, sapphires, emeralds, tour-
malines, amethysts, agates, jades, and many others); “lesser known gemstones”,
formerly appreciated mostly by collectors, they are today made into jewelry (like
fluorite, serpentine, apatite, tiger’s eye matrix, etc.); “gemstones for collectors”,
which although having no practical use in jewelry (because they are too soft, too
brittle, or too rare), collectors gather them as rarities or as small objets d’art (like
tantalite, rutile, and others); and “rocks as gemstones”, in fringe zone of gems, earlier
used for decorative purposes and ornamental objects, they are becoming more impor-
tant for personal jewelry (like marble, limestone, moldavite, obsidian, and alabaster).
However, the boundaries between mineral and biological natural materials become
blurred when we considerer the so-called organic gemstones. This group includes
materials that have preserved or acquired mineral characteristics, despite their organic
origin, like coral, ivory, amber, mother-of-pearl, and fossilized materials [27, 62, 83].
Concerning those of biological origins, natural materials can be classified
according to their properties/characteristics as well as their composition. Apart from
having notably the absence of metals in their composition—which would usually
require mechanisms that are unavailable in nature, i.e., high-temperature or high-
electric current processing—mechanically, they present a generally low density,
rarely exceeding 3g/cm3 compared to most synthetic structural materials (which
are often in the 4 − 10g/cm3 scale); however, they can vary enormously regarding
their Elastic moduli (from 0.001 to 100GPa) and strength (from 0.1 to 1000MPa)
[59]. Wegst and Ashby [95] present a classification of biological materials into four
groups, similar to those used on synthetic materials for engineering: natural ceramics
(including ceramic composites), natural polymers (and polymer composites), natural
elastomers, and natural cellular materials (or foams). Natural ceramics comprehend
bone, antler, enamel, dentine, shell, and coral, and are usually made up of particles,
like hydroxyapatite, calcite, or aragonite, in a matrix of collagen. Natural polymers
include hooves of mammals, ligaments, and tendons, and arthropod exoskeletons,
including cellulose and chitin (polysaccharides), as well as collagen, silk, and keratin
(proteins). Natural elastomers encompass skin, muscle, blood vessels, and most soft
tissues, made from proteins like elastin, resilin, and abductin. And natural cellular
materials include wood, cork, palm, bamboo, and cancellous bone. In a recent review
by [29], the authors highlight the overall resemblance of biological materials to
composites, and state that they are built with a limited number of building blocks,
dividing them into minerals, polysaccharides, and proteins. Mineral biological mate-
rials are mostly composed of calcium phosphate (e.g. tooth), silica glass (e.g. skeleton
of glass sponge), and calcium carbonate (like the shells from snails and mussels).
Polysaccharide materials correspond to cellulose (from trees to cotton), and chitin
(the carapace of beetles). And protein biological materials are primarily divided into
keratin (found in beaks, feathers, wools, and fingernails), silk (in spider web), and
collagen (in artery walls and tendons). In addition, some natural materials are also
comprised of more than one type of base substance, such as lobster shells (from
chitin and calcium carbonate), and bones (from calcium phosphate and collagen).
1.2 What is a Natural Material
Affirming that a given material is “natural” may imply a broad significance, from the
environmental point of view to its origin and applicability. For instance, some “nat-
ural material” may falsely indicate that it is free of hazardous substances or causes
no harm to humans, which is not necessarily true [53]. A large number of toxic or
dangerous substances is found in nature and have been used in many applications,
from consumer products to construction materials. As examples, we may cite lead,
mercury, and asbestos, which were increasingly employed after World War II, and
today they are forbidden in many countries for they being the direct cause of severe
lung diseases and cancer [93]. Another frequent problem of classifying natural mate-
rials lies in following the literal and absolute meaning that it represents a substance
that was retrieved from nature. Oversimplifying, this would correspond to almost
every substance known to men. In this sense, not just the simplest material, but even
the most high-end synthetic one was once part of the natural world, and it could only
be generated after some base material is extracted from nature. For instance, from the
plant-based commodity polylactic acid (PLA)—used in home 3D printing systems
filaments—to the oil-based engineering-level polyetheretherketone (PEEK)—which
can be filled with carbon nanotubes and used in the spatial and medical industry—
they were all first obtained by the removal of a basic natural substance. Instead, what
can actually distinguish a natural material from others is not necessarily its origin,
but how and how much of it was processed before it is applied into a product as its
final form. In this way [17], defines it as:
A product that is made from materials and ingredients found in nature, with little or no
human intervention. Natural materials include stone, glass, lime or mud plasters, adobe or
rammed earth, bricks, tiles, untreated wood, cork, paper, reeds, bamboo, canes and grasses
as well as all natural fibers.
In its native state, almost all natural materials must be prepared before applica-
tion. Even on the case of a simple table, for instance, after the tree is cut down,
the wood needs to be debarked, cut, dried, and planed into lumbers that could then
be employed in a piece of furniture. Not mentioning additional steps like dying,
branding, steaming, or heat-based molding, and coating or treating its surface with
protecting agents to prevent deterioration and wearing, either by weather or by chem-
ical or biological means. However, in a general way, wood can be considered a
natural material, particularly when comparing it to other alternatives like polymers
or metals, that essentially require even more complex manufacturing processes and
usually involve some level of phase change. Given the circumstances, despite being
cut, molded, or contracted, wood applied into a product remains the same continuum
solid as it was as secondary xylem in the plant. Wood-derived materials, like MDF
(medium-density fiberboard), MDP (medium-density particleboard), OSB (oriented
strand board), or even plywood involve the breakage of wood into smaller particles
or plies, and then binding them together to form a new solid; therefore, they should
be considered a secondary material, despite not having necessarily passed through a
phase change or a full recycling procedure.
In addition to the fact that most of its bulk volume is kept in one piece—from
the extraction to application—another important characteristic of natural material is
that destructive or invasive treatments (chemical or physical) should not be manda-
tory for its use. As [17] commented, natural materials essentially require “little
to no human intervention”, i.e., after removing them from nature, one should be
able to apply them in a fairly raw state, predominantly. Still, this should be inter-
preted literally. For instance, hides require a number of time-consuming processes
in order to become a usable sheet of leather. From the liming of fibers to the tanning,
several types of equipment and chemical products are required—either by following
mineral tanning (with chrome-based products) or with more traditional, vegetal-
based processes. On the other hand, the steps required for the manufacturing of most
polymer-based leather alternatives—like polyurethane (PU) leather—are much more
numerous and complex, considering that most of their main raw substances (polyols
and isocyanates) are derived from oil; and they are even farther from genuine leather
when regarding the extraction-to-application transformations, as well as changes on
its original bulk form or volume.
1.3 Selection of Natural Materials
The selection of natural materials for a particular project or design can be due to many
reasons. Figure 1 illustrates some of the most important ones, classified according
to a holistic approach of materials selection [78]. Such classification can be initially
divided into “quantitative” and “qualitative” parameters, like the inner circle of Fig. 1.
The first one is based on countable factors, which can be easily measured and calcu-
lated with quite an accurate level of appraisal. As for the qualitative parameters,
despite also being able to be assessed by means of specialized methodologies, it
is considered more subjective and therefore can be subjected to different interpre-
tations, depending on human-related factors like culture, age, gender, social class,
etc. In the middle circle of Fig. 1 there is a separation between “economic” and
“technical” approaches, in the quantitative classification, and between “sensorial”
and “intangible” approaches, in the qualitative one. Whereas “economic” is obvi-
ously related to the monetary reasons some natural material is selected, “technical”
regards the classical material properties, commonly used in engineering. “Sensorial”
is related to parameters that can be evaluated regarding the interaction between the
product and the user, and “intangible” is related to product effects measured between
users.
In the case of natural materials, following the outermost circle of Fig. 1, first of
all, there is the key factor of performance. Natural materials are known for their
outstanding behavior along with multiple and simultaneous properties, even for the
standards of modern synthetic materials [35]. For instance [59], present a list of
features that are unique to natural materials, including self-assembly (in which they
do not need for external means to be built up), self-healing capability (by reversing
damages or failures), hydration (the properties are strongly dependent on and influ-
enced by the moister content), mild synthesis conditions (biological materials are
produced in atmospheric or underwater conditions of temperature and pressure),
functionality (having more than one purpose), and hierarchy (different and orga-
nized scale levels that give unique and adaptable properties). Furthermore, all those
properties are derived from just a handful of elements—carbon (C), hydrogen (H),
Fig. 1 Selection of natural materials: a holistic approach for some of the reasons they may be
preferred as a base material in manufacturing applications
oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), calcium (Ca), and phosphorous (P)—which are orga-
nized and combined into efficient morphologies, despite environmental constraints.
Another reason is aesthetics. Natural materials remained well appreciated for the
feelings they invoke, not only via their look but also with their touch, sound, and
scent. For instance, people seek after these materials in a way to reconnect them-
selves with memories (the indistinguishable scent of leather), feeling warm and cozy
(with sheepskin rugs or throws), feeling comfortable or embraced (the soft touch of
silk or cashmere), or experiencing deep and clear musical notes (with solid wood
speakers). In some sensorial attributes, natural materials are just unrivaled [48].
Third, we can point out the factor of affordability. Despite the existence of tech-
nological manufacturing plants, capable of producing thousands of plastic consumer
goods every hour, sometimes the selection of a natural material counterpart can be
more reasonably priced, particularly when a lower volume manufacturing is sought,
or with a craftmanship-like production. For example, the practicality of building a
simple wooden stool or a bamboo scaffold is enormous [57]. There is no need for
machining expensive aluminum injection molds for polymers or designing complex
joints for tubular steel; the natural material is virtually ready to be employed—from
harvest to use. The next decisive factor is availability. For thousands of years, local
natural materials were the only existing options for fabricating almost all types of
artifacts. Today with globalization any company can have access to synthetic raw
materials from the most distant regions, however, in many cases selecting a local
natural alternative is not only more accessible physically but also more affordable.
For instance, many local and natural fibers are by-products of other applications
and are still explored in the manufacture of items from reusable shopping bags to
reinforcements in composites [55]. The fifth reason is one of the main benefits of
biological materials: their renewability. With the clear exception of minerals, natural
materials can be regenerated in a fairly brief period, compatible with human needs.
Even cork used in the manufacturing of bottle stoppers, for instance, which requires
around 9 years between harvests cycles, can still be managed to allow an economi-
cally sustainable supply flow [76]. And if appropriate care is taken, unlike synthetic
polymer alternatives, this plant tissue is not running out, like fossil fuels eventually
will. Similar to renewability, another key factor is the environment. In many life-
cycle assessments (LCA), the advantages of choosing a natural material lie upon the
energy costs, particularly during the extraction and manufacturing phases. Wooden
products, for instance, exhibit a number of environmental benefits when compared to
competing materials, such as fossil fuel consumption, contributions to the greenhouse
effect, and solid waste generation tends to be much smaller [96]. Bamboo-based
products, being this grass one of the most rapid growth materials, have been selected
due to the reduction of carbon footprint, in addition to their carbon sequestration
capabilities during cultivation [86].
The seventh factor is comportment or social behavior. It is noticeable the recent
demand for products that are made using socially fair and environmentally friendly
materials and processes. Contemporary trends, lifestyles, and life’s philosophies, like
naturalism and veganism, have been pushing companies to deliver natural materials
in many markets, from phone cases to construction materials to automobile industries
[51]. The eighth main factor is exclusivity. The fundamental characteristic that makes
biological or mineral materials so looked-for is their individuality. Not even the
most seamless and technological manufacturing process can smooth out their natural
variability, which is advantageous. Every mineral, piece of leather, or wood finish is
distinctive, and by that, it delivers character to a product. Including when the product
is worn out, some leather goods even became more valuable with the development of
a natural aging patina on the surface. Associate with this variability propriety, luxury
is another reason natural materials are so often selected. If on one hand, natural
materials are unique in terms of size, pattern, shine, or shape, on another they can
be considered quite exclusive, which means no other consumer will have a similar
product, particularly in the case of gemstones for the jewelry market [62]. In addition,
many luxury consumer products, like watches and cars, are designed with natural
finishes and surfaces as a way to demonstrate the brand’s mindfulness and caution
during the manufacturing of an artifact that is going to be exhibited as a symbol of
status and wealth.
1.4 Bionics and Aesthetics of Natural Materials: From

Nature to Jewelry
The fundamental characteristic of natural materials, which influences all their

features and properties described before, is their variability. Principally, in biological
materials, this is a consequence of both intrinsic and external factors. The first one is
due to species-related differences in chemistry, polymer chain length and packing,
and water content [35], and the second one is driven by environmental constraints,
such as temperature, humidity, insolation, natural selection, as well as biotic effects,
having an impact on their growth and development [31, 59]. However, if on one
hand this variance can be seen as a disadvantage regarding strict manufacturing
standards—leading to the obligation of defining a much broader range of material
properties [35]—on the other, in terms of surface finish, this can be quite favorable:
Perfection and Imperfection. Surface perfection is violated by the slightest defect – it has
no hope of aging gracefully. Better, to make visual imperfection a part of the personality
of the product – something that gives it individuality. It is this, in part, that makes natural
materials – wood, leather, and stone – attractive [7].
As seen before, a combination of exclusivity and luxury—both dependent on

the variability of natural substances—are desirable features that contribute to the
perennial success of natural materials in product design. In a survey with 30 natural
materials, for example, participants mentioned the reasons they express naturalness,
and two important points worth highlighting is (i) their imperfect surface qualities,
which were uneven or ununiform, and (ii) their “long-term use” aspect due to a
worn-out appearance [47]. If for synthetic engineering materials this aging effect
might be considered a sign of degradation in their physical or chemical properties,
due to irreversible changes in their structure or composition, for natural materials
they are perceived as a sign of maturity—modifications in scents, colors, and textures
that accentuate their preciousness [79]. Despite sometimes not being valorized in the
west [79], the appreciation for aging aesthetics in materials and products is better
established in east cultures; for instance Kintsugi, the Japanese art technique of
repairing broken pottery with lacquer mixed with powdered precious metals, like
gold or silver. This sense of “age” and “experience” in natural materials can be
reflected even when the products they are utilized on are brand new: since they were
extracted from nature, their “history” is already ancient well before applied into a
product [92].
When bound to artistry or craftsmanship, natural materials often are associated
with imprecise aesthetics, either in shape, patterns, or colors, but in a way that
harmonizes with their origin as raw materials. No two pieces are completely equal.
However, even if overall measurements—like lengths and angles—are approximated
and determined by the eye, this “lack of refinement not only minimizes the inter-
vention, it also retains the qualities and attributes of the natural material” [94]. And
when this inexactitude is embraced, it is transformed into an attribute of design, while
reconnecting it with the variances of the natural world. In many products, this can be
seen as a looked-for attribute [4], for instance, describes the development of wedding
rings where one pair had the inclusion of a single piece of wood, symbolizing the
“couple’s unity”, and involved by a rough-finished bronze, which was supposed to
be naturally polished during to the long-term utilization of the jewelry, thus repre-
senting the “beauty of a growing relationship”. As each individual uses and wears
out a ring differently, the pieces remain distinct. More than connecting symbolic
representations with valuable objects, this utilization of the variability of natural and
uncommon materials represents a newer trend in contemporary jewelry [25]. Despite
symbolisms in shape, colors, and textures having long been used in jewelry, nowadays
special attention has been given to the application of once considered unusual—and
even unvalued—materials and techniques [10, 22, 24]. From plastic waste to natural
materials, contemporary jewelry follows a path towards comprehensive sustainable
practices, either by the inclusion of materials that may be problematic in environ-
mental concern, as well as social fairness, regarding the origin of each material [18].
The called “new luxury” is reached by a combination of natural materials, sustainable
production, and craftsmanship, aiming at helping us to find purpose and meaning
[66]. In contemporary jewelry, the liberty to choose from a wider range of possi-
bilities allows the designer to focus more than ever on significance and meaning,
rather than just the pure monetary value of the resources employed. “The applied
material, regardless of whether it is gold, platinum, diamonds, emeralds, wood, poly-
mers, rocks, or even residues from waste, is a design choice, as for the techniques,
technologies, finishes, and concepts employed in jewelry” [71].
Another process for the creation of sustainable and innovative pieces that contem-
porary jewelry is being based on is via newer creative processes and methodologies.
Among them, bionics is being explored due to its flexibility in transferring an array of
features from nature to projects. More traditionally, bionics is used as a methodology
for converting technical attributes—like geometries, organizational and hierarchy
levels—into engineering designs ranging from simple products to large construc-
tions, and mainly with regards to mechanical, physical, and chemical properties
[52, 73, 74]. However, not only technical properties can be explored in the design
of bioinspired projects. When utilized along with jewelry, for instance, aesthetical
features extracted from nature became equally as important for the creative develop-
ment of new patterns, geometries, and tridimensional configurations, that add value
and sensorial experiences to users [23, 72]. Therefore, the combination of traditional
and artisanal jewelry procedures with innovative materials, techniques, and creative
methods is a way to create and develop new expressive and sustainable pieces, which
not only emphasize the new meaning of contemporary luxury but also the appraisal
for the aesthetics of the imperfection, valorizing the uniqueness of natural materials.
2 Brazilian Natural Materials as a Source of Inspiration
Among different sectors, natural materials exert a large influence on the amount of
environmental wealth one region has at its disposal. Natural resources are among one
of the main benchmarks for measuring sustainable development. In recent years, a
new type of metric for assessing the gross product of countries and regions has been
proposed, which takes into consideration the value of the ecosystem assets such as
forests, fertile soils, and biodiversity. Ouyang et al. [70] suggested the concept of
Gross Ecosystem Product (GEP), as opposed to the more traditional Gross Domestic
Product (GDP), which accounts for the sums of every good and service bought and
sold in a country or region, in a particular period. The authors defined GEP as the “total
values of ecosystem products and services for human welfare and sustainable devel-
opment” which includes “ecosystem provision value, ecological regulation services
value, and ecological culture services value” [70]. Similar to the complexity of mone-
tary economy for the definition of GDP, GEP also utilizes a number of parameters
to be determined. Essentially, market prices are used, when available, and combined
with estimated surrogate prices for ecosystem services, where market prices do not
exist [69]. However, such ecosystem values can only be considered sustainable if
the rate at which they are being extracted is lower than their level of renewability.
And promoting the valorization of natural resources, especially natural materials,
is a way to ensure they are going to endure for the next generations, as well as to
provide means at which the population can economically benefit from their minded
and prudent consumption.
Brazil is one of the world’s richest countries in terms of natural resources and is
known for its great diversity both in terms of mineral and biological (biodiversity)
materials. However, despite the large reserves of natural resources, the country does
not obtain monetary returns as relevant to its capacity. For instance, by evaluating
the GEP, Brazil is the richest country in the world, estimated at 14.4 trillion USD
[42], compared to a 1.4 trillion USD, at the end of 2020 [88]. In terms of mineral
resources, Brazil has one of the world’s largest reserves [64] and the world’s sixth
largest mining industry, with the production and exportation of about 80 mineral
commodities [54], with emphasis on the production of niobium (87.8% of world
production), iron ore (19.2%), and bauxite (7.8%) in 2019 [67]. On the other hand,
the country is considered one of the main mineral exporters in the world, indicating
that most of its mineral commodities does not stay in the country to be processed and
developed into applied products [67]. In relative terms, despite the diversification
of the mining industry in Brazil, it is estimated to be at only 1.1% of GDP [54].
Regarding gemstones, the country accounts for a variety of commercially intended
gems, being the most important tourmalines, topaz, opals, varieties of quartz (agate,
amethyst, and citrine) and emeralds, as well as one of the only global producers
of imperial topaz and Paraiba tourmaline [11]. Regarding biodiversity, Brazil has
even more resources, being grouped among the richest countries in the world, and is
considered one of the megadiverse nations [90]. The country has more than 116,000
and 46,000 known animal and plant species, respectively, spread across six terrestrial
biomes and three major marine ecosystems, according to the Brazilian Ministry of
Environment [63]. Brazil’s biodiversity comprises 70% of the world’s cataloged
animal and plant species, and it is estimated that it holds between 15 and 20%
of the world’s biological diversity, with a constantly expanding rate of 700 new
animal species discovered each year, on average [19]. Nevertheless, similar to mineral
resources, Brazilian biodiversity is still poorly explored in terms of products that are
translated to sustainable development, covering social quality of life, environmental

protection, and monetary growth. Valli et al. [91] highlights that Brazil could became
a world leader in bioeconomy due to the sustainable potential of natural resources in
the country. Despite the wealthiness of Brazilian natural resources, it is clear that a
great part of its materials and substances is applied in low complexity products, with
little added value, which consequently results in a small return for its population. In
this regard, in the light of the richness of Brazilian mineral and biological diversities,
this chapter intends to present a new look into some of its natural materials, in a
way to incorporate them into the design of high-value products, with application in
contemporary jewelry. Natural materials from a mineral, animal, and plant source
were selected and used both as a base material and as inspiration for the aesthetics
of a jewelry collection.
2.1 Mineral Material: Agate
As seen before, Brazil is known worldwide for the diversity and occurrence of
minerals and gemstones in its soil. It is one of the main gemological provinces in the
world, standing out for volume and quality of production and export of gemstones,
being the second largest producer of emerald and the only producer of imperial topaz
and Paraíba tourmaline [41, 83]. It produces, on a large scale, agate, amethyst, opal,
aquamarine, topaz, and quartz, according to the Brazilian Institute of Gemstones and
Precious Metals [41]. In the state of Rio Grande do Sul, in southern Brazil, impor-
tant geode deposits filled with agate, amethyst, and opal are concentrated. Agate is a
variety of chalcedony formed by successive bands, occurring in a compact form and
by filling cavities, such as geodes and fractures, among other forms of incidence [20–
22, 26, 36, 38, 44, 60, 61]. Geodes are cavities fully or partially allocated in volcanic
rocks with rounded to ovoid shapes, having their dimensions between 20 and 60 cm
in diameter, although the occurrence of larger sizes is not uncommon [20–22, 28, 46,
61, 87]. Banding can be comprised of successive layers of chalcedony or sometimes
be interspersed with opal. The chalcedony bands are composed of microcrystalline
and fibrous quartz, oriented perpendicularly to the surface of the individual band
layers [20, 34, 83]. In terms of the chemical composition of chalcedony, 90–99% by
weight is silica (SiO2 ), with up to 2% of water and impurities [22, 33, 34, 37].
In addition to Brazil, agate is currently found in several places around the world,
such as Botswana, South Africa, Egypt, Mexico, China, and Scotland; and fire agate
only in northern Mexico and the southwestern United States [62]. Until the begin-
ning of the nineteenth century, the most important agate deposits were located in
Idar-Oberstein, Germany [62, 83], where they are currently depleted. For several
years, this country was considered an excellent source of extraction of this mate-
rial, divided into three major regions: Idar-Oberstein, Baumholder, and Oberkirchen
[97]. The varieties of materials in these regions were highly regarded, with geodes
of assorted colors and dimensions [20, 62]. The state of Rio Grande do Sul (RS)
alone exported around 82 million tons of gemological materials between the years of
2017 and 2018 [41], mostly silica-rich minerals, such as agate. Both the quantity and
quality of the material produced make the state not only one of the largest miners but
also one of the larger suppliers to international markets, such as Asia and the United
States [45, 61]. According to IBGM [41], the sum of gemological materials extracted
and processed in the Rio Grande do Sul state was about US$ 200 million, in the period
2013–2016, being exported to more than 30 countries around the world. The agate
extraction activity in the Salto do Jacuí Mining District took place around 1827,
when German immigrants, who mastered the techniques of mining and processing,
such as the glyptic art or hardstone carving, explored the area in the search for this
gemological material [50, 61, 83]. Due to the fact that the mines are located on
the banks of rivers, for a long time, the agate extraction activity was carried out
irregularly, without environmental regulations and laws formalized by state agen-
cies [61]. This practice brought many problems to the mining district, ranging from
environmental—with inadequate exploitation—to social, including public health and
human resources [61]. However, it was only around 2004 that the State Foundation
for Environmental Protection (FEPAM/RS, Portuguese acronym), connected to the
Secretary of Health and Environment of the Rio Grande do Sul state, implemented a
resolution establishing the procedures and criteria for the extraction of mineral goods
[32]. Currently, with this resolution and others that came later, the regularization of
mining activity provided the existence of about 16 active mines [61].
Figure 2 illustrates the main steps of the extraction and processing of agate. The
Salto do Jacuí Mining District (SJMD) is located in the central region of Rio Grande
do Sul and is one of the world’s largest producers of agate, covering an area of 250
km2 , with extraction conducted in open-pit mines. In this municipality, on the banks
of the Jacuí and Ivaí Rivers, the main agate extraction is the variety known as “Umbú”,
which has a greyish-blue color and poorly developed banding, thus being widely used
for dyeing [22]. The extraction of agate is conducted in open-pit mines, with the use
of excavators to dismantle the altered rock and the manual gathering of geodes. After
their extraction, agate geodes are processed, traded, and exported, either raw or in
the form of simple artifacts. The main center for processing, trading, and exporting
agate artifacts is located in the municipality of Soledade/RS, approximately 110 km
from the SJMD. In the municipality, the processing encompasses the storage of agate
geodes to their cutting into plates and many other processes with the material. The
processing given to this gemological material consists of the selection and washing
of geodes, cutting, and washing of plates, dyeing with the use of inorganic and
synthetic organic dyes, sanding, and polishing [3, 16, 20–22, 89]. The gemological
material can be found in the market in the form of plates or the cabochon cut, with or
without dyeing. And the dyeing process usually involves the application of red, black,
blue, pink, purple, and green colors. However, during the processing steps of plate
cutting and cabochon gemstone polishing, many parts of the gemological material
are rendered useless due to roughing, cutting, and shaping into the required shapes,
leading to the generation of defected or broken pieces. Coming from the processing
steps, these parts are classified as wasted residues and often end up having no market
value. Brazil’s National Policy on Solid Waste (PNRS, Portuguese acronym), defined
by Federal Law nº 12.305/10 [15] states that “solid waste that, after having exhausted
Fig. 2 Agate (Calcedony) in the Salto do Jacuí Mining District (SJMD) in the state of Rio Grande
do Sul (RS/Brazil). After extraction, agate is transferred to the city of Soledade (RS) for processing,
however, many types of residues are generated and wasted
all the possibilities for treatment and recovery for available and economically viable
technological processes, show no other possibility than the final disposal.” In recent
years, with the pursuance of extraction and processing, the gemstones sector has
been generating significant amounts of solid waste, mainly in the form of broken,
semi-finished pieces, or with the presence of defects. Therefore, in the production
process of all agate-derived products, the stored leftover materials are often discarded
due to the lack of commercial interest, and thus present a potential base material to
be created innovative designs upon them.
The vast majority of agate-derived products processed and sold in the city of
Soledade are ornamental objects or decorative artifacts, such as plate mobiles, book-
ends, ashtrays, clocks, pyramids, spheres, obelisks, cutlery handles, among others.
Despite these products having a simple manufacturing process, they do not present
a greater level of complexity. Instead of opting for innovative projects, which would
require original and new creative processes, many different industries end up always
producing the same types of objects, leading to a lack of competition which, conse-
quently, keeps the final prices equal and their profits low. Therefore, there is a notice-
able demand for products with an innovative approach, to improve competitiveness.
For years in Brazil, this natural material has been processed always in the same way,
as half-cut geodes or in the form of plates, both dyed still in the same color shades,
without highlighting the beauty of the gemstone with its bandings and appeals. Agate,
regardless of the region where it is extracted, is a material with remarkable visual
aspects, which its natural characteristics should be explored in projects for uncon-
ventional products, including by employing in natura sheets, i.e., dyeing-free. In
addition, the adoption of different gemstone cuts to highlight colors, bands, shapes,
and fire (play of light)—also known as luster, could be encouraged. Moreover, specif-
ically in the jewelry sector, this material has always been linked to pieces with little
intrinsic value, by which non-noble metals, such as Brass (an alloy of copper and zinc)
and Zamac (the family of alloys with a base metal of zinc and alloying elements of
aluminum, magnesium, and copper), with silver- or gold-platting finishing, labeling
agate as a material of little value.
2.2 Plant Material: Golden Grass
Due to the great biodiversity and cultural diversity, some Brazilian regions have
requested, deposited, and granted certified products as Geographical Indication. For
natural materials, this process can lead to local development and significant improve-
ments for local economies and the national agribusiness as a whole [84]. In the
central region of Brazil, the Brazilian tropical savanna biome known as Cerrado lies
an important plant which is classified as a non-timber forest product, Syngonanthus
nitens (Bong.) Ruhland. Despite commonly being called “golden grass” due to the
high shining of its flower stem, or scape, which resembles gold, the plant actually
belongs to the ERIOCAULACEAE family. S. nitens is an everlasting plant with
occurrences in all regions of Brazil, being internationally recognized as a source of
handcraft products. To maintain its renewability, there are a number of restrictions

for the harvesting periods of the plant, which contributes to sustainable management
[68].
The golden glow of S. nitens is the main attribute of the plant, which was subject
to some investigations to comprehend the reasons it has such a distinct visual aspect.
Siqueira et al. [85] extracted cellulose microfibrils from S. nitens fibers, which showed
birefringence due to the structural anisotropy of cellulose and a flow anisotropy,
resulting from the alignment of nanocrystals under flow. Berlim et al. [14] investi-
gated specifically the origins of the golden aspect of S. nitens. The authors found that
the color is due to the interaction of incident light with several flavonoids present at the
smooth surface of the stem. Considering that part of the light is absorbed rather than
reflected, the peak spectrum of the solar light is shifted toward longer wavelengths.
Besides, the flavonoids also presented fluorescence in the longer range of wave-
lengths, thus also contributing to the red shift, resulting in the characteristic golden
brightness. In a more recent update [13], also verified that fluorophores confined into
small compartments of the dry stems of S. nitens also lead to enhancement of the
observed fluorescence, which influences the shining of the stem’s surface.
Figure 3 shows the manufacturing steps of artisanal products made from golden
grass. Flowering occurs between July and August, and during August and September,
the production of seeds takes place. Seeds are naturally dispersed by the wind in
October or manually dispersed throughout the manual harvesting period. Therefore,
in the following months, seeds can germinate and grow in the form of rosettes, thus
maintaining a sustainable harvesting cycle [80]. The stalks are harvested before the
natural dispersion of the seeds due to the rainy season. If they remained in the fields
under these humid conditions, their brightness would be reduced and, consequently,
the quality of the handicraft would also be decreased [81]. When maturation occurs
and the plant is dry, the stem starts to detach from the rosette. When the stalk is not
yet ready for harvesting, the rosette is pulled out along with the stalk, which leads to
the plant’s death. Thus, if early harvesting is carried out—due to lack of knowledge
about biology the rules of harvesting or due to the exploitation of raw materials—
there is a great environmental impact since, during one hour of collection, more than
100 rosettes can be uprooted per a single artisan [82].
After harvesting, plant stalks are storage in bunches in a dry place out of the sun.
For the craftsmanship done with the dried golden grass, a fiber extracted from the
buriti plant (Mauritia vinifera Martius) is used to sew the stems [30]. By sewing the
stems of S. nitens with fibers from M. vinifera, artisans weave them by twisting them
into strands that are combined into a thread. Next, the tread is conformed into multiple
shapes, depending on the intended product to be created. Several handicraft prod-
ucts are manufactured with the stem of S. nitens, including baskets, hats, bracelets,
earrings, purses, belts, handbags, and many more items. Despite the existing creations
regarding the use of golden grass in jewelry, innovative approaches can be followed
in the creative process to obtain distinctive designs.
Fig. 3 Production of golden grass (Syngonanthus nitens) derived products, from cultivation and
harvesting, to drying and sewing
2.3 Animal Material: Horse Mane
As in many countries, horses have a historic relationship with Brazil, remaining an

important role for the life, culture, and work in the country [2]. In Brazil, there are
approximately 5.9 million horses (Equus ferus caballus), according to the Munic-
ipal Livestock Production Survey, from the Brazilian Institute of Geography and
Statistics [40]. Animals are mainly used for leisure, sport, competition, breeding,
and the development of livestock and agriculture [58]. One of the most important
breeds in southern Brazil is the Crioulo horse (or Criollo, in Spanish). The breed
has its origins in the Spanish Andaluz and Jaca equines, brought from the Iberian
Peninsula in the sixteenth century by the colonizers, according to the Brazilian Asso-
ciation of Crioulo Horse Breeders [1]. Crioulo horses are considered a traditional and
super representative identity for many countries in South America, being symbols
of pride and joy for millions of people in multiple countries [2]. Established mainly
in Argentina, Chile, Uruguay, Paraguay, and southern Brazil, in the Pampas region,
with a major representation between different breeds, many of these animals went on
to live free, forming wild herds that, for about four centuries, faced extreme temper-
atures and adverse feeding conditions. Such adversities helped establish some of
their most striking characteristics on these animals: rusticity and resistance. In the
mid-nineteenth century, farmers in the south of the continent began to become aware
of the importance and quality of this breed. Being this breed well defined and with its
own characteristics, it started to be preserved, coming to gain worldwide notoriety
from the twentieth century, when the technical selection exalted its value and proved
its virtues. In the Brazilian state of Rio Grande do Sul, for an estimated 520 thousand
horses [40], about 386 thousand are registered and identified as Crioulo [1], which
represents about 85% of the amount of this breed in the country [40].
The Crioulo horse is used in a variety of functions, from agricultural to competi-
tions, both related to sports of aesthetics [77]. It is the variety of coats, shades of fur
and mane, and muscular strength to assist in jobs related to livestock, agriculture, and
transport, which make the Crioulo horse a unique and special animal for centuries.
Its morphology is characterized by a robust musculature, with a straight and broad
forehead head, extensive chest; fore and hind legs rounded with strong tendons. The
coats attributed to this breed are divided into approximately 24 variations, including
designated names like Colorado, Picasso, Zaino, Tostado, Gateado, Tobiano, among
others [1]. In the horse’s mane and tail, a vast quantity of hair is found, with long
structures, usually greater than 300 mm. Tail hair has a fiber diameter ranging from
75 to 280 µm, whereas mane hair is finer, varying from 50 to 150 µm [39]. Regarding
these factors, the Crioulo horse differs from other breeds, which its regional identity
is increased and much appreciated in terms of morphology, function, and genetics,
underscoring it not only in the national but also in the international market.
Depending on the intention or job function the horse will follow, whether for
competitions or to help in livestock, its mane, both on the head and tail, needs
aesthetic care. Generally, in morphological competitions and in-field activities, for
example, the animals are shaved monthly for reasons of hygiene and due to the
heat, leaving their manes short. The hairs on both the mane and tail are trimmed
by fine dimensions, sometimes even defined by millimeters, as a way to keep the
cut always precise, or to specific lengths. In the morphological competitions of the
Crioulo breed, the only exception for not leaving the hair with a short pattern is
in the rein competitions, where the manes are required to be of large dimensions
and volume. Culturally, for example, when a horse is destined to spend a specific
period unfastened in the field, whether for recovery reasons from a medical issue,
pregnancy, and/or for the growing phase until the exact training period, the manes
tend to grow in large dimensions. In the Cabanhas—southern Brazil nomenclature
for small farms specialized in horse breeding and maintenance—generally, two and
a half years old animals are destined for training, and so the mane is trimmed with
a predetermined pattern for the well-being of the animal. Another period that the
mane tends to be trimmed is during the prepartum stage, which may happen once
a year, most of the time, where the tail part must be prepared for the birth process.
During these periods, the Crioulo breed produces a large volume of mane hair, which
are discarded or destined—although not often—as fillings for the development of
stuffed products. Therefore, developing new ways to incorporate such material can
be a way to not only valorize it as a waste residue but also to create an aesthetic
object, with a strong cultural and social meaning.
3 Experimental Procedure
Based on the evaluated natural materials from mineral, plant, and animal sources,
samples were collected and employed in an experimental procedure for the develop-
ment of a contemporary jewelry collection. In this experiment, the natural materials
were projected to be employed in two ways in the design of the pieces. The first one
is by utilizing them as raw materials in the collection. By conferring them a highlight
in the pieces, they will be explored as the main featured object, as the focal point
in the jewelry. The second way is to also employ them as a source of inspiration
for the conceptual design. Following the principles of bionics and biomimetics, the
natural materials were explored according to their potential source of information for
the design of innovative pieces [23, 52, 72]. In this case, each type of material was
studied regarding its aesthetic properties, and how this feature can be transported
into the design of the new jewelry pieces.
For the mineral material, an agate plate was collected in the municipality of
Soledade (in the Rio Grande do Sul state, Brazil). The plate consisted of a rejected
piece, which was broken during the polishing process and discarded as waste due
to the lack of commercial value. The plant material consisted of a mature sample of
S. nitens collected in the municipality of Mateiros (Tocantins state, Brazil), nearby
the Jalapão region. As for the animal material, a horse mane sample was collected
in the Cabanha Marca do Freio, in the municipality of Tapes (in the Rio Grande
do Sul state, Brazil). For the project followed in this research, each sample was
observed via light microscopy. Instead of using higher resolution techniques, such
as scanning electron microscopy—which would have allowed even finer topological

details to be observed—we opt for light microscopy due to the capability of regis-
tering sufficient morphological details, as well as color shades and gradients. Image
system equipment used were BX41 microscope (Olympus® Co., Tokyo, Japan) and
M165 FC stereoscopic (Leica® Microsystems, Wetzlar, Germany), available at the
Laboratory of Plant Anatomy (LAVeg) from the Federal University of Rio Grande do
Sul (UFRGS). Figure 4 shows examples of light micrographs from the investigated
specimens.
The agate micrographs showed the distinct aspect of bands geometries, which is
highlighted due to the difference in the translucency levels of each region. Despite
the color of the original variety of agate from the Salto do Jacuí Mining District
being a blueish-grey, the observed sample consisted of a broken plate that was dyed
Fig. 4 Light micrographs of natural materials for application in jewelry. In the top row, a broken
plate of agate shows different geometries of bands; the scale bar is 200 µm. In the middle row,
unstained cross sections of the stem of golden grass (S. nitens) highlighting the golden aspect of
the epidermis, collenchyma, sclerenchyma, alternating with the chlorenchyma, and the collateral
vascular bundles surrounded by lignified cells; the scale bar is 20 µm. In the bottom row, the horse
mane hair shafts are shown, with details of the length and tip portions; the scale bar is 2 mm
in purple after the cutting and before the polishing processes. Unstained S. nitens
cross-sectional micrographs showed a matured sample with lignified cell walls and
the traditional golden aspect of the tissues (epidermis, collenchyma, sclerenchyma,
and chlorenchyma). As for the horse mane samples, the micrographs showed very
rough and course fibrous hairs with a uniform thickness.
The creative process followed a methodology of contemporary jewelry design
based on the study of bionics [21, 72], which combines traditional jewelry techniques
with newer materials and processes. The creation was also based on the study of
bionics, by using the micrographs of the collected natural materials as a source of
inspiration for the aesthetics of the pieces. The collection consisted of three silver
pendants with variable geometries based on the shapes observed in the micrographs.
For the contemporary aspect, each pendant includes the addition of the original raw
natural material, incorporated as an element of the design. Figure 5 shows the 3D
renderings of the developed jewelry collection of pendants based on the visualized
natural materials.
For the agate jewelry, the pendant included the same broken plate that was
observed in the microscope, and the gemstone setting was designed based on the
bands of the material observed in the micrographs. Despite its main purpose is to
attach the gemstone firmly and securely into the chain, instead, the external shape
was modeled, and its surface was engraved with emphasis on the geometric pattern
of the bands, which influenced it aesthetically. The golden grass pendant was based
on the cross-sectional views of the collateral vascular bundles that are surrounded
by golden, lignified cells. Each cell was cut out from a silver plate, resulting in the
cellular aspect seen on the cross sections. The region corresponding to the vascular
Fig. 5 Developed contemporary jewelry collection of sterling silver pendants based on mineral
(agate), plant (golden grass, S. nitens), and animal (horse mane) materials, and details of the pendants
bundles in the micrographs was replaced by an oval setting in the jewelry with the
inclusion of aligned segments of the plant’s stem. The main purpose was to take
advantage of the strong brightness of the color of the golden grass and to include it
in the pendant as a replacement for a traditional gemstone set in the piece. The horse
mane pendant was developed aiming at the valorization of the hair tips, due to their
scrambled orientation in the micrograph. Mane hair samples were placed in the back
of the pendant, in a silver box, but still visualized between the details of the frontal
part of the piece.
In order to illustrate the production of a physical model from the developed collec-
tion, one of the pendants was chosen (Fig. 6). Among the observed samples, the
micrographs of the golden grass (S. nitens) were the ones with the most complex
geometries and details that could be explored in many ways. In addition, from
the production point of view, this pendant design was the most finely detailed,
thus requiring more manufacturing techniques. The process followed the traditional
jewelry manufacturing techniques, and the selected material was sterling silver, an
alloy with 95% Ag and 5% Cu, much utilized in contemporary jewelry due to great
characteristics of mechanical strength, brightness, and general aspect. The employed
silver was recycled and purified from scraps and recovered pieces. The alloy copper
material was extracted from electronic waste. After the formation of the alloy, by
melting the proportional Ag and Cu quantities with an oxyacetylene torch, the fabri-
cation started the generation of a sheet with an electric rolling mill. After the desired
thickness of around 2 mm, the designed pattern was cut with a jeweler’s saw. Finally,
Fig. 6 Produced sterling silver pendant inspired on the micrographs of the golden grass (S. nitens)
and utilizing the plant’s stem as a replacement for a gemstone
another silver sheet was used and shaped in an oval geometry as a setting, to which
the gemstone replacement would be attached. In this project, instead of a tradi-
tional gemstone, stems of S. nitens were cut into segments and attached parallelly
inside the oval setting, which was then coupled with the pendant. Lastly, the pendant
was smoothed using flies with different coarseness, sanded with abrasive paper, and
polished with natural bristle and muslin buffing wheels.
4 Conclusions
Natural materials are tightly bound to humankind’s history and development. From
the creation of adornments to weapons and tools, their ready availability and renewa-
bility made them suitable for applications that contributed directly to our evolution
towards modern civilizations. The appearance of the first known pieces of jewelry has
the presence of materials retrieved from nature, being collected and applied inten-
tionally, either for their beauty or for the pure curiosity of those who saw them. Over
time, more materials were introduced into the early manufactured objects, such as
rocks, woods, bones, tusks, and seeds, as well as manufacturing processes ranging
from lashing to forging, among others. Analyzing this usability, we can consider that
the materials themselves ended up being reused for other functions, such as the skin
and bones of animals, which were the resulting waste of hunting, were employed
as pendants and fibers for the attachment of ornaments. With this characteristic of
reusing materials and waste, sustainability in natural materials has been traced back
to the beginning of civilization, even if unintentionally, as a natural cycle of reuse and
ornamentation. Over time, other materials—now considered more traditional—such
as noble metals and gemstones started to become the preferred option for application
in the jewelry industry.
As seen before, the boundaries between natural and synthetic materials are blurred.
Differentiating them lies in the non-definitive estimation of how much they were
processed prior to being able to be applied as a raw material in the materializa-
tion of a project. Nonetheless, despite their ancient history and—somewhat—prim-
itive usage, they are still considered valuable and appreciated for several reasons.
From their renewability, and relatively lower environmental footprint, to the costs
of extraction, feasibility, and convenience of having a bulk, ready-to-use material,
natural materials are the preferred choice for a number of applications up to this
day. Moreover, their natural variability, rareness, and uniqueness also make them
desirable and often contribute to associating them with wealth, status, or even social
acceptance. Accompanying these characteristics is a key and inherent part of natural
materials: their flaw and imperfection-related properties. Diamonds and emeralds
are interesting examples. Even though synthetic versions of these gemstones can be
flawlessly produced in laboratories, the very fact that they do not present defects (like
their natural counterparts) makes them easily identified as “not originals”, ending up
acquiring a much lower market value. While defects are associated with problems in
industrialized materials and processes, in natural materials they are precisely what
makes them singular and precious.
Traditionally, materials used in jewelry are usually selected, manipulated, and
processed in the same way for quite some time, i.e., certain gemstones are only
processed with one type of cutting, and others, considered of lesser value, are
destined for a relatively simpler process. Likewise, metals such as silver alloys
are only intended to be used along with certain gems or pearls, and diamonds, for
example, should not be incorporated in these designs. These determinations and
usability requirements are being broken in contemporaneity, where new looks are
being projected on in order to break these traditional standards. Take the example
of unusual materials. Why couldn’t they be introduced in jewelry along with gold?
Agate, which is traditionally always cut in a cabochon way, why couldn’t it be cut
in a faceted shape, highlighting its natural bands? Why does it have to be dyed into
artificial colors to be appreciated in some regions? And even the residue originated
from this material, why can’t they be better utilized as well as be combined along with
noble materials with an innovative design with a high-quality finishing? Likewise,
the application of non-conventional, renewable natural materials, such as horsehair
and golden grass. Couldn’t they also be applied together with more noble materials,
to leave the artisanship sphere towards the high-end jewelry market? Such ques-
tions are exactly what contemporary jewelry intends to raise, debate, and incite. In
addition to a greater intrinsic appreciation of these natural materials, socially due to
their production process—still, we may add, quite dependent on craft practices or
with direct monitoring of people—more people could benefit and profit from new
applications of greater value.
Bionics, in its broad meaning, intends to present innovative ways of developing
projects that take nature as a source of inspiration. As mentioned in the method-
ology followed, this chapter aimed at representing a new look into the develop-
ment of bioinspired, sustainable contemporary jewelry collection, where unusual
images—such as microphotographs of natural materials—are employed as a source
of inspiration for new patterns. Moreover, by also including the same material in
the design process, we proposed a way to increase the value of Brazilian traditional,
biodiversity-derived natural materials, either those recovered from waste or those
whose value could be more valorized. Finally, bionics should then be regarded as a
powerful tool not only for the development of more efficient technical solutions, but
as a means to promote sustainability, creativity, and value, even in more traditional
fields, like jewelry design.
Acknowledgements The authors thank the “National Council for Scientific and Technolog-
ical Development—CNPq” for supporting this study through the project “Chamada Universal
MCTIC/CNPq 2018”. This study was financed in part by the Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de
Pessoal de Nível Superior—Brasil (CAPES)—Finance Code 001. The authors also thank Prof. Jorge
Ernesto de Araujo Mariath and the Plant Anatomy Laboratory (LAVeg) from the Federal Univer-
sity of Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS) for the availability and assistance with the light microscopy
procedure; Prof. Ana Lúcia Oderich from the Federal University of Santa Maria (UFSM) for the
donation of the samples of golden grass (S. nitens); The Comercial De Pedras Palludo from the city
of Soledade (RS—Brazil) for the donation of the agate waste; and the Cabanha Marca do Freio
from the city of Tapes (RS—Brazil) for the donation of the horse mane.
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Pherodrone1.0: An Innovative Inflatable
UAV’s Concept, Inspired by Zanonia
Macrocarpa’s Samara Flying-Wing
and to Insect’s Sensillae, Designed
for the Biological Control of Harmful
Insects in PA (Precision Agriculture)
Massimo Lumini
Abstract Pheromones are chemicals used by living organisms for intraspecific

communication. In animals, the ability to detect and discriminate pheromones in
a complex chemical environment contributes substantially to the species’ survival.
Insects primarily use specific chemical messages to attract mates, alarm conspecifics,
or mark paths to rich food sources. These volatile molecules are generally detected
through sensillae, specialized sensory neurons of the olfactory system located on the
antennae [1]. Static pheromone traps have long been used to catch harmful insects in
agricultural management. The team of very young researchers from BionikonLab &
FABNAT14 (14–18 age) has experimented with ideas in the context of current devel-
opments in Precision Agriculture (PA). From the flying wing of Zanonia macro-
carpa’s samara analysis, inspired by some SEM ultrastructures of insect details
and other bionic and biomimetic topics, this chapter proposed a new inflatable UAV
concept at the service of resource optimization and sustainability management in agri-
culture. The goal is to reduce pesticides and other poisons that kill pollinating insects
such as bees, to combat the chemical resistance of harmful insects that affect precious
crops for humans. Unusual is the Tensairity® Solutions’ technological approach to
designing the flying body of Pherodrone1.0-UAV.
Keywords Bionics · Biomimetics · Environmental sustainability · Inflatable

design · Precision agriculture · Pheromones · Samara · Sensillae · Tensairity
solutions · UAV · Zanonia macrocarpa
M. Lumini (B)
BionikonLab&FABNAT14, IIS “G.Asproni”, Iglesias, SU, Italy
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-1812-4_9
226 M. Lumini
1 Homus Agriculus—Domina Agricola
Thousands of years ago, humanity emerged from the Paleolithic phase in which the
hunting and gathering of occasional plant products allowed the sustenance of the first
nomadic communities, discovered and developed farming techniques, and above all,
agricultural cultivation. Starting from around 8,000 B.C., what has been called the
Neolithic Agricultural Revolution developed. Thus was born the so-called Homo
Agriculus. Probably favored by a milder climate than in the last Ice Age, agriculture
started from the previous harvest of wild grains and was imposed when men carefully
observed the various plants’ birth and growth mechanisms, understanding the seeds.
Through cultivation experiments, the settled human communities began to select
seeds usable for food purposes, and the animals were domesticated and reared in
the first rural villages of the world. Many scholars hypothesize that the advent of
the Agricultural Revolution was accomplished by women, as men were engaged
in hunting activities. In most ancient social structures, women have always been
involved in the offspring [2].
Through centuries of slow trial and error processes, female communities were
involved in foods preparation and conservation, from the treatment of meat, the
tanning of hides and their derivatives, and the domestic management of the camps.
Domina Agricola has probably developed deeper experimentation and knowledge of
the spontaneous products of their territory through their acute sense of observation.
Female hands have expertly collected, preserved, and processed many wild herbs,
berries, and fruits. The ancient Domina Agricola has been able to map over time the
food, nutritional and phytotherapeutic qualities of the natural flora, opening up to the
discovery of future agriculture. The women of the Neolithic civilizations had to be
very strong and resistant on a par with their companions, in order to be able to bear
the strains of everyday life. Some recent anthropological researches have studied,
with 3D laser scanning systems, hundreds of female bones, tibiae, and forearms,
of women of the Neolithic (5300–4600 BC), of the Bronze Age (3200–1450 BC),
of the Age of Iron (850 BC–100 AD) up to the Middle Ages (800–850 AD) in
Central Europe. These anthropometric data were interpolated with data from leg and
arm bone analyzes of female athletics, soccer, and rowing champions. The result of
this comparison allowed the anthropologist Alison Macintosh who conducted this
research at the University of Cambridge to affirm that, while the bones of the lower
limbs had not changed particularly over time, the bones of the arms of Neolithic
women were 15–30% stronger than those of modern athletes. This research suggests
a specialization in differentiated manual labor (transporting weights, working the
earth, grinding cereals) compared to men and further makes use of the hypothesis
that the agricultural revolution was an all-female process [3].
In any case, agriculture, whether it is a product of male or female civilization,
was a grandiose global process that imposed itself with the first fields of wheat,
barley and spelled rationally cultivated by men in the world starting from the vast
area of the so-called Fertile Crescent which included Mesopotamia with the Tigris
and Euphrates valleys, Egypt with the Nile valley and the Anatolian plateau. In
Pherodrone1.0: An Innovative Inflatable UAV’s Concept … 227
Southeast Asia, agriculture was born with millet in Indochina and rice in China; in
South America, Mexico, and Peru, with corn crops. Starting from these agricultural
fulcrums, the knowledge and refinement of selection techniques, hybridization, and
cultivation of seeds beneficial for human nutrition and livestock, will become the
heritage of all humanity, evolving into increasingly specialized and intensive forms
up to our days. Before modern chemistry was born and developed through the work
and experimental research of Lavoisier, in ancient times, albeit unwittingly, Homo
Agriculus was able to treat crops with the help of chemical molecules drawn from
nature. The experience of direct contact and careful observation of natural facts
pointed out that certain plants could defend themselves better than others against
the assault and infestation of insects and parasites. From this natural wisdom, the
idea of protecting plants and crops was born and developed over time with the help
of natural pesticides. These protochemicals were created by treating leaves, seeds,
flowers, and roots through decoctions, macerations, fermentation, and more. These
practices are evidenced by ancient writings so much so that the Rig Veda, an ancient
Sanskrit text of over 4000 years ago, reports the use in India of the margousier or
neem tree (Azadirachta indica) as an effective natural pesticide as well as Ayurvedic
medicine [4].
The term neem derives from the Sanskrit Nimba, which means bearer of good
health, and current science has confirmed that more than a hundred phytosanitary
molecules are contained in the leaves and seeds of this plant and, in particular,
azadirachtin, a powerful insecticide and repulsive for insects. This substance has been
shown to have an endocrine disruption power towards some insects that are particu-
larly dangerous for bees from contemporary studies. Despite having a carcinogenic
potential in large quantities, this fact has not prevented its use by Homo Agriculus
for millennia. In India, farmers use it to fertilize the fields due to the maceration of
bark and leaves as feed for animals. They plant it near their home because they claim
that the breeze, passing through its branches, refreshes itself more, bringing refresh-
ment and health to homes, freeing them from insects, worms, bacteria, and viruses.
In ancient Mediterranean culture, Homer speaks of sulfur as a fungicide and Pliny
the use of arsenic. Even the fundamental discovery of the rotation of crops, which
is lost in the mists of time, is a cultivation technique that involves the alternation
on the same plot of land of different agricultural species such as wheat, sunflower,
clover, rapeseed, to rebalance the biological, chemical and physical properties of the
soil, avoiding the drying up and sterilization caused by intensive mono cultivation.
In any case, human agriculture has always had to fight against many negative factors
that have affected its progress. The climatic factors such as sudden frosts, storms,
aridity or are caused by nature, such as the heavy and invasive presence of parasites,
plants, or animals. For example, the periodic famines caused by locusts have been of
biblical proportions, so devastating as to be recorded and narrated in ancient memo-
ries. Furthermore, in recent times, with the impressive invasions of locusts in Africa,
the introduction in Italy of Xylella fastidiosa, a lethal bacterium from Central America
and carried by Philaenus spumaris, which since 2010 has been decimating centenary
olive tree crops, devastating the economy of Italian olive oil without a possible effec-
tive cure, animal parasites have shown the enormous devastating impact on human
228 M. Lumini
labors. The aspect of the fight against animal parasites, mainly insects, through the
use of competitions between species, is a rational and scientific intervention by the
man on the natural balance that arises from observing the behavior of the various
animal species in the victim-predator context within the food cycles that act in the
various ecosystems. It historically takes the name of the biological fight, and in
parallel with the recent discovery and intensive use of pesticides and poisons, with
all the consequences they entail on human health and ecosystems, it has an intense
development in recent decades. It seems that Erasmus Darwin, grandfather of the
more famous Charles, was the first to propose in 1800 a series of objective methods
of organized fight against aphids using hoverflies larvae and against cabbage cater-
pillars using predatory birds. To make these first experiments a real scientific practice
with promising results was between 1880 and 1890, it was C. V. Riley, one of the
first to understand the potential of this type of biological intervention in agriculture,
importing predators and pests of species harmful to American crops into the United
States. For example, he demonstrates the effectiveness of using the ladybug Rodolia
cardinalis to combat the cochineal Iceryaparmisi. Parallel to the advent of this type
of natural pesticide intervention, synthetic chemistry was introduced to strengthen
the natural defenses of plants. For centuries man has resorted only to the contribu-
tion of organic fertilizers such as manure, guano, fish residues, animal blood, etc.)
through which to convey the main elements of fertilization: Nitrogen (N), Phos-
phorus (P), and Potassium (K), defined macroelements of primary importance. As
for phosphorus, often present in soils in an insoluble form (tricalcium phosphate)
and therefore not usable by plants, the idea of making it soluble through a defined
acidification process, was brought back to the observations conducted by the German
chemist Justus von Liebig (1803–1873) who in 1830 noticed that bones treated with
acid constituted a good vegetable nutrient. His law of the minimum is taught, a prin-
ciple of agronomy developed by Carl Sprengel, considered the founder of modern
agrochemistry, in 1882 but popularized by Liebig. This law claims that the plants’
growth is controlled not so much by the total amount of natural resources available
as by the availability of the scarcer ones. To illustrate it, we use the so-called Liebig-
barrel example. Consider a barrel with the staves at different heights and filled with
water. If each plank represents a chemical component of the soil, the height of the
water, which identifies the plant’s growth, contained in the barrel will be limited by
the lowest plank and not by the highest or by the average height [5].
Applying this law makes it possible to improve crop growth by enriching the
soil with minimal nutrients. In the past time, many herbal medicines of natural
origin were used in the crops. Thanks to the development of chemistry, they have
been tested for their molecular effectiveness. For example, nicotine extracted from
decoctions of tobacco leaves, rotenone from Asian legumes, or pyrethrum from a
sort of chrysanthemum. The official birth of synthetic agricultural chemistry can
be considered in 1939 when the Swiss chemist Paul Herman Müller discovered the
insecticidal properties of dichlorodiphenyltrichlorethane. This molecule belongs to
the organochloride family and is better known by the acronym DDT in the labora-
tories of the Geigy® company in Bale. Subsequently, worldwide, the products born
from synthetic chemistry will become the primary tool in agriculture for the fight
against diseases caused by fungi, parasites, and harmful insects. These chemicals
have replaced ancient natural practices as they are cheaper, initially more effec-
tive, and easier to use. For decades, synthetic chemistry has helped farmers reduce
fatigue, labor, and economic losses caused by disease, infestation by plants, and para-
sitic insects, contributing to an initial increase in agricultural yield. However, starting
from the 50 to 70 s, the coin’s reverse was not slow to strike. Farmers who manip-
ulate and use these substances get sick. The residues of pesticides and insecticides
pass into fruits, seeds, and agricultural products, undermining the consumer’s health;
ecosystems suffer heavy repercussions, such as the death of bees and pollinators due
to pesticides. The DDT that accompanied historical post-war reclamation campaigns
to fight the Anophele mosquito, carrier of malaria, and other infestations of the terri-
tories, it turns out that it produces lethal effects on human and animal health. It
turns out that organochlorines are not biodegradable and accumulate dangerously in
ecosystems, undermining them at the base. This insecticide has been banned since
the 1970s all over the world. The same fate will happen to atrazine, a substance that
accumulates in groundwater and is highly carcinogenic, so much so that the EU will
ban its use starting from 2003. Currently, for example, a molecule that is creating
controversy worldwide is glyphosate. This molecule is an aminophosphoric analog
of glycine and is known as a total herbicide. It was introduced into agriculture in
the 1970s by the multinational Monsanto under the trade name of Roundup® . It has
had a significant diffusion because some genetically modified crops can resist it:
distributing it on the fields eliminates all weeds except GMOs. The combination of
pesticides and genetically modified organisms have produced a total chemical depen-
dence for intensive crops. It can also devitalize the hypogeal conservation organs of
weeds, such as rhizomes and fleshy taproots. Which is no other way could be chem-
ically devitalized. Glyphosate is used extensively throughout the world, especially
for the cultivation of cereals and forage. For this reason, traces of it are found in
meat, milk, and its derivatives, in feeds created from corn, rapeseed, and soy for
the crops of which it is used abundantly to treat the land from grassy weeds. Exten-
sive studies show that it causes genetic damage and oxidative stress in bacterial and
organic cultures. However, in humans, its carcinogenicity has not yet been certified
with absolute certainty, probable carcinogens [6].
All over the world, agriculture generates enormous profits, and the multinationals
linked to synthetic chemistry are interested in controlling and monopolizing the
system of fighting weeds and parasites. Over time, however, public opinion has
become aware of the serious problems that these methods of treating soils and crops
generate in ecosystems and human health. An intense review and search for alter-
natives to this synthetic chemical dictatorship are therefore underway. One of the
exciting aspects, as we have seen above, is, therefore, the birth and development
of the so-called Biological Fight or Biological Control Program, which makes use
of living organisms such as viruses, bacteria, fungi, worms, and insects (which are
predators of those they infest and destroy crops) [7].
This general aspect of research and expansion of knowledge related to possible
more sustainable biological alternatives for natural ecosystems and the protection of
230 M. Lumini
Fig. 1 IOT applications in smart agriculture or PA-precision agriculture
human health, combined with the potential of the development of digital technolo-
gies, has generated a vast area of research that goes under the name of Agriculture
Precision. This is the specific area in which this research has moved (Fig. 1).
2 The Innovative Requests of the PA (Precision

Agriculture)
Before addressing the topic, a premise is necessary to define the BionikonLab &
FABNAT14’s experience in the context of PA researches. In Sardinia, an impor-
tant Italian Mediterranean island region, an interesting debate has been underway
in recent years on the potential of digital technologies in the PA field. On the one
hand, many companies and university research institutes are interested in seeking
sustainable biological control solutions in the agricultural sector to counteract the
harmful environmental effects created by the massive use of synthetic chemicals and
GMOs. On the other hand, we are witnessing the birth of a research and development
sector to test the potential benefits of introducing digital innovation in crop manage-
ment assisted by typical PA systems. The participation in a Makeathon-Agrithon,
between December 2020 and June 2021, dedicated to innovation in agriculture,
inspired our interest in PA’s issues. One of the possible themes proposed in this tech-
tender concerned exactly the digital applications related to PA-Precision Agriculture,
PF-Precision farming, Smart Agriculture or Agriculture 4.0 [8].
Thanks to the bionic and biomimetic top-down methodological research approach,

during the contest, we have developed the first approaches to finding innovative
solutions in the agricultural sector of pest control, mainly studying the feromone
aspect in insects behavior. These aspects of the agricultural industry can make use
of IoT technologies and, in general of those design aspects of PA [9].
Specifically, is possible to define the top-down approach as:
Defining a human needs or designing problem and looking to the ways other organisms or
ecosystems solve this, termed here Design looking to biology (...) [10].
The steps of this design approach are not necessarily separate and unidirec-
tional, as, during the research, the two flows can influence each other. Unlike
design processes directly inspired and influenced by biology, a top-down design is
initially generated by identifying a precise technological or design problem-setting.
Following the drafting of a detailed checklist of required performance or design needs
to which innovative solutions can be offered and a detailed analysis of the state of
the art of the reference system, an attempt is made to find possible biological formal
and/or functional analogies. The primary purpose of top-down research is to identify
and extrapolate appropriate bio-inspired design principles, which can offer precise
answers for optimizing materials, resources, and energy sources, in a logic of eco-
sustainable approach to human technological future’s challenges. This bio-scouting
phase within the general research process pushes designers to enter the domains
of biology, entomology, and natural sciences in general, making use of databases
and scientific materials such as www.asknature.org di Biomimicry Institute. The
problematic aspect of design-oriented bionic and biomimetic research is still that of
access to scientific data useful for designers’ hypothesis transfer processes. In 2004
Julian Vincent of the Center for Biomimetic and Natural Technologies Department
of Mechanical Engineering at the University of Bath was developing a project to
facilitate the technology transfer between Nature and Man [11].
The CBID-Center for Biologically Inspired Design at Georgia Tech-Atlanta -
GA, is an institution that proposes itself as an interface for the development of bio-
inspired design methodologies in the field of biomaterials, robotics, sensing, systems
organization, and methodology & practice [12].
Once the biological sources of inspiration have been identified, we arrive at the
definition of one or more problem-solving concepts through successive processes
of abstraction and contextualization of the initial problem-setting. Progressive
design developments through CAD/CAM processing, model development, mate-
rial sampling, prototypes, and technological and functional tests follow one another
until the engineered product is reached. The Biomimicry Institute has long developed
and shared a methodology to guide the biomimetic process through its global educa-
tional network, specific flowcharts, various updated educational toolboxes, many
online resources, and open-source materials to support the design. PA/PF and Agri-
culture 4.0 are modern farming management concept that uses digital techniques
and the possibilities related to the IoT to monitor and optimize the different agri-
cultural production processes. It is referred to as precision because, thanks to the
technological tools and digital processing processes used and deployed, it is possible
232 M. Lumini
to carry out a range of monitoring and performance interventions calibrated in the

suitable space and at the right time. The possibilities offered by digital applications
make it possible to respond in a timely, optimized, customized manner to the specific
demands of individual crops and individual areas of land with an outstanding level
of precision. The principal advantages of PA/PF are:
• For farming enterprise, which can optimize efforts and resources, reduce
consumption and waste, and boost land productivity. The work also becomes
more profitable for farmers and contractors as the processes are managed more
quickly and effectively, leading to a drop in hourly costs and reducing human
resource fatigue;
• For the environment, given that there is a reduction in waste, fertilizers and herbi-
cides, emissions, and soil compaction thanks to the more rational use of resources
[13].
Thanks to the PA/PF methods, world agricultural activities enter a new 4.0 era,
characterized by introducing and developing management and processing strategies.
A considerable and complex amount of data is collected, stored, processed, analyzed,
and combined with others information to guide business decisions according to the
variability of space-time working conditions. The direct purposes are to improve
and optimize the economic and functional efficiency in using energy, water, human
and animal workforce, crop productivity, quality, profitability, and sustainability of
world agricultural production. The remarkable development of this application sector
of digital technologies and computerization was possible with the advent of GPS and
GNSS technologies [14]. GPS-Global Positioning System is a satellite-based radio
navigation system owned by the United States government and operated by the United
States Space Force. GPS is one of the GNSS- Global Navigation Satellite Systems
that provides geolocation and time information to a GPS receiver anywhere on or
near the Earth. GPS operates independently of any telephonic or internet reception.
The GPS provides critical positioning capability to military, civil, and commercial
users around the world. Thanks to this system, the farmer or researcher can locate
their precise position and that of their soils and land for cultivation and study to
create smart maps in which to map a series of sensitive data such as e.g., crop yield,
terrain features/topography, organic matter content, presence and quantity of water,
moisture levels, nitrogen levels, pH, EC, Mg, K, and others. Through sensors and
multispectral imagery, it is then possible, for example, to monitor the state of water in
cultivated vegetation by mapping the levels of chlorophyll present in the foliage. An
aspect significantly under development is the introduction of specific aircraft such
as remotely guided drones and equipped with unique multispectral cameras or RGB
cameras used for mapping land and crops to assess their state of health. The drones
are then used to spread water, fertilizers, pesticides, and growth regulators through
variable-rate applications (source Wiki).
From our point of view, once we have identified the design application sector,
we found it particularly interesting to orient biomimetic research in the direction of
using IoT technologies, sensors, and drones with particular attention to the problem of
combating parasites. Inspired by the analysis of the flight performance of the Zanonia
Macrocarpa seed and by the sensillae of insects, during the research process, we tried
to explore possible alternatives of softdronics, moving away from some technolog-
ical and functional aspects of the typical design of the products that constitute the
current state of the art of the PA-drones technological market. The idea was also
suggested to us by the exciting developments in the evolution of robotics. In recent
years, through soft robotics, new technological concepts have become more friendly,
functionally flexible, and sustainable in impact and performance towards man and
the environment.
3 The Flight
In 1640 the Italian scientist Evangelista Torricelli, during his experiments, discovered
that the air exerted pressure on a slender little column of glass with mercury: We don’t
live on top of the earth, claimed the physicist, but on the bottom of an immense ocean
of air. In fact, despite its apparent lightness, if multiplied by the height of the earth’s
atmosphere, the air is a physical substance with considerable weight. On average,
the mass of an invisible high air column weighing about 3000 kg gravitates on the
shoulders of a human being. This immense weight force is not perceived by our
body, as it is opposed by the internal pneumatic pressure system, the blood, and
the lungs, which try to balance the atmospheric and gravitational load to allow our
survival to the conditions dictated by our planet. Air is a mixture of different gases
(oxygen, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen) and therefore consists of a mass of molecules
that are in constant motion. Moving molecules create air pressure. All things that
fly need air. Both living organisms, which during the millions of years of biological
evolution, have transformed their anatomy and physiology to lighten themselves and
overcome the attraction of the earth, and the inventions that have led man to conquer
the aerial domains, to be able to fly, they had to deal with the physical and geometric
constraints imposed by the rules of the weight of the earth. The force that allows a
bird or a technological aircraft to lift off the ground, overcoming the force of earth’s
gravity, in addition to the muscular force or the thrust of a propeller or a reactor,
is called lift. In summary, it is the thrust, perpendicular to the direction of motion,
produced by the effect of the air flow that beats and splits as it flows around the wing
of the aircraft. For this phenomenon, the geometry of the aerodynamic profile is of
fundamental importance, which must allow the correct flow of the air current. Lift
depends on the wing profile and increases with speed. This is the reason why birds
and airplanes do not take off while stationary but must accelerate for a while until the
lift becomes equal to or greater than the weight of the airplane. This flow of air that
meets the wing is, in fact, divided and forced to pass part above and part below the
wing itself: given the shape (profile) of the latter, the two air’s veils, dividing, they
move at different speeds (faster above, slower below). This condition means that on
the upper part of the wing (back) the air pressure is lower than the lower one (belly):
the resulting force, therefore, creates a sucking effect upwards, which—exceeds the
intensity of gravity—allows the aircraft to sustain itself in flight (Fig. 2).
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Fig. 2 The sucking effect in the lift
Basically, there is a kind of tug-of-war between two forces on a flying plane. It

is the weight that brings it back to the ground, which must be able to counteract
another aerodynamic support force, precisely the lift. Lift comes into play in every
moment of the flight and depends on the relative speed and configuration of the
wing: in particular on the surface and the inclination, which are modified through the
movement of the mobile elements like flaps. Ailerons, on the other hand, are moving
parts, fins placed at the ends of the wing on the trailing edge that make the aircraft
turn left or right according to their movement through the flight controls placed in the
cabin. As lift increases, the wing’s curvature increases while maintaining constant
airspeed. However, another essential factor is the density of the air, which decreases
as the flight altitude increases. In fact, at the cruising altitude of airliners, around 10
thousand meters, the thinner air offers less resistance: on the one hand, this increases
the speed of the aircraft, with the same thrust of the engines; on the other hand,
it forces them to maintain a higher pace to maintain lift. If the speed is reduced
excessively, the underlying thrust becomes insufficient and the aircraft descends in
altitude. At a certain minimum detection speed that each aircraft has and/or due to
too high an angle of attack, the airflow over the wing is interrupted, breaking away
from the wing surface and creating the stall effect. The other essential parts are the
aircraft and the tail rocker, the fin, and the tail rudder.
Due to their morphology and arrangement, the feathers in birds’ wings are divided
into primary and secondary. In millions of years of evolution, each of the feathers has
specialized in performing certain functions. In addition to mechanically protecting,
isolating, and maintaining the body’s temperature, waterproofing, and identifying the
sex and species of each bird, the feathers perform the primary task of determining the
aerodynamic profile of the wing. The bird controls them by modifying their attitude
to act on the fundamental parameters that determine the possibility of raising in flight,
navigation that exploits updrafts, and maneuvers related to attack or defense or other
functions such as courtship and others. The analysis of the flight of birds introduces
elements of extreme complexity that go beyond the scope of this article; the study
of the main parameters of aerodynamics, however, allowed the teamwork to master
the basic knowledge necessary to master the first design hypotheses.
3.1 The UAV-Unmanned Aerial Vehicles Use in PA
A remotely piloted aircraft, commonly known as a drone, is a flying device char-

acterized by the absence of the pilot on board. The aircraft’s flying is guaranteed
by a digital technology that provides a computer placed on board or via remote
control systems of a navigator or pilot, positioned to the ground or in other posi-
tions, including in-flight positions. The possible range depends on the power and
sophistication of the digital control system and can vary from a few hundred meters
to hundreds if not thousands of kilometers in the most advanced military and civil
models. The drone technology was developed in the military and war fields, but in
recent years, the development of systems for civil applications such as [15]:
• Territorial monitoring for the prevention and emergency intervention in emer-
gency fires or environmental disasters;
• Territorial monitoring and search for missing persons in situations of environ-
mental disasters;
• Industrial and public utility safety use;
• Video surveillance of oil pipelines and industrial equipment for remote
• sensing and research purposes;
• Archaeological missions and urban and architectural documentation;
• Cinematographic and documentary video shooting;
• In general for dull, dirty, and dangerous missions, with competitive human and
economic costs;
• Interventions in the Precision Agriculture sector.
The current exponential development of UAV technology has brought the design
and construction of vehicles to such a state of the art that the market offers highly
sophisticated flying models at an affordable cost. Drones, particularly the type of
modern quadcopters, are offered to the public starting from toy models costing a
few hundred euros. However, the first attempts to create a radio-controlled flying
object can be traced back to some experiments conducted towards the end of the
nineteenth century, precisely in 1849 when the Austrian army attacked the Italian
city of Venice through the first actual aerial bombardment in history. The Austrians,
led by Colonel Benno Uchatius, tried to use a chain of a dozen hot-air balloons, a real
flying spider’s web, loaded with explosives, launched from the Vulcano ship off the
236 M. Lumini
Venetian lagoon. It so happened that some of these aircraft carried out the mission by
unloading explosives on the city, but due to the wind, many of them ended up hitting
the Austrian attack lines placed on the ground. The first flying quadcopter in history,
the ancestor of modern APRs, called Gyrolpane, was built in 1907 by brothers Jacques
and Louis Bréguet. It was a hefty and bulky model that flew just sixty centimeters off
the ground, but it possessed the concept that led to the idea of the current four-prop
drone. In 1917, during the First World War, the Ruston & Co. company designed
the Aerial Target, an aircraft controlled through remote radio-control techniques
developed by Nikola Tesla. Despite promising experimental demonstrations, it was
designed to be a flying bomb, found no practical application for war purposes. Thanks
to the development of innovative uses of the gyroscope by the American inventor
Elmer Sperry, who in 1911 installed it for the first time aboard the American battleship
Delaware, the use of the gyroscope was extended to guide torpedoes to gyro pilots for
the government of ships and to stabilize aircraft. In 1916, the Hewitt-Sperry automatic
airplane, known as the flying bomb, was the first example of a gyroscope-controlled
aircraft. The first drones were produced on a large scale during World War II thanks to
the ideas of Reginald Denny, who was a famous American film actor of the time, and
the inventor Walter Righter, who developed the so-called OQ2-Radioplane drone.
The demonstration of the potential of radio-controlled flight that Denny did with the
prototype of one of his Dennyplanes, amazed the American military leaders so much
that he was able to persuade them to grant the funds for a large-scale production.
Later, during the Cold War and the Vietnam War, technological development made
it possible to reach a high technological level, bringing to the market solutions of
ever-smaller aircraft and with characteristics of control of their flight, such as to
be able to be used in a different range of operational scenarios. In 1943 the Nazi
army created the FrtitzX 1400, the forerunner of modern remotely guided anti-ship
missiles. Throughout the 1960s, different radio-controlled aircraft models spread
thanks to the development of electronic transistor technology, making it possible
to produce miniaturized and low-cost components. Also, in Italy, starting from the
Second World War, and especially during the Cold War, various models of APR were
invented, such as the CL-89 or AN USD 51, produced by Canadair and, more recently,
other types of aircraft equipped with on-board camera with a range of about 120 km.
The popularity of radio-controlled aircraft exploded in America and Italy, where the
Olivetti industry of Ivrea, in collaboration with Telecom, developed some control
cards still contained in most crewless aircraft. The Federal Aviation Administration
(FAA) from 2006 will issue the first permits for the marketing of drones, opening up
to the development and diffusion of these aircraft for various civil applications from
aerial photography to construction and control of industrial structures. In 2019, the
French company Parrot launched the Parrot AR Drone model, which was controlled
via WIFI technology simply from a smartphone. More than half a million units of this
model that have changed the rules of the sector market, awarded CES Innovations
2010, are sold worldwide. The first-person view (FPV) technology is then developed,
which allows the construction of drones that allow you to view the drone’s point of
view in real-time. This technological expansion that allows drones to easily control
and spy on vast environmental areas subtly and remotely produces a strong media
impact. Numerous controversies, debates, reflections, and legislative promulgations

develop to regulate their use in public and private spaces. Institutional bodies such as
ENAC will draw up increasingly stringent safety rules to regulate the flight and use
field. Currently, drone technology is in continuous development both in technology
and civil and industrial uses, including uses in Precision Agriculture, the application
sector that affects this project [16].
To date, Amazon has obtained, for example, permission in America for deliv-
eries through a system managed with specific drones. Technologies such as Intel
RealSense allow aircraft to recognize and manage obstacles independently. However,
drones are involved in developing military technologies for the development of
lethal autonomous weapons systems. Vehicles of this type, such as the Krugu attack
drone, developed by the Turkish company STM, can hit human targets in complete
autonomy, excluding remote intervention. This type of AI development applied to
drones generates disturbing scenarios for the social and ethical implications involved
[17] In general, drones are divided into these categories (Fig. 3):
• Fixed-wing
• Multirotor
• VTOL (Vertical Take-Off and Landing) /STOL (Short Take-Off/Landing)*.
*(The VTOL/STOL drones are hybrid technologies that combine the fixed-wing
design with that type of rotor, arranging a series of propellers arranged in various
ways. This type was developed to optimize the distinct advantages of a fixed-wing
to those of a multirotor).
From an aerodynamic point of view, fixed-wing drones work like standard aircraft,
generating lift with their more or less rigid wings. Compared to multirotor models,
they take advantage of updrafts and lift themselves; they do not consume large
amounts of energy to stay in the air. As a result, they usually have a more extended
flight range, up to two hours, which makes them suitable for use in activities that
require coverage of vast land areas such as pipeline inspections or agricultural inves-
tigations (up to 1 km2 with a single flight). Due to their physical flight characteristics,
they are more stable in strong winds and can carry heavier weights using less power.
The disadvantages of fixed-wing drones are related to their higher cost, size, and
difficulty of transport and configuration on-site [18].
They are also more challenging to maneuver, and they cannot hover over a target,
and use in complex or confined areas can be dangerous due to their poor ability to
interact with navigation obstacles. Depending on their size, they may need a launch
and landing runway. Multirotors are aircraft with flight characteristics similar to
helicopters, characterized by a frame equipped with two or more rotors (up to 8) that
move propellers. The drone model certainly most popular today is the four-helix,
which produces the typical hum reminiscent of a bee or a hornet (in the Anglo-
Saxon language, the term drone indicates the male of the bee). These drones are
extremely unstable, and for this reason, they require a series of integrated systems
to ensure static and dynamic stability. Each rotor produces a thrust but also a torque
that is formed in its center of rotation. In the same way, it also produces a strong
238 M. Lumini
Fig. 3 Main UAV’s tipologies

resistance generated on the entire structure of the multirotor, the arms, and the various
components exposed to the air flows from the propellers that turn into turbulence. The
balance of a multirotor is obtained when the lift is equal to the weight, the thrust equal
to the resistance, and no other moment or force must act on the flying machine. Two
rotors will have a clockwise revolution in a four-helix medium, while the others will
have an anti-clockwise revolution. This mechanism generates reaction torques on all
four rotors, which, however, will be mutually canceled. This condition is complicated
to achieve due to the numerous physicomechanical variables in action. Thanks to the
provision of a Flight Controller (FC), the autopilot, through unique algorithms and
gyroscopic-accelerometer sensors, manages the rotation speed of each rotor in a
dynamic relationship between them and with the flight variables. Furthermore, the
rotors in action generate a series of complex turbulences that act on all the physical
and mechanical components of the drone itself, helping to create a condition of
complex management of its attitude during navigation. A typical flight mission of a
drone starts from the vertical elevation along the z-axis to reach the hovering state at
a certain height, where the vehicle stands in equilibrium, at zero speed and constant
altitude, without moving along the other axes. By analogy, in nature, there is a flight
technique typical of birds of prey, kingfisher, and hummingbirds called Holy Spirit.
With small wing movements, the animal can maintain a stall position at a point in
space, even for many minutes. The primary technologies of flight found in birds and
insects will be explored in the specific biomechanical section on the flight in nature.
This condition is possible because the wing parts are held in place while the distal
parts are rotated quickly. These flight dynamics allow the bird to remain motionless
in the air, assuming a figure that recalls the Holy Spirit’s typical representation in
the dove’s classic iconography with open wings. Briefly, the navigation dynamics
controlled by a radio control of a four-rotor drone, concerning the system of spatial
axes X–Y–Z, provides for the following states of movement (Pitch, Roll, Yaw, and
Throttle):
• The pitch is the rotation around the transverse axis; by moving the pitch stick
forward, the drone will lower the nose and raise the tail as it moves forward; the
opposite will happen by moving the lever backward;
• The roll describes the rotation of the drone around the longitudinal x-axis. By
moving the roll stick to the right, the drone will lower the corresponding side and
vice-versa;
• The yaw describes the rotation around the vertical axis and occurs by moving the
stitch to the right or left;
• With the throttle control, which corresponds to acceleration, the upward move-
ment of the stick increases the revs of all the motors simultaneously, making
the drone rise along the vertical axis; the descent is obtained with the reverse
movement.
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3.2 Main Components of a UAV
3.2.1 Frame
The frame is the supporting structure on which mounts the various components. The
frame’s shape varies according to the number of rotors which can range from two
to six propellers or even more. The materials for the construction of the frames are
wood, plastic, aluminum, carbon fiber.
The choice of construction material determines some critical factors of the aircraft:
• Characteristics of the flight
• Weight
• Range in flight
• Impact resistance
• Safety of use.
3.2.2 Drone Transmitter and Receiver, FPV (First Person View) Radio
Control System
A drone is a flying object guided by a radio control system that is composed of two
elements: the transmitter which is held in the hands of the pilot on the ground and
the FPV receiver that is inside the UAV (Fig. 4). This technology allows sending
the live image of the camera to the ground, thus allowing the pilot to fly the aircraft
while looking at the screen as if he were flying for real. The transmitter reads the
joystick inputs and sends them through the air to the receiver in near real-time.
Once the receiver has these pieces of information, it passes it to the drone’s flight
controller, which causes it to move accordingly. A radio can generally have four
separate channels for each direction on the stick along with some extras for any
auxiliary switches it might have.
3.2.3 VTX Video Transmitter
Some models integrate an integrated all-in-one video transmitter.
3.2.4 Power Distribution Board (PBD)
PBD is a printed circuit board that is used to distribute the power from the flight
battery to all different components of the multirotor.
Fig. 4 Mechanical and electronic components of an FPV drone
3.2.5 Flight Controller FC
The FC is the drone’s brain that receives remote commands from the pilot and, thanks
to the built-in sensors, manages the various rotors allowing them to calibrate their
operation. The most common models of microprocessors used are the STM32F1,
F2, F3, F4, and F7 chips. Currently, the available processors are:
F1 72 MHz 2 UART.
F2 72 MHz 3–5 UART.
F3 168 MHz 3–6 UART.
F4 216 MHz 7 + UART.
Each UART (Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter) has two TX pins for
transmitting data and RX for receiving.
3.2.6 Gyroscope (IMU)
The gyroscope detects the angular velocity or the speed with which a quadcopter
rotates in the roll, pitch, and yaw axis. This is the only sensor needed to fly the drone
in ACRO mode. The control sticks are only for making acceptable corrections to
make the flight more precise.
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3.2.7 SPI and i2c
These are the types of BUS or communication protocol between the IMU (Inertial
Measurement Unit) sensor and the processor. An IMU unit is a card that determines
if an object is moving, translating, rotating, or tilting the horizon. An IMU system
for navigation and control is an avionics system, which has 9 degrees of freedom
(9DOF) in the perception of motion; with these units, the angular velocities, the
accelerations, and the magnetic field are measured on the three orthogonal axes
XYZ through accelerometers and rate-gyro sensors of the solid-state type.
3.2.8 Accelerometer
The sensor detects the acceleration of the drone in the roll, pitch, and yaw axis.
The roll indicates the right-left movement concerning the longitudinal axis of refer-
ence passing through the center of gravity of a body. The pitch indicates the rota-
tional movement for the transverse forward–backward axis, while yaw indicates the
rotational movement to the vertical z-axis.
3.2.9 GPS and Barometer
A GPS antenna allows the drone to identify its position and autonomously return to
a set base point. The GPS data is displayed on display (OSD One Screen Display),
while the barometer provides altitude data to allow the HR to maintain a constant
altitude during the flight.
3.2.10 Current Sensor
The current sensor allows the flight controller to calculate and display the instanta-
neous current draw and battery consumption on the OSD.
3.2.11 Obstacle Avoidance Sensors
Almost all drones have an obstacle avoidance system enabled by technologies such
as infrared sensors, stereo vision sensors, ultrasonic sensors, and GPS. These sensors
work together to make sure the drone detects and avoids obstacles in the flight path
to prevent crashes.
3.2.12 OSD (On Screen Display)
Allows telemetry data to be displayed on the rider’s LCD screen and other operational
controls (PID, speed, VTX channel change).
3.2.13 Black-Box
The black-box allows the recording of all flight data on an SD card.
3.2.14 Engines and Electronic Speed Control (ESC)
Drones can have several engines; generally, the electric motors mounted are brush-
less, without brushes, which do not require sliding electrical contacts on the motor
shaft. This avoids lower mechanical resistance, absence of sparks, and lower weight.
Thanks to Electronic Speed Control, the brushless motors are connected to the Fly
Controller. The ESC receives the command from the FC and transfers it to the
engines and propellers, allowing the correct synchronism and balancing of the flight
parameters necessary for the aircraft’s stability in flight.
3.2.15 Propeller
They are permanently mounted on the motors and rotate according to the power
delivered through the remote control. The materials used are plastics or carbon fibers,
which undergo minor deformation during flight.
3.2.16 Propeller Guard
They are super-light plastic fairings mounted on the drone that can protect the drone’s
body and, above all, the propellers from accidental impacts.
Exciting models of current drones have been studied starting from Gimball, a
prototype presented by the Swiss team Flyability, which, by caging the drone in a
polyhedral grid-shell made with carbon fiber elements, won the UAE Drones for
Good Award held in 2015. in Dubai. This competition is dedicated to using drone
technology in the social sphere rather than in the war.
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3.3 Living Flying: Birds, Fishes, & Other Aeromobiles

Creatures
This section introduces the general elements relating to the main characteristics of
the evolution of flight in nature. There are about 11,000 known species of birds that
are the flying animals par excellence, even if for efficiency, originality, and differ-
entiation of technologies adopted, the world of insects offers extraordinary applica-
tions of aerodynamic engineering, probably less known as they are less conspicuous.
Over millions of years of biological evolution, birds have experienced extraordi-
nary morphological, anatomical, and functional adaptations of their whole bodies
in search of more extraordinary lightness, power, control, and optimization of their
ability to overcome the constraints of the earth’s gravity and to be able to soar in the
air and conquer the sky. This process seems to have started with pterosaurs (from
the Greek lizards with wings), an order of flying reptiles that lived throughout the
Mesozoic, from the upper Triassic to the end of the Cretaceous, about 230-65 million
years ago. Pterosaurs were the first vertebrates known to have evolved and adapted to
flapping flight. Today about 130 species of pterosaurs are known. The first fossil of a
pterosaur was described by the Italian naturalist Cosimo Alessandro Cellini who in
1784 interpreted the specimen as marine, confusing the long wings like fins. In 1801,
Georges Cuvier proclaimed it as a flying creature, and in 1809 he coined the term
ptero-dactyl (winged finger) concerning a remnant recovered in Germany. The study
and classification of pterosaurs and pterodactyls are still incomplete today, and their
evolutionary genealogy is a work in progress that is updated by continuous findings.
Pterosaurs include the largest flying animals to ever live on earth. The specimens
of Quetzalcoatlus northropi and Arambourgiania philadelphiae are estimated to be
around 5.5 m tall (like a current giraffe), 6 m long, and about 250 kg heavy, and
have an estimated wingspan of around 11/13 m. The flight dynamics of these winged
beings are not yet evident. Over time, various biomechanical hypotheses have been
proposed that presuppose relationships with the state of the earth’s atmosphere at
the time. In the past, the flight capacity of these gigantic animals was attributed to
the dense and warm atmosphere of the upper Cretaceous. Today’s theories generally
agree that the larger models could keep in flight thanks to the air pockets present
in the wing membranes and the powerful muscles of the arms that on the ground
allowed the pterosaurs, up to 15 m high) both to take off quickly and to walk in a
quadrupedal position like modern bats. Two thousand nine studies show that these
beings possessed an air sac system and a precisely controlled skeletal respiration
pump that supported a pulmonary ventilation system similar to that of modern birds.
Subcutaneous aeration systems found in some pterodactyloids support the idea of
lightning systems for animals in flight, searching for updrafts to sail even in gliding
flight. Their bones were hollow as in modern birds, and their wings were membra-
nous, similar to those of modern bats. However, it was not a superficial, leathery
epidermal tissue but a real organ evolved for flight, consisting of a highly specialized
structure. The external wings from the tip to the elbow were strengthened by fibers
called actinofibrils of keratinous origin, which included three layers overlapping each
other in the directions of the fibers to create a crossed canvas structure that supported
the wing. The wing membrane also featured a thin muscular structure with fibrous
parts, elastic structures, and a complex blood circulatory system. X-ray analysis of
their brain cavities revealed a massive presence of floccules, regions of the brain
delegated to the integration of signals from the joints, muscles, skin, and organs of
balance. The flocs present in the skull of pterosaurs occupy about 7.5% of the entire
brain mass, a more significant amount than in any other vertebrate. Modern birds
have brain flocs, unusually large but which occupy a percentage of 1–2% of the entire
total mass of the brain. It is estimated that in flight, the pterosaurs, to which order
also much smaller individuals belonged, could reach the speed of over 100 km/h
for a few minutes and glide at a cruising speed of around 90 km/h. Pterosaurs and
pterodactyls belong to a clade different from dinosaurs and should not be confused
with Archeopteryx, a theropod of the saurischi group, which marked the transition
between reptiles and birds, and in which characteristic features of modern birds began
to appear. The evolution of modern birds is thought to have begun in the Jurassic, with
the first theropod beings derived from dinosaurs such as the Archeopteryx mentioned
above [19].
The evolutionary line of the dinosaurs that turn into birds has been recently drawn.
It foresees the passage from the neoteropods (220 million years ago) through the teta-
nurs (about 200 million) passing through celosaurs (175 million), paravians (165
million) up to Archeopteryx (150 million). This rapid passage, four times faster than
the times of other evolutionary branches, has led to a drastic reduction in the size and
weight of the animals, which, starting from 160 kg of the tetanurs, reached 800 g
Archeopteryx in about thirty million years. By shrinking, the dinosaurs/birds have
further specialized the feathered body; they have acquired a shorter snout, a propor-
tionately larger brain, large eyes, small teeth, a more agile and faster body, a stiffer
and shorter tail. The environment had changed and prompted the change, and from
animals of extensive grasslands, birds became a species more suited to the ecosystem
of the undergrowth. They began to climb trees to escape their enemies and to find
new sources of food. The trees most likely began to take their first flights, inventing
the actual beaten flight to become the masters of the air finally. The shrinking in size
probably allowed the birds to survive the tremendous Cretaceous mass extinction that
killed most of the dinosaurs of yore. Modern birds then evolved from therapods, a line
of feathered dinosaurs. For a long time, paleontologists have been wondering about
the evolutionary nature of feathers as it now appears confirmed, by careful inves-
tigations and analyses on available fossils, that dinosaurs were covered in brightly
colored feathers. To understand the usefulness of a feathered body, scholars have
established that as short, fluffy feathers help modern birds stay warm, and brightly
colored feathers can help birds attract a partner, feathers likely have evolved for
different functional reasons and not just for the flight. Birds are homeotherms and
therefore need to keep their body temperature constant as environmental conditions
vary. Plumage works the same way as fur, protecting the body from the sun, cold,
wind, and rain and protecting against injury. The plumage gives shape to the bird’s
profile, which is an essential element in flight. Only much later did evolution lead
to the development of more potent and longer feathers on the chestnut bodywork
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that build a wing suitable for the flight typical of almost all modern birds. In order
to fly, birds have had to modify many crucial aspects of their anatomy and physi-
ology. They lightened their bones through trabeculae that create internal scaffolding
that takes away weight and offers the skeleton greater strength and elasticity. They
changed their respiratory system, skull, lower and upper joints. They are equipped
with highly sophisticated vision systems and electronic navigation technologies that
have led them to explore the whole planet’s skies and undertake extraordinary routes
around it, exploring all of its continents. In a certain sense, the admiration and envy
for their ability to fly was the driving force that allowed humanity to venture into a
territory forbidden to it: the air, the sky, and the excellent atmosphere. Leonardo da
Vinci was one of the first and most attentive observers of the flight of birds, obsessed
as he was with the desire to put the wings on man. In particular, his observations
focused on birds of prey, especially the kite, which we can probably consider among
the most sophisticated and elegant flying objects in the natural world [20].
The large birds of prey that lived in mountainous or desert regions, the harshness
of the places, and the scarcity of food have required prolonged stays in flight at
high altitudes to discover and capture possible losses. Between the various hunting
phases, many hours could elapse, and remaining in flight for a long time represented
the key to success for survival. These needs have led to the development of complex
evolutionary expedients to allow birds to equip themselves with efficient winged and
feathered systems capable of exploiting the updrafts for a gliding flight with low
energy consumption. It was also vital to lift off the ground quickly and by one’s
means. This need has led to a progressive reduction in the size of all organisms
suitable for flight. Their body evolved towards forms of high aerodynamic efficiency
and flight techniques towards minimum energy expenditure. Gaining altitude without
flapping was a discriminating factor in the selection process, but differences were
created between seabirds and birds of prey. The former was able to take advantage of
the winds and breezes sustained on the surface of the water and at altitude, while the
latter, in order to climb, had to adapt to take advantage of the rarer and weaker climbs.
The winning formula involved sailing by extracting energy from vertical currents to
gain altitude and then using the energy thus accumulated most productively during
the glide. To obtain an effective glide, the wings of the great planers have been
lengthened, reducing their planer surface proportionally. It is necessary to go up
with a slow circular motion to sail upward, obtainable only with large wing surfaces
or low weight. The variation of the wing geometry to have a large surface in the take-
off or soaring phases, then reducing it, and increasing the elongation, in gliding, has
led their evolution to give them the ability to fold more or less behind the outer part of
the elbow in order to overlap a good portion of the flight feathers. As for elongation,
the requirements for take-off and upward flight prevailed, so the wing remained less
slender than marine planers. However, at low flight speeds, this would have produced
a dangerous multiplication of eddies at the wingtips that would have added to the
friction with the air. Natural technology has developed a particular sectional wing
profile in birds of prey: the front edge is curved and thinned. On the lower face, it
is immediately followed by a sort of step formed by the bones of the arm and the
extensor muscle that makes the flow of air uniform and controllable. This source of
turbulence created at a specific point prevents the development of dangerous random

turbulence and cancels the harmful effects of friction. To counteract the eddies that
arise at the wingtips, one-third of the wing, on the outside, is made up of separate
feathers; the front three or four have a very elastic rachis and, in flight, an energetic
flow acts on their extremity which, when the wing is stretched, inflects them upwards
in a pronounced way, managing to decrease the creation of vortices and therefore
of friction. Thus optimized in design, the eagle, the hawk, and their similars can
travel over fifteen meters per meter of altitude lost, which brings them not very far
from the efficiency of large seabirds, which, however, cannot boast equal agility and
take-offs powerful. Perfect flight control is possible thanks to the width of the wing
and the small displacements of the load-bearing canopy concerning the body’s center
of gravity to balance and direct the body with extreme precision and effectiveness.
The function of the tail is to implement minimal corrective adjustments, and for
almost the entire duration of the flight, it is kept well together and stretched back to
increase penetration into the air. To produce highly rapid flight, the wings fold back,
like those of swallows or swifts; when instead the flight speed is not very important,
but the need for a long flight with a lot of thrusts and little resistance prevails, long
and narrow wings are needed, like those of albatrosses or gulls. The flapping of
the wings produces the forward thrust, and it is the means that allows lifting and
support in the air: the first function is performed by the distal portion of the wing
(the “hand” of the bird), the second by the proximal portion wing (the bird’s arm).
Behind the rear edge of the wings of a flying bird, turbulence of the air is created,
swirling upwards. Some birds benefit from this by flying in formation, flapping their
wings in unison, as do pelicans, for example. In-flight formations, ducks, and wild
geese in their very long and tiring migratory flights use a V-shaped formation. This
formation allows each bird to keep one tip of its wings in the swirling wake caused
by the bird’s flight in front. In this way, they can exploit the vortex motions to sustain
themselves by decreasing fatigue and energy expenditure. Since the pilot bird, at the
head of the formation, cannot take advantage of this support, from time to time, it
exchanges its position with others, assuming a less tiring one. The behaviors and
technical performance of bird flight are extraordinary. The peregrine falcon (Falco
peregrinus), which is perhaps the fastest flying bird, has been accurately timed, and
it has been found to reach 280 km/h. A mountain passerine, black-headed tit (Parus
atricapillus), if startled in flight, can change direction in 0.3 s [21].
The alpine croaking (Coracia graculus) has been reported at more than 8000 m
high, near Mount Everest. A sea swallow (Sterna fuscata) remains in the sea for some
months, coming ashore only during the breeding periods; it is known that this bird
cannot rest on the water for long, to avoid damaging the feathers. It must therefore be
concluded that during the period of life at sea it flies almost continuously. In one year
it can cover a distance of 40,000 km. A swift that has to provide for its nourishment
and two young ones, covers an average distance of 1000 km per day, flying incessantly
even for 14 h a day and reaching 145 km/h. On the hottest days, the swifts can take
to great heights and, after spending the whole day in flight, they spend the night
at high altitude, gliding in the air with hovering flight, probably suspending many
brain functions as to fall into a sort of sleep. Recently, a group of researchers from
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the Royal Veterinary College of London developed an original experiment to deepen

their knowledge on the flight of birds of prey. Through particular video recording
techniques through a soap bubble chamber, it was possible to observe with extreme
precision the use of the tail to get rid of a part of the resistance in the air and to be
able to glide more easily [22].
A trick that these birds employ to reach prey quickly but which, from a techno-
logical point of view, could provide a helpful idea to revolutionize the design—to
begin with—of small airplanes and drones. Compared with these performances, even
the most efficient products of human technology fail in some respects to compete
in terms of efficiency, energy-saving, and resource optimization. For this series of
reasons, the bionic and biomimetic study of the flight of birds and all flying organisms
covers an important area of development of bionic and biomimetic studies [23].
In its unstoppable evolutionary process, studded with extraordinary biological
designs, nature has also allowed the inhabitants of the waters the opportunity to
experience flight. Potanichthys xingyiensi is now the oldest flying fish in the world
lived 240 million years ago, and were able to leap by flapping two pairs of fins like
wings and using the tail as a propeller. Exocoetus volitans, also called flying fish
and Exocoetus obtusirostris, swallow-fish, are current modern flying-fish; in order
to take flight, they must first reach a speed of 60 km/h underwater, then take off.
Their flight can reach 50 km/h before breaking the planar surface over distances of
200–400 m. In these fish, the pectoral fins have turned into real wings that allow
the fish to glide, like gliders, on the surface of the sea aided by a very tapered and
aerodynamic body structure. Thanks to the frenetic movement of the tail that beats up
to 70 times per second, the fish manages to make the leap, get out of the water, take
flight, and reach heights of a few meters. The winged fins open, and as if by magic,
the fish begins to circle over the water and exploit the strength of the air currents to
get carried away and increase the distance to travel. Of the genus Exocoetidae there
are about 70 species grouped in 9 species; some have individuals with large pelvic
fins and are commonly called four-winged flying fish; in practice, a quadcopter bio-
drone model. From an evolutionary point of view, Ichthyo-paleontologists argue that
the ability to fly of these fish may be a technique born and developed as a solution
to avoid the attacks of their predators. Coming back to the mainland, we meet a
whole series of animals more or less adapted to face the flight. Bats are the only
mammals capable of natural flight, with entirely different biotechnological solutions
from birds. They belong to the order of the Chiroptera, and currently, there are about
1380 species; they are the second order of mammals by number and represent a fifth
of all mammal species on Earth. The dimensions of the bats are very variable: the
most notable species is that of the flying foxes, which can reach a wingspan of about
2 m and a body weight of 1.5 kg; the smallest species is instead the bumblebee bat that
with its weight of only 2 g it is the smallest mammal in the world. Their numerous
presence of species, the considerable morphological differences within them, and
their widespread presence in all continents and environmental typologies (except for
the most remote poles and islands) confirm that the invention of the bats is, among
mammals, a remarkable evolutionary success. The keys to this success certainly
include the evolution of active flight, a unique case among mammals, and the ability
to orient themselves through echolocation. Reconstructing the evolutionary history

of bats is not easy since there are few intact finds available due to the difficulty of
fossilization of these often small animals, thus making it difficult to compare the
past species with the current ones. The oldest bats currently date back to at least 50
million years ago (Eocene) and strongly resemble the current forms. Recently, the
rest of a rather bizarre creature was discovered, a hybrid between dinosaur and bat,
named Ambopteryx longibrachium [24]
The discovery of Ambopteryx shows that Yi was not alone and raises the possibility
that Scansoriopterygidae, in general, may have had bat-like wings in addition to
feathers. In the universe of terrestrial living beings, many sporadic animals use gliding
flight to move above all from the branches of trees, such as flying squirrels, flying
lizards, and even snakes. However, the most extraordinary family that started millions
of years ago to build a career as a pilot is undoubtedly that of insects.
3.4 Insects
While the flight of birds has attracted curiosity and the spirit of human imitation since
ancient times, the most secret and mysterious of other organisms such as insects and
moths, we only begin to know in detail in the last few decades. This evolution in
knowledge is possible above all thanks to the development of slow-motion video
shooting technologies and other sophisticated digital microscopy and imaging tech-
niques. Insects a few millimeters long have revealed extraordinary flight capabilities
with technological performance, if compared to our technological parameters, at the
possible limit. At the Max-Planck Institute in Martinsried, it was discovered that the
gene, called Salm, has been preserved over 280 million years of evolution and controls
the development of individual muscle fibers, different from all the others present in
the insect body. They are highly specialized muscle fibers similar to the human heart,
used in flight as “indirect” muscles. Thanks to them, insects can swing their wings at
high frequencies, over 1,000 Hz, and are capable of developing a mechanical force
of 80 Watts per kilogram. To understand the factors that determine the formation of
these types of muscles during the development of the individual, the researchers, led
by Frank Schnorrer, analyzed all the factors involved in the morphogenesis of the
muscles of the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, verifying the importance of the
Salm gene in this process. Researchers hypothesize that this gene, capable of acti-
vating the mechanisms for the development of the special muscle fibers of flight, has
some equivalent also in mammals, in the mechanisms of heart muscle development
[25].
Much interest in robotics and avionics research centers are dedicating essential
investments in the systematic study of the flight systems characteristic of insects.
Studies have been developed on the ability of many organisms to fold and pack their
wings through exciting Bio-origami techniques. Even NASA has produced a series of
biomimetic departmental research to uncover the secrets of these natural behaviors.
Control of birds and insects is an EU-funded initiative investigating how birds and
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insects use sensory information to control the beat and shapes of their wings to direct
their flight. The flight dynamics and control of birds and insects (DCBIF) project
investigated how birds and insects use vision to stabilize and control flight [26].
This ability trained birds of prey and virtual reality with a flight simulator for
insects, which measured the tiny forces and torques exerted by the insects while
in flight. The results showed that the insects responded to simulated rotations of
their field of view by producing controlled pairs to help them stabilize and curve
their flight. The team also found that by turning their heads, the insects could see a
much faster range of motion than they could otherwise have done. Field experiments
with trained eagles and falcons have shown that birds move in similar ways. After
observing themselves as they move through the air, birds and insects must then
use this information. Therefore, DCBIF studied how birds and insects control the
flapping of their wings, particularly how they change the shape of their wings to
control flight. The issue was investigated using high-speed cameras to measure the
movement and deformation of eagles and a variety of insect wings. Computational
techniques were also used to predict the aerodynamic forces involved. It was found
that the deformation of the wing improved the aerodynamic lift produced by an
insect by 70%. The internal dynamics of the insect flight engine have been studied
using a new technique that exposes the insect to X-ray illumination while it is in
flight. The insect was spun to allow to see the flight engine from all angles and
push it to turn by varying the beat of its wings. By putting together X-ray images
taken from different angles in the same wing-flapping phase, the researchers could
3D reconstruct the musculoskeletal movements that provide force and control wing
flapping. The insights gained from DCBIF are now being applied to control the next
generation of small unmanned devices capable of flying.
3.4.1 Dragonflies
The order of dragonflies, the Odonata that is with teeth, is one of the oldest. Insects
such as meganeura (Meganeura monyi) and Meganeuropsis permiana of which we
have very well preserved fossils, were gigantic prehistoric insects that lived in the
Carboniferous, about 300 million years ago and in the Early Permian of North
America (Fig. 5).
Their appearance is very reminiscent of a current dragonfly but gigantic: with
a wingspan of 75 cm and a length of 50, authentic natural drones. Science has
not yet solved the enigma of the greatness of these creatures, and there are many
theories about it. Some consider the composition of the archaic atmosphere, perhaps
richer in oxygen than today’s, may have influenced their size, but in fact, a specific
and irrefutable theory that explains the phenomenon has not yet been hypothesized.
Dragonflies are, therefore, very ancient insects, and still today, their flight mechanism
is defined as primitive, but it is one of the most efficient of all those that insects use.
The wing movement is made fluid by the inserted direct muscles of flight directly
at the base of the wings. When the muscle contracts, the wing lowers, and when
the muscle relaxes, the wing rises. The muscles moved by a discharge of nerve
Fig. 5 Meganeura size compared to human ones
impulses, and, surprisingly, the two pairs of wings of the dragonflies are indepen-
dent, thus allowing them to fly backward and glide. They are equipped with large
composite eyes, and their sight is exceptional, thanks to the movable neck that allows
a panoramic vision. The double wings are very elongated, very thin, and sprinkled
with a dense network of capillary canals in which hemolymph circulates. A particular
feature of the wings is a thickening called pterostigma, which functions as a flight
stabilizer, as it dampens the oscillations induced by air turbulence and strengthens
the wings at the points of most dangerous stress taken by vibrations. The drag-
onfly can reach a speed of about 50 km/h, flapping its wings about twenty times per
second, managing to stay suspended in midair, and even fly backward. In particular,
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the anchoring of the four wings to the insect’s body is highly flexible and inde-
pendent from each other. The flight capabilities of flexible-winged insects are the
subject of Professor Haibo Dong’s research in the Flow Simulation Research Group
at the University of Virginia. His team uses high-speed video cameras and advanced
computational systems to build 3-dimensional models of flying insects and the vortex
structure of airflows created by their flight. The project’s goal is to improve the design
of small flying robots [27].
3.4.2 Bumblebee
Antoine Magnan, a zoologist and aeronautical engineer, was a French zoologist and
aeronautical engineer. They studied the flight of insects and birds in an early bionic
way to apply to powered flight. He is best known for a remark in his 1934 book Le Vol
des Insectes (Insect Flight) that insect flight was impossible and taught that the wing
structure of the bumblebee, concerning its weight, is not suitable for flying, but he
does not know and flies anyway. With the distance of time, contemporary research
that uses macro photographs, sophisticated slow-motion video footage, and high-
resolution digital microscopy has discovered that the secret of the bumblebee’s flight
lay precisely in the wings of these fantastic insects. The mistake was in considering
the smooth wings and vertical movement. Microscopic images show how micro
ripples are present on the bumblebee’s wings, which even escaped the microscopes
of the past. These, combined with the speed at which they are thrown into the air
(which exceeds that of the hummingbird by five times), allow the creation of small
vortices, air pockets around the central core. This way, they can increase lift (the
force that keeps them flying) much more than they could if the wings were smooth.
The fluid dynamics behind bumblebees’ flight are different from those that allow a plane to
fly. An airplane’s wing forces air down, which in turn pushes the wing (and the plane it’s
attached to) upward. For bugs, it isn’t so simple. The wing sweeping is a bit like a partial
spin of a "somewhat crappy" helicopter propeller, Dickinson said, but the angle to the also
creates vortices in the airlike small hurricanes. The eyes of those mini-hurricanes have lower
pressure than the surrounding air, so, keeping those eddies of air above its wings helps the
bee stay aloft. Other studies have confirmed that bees can flying 2001, a Chinese research
team led by Lijang Zeng of Tsinghua University glued small pieces of glass to bees and
then tracked reflected light as they flew around in a laser array. But now, Dickinson says,
researchers are more interested in the finer points of how insects control themselves once
they’re in the air. Those studies will be especially important for a fleet of robotic insects in
development, including robobees created by a team at Harvard University [28].
3.4.3 Flies
Flies are insects of the order Diptera, the name is derived from the Greek δι-di-two,
and πτερóν-pteron wing. Insects of this order use only a single pair of wings to
fly. The hindwings have evolved into advanced mechanosensory organs known as
halteres, which act as high-speed sensors of rotational movement and allow dipterans
to perform advanced aerobatics. Halteres function as gyros that help flies orient
themselves in flight. They measure torque and angular momentum around the body as
a balance and guidance system. If you observe a fly in routine flight, you will notice the
white rod-shaped halters that flutter up and down in opposition (antiphase) to the front
wings. Diptera is a large order containing an estimated 1,000,000 species, including
horse-flies, crane-flies, hoverflies, and others, although only about 125,000 species
have been described. Flies are the best aerial of all insects; they can hover, move
vertically, and fly backward. Most flies flap their wings at over 200 Hz or 200 cycles
per second. Drosophila melanogaster flaps its wings once every four milliseconds. To
achieve this performing flight, the flies have a gear that helps them turn their wings.
Flies can measure pitch and yaw and recalculate on the fly to correct their flight. It is a
model that has been tested for millions of years of evolution, and now this knowledge
has been employed for bionic inspiration in robotic and dronic technologies. In this
regard, it is interesting to analyze how the mechanical detail of the gears of one of
the most sophisticated two-propeller drone models on the market (V-Coptr Falcon
produced by Zero Zero Robotics). Its design, which deviates considerably from the
standard four-propeller, revolutionizes the engineering approach to drone design.
This flying model is less noisy than other 4-rotor models; they consume less and
therefore has greater flight autonomy for the exact weight of the power supply battery
and has a particular joint of the two rotors that make it act in a similar way to the
muscular system seen on dragonflies and flies. Flies possess a sophisticated system of
connection and coordination between the wings and the anthers. Mechanical mating
explains how flies keep their sense of rhythm. When the front wings rise, the halteres
descend. When the front wings accelerate, so do the halteres. Flies have highly
specialized flying techniques and technologies: sometimes, they flap only one wing
at a time, or a wing has to tighten faster for a tight turn. To control all this, it seems
that they possess a sort of reduced gear in analogy with the mechanics of human
means. We can find an exciting and comprehensive demonstration of the dynamics
of fly flies in Michael Dickinsons’ TED documentary: How a fly flies. The researcher
shows how flies know how to make lightning-fast decisions in-flight to overcome
obstacles, hunt, and escape danger [29].
This happens while they flap their wings 220 times per second. A superfine brain
and nervous system seem to guarantee the capacity for excellent coordination. But
Dickinson’s research also carried out by creating simulator robots that move in oil
chambers to study the turbulence created, has shown the existence of a crucial tech-
nological factor in the flapping of wings. Flies move the wings in a way capable of
generating a turbulent movement at their ends, a leading vortex edge, which allows
the insect’s wings to support it in flight. A bit like we have seen happening at the ends
of the feathered wings of birds that in flocks in-flight approach each other to support
each other as a whole. Another fascinating aspect is the analysis of the muscles
involved in the power to be imparted to the movement of the wings. Flies possess
two types of flight muscle; the first or power muscle, activated by stretching, which
is triggered automatically with a system of contractions by the nervous system. They
are specialized in imparting the great necessary flight power and occupy most of
the insect’s body. These muscles are attached to the base of the wings, and there
are a whole series of small control muscles; they are not particularly powerful but
254 M. Lumini
fast and can reconfigure the wing hinge very quickly, with one hit after another.
This biological mechanism underlies the flight dynamics of flies that can manage the
movements of the individual wings, generating changes in the game of aerodynamic
forces. Their nervous system’s role is to coordinate all of this through an impressive
array of bio-sensors. Flies have antennas and sensors capable of perceiving odors
and detecting the direction and intensity of winds. They have a complex eye, which
translates into one of the fastest visual systems in the world of living beings. They
have other ocelli in their heads whose function is still unknown; there are a series
of sensors in the edges of the wings and on the entire surface of the same, which
informs the central system of the deformations of the wings in flight. Halteres are
one of their most sophisticated sensors that have been seen to act as gyroscopes
that oscillate at 200 Hz, and the animal can use them to control the rotation of
its body and activate corrective maneuvers very quickly. A brain of approximately
100,000 neurons controls these complex flight information management systems.
Interesting is the evaluation that Dickinson shows in comparing the human brain of
a mouse to that of a fly. It shows that this brain which is 400 million years old, has
fascinating characteristics of miniaturizations and, in particular, refers to one of the
most miniature models of wasp: Megaphragma (which with Megaphragma caribea
and Megaphragma mymaripenne represents two of the smallest insects in the world
whose dimensions are comparable to those of an amoeba or a paramecium). This
tiny wasp has 7000 neurons; how modest brains can control sophisticated systems of
flight and movement is still an open research threshold. The intervention of a series
of neuromodulators such as octopamine seems to respond preponderantly [30].
Overall, we can only hint at the complex neurophysiological implications of the
multitasking brain-behavior of insects’ brain and nervous system that have developed
an excellent optimization by making a minimal number of neurons perform interlaced
actions of considerable complexity. Instead, the aspect that we will try to identify for
the purposes of our project is that relating to the sensor components that accompany
the body of flying insects.
4 Design Inspirations
This section considers the sources that inspired and guided the process of defining
the concept of a Pherodrone1.0, a technology able to help farmers in pest capture and
sexual disorientation as the chemical detection of pheromones by males takes the
place of insects harmful to crops. We set out to define a concept of light flying aircraft,
partially inflatable with lifting gas, safe and harmless to the user, low consumption,
and more versatile and maneuverable in targeted uses for the fight against parasites,
to be used for specific purposes in the PA (Fig. 6).
Fig. 6 Workflow steps of top-down research in BionikonLab&FABNAT14
4.1 Design Inspiration 01: Flying Seeds—Zanonia

Macrocarpa (Venustas)
Man has nourished the desire to conquer the dominions of the high skies inspired
by the observation of the flight of birds and other animals such as Lepidoptera,
Insects, and last but not least by the extraordinary specimens of flying seeds present
in anemophilous plant species (anemòcora). Wind dissemination appears to be the
oldest natural invention to ensure the possibility of plant germination. The biology
of flying seeds is not much studied, and from a biomimetic and bionic point of view,
there are still many aspects to be discovered. Perhaps the most famous case in this
sense is linking some flying inventions to the great seed of the Alsomitra macro-
carpa (Zanonia). This plant was first described in 1825 by Carl Ludwig Blume, who
baptized it Zanonia macrocarpa, starting from fruiting material collected from Mount
Parang, on the island of Java. In 1843 Max Joseph Roemer published an article about
the same plant, which he called Alsomitra macrocarpa. Our research draws its inspi-
ration from this famous flying seed, whose study inspired some attractive engineering
solutions at the dawn of aeronautics. Prof. Friedrich Ahlborn had published an article
in 1897 in which he had described the characteristics of the flight of the Zanonia
seed. The winged seed of the exotic Java cucumber, then known to botanists as
Zanonia macrocarpa (although today it is classified as Alsomitra), indeed possesses
an extraordinary property. The seed bracts determine a crescent-shaped wing, with
the seed providing the weight needed for stable flight. The wing is slightly rolled up
256 M. Lumini
at the back. This fact creates a washout that reduces the angle of attack concerning
the tips. As the tips curve back from the midsection, this washout provides stability
in the step. The seeds disperse by sliding off the parent tree. The German investigator
studied this naturally stable wing and recognized its potential in airplanes. Studying
him inspired many early aeronauts, especially those who recognized the need for
safe and manageable flight characteristics. He soon realized that more or less the
exact reversal could be seen in the wings of the common pigeons and the crows they
saw fluttering. The relative stability of the seed in pitch and roll inspired Igo Etrich,
a pioneer of early aviation.
Etrich and his collaborator Franz Xaver Wels in 1904 designed the Taube airplane,
with a wing planform resembling the Zanonia macrocarpa shape and demonstrating
extremely safe and forgiving flying qualities [31].
Attempts to add an engine failed, but a successful crewed glider was flown in
1906. Among these were José Weiss and Handley Page in the UK and Igo Etrich in
Germany. However, when these pioneers copied such wing shapes, with or without
a tailplane, they found it necessary to add a tail fin before their planes flew straight.
Weiss returned to painting, Etrich to a conventional tail, and Page to a conventional
straight wing plus a tail. J.W. Dunne, a British pioneer of aeronautical Second World
War engineering, also studied the seed but discarded it as inspiration because it was
not directionally stable. At the slightest wind, the seeds zigzagged madly all over
the place as they flew. This was undoubtedly good for wider seed dispersal for a
bird moving in and out of trees but hopeless for a stable airplane. A better solution
could be found in seagulls. These birds could soar for significant periods, making no
perceptible movement of their wings, while their small tails were not needed, closed
up and tucked away to minimize drag. Yet they could still maneuver adroitly when
they wanted to. Dunne observed the gulls more closely than most, for his sister May
would draw them in by feeding them, allowing him to observe their maneuverings
from close quarters. This close-up observation revealed that they banked by dipping
down the leading edge of an outer wing. This had the same effect on the lift as raising
a trailing aileron. Indeed, the leading edge there tended to have a permanent slight
droop. This helped impart the same washout as seen on the Zanonia, but its effect on
drag and directional yaw was quite different. Dunne found that, crucially, provided
the wing was swept, turning down the leading edge towards the tip made it stable in
pitch and yaw [32].
The seed or samara of this species is unusual in having two flat bracts extending
either side of the seed to form a wing-like shape with the seed embedded along one
long edge and the wings angled slightly back from it. As the seed ripens the wings
dry and the long edge furthest from the seed curls slightly upwards. When ripe,
the seed drops off and its aerodynamic form allows it to glide away from the tree.
The wingspans some 13–15 cm. and can glide for great distances. The seed moves
through the air like a butterfly in flight, it gains height, stalls, dips, and accelerates,
once again producing lift, a process termed phugoid oscillation.
Unlike many seeds that make a gliding flight using auto-rotation, the seed of the Javan
cucumber vine exhibits a stable gliding flight with its paper-thin wings. The seed’s design is
efficient enough to achieve a low descent angle of only 12 degrees and therefore it is able to
achieve a slower rate of descent (0.41 meter per second) compared to that of rotating winged
seeds (1 meter per second). This aerodynamic advantage allows the seed to be easily carried
by the wind. The construction of the seed and wing gives it this advantage. The seed itself is
thin, about 1 millimeter in thickness, and positioned almost exactly at the structure’s center
of gravity to give it balance. The wings are even thinner, about a few micrometers to some 10
micrometers. Because the wings are so thin, as the samara is angled up or down, the center of
pressure from the wind will shift to reduce that angle. This effect stabilizes the seed and also
prevents it from diving. When viewed from above, the wings are angled behind the center
of the seed to give it more stability and are slightly tapered toward the tip to make it lighter
with less drag. When viewed from the front, the wings are angled upward which helps it fly
in a straighter path and prevents spiral instability. The wings also have a sharp leading edge
and an aspect ratio (AR = 3–4) that results in an appropriate lift-to-drag ratio (L/D = 3–4)
to support their gliding flight. The form of the samara allows it to travel long distances in
the wind. It is possible for the seeds to glide up to hundreds of meters, ensuring that they
spread far from each other as well as the parent pod. This wide dispersal prevents the seeds
from competing for resources once they fall to the ground and begin growing [33].
We’re all familiar with such natural flying machines as spinning maple seeds and airborne
dandelion fuzz. But few people in this part of the world have heard of the flying zanonia
seed of tropical Asia. Long before man even thought of flying, the seeds of the climbing
zanonia vine were gliding through the jungle on a very “modern” swept-back wing. Nature
shaped and balanced these winged seeds so efficiently that they drop from the vine and glide
to the ground to begin their life cycle at a great distance from the mother plant. The late Dr.
A. M. Lippisch, the inventor of the delta wing, pioneered the design of all kinds of tailless
aircraft. For many years, he kept a large zanonia seed in his laboratory. Perhaps it was a
symbol to him-hinting that nature still held undiscovered solutions to the mystery of flight.
(Model Aviation) [34].
In an issue of Model Aviation magazine edited in 1983, retrieved on the web, we

found an article where is proposed the construction of a flying model inspired by
the morphology of the Zanonia seed. We contacted the publisher office in America,
who kindly sent us scans of the original pages. The article written by Paul Mcllrath
introduces the description of the aerodynamic characteristics of the suit and proposes
a template for the construction of a foam model. The success of the flight performance
of this model foam is due to the placement of a correct center of gravity weight. In the
natural flying wing, this aerodynamic aspect is resolved by the wild seed’s lenticular
body, which guarantees the right lift for the whole biological design. Thanks to
this template, intrigued and eager to play, we have created some straightforward
cardboard models to experiment at first glance with the flight characteristics and the
possible alternatives to the proposed airfoil. We analyzed the plan profile of a Zanonia
seed, and through an interpretation of the possible generative geometric scheme, we
stylized a profile to be used in the design phase of the wing-body. Based on these
indications, we have made very naive early cardboard models, to begin experimenting
with the flight of the profile of this and its some simple variants (Fig. 7).
Subsequently, starting from some photographs, we analyzed the shape of the
samara, applying a theoretical geometric and constructive scheme, to arrive at
defining an abstraction from the initial biological model. This result was used to
define the morphology of the wing for the subsequent CAD steps (Figs. 8, 9 and 10).
258 M. Lumini
Fig. 7 Very naive early cardboard models of samara and some profile variations (From
BionikonLab’s photo archive)
4.2 Design Inspiration 02: Pheromones Insect’s Detection

(Propinquitas)
4.2.1 The Insects’ Smell Universe
As we have learned from Dr. Dickinson’s research and a whole host of other scien-
tific contributions, insects’ and moths’ bodies are equipped with a series of antennae
and sensillae that perform sophisticated and vital functions for flight, spatial orienta-
tion, communication, and environmental scanning. They are evolved with surprising
technological refinements for the survival of organisms under the conditions and
characteristics of their vital ecosystem wing. The impressive development that took
place in science and technology from the Second World War to the present day of
cybernetics, electronics, nanotechnology, and neuroscience, combined with the enor-
mous possibilities of exploration of the microcosm by SEM and digital imaging, have
opened unexplored human eyes domains of the so-called Invisible Factories [35].
In parallel, IoT technology has led humanity to create an artificial world in which
microsensors and actuators govern, through sophisticated and complex digital and
electronic interaction and control activities, our physical, prossemic, and private
home universe. WIFI systems and telecommunications developments are wirings,
installing millions of antennas and detectors all over the planet, enveloping it in a
cloud of electromagnetic waves and micro detectors that convey information, words,
sounds, images, and codes connecting billions of humans to billions of apparatuses.
Fig. 8 Samara’s profile geometrization, based on Fibonacci Golden Spiral (S. Musa CAD
rendering)
In this behavior, humanity seems to take insect’s swarm intelligence as a model, a

term coined for the first time in 1988 by Gerardo Beni, Susan Hackwood, and Jing
Wang following a project inspired by robotic systems [36].
It considers the study of self-organizing systems, in which a complex action
derives from collective intelligence, as happens in nature in the case of colonies
of insects or flocks of birds, or schools of fish, or herds of mammals. Humans are
highly visual beings; the activity attributable to the functions of sight occupies more
than 70% of the total brain: we see the world around us, and the sense of sight
guides us for most of the primary activities. Hearing, touch, smell, and taste are
splendid sensorial corollaries of the uncontested domain of the eyes. This is not
the case; they rely mainly on a chemical sense that we call olfaction. This sense
is used to identify the nutrients that provide energy and the raw material for their
survival and growth. Through chemical scanning of the environment in which they are
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Fig. 9 Geometric CAD abstraction of samara’s profile (S. Musa CAD rendering)
inserted, they identify and avoid the dangers posed by predators and other threats. In
particular, through the sense of smell, they trace those molecules in the environment
that promise a possibility of drafting a female and being able to mate. For this reason,
the chemical senses were the first to evolve, and for a vast number of living creatures,
it represents the keystone for building an image of their living in the physical earth
world. There are sip animals, blind but beings who cannot decode molecular-chemical
sources are unknown. This behavior is called chemotaxis in bacteria, which pushes
them towards food sources and removes them from toxins and poisons. Particular
protein molecules are positioned in the bacterium’s membrane in the manner of
various chemical receptors. These devices can be conceived as a series of key locks.
A particular chemical key substance can enter a specific receptor lock capable of
sending an impulse to the motor system of the flagellum or cilia. If the key-lock
has identified a sugary substance, it pushes the action of the bacterium towards that
source of chemical impulses. Conversely, detecting a toxin causes the bacterium
to move away from it. This key-lock system is the basis of all animal chemistry
detection. Even in the case of the release of pheromones linked to sexual attraction,
a similar process takes place in a much more complex and intricate dimension. The
evolutionary advantage of smell oversight is that it works well even in the dark.
Many mammals have developed the sense of smell by delegating the nose organ
the most suitable biotechnology for scanning and decoding olfactory information
from the external environment. The question takes some interesting differentiation
Fig. 10 Geometric CAD abstraction of samara’s profile (S. Musa CAD rendering)
in insects as they do not have a natural nose similar to ours. In this whole universe of
olfactory information, pheromones are of considerable importance. Pheromones are
chemical compounds that have a lot in common with hormones. The most interesting
peculiarity of pheromones is that of triggering, through the smell, a whole complex
series of behavioral reactions generally related to the sphere of sexual or social
attraction in a broad sense, such as recognition between species or parental [37].
4.2.2 Pheromones: The PiedPiper-Chemical Effect
From BugInfo, Pheromons in Insects, Smithsonian Library, we take a definition of

pheromons’ main characteristics:
Pheromones are chemicals produced as messengers that affect the behavior of other indi-
viduals of insects or other animals. They are usually wind borne but may be placed on soil,
vegetation or various items. Tom Eisner, a foremost authority in the science of chemical use
by insects, claims that each species of insect relies on some one hundred chemicals in its life,
to engage in such routine activities as finding food and mates, aggregating to take advantage
of food resources, protecting sites of oviposition, and escaping predation. It has been found
that pheromones may convey different signals when presented in combinations or concen-
trations. Pheromones differ from sight or sound signals in a number of ways. They travel
slowly, do not fade quickly, and are effective over a long range. Sound and sight receptors
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are not needed for pheromone detection, and pheromone direction is not limited to straight
lines. Pheromones have long been known to be important to the lives of insects in mating,
as witnessed, for example, in some of the larger silkworm family moths, where males are
noted to travel nearly 30 miles to a female, following a pheromone trail in the air. [38]
4.2.3 Insect’s Antennae and Sensillae
The insects are receptors capable of transforming a stimulus from outside or inside
into a nerve impulse. Three main types of stimuli are able to act on insect receptors:
• vibration or pressure
• activity of chemicals
• light and heat.
The receptors sensitive to vibration or pressure are referred to as mechanoreceptor
sensillae. They include:
• s. tactile distributed throughout the body, especially on the antennae and tarsi;
• s. auditory (or phonoreceptors).
The auditory sensillae (or phonoreceptors) range from simple auditory bristles
identical to tactile ones up to the more complicated type located in the antennae
through which the sensation is initiated to the antennal nerve from this to the deuto-
cerebrum. The tympanal organs of the Noctuid Ledidoptera can pick up the ultra-
sounds emitted by the bats and, in the case of the Malay Laodamia, also emit them
in turn, to confuse the predator. The receptors sensitive to the activity of chemical
substances are referred to as chemoreceptors sensillae. The taste senses are located
on the tarsi, palps, and in the oral cavity and must directly contact the chemical. The
smell sensillae is located on the antennae and the genital appendages (Fig. 11).
They are sensitive to substances volatile like pheromones in shallow doses.
Production of insect sex pheromones is usually by the female of the species and
involves either specialized glands secreting to the surface cuticle or direct release
to the air, e.g. by pneumatic eversion of the gland. Pheromones’ proprieties have
inspired ecological solutions in the fight against parasites (Fig. 12).
The pheromones used in agriculture and gardening are chemical compounds that
reproduce the natural chemical communication between individuals of the same
species emitted by female insects during the mating season. These substances have
long been used in traps, in the form of dispensers, to monitor the presence of insects,
and in diffusers to prevent mating. To ensure the certainty of reproduction, insects
use silent remote communication based on semiochemicals. These molecules regu-
late many aspects of insects’ life, such as the choice of host plants, the places in which
to lay, the location of the prey or host, the search and option of a partner, the orga-
nization of social activity. There are different types of semiochemicals: allomones,
kairomones, sinomones, and, finally, pheromones, when the emitter and the recipient
concern the same insect species (Fig. 13).
Fig. 11 Cross-section idealization of a sensillae and SEM magnification

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Fig. 12 PA tools for insects’

pest fight with pheromones
chemicals
Fig. 13 Semiochemicals classification
According to the transmitted signal, pheromones are divided into aggregation,

oviposition, sexual, alarm, arrest, and trace chemicals. The sexual pheromones of
insects are volatile substances, natural chemical messengers released by females
through the exocrine glands, removed and transported by winds and currents, to
attract males of the same species. These substances are detected by male individuals
through the olfactory sensors present on the antennae and cause a specific reaction
such as behavior, physiological change, or development. Studies on pheromones
were initiated by the French entomologist and naturalist Jean Henry Fabre (1823–
1915), father of modern entomology, who began a deepen study of insect behavior.
About 100 insect species are currently covered, and there are innovative solutions
for both capture and disorientation of insects. Possible applications of pheromones
are monitoring, reporting male flights, and the study of population density, with the
consequent estimation of the risk of damage before they occur, to have the necessary
data to carry out a rational integrated or biological fight. Other proceedings include
the use of specific traps for the direct control of a harmful species with the capture
and removal of most males in the controlled area and consequent reduction of mating.
These techniques are used in the forestry field to conserve wood, foodstuffs, and fruit
against aggression by specific parasites. In general, the following types of procedures
alternatives to chemical irrorations are known:
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• sexual distraction;
• sexual disorientation, and sexual confusion;
• direct defense systems to inhibit mating employing trap-killing treatments in
certain agronomic situations.
The disorientation, consists of creating numerous artificial traces predominant
on the females, and it requires 20–30 g of pheromone per hectare and about 2,000
diffusers per hectare; monitoring with sexual traps within the plot is possible. Instead,
the confusion is the shielding of the females’ call through the saturation of the
environment; it requires 170–200 g of pheromone per hectare, 300–800 diffusers per
hectare; in this case, monitoring with traps is more complicated.
Allomone is a volatile chemical substance similar to pheromones, which acts
as a chemical messenger between organisms of different species and intra animal
and vegetal domain. Kairomones is a chemical substance emitted by one species
and especially an insect or plant that as an adaptive benefit, such as a stimulus for
oviposition, to another species. Synomones is a semiochemical that is beneficial to
both interacting organisms, the emitter, and the receiver.
Cydia splendana is a moth that lays 100–300 eggs on chestnut leaves. The larvae
penetrate the chestnut hedgehog by digging long, deep tunnels that soon fill with
excrement. Once it reaches maturity, the larva comes out of the hedgehog and falls to
the ground cocoons to overwinter. In Italy, the carpocapsa is present in all chestnut
areas where, depending on the severity of the infestation, it can lead to the loss of
50% of the harvest. The affected hedgehogs can fall to the ground prematurely, while
the ripe chestnuts attacked by the larvae are unsaleable. Sexual confusion has proven
effective in combating this pest, but positioning the diffusers is tricky, especially for
larger plants. Operators must climb the canopy to place the diffuser at the top of the
tree; a long and dangerous job. To meet the needs of a PA technological intervention,
in 2016 BioPose© French company, has developed a drone that can perfectly replace
a human operator to place the traps (Fig. 14).
A first drone flies over the chestnut wood, identifying the plants to which the
diffuser is applied thanks to a GPS. A second drone, equipped with a particular
release system, takes off and follows the route plotted thanks to the surveys of the
first uncrewed aircraft. Once it reaches the top of the desired plant, the drone drops
the diffuser in the shape of a ring, which becomes entangled at the top of the tree.
With just one flight is possible to protect one hectare of the chestnut grove [39].
Many of the examples of the application of drones in the fight against pests through
pheromones are now available on the market and this technology is rapidly estab-
lishing itself as an exciting solution for reducing the use of pesticides and chemicals
that have now been shown to be harmful to both healthy humans and ecosystems
life. The current development project of a Pherodrone1.0 has been oriented towards
these development hypotheses.
Fig. 14 The drone BioPose. © while placing pheromenes traps on trees
5 Pherodrone1.0’s Design Concept
5.1 Premise
BionikonLab&FABNAT14’s teamwork developed the Pherodrone1.0 design concept

through a top-down biomimetic process that tries to work by simulating the chemical
behavior of a female insect. The concept we have outlined fits within the methods
of using the pheromones analyzed. The pheromone drone is designed above all to
increase the effectiveness of hunting campaigns and disorientation of insect colonies
harmful to specific crops. Unlike drones currently produced for agricultural uses,
which are generally four-propellers, very heavy as they are delegated to carry out
fatigue work or environmental and crop monitoring, the soft-Pherodrone1.0 is a rela-
tively small aircraft, from the design of the profile directly inspired by the morphology
of the fixed-wing of the Zanonia macrocarpa seed (samara), previously studied for
aerodynamic research purposes. The drone is then equipped with a series of diffusers
of pheromonic substance, the design of which drew inspiration from the study and
observation of the functional morphology of antennas and sensillae insect sensors.
Finally, the drone has onboard, an apparatus that acts as a trap. Unlike the models
we have analyzed on the customer market dedicated to PA-Precision Agriculture, it
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actively seeks to intercept through the artificial digital micro-sensillae set arranged
in the margins of the wings, the pheromones flow of chemicals traces released by
female individuals of a specific parasite. Once a pheromones’ plume target has
been identified, the drone tries to work alongside them to release the appropriate
amount of substances from its tank, acting according to different possible action
scenarios. These intervention technologies already exist in the sustainable agricul-
ture tecnologies, but they generally work through special dispensers placed in fixed
positions, activating and spreading their chem-plume according to the prevailing
winds diffusers. Their design resembles exactly like the replicas of small bags or
pochettes used to hang in cabinets as a mothproof or the home’s fragrance diffuser
[40].
This intervention modality seemed to limit and passive, and this observation
stimulated to imagine an apparatus that, by imitating the behavior of insects, liter-
ally becomes an antagonist that creates real hormonal sabotages in the process of
hunting and reproduction, in creating sexual confusion in the structure of the colonies
of parasites. However, it must be emphasized that the scope of this research falls
within a school training process that engages students aged 14–16 to the bionic and
biomimetic design approach. The path we have developed with the teachers and
designers involved in the work aims to train the team to think of solutions with
high technological, functional, and economic feasibility coefficients. However, we
did not set as working conditions the development of a working prototype and an
electronic and constructive engineering process, at least in terms of the development
of the current concept. It is not unthinkable that this idea will reach, through succes-
sive research phases, the precise development potential of functional prototyping,
shared with the experts of the R&D centers and Technological Departments of the
International University network with which BionikonLab & FABNAT14 have been
collaborating regularly for several years (see Conclusions).
5.2 Functional Layout (Utilitas and Firmitas)
A utility layout of our Pherodrone1.0 is briefly illustrated in the graphic scheme of

Fig. 15. We can divide the system into nine functional blocks:
A. Zanonia macrocarpa inflatable body-wings case, 100% natural rubber latex
B. FC + (see previous main components of a drone section)
C. Semirigid boundary edges equipped with wired rubbery sensillae-pads for
chemical detection of female pheromones
D. Flight control cabin (recycled 100% plastic and regenerated vegetable hemp-
fibers 3D-printed)
E. Ringed rotor in super-light aluminum body foam or recycled 100% plastic and
regenerated vegetable hemp-fibers 3D-printed
Fig. 15 Pherodrone1.0
UAV layout
F. Electrical wiring and battery side, via an external interlocking in super-

light aluminum body foam platform or regenerated vegetable hemp-fibers
3D-printed
G. Cartridge-spry and pheromone’s nozzle dispenser
H. Arduino & Raspberry interaction drone’s sensory hub
I. Optional Trap system.
5.2.1 Block “A”
A structural feature of the Zanonia-wing that constitutes the constructive body of

our concept-drone is that of being inflatable with a gas mixture slightly lighter than
air. We had this intuition to overcome the bulky, massive and tiring weight of many
slave-drones that, with dangerous propellers, action, and 10–45 kg of weight in
flight, are often hard machines, of difficult flight control, potentially dangerous if
not deadly. We got inspired by looking at hundreds of inflatable games and other
pneumatic items explored in the current market. We then found traces of an idea for
an inflatable drone in a video that features a quadcopter developed in China [41].
The still few visualizations recorded comforted us on our intuition, and we did not
feel frustrated by this fact. We imagine that it is possible to make, at affordable costs,
our single wing, which measures about 50 × 25 × 2 cm using an elastic material that
is 100% natural and easily recyclable. The choice could fall on a rubber-based latex
material that we have seen used by an Italian factory that produces fully compostable
balloons for parties [42].
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We could not get samples of this material in time, but we have assessed that
if it works for these inflatables, it could also work well for our drone frame with
the necessary technologies and adaptations. To find out about the current processes
available on the market for inflatables, we viewed dozens of videos, primarily promo-
tional material from Chinese companies, which showed the main processes through
which an inflatable promotional toy or accessory is made, mainly in PVC or similar
polymers (Fig. 16).
Fig. 16 Making inflatable toys

Latex is also basically treated and assembled with similar processes. The wing
has different ripples and embossing that make the surface texturized, according to
the bionic observations carried out on the seed of Zanonia. This surface treatment
seems to guarantee the seed an optimized aerodynamic profile. The body is inflated
in various communicable sections, which generate a total stiffening of the wing.
The mechanical components of flight, flight control, and environmental and sensor
interaction control are inserted into this body.
These are the typical factory’s steps for to carry out inflatable toys:
1. CAD-CAM design of the model
2. Cutting and cropping with a Vinyl plotter CNC manufacturing
3. Heat sealing assemblage of parts
4. Machine sewing assemblage of parts
5. Pneumatic test.
During the development of the Pherodrone1.0 concept, one of the assumptions set
by the team members from the first brainstorming set of the problem-solving process
was to envision a drone model that was substantially divergent in the current ways of
designing and building their flying body. Our attention was immediately focused on
inflatable technology solutions. We became aware of a whole sector of research and
development that dates back to the 30/40 s in aviation through archival. Especially in
the military field, there are many attempts to develop wings with inflatable aerody-
namic profiles. Also, currently, there is a renewed interest in this topic, particularly in
the design and production of wings for ultralight aircraft. Exciting was the reading of
a paper that analyzes the potential of a Tensairity® innovative technology in the UAVs
agricultural sector. Unfortunately, we came across this documentation too late for the
progress timeline of this chapter. Therefore, the indication relating to the possible
engineering constructive redevelopment of our concept, through an upgrade given by
the Tensairity® technology opportunities, remains limited by way of proclamation
of interest. This fact comforts us powerfully in the opportunity of any engineering
developments of our prototype, especially in light of the so-called tensairity tech-
nology. See how our ideas are taking place in high-level research circuits, comforts
strongly us in the opportunity of any engineering developments of our prototype in
this technologic approach. We believe it is appropriate to cite the full abstract of the
research cited, as it explains exactly the appropriateness of the goals we had set for
ourselves from the beginning of our design process.
In recent years, the unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) has undergone rapid development in the
field of agricultural plant protection; however, the payload and max-endurance are bottle-
necks that limit its further development. Tensairity is a new structure consisting of a bag
filled with low-pressure gas, an upper rigid rod and a lower flexible cable. It puts tension
pressure on the whole structure through internal gas pressure, provides continuous support
to the upper rigid rod, and that is to say, the tensairity improves the stability of the structure in
some way. And also, tensairity is a self-supporting and self-balancing system, which means it
is a simple, lightweight structure with small storage volume, strong bearing capacity, and low
engineering cost. It also has the advantages of gasbag and BSS (beam string structure). The
main objective of this research was to introduce the theoretical basis of tensairity and then
discussed its development and applications. Moreover, the advantages and disadvantages of
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tensairity were summarized, and development prospects of tensairity in agricultural avia-

tion were presented. At last, it can be concluded that tensairity has potentials in agricultural
aviation. If tensairity is applied in agricultural UAVs, it will solve the two major problems
of payload and max-endurance better, and help promoting the development of agricultural
aviation technology in agricultural aviation administration and application. Also, it will help
with meeting the aerial application requirements of high efficiency and maximal environ-
mental protection. This research will provide a reference for improving working efficiency
and economic benefits of UAVs in agricultural plant protection. [43]
The word Tensairity® , in some respects similar to the Tensegrity® term that was
coined in the late 1940s by the American architect Buckminster Fuller and sculptor
Kenneth Snelson, was proposed first by Dr. Mauro Pedretti, a Swiss civil engineer
of Airlight Ltd., in 2000. Tensairity® is a combination of tension, air, and integrity;
the word illustrates the composition and strength of the structure. Is an evolution
of pneumatic beams. The principle combines an air membrane with compression
elements (steel, wood, or aluminum profiles) and traction elements (cables or profiles
that work in traction). The pneumatic system of pressure + compression + traction
integration thus coupled is required, thanks to the inflation of the air chamber, and
at the same time, it is able to transfer also compression or traction forces, making all
materials work efficiently. The result is a very light load-bearing element which, with
the same weight carried, compared to traditional reticular beams, can weigh between
30 and 60% less. Conversely, with the same weight, a Tensairity® beam can cover
wider spans than a traditional truss system. The Tensairity system can be applied to
beams, pillars but also arches. The achievable products are therefore flat or curved
roofs, bridges, military pitch tents, and, more generally, large structures. The Italian
company Tensairity® Solutions, is the only depositary of the original patent. This
technology could offer strategic suggestions for the construction of the inflatable
wing in such a way as to create a reinforced, lightweight, and resistant pneumatic
structure [44].
Thanks to all these suggestions, after the geometrization phase that allowed us to
be abstract an aerodynamic shape inspired by the samara design, the sketching and
CAD rendering phase followed. Through various steps of CAD representations, was
defined a characteristic shape and a basic layout that integrates the main components
necessary for the engineering phase of a possible prototype (Figs. 17, 18, 19, 20, 21
and 22).
5.2.2 Block “B”
All the technical aspects related to the sizing and technical wiring of the various
electronic and digital components that make up the FC of our UAV, constitute a
definition of in-depth engineering that would go well beyond the objectives and
competence of this problem-setting definition. Studying a drone organism’s basic
functional anatomy was essential to understand the general design and the technical
Fig. 17 First CAD

renderings of the
Pherodrone1.0 (Digitals
CAD L. Cuccu)
and technological issues involved. The BionikonLab&FABNAT14’s general educa-

tional objectives do not address this technical training area, except through collabo-
rations and assignments to specialized teachers and professionals who can develop
specific concept sections. In any case, the Pherodrone1.0-UAV must guarantee the
operating standards of the state-of-the-art drones in their final engineered design. We
just have to define, for the purposes of the present chapter, the different functional
blocks and place them in the vehicle as a whole. We are waiting for a subsequent
general engineering step, which can only occur if this concept meets the interest of
a developer in the sector.
5.2.3 Block “C”
The Pherodrone1.0 was designed to have a pneumatic, inflatable, shockproof, light,

and easily maneuverable body, which combines inflatable parts with rigid and semi-
rigid elements, each of which performs specific functions. An essential aspect of
this concept is the idea that the aircraft can somehow intercept a chem-plume of
pheromones present in the air surrounding a crop, a forest, a garden, and through a
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Fig. 18 Propeller & sensillae rendering (Digitals CAD L. Cuccu)

Fig. 19 CAD render (Digitals CAD L. Cuccu)
system of sensitive olfactory sensors that mimic the incredible sophistication of the
insect’s sensillae, entering into competition with them. The incredible development of
human nanotechnology towards natural bionanotechnology is continuously updating
the state-of-the-art performance of current olfactory sensors. In recent years, technol-
ogists have developed sophisticated devices called electronic noses. These electronic
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tools can convert the interaction of airborne and dispersed chemicals into an elec-
trical signal. An artificial nose comprises an electrochemical sensor composed of a
sensitive material, which interacts with gas molecules, and of electronics capable
of quantifying and processing electrical signals. The essential characteristics of an
electrochemical sensor are:
• high molecular sensitivity;
• selectivity to a particular gas of specific interest;
• decoding capability;
• the ability to return to the initial conditions once exposure to the substances
has ended.
In 1988 Gardner and Bartlett coined the term electronic nose and defined it as an
“instrument that includes a set of electrochemical sensors with a partial specificity
with the ability to recognize simple and complex odors.” [45].
Electronic noses, also known as Artificial Olfaction Devices, are comprised
of a sensor array, signal conditioning circuit, and pattern recognition algorithms.
Compared with traditional gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS) tech-

niques, electronic noses are noninvasive and can be a rapid, cost-effective option for
several applications. By equipping the nose with artificial intelligence, we can imitate
what happens in our noses and in insect’s sensillae; we can make sure that smells
are recognized based on their interaction with specific receptors. Upon contact with
the sensitive elements of the electronic nose, the odors generate a positive or nega-
tive signal or do not interact. By creating a system in which odors can only bind to a
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limited number of receptors and creating a map of electrical responses with a specific
smell, we can recognize them. The artificial intelligence must then put together the
numerous pieces of the puzzle and make the information sniffed appear on our screen.
Developments in chemistry, physics, materials engineering, science, and technology
will lead in the future to produce an electronic nose capable of feeling smells like our
nose, or even better. Electronic noses will find a place in numerous industrial sectors
such as quality control and production, while in everyday life, they can be helpful
in the medical and health sector and in general in the nascent sector of the internet
of things, the latter closely linked to the use of various sensors. In recent years, due
to their simple fabrication and variety, conductive polymer-based sensors have been
used in detecting wood decay. The AromaScan32S ® (Osmetech Inc., Wobum, MA,
USA) is a commercial E-nose with 32 organic conductive polymer-based sensors
that have been used to determine incipient wood decay caused by fungi [46].
The chemical sensors miniaturization has been demonstrated to be a highly effec-
tive tool for detecting specific molecules in small quantities in the environment, in this
way, broadly pursued by scientists. E-nose research is a continuous nano-technology
development sector, as it has much strategic applicability to scientific, medical, indus-
trial, agricultural, and environmental sectors. From the heavy, expensive and bulky
apparatuses of the 1980s, with exponential speed, technology is developing ever
more performing biosensors, tiny and increasingly competing with the extraordinary
examples found in nature. The biomimicry that studies these research fields will bring
this technology’s state of the art in a few years to unprecedented levels. Therefore, it
is conceivable without too much forcing that Pherodrone1.0 could carry biosensors
capable of intercepting the very weak (for humans) signals scattered in the air by the
females of parasites and harmful insects to crops (Brezolin et al. 2018) [47].
5.2.4 Block “D”
In the samara of Zanonia macrocarpa or Giava’s cucumber, the shape’s engineering

plays a fundamental aerodynamic role, set in its center of gravity position. Its position
and weight are strategically barycentric, shifted towards the frontal area of the wing
with a relatively flat and lanceolate conformation. In the template we used from the
Model Aviation magazine mentioned above, this aerodynamic element is simulated
using a paper clip. The sizing that we have given to the cabin that contains the
electronic and mechanical elements of the FC and the circuits necessary for the
rotors’ operation and gyroscopic systems is entirely theoretical and would require
a specific prototyping phase in 1:1 scale for all static checks dynamics of UAV
flight characteristics. An important feature we have hypothesized is that the case is
eventually also produced through 3D printing which uses ecological filaments based
on plant fibers such as hemp. In previous projects, we have had the opportunity to
test 3dprinting prototypes, using a yarn produced by Kanesis©, an Italian startup
(https://www.kanesis.it/10848/) that uses organic material waste from the agri-food
industry. These yarns have given excellent characteristics of lightness combined with
resistance and low environmental harmfulness.
5.2.5 Block “E”
The aluminum foam is an interesting industrial material, inspired by the conformation

of the trabeculae in birds’ bones, that we have come to know and which, due to its
characteristics of great lightness and 100% recycled origin. His innovative technical
characteristics are particularly surprising and add value to the already high quality
of the starting metallic material, increased by an original production process. The
aluminum foams are in fact resistant to compression, have a structure capable of
uniformly distributing a load and absorbing shocks. They are also able to dissipate
heat very quickly, thanks to the increased surface area. The structure of the cells can
be closed pores (there is no communication between the air cavities), or open (there
is communication between the air cavities). The closed-cell structure allows the foam
to be light enough to float. Initially engineered in military and defense technology,
metal foams quickly found a place in other sectors of use as heat exchangers in the
IoT sector, as ultralight structural panels in the transport sector (rail, aeronautical,
and naval). They are also present in the aerospace sector together with other foams
such as, for example, ceramic and glass ones and in the water treatment sector as
purification and antibacterial filters. They are still used in the biomedical sector for
artificial bone implants and in the architecture and interior design sector as cladding
panels [48].
The ring-shaped bed that is designed to house the two oscillating propellers could
be made by exploiting the characteristics of resistance and extreme lightness of this
ultra-technological material. As an alternative to the usual carbon fibers, which are
highly polluting, the two propellers could be made of aluminum foam. If this process,
in subsequent engineering and economic evaluation tests, shouldn’t offer the correct
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performance or if it resulted too much expensive or complicated to produce them,

we have hypothesized the use of hemp or similar filaments for 3D printing.
5.2.6 Block “F”
This component constitutes the underlying body’s part of the UAV and it is posi-
tioned on the lower edge of the wing. Fasteners provide to the wing-body attack via
easy interlockings. It has the function of mechanical connection and of housing the
electrical wiring between the parts, offers an element of aerodynamic stability to
the wing, houses the set of batteries for the electrical power supply and there is the
possibility of attaching any trap device to it when the drone operates in pest capture
mode. Its shape is inspired by the ultralight structure of the keeled sternum of birds
[49]. Due to its ultralight characteristics it should be made with a hollow aluminum
foam mold or alternatively with hemp or similar filaments for 3D printing.
5.2.7 Block “G”
This component has the function of spreading the pheromones’ plume in flight. It
consists of a pod containing the chemicals and a sprayer, all housed in the backside
of the wing. From the technological point of view, we have identified a possible
solution that could be translated from some working mechanisms like Facial Nano
Sprays for cosmetics tracked down in commercial productions in market research.
It is a type of device that weights about 50 g and can spread 30 ml of liquid with a
nozzle that atomizes 0.3 μm particles powered by the onboard batteries.
5.2.8 Block “H”
In the systems of the fight against parasites with static diffusers, the males’ sexual
disorientation consists in the creation of numerous artificial traces predominant on
the appeal of the females. This action requires 20–30 g of pheromone per hectare and
about 2,000 diffusers per hectare; monitoring sexual traps within the plot is possible.
Instead, the confusion is the shielding of the females’ call through the saturation of the
environment; it requires 170–200 g of pheromone per hectare, 300–800 diffusers per
hectare; in this case, monitoring with traps is more complicated. Compared to these
scenarios, the use of Pherodrone1.0 could guarantee greater effectiveness, time saved
in placing and removing hundreds of traps and diffusers. IoT technologies guarantee
the heart of interaction and digital control of the various onboard sensors. From a
functional point of view, the technologies available (sensillae) and the programmed
management algorithms should allow four action schemes:
• Sensory imbalance
Fig. 23 Possible aerial

sexual-antagonism scenarios
between Pherodrone1.0 and
a couple of pests
• Camouflage
• False trail following traps capture
• Desensitization.
These techniques are precautions for inhibition in mating (mating disruption).
They generally involve the diffusion into the air of quantities of pheromones such as
to confuse (sexual confusion) or distract (sexual disorientation) males in the phase
of localization of females. In this way, it is possible to inhibit mating by limiting the
development of the population. The latter represents today one of the most sophisti-
cated systems in the control of antagonistic insects, capable in particular conditions
of eliminating the need for specific insecticide treatments. In particular, sexual disori-
entation, developed by our concept, involves using low-dose Pherodrone1.0 to create
a series of false traces capable of disorienting males in their search for their partners
(Figs. 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26 and 27). Compared to other methods, these are already
advantageous in small plots or in combination with integrated defense strategies.
5.2.9 Block “I”
Trapping prey is a necessary feature of the food cycle in all terrestrial ecosystems, as
a process inserted in the relationships of the food chains between living organisms.
In nature, therefore, infinite predation techniques have developed both in the animal
and in the plant world. In particular, our attention has shifted to the morphology
and functionality of carnivorous plants, and in particular, it was the plants belonging
282 M. Lumini

a couple of pests

a couple of pests

a couple of pests

a couple of pests
284 M. Lumini
to the Nepenthes genus that interested us in possible biomimetic hypotheses. By

studying these plants, we have obtained a design hypothesis for constructing a trap
that can be attached to Pherodrone1.0 in the event of an action campaign involving
the capture of males. In analogy to the barrel shape of the trapping apparatus, a
lightweight canvas bag is impregnated with attractive substances, and thanks to a
pot system, once inside it, the insect is no longer able to get out. The trap bag is
attached to the ventral body of the UAV. Previously we have analyzed the various
scenarios of struggle against the populations of insects harmful to crops based on
sexual distraction. One of these alternative possibilities involves the hypothesis of
diverting the path of the male individual, attracting him with a trail of pheromones
that overlaps the one released by the female. The aim is to capture his sexual attraction
to convince him to divert towards the UAV rather than towards the female individual
who spread the pheromone plume. The purpose of adopting this technique is to
collect many more male individuals than the number of those that can be captured
through fixed traps. In case of flight exit of the drone with this purpose of capture, the
flying machine is equipped with a trap with keepnet, or glued, obtained by existing
re-adapting types.
6 Conclusions
A teamwork of BionikonLab&FABNAT14 developed the first concept of Phero-

drone1.0 as a result of bionics and biomimetics lectures and design workshop
held by Prof. Massimo Lumini during the past two schools’ years. Thanks to
several brainstorming sets and creative meetings, was generated an original design
inspiration for alternative UAV technologies such as those of inflatable toys and
high-performance digital technology solutions (insect sensillae). We also turned
to innovative and still little-known technologies such as those developed in Italy
by Tensairy® Solutions. The main objective of the students, teachers, and designers
involved in this problem-solving process, was to develop a divergent design approach
to the UAV sector to evaluate new viable paths in PA. It is necessary to underline that
the BionikonLab&FABNAT14 is not a research center comparable to a traditional
University Academic Department or a business or Ministerial Research and Devel-
opment center. It is bionic and biomimetic research and sustainable design laboratory
with a 3D printing fablab added since 2014, located inside a public scientific high
school in Sardinia-Italy. The student-researchers are boys and girls aged 14–18,
accompanied along the way by some teachers and designers, coordinated by Prof.
Massimo Lumini, who has conceived and directed this educational experience since
1996. With this original and innovative research center for young well-made heads
[50], we have developed numerous didactic experiments relating to the dissemination
and use of methodologies in the bionic and biomimetic fields, inspired by the contexts
of research and development of the highest level. It is a unique experiment in the
Italian and European panorama. The students worked on the project while studying
in their typical school curriculum. They did so by following online group confer-
ences, actively participating in creative brainstorming sessions to look for new and
divergent ideas, and collaborating to carry out all the analyses and insights needed
to learn about the context issues in question. Finally, they made CAD drawings and
other material documentaries. Upon delivering the essay, the project reached a theo-
retical definition of principle. We believe that its strengths can be identified in its
inflatable construction technology, its functionality designed to overcome disinfesta-
tion through fixed traps, chasing the streams of pheromones scattered in the air, and
competing directly in the field with the insects themselves. To carry out these actions
of interception and selective recognition of the pheromone flow, the technologies
necessary for this seem to have reached a state of the art that can be hypothesized
at the mass production level. The sensors, electronic noses, and actuators needed to
direct the UAV’s flight do not seem particularly expensive and difficult to wire. In
practice, they all appear to be active and available technologies on the market at an
affordable cost. Many constructive and technological details will have to be tested
and prototyped if we want the Pherodrone1.0 to become an engineered product in all
its technical and functional elements, ready to be introduced experimentally in the
market of technologists at the service of the PA. Our hypotheses are supported by
other academic studies and high-level experiments that we have intercepted on the
net. These researches seem to converge in the direction we hypothesized. The future
development of this concept can grow through the planning and funding stages of
research. Thanks to our contacts, which have extended in recent years internationally,
with Research Centers and University departments around the world, we can foresee
significant potential developments.
Acknowledgements Prof. Massimo Lumini is the only author of the present chapter but a lot of
inspirations, drawings, CAD rendering, and design suggestions, come from the results of several
lectures, workshops, and bionics and biomimetics training courses held during the schools-years
2019/2020 e 2020/2021 at BionikonLab&FABNAT14 in Iglesias-SU-Italy. All the infographics,
photos, and images accompanying the text are original artwork of the author, except Figs. 9, 10
and11 (Silvia Musa) and Figs. 18, 19, 20, 21, 22 and 23 (Leonardo Cuccu).The author is thankfull for
the BionikonLab&FABNAT14 team, including the teachers Emanuela Manconi and Silvia Musa,
and students Riccardo Campesi, Laura Coccolone, Leonardo Cuccu, Michele Di Romano, Paolo
Granella, Tommaso Mei, Francesco Matzei, Carlo Saiu, Francesco Soddu.
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Exploiting the Potential of Nature
for Sustainable Building Designs:
A Novel Bioinspired Framework Based
on a Characterization of Living
Envelopes
Tessa Hubert, Antoine Dugué, Tingting Vogt Wu, Denis Bruneau,

and Fabienne Aujard
Abstract Living envelopes, such as biological skins and structures built by animals,
are functional and sustainable designs resulting from years of evolution, conditioned
by biological and physical pressures from the environment. When building a home,
animals demonstrate inspiring strategies to protect themselves from predator threats
and external climatic conditions. As for human buildings, temperature, humidity,
air quality, light, are some of the various factors they have to manage for optimal
conditions. Facing the climate emergency, growing efforts to build durable designs
have led designers to search for more efficient or alternative solutions by observing
Nature. The emerging field of bioinspiration including animal architecture has
already brought few but rare exemplary innovations that were integrated into building
designs. Data on animal architecture are scattered among various biological domains,
from observation of species habitats by zoologists such as entomologists or ornitholo-
gists, to bioindicator studies by climatologists. Data collected by scientists is available
in eclectic idioms, a challenge to be fully comprehended by building designers. This
T. Hubert (B) · A. Dugué

NOBATEK/INEF4, National Institute for the Energy Transition in the Construction Sector, 64600
Anglet, France
A. Dugué
T. Hubert · T. Vogt Wu
Institute of Mechanical Engineering (I2M), UMR CNRS 5295, Université de Bordeaux, 33400
Talence, France
T. Hubert · D. Bruneau
Ecole Nationale Supérieure d’Architecture et Paysage de Bordeaux, 33405 Talence, France
F. Aujard
MECADEV UMR CNRS 7179 —National Museum of Natural History, 91800 Brunoy, France
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-1812-4_10
290 T. Hubert et al.
chapter presents a characterization of living envelopes aiming at facilitating the trans-

position of some relevant biological features into innovative and sustainable architec-
tural designs. The approach is architecture and engineer oriented, assessing biolog-
ical functions and strategies, using criteria that are meaningful to building designers:
functional and temporal analyses of spaces and materials, physical factors regu-
lated through envelopes, behaviors, and interactions of species. Applied to a sample
of species and animal-built structures, the characterized biological role models put
forwards multi-functionality and efficiency through relevant construction techniques,
the use of local resources, as well as behavioral adaptation. Examples of applications
inspired from the characterized species are described, from theoretical proposals to
a very practical application of an adaptive envelope skin inspired by the Morpho
butterfly.
Keywords Bioinspired design · Adaptive skin · Biological characterization ·

Animal construction · Living skin · Building envelope · Design framework ·
Sustainable designs
1 Introduction
Living species have evolved for 3.8 billion years under environmental pressures
[1] such as geographic and climatic conditions, competition of material resources, or
predation. Observable variations in organisms are called the phenotype and it includes
morphology, physiology, and behavior characteristics [2]. Through phenotypic adap-
tation to maintain viable conditions in regard to the varying external environment,
species resulting with the best selective advantages and characteristics have a higher
probability to survive.
As the living species found today on Earth are the outcome of a continuous natural
selection process while facing varying and extreme conditions, they can prove to be
resourceful and very effective, and as such, they have much to teach us in a time
where resilience to climate change has become a necessity for our own survival [3]. In
Europe, most countries present an ecological deficit, meaning that their population’s
footprint CO2 emission with fossil fuel use exceeds the biocapacity of the area
available to that population [4]. Concerns about climate change are rising, while
new environmental requirements are emerging in the building sector. As it accounts
for around 40% of the global energy consumption, sustainable advances in the built
environment are essential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. And more specifically
for the building envelope as it has a key role to play in the overall building energy
consumption [5].
The envelope is a widely used term to define the interface of a building between its
internal and external environment. It includes the roof, façades, floor, openings such
as windows or doors, and even transitional spaces such as atria or lobbies. Transposed
to Nature, envelopes can be described at different scales. First, on a living organism
scale, with biological skin such as the human dermis or the shell of a snail. Second, on
Exploiting the Potential of Nature for Sustainable Building Designs … 291
a macro scale with constructions built by organisms, such as bird nests or tunnels of
ant colonies. Both types of envelopes act as filtering barriers between two fluctuating
environments and demonstrate multi-functional properties which could help inspire
human designs. The feathers of penguins, for instance, act as a thermal insulation
while being superhydrophobic and anti-icing [6], which allows them to daily dive
in sub-freezing waters. Combined to a natural oil with water-repelling properties,
nano-scaled ridges on the feathers make it impossible for microdroplets to form
ice. This envelope could inspire resistant insulated designs while offering water and
ice-repellant properties.
Bioinspiration has recently emerged as an interdisciplinary field to lead to inno-
vative, efficient, and durable designs [7]. Research on the area is growing, resulting
in several cases of bioinspired building envelopes inspired from species described in
the literature by biologists [8–11]. The current description of living organisms would
account for 1.7 million species out of 10 million left to describe [12]. Even for quite
a small ratio, the amount of potentially inspiring species described in the literature
is substantial. However, practice in architecture shows that the selected biological
models are often picked among commonly known species, from animal or plant king-
doms [13]. The abstraction of the species also rarely led to multi-functional designs,
whereas the feature of the species which provided inspiration usually is involved in
several regulatory roles. This pattern could be related to a scarce involvement of biol-
ogists during the design process [14], driving the design team to construct inspired
designs on biological shallow knowledge.
Yet, even though rarely developed by biologists [15], several tools exist to facil-
itate the bioinspiration process [16, 17]. More specifically, thesaurus [18], ontolo-
gies [19–21], or taxonomies [22] are being developed to help the understanding
of the properties and functioning of living species and selecting the relevant case
study for the purpose of the application. However, they do not focus on living
envelopes hence might not provide a characterization with terminology and semantic
oriented toward architects and engineers. Only few methodologies for characterizing
multi-regulation capacities of biological envelopes or for proposing multi-functional
building envelopes were developed in the literature [10, 23–26]. This chapter presents
a characterization of living envelopes derived from the methodologies of [23, 24],
further developed using biotic, space, and time-scale criteria. A proposed framework
backbone the innovation process, integrating this characterization as a support for
the identification and understanding of relevant biological features. They are then
explored and transposed into bioinspired concepts. The chapter proposes the descrip-
tion of some general principles for building envelope emerged from this methodology,
as well as an actual design.
2 Living Envelopes
2.1 Building Designs in Needs of Bioinspiration?
To respond to climatic challenges, extensive research in the building field is focusing

on improving the envelope’s efficiency. Yet, this is not a recent trend, as the building
envelope at various periods of time has been adapted to the occupants’ needs, along
with construction techniques and technologies. Pioneers of bioclimatic buildings in
the 1960s were already targeting reductions in energy consumption of the whole
building, considering the overall design of the envelope without the use of separate
or additional equipment [27]. Ever since the building envelope was more than a load-
bearer structure and a thermal shield, additional layers for specific functions were
added, rather than providing a new design based on holistic analysis and resulting in
a multi-functional feature.
Consideration of harvesting solar energy using passive systems and influencing
the user behavior [28] also goes back and highlights multiple perspectives of the
envelope. The approach given above is mainly engineer-oriented, but the building
envelope definition changes according to the observer. For the occupants, the enve-
lope elements surrounding them are managing heat and light transfers that result in
visual and thermal comfort and delimiting private from public space. For an archi-
tect, it can represent a contact surface between the building and the city, while for
the energy-focused engineer, the envelope acts as an interior/exterior separation.
Therefore, the list of expectations for the building envelope can be broad. Adding
to this, the regulations and standards are numerous and complex, and can depend
on the countries, but put together they define a regulatory framework that allows
characterizing the expected indoor controlled conditions. Those integrate thermal,
light, noise, and air comfort for the occupant while being exposed to varying outdoor
conditions [29].
In that sense, living envelopes face very similar needs to which they are highly
responsive. Despite being inert like buildings, some plants for instance can demon-
strate dynamic mechanisms at different scales. They might respond to water through
tropism and nastic macro-movement and manage their carbon dioxide needs by
opening and closing their stomates [30]. Species have discomfort ranges where their
metabolism and physiology are not properly functioning, which will push them to
try to reach better or optimal conditions.
The field of examples in biology being very broad, the authors narrowed down
their study of biological organisms to samples including structures built by animals
and biological skins only, in order to find responsive and multi-functional inspiring
properties.
2.2 Biological Skins
Biological skin refers to the envelope separating the internal environment of living
organisms from external conditions. As the diversity of biological skins is wide,
some research reduced the sampling of their study using various selection criteria
[24]. reduced the sampling of their study [13] using various selection criteria. For
instance, only the outermost envelopes are taken into account, meaning the study
excluded partition envelopes such as blood vessel walls or nervous tissue. Though
arbitrary, this choice makes sense since biological skins were selected by analogy
with the building envelopes as they are both exposed to similar external condi-
tions (sun radiation, wind, daily temperature variations…) and encompass the whole
system. In addition, only pluricellular Eukaryotes are studied; unicellular species,
as well as Bacteria and Archaea domains [2] are excluded because their description
in literature is scarce. At last, no living organisms from marine environments were
selected as their range of environmental conditions was considered too distinct from
the classical terrestrial environment of buildings. Although existing or in their design
phase [31], resilient architecture as marine and underwater habitats worthy of Jules
Verne is not the norm yet.
2.2.1 Selection Among the Diversity of Skins
The selection criteria described above resulted in a list of 10 types of biological skins
[24] defined by their base skin and appendages, i.e., their natural prolongation. The
base often includes several layers of tissues, such as the hypodermis, dermis, and
epidermis of the human skin. Appendages can be various as shells, scales, feathers,
fur, and provide many additional functions to the skin.
For our own characterization, a few species corresponding to those types of
envelopes were selected, based on the available data in the literature, on the various
climate range of their habitat, but mostly on the diversity of functions their envelopes
provide to keep them alive (sample in Table 1).
Chameleons were chosen among the horny scale species for their known color
modifications, a property provided by their dermis. This ability, although associated
with camouflage and display for social interaction, would help them thermoregulate
themselves by changing the configuration of the nano-crystals contained in one of
their dermis, reflecting more in the near-infrared (IR) range of the spectrum [33].
Likewise, Silver ants have high reflective properties in the near-IR range, and high
emissivity in the mid-IR, thanks to their appendages. Their setae, microscopic hairs
triangular-shaped in the case of silver ants, allow them to cool down by a few degrees
[34], just enough to find food for the colony by going outside under the desertic
Saharan climate. On a nano-scale, the wings of the Morpho butterflies provide self-
stabilization in temperature: they emit in the IR when they are too warm, and absorb
it again when they cool down [35, 36].
Table 1 Selected species from various types of envelopes

Selected Type of Reign/class/order Climate (Köppen
species envelope classification [32])
[24]
Chameleon Skin, scale Animal/Reptile/Squamata Temperate/mesothermal:
humid subtropical
Garden snail Skin, shell Animal/Gastropod/Stylommatophora Temperate/mesothermal
Mouse Skin, fur Animal/Mammal/Primate Tropical to temperate
lemurs
Silver ant Cuticle, Animal/Insect/Hymenoptera Dry climate: hot desert
setae
Morpho Cuticle, Animal/Insect/Lepidoptera Temperate to tropical
butterfly scale
Pine cone Plants’ Vegetal/Pinopsida/Pinales Various
bark
Mouse lemurs (Microcebus sp) are nocturnal species among the smallest lemurs.
They have the ability to enter into states of torpor, i.e., they can reduce their
metabolism and their body temperature [37]. As appendage, their dense fur of down
allows for avoiding water and heat losses. They also have a mechanism of active
heating, thermogenesis without shivering, which uses a particular tissue containing
a specific protein, commonly called brown fat, and also present in humans [38].
The Garden snails were selected for their high sensitivity to hygrometric varia-
tions. When hibernating, they retract inside their shell and seal it using a temporary
mucous veil called epiphragm, avoiding desiccation [39]. When active, they can
hydrate by absorbing humidity on surfaces through their mucous until they have
reached satisfactory hydration [40]. Pine cones are also very hygro-reactive as they
open when the ambient air is dry enough to ensure the dissemination of their seeds.
2.2.2 Existing Applications
The species in our sample show functionalities expressed by their base skin, their
appendages, or the combinations of both, all relevant in regard to the building
envelopes’ expectations. But they also come with other regulating functions which
will not be all cited here; breathability (Silver ant), hydrophobia (Morpho butterfly),
arrangement of matter following the golden angle (Pine cone), etc. When used as
inspiring models, it is probable that only one dominant function is transposed into a
technology, whereas they demonstrate much more regulation assets.
Several buildings and building envelopes were inspired by biological skins [9–
11, 13]. As outlined by [13]—a study on the design process of 30 built bioinspired
envelopes including designs inspired by biological skins—few cases address multi-
regulation apart from coupling light and heat transfers. The latter are interdependent
phenomena and quite often simultaneously targeted by the designers.
Likewise, most of the implemented or currently being implemented designs that

were inspired by our chosen models were found to result from the abstraction of
one function from their biological models. The silver ants inspired a passive radia-
tive cooling under direct solar radiation, using seven layers of HfO2 and SiO2
resulting in high reflectivity in the solar spectrum and emissivity in mid-IR [41].
The applied photonic approach is actually very close to the phenomenon at the root
of the Chameleon change of color, functioning with periodic nano-structures [42].
In line with photonic crystals, the Morpho butterfly has inspired the design of solar
panels for improved efficiency [43, 44] through for instance anti-reflection properties
[45]. More generally, the potential on radiative cooling using Morpho-inspired nano-
structures has been investigated and could be implemented into building applications
[46].
Note that like heat and light mentioned above, functionalities expressed by these
designs are sometimes coupled; for instance, the morphological features of the scales
of the Morpho wings provide thermal regulation, but also hydrophobic properties.
By closely mimicking the structuration, using technologies such as nano-printing,
both properties might get achieved even though only one was targeted.
2.3 Animal Constructions
Animal constructions, also called animal architecture in the literature, are structures
built by animals. Though the designation animal architecture is meaningful for archi-
tects, it could be confused with biological fields such as molecular architecture; hence
the authors will prefer animal construction over this appellation.
The functions of animal constructions are described in the literature as protec-
tion from a hostile environment such as predators or climatic conditions, trapping
preys, and intraspecific communication [47]. These structures usually are destined
for themselves, for their offspring or family, but they can be taken over by preda-
tors, co-occupied with other species, or even re-adapted later on by other species for
new purposes. Constructions abound in nature under diverse forms—burrows, nests,
webs, tubes, caves—and embed sophisticated functions.
By analogy, these envelopes built by living organisms resemble in many ways
to human buildings: they serve a similar function of shelter while being exposed to
uncontrolled varying factors from the outside environment. And while humans build
structures with very energy-consuming techniques and most of the time imported
materials, animals only use local resources that are processed with soft chemistry
and are biodegradable (Fig. 1).
2.3.1 Primary Functions
Endothermic animals, such as mammals, can maintain their body at a certain temper-
ature, mostly through metabolic mechanisms. By opposition, ectothermic animals
Fig. 1 Examples of animal constructions: from left to right, wood ducks, owls, and wasps. Credit
Public domain, images from Davie [48] and Abbott et al. [49]
such as reptiles, also known as cold blood species, have none or very few internal
heating sources, hence they rely on environmental sources to be at favorable temper-
atures. Regardless of their physiological resources, they all have optimum tempera-
tures. Many of them were reported to create shelters to filter, store or dissipate heat.
These shields come with managing other vital factors—air renewal, humidity level,
water flows such as floods—while undergoing environmental variations.
Animal constructions are also exposed to predation, and threats can be managed in
different ways. Camouflage helps animals stay hidden; for instance, some species are
suspected to use branches with lichen to blend in the background when constructing
their nests [50]. Another technique would be preventing the invasion either by using
signals or defensive elements; the nest Chimpanzees build every day as a platform
to sleep would include paralytic compound and thorny leaf stems as protection and
dissuasive elements from potential predators [51].
Storage and cultivation in constructions help animals endure seasons or periods
of time where food is scarce. Kangaroo rats would store seeds in their mounds,
as it would have a more favorable environment to make them moldy [52], a seed
characteristic they would prefer [53]. Animals sometimes even build special storage
rooms but at a higher cost, mostly because of maintenance and a higher threat from
predators and thieves [47].
For this study, communication (such as display by the Male Satin bowerbirds
build to impress females) and transportation constructions were excluded. Although
resourceful and instructive, they appeared out of our scope during our research.
2.3.2 Perimeter of Study
Specific references in the literature give overviews on multiple animal constructions

[47, 54–60]. Most of them contain descriptions, drawings, photographs of construc-
tion processes, used materials, and operating principles of animal constructions. The
descriptive and narrative discussions are all specific to their authors and are mostly
qualitative in their characterizations. To find specific data, e.g., the hygrothermal

properties of some construction envelopes, it was necessary to search specific litera-
ture about the builder species. Despite this process, very little quantitative data was
found and they usually mostly cover the thermal aspects of the nests.
The authors selected 50 constructions from species with diverse
needs and constructions techniques, to have a diversified sample. For this,
they chose various animal classes, including marine species. The resulting sample
contains constructions made through all four processes mentioned above, with
various shapes, materials, and features (synthesis in 3. Take-aways from animal
constructions).
2.4 Taxonomic Bias
The distribution of our samples does not reflect the diversity of described nor esti-
mated species on Earth. To approximate research activities according to 24 taxonomic
classes, a study calculated the occurrence of data from the Global Biodiversity Infor-
mation Facility (GBIF) database, i.e., the biggest biodiversity data repository avail-
able proportionally sampled to its number of known species [61]. They found that land
plant classes and animal classes including birds, mammals, amphibians, and reptiles,
are over-represented, while arachnids, fungi, and insects are under-represented, the
latter having the worst occurrence. They underline the fact that classes such as birds
were known as over-represented in many disciplines for a long time [62] and the gap
with the rest of the species is barely decreasing since the 1950s.
The authors’ sampling of biological skins is limited as it excluded many species,
hence it cannot be properly confronted with the expected taxonomic biases investi-
gated in the cited references. On the other hand, the sampling of animal construc-
tions confirms some arguments: birds and fungi are respectively over and under-
represented, which is consistent with the literature. As for insects, arachnids, and
mammals, the trend seems to be reversed and matches the authors’ occurrences of
animal-built structures in the literature: indeed, construction for birds and insects
were presented as the most occurent by Hansell [47].
The difference of occurrence in research and publications—hence of taxonomic
biases—between species and built structures of species—is not surprising. First,
all species do not build homes; arthropods apart from arachnids and insects are
not much reported as builders, neither are reptiles, which explains their absence in
the sample. Secondly, research has established a strong link between societal pref-
erence and scientific productions [63]. It is understandable that most of the built
structures found in the literature are either built from birds (already popular) or
burrows from arthropods as they might attract curiosity. As for mammals, the exam-
ples of constructions might be fewer since they are endothermic and can manage
their internal conditions with sole metabolisms and behavior strategies. The differ-
ence with birds, endothermic as well, would be their size: following the square-cube
law [64], the heat losses of birds are higher than larger animals, since they have a
higher surface-to-volume ratio; hence more surface area to lose heat compared to
their volume.
3 An Engineer/Architecture-Oriented Characterization
The use of bioinspiration in the building sector has led some researchers to focus
on design processes, frameworks, and tools to facilitate the design of technological
solutions based on biological models [8, 10, 65]. In support, an ISO standard was
proposed to homogenize existing design processes [66], and methods and tools such
as databases, thesauri, or taxonomies were recently developed [16]. However, prac-
tices of bioinspiration in architecture have shown that most of the bioinspired designs
do not rely upon these tools and design processes proposed in the literature, and that
bioinspired designs are most of the time monofunctional [10]. Many concepts are
never implemented in buildings and stay stuck at the stage of concept or patent [67]. It
underlines the challenge of the transposition from the biological models to technical
solutions, which can then be applied to a building. More advanced interdisciplinarity
during the design process would certainly help the transferability of a biological
principle into technologies, by providing a better understanding of the phenomena
at stake.
One of the challenges is that although a broad range of papers proposes descrip-
tions of living envelope features (behavioral biology, anatomy…), the information is
not structured to clearly identify the causes or triggers of the involved phenomena,
and what it can accomplish in physical terms. Moreover, existing tools to describe
these phenomena lack the involvement of biologists as they are usually developed for
and by engineers [15]. Thus, structuration of the available data on living envelopes
is necessary, as this is the biological starting point that will then be exploited during
the design process.
3.1 Existing Tools for Abstractions
Structuration of biological data to support bioinspiration is found in abstraction

tools. Abstraction is crucial in the early steps of the bioinspiration design process
as it consists in analyzing the biological systems and creating parallels between
biology and their own domain. The way models are abstracted plays a key role in the
conceptual phase; hence it requires relevant tools to ensure reliable understanding
and connection to our own design domain.
Biology covers a very broad field of life sciences and can be divided into multiple
subcategories such as mycology, botany, zoology, themselves including other fields of
study (entomology, ornithology, etc.). Even in the biological domain, heterogeneous
information and vocabulary and semantic issues do exist [68]. As highlighted in [69],
the structuration of knowledge using tools such as ontologies is becoming valuable
in bridging the gap between different domains and constructing integrative biology
across its subcategories. Likewise, it could help structure knowledge across multiple
domains such as engineering or architecture.
Whether they are biological or technological, representing systems through func-
tions is already commonly used to abstract problems in engineering. It provides a
systemic way of specifying the functionalities of one model while contributing to
its continuous improvement. Several tools tackle functional modeling in the liter-
ature, proposing ontologies, thesauri, and methods in the frame of bioinspiration
processes. Table 3 presents tools mostly using structural and functional representa-
tions or descriptions. It puts forwards various approaches, such as behavior, strategy,
and causality which could make sense for the characterization of complex structures
interacting with their occupants, such as animal-built structure.
Only one of the listed tools is dedicated to an ontology for bioinspired architecture,
but the project is currently focusing on the energy component although they plan
to extend their study to more parameters such as water management or structural
properties of buildings [70].
3.2 Systemic Approach
No tool was found to help build systemic descriptions and representations of animal-
built structures in the literature. To structure their biological characterization, the
authors first set a list of commonly accepted requirements for the building envelope
and for the indoor conditions to provide comfort.
Human perception of comfort is related to three main factors: physiology,
behavior, and psychology. The physiological is related to the metabolism, i.e., the
body’s mechanisms to keep acceptable conditions such as perspiration or metabolic
heat. Behavioral mechanism represents actions taken by the person to reach a more
comfortable state, such as getting dressed or doing physical activity. The last factor
has been shown to be very variable according to the people, their culture, and their
geographical origins; for instance, the habit of a certain type of climate increases the
body’s tolerance to this same climate in terms of temperature. As such, it is hard to
set standards on indoor environmental quality (IEQ). However, optimal conditions
can be approximated using the following factors:
– Stable temperature usually appreciated in a range from 17 to 22 °C [81];
– Relative humidity in the 40%–65% range [81];
– Illuminance during the day between 300 lx [81] and 500 lx, and limited
illuminance during the night;
– Carbon dioxide concentration under 1000 ppm and VOCs (Volatile Organic
Compounds) under their respective TLVs (Threshold Limit Values);
– Airspeed higher than 0.1 m/s for renewal and below 0.3 m/s to avoid thermal
discomfort;
– Background noise below 35 dB [82].
Fig. 2 Connections between outside and inside inputs on the IEQ expectations
The variations of these internal conditions are either due to environmental inputs,
such as the temperature or relative humidity from the external ambient air or to
the occupants and users. Indeed, the occupants unintentionally unbalance conditions
through exchanges between their own body with their close media (heat exchanges,
perspiration, breathing). Also, they usually can action commands that operate the
building (HVAC systems, openings, etc.) and can modify conditions by their behavior.
Figure 2 illustrates environmental factors and occupants as influencing indoor condi-
tions. They highlight the regulation functions the building envelopes should manage:
air, water, light, and heat transfers, as proposed by [23], completed by [24] with sound
transfer and resistance to mechanical loads.
This representation of the interaction between building comfort and functionalities
of the envelope foresees the complexity of characterizing living envelopes, whether
they are organisms or built structures. They are part of a system whose inputs and
outputs are interconnected. This angle directly refers to a systemic approach, i.e., an
analysis method to handle systems from a global point of view. Commonly used in
biology or engineering without being cited as such, it aims at understanding complex
systems through three main concepts [83]. First, a system is governed by loops
balancing or unbalancing each other. In the building, these loops were identified as
indoor variations due to the occupants and environmental factors, in time scales of
hours, days, or seasons. Second, all parts of a system are connected to each other. This
can relate to the interconnection of the system elements: for instance, the temperature
felt in a room depends on many factors, such as the air velocity, depending on itself
on the shape of the room, on the user movements, on the airtightness of the envelope,
and so on. Third, the different parts of a system working together result in synergy.
The combined effect is greater than the sum of their separate effects. This concept
also implies the dynamic and evolutionary properties of the system.
Fig. 3 Structure of proposed characterization for living envelopes. The “Comfort” zone in dark
blue stands for the optimal range for one specific biological need. Disruptive elements at time t 2
are an illustration of the concept illustrated for time t 1
All three concepts are complementary and helped the authors define characteriza-
tion criteria for understanding and describing biological skins and animal construc-
tions. The chosen structure for the characterization is presented in the scheme of
Fig. 3. Stimuli, such as environmental factors or interaction with other species, unbal-
ance the system. The response of the system can be either the direct effect of stimuli
on the system (e.g., the sun radiation leads to a rise of body temperature of a species)
or readjustment of the system to return to comfortable conditions (e.g., discomfort
in the rise of temperature induces the species to reach a shaded area).
Responses of various stimuli occur along different temporalities and locations of
the system. For a bee, stimuli can have an impact either on their wings, their scales
as a sub-part of the wings, or a completely different area as the thorax. Responses to
these disturbances can be described through physical phenomena which are the very
same heat, light, air, water, sound transfers, and structural properties expected to be
managed in the building envelope.
3.2.1 Physical Phenomena and Features
Physical phenomena can be expressed through functions, physical processes, and

features (see Table 4). For instance, the wool of some animals prevents them from
losing heat with low conduction. This is due to the composition of matter, keratin,
and its arrangement, as it traps air which has low conductivity compared to most
solids. This phenomenon can then be described under the structure: HEAT (retain)
> Conduction > Composition and arrangement of matter.
The list of features given in Table 4 is not comprehensive, as living organisms
have developed extensive behavioral, physiological, or morphological [84] adapta-
tion strategies. They are the essence of the multiple functionalities found in nature.
As they are categorized similarly as an architect or engineer would describe the
envelope properties, this depiction of physical phenomena should assist the design
of bioinspired systems.
3.2.2 Stimuli
The description of biological models is not complete without determining the

elements that influence and interact with them. These elements are part of their direct
surrounding environment and can be dissociated into two main categories: biotic and
abiotic factors, listed in Table 5 for biological skins and animal constructions.
The abiotic factors [85] are non-living elements of the environment that affect
living organisms. As the ambient temperature can affect the indoor conditions of a
building, it also affects the comfort conditions of living species. Rain, wind, solar
radiation are all factors that living organisms need to comply with.
The biotic factors [86], complementary to abiotic factors, are the living elements
affecting living organisms. For instance, behavior mechanisms or metabolism are
biotic factors affecting the species’ internal conditions. A mechanical behavior from
the organism such as the pilomotor reflex, commonly called goosebumps, makes hair
raise and traps air for a thin layer of insulation when some mammals are cold. This
mechanism has a direct impact on the species, as well as on the indoor condition of a
volume, as the occupant provides heat, air, water gains into the air (see Fig. 2). Inter
and intraspecies relationships, e.g., mating or predation, are also considered biotic
factors as they unbalance living systems.
3.2.3 Synthesis
The resulting characterization is aimed at being elaborated into a functional structure

that fits the architect and engineer ideation language, structuration, and process.
The characterization is schematized in Fig. 4 and consists of a systemic approach,
determining for each case the following elements:
– A system (biological skin or animal construction) and its sub-systems: these are
either layers of the biological skins (such as the “skin” or base coupled with an
appendage as described in Sect. 2.2.1), parts of the organism envelopes (wing
vs. thorax for Lepidoptera), or partitions of the animal constructions. For the
latter, in the same way that humans compartmentalize buildings, some animal
constructions are dissociated into partitions providing food production, waste
Fig. 4 Schematic representation of a system of animal architecture: disruptive elements and

functioning predictions
disposal, or storage. Note that chambers (“incubation area”, “inner construc-

tion”, “room”) were spaces described predominantly in the literature, mainly for
parturition, brood, and juvenile growth implying very specific temperature ranges
requirements.
– Requirements for the system: they correspond to the biological needs of the
living organisms (needs in water, internal temperature, etc.), to the indoor comfort
conditions for animal constructions with ranges that meet the biological needs of
the construction users, or to the sociological needs of the species (interactions,
e.g., communication or reproduction).
– Stimuli as abiotic and biotic factors impacting the internal conditions of the
system. Biotic factors are more numerous for animal constructions, as it adds up
with the biotic factors of the structure occupants.
– Responses to the stimuli to stay in or return to optimal conditions for survival:
these responses can be described using processes, and most importantly features
(Sect. 3.2.1), which are key to understanding the underlying functioning of the
system. Note that it is common that multiple phenomena take place at the same
time or co-operate at different levels: hence, their features and corresponding
spatial scales must be thoroughly described. Likewise, disturbances and responses
operate at different time scales: random stimuli might not trigger the same
mechanisms than expected disturbances, such as daily or seasonal events.
The description of time and spatial scales for the various physical phenomena
and their linked features provides a multidimensional vision of the analyzed system.
Although not easy to grasp, this complexity is what brings emergence to the whole.
Inspiration from biological models can happen at different levels or scales, and it is
up to the designers to choose what is relevant for their own purposes.
4 Take-Aways from Animal Constructions
For a better understanding of the proposed characterization, the next section illus-
trates an example of the characterization process through the prairie dog burrows.
Applied to the entire sample (list in Table 2), several main take-aways have been
identified regarding multi-functionality of building envelopes as well as construc-
tion modes. Those are worth addressing as guidelines or as research areas to further
explore toward more efficient, responsible, and durable buildings and will be briefly
described in the following.
4.1 Example of Characterization: The Prairie Dog Burrows
Prairie dogs, from the Genus Cynomys of the squirrel Family (Sciuridae), are
mammals from the Rodentia Order. They are so-called prairie dogs because of their
habitat—open vegetation with herbs and grasses mainly—and their alarm calls when
they see danger, which are similar to the barking of a dog. This endothermic species
mainly lives in North America under two subgroups recognized by mammologists,
black-tailed & white-tailed, and they co-habit in groups in burrows (photograph of
a burrow entrance in Fig. 5). While some of them are believed to hibernate contin-
uously during winter, others would facultatively enter torpor during winter, spring,
and summer [87]. The Black-tailed prairie dogs, for instance, rather choose winter
rest over hibernation, i.e., they will have a rest interrupted by numerous awakenings,
with moderate but not drastic hypothermia.
Although some areas they live in can get as warm as 38 °C in the summer and as
cold as—37 °C in the winter [88], they do not rely on hibernation to survive winter,
but depend on their burrows for protection from the weather and predators. Hence,
the characterization of the prairie dog burrows might bring relevant insights on how
to ensure thermal comfort and sufficient air renewal using elaborate tunnels.
Following our established characterization process, various elements were inves-
tigated in literature documents (note that the information provided here is not
comprehensive):
Systems and sub-systems. The burrows are dug straight down in soil by the prairie
dogs. They are made of openings, circulation areas, rooms, and an envelope, i.e.,
the ground in which there are dug. The openings are several entrances, “back
doors”, and plugged emergency exits in case of intrusion. The entrances are mound
shaped, to be a lookout and to redirect water during heavy rain. The rooms serve
diverse functions: chambers for the offspring and adults, rooms for feces, or for
storing food.
Comfort requirements. The prairie dogs require an internal temperature of
around 36 °C. Their body temperature can decrease down to 10 °C during deep
torpor episodes [87]. They mostly eat vegetation from the prairies they live in and
hydrate through the moist of the eaten food, i.e., they do not specifically drink
Table 2 Selection of building species (n = 50)

Animal class Animal order Family, genus, or species (Scientific or common
names)
Actinopterygii Gobiiformes Periophthalmodon schlosseri (Mudskipper)
(Ray-finned fishes)
Arachnida (Arachnids) Araneae Argyroneta aquatica (Water spider),
Micrathena gracilis (Orb-weaver)
Insecta (Insects) Blattodea Allomerus decemarticulatus, Amiterme
meridionalis (Compass termite), Cubitermes,
Macrotermes natalensis, Macrotermes
subhyalinus, Noditermes lamanianus,
Odontotermes transraalensis, Procubitermes,
Thoracotermes macrothorax
Hymenoptera Vespidae, Formica rufa (Red wood ant),
Harpegnathos saltator (Indian jumping ant),
Iridomyrmex (Rainbow ant), Brachymyrmex
(Rover ant), Leguminivora glycinivorella,
Macrotermitinae, Vespa orientalis (Oriental
hornet), Zeta abdominale
Lepidoptera Eriogaster lanestris (Small Eggar), Gynaephora
groenlandica (Arctic woolly bear moth), Tinea
pellionella (Case-bearing clothes moth)
Aves (Birds) N/a *1 Early breeding bird species in Europe
Apodiformes *Swiftlet birds, Calypte anna (Anna
hummingbird), Glaucis aeneus (Bronzy hermit)
Passeriformes Ploceus philippinus (Baya weaver), Spermestes
bicolor (Black-and-white manakin),
Campylorhynchus brunneicapillus (Cactus
wren), Petrochelidon pyrrhonota (Cliff
swallow), Delichon urbicum (House martin),
Picathartes gymnocephalus (White-necked
rockfowl), Turdus merula (Common blackbird),
Furnarius rufus (Red ovenbird), Aegithalos
caudatus (Long-tailed tit), Philetairus socius
(Sociable weaver), Ploceus cucullatus (Village
weaver)
Procellariiformes Thalassarche melanophrys (Black-browed
Albatross), Thalassarche chrysostoma
(Gray-headed Albatross)
Charadriiformes Himantopus mexicanus (Black-necked Stilt)
Bucerotiformes Ocyceros birostris (Gray hornbill)
Galliformes Leipoa ocellata (Mallee fowl)
Columbiformes Treron vernans (Pink-necked green-pigeon)
Mammalia (Mammals) Primates Pan (Chimpanzee)
Rodentia Cynomys (Prairie dog), *Burrowing mammals
(continued)
Table 2 (continued)
Animal class Animal order Family, genus, or species (Scientific or common
names)
Polychaeta (Bristle Terebellida Pectinaria koreni
worms)
1 The asterisk * stands for unspecified families in the literature
Table 3 List of bioinspired tools for helping abstraction

References Bioinspired tools Principle
Chakrabarti and Sarkar [71] SAPPhIRE (State change, Structural and functional
action, part, phenomenon, input, description of biological
oRgan and effect model) and technical systems
Based on FSB (Function,
Behavior, Structure) [72]
Vattam et al. [73] DANE (Design analogy to Functional representation:
nature engine) interactive tool box diagrams linked
together by behavioral
causal explanations
Based on FBS [72]
Rosa et al. [21] Uno-BID Hybridization of SaPPhIRE
[71] and DANE [73]
Goel et al. [74] Ontology of biomimetics Functions
Referring to the TRIZ
method [75]
Yim and Wilson [76] Ontology for bioinspired design Use of bioinspired designs
Physical architectures,
behavior, function, strategy
Chayaamor-Heil et al. [70], Ontology of BiomimArchD Ontology focusing on
BiomimArchD—UMR MAP building energy
3495 [77]
Nagel et al. [78] BioM (Biological modeling) Functional representation
of biological systems
Models with different levels
of granularity
Using
engineering-to-biology
thesaurus [79]
Helms and Goel [80] Four-box method Description of a model of
biological and technical
systems: operational
environment, functions,
specifications, and
performance criteria
Table 4 Regulation factors, principles, and features

Phenomena Processes Features
Heat (Gain, retain, Conduction, convection, Macro-geometry
transmit, prevent) radiation, metabolic rate, Surface states
electromagnetism, phase Composition of matter
change Arrangement of matter
Light (Absorb, reflect, Transmission, reflection, Movement
transmit, diffuse) absorption, refraction Surface-to-volume ratio
Fluid properties
Sound (Absorb, transmit, Transmission, absorption, Property of mechanical wave
dissipate) reflection […]
Water (Conserve, filter, Diffusion, gravitational
gain, loose) action, capillarity, sorption,
absorption, condensation
Air (Move, retain) Pressure difference, induced
flow, air renewal, convection
Structure (Balance, Absorption, transmission
integrity, comfort)
Adapted from Badarnah and Kadri [23], Cruz [24]
Table 5 Abiotic and biotic factors, identified as disruptive elements

Abiotic factors Biotic factors
(environmental conditions) Interspecies Intraspecies Individual
Behavior Behavior Behavior
Wind Competition Competition Feeding
Sun radiation Predation Predation Resting
Environment radiation Symbiosis Reproduction Mating
Precipitation Mutualism Resources Hibernation
Relative humidity Commensalism Space Thermoregulation
Medium tectonic Cooperation Metabolism
Mechanical load Cohabitation
Flooding Mating Metabolic rate
Electromagnetic radiation Brood/juvenile protection Hibernation
Material Thermoregulation
Fig. 5 Prairie dogs above and in front of their burrow entrance. Credit Pixabay, Licence CC0
water. They are diurnal species but are more active in the morning and evenings
during hot summer days. Their burrows are meant for rest, protection from cold
or hot weather, and are located next to vegetation for food supply.
Social requirements. They are social animals. They live in families or colonies
with a range of up to 68 individuals per hectare for some species [89]. They breed
once a year, and the litter of 2 to 8 pups requires a lot of attention as they are born
blind and without fur. They are kept hidden in low chambers until they are strong
enough to venture out. In addition to abiotic protection to meet their comfort
requirements, the burrows require protection from predation, either by behavioral
mechanisms from the prairie dogs, or using structural adaptation in the burrows,
such as partition walls or narrowing the tunnels.
Disruptive elements are listed in Table 6 and are categorized into abiotic and
biotic factors.
Table 7 shows examples of some relevant physical responses from the burrows
and their occupants. To ensure thermal comfort for themselves and their offspring,
prairie dogs demonstrate several behavioral adaptations: snuggling to keep warm,
using vegetal fibers in chambers as insulation material, storingage feces for heat
production through organic decay, but also choosing their resting rooms for optimum
temperature according to the altitude. Those are strategies that aim at benefiting from
the environment when physiological responses alone might not have been enough.
The distribution of the strategies between all parts of the systems also helps under-
stand what features are to be described: the shape of the tunnels, the porosity of the
envelope, the added materials into the chambers, etc. To mimic the general ther-
moregulation strategies of the prairie dogs, one would have to consider a combina-
tion of heterogeneous heat sources and their spatial distribution. For the inspiration
of one feature only, the use of inputs, spatial and time scales should help grasp
the elements at stake: for instance, adapting the altitude for optimum temperature
involves multiple phenomena: air convection from bottom to top of burrow varying
Table 6 List of potential disruptive elements and inputs

Abiotic factors Biotic factors
Interspecies Intraspecies Individual
Behavior Behavior Behavior
• Sun radiation, wind, • Predation (hawks, • Cooperation • Lifespan (5–8 years)
heat energy from eagles, snakes) (resources, nursing, • Feeding (vegetarian)
soil, precipitation, • Matter (vegetal: snuggling, detecting • Detecting predators
relative humidity, air seeds, fibers, straws, threats) • Maintaining burrow
• Mechanical loads, rotten roots) • Cohabitation (other • Mating (once a year)
medium tectonic • Other species (soil) families) • Metabolism
• Cohabitation • Brood/juvenile
(squirrels) • Mating • Metabolic rate
• Hibernation, winter
rest, torpor
Table 7 Example of strategies characterized following the approach described in Sect. 3.2
Disruptive Response Phenomena and Features Temporalities
elements Processes
(inputs)
Heat (thermal regulation)
Dormitories
Air Specific Heat Convection Macro-arrangement Diurnal
temperature number of (gain) Ratio of number of
rairie dogs individuals users per volume
(intraspecies) in one room
Snuggling
[89]
Air Adaptation Heat Conduction Spatial variation in the Diurnal
temperature of altitude (gain) Convection thermoregulatory and
Prairie dogs for benefits seasonal
Thermal optimum
energy from temperature
the soil [90]
Dormitories and other rooms
Vegetal Decay of Heat Metabolic rate Organic decay (micro Diurnal
matter matter for (gain) conduction scale) fibrous material
Feces heat
increase
(up to 5 °C)
[91]
Air (renewal)
Tunnels and entrances
Wind Ventilation Air Pressure Tunnels (15 cm of Diurnal
Indoor and in the (move) difference diameters, Rim crater
outdoor air tunnels (1 m-1, 5 m)
with the
pressure
difference
between
entrances
[89, 92]
Water (protection from flood)
Bottom
Precipitations Protection Water Gravitational 2–5 m width, Random
Prairie dogs from (transport) action 30–100 m long
flooding
with
draining
tunnels at
bottom of
burrow [93]
(continued)
Table 7 (continued)
Disruptive Response Phenomena and Features Temporalities
elements Processes
(inputs)
Structure (physical integrity)
All parts
Prairie dogs Continuous Physical Physical Macro sealing Diurnal
repair of integrity equilibrium
cracks [94]
with daily temperatures, conduction from the soil toward the burrow internal surface,
and input geothermal energy, with seasonal variations.
Morphological features can also be mentioned on another scale. For maintenance,
prairie dogs regularly repair cracks they find on the inner surface of their burrows,
along with creating new tunnels and closing others. Structurally, their know-how
on the integrity and hold of soil would benefit to research and experimentation on
materials little used today, such as mud bricks, but which were once very common.
The air renewal of prairie dog burrows depends on ingenuity in the construction
of burrows. Relying on chimney effect, the burrow entrances are built at different
altitudes. With a slight air movement, the air is engulfed in the lower entrance then
pulled out through the higher opening which has lower pressure. A concept of façade
was found in the literature based on this principle to minimize cooling needs and
urban heat island effect [95]. Also inspired by the Voronoi-like growth of Barnacles
(from Group Crustacea), it combines a ventilated air gap with Voronoi pattern-
shaped opening vents. To implement the principle found in prairie dog burrows, they
combined it with a feature based on another biological model.
4.2 Toward Multi-functional Envelopes
Multiple properties for heat, air, water, and structure were identified in our analysis
of animal constructions. Table 8 lists a couple of them and proposes their potential
technical analogies for the building envelopes. These transpositions are commonly
already applied in the building field but could be improved by exploring how biolog-
ical species implement them with little resources and in a sustainable way. The authors
do not propose practical solutions here but point out some features of interest for
designers, architects, and engineers which emerged from our research.
Note that few features related to light management (daylight comfort manage-
ment) were found in the literature for our sample—and when it was, it was mostly as
optical features resulting in thermal properties—none was reported for sound regula-
tion. However, it would seem feasible that species pay attention to acoustics in regards
to predation and the danger of being loud. We can only assume that constructions
are not only insulated for thermal properties but also to prevent noisy litters from
Table 8 Envelopes features, classified by animal classes and regulation factors

Features found in animal Example of transposition to human
constructions and their occupants building envelopes
HEAT (Thermoregulation)
Mammals • Insulation with collected vegetal • Use of on-site vegetal resources
Birds fibers [51, 89, 96] • High insulation properties with
Insects • Use of smaller leaves for higher dense material
insulation [51] • Warmer envelope by enhancing
• Brewing the soil for nest heat conduction with an external source
regulation [97] • Use of air-trapping material
• Feathers added as a layer on • Localized insulation reinforcement
envelope [50, 60] with on-site mineral material
• Use of turf at bottom of habitat [56] • Reduce heat loss with reflective
• Multi-layering with silk to retain material and convection
heat [98] • Integrate thermoelectric properties
• Use of electric charge in silk cap to in the envelope
heat up [98]
Air (Air renewal)
Birds • Air renewal from the environment • Air renewal by extraction of air
by brewing the soil [97] contained in the ground
• Air exchange ensured through clay • Use of porous mineral material for
envelope breathing envelope
• Entrance enlarged when the breed is • Adaptation to air renewal needs with
old enough modular openings
Water (Watertightness, relative humidity)
Mammals • Dome for rain protection at the • Water redirection for entrances on
Birds entrance of burrow [96] top (troglodyte or semi-buried
Insects • Interlocked forest-edge plant on habitats)
envelope [50] • Use of dense fine-branching
• Rain protection with feathers or material to ease dry out
cuticula (Chitin /protein-based • Use of hydrophobic material to
materials) [56] redirect water (redirection,
• Redirect drops of rain using thin collection, or watertightness)
needles [56] • Water redirection with
• Constant vapor flow through the needle-shaped and water drop scaled
envelope by homeostasis material
• Use of pressure gradient to control
vapor flows
Structure (Physical integrity, mechanical resistance)
Mammals • Counterweight to keep the habitat • Counterbalance compensators in
Birds & insects leveled [60] seismic regions
• Saliva used as a material cement and • Study of secretion composition as
joint [99] natural cement
• Vegetal fibbers added to mud and or • Structure rigidity from the
on-site chitin growth using fungi combination between mud (mineral)
[100] and vegetal or commensalism with
fungi
being spotted by potential threats. The use of soft materials, such as vegetal fibers,
or collected secreted materials as feathers or hairs, might bring acoustic absorption
that was not interpreted as such in our readings.
Among the strategies we identified in living species, many are related to ther-
moregulation, the most common being the collection and use of local materials, i.e.,
vegetal, mineral, or secreted organic materials. As they are air-trapping materials,
feathers appear to be the best insulators, compared to plant materials [101]. Local-
ized insulation can also be used by species such as the Formica rufa ants forming a
crown of poles reinforced with peat and turf in their half-buried nest made of twigs
[56]. The Malle-fowl (Leipoa ocellata) bird has found a more active way to gain
heat; when incubating their eggs in a large nest mound, they scratch the soil on or
off their nest to keep optimal temperature by retrieving heat from plants they have
buried [97]. This method relies on the same principle described for prairie dogs (see
Sect. 4.1) using metabolic heat from plant decay and does not require an ingenuous
structure to operate.
Bird nests envelopes can also manage functional air renewal need using a relevant
choice of porous materials such as clay or by modifying the construction to adapt it
to the new air renewal needs. The red ovenbird, (Furnarius rufus) for instance, is able
to remodel the entry of its mud-clay nest without it collapsing when the offspring
are of the age of leaving the nest. For watertightness, species are able to combine
materials into watertight linings; for instance, the Harpegnathos saltator ants [56]
can cover the internal envelopes of their galleries with a mixture made of plants,
insect cuticles, and cocoons. The Formica rufa ants will cover their nest with needles
to have the water run away from the structure [56].
Several strategies were found regarding the management of structural loads on the
animal construction: secretion of saliva as only construction material [99], on-site
growth material using fungi [100], counterbalance of a hanging structure with mud
pellets [60], and specific selection of material for stiffness [51]. The latter is rather
complex as the builder, the chimpanzee, builds basketweaves from twigs and branches
[102] platforms on very specific trees; they would have small distances between
branches, allowing a higher number of interlocking during the weaving, providing
better integrity [51]. Chimpanzees would also select trees with repelling properties
against mosquitoes, implying a pathogen avoidance strategy. The Allomerus dece-
marticulatus ants co-operate with spores living on the plant Hirtella physophora;
the fungus possesses the enzymes necessary for the digestion of chitin, and rapidly
grows on the plant, feeding on the remains of insects. As such, it produces filaments
penetrating and binding together the tube, solid enough to be a trap device for the
ants [100].
Other commensalism strategies in animal constructions such as the Macroter-
mitinae termites growing fungus for nutrients [56] were found in the literature. It
highlights potential additional characterization elements to be integrated into our
database which is rather focused on efficiency: food culture, pathogen avoidance,
commensalism such as symbiosis, are approaches that might be in the future in the
front line of the requirements for closed spaces with the recent sanitary crisis of the
Covid19.
4.3 The Construction of Animal-Built Structures
The proposed characterization has revealed some morphological features provided

by the used materials or macro-geometry of the constructions. They indicate specific
site selection, orientation, choice of materials, and constructive modes.
4.3.1 Site Selection and Orientation
Successful nests, in terms of reproductivity, were found to be related to the choice of

a safe nesting regarding predators [103], proper exposition to environmental factors
[47], and available resources such as food or construction materials.
To minimize predation threats, animals might build their nest at places difficult to
reach, such as high locations from the ground [51, 99], crevices on cliffs [104], on
spiny cacti [50], or underground [105]. Others demonstrate more aggressive strategies
such as positioning thorny leaf stems and jagged trunks at entrances of construction
to discourage intruders and predators [51] or making associations with other species,
more threatening to predators [106]. In opposition, constructions are also camou-
flaged, using surrounding materials such as lichen on trees [50], or just adaptively
located in “safer” locations where predators or parasites even if it sometimes implies
lower thermoregulatory benefits [103].
Despite this trade-off between optimal microclimates site for their offspring and
predation abundance, animals chose their construction site orientation for best expo-
sition to wind, precipitations, and solar radiation. For instance, “magnetic” Amitermes
meridionalis termite mounds obtain a uniform temperature with a south orientation
[107]. Likewise, the south orientation of webs benefits best to the Micrathena gracilis
spider thermoregulation in shaded sites, while west orientation is better for opened
sites [47]. An inappropriate choice of orientation can be very detrimental in regards
to wind, as it could for instance end up with the fall of all eggs contained in the
weaverbird nest because of a slight draught [108].
4.3.2 Material and Processes
Animals have to take advantage of the materials they can find in their surroundings.
They have to be maneuverable by the builder during the design process for construc-
tion purposes; appendages of arthropods allow them to manipulate vegetal or mineral
and claws of mammals help them dig burrows. However, it is not always possible
to deduce the nest shapes with anatomical specializations. An example used in [54]
shows that birds with very similar beaks might build distinct nests and conversely,
differentiation is due to feeding habits.
The choice of material depends on several factors. Despite a careful selection
of a site for nesting, trade-offs can be made because of predation (see Sect. 4.3.1)
and the natural resources available are not always precisely optimal for the intended
construction. The animals might trade materials because of competitions, or choose

materials by opportunism, randomly finding particular materials. As an example,
with the increase in human activities, incorporation of debris in bird nests has been
observed. Songbirds have for example used fibers from cigarette butts as lining; if it
reduces the ectoparasite load, it is also genotoxic for the species [109]. Rather than
collecting local resources, some species even develop their own building materials
that are required to be specific for the intended structure: with silk for precise shape,
with saliva for cement, joint or assembling materials, with integuments (such as hairs
and feathers for thermal insulation, or cuticle for watertightness), etc.
The four main construction methods observed in the literature are sewing,
secreting, excavating, assembling, or a combination of them. Assembling mate-
rials, whether they were collected or secreted by animals requires fastening methods;
without using adhesive, species were found to use the Velcro method, stitches, entan-
glement [60], and weaving [47], the latter one described as the most complex fasten
behavior, though common with some birds and arthropods.
Table 9 lists some processes used by a selection of species and a transposition of the
resulting properties toward generic technological topics applicable to the building:
drying out of materials and mechanical resistance, reinforcement with load addition
of materials or weaving techniques, etc.
It also includes species relying on commensalism from living organisms other than
plants, i.e., fungi for structural properties. This use is already explored in building
applications such as self-repair concrete using bacteria [110] but could benefit from
the inspiration of the Allomerus decemarticulatus ants.
As for the synthesis proposed in Sect. 4.1, this overview points out criteria that
could be added to the characterization. First, the time needed for the construction
could be an indicator of the complexity of the building process: for instance, swiftlet
birds and Vespidae wasps can build dry structures made of secretion and secretion
mashed with vegetal fibers with well-managed drying times. Also, temporality on the
construction phases throughout the entire existence of the constructions might bring
insights into our own renovation and densification strategies. The nests of sociable
weavers end up forming a massing nest which actually provides better insulation than
individual nests [111]. It gradually extends and is rebuilt with new material after any
severe damage that could be caused by the weather or attacks of predators [112].
However, this gradual extension of the nest eventually reaches the limits of the tree
to which it is attached.
4.4 Discussion
The information provided in this take-aways section is all qualitative. Our read-
ings in the literature have shown that studies on more than one parameter among
heat, air, daylight, sound, water, and structures are scarce, and not always adapted
to our characterization. Using rodents as an example [113], explains that the micro-
climate of burrows lacks long-term temperature measurements and that they should
Table 9 Examples of construction processes and morphologies

Illustration Species Used materials Process Morphology Transposition to
features technology
Black-and-white Weaved Quick dry out and

manakin Open cup protective dense
1 Plant: Forest-edge plants Dense interlocked panicles structure
Chimpanzee Weaved Force stress decrease

Plant: Ironwood sticks, Open cup-shaped on pressure points
2 thick foliage Crisscross pattern, small
internodes
Smaller/denser leaf
distribution
– Bronzy hermit Weaved Quick dry out after
Plant: Rootlets, moss, Cone-shaped precipitation by loose
liverwort Attached on a branch open walls
beneath living leaves
Sociable weaver Assembled Variation of specific

Plant: Dried grass straw, Non-woven, thatch-like materials in
1 twigs Huge communal nest made superstructure
of several nests and
materials
Attached on tree
Red wood ant Assembled & excavated Load resistance

Plant: Twigs, spruce Mud and twigs used reinforcement
1 needles instead of needles on the
Mineral: Soil, mud lower part of the nest
Swiftlet birds Secreted Cement for material

Secretion: Saliva, Half-bowl shape assembly or joint to
3 feathers Adhesion to rock rock-alike structures
Water spider Secreted and weaved Mechanical stress

Secretion: Silk Bowl web. Pattern resistance
3 Hierarchical arrangement
of fibbers
– Allomerus Weaved Structural rigidity from
decemarticulatus Tube-trap with a multitude openings using living
Plant: Hirtella host shrub of ant-sized holes fungi
Fungi: Spores Surfaces coated with fungi
Other: Nectar, preys which grow with the
remains of insects
Cactus wren Assembled Heat retainer with

Plant: Twigs, grass Build-in cacti feathers and dense
3 Secretion: Feathers Prolate spheroidal, inside structure
nest lining with feathers
Credits 1 CC BY 2.0 license, Rui Ornelas, Gailhampshire, Festive Coquette, 2 CC BY-ND 2.0
Richard Toller, 3 Public domain
be performed with occupied nests. Indeed, many studies are either done on the body
temperature or the burrow climatic conditions when they are empty, hence their data
do not reflect real conditions.
The characterization of biological skins shows that finding information on the
species itself is not an easy task either [24]; the amount of data is increasing every
year with biology and biomimetic research and it is scattered in many research
fields. We can conclude that there is a need for an access to structured, detailed
information on both biological skins and animal constructions, that can be exploited
for its integration in such a characterization.
5 Integration into a Design Process for the Building

Envelope
The use of the characterization in the frame of a design process for building envelope
designs can be considered following two approaches described in the literature. The
first one, “technology-pull”, starts from a technological problem and tries to solve it
by learning from biological organisms. Quite logically, it is commonly used in the
industrial area as it is more suited to provide solutions to existing problems. The
second one, “biology push”, consists in relying on discovery or established knowl-
edge of a biological model for innovation. Both approaches are explored through
multiple design processes, many of them being destined to the world of engineering
and industry [74, 114–116].
In building design practice, the limit between technology-pull and biology push
approaches is not so defined as the designers make iterations during the design
process, between finding inspiring biology strategies and defining new functional
requirements for the expected design [13]. When initiating the project, our approach
was more technology-pull oriented, as living envelopes were selected by analogies
with existing requirements and expectations regarding both the building envelope
and the indoor conditions. However, the resulting characterization can be handled
in both approaches, depending on whether designers are targeting one or several
specific managing functions for the building envelope, or simply want to explore
biological models for fresh new ideas. The framework described in the next section
is suitable for the two approaches.
5.1 Technology-Pull Framework
The characterization was integrated into a full design process, with the final aim of the
proposition and assessment of a multi-functional building envelope system. The idea
was to confront the characterization of bioinspired practices and generate feedback
Fig. 6 Proposition of a design process using living envelopes as models
from professionals and actors in designing buildings, and from the assessment of the
resulting designs. The design process is illustrated in Fig. 6 and includes five main
steps.
Steps 1 and 2 were described in the previous sections. They consist in choosing
biological models that could inspire technical solutions for the building envelope
as a preliminary work of data exploration. As explained in 1. Living envelopes, the
biological models were limited to living envelopes and chosen for their diversity
regarding their taxa, their functionalities, and also the availability of data in the
scientific literature. They were then characterized using building-oriented criteria as
described in 2. An engineer/architecture-oriented characterization. The abstraction
models that emerged from this characterization were stored in a database available
to designers for Step 3.
The data exploration was performed during Step 3 by engineers, architects, and
designers. They were asked during workshops to rely on the provided database to
propose concepts of envelopes managing at least several functions for the envelope or
indoor comforts of their choice. Ideas that emerged from this step were then further
investigated through technical and feasibility considerations, and parametric design.
The final step consisted in implementing at least one design, by the assessment of a
prototype using measurements and modeling.
An adaptive bioinspired envelope, managing heat, air, and light transfers toward
the building and inspired by the wings of the Morpho butterfly, emerged from this
framework. The concept was prototyped and is currently being assessed (Step 4 of
the process). The following section presents the process of Steps 3–5 that led to this
design.
5.2 A First Case Study: The Morpho Butterfly
The Morpho butterfly is an insect from the Lepidoptera Order (Fig. 7a). The Morpho
term stands for the Genus which includes a variety of subspecies [117]. Found in trop-
ical forests of Central America and South America, they are known for their intense
blue color, yet they contain no blue pigment. The reason is structural; at a nano-scale,
light beams hit overlapping rows of scales, themselves forming ridges, and creating
Fig. 7 a Morpho species photography, Credit: Pixabay Licence. b Drawing of the overlapping
scales [118]. c Optical images of a butterfly wing scale and a transverse section of the scale showing
ridges with lamella structures. Credit Adapted from He et al. [119], Licence CC BY-NC 3.0
constructive interferences (Figs. 7b and 7c). Specific wavelengths corresponding to

the blue color are reflected, while others are canceled out.
As mentioned in Sect. 2.2.1, they were chosen to be characterized as they are
part of one of the ten envelopes categorized by [24], i.e., a combination of cuticles
and scales. They also live in temperate to tropical climates, meaning they probably
have developed strategies and functions to survive warm external conditions. Finally,
although insects are under-represented in the scientific publications (see Sect. 2.4
Taxonomic bias), morpho has recently attracted the spotlight of media [120–122]
and research, hence data was more easily available in the literature than other insects
from the same type of envelope.
5.2.1 Our Characterization
The anatomy of the morpho follows the anatomy of Lepidoptera from the phylum
arthropods: it includes the head, with feeding organs and many sense organs, the
thorax on which are attached the legs and the wings, and the abdomen. Our readings
mostly focused on the wings as it is probably their colors that sparked people’s
curiosity about this species in the first place.
As performed for the prairie dog, a list of requirements, stimuli, and responses
was first established. The resulting characterization is shown in Table 10.
5.2.2 Data Exploration During Workshops
This characterization was then introduced in a workshop, gathering different profiles:

architects, engineers, and architect-engineers. The participants received a 2 h training
on bioinspiration and were shown existing technological designs in architecture so
they would be more familiarized with bioinspired processes. They were then given
the database resulting from the characterization and asked to propose envelopes
concepts inspired from one to several species skins, or animal constructions.
The database was provided as datasheets including general information on the
species and the phenomena processes generated by various stimuli. Figure 8 illus-
trates the datasheet provided for the morpho species. Decision-support tools, e.g.,
Table 10 Characterization parameters applied to the wings of the morpho butterfly

Stimuli Response Phenomena Features Temporalities
and
processes
Heat (thermal regulation)
Wings (up and bottom)
Daylight Orientation of Heat (gain) Radiation Different matter Diurnal
beam wings for arrangement and
Sky long-wave composition
Environment radiation toward (pigments)
Morpho the sky or near between up and
(behavior) environment [123] bottom sides
Air Higher emission in Heat Radiation Matter Diurnal
temperature near-infrared when (dissipate) arrangement &
Sun radiation overheating [35] matter
Environment composition
(multi-scale
organization)
Wings and thorax
Air Wings shuffling for Heat (gain) Convection Movement of Random
Metabolic forced convection wings, macro scale
heat from on thorax [123]
flight
Morpho
(behavior)
Water (water repellent)
Precipitation Self-cleaning Water Gravitational Surface texture, Random
Water from surface [124] (loose) action matter
environment arrangement and
composition,
hydrophobia from
nano-structuration
[125]
Light (visual effect)
Wings (up)
Daylight Structural blue Light Reflection Surface structure Surface
beam color for (reflect) structure
iridescence with
air/chitin [126]
Structure (physical integrity)
Morpho Flexible and ductal Physical – Chitin-made [128] Diurnal
envelope material, integrity
multi-structuration
[127]
Fig. 8 Datasheet given to participants including graphs, texts, and tables. The left part is a zoom-in
of the datasheet
illustrations, key features were included to help designers explore the characterized
models and sort them according to their preferences. Among them, radar charts
suggested by [24] indicated the phenomena involved in the skin functioning: for a
scale from 0 to 3, it specifies low to the high contribution of the system or sub-
system in managing heat, air, light, sound, water, and structural properties. This way,
designers willing to consider specific factors for the building (e.g., water and air) can
easily identify biological models to explore in priority.
5.2.3 Design Conception
After one week apart, we gathered with the workshop participants and brainstormed
the emerged ideas of building envelope concepts.
• The emerged concepts had various operating spatial scales. For instance,
proposing the rotation of human hands-sized or morpho wings-sized elements
is considered a macro-operating scale. On the other hand, proposing the integra-
tion of an envelope element with emissive properties from its nano-structuration
implies a nano-operating scale. The differentiation of these scales permitted the
designers to understand what technical means would be required for the imple-
mentation of their ideas, and as such to link them with existing technical solutions
(rotating systems, coatings, nano engraving, etc.).
• Then, these operating scales were confronted with the scales of the initial features
they were inspired from. By doing so, it helped investigate other degrees of contex-
tualization of the biological models, and so to think of new bioinspired ideas. As
an example, a possible concept based on the Morpho is a building envelope with
similar adaptability of its emissive properties. Obtaining these properties on a
man-made element could imply reproducing the exact nano-structuration found
on the wing scales, and therefore using advanced technologies such as nano 3D
printing. This “low” abstraction level, although based on a thorough understanding
of the morphological features of the wings, could be transposed into alternative

technological solutions less gray energy-consuming in their design and more low-
tech if explored at different scales; for instance, manually alternating envelope
elements whose emissive properties are different.
In parallel to the morpho, the same investigation occurred on concepts from other
biological models. One of them caught our attention as it is inspired by the chameleon
and proposes a deformable skin to manage daylight and heat transfers toward the
building. As mentioned in Sect. 2.2.1, camouflage, display, and probable thermoreg-
ulation mechanisms in the chameleon are to change color: to do so, it turns into an
excited state which makes the crystalline network contained in one dermis looser
(see Fig. 9). The result is a change of interaction with light beams, reflecting the red
color instead of the blue. Mixed with yellow pigment, the chameleon either appears
in green or orange tones.
This feature of crystalline-network expansion affects the light flow hence the
thermal properties were added to the final concept. As hybridization of two models,
the resulting concept from the workshop combines the following principles: rotating
elements to adapt to transient thermal conditions (macro), a smart-coating on these
elements for similar adaptation (micro or nano), deformable and openable mesh
(meso to macro), partial control on these adaptabilities given to the occupants of
the building (macro). The smart-coating and rotating elements were both chosen to
experience diverse scales of operations and means of implementation. The principle
is represented in Fig. 10.
Merged into one principle, the concept is a deformable mesh of small opaque
elements bonded by an elastic mesh. By stretching the mesh toward one side or the
other of the surface envelope, the elements are pulled apart. It lets light and air go
through these newly created apertures modifying the overall behavior of the envelope
to external weather conditions (sun, air, rain, etc.).
The unitary elements are made of two layers; a base and a rotating flap (respec-
tively gray and blue hexagons in Fig. 10). When the elements are pulled away from
each other by the deformation, each of them initiates individual rotation of the flaps.
Fig. 9 Representation of the Chameleon crystalline network at rest and in an excited state. On the
left network, all colors are absorbed except for the blue which is reflected due to interactions. On
the right network, crystals are pulled apart, absorbing all colors except for the red
Fig. 10 Building envelope concept bioinspired on the morpho wing features and the chameleon:
Flat (a) and deformed (b)
Fig. 11 (Left) Integration of the bioinspired concept into a building and (right) adaptive absorption
coefficient represented by color change
It generates shadows on the surface and new orientations for the flaps. Additional
functionality is achieved through a coating on the external surface of the unitary
elements, i.e., on top of the flaps, that provides an auto-reactive behavior. Expected
managed functions and impacts on the occupant comfort are schematized in Fig. 11.
5.2.4 Implementation
After parametric studies to determine shapes, sizes, and configurations of various

elements of the design, we prototyped a flat but deployable version of the concept
called Stegos. Manufactured to be modular, it was designed as an assembly of
hexagonal aluminum pieces and 3D-printed material for the rotation systems.
The auto-reactivity of the Stegos, a feature inspired by the adaptive emissive
properties of the butterfly, was technologically translated using a thermochromic
paint, i.e., whose color changes at a temperature threshold of 45 °C. From color
blue to white, the coating absorptivity naturally decreases in the visible spectrum
(40% average decrease between 400 and 700 nm). Since this wavelength range
accounts for almost 40% of the total solar spectrum energy [129], such a change
on a thermochromic-coated material should have a significant impact on its solar
thermal absorption. Therefore, when exposed to constant solar radiation, the expected
behavior of a coated sample is a slowdown in the increase of temperature around the
threshold temperature (Fig. 12).
Measurements of heat and light transfers through the test-box envelope were
performed on the prototype and confronted to simulations. A gray-box approach
is currently ongoing, meaning that partial theoretical models are coupled with data
from performed measurements to obtain a fully descriptive model of the phenomena
taking place in the Stegos. It should help determine parameters such as the solar
intakes.
A deformable version of the Stegos concept is planned to be prototyped and
tested as well in a near future in terms of heat, light, and air transfers. A version with
a rain-collector system added on the flaps combined with an evaporative-cooling
system, maybe using porous material for the hexagonal bases, is also considered. A
follow-up of these designs will be a generic methodology for the characterization
of dynamic envelope elements such as the Stegos, based on calibration of a model
against measurements on similar protocols. It will be applied to the new version of
the Stegos allowing to validate an overall model, characterize the performance, and
as such propose more efficient alternative designs.
Fig. 12 (Left) Absorption coefficient of paint, measured at temperatures below and above 45 °C.
(Right) Final prototype integrated into a test box. The difference of colors on the hexagons is due
to differences in flaps orientations hence temperatures
5.3 Feedbacks and Analysis for This Framework
As mentioned in this chapter, it is uncommon to observe several factors managed by

bioinspired designs apart from heat and daylight combination. Therefore, addressing
several regulation factors was a key approach for the authors during the design
process. The principle of the Stegos emerged from a workshop that had no speci-
fications for the building envelope, and which provided illustrated datasheets as a
support tool. Other workshops with new formats were organized afterward in order
to evaluate the biases and benefits caused by the way the characterization was handed
over to participants. The new participants were provided the following:
1. a characterization of our sample structured in a table, with a keyword search
and a taxonomy based on the 6 managed functions by the envelope as support;
2. both the datasheets and the table, gathering all information.
If the first method seems more functional and is consistent with the current
research conducted on ontologies and tools to help abstraction (see Sect. 3.1 Existing
tools for abstractions), it appeared less ergonomic and illustrative for participating
architects, who stated they preferred to rely on datasheets. However, engineer profiles
reported finding the database useful though not illustrated enough as some biology
terms were too technical. Hence, the main challenge in the use of the database relies
on the sorting of the biological species, not on their understanding and abstraction.
Emerged concepts from these workshops, in particular those based on the charac-
terization of animal constructions, will not be discussed in this chapter. However, they
might be transposed in the near future into technological solutions for the building
envelope, as done for the Stegos, which will permit us to bring new insights and
improvement in our characterization.
From the emerged concept and the ongoing modeling and prototyping of the
Stegos, we can also conclude that the characterization performed on the selected
species and built structures by animals helped build a bridge between biology and
architecture/engineer fields, and facilitated the proposals of simple to complex multi-
scale bioinspired concepts.
6 Conclusion and Future Work
This research aims at facilitating the design of efficient and durable building
envelopes, inspired by features found in Nature. Because we identified the chal-
lenges of bioinspired design processes mostly in the abstraction and transposition
phases, we chose to focus on the description and structuration of biological features
in a way that would help designers ideate multi-functional and transposable concepts.
Our field of biological study is based on an existing work on biological skins and
was enriched with animal-built structures. We intended to propose a characteriza-
tion framework based on a systemic approach. For this, it includes several criteria
that the authors consider necessary to comprehend multi-functional features in living

organisms: systems and sub-systems, their respective requirements for optimal condi-
tions, stimuli, and responses. This characterization was illustrated in detail through
the prairie dog burrows and put forward key guidelines and strategies from animal
constructions that could be relevant for sustainable buildings.
In parallel, we developed a framework in order to experiment bioinspired design
process and assess all its steps. This framework integrates the characterization as a
functional database to explore for ideation. Workshops with mixed profiles (archi-
tects, engineers) led to several multi-functional principles, including one inspired by
the wings of the Morpho butterfly. To assess the concept and improve the first design
corresponding to the current version, measurements on a prototype and modeling are
ongoing.
The proposed biological characterization helped combine multiple features into
one main concept. The chosen criteria eased the transposition of the described
features into one solution. Indeed, they suggested designers frugal to complex
implementation solutions for their concepts. For instance, behavioral mechanisms
described in the characterization inspired designers to assign to the building users
some control over the envelope adaptability. A combination between the wings
‘orientation and their nano-structuration also pointed to the use of both deploy-
able low-tech systems and thermochromic paint. It resulted in a new principle of
auto-shading elements coupled with adaptive properties of absorption. Though not
yet entirely implemented or assessed, the prototyped concept is an innovative solu-
tion for the building envelope, which goes against the paradigm of a static and solid
envelope.
Future work includes a new iteration of the workshops, and emerged concepts
based on animal constructions will be driven to implementation, as it was done
for the Stegos. Feedbacks from participants will help us work on the format of the
database to provide a more user-friendly and versatile medium. Finally, new criteria
for the characterization will be integrated (pathogen avoidance, construction time),
as they were put forth throughout our analysis and appear relevant in the frame of
sustainability and resilient building designs.
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Bio-inspired Approaches for Sustainable
Cities Design in Tropical Climate
Miguel Chen Austin, Thasnee Solano, Nathalia Tejedor-Flores,

Vanessa Quintero, Carlos Boya, and Dafni Mora
Abstract The remarkable growth of urban areas is a scenario faced by many cities
due to the high rate of population that migrates to these zones, increasing the
M. Chen Austin · T. Solano · N. Tejedor-Flores · V. Quintero · C. Boya · D. Mora (B)

Research Group in Energy and Comfort in Bioclimatic Buildings (ECEB), Faculty of Mechanical
Engineering, Universidad Tecnológica de Panamá, Vía Centenario, Panama City 07098, Panama
M. Chen Austin
N. Tejedor-Flores
V. Quintero
C. Boya
N. Tejedor-Flores
Centro de Investigaciones Hidráulicas e Hidrotécnicas (CIHH), Vía Centenario, Panama City
07098, Panama
V. Quintero
Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Universidad Tecnológica de Panamá, Centro Regional de
Panamá Oeste, La Chorrera, Guadalupe 07071, Panama
C. Boya
Dirección de Investigación, Universidad Interamericana de Panamá, Vía Ricardo J. Alfaro,
Panama City 0819, Panama
M. Chen Austin · N. Tejedor-Flores · V. Quintero · D. Mora
Centro de Estudios Multidisciplinarios en Ciencias, Ingeniería y Tecnología (CEMCIT-AIP), Vía
Centenario, Panama City 07098, Panama
M. Chen Austin · N. Tejedor-Flores · V. Quintero · C. Boya · D. Mora
Sistema Nacional de Investigación (SNI), Clayton Ciudad del Saber Edif. 205, Panama City
07144, Panama
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-1812-4_11
334 M. Chen Austin et al.
heat stored in the built environment creating insurmountable microclimatic condi-

tions within the metropolitan area for pedestrians. Such microclimatic conditions
might cause the unfeasibility of using natural ventilation for indoor passive cooling,
increasing the air conditioners usage, and by overlapping to the previous heat stored
the risk of overheating rises. Tropical regions have presented increased floods,
extreme winds, earthquakes, and tropical-heat waves. To address such climate related
challenges, a review on bio-inspired designs strategies at city scale, although not
widely implemented in situ, is presented. On the other hand, developing countries in
tropical regions recently started to develop energy regulations for the built environ-
ment, making it difficult to visualize a short-term implementation of any bio-inspired
design at the city scale. As a result, most studies remain in a preliminary research
project status. The evaluation and comparison of the sustainability of various trop-
ical region cities through the Green City Index is presented. This evaluation led to
assess in detail a Case study in Panama City considering the three critical aspects in
the built environment: the conditioning of indoor spaces for cooling, transport, and
lighting. Based on ecosystem services, a set of indicators are proposed and evaluated
to measure regeneration at the city scale. Finally, to evaluate the proposed solutions, a
SWOT analysis is presented. The use of a regenerative methodology in cities would
mean a greater consideration of nature in planning goals and an improvement in
urban ecosystem relations.
Keywords Biomimicry-based strategies · Green City Index · Ecosystem services ·

Panama City · Regenerative planning · Sustainability evaluation · SWOT ·
Tropical climate
1 Introduction
During the last decades, the idea of creating sustainable cities has been one of the
main objectives to which many regions aspire, for this reason, it is important to
do a general review through the different approaches and strategies of a biological
nature, which have as their primary objective to improve the design of cities. This
review identifies three main aspects and is structured to follow a general approach
to improving cities’ design based on one of the biomimetic approaches. It starts
with the urban metabolism that allows studying the different systems leading to the
identification of problems, followed by the biomimetic approach applied to case
studies, and ends with considerations toward regenerative cities.
Within the different points that evidence that the causes of climate change are
anthropogenic, we can mention the accelerated increase in the consumption of natural
resources [61], with cities and urbanizations causing most of it, considering that they
consume 40% of final energy and are related to 70% of global greenhouse gas (GHG)
emissions [58]. In tropical areas, this consumption increases mainly due to cooling
requirements for comfort and refrigeration, demanding more capacity and time of
use of these systems [74].
Bio-inspired Approaches for Sustainable Cities Design in Tropical Climate 335
Within the concept of analysis through resource flow, new theories emerge, such
as urban metabolism (UM), one of the key processes, first coined by Wolman in 1965,
who determined it fundamental for developing sustainable cities in the future. Others,
however, date back to 1883, when Marx described it as the exchange of materials and
energy between society and the ecosystem [60]. In fact, the material flow analysis
(MFA) methodology covered 32% of a total of 165 case studies that have been
evaluated by The Sustainability Institute and the United Nations—Environment.
Likewise, the most prominent locations that conducted studies of this type were
counted, with the northern hemisphere responsible for 56%, followed by China with
23%, the southern hemisphere, 12%, and in different cities at the same time or global
scope 9% [60].
Current research shows a great deal of overlap with various disciplines that can
help provide answers in the study of city metabolism [60]. The model proposed in
Fig. 1 [60] considers the different interactions that occur continuously with society
and its governments at local, regional, and global levels. In the MU analysis, inputs
and outputs are considered passive and active, while biogeochemical and socioe-
conomic context cycles are fulfilled, being key to the environmental dispersion of
materials, heat, water, and air in the process.
Among the methods for their evaluation, one can find (i) counting strategies [31,
33], (ii) input–output analysis [80], (iii) life cycle analysis [60], (iv) ecological foot-
print analysis [81], (v) simulation methods (dynamic and agent-based) [60], and (vi)
hybrid methods [19, 31].
The analysis of MU in tropical zones differs from its analysis for other zones
in the individual internal person-building interaction and the joint external person-
structures interaction. In the latter, it is recommended to favor natural ventilation to
Fig. 1 Roadmap toward the creation of regenerative cities [64]

counteract the heat-humidity set, whereas, in the former, mechanical ventilation is

resorted to without the need for heating. There are exceptions to the latter, such as
some districts found at significant altitudes, e.g., Boquete and Volcán, in Panama
(classified as Awi, according to Köppen).
The constant search for strategies leads us to identify the importance of biological
knowledge and the solutions this knowledge allows us to solve. Two approaches are
introduced in biomimetic design: the problem-based approach and the solution-based
approach [5]. The first seeks to relate a similar problem presented by an organism
and how it has managed to solve it. In the second, the design is based on biological
and scientific knowledge, which represents a complex process involving multiple
disciplines, including biology, architecture, and engineering, to avoid remaining only
in the idea for its future application.
Biomimetic design is widely used in other rather distant branches of science;
however, its methodology in the problem-based approach is unique, following four
phases [5].
In biomimetics, we find three primary levels adapting to the design problem to be
solved. These levels include form, process, and ecosystem, by analyzing a species
or ecosystem, to solve through nature a human problem [75]. All these thanks to the
study of biology, making it possible to innovate with technologies in various fields
of application through biomimetics.
A concrete example at the building level is the Eastgate Center in Harare,
Zimbabwe, whose challenge was to create a ventilation system that would keep
the building at comfortable temperatures for the occupants. The inspiration came
from the temperature regulating models of termite mounds that allowed the internal
climate to remain stable due to their physical structure and passive internal airflow,
thus avoiding the use of air conditioning [28]. In [27], it is shown innovative concepts
arise for the development of building materials thanks to bio-inspired ideas thanks
to the study of biology.
On the other hand, studies in material properties and how they influence the
building envelope result in an applicable example in appearance. Such is the case
of the retro-reflective properties present in flower petals and how they manage to
decrease the heat reflected by radiation in buildings that are close by reducing the
urban heat island effect (ICU) [38]. Other bio-inspired alternatives can be found, such
as passive cooling, an example of this case we have in [17] whose multi-author SWOT
analysis of how passive cooling through a series of indicators; such as practice, health,
energy, among others, can have its advantages and disadvantages for urban planning
at a macro, meso, and micro level. In [71], an investigation is carried out on the
design of a biomimetic façade capable of adapting, providing a solution to improve
the energy efficiency of buildings with high glazed surfaces for the hot and humid
climate of Lahore, Pakistan. The numerical results indicate that after retrofitting the
designed facade, the building’s existing energy load decreases by 32%. In this way,
it is shown that with a minimal reduction in visual comfort, favorable results are
achieved in energy consumption thanks to the biomimetic strategies implemented in
highly glazed facades.
There have been notable examples of how biomimicry has solved specific prob-
lems at the building level, but taking it to a larger scale at the district or city level
involves integrating a whole system, so it is convenient to handle this concept. The
system level creates an integrated system that efficiently manages energy and avail-
able materials in a continuous cycle, just as natural ecosystems do [51]. We can relate
it in our environment to creating communities or buildings with zero energy consump-
tion, where the energy supply comes from renewable energy and the community has
no dependence on the power grid system from other types of energy production.
This type of level is one of the most complexes to perform since it considers not
only energy consumption but also the life cycle of materials, the way to reuse them,
and other factors, providing a solution to major current problems at the level of
urbanization or cities.
Effectively, biomimicry at the ecosystem level moves us toward regenerative urban
design, where an understanding of ecosystem patterns and their functioning is used
as models for urban space design. In 1960, McHarg worked with these concepts
and formally proposed that human-designed landscapes should replicate the perfor-
mance and logic of natural systems [7]. These regenerative systems examine several
contemporary examples of relevant character, where strategies are put into practice
that involve the use of biomimetic technologies and architecture, which facilitate
the process of adaptation to climate change in the urban built environment and be a
favorable factor for the ecological health of the ecosystem [16, 58].
By definition, a regenerative design seeks to address the ongoing degradation of
the different factors that ecosystems provide to restore the capacity that ecosystems
have to function optimally. This design challenges the orthodoxy of current green
building practice and the design tools that support it, considering the building as
an important factor in giving back to the environment more than it receives while
reducing the aspects causing climate change by increasing biomass, thus increasing
carbon capture and storage, while contributing to better social and natural capital
over time [18, 58].
It is necessary to mention that one of the most relevant criteria for regener-
ative design, and which seeks to approach its actual application, is the use of
ecosystem services [58]. The benefits that people obtain, directly or indirectly,
from ecosystems, greatly promote comforts to the physical, psychological and
economic level of the inhabitants and are usually divided into [58]: provisioning
services (food and medicine), regulating services (pollination and climate regula-
tion), supporting services (soil formation and solar energy fixation), cultural services
(artistic inspiration and entertainment).
2 Biomimicry-Based Approaches to Improve Districts

and Cities Designs in Tropical Climates
The concept of developing a global community within healthy ecosystems has been
investigated and described in [79], which explores abundant case studies and new
practices that go beyond outdated notions of sustainability and green design.
We know that biomimicry could be important in cities’ regenerative and sustain-
able design to achieve harmony between human and non-human life. However, we
must be clear that approaches vary for each city, just as it varies in nature, but we
can find adaptive aspirations for cities with similar climates.
The effect of the human footprint on the natural and built environment has demon-
strated the need for a change in the way cities are planned and built, setting as a goal
the design of sustainable cities where biomimicry has become the key concept [30].
Therefore, biomimicry could be important in the regenerative and sustainable design
of cities to achieve harmony between human and non-human life, but we must be
clear that approaches vary for each city, just as it varies in nature. Still, we can find
adaptive aspirations for cities with similar climates; however, although great efforts
are devoted to the study and research in the field of biomimicry for the creation
of sustainable architecture and cities, the specific knowledge of tropical climate is
still behind that of temperate climate [68]. Nevertheless, recent research has studied
some cases where biomimetic strategies have been implemented to develop cities in
tropical climates.
Case 1. Indonesia, classified as a humid tropical country according to Köppen-
Geiger, experiences high levels of UHI [68], due to its increasing urbanization and
reduction of green space. These studies determined that, by implementing urban
greening through planned open green spaces, evaporation and humidity at street level
increases, as well as the reduction of heat exposure through shading, in addition to
a series of elements focused on passive design.
Case 2. Singapore, one of the cities with a tropical climate, offers a landscape
with approaches worthy of replication, where nature is integrated into the landscape
and does not clash with the processes of urban life. Within these approaches is
connectivity, which is based on a landscape that allows access to multiple points
of the city, improving human movement through pedestrian bridges and, in turn,
allowing wildlife connectivity with the construction of ecological bridges. Another
approach used was shade and shelter, which was achieved with tree planting in
pedestrian areas, drastically impacting urban heat islands. On the other hand, this
city’s orientation and public transportation, with the use of various layers of public
transportation and signage or cartographic maps that allow access and experience
nature. Finally, shared benefits are mentioned, including creating an extensive park
system reaching many parts of the city [10].
Case 3. In India, the private city of Lavasa Hill is referred to as a case at the level
of biomimetic cities, planned by Biomimicry 3.8 specialists. The land-use planning
in this area was based on concepts such as “Walk to Work,” “Walk to School” and
“Walk to Park,” where the strategy is based on locating the places of interest of
its residents in such a way that the distance they need to walk to reach them is
short, which prompted in 2009, to enhance these strategies with the construction of
pedestrian walkways, resulting in safe walkways with good structure, which offer an
improvement in the efficiency of pedestrian movement through the city [2].
Caso 4. Qatar, which experiences a harsh hot climate with high temperatures most
of the year, can be considered a key example of tropical cities that experience dry
seasons. The studies conducted focused on the sustainable development patterns of
urban settlements, making a comparison between the grid patterns of today’s modern
cities against the organic pattern, characteristic of traditional settlements, which,
consequently, are consistent with microclimatic realities and cultural and spatial
identities [30]. The research similarly encompassed other studies of biomimicry
and urban development toward eco-district strategies in the Gulf region, Greater
Doha, analyzing the relationships in architectural design and biomimicry of Qatari
cities to validate a model to guide current and future cities, thereby mitigating urban
heat islands. This research highlights the biomimetic field at two levels: system
integrator and detailing applications. It additionally indicated four main advantages
for urban development in Qatar, which are obtaining lessons from Qatar Flora for
eco-integrated systems, knowing the similarities between native plants and traditional
Qatari settlements, the need for a biomimicry database for Qatari flora with adaptive
characteristics, carrying out three models (a set of design principles and strategies)
related to self-shading, wind channeling, and eco-urban density. The fully sustainable
city includes three perspectives: environment, economy, and society.
It can be concluded that all cities under a tropical climate scheme must deal with
high temperatures and similar problems such as UHI, which occur more intensely
in cities of tropical environments [21]. Such as the case of Indonesia and Singapore,
which use strategies in arborization, and creation of planned green spaces. This leads
to thinking in ways to improve cities’ design is a natural model centered on the forest,
as originally proposed by Braungart and McDonough when they called to imagine a
building as a tree and a city as a forest [24]. There is still much to investigate in this
field of biomimetics applied to the design of cities.
3 Sustainability Evaluation: Case Studies
Every day we manage to be clearer about everything that comprises the concept
of sustainability, and it gives us a clearer idea to define it. The Brundtland Report
captures its essence in broad terms: meeting the needs of people now without devas-
tating the life-supporting ecosystems for future generations [11]. Indeed, sustain-
ability indicators are essential in advancing the science and practice of sustaining
cities systems. In the literature on sustainability indicators, a distinction is often made
among the terms of data, indicators, and indices, which together form a conceptual
hierarchy or an indicator pyramid. Data are the basic components of an indicator,
and multiple indicators comprise an indicator set or a composite index [41]. These
days, many cities worldwide now routinely generate suites of indicators, using them
to track and trace performance, guide policy formulation, and inform how cities are
governed and regulated [45]. One of these indices, the Green City Index was used
to understand the sustainability problem for Panama’s metropolitan area [64]. In
this study, the authors used ecosystem services and developed a set of indicators to
measure regeneration over the years at the city scale. The data used to calculate the
Green City Index in Panama were obtained from scientific publications, statistics,
regulations, and plans or studies generated by the Panamanian Government. The
authors found that the Green City Index score for the Pacific Metropolitan Area of
Panama (1.5 million inhabitants) was adequate, however, with other variables such as
transport and air quality, the scores were not as good compared to other sister cities,
such as Quito (2.1 million), Curitiba (1.8 million), Montevideo (2 million), and Porto
Alegre (1.4 million). In Table 1, we add the results from another study of a tropical
country conducted by [37]. This study indicates that the environmental performance
of the City of Depok in Indonesia (2.6 million inhabitants) has an average percentage
of all Green City Index categories of 50.2%. Table 1 shows that the overall results of
the performance of the Cities of Quito, Panama, and Depok in heading toward the
green city, are average in the total results, compared with the other tropical cities.
A study in Brazil evaluates sustainability from a health indicator perspective to
identify conditions and trends in environmental sustainability and the well-being of
the societies [22]. In this context, sustainability represents harmony in the system
that seeks to maintain equity between the present and future generations, where
aspects such as economic sustainability (employment, income, inequalities) and envi-
ronmental sustainability (ecosystem services) come to light, together with human
well-being [8].
Table 1 Comparison of Panama City and other tropical cities from the Green City Index
Category Far below Below Average Above Well above
average average (40–60%) average average
(0–20%) (20–40%) (60–80%) (80–100%)
Energy and CO2 (d), (e) (a), (b), (f) (c)
Land use and (d) (b) (a), (c), (e),
buildings (f)
Transportation (a), (e), (f) (d) (b), (c)
Waste (d), (f) (a), (b), (c), (e)
Water (d) (b), (e) (a), (c), (f)
Sanitation (b), (d) (e),(f) (a), (c)
Air quality (a) (d) (e), (f) (b) (c)
Environmental (e) (a), (b), (f) (a), (c), (d)
governance
Total results (d) (a), (b), (e), (c)
(f)
Cities as: (a) Panama, (b) Quito, (c) Curitiba, (d) Montevideo, (e) Porto Alegre, and (f) Depok
Adapted from Quintero et al. [64], Hakim and Endangsih [37]
This type of sustainability assessment uses the Millennium Ecosystem Assess-

ment (MEA), which emphasizes the linkages between ecosystems and human well-
being. It recognizes that the actions people take that influence ecosystems result from
concern about human well-being and considerations of the intrinsic value of species
and ecosystems [56]. Regarding human well-being, the conceptual framework of the
MEA includes:
1. Basic materials: where access to resources is promoted to sustain a dignified
life.
2. Health: It implies an adequate diet, without diseases, and living in a healthy
environment.
3. Security: refers to living in a safe environment, where they are not exposed to
situations of ecological impacts and stress.
4. Good social relations: the ability to observe, study and learn about ecosystems
and thus achieve express values that highlight mutual respect and community
integration.
5. Freedom of choice and action: an opportunity for individuals to achieve what
is valuable to them.
According to make this study possible, the databases and information sources
were obtained from the Rio de Janeiro Information and Data Center Foundation. The
authors of this study found that by comparing a series of data, indicators, and indices,
it was possible to demonstrate how direct and indirect driving forces have degraded
the ecosystem services, even while (paradoxically) the economy and population
have grown, life expectancy has increased, and child mortality has decreased. It is
necessary to emphasize that these processes are not always beneficial in terms of
sustainability despite certain traditional indicators of health and well-being, since
it has detected degradation of the environment and ecosystem services in Rio de
Janeiro [22].
Like Sustainable Urban Development (SUD), sustainability assessment is increas-
ingly being viewed as an important tool to monitor the human–environment interac-
tion at different temporal and spatial scales [77]. It provides valuable information to
assess the performance of the existing economic, social and environmental policies,
plans, and programs. In this way, indexing can be an appropriate systematic tool
for sustainability assessment in sophisticated decision-making situations involving
simultaneous consideration of multiple qualitative and quantitative factors. In [52], a
systems approach was adopted to develop a composite index called Sustainable Urban
Quality Composite Index (SUQCI) to assess a city’s potential to become sustainable.
In this study, a multicriteria model was applied to select and prioritize sustainable
urban environment quality indicators. Each indicator is a pointer that makes the
elements of causation as well as the consequences of policies more understandable.
The SUQCI is composed of 10 components containing a total number of 16 indicators
and was evaluated in Tehran (Iran). To make this index, the authors used the major
sustainability indices/indicators in terms of their applicability to city sustainability
(United Nations Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, World
Bank, World Health Organization, European Commission, and Asian Development
Bank and an inventory of urban environment quality indicators). The obtained results
indicated that the city of Tehran has a least three districts (22 districts in total) that
are in ideal sustainability conditions. These areas are among the prosperous places
in the city. About 59.09% of all districts were below the average SUQCI.
In [45], the authors also developed a composite index and presented it in a dash-
board project. These types of projects often seek to make urban processes and perfor-
mance more transparent and improve decision-making. The power of indicators,
benchmarking, and dashboards reveal in detail and very clearly the state of play of
cities. We added this kind of study to show the importance of presenting a sustain-
able urban index as a source of useful, contextual information, facilitating coordina-
tion, integration, and interaction across departments and stakeholders by providing
a common, trusted, and authoritative data set for a city. The utility and value of
composite index and dashboard initiatives provide detailed spatial and time-series
data about various aspects of cities enabling longitudinal studies of socio-spatial,
economic and environmental processes.
Environmental Integrity Index (EII) for decision-making is a SUD index that
supports planning for sustainable cities by promoting environmental integrity and
balancing biological and ecological components in a highly intricate urban system.
The EII is suitable for measuring environmental health in rapidly growing and highly
complex urban systems. The EII approach addresses natural stresses and anthro-
pogenic ones through the selected set of indicators [70]. Three main indicators have
been selected for this index: landscape fragmentation, urban climate, and vulnera-
bility to an environmental hazard. These main indicators have several sub-indicators
which have been quantified and integrated through standardization. This approach
aims to set a multi-scaled, flexible, simple, adjustable, and policy-relevant index. The
proposed indicator landscape fragmentation indicates the nature of alteration of urban
land due to anthropogenic activities. The second indicator, urban climate, represents
how to land alteration affects water bodies and vegetation, increasing urban heat. The
third indicator, vulnerability to environmental hazard, calculates the state of urban
air and water quality. The majority of the data for the proposed indicators are usually
based on remotely sensed satellite data and other digitized data. It will be interesting
to apply this index in Latin American cities, like Panama.
In the “Hedonic Price Indices to Understand Ecosystem Service Provision from
Urban Green Space”, the authors focus on using real estate prices to provide an
estimate of the monetary value of the ecosystem services provided by urban green
space across five Latin American megacities: Bogota (Colombia), Buenos Aires
(Argentina), Lima (Peru), Mexico City (Mexico), and Santiago de Chile (Chile)
[23]. Hedonic price indices are based on correlations between prices in existing
markets (i.e., the real estate market) and specific ecosystem services (i.e., air quality)
or bundles of ecosystem services, as, for example, provided by urban green spaces
[76]. This study used Google Earth images to quantify urban green space and multiple
regression analysis. They evaluated the impact of urban green space, crime rates, busi-
ness density, and population density on real estate prices across the five mentioned
Latin American cities. In addition, for a subset of the data (Lima and Buenos Aires),
the authors analyzed the effects of landscape ecology variables (green space patch
size, connectivity, among others) on real estate prices give us a clearer idea of how
the diversity of ecological attributes that are generated in the creation of urban green
spaces impact the diversity of benefits that we obtain from nature in different urban
contexts in Latin America. It can be said that there is a direct connection where the
existence of green spaces influence 52% of real estate prices in the five megaci-
ties studied, indicating that people who live in Latin American megacities are more
attracted to living near green spaces, expressing their preferences through the real
estate market. However, there is still a significant margin that gives rise to new
research that allows us to answer the questions of how, when, and why the ecological
attributes of urban green spaces influence the different ecosystem services [72].
4 Application of Biomimicry-Based Strategies Toward

Regenerative Planning: A Case Study in Panama
Hereafter, a case study is presented for Panama City through the city sustainability
evaluation via the Green City Index, based on the urban metabolism, which lets to
identify several categories not reaching adequate ranges.
First of all, it is relevant to indicate that issues such as sustainable mismanage-
ment and problems related to climate change can be addressed through biomimetic
solutions, in conjunction with what is known as ecosystem services analysis (ESA).
This approach is promising because it addresses many underlying issues in urban
environments that need to be re-evaluated. A proposed trajectory toward regenera-
tive cities is presented in Fig. 1 and applied to the case of Panama City, based on the
results of the Green City Index.
When implementing the concept of regenerative urbanizations, it seeks to create
a built environment that is harmoniously related to ecosystems, avoiding negative
impacts that tend to degenerate it, and for this, it is necessary to implement regulations
and public policies focused on promoting urban developments that contribute more
than they consume the ecosystems and at the same time, remedy past and current
actions in terms of environmental damage. This would allow progress toward truly
regenerative actions.
Since it is impossible to replace all buildings and infrastructure for regenerative
development, an alternative would be to provide ecosystem services on one’s own to
reduce the existing pressure on local ecosystems. This would mean improving their
current state, supporting their capacity to become healthier, and maintaining their
biodiversity.
In this way, with a healthier ecosystem, they will be able to continue providing
humans with those advantages or services that the urban environment cannot
simulate.
Because of this, the application of the concepts involved in architectural design
will focus on a more dynamic design over the years, involving additive design and
disassembly techniques. By incorporating some level of overlap on the complexity
added to system design, it will evolve, increasing the ability of the built environment
to respond on its own to new existing conditions [78].
By using the GCI, a list of more specific intervention issues that are considered a
priority in the city is presented in Table 2.
Once the main problems at the city scale have been identified, the problem-based
biomimetic approach was applied for abstraction and conceptualization. Such an
approach led to selecting various pinnacles based on their life-nature strategies (see
Table 3 in [64] for more details).
In the case of Panama City, strategies inspired by nature can be adopted, we
consider the most predominant variables of biomimetic abstraction, we can rely on
models, such as.
• Shading: by trees, roofs, cantilevered elements, and blinds.
• Pigments: trees, microalgae, plants on roofs, and vertical gardens.
• CO2 reduction: filters, vegetation, green hydrogen.
• Solar use: photovoltaic and solar panels.
• Routes or branches: sidewalks and green corridors.
• Morphology: focused on buildings, lattices, and sidewalks.
• Passive Behavior—Found on buildings, rooftops, bus stops, and sidewalks.
• Dynamic behavior: found on green roofs, green corridors, microalgae filters,
sequestration of emissions, non-motorized mobility, and electric mobility.
These characteristics that are identified as the most dominant from the selected
pinnacles will form part of the roadmap toward a regenerative solution for Panama
City. Table 3 describes these proposals and their successful applications in other parts
of the world.
Some of these proposed solutions have already been evaluated for Panama City via
dynamic simulation and modeling, others experimentally. For instance, the influence
of arborization [4] and green roofs [59] on buildings energy performance was eval-
uated for two building typologies (residential and office) via dynamic simulations
employing typical meteorological data. The latter, following two parametric studies
focused on the vegetation layer parameters and the roof construction comparing
green (with four endogenous plants) and no green roofs, encountered that such green
roofs performed better than non-green roofs (even with different insulation degree
and thermal mass content), where the vegetation height, leaf area index, reflectivity,
and stomatal resistance are key parameters. The former highlighted that the inclusion
of trees around a building improves its cooling performance reducing heat gains; this
inclusion should focus on trees distribution and dimensions instead of quantity [4].
The effect of arborization on outdoor comfort was also studied at an urban scale [1],
by including trees in regions with higher temperatures within the urban area. The
comfort indicator, physiological equivalent temperature (PET), employed showed no
significant changes, but the air temperature levels were reduced significantly. This led
to conclude that buildings distribution and arrangement within this urban settlement
in this tropical climate had a greater impact than the strategic inclusion of trees in
view of the PET indicator. Similar results were obtained using the universal thermal
climate index (UTCI).
Table 2 Priority intervention topics in Panama City

Energy, CO2 , and transportation High per capita fuel consumption in the
(Mobile sources, residential energy, and transportation sector is linked to the monocentric
services) city—constant use of diesel, gasoline, and
kerosene in industry, mobile, and air transport
Increased emissions from mobile sources
Electricity consumption in the service and
residential sectors has increased, and emissions
are above the average for ICES cities. There is a
high electricity emission factor
The decarbonization of the energy matrix is
required, seeking other energy sources such as
renewables and the adaptation of autonomous
networks to reduce dependence on fossil fuels for
energy generation
Partners—Territorial Growth of high purchasing power over natural
(Land use) areas (occupation of mangroves) and areas of high
ecological value, complex coast-city relationship
Discontinuity in the urban footprint; there is a
high percentage of vacant land
Infrastructure Deficient, complex, and segregated road network
(Land use and transportation) The Metro Bus system shares infrastructure with
private vehicles, generating very high travel times
and making it unattractive for a possible modal
shift
Pedestrian infrastructure is in poor condition,
discontinuous, and in many cases nonexistent.
Road projects and urban developments do not
adequately consider the space and facilities that
should be provided to pedestrians and cyclists
Some drainage systems are often poorly
maintained and clogged with debris, increasing
pollution so that falling water is not properly
captured, treated, and discharged. As a result,
localized flooding occurs, water collection and
reuse are not optimized, and water resources’
quality decreases
There is no real rainwater management in
buildings or its use in urban areas
Waste Inadequate waste management, lack of CO2
capture in landfills, and lack of consideration of
associated CH4 emissions
Optimization and improvement of current
waste-to-energy systems in landfills
(continued)
Table 2 (continued)
Improvements are needed in the collection service
and collection centers for recyclable materials to
avoid the amount of garbage disposed of in
improvised dumps, rivers, streams, and others
Air quality Lack of adequate implementation of national
regulations for mobile and stationary sources
High emissions levels, including high levels of
atmospheric particulate matter, NO2 , SO2 , and
particulate matter
There is no implementation involving air quality
monitoring in the region
Global effects Deficient network of recreational and leisure
areas in the city (parks, green areas, sports
complexes, bicycle paths). Deficit of public open
spaces and unequal distribution of green areas and
spaces for socializing and coexistence
Heat islands effect produced by the lack of urban
vegetation and constructions with heat-absorbing
and retentive materials
Center-periphery operation
Moreover, the walkability and bikeability within other urban areas in Panama City
was assessed by many studies for both walk/bike to work and walk to park solutions,
among them are [6, 12, 35]. Other passive and low-consumption solutions, such as
bioclimatic-based strategies and design [14, 49], demonstrate strong potential for net
zero energy buildings [13, 39]. Others are radiative sky cooling [53] and occupant
behavior [15].
Finally, Panama City is also concentrating efforts at government scaled toward
the energy transition and carbon neutralization with a large implementation of auto-
mobile electric-charge stations and electric transport [55, 66], as well as the use of air
purification filters in transport and people high-density areas such as the bus terminal
station [54].
4.1 Methodological Plan for the Design and Evaluation

Proposal of Regenerative Cities
In the previous section, an evaluation of the different sustainable alternatives based

on nature was made, allowing the regeneration capacity of Panama City.
Based on studies conducted by [78], incorporating ecosystem services is consid-
ered a method to move toward more regenerative cities. In Table 4, each of the
ecosystem services is described. In addition, the abstracted biomimetic solutions are
part of these services and will be classified into their corresponding function. Finally,
Table 3 Summary of proposed solutions for the implementation of cities based on the biomimetic
analysis [64]
Solution Description Application around the world
Solar roofs It lies mainly in the use of In many countries, rooftop solar
photovoltaic solar energy as a power is booming, Vietnam is a
primary or secondary source for clear example of this, which saw
buildings. It seeks to adapt the an increase in rooftop solar
roofs of residential, commercial, installations from 378 MW in
and industrial buildings to place 2019 to 9,583 GW, that is, an
solar panels or collectors using increase of 2.43% since 2019.
20–30% of the available space. Currently, the numbers exceed
Consideration should be given to 100,000 systems in total [36].
using larger and more efficient Energy storage strategies based
energy storage on biomimetic approaches have
been implemented that show us
the way toward the production
and sustainable use of distributed
renewable energy [26]
Panels at bus stops and The implementation of solar The implementation of this type
pedestrian walkways panels at bus stops to contribute of initiative has been
to the reduction of energy from implemented in countries such as
the public network China, Brazil, the USA, India,
This also aspires to take and more, with successful
advantage of energy capture, in results, as is the case of the
pedestrian walkways, Indian Institute of Technology in
educational, government, Kharagpur with the construction
commercial buildings, and public of a section of 70 m of a
spaces in general, where this type pedestrian walkway with solar
of strategy can be implemented panels [57]
Solar sheets Innovation in the way we capture This type of solar sheet has been
solar energy has led to the used at the Instituto Canario
creation of solar sheets, which Superior de Estudios in Las
consist of triple laminated Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain.
amorphous silicon glass. The The window façade of this
advantage it offers is the little building has been used for the
space it requires on the roofs for placement of these solar sheets
its installation [3]
Flectofin blinds Adaptation of blinds for At the Expo 2012 pavilion in
buildings, inspired by nature Yeosu, Korea, a kinematic façade
(bird of paradise flower). Its designed by Soma architects was
operation does not require the built, where individual
use of hinges and has 90° kinematics were applied to
displacements. Its adaptive control the incidence of daylight
shading efficiently covers [40]
buildings from solar radiation
(continued)
Table 3 (continued)
Trees Its implementation is based on Studies carried out in Taipei,
the arborization of urban areas to Taiwan, demonstrate the effects
improve the microclimate thanks of twelve tree species in
to the specific characteristics of subtropical urban areas. The
trees with dense foliage, light results revealed the most
green, thick and rough leaves, effective species, which are
which at the same time help to Ulmus parvifolia, Pterocarpus
maintain optimal levels of indicus and Ficus microcarpa.
comfort by blocking solar Furthermore, the importance of
radiation leaf color, foliage density, leaf
thickness, and leaf surface
roughness were concluded [50]
Sierpinski ceiling It is a biomimetic model where The National Museum of
the leaves of the trees are Emerging Science and
emulated on the surface of the Innovation (Miraikan) in Tokyo,
roofs, allowing the temperature Japan, built a fractal roof
to be distributed and thus (Sierpinski forest) and compared
reducing it. Its use is suggested in the fractal prototype with a part
spaces such as terraces, gazebos, of the roof made of PVC panels,
social areas, among others concluding that the fractal
surface had a much lower
temperature [67]
Green hydrogen The use of hydrogen as a fuel Hydrogen refueling stations
replacement reduces emission currently exist in countries, such
levels. This alternative can be as Japan, the United States, and
taken advantage of to a great Germany. H2 Energy
extent by the geographical Applications (in) Valley
position, which allows the Environments (for) Northern
investment of this type of Netherlands abbreviated
projects and the opportunities HEAVENN [44]
offered by the Panama Canal
Green walls and roofs Is based on the implementation In Cordoba, Argentina, a law was
of green roofs and walls using enacted in 2016, making it
native plants in buildings to cool mandatory to convert any rooftop
the surrounding air through more significant than 1300
evapotranspiration from the square feet, including new or
plant. Allows you to transform existing, into green roofs [25]
rooftops that have more than
1,300 square feet or at least 20%
of the available space (for green
or solar roofs) into green roofs.
This would mean using natural
barriers for CO2 reduction,
divided into three types of roofs:
intensive, semi-intensive, and
extensive
(continued)
Table 3 (continued)
Purifying plants By creating green spaces in cities In many places, mention is made
where there are large areas with of different species that could
trees and plants, it is possible to work as the most effective for
trap volatile organic compounds sequestering emissions, such as
by opening and closing the pores VOCs, formaldehyde, benzene,
of the leaves. This process carbon monoxide, and
contributes to the reduction of trichloroethylene; these species
toxic pollutants in the are Spathiphyllum, areca palm,
atmosphere of urban areas and tiger tongue, and Chlorophytum
improves air quality comosum [47]
Bio-filters The implementation of There is the Biourban filter from
algae-based biofilters is useful Mexico. Its technicians assure
for areas where there are no large that the models: BioUrban 2.0
areas to plant trees, so it is and Bio Urban Industries, can
possible to use them on high supply the same amount of
traffic streets. Additional can be oxygen as 368 mature pine trees
considered in port areas where in a year, equivalent to the daily
there are large logistical breathing of 2890 people. This
movements both at sea and on filter has been incorporated in the
land, industrial areas, etc Bus Terminal in Albrook Mall, in
Panama City [73]
Photocatalytic cement The use of this titanium dioxide In Milan, a 7000 m2 road surface
compound has generally been was built with photocatalytic
implemented as cladding on cement, obtaining a 60%
avenues or sidewalks of public reduction in the concentration of
spaces and buildings with large nitrogen oxide (NOx ) at street
surfaces exposed to sunlight, level [42]
which allows its use in different
types of buildings, especially in
places with high
contamination/odors
Walk to school, walk to The implementation of this Lavasa Hill, India, has a
park, walk to work strategy promotes mobilization biomimetic design, which has
without the use of vehicles, land-use planning based on these
creating facilities for the concepts. Mobilization of
population to walk to different residents through walking to
destinations, within the city their workplaces, education,
center leisure, or socio-cultural
activities is implemented [2]
Sidewalks It is about building roads or Studies carried out on sidewalks
sidewalks whose main in Barcelona, Cuenca, and
characteristic is their capacity for Prague, consider the importance
permeability. It is an easy of using materials to construct
measure to implement and sidewalks that can produce
includes the stripes for the signs, friction (cobblestones or
lights, and other elements typical concrete) [34]
of the urban space
(continued)
Table 3 (continued)
Green corridors Its main function in urban areas In cities, such as Madrid, Mexico
is to serve as a connection to City, New York, and Seoul, these
different points using vegetation corridors have been implemented
along its extension along with trees, flowers, shrubs,
walking paths, and bicycle lanes,
and thus, improving the area’s
average temperature [43]
Electric transport It covers the use of electric In Europe, for instance, the
vehicles by creating facilities that e-mobility advancement was
include charging points in key foreseen with ABB (the main
areas of the country, encouraging technology partner and supplier
the use of this type of transport of IONITY, together with Audi,
BMW, Ford, Porsche, and
Volkswagen), focusing on
operating a 400 fast charging
points network in 24 European
countries by 2020 [29]
Bicycle lanes It is about creating an The countries with the most
infrastructure that includes or extended distances covered by
improves bicycle lane spaces cycling (600–900 km) are
along the main avenues of the Belgium, Denmark, and The
city with the purpose of creating Netherlands. Moreover, in
connections in such a way as to Germany, between 1994 and
increase the efficiency of urban 2017, distance cycled per capita
area mobility free of emissions increased by over 150 km,
consistent with an increase of
over 50% [69]
Routing algorithm Algorithms based on nature In La Paz and El Alto cities in
minimized resources usage, Bolivia, the ant colony algorithm
helping create future networks of and Dijkstra’s algorithm
the Panama Metro. Its use is (minimum paths algorithm) were
currently considered in those applied for the combinatorial
logistic services existing in optimization of transportation
Panama City flow patterns [65]
Wireless sensor networks Timely monitoring of the health In, WSNs have been employed to
(WSN) of structures contributes to monitor environmental, structural
extending the life of the vibrations and look for deviations
structure, detecting damage, from a baseline response to
reducing routine inspections, and evaluate the structure’s condition
safeguarding lives under observation. On the other
hand, in [63], the use of WSNs to
evaluate the stiffness
characteristics of a bridge and
hence its capacity has been
established. In [48] proposed
improving the network’s energy
efficiency by selecting the
optimal route by employing an
optimization algorithm based on
the behavior of ant colonies
Table 4 Ecosystem services for the urban environment and applicability to the case study
Ecosystem service Applicability in the urban environment Description [78] Applicability to the case study [64]
Habitat Provision Medium Allows shelter and protection of organisms, as Priority was given to ways of creating habitats
for nutritional needs. It has the function of in a way that is adapted to cities; this is
protecting young organisms. They are achieved by incorporating native trees or
relevant for permanent as well as transient species that have been fully studied to grow
populations of organisms and are extremely without problems in urban environments. This
important for maintaining biodiversity and indicator is based on the function of providing
thus most other ecosystem services habitats just as nature does
Nutrient Cycling Medium These can be added to cities through imports For this ecosystem service, one of the actions
of food and materials and lost through that help regenerate the urban environment
exports, and the inability to recover and reuse and reduce its impact was chosen: the reuse
materials through processes such as dumping and recycling of garbage. Currently, this
and wastewater being discharged into the collection is carried out by non-profit
oceans or other regions organizations, small SMEs, actions of the
Zero Garbage program, and informal
collectors
(continued)
Bio-inspired Approaches for Sustainable Cities Design in Tropical Climate
351
Table 4 (continued)
352
Climate regulation High It regulates processes related to the For this ecosystem service, this analysis
atmosphere’s chemical composition, the focused on one of the great benefits of
greenhouse effect, the ozone layer, reforestation, which is the absorption of
precipitation, air quality, and the moderation compounds as a method to minimize
of temperature and weather patterns. Globally, emissions from the different sectors of the
it encompasses the ecosystems capacity to metropolitan area of Panama
emit and absorb carbon as other compounds.
In contrast, locally, it considers vegetation to
reduce temperatures in urban environments
and remove pollutants from the air
Air purification High They encompass systems that keep the air, For the atmospheric purification service, the
water, and soil clean. Urban vegetation is an indicator focused on natural solutions, such as
effective in removing pollutants from the air, implementing green areas in the urban
but some building materials and filtration environment. Green areas and corridors are
systems, can do a similar job and may be considered the main measure to regenerate air
better suited for integration into some types of and soil in cities
construction, particularly in medium- or
high-density areas. Examples are porous
metal–organic framework materials,
mesosilica materials, titanium dioxide
materials, air ionizers, particulate absorption
filters, and other materials
(continued)
M. Chen Austin et al.
Table 4 (continued)
Water supply High It includes the regulation of hydrological In the case of water supply services, the
flows, as well as the storage, purification, and annual precipitation for Panama City was
retention of water. Water is used for the analyzed, considering the existing potential
consumption of human and animal needs; for rainwater harvesting in the different types
therefore, large quantities are used for of buildings in the area. This analysis focuses
irrigation or other agricultural purposes and on saving water resources and conserving
some industrial processes. Some aspects that them in the city
have a direct impact on the water supply
service in local ecosystems are water
retention, volume management, the timing of
eventual runoff, aquifer recharge, flood
control, and drinking water quality
Energy provision High Biomass and renewable energy usage is For the service of the nature of affordable
essential as ecosystem service. Knowing the energy production for all living beings, the
use of energy will serve as feedback for equivalent in cities was selected: electric
analysis of human behavior and the energy, focusing on the fact that this is
degradation caused to ecosystems. However, produced in a renewable way to recognize the
attempting to artificially replace lost level of regeneration present in the energy
ecosystem services will increase energy, and sector
thus, leading to further ecosystems
degradation. Because of this, the
implementation of energy efficiency is vital
Bio-inspired Approaches for Sustainable Cities Design in Tropical Climate
over the overproduction of renewable energy,

as a considerable increase in energy
production would have a detrimental effect on
biodiversity or other ecosystem services in the
long term
353
other design methods that improve the urbanized environment will be presented, in
their regenerative capacity and the environmental benefits provided by each of them
(Table 4): Nutrient cycling, climate regulation, air purification, water provision, and
energy provision.
As shown [32], the Urban Regeneration Model focuses on a strategy that considers
a model that offers actions in sectors such as energy, mobility, and information and
communication technologies (ICT).
As a technical proposal to reduce energy consumption to minimum values, the
installation of cleaner generation will be essential to obtain greater efficiency. It is
essential to replace many conventional automobiles with cleaner cars, such as electric
vehicles. The implementation of these must go hand in hand with adequate charging
infrastructure while providing solutions using ICT in the city, implementing traffic
management systems, or smart grids to improve users’ movement. Additionally,
to replicate this model later, these applications will involve citizen participation
activities, whose objective is to achieve a high impact.
Ecosystem services analysis provides a starting point for creating a measurable
regenerative design. This is crucial to establish the credibility of regenerative designs
[78]. As a strategy to measure the sustainability of urban regeneration and ensure the
principles of sustainable development, a set of proposed indicators focused on the
ecosystem services described above were evaluated.
This system of indicators will aim at a positive environmental gain, evaluating the
necessary actions on these aspects. They are related to international goals such as
SDG 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities, SDG 13: Climate Action, and SDG
15: Life of Terrestrial Ecosystems. It also follows the targets established in the last
Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) in the forest and biodiversity sectors. An
important point to cover during the evaluation process is the assumption of a static
and isolated condition in urban regeneration. The most relevant ecosystem services
that can be measured in cities were selected.
The proposed indicators took the same name as the ecosystem service and resulted
as follows for evaluation in Panama City [64]:
(a) Habitat provision indicator (HPI)
Is an important indicator for calculating the number of existing trees in the land
area of Betania, Bella Vista, Calidonia, San Felipe, San Francisco, and Santa
Ana. Here, the input variables are the number of trees and the total territorial
surface area (data taken from local institutions), resulting in an HPI value of
1815.77 trees/km2 . For this, the data obtained in the inventories belonging to the
Arborization Plan of the Municipality of Panama were considered, excluding
the rest of the district of Panama due to its lack of data, for the years 2016–
2018. It is related to the goals of the Arborization Plan of the Municipality of
Panama.
(b) Nutrient cycling (recycling indicator)
Determine the ratio of tons of recycled garbage to waste disposed of in landfills
for the capital city. This resulted in a 2% only. For this, the nature of the
garbage or materials found is not considered, nor the recycling category for
each material (plastic, paper, cardboard, glass). Recycling by private industry
is also not taken into account. For this evaluation, data from 2016 was used.
It is related to the goals of the Solid Waste Management Plan 2017–2027 and
the Zero Garbage Plan. In addition to the initiatives established in the last
Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) in the circular economy.
(c) Climate regulation (Emission absorption indicator)
Measurement of the number of emissions per year absorbed by hectares of
the forest without change of use of the metropolitan area under study. This
resulted in 5.31 tCO2 e/ha. It was developed in the metropolitan area, covering
the districts of Panama, San Miguelito, La Chorrera, and Arraiján, for the year
2015. Hectares are not distinguished by soil type; areas covered by mature,
secondary, and mangrove forests are considered. Agricultural land use is not
considered, such as crops and pasture. REDD + Plan 2017, National Forestry
Strategy, Forestry Incentives Law of 2017, Alliance for the Million Hectares.
(d) Air purification
Measuring the number of green areas in Panama City over the total urban area
excludes forests, mangroves, water bodies, and agricultural land. This resulted
in a 0.97%, supporting the air quality score of the Green City Index assess-
ment (Table 1) falling into a notably below average ranking. For this assess-
ment, 2015 was considered based on available data. Different land uses are not
considered for the “Urban Surface” variable. Water surfaces are excluded. It
can be related to the National Land Use Planning Policy and the Arborization
Plan of the Mayor’s Office. It would follow the goals established in the last
Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) in resilient human settlements and
sustainable infrastructure.
(e) Water supply
Refers to the rainwater volume used in buildings in residential areas, shopping
centers, economic centers, and other urbanizations. This resulted in 517,965
million liters of water that could significantly reduce the city’s all-purpose
drinking water usage dependency. Only 2015 was used for this assessment.
It is not considering vacant lots, open areas, green areas such as parks and
squares because there is greater feasibility in installing rainwater collection
structures in buildings. It is related to the goals of the Water Security Plan
and environmental goals within the National Climate Change Strategy 2020–
2050 and the Natural Disaster and Climate Change Vulnerability Reduction
Program II. It can be used in the targets established in the last Nationally
Determined Contribution (NDC) in the circular economy, resilient settlements,
and sustainable infrastructure sectors.
(f) Energy provision (Renewable Energy Indicator)
It shows the calculation of the amount of renewable energy consumed compared
to the total energy consumed in the province of Panama. This resulted in
11.98%, leaving a great opportunity to expand the renewable energy market.
For this evaluation, data was only available for the year 2020. Data from
the energy distribution companies in the province of Panama (EDEMET and
ENSA) was considered, excluding the rest of the provinces assigned to these
companies. It is related to the goals of the National Energy Plan 2015–2050.
It can be considered in the goals established in the last Nationally Determined
Contribution (NDC) in the energy sector.
It was necessary to apply indicators with a greater focus on ecosystems to measure
the capacity of these solutions quantitatively, compared to the GCI indicators, which
were based on sustainability. The similarities and differences between them are
analyzed hereafter.
In the aspect of land-use evaluation in the city, the Green City Index only considers
the indicators of “Green spaces per capita (m2 /inhabitant)” and “Population density
(hab/km2 )”. Meanwhile, in the ecosystem services analysis (ESA), the equivalent
indicators for this sector were “Habitat provision or HPI (trees/km2 )” and “Air purifi-
cation or IP (% of green areas).” Among these indicators, they have in common the
use of vegetation in general. However, they differ in that the GCI takes data based on
an individual scale, taking the city’s population as a reference in per capita values;
in contrast, the regenerative indicators consider data within a study area in km2 ,
and these seek to emphasize more specific issues such as biodiversity, the number
of trees, and their capacity to regenerate the urban environment. The IP indicator
(% of green areas) shows how much the city contributes to the use of urban spaces
dedicated to green areas, contemplating more aspects in comparison to the GCI.
In the case of indicators that measure emissions, the GCI has three indicators for
air quality: concentration levels of nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and suspended
particles (µg/m3 per day); on the other hand, the counterpart indicator in ecosystem
services would be “Climate regulation (Iabs)” expressed in tCO2 e/hectare-year. For
the first indicator, air quality (GCI), they focused on describing the emission levels of
a city, while the Iabs is based on quantifying the tons of emissions that are absorbed
and returned to the soil, thanks to the hectares of forested areas and forests without
change of use within Panama City.
Considering garbage disposal, both indicators consider the weight of garbage,
where the GCI uses data on how much garbage is disposed of on a kg/inhabitant/year
ratio. On the other hand, the SWA indicator focuses on “Nutrient cycling (IR)” using
the amount of garbage recycled per resident in relation to the total garbage disposed
of, in tons per year of both data, thus obtaining a percentage indicator of how much
garbage is recycled in Panama City. The GCI also describes the proportion of waste
collected and properly disposed of in a percentage analysis. In addition, although the
GCI does consider waste recycling and reuse policies, it does not have an indicator
that quantitatively measures performance in this aspect, as compared to the SWA
indicator. It is important to mention that both indicators fail to analyze the nature of
the waste material collected, considering whether it is organic or inorganic.
The GCI performs a percentage measure in both indicators on issues such as
access to potable water in the city and the number of leaks generated in its facilities.
In addition, it also estimates the water consumption of the average citizen, measured
in L/person/day. Accordingly, the data available for Panama shows that drinking
water supply is a highly studied and developed sector in Panama City; however,
there is not much support or progress in the area of rainwater management and
use, resulting in major floods and natural disasters. For this reason, the amount of
rainwater that is usable in residential and non-residential cities could be taken into
account, considering its potential use. This is measured by the indicator “Water
supply (VT)” based on the SWA of water cultivation as a way to regenerate. This
indicator relies on Panama City’s annual rainfall to estimate the liters of rainwater
per year obtained within the study area in square meters (m2 ).
Estimating the energy consumed, both the GCI and the ESA have indicators that
use values in kWh or MWh to evaluate electricity consumption. In the case of the
GCI, data was used for the whole country in kWh/person since there is no information
distributed in cities or provinces. For this reason, both the GCI and ESA indicators
were calculated as estimates.
For the calculation of the “Energy Provision (IER)” indicator belonging to the
SWA, it was carried out only in the province of Panama, being this data the closest to
the capital city. Since the energy information was limited, we proceeded to estimate
the necessary data according to the available data by type of electricity distribution
company in the province of Panama (EDEMET and ENSA). This was done by
calculating the electricity consumed of renewable nature among the total electricity
consumed to obtain a percentage value (%).
4.2 Proposal Evaluation for Regenerative Cities via SWOT

Analysis
With the result of the biomimetic analysis, the most relevant biological concepts
were synthesized and adapted to the proposed solutions. Accordingly, this section
will be devoted to evaluating their potential for adaptation in Panama City, where the
strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats will be explored through a SWOT
analysis for each approach studied. Knowing the aspects covered in a regenerative
design in the urban context is convenient. The aspects analyzed through SWOT
are based on the direct objectives covered in strategic plans to comply with the
agenda toward 2030 and 2050 found in the National Energy Plan 2015–2050 and the
Nationally Determined Contribution.
Based on the antecedents and projections of Panama City, it is important to empha-
size that the current position of the city was the result of variables, such as the
construction of the Panama Canal, which limited the way it expanded. This occurred
thanks to the constant activity that indirectly pushed the metropolitan area eastward.
The urban growth expanded to the northeast, increasing considerably in population.
Another influential factor was the physical obstacles such as the hills: Ancon, Sosa,
and Cabra, resulting in a diffuse urban space. Because of this, today, the metropolitan
area has different types of morphology, which can be seen in the design of its avenues
and blocks. Considering other factors part of the urban growth, some studies point
to the real estate explosion as an important cause, beginning in the city’s central
banking and financial area (Bella Vista and San Francisco). However, it has been
advancing to the north and east of the capital [20].
It could be considered that the cause of the disturbance in the urban space of
Panama is the large amount of energy needed to execute its functions within the
framework of urban metabolism, in aspects such as mobility, buildings, and services.
This results in a possible connection between areas where there is only a complicated
network of roads, deteriorated highways, dense streets, and unfinished train lines.
For this reason, there is plenty of motorized vehicles with constant congestion within
the hours of entry and exit of working days. There is considerable travel time at the
various entrances to the city center.
In addition, mass transportation in the metropolitan area is not very efficient
without considering the poor design of the city since its inception. Due to insecurity
and the poor quality of infrastructure for pedestrians and bicycles, many users resort
to the automobile as their first option for getting around the city.
When considering other conflicts within the city, it is important to note that rural
areas have low levels of connection to sanitary sewerage and sewage treatment, where
maintenance is still poor. In addition, some areas are not connected to the potable
water system and have cistern tanks and aqueducts. In general, the sanitary sewer
system and the sewage pumping stations are very deteriorated.
During the analysis, the city’s urban metabolism, considering its emissions,
is mostly caused by mobile sources (motorized transport), which again shows a
lack of planning to reduce these consequences, affecting the quality of life of the
environment’s inhabitants.
The urban area resources that allow achieving the objectives considered in the
area’s social structure and physical conditions are considered as a strength. On the
contrary, a weakness focuses on the limitation preventing the project from achieving
the results or objectives in the urban environment. Aspects such as economic points,
land use, citizen participation, among others, are analyzed.
If the external points are considered, then it can be mentioned that an opportunity
focuses on the undesired result that may occur with the project, directly affecting the
physical environment and the citizenship when applying urban regeneration. At the
same time, the threats represent those obstacles to developing the objectives set by
the project, which could diminish its profitability.
On the other hand, a significant challenge that is still open is how biomimicry
techniques applied to improve energy efficiency in buildings can impact Smart Grids
issues and their subtopics, such as Distributed Generation, Demand Side, and Elec-
tricity Consumption Forecast. Given the climatic variability due to the seasons or the
producer–consumer (prosumer) approach a building may face, it is crucial to study
this relationship [9]. The climatic dynamism affects passive techniques, as reported
in [46], in which energy savings are generated in summer, but consumption increases
on colder days. Also, the implementation of materials for the generation of photo-
voltaic electric energy and its relationship with facades [62]. As a future study, it is
important to integrate Smart Grids in biomimicry-based or inspired implementations

to face the generation-consumption dynamism in buildings and smart cities.
5 Conclusions
As for Panama City’s current potential in terms of sustainability, the Green City
Index provided a starting point to describe the needs and key issues using criteria of
importance to society and the environment. The economic issue was not evaluated.
Some indicators used in the GCI had a score of 0.00, due to a lack of reliable data
sources, as in the case of the sulfur dioxide level indicator. On occasion, values that
exceeded internationally established standards were also obtained. Other indicators
also exceeded the norm, such as the length of the public transport network, per
capita electricity consumption, and per capita water consumption. The latter is very
noticeable in the city, due to the large water losses and waste in industrial activities,
as well as by the citizens themselves.
By observing the framework of biomimicry-based solutions, it was possible to
understand nature’s opportunities for urbanizations. It offers an efficient way for
humans to advance sustainability by emulating biological designs. For example,
designs that require minimal resources and at the same time adapt to human needs.
Utilizing biomimicry’s principles, especially ecosystem-based biomimicry, would
be a step on the path to regenerative cities.
It can be concluded that major obstacles arise for architects, engineers, and urban
designers due to the need to control the negative flows resulting from our activi-
ties, such as GHG emissions, particulate matter, water losses, exploitation of water
resources, deforestation, and increase of the urban footprint, poorly treated solid
waste and wastewater disposal in waterways and seas, among other consequences of
a linear and inefficient urban metabolism.
Through evaluation strategies such as the Green City Index, it was possible to
obtain a general overview of the problems currently found in Panama City. In this
regard, three priority approaches can be mentioned, which were revealed by the
index’s weighting. Regarding the quantitative and qualitative analysis of the sectors
in their respective policies, the problems were classified into energy, atmosphere,
and mobility. These were selected because they present alarming situations without
disregarding the waste, water, and sanitation sectors regarding their importance in
society. However, they were not considered in the focus of this study.
The identified conflicts were abstracted to find their corresponding solution by
keeping biomimicry in mind. It can be affirmed that, although it is not possible to
reach perfection the level of adaptation achieved by organisms in nature, it is still
necessary to act toward designs of this type. Difficulties may be encountered in
applying biomimicry, in the case of representing biophysical knowledge correctly
and the challenging abstraction of principles. However, they would contribute to the
revision, re-evaluation, and planning of urban functions through green infrastructures
that consider their environment.
Ecosystem biomimicry relies on a design criterion based on sustainable and regen-

erative principles; therefore, the support of professionals with this knowledge is
important. By applying this philosophy, and on a large scale, it will be possible
to implement buildings whose capacities can be comparable to what nature offers,
becoming a fundamental factor for improving ecosystems.
In the framework presented in Sect. 4 as proposed solutions for Panama City, the
following points can be concluded:
• The indicators of “air quality” and “transportation” show the importance of
encouraging purification strategies. This can be achieved using and planning adap-
tations of nature such as tree planting, green roofs, green facades, green corridors,
biofilters, and others.
• Due to the heat island, a product of cities, it is necessary to optimize the inhabi-
tant’s comfort, considering the importance of tree leaves for temperature regula-
tion of the soil and air. Simultaneously, the opportunities are recognized for heat
regulation and energy savings presented by the application of prototypes and/or
biomimetic designs in buildings and communities.
• Solar energy usage through photovoltaic systems is also considered a vital pillar
in the energy transition and distributed generation, which would increase the
percentage of renewable energy in the energy matrix.
• Panama can establish a hydrogen distribution hub, thanks to its geographical
position and the opportunity generated by the Panama Canal and existing port
centers.
• The population must be conscious of the impact and emissions caused by motor-
ized transport for a modal shift that considers sustainable transport (walking,
bicycles, and electric alternatives).
• Incorporating greener infrastructure and solutions in Panama, government initia-
tives will be needed to create laws that encourage the application of local photo-
voltaic systems, green roofs and facades, and other solutions in buildings, commu-
nities, and cities. Here, including a monitoring system for such infrastructures,
such as sensor networks, would be vital to understand their health both structurally
and in their indoor environment.
In more detail, the transition to a regenerative city can be addressed, starting
with implementing LEED certification in buildings to conserve resources. Then, it
is possible to move forward with the Living Building Challenge certification prin-
ciples as a first step to start regenerating at the building level. As the last step for
applying regenerative designs, biophilia and bioethics are taken into account, where
biomimicry is used as a strategy.
The use of a regenerative methodology in cities would mean a greater consider-
ation of nature in planning goals and an improvement in urban ecosystem relations
and the quality of life of living beings. Using these concepts, certain indicators were
determined to evaluate the potential in the context of Panama City to adapt more
regenerative practices. The benefits of these ecosystem services will be reflected in
the local climate, the environment and will improve the comfort of the inhabitants
and the urban environment.
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Pho’liage: Towards a Kinetic Biomimetic
Thermoregulating Façade
Lise Charpentier, Estelle Cruz, Teodor Nenov, Kévin Guidoux,

and Steven Ware
Abstract An adaptive shading device is designed using biomimetics as a tool to

optimize thermal comfort and help reduce energy consumption. Inspired by nycti-
nastic movements, ArtBuild’s Lab (AB Lab)—a transdisciplinary research labora-
tory created within ArtBuild’s architectural studio—began developing autonomous
biomimetic façades in 2015 with the aim of reducing energy consumption in buildings
and in particular, mass timber buildings, whose thermal inertia is low. The research
project initially mimicked the mechanics and behaviour of stomata cells found abun-
dantly in the plant species, drawing inspiration from the asymmetrical cell wall thick-
ness to activate movement, and then moved on to developing prototypes for solar
protection devices whose thermal actuation, shape memory, and geometry combine
to enable them to echo the nastic movements described by Darwin. AB Lab’s team
employs thermobimetals (TBMs)—composite metal alloys that react to tempera-
ture variations—to induce nastic movements in their shading devices. By exploiting
the differential expansion coefficients of these alloys, the architects were able to
shape the solar protection devices to cast measured shadows. Dubbed Pho’liage, the
L. Charpentier · K. Guidoux · S. Ware (B)

ARTBUILD Architect, 58 Rue du Faubourg Poissonnière, 75010 Paris, France
L. Charpentier
K. Guidoux
E. Cruz
CEEBIOS, European Centre in Biomimetics, Ceebios SCIC, 62 rue du Faubourg Saint-Martin,
60300 Senlis, France
MECADEV, UMR CNRS 7179 - National Museum of Natural History of Paris, UMR 7179 /
CNRS-MNHN, 1 avenue du Petit Chateau, 91800 Brunoy, France
T. Nenov
BIO VOIE, Rue de la Grande Louvière 15, 7100 La Louvière, Belgium
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-1812-4_12
368 L. Charpentier et al.
devices react to heat emanating from the sun. When outside temperatures exceed
25 °C, the TBM blades mimic the petals of a plant, opening as “flowers” to form
a vast curtain protecting the building from thermal overload. When the temperature
drops, the petals deform once again and the flowers close, allowing light to enter
the building. Early versions of the Pho’liage prototypes revealed several challenges:
the temperature-driven deformation of the bimetal, far from being uniform, often
took place too abruptly given the dual conflicting expansion forces of the bimetal
alloy surfaces. The very nature of the curvature dynamics was repeatedly reviewed.
Lifecycle analysis of protective coatings showed the difficulties in sourcing ecolog-
ical solutions for the alloys’ external longevity. Apart from the basic geometry of
the flowers, several designs were explored which integrate curve-line folding and
adaptable honeycomb support structures, to enhance the efficiency of the open/close
shading ratio. Finally, alternatives were suggested that look at reducing the quantity
of TBMs, with the alloys acting as actuators whilst other materials such as specific
biopolymers provide the shading function.
Keywords Biomimetics · Kinetic adaptive façades · Thermostatic bimetal

(TBMs) · Sustainable solutions · Curve-line folding · Envelope · Thermal
comfort · Plant movements
1 Introduction
Urban areas are dominated by horizontal dark surfaces, mostly roofs and pavements,
absorbing solar radiation and releasing it in the form of longer wavelengths (infra-
red) as heat also causes the temperature to rise. This is known as the Urban Heat
Island (UHI) [1]. Furthermore, climate change causes the temperature to increase and
amplifies overheating within urban landscapes [2]. These heat loads have a major
impact on the energy performance of buildings, resulting in more cooling energy
demands and an increase in total electricity consumption, which, in turn, imply more
CO2 emissions and costs [3]. In the last decades, European cities have found several
solutions to this problem such as increasing vegetation on roofs and façades to create
evapotranspiration [4], adding more water surfaces for cooling effects [5], using
permeable materials as well as coatings with high albedo on exposed urban surfaces
[6] to reduce the amount of short-wave heat that gets accumulated. Today, 55% of
the world’s population lives in urban areas, a proportion that is expected to increase
to 68% by 2050 [7]. As we spend most of our time indoors, buildings are becoming
real thermal machines with the objective to maintain climatic conditions favourable
to human beings. However, most existing buildings are inefficient in their reaction
to environmental conditions, displaying poor autoregulation of energy consumption,
leading to excessive carbon emissions.
Building envelopes or facades where interior and exterior interact play an essential
role in the drive towards zero-carbon or carbon positive buildings as they are the
building’s primary energy transmission interfaces where interior and exterior interact.
Pho’liage: Towards a Kinetic Biomimetic Thermoregulating Façade 369
However, most current facades are under or over-mechanized, which poses several
problems from high carbon footprints to maintenance difficulties and high costs.
The Arab World Institute in Paris illustrates these problems particularly well. Since
then, new ideas have emerged such as the “breathing metal” concept developed
by architect Doris Kim Sung in 2011 [8], inspired by the autonomous functioning
of the pores of our skin to adapt the body’s internal tissues to changes in outside
temperatures. There is an urgent need to design and optimize facades to develop
new dynamic responses and increased autonomy, ideally eschewing regular human
intervention and additional energy input from the grid. Over the past decade, more
and more façade systems improving user comfort by regulating daylighting have
emerged such as static shading elements with variation in shape and size as well
as adaptive skins and shading devices for facades. The use of computational design
methods and simulations makes it possible to investigate more complex solutions at a
building scale by including environmental data within the design process. Despite the
improvements, these trends collectively suggest there is an urgent need for creating,
designing, and optimizing adaptive shading systems. However, today, kinetic shading
systems that can react to the variable nature of weather conditions are more complex
and harder to implement due to multiple factors such as trade-offs between energy
consumption and environmental performance improvement, research, production,
implementation, and costs.
Living systems have the capacity to respond simultaneously to several external
environmental factors such as temperature, humidity, or light while optimizing energy
consumption. Indeed, over 3.8 billion years of evolution, living systems have been
optimized regarding matter, energy, and information flows and sorted out sustainable
systems in terms of energy and water management, material production, informa-
tion processing as well as the organization and collective intelligence efficiency [9].
Biomimetics, the interdisciplinary cooperation of biology and technology or other
fields of innovation, aims to solve practical problems through the functional analysis
of biological systems and their abstraction into models for the solution [10].
In light of this, the lab team sets out to test a biomimetic approach in response to
thermoregulation design challenges, and analyses biomimetics as a tool to develop
better building envelopes. In the first section, the following paper will examine how
energy requirements are met in the built environment at the building scale. We will
specifically look at the role and importance of facades in architecture and explain how
autonomous devices and adaptive envelopes can participate in optimizing thermal
comfort for the user as well as reduce energy demands. We will describe and show
how a biomimetic approach can be used at the architectural scale to respond to
these needs. In the second part, we will explain the journey towards developing a
biomimetic thermoregulating envelope using a biomimetic approach as a framework.
We will describe the different steps behind the design process as well as the chal-
lenges and difficulties faced by the team. In the third part, we will comment on the
methodology, which helped imagine a new concept and prototype to better address
environmental challenges. Lastly, we will reflect on the importance of an in-depth
qualitative evaluation of the new design which we refer to today as Pho’liage.
2 Setting the Context
2.1 Meeting Energy Requirements
2.1.1 Energy Requirements in Building Regulations
Buildings and their construction are responsible for approximately 40% of EU energy
consumption and 36% of greenhouse gas emissions, making them the single largest
energy consumer in Europe [11]. In 2012, the building sector in France was respon-
sible for 44% of the country’s final energy consumption and emitted 18% of the
country’s greenhouse gases. The building sector consumes the most energy of all
identified sectors, ahead of transport, industry, steel, and agriculture.
In recent years, successive building regulations specifically address thermal issues
and have made it possible to significantly reduce energy consumption. In 2004, France
created the first climate plan with the aim of stabilizing its greenhouse gas emissions at
1990 levels over the period 2008–2012. In 2009, France created the Grenelle law (law
n° 2009–967 of August 3, 2009), which lists commitments in terms of limiting climate
change, preservation of biodiversity, maintenance and development of ecosystems
and natural environments, reduction of health risks from the environment, and the
establishment of an ecological democracy through better public information. The
Grenelle law is set to “divide by 4 the greenhouse gas emissions from the 1990
level by 2050”. Furthermore, the EU has established a legislative framework that
includes the Energy Performance of Buildings Directive 2010/31/EU (EPBD) [12]
and the Energy Efficiency Directive 2012/27/EU, to boost the energy performance
of buildings. Both directives promote policies that are set to help achieve a highly
energy-efficient and decarbonized building stock by 2050. They were amended as
part of the Clean Energy for All Europeans package in 2018 and 2019, introducing
new elements sending a strong political signal on the EU’s commitment to “mod-
ernize the building sector in light of technological improvements and to increase
building renovations”. From 31 December 2020, EU countries must set cost-optimal
minimum energy performance requirements for new buildings, for existing build-
ings undergoing a major renovation, and for the replacement or retrofit of building
elements like heating and cooling systems, roofs, and walls. Additionally, all new
buildings must be nearly zero-energy buildings (NZEB) and EU countries must draw
up lists of national financial measures to improve the energy efficiency of buildings. In
addition to these requirements, under the Energy Efficiency Directive (2012/27/EU),
national governments are recommended to only purchase buildings that are highly
energy efficient. The Commission has established a set of standards and accom-
panying technical reports to support the EPBD called the energy performance of
buildings standards (EPB standards).
2.1.2 Building Facades: Primary Energy Transmission Interfaces
Over the years, building facades have played an active role in the evolution of these
increasingly stronger requirements. Indeed, façades are responsible for more than
40% of total energy loss in the winter, as well as overheating in the summer [13],
making the employment of air conditioning systems inevitable in the provision of
adequate internal comfort for users and building occupants. While the passive housing
concept is often achieved by using high-performance insulation materials in façades,
the overuse of insulators can lead to an increased load on ventilation and humidity
regulation systems, which together amount to additional costs and significant space
losses. “Ventilation units consume more than 2% of all electricity in the EU and
are amongst the biggest consumers of indoor electricity, after heating, cooling, and
lighting” [14]. With an accurate design of façade details and efficient solar shading
systems, office buildings in Europe could function efficiently without high energy-
consuming cooling systems.
By reducing the use of ventilation systems through alternative solutions, Euro-
peans could save “approximately 1300 PJ in energy use each year by 2025. This
is equivalent to the annual gross energy consumption of Austria or Greece” [15].
Following these premises, in the EU, the energy consumption of building construc-
tion could potentially be reduced by 10% for oil consumption (approximately 41 m
tons) and around 111 m tons for CO2 production per year [11]. The use of adaptive
shading systems with integrated PVs could contribute to reducing the energy demand
of buildings and solve the challenging climate change and pollution problems. Space
cooling systems (SC) account for an important part of the average European Union
household’s air conditioning energy consumption (about 5%) and are particularly
present in the service sector (approximately 13%) [16]. The European space cooling
market is characterized by a huge potential for growth, with the percentage of the
surface areas in the service sector being almost ten times higher (30%) than in the resi-
dential buildings (4%) [17]. Given the expressed desire by the European markets for
increased comfort standards, surface cooling applications are expected to increase,
especially within the residential sector [18].
Further possible reasons for the future rise of (SC) applications in Europe are
global warming and modern architectural designs with larger glazing areas [19].
This anticipated rise in cooling energy consumption creates a self-nurturing negative
feedback loop and amplifies climate change significantly. The (Fig. 1) illustrates
the typical constituents of the consumption (for a typical/model office building)
divided into heating, cooling, ventilation, lighting, and miscellaneous when using
conventional passive façade technologies.
These increasingly stronger requirements call for innovative solutions that can
reduce all aspects of energy consumption, including the transformation of facades
and the avoidance of high-energy systems such as (SC).
“Envelope” and “skin” are widely used terms in architecture to qualify the roof and
the façades. Building envelopes display a wide diversity of architectural expression,
building materials, and dimensions spanning the recorded history of architecture.
Their strength, aesthetics, and porosity have adapted alongside our cultural evolution
Fig. 1 Changing energy requirements in Denmark where the demands (red lines) are expressed as a
limit for total primary energy consumption in kWh/m2 per year, with a limit of 25 kWh/m2 per year
in 2020. The figure also illustrates the typical constituents of the consumption (for a typical/model
office building) divided into heating, cooling, ventilation, lighting, and miscellaneous when using
conventional passive façade technologies. The 2015 column illustrates how much the energy needs
can be reduced by using traditional passive facades in a typical office building, i.e., the requirements
can hardly be reached without introducing some form of sustainable energy supply, e.g., PV panels.
The last column in the figure shows the great challenge of the 2020 energy requirement, which
calls for dynamic façade technologies or other significant measures, e.g., local sustainable energy
production. Energy requirements (shown by the horizontal lines) in the Danish building regulations
from 2008 till 2020. The first three columns illustrate the typical constituents of the total energy
consumption in offices or commercial buildings when using passive façade technologies. The last
column shows the 2020 energy demand, which can only be met by dynamic technologies (or by
introducing sustainable energy supply
and have responded to environmental constraints [20]. They are considered complex
systems since their designers must consider environmental realities, expected levels
of human well-being, as well as technical, aesthetic, and financial requirements.
Solutions must overcome contradictory requirements such as limiting overheating
while providing natural lighting [21].
From a technical standpoint, building envelopes act as barriers that simultane-
ously control several environmental factors from heat to light to humidity, airborne
pollution, acoustics, and mechanical stress [22, 23]. The façade’s performance highly
influences the building’s total energy consumption as it impacts directly the building’s
exposure to solar gain, a determinant factor on the energy loads required by internal
regulation systems—e.g., heating, cooling, and ventilation [24]. Since planning poli-
cies frequently encourage urban densification to offset urban sprawl, encouraging
renovation rather than the construction of new buildings, façade performance has
become a primary lever in the reduction of building energy consumption [21]. Indeed,
most of the current stock of European buildings was built between the end of the
Second World War and the first oil crisis of 1973 [25]. During this period, building
energy optimization was not a major concern since the first building thermal regula-
tions appeared in Europe for new construction in the mid-1970s as a response to the
oil crisis [26, 27]. The improvement of the building envelope yielded a significant
potential for environmental improvement as highlighted by the increasing number
of research programs for the development of efficient retrofitting building systems
[28].
2.2 Optimizing Thermal Comfort
2.2.1 The Importance of Adaptive Façade Systems
French thermal regulation RT2012 is one of the measures adopted from the “Grenelle
Law” and aims to limit the primary energy consumption of new buildings to a
maximum of 50 kWhEP/(m2 ) on average. In addition to a maximum consumption
requirement, the RT2012 also aims to encourage all building sectors to make tech-
nological and industrial changes and to oblige designers to opt for bioclimatic archi-
tecture. Indeed, the RT2012 imposes a minimum of 17% or 1/6 of glazed surfaces
in buildings [29]. The glazed part of the façade gives by far the largest contribu-
tion to the transmission heat losses through the building envelope [r]. However, the
glazing also contributes significantly to the heating of the building during the colder
seasons when the sun’s energy is important through the increased use of solar gain
and daylight. To both reduce transmission losses and increase the use of solar energy
and daylight façades must adapt to changing external conditions. An ideally designed
façade should be interactive and respond intelligently and reliably to the changing
outdoor conditions and the occupants’ needs. The [30] (2020 Environmental Regu-
lation) that will come into effect in January 2022 for community housing and in 2023
for commercial buildings will among other things, guarantee thermal comfort in the
event of strong heatwaves [30].
Loonen defines a Climate Adaptive Building Shell (CABS) as a system that “has
the ability to repeatedly and reversibly change its functions, features or behaviour
over time in response to changing performance requirements and variable boundary
conditions. By doing this, the building shell effectively seeks to improve overall
building performance in terms of primary energy consumption while maintaining
acceptable thermal and visual comfort. CABS has been classified in to categories
based on the bioinspiration approach they deploy (phototropism and heliotropism
of plants), the physical aspects of their interface with the environment (blocking,
filtering, converting, collecting, or storing energy), the duration of their operating
cycles (seconds, minutes, hours, diurnal and seasons), their scale of adaptation
to external stimuli (micro-scale and macro-scale), and monitoring systems which
control their operation (extrinsic and intrinsic).
2.2.2 Biomimetics as an Opportunity in Architecture
“Biomimetics”, “bioinspiration”, “biomimicry” are interdisciplinary approaches

based on the integration of technology and biology, by transferring living systems’
principles into a technological solution [9, 31]. Biomimetics refers to “the interdis-
ciplinary cooperation of biology and technology or other fields of innovation with
the goal of solving practical problems through the functional analysis of biolog-
ical systems, their abstraction into models and the transfer into and application of
these models to the solution” [32]. This chapter mostly uses the term “biomimetics’
since the Pho’liage façade system results from a biomimetic approach rather than
bioinspiration or a biomimicry design process.
This approach has inspired innovation in several fields from aeronautics [33,
34], biomedical [35, 36] materials [37, 38] to architecture [39, 40] over the past
decades. Indeed, interest in living organisms has been strengthened both by the rise
in environmental awareness and advances in technology. This progress allows us
to understand life at all levels from molecular to ecosystems, and then to replicate
these natural principles and processes with novel technologies [41, 42]. This cross-
cutting approach is poised to play a major role in solving systemic problems related
to energy, health, transports, food security, and creating economic and social value
[43, 44].
Since time immemorial, architects have explored the links between Nature and
architecture [45, 46]. Architectural trends and movements ranging from Art Nouveau
to Ecological, from “biomorphism” to “vernacular” and “bioclimatic”, all these
compounded sensitivities have driven the promotion of nature-based design. At the
crossroads between these different approaches, biomimetics is an opportunity to
shift from fossil-fuel-based architecture to regenerative design by translating living
systems and ecosystems properties into suitable solutions for the building context
[47, 48]. Several examples of building systems or facades illustrate biomimetics
in architecture. On the one hand, some designs mimic the efficiency of biological
systems in order to optimize building energy consumption [49, 50] or to lighten the
building structure [44, 51], etc. On the other hand, some designs mimic ecosystemic
functions, which enable buildings to better integrate with ecological cycles, which,
in turn, reduces the pressure exerted by urban areas on ecosystems at large [47–49].
Thermoregulation is a contemporary architectural challenge well-explored among
biomimetic envelopes. Literature reviews have counted numerous well-documented
proofs of the concept of adaptive and non-adaptive biomimetic envelopes [51, 52].
Adaptive building envelopes can adapt their shape due to an intrinsic or extrinsic
control. Intrinsic control involves self-adjusting of the façade systems or components
while extrinsic control implies façade modification after information retrieving and
processing by building sensors [53]. Figure 2 illustrates the diversity of adaptive
biomimetic building envelopes such as HygroSkin—a climate-responsive pavilion
designed by ICD (Fig. 2a), the Thematic Pavilion—an adaptive facade that adapts to
the building envelope the bio-inspired Flectofin system [54, 55] (Fig. 2b), Bloom—an
adaptive material inspired by adaptation mechanisms of living systems [56] (Fig. 2c).
Figure 3 presents an overview of non-adaptive biomimetic building envelopes such
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 2 Adaptive biomimetic building envelopes. a HygroSkin. © ICD/University of Stuttgart, b

the thematic pavilion, c Bloom. © DO SU Studio Architecture
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 3 Non-adaptive building envelopes. a Sierpinski Forest, licence CC-BY-SA Estelle Cruz, b the
Esplanade Theatre Singapore Art Centre, licence CC-SA, c the Nianing Church. © Regis L’Hostis
as the envelope Sierpinski Forest—a sun-shading façade component inspired by the

fractal geometry of trees [57, 58] (Fig. 3a), the Esplanade Theatre Singapore Art
Centre—a shading cladding of a double roof dome inspired by the skin of the durian
fruit for thermal regulation [59, 60] (Fig. 3b), and the Nianing Church—building
inspired by the ventilation system of termites’ mounds for passive ventilation and
thermal regulation [61, 62] (Fig. 3c).
3 Developing a Biomimetic Envelope
The following section illustrates the development of the biomimetic shading device
Pho’liage and how an investigation of biological role models can lead to the creation
of a functional prototype and the possibility of design variations.
Fig. 4 Biomimetic design process. a Technology pull, b biology push. Adapted from ISO standard
2015:18,458
3.1 From Biological Movement to Adaptive Shading System
3.1.1 Biomimetics as a Design Framework
Two main approaches exist in biomimetics as defined by the ISO standard 18,458:
“technology pull” or “biology push”. The ISO has provided the two following defi-
nitions: the technology pull process is a “biomimetic development process in which
an existing functional technical product is provided with new or improved functions
through the transfer and application of biological principles”. The biology push
process is a “biomimetic development process in which the knowledge gained from
basic research in the field of biology is used as the starting point and is applied to
the development of new technical products” [9]. The five main steps are presented
in Fig. 4 for each approach.
To support biomimetic design processes, more than 43 methods and tools have
been developed across all fields [63]. Some of them were specifically proposed to
support designers in applying biomimetic in architecture, such as Genius of Biome
[64], BioGen [65], ESA—Ecosystem Services Analysis [64].
Pho’liage mainly results from the technology pull approach since the design
team first identified the technical challenges—thermal and light regulation through
the building facade, and then searched for relevant adaptive strategies within the
kingdom of plants. Architect Steven Ware’s biology background had a significant
impact on the design process.
3.1.2 Initial Concepts
The team explored initial concepts involving direct use of thermostatic bimetal bands
with incisions cut parametrically into the material. This approach was chosen as
appropriately frugal given the cost of TBM materials and the difficulty of tooling the
Fig. 5 Conceptual rendering

of the façade of the
University Hospital CHU
Nantes, France featuring
bands of thermo-bimetal into
which incisions ‘free’ the
memory shape to provide
shading. © ArtBuild
bands. It also effectively employed the factory curved shape memory, as the bands of
TMB were stretched flat from their initial factory roll configuration, and the incision
would “free” the bands according to the shape of each cut, allowing them to take up
their initial memory shape. As the curved shapes heat up in the sun, they go back to
the “lay flat” position and thus close the gaps made by the incisions, protecting the
façade from solar gain (Fig. 5).
Thermostatic bimetals (TBMs) are alloys that expand with rising temperature
and contract with falling temperature. In ancient civilizations, wheel rims were
heated before fitting and shrunk on cooling, thus holding the wheel firmly together.
Compound materials made from layers of different materials with different proper-
ties that, once combined, produce a material with new properties, are also known
from early times. However, engineers began to exploit the possibilities offered by
compound materials incorporating layers with different thermal expansion rates in
the eighteenth century. Today, TBM continues to provide a source of inspiration
for inventors seeking novel ideas and applications. Manufacturers have developed
and improved manufacturing processes to produce TBM at an industrial scale from
hot rolling cladding methods to cold cladding processes. Besides, research work
continuously is made to explore TBM properties. ArtBuild’s team has explored and
carried out several experiments with this specific material since 2015. Figures 6a–d
successively explain how TBM operates.
Thermostatic bimetal bending is directly proportional to the difference in the
coefficient of expansion and the temperature change of the component strips, and
inversely proportional to the thickness of the combined strips. The amount of bending
is also affected by the ratio of the moduli of elasticity of the two strips and by their
thickness ratio [64].
Practical tests with both thermo bi-plastics and thermo bi-metals led the team to
focus on triangular shapes, which best-expressed curving responses to heat changes as
well as rigidity, anticipating the needs for the elements of the facade to be positioned
on the exterior of the building envelope to be effective, all the while subjected to
wind loads and pollution, one side of the triangle assumed to provide a stable fixing
to the support structure.
a. b. c. d.
Fig. 6 a Two metal strips of identical length (at a given temperature) having high and low coef-
ficients of thermal expansion. b When the temperature rises, their relative lengths will change. c
When the strips are bonded together, and the temperature is raised, the high expansion strip will
be under compression and the low expansion strip will be under tension. d These forces produce a
moment that causes the element to bend in a uniform arc
The form-finding process followed several steps. Based on the studies of existing
solutions together with the available literature [64, 65], the team conducted a detailed
feasibility study using the manufacturer’s data for the use of TBM material. A refer-
ence for thermostatic bimetal produced by Engineered Material Solutions® [64] was
selected for its temperature activation range and relative mechanical resilience vs
action span. A theoretical model was then created using the finite element method
(FEM). In combination with wind-load calculations and the applied thermostatic
theory of Antoine Yvon Villarceau [61], the first 3D parametric models were built on
Rhinoceros® and Grasshopper® . Those 3D models helped to visualize and calculate
the open/closed optimal ratio induced by a temperature change, before engaging in
the physical testing as the next step of the R&D process (Fig. 7).
The team then tested a prototype of assembled individual triangular “petals”,
which made more efficient use of the TBM material. The resulting “flowers” or petal
Fig. 7 First 3D parametric models were built on Rhinoceros® and Grasshopper® . © ArtBuild
clusters are connected by stainless steel cables to be mounted, once again, on the
exterior of the façade. This configuration led to more specific studies on the detailing
of attachment components given the need to both hold the TBM petals in place, all
the while allowing for their movement when required.
3.2 Developing the First Prototype for Application
3.2.1 Studying Plant Movements
Charles Darwin’s publication The Power of Movement in Plants in 1880 saw an

extension of his work on the theory of natural selection to focus on the way plants
react to external stimuli, introducing the reader to the behaviour of certain species of
the flowering plant genus Medicago: one during the day (“leaves during the day”),
the other at night (“leaves asleep at night”). The movements he evokes are known
collectively as nyctinasty and have often been a source of inspiration for scientists,
photographers, artists, and architects. The movement that Darwin evokes concerns a
non-linear response known as nyctinasty. The term nyctinastic (from Greek nux, nukt-
“night” + nastos “pressed”) is used to describe the closure of leaves during the night,
nastic movements occur in leaves, flowers, cotyledons, or branches in response to the
arrival of dusk and dawn. These movements are described as nastic, or “direction-
independent, reversible orientation changes in response to direction-independent
stimuli”.
Plants’ surfaces, like other biological surfaces, feature multifunctional interfaces
with their environment [62]. For more than 400 million years, land plants have
evolved a wide diversity of biological surface structures capable of regulating envi-
ronmental factors—e.g. heat, light, water. The properties of these functional surfaces,
for example, the absorption of water or light reflection can be translated into useful
models for the development of technical solutions. Figure 8 shows the multifunc-
tional properties of the surfaces of plant leaves and illustrates the highly functional
plant surfaces that provide water, light, thermal, mechanical, and air regulation.
Flower petal movements in the living world are mostly induced by a difference in
growth rate on each side of the petal. In species that open in the morning primarily
as a response to temperature, the inner surface of the petal rapidly expands when the
Fig. 8 Koch, K., Bhushan, B., and Barthlott, W., Multifunctional surface structures of plants: an
inspiration for biomimetics. Progress in Materials Science, 2009, 54, pp. 137–178
Table 1 Number of optimized design versions studied with technical characteristics. © ArtBuild
Number of TBM petal-like Perforated Imperforated Materials Maximum filed level (dB)
structures
2 V1 V1 TBM 73.3
3 (trilobal) V2 V2 TBM 66.33
4 V3 V3 TBM 74.66
8 n/a V4 TBM 70.33
8+4 n/a V5 TBM/PLA 74
temperature rises due to the release of phytohormone/metabolites, notably absent on

the outer surface. Cooling results in faster growth on the outer surface. The study
of the nastic movement phenomena by the research team led to the development of
several bio-inspired TBM-made prototype propositions (Table 1). The change in the
TBM curving shape is memory-shaped, which makes possible the long-term use of
our optimized design without any maintenance.
3.2.2 Optimizing Shape and Form
Based on a combination of different shapes and numbers for petals, the team tested
various configurations [66] considering the physical properties of the material, which
were not available through the TBM catalogue literature. This modelling was espe-
cially aimed at minimizing the loss and waste of material during the punch press
industrial process, as well as locating the critical actuating surfaces in areas when
sunlight masking would be enhanced or avoided.
The following key elements came to the fore in the design of subsequent
prototypes:
• Optimizing the functional area of the TBM actuator and reducing the masking
effect.
• Optimizing the open/fold ratio.
• Reducing the sound made by sudden distortion (Field Level in dB) of the TBM
elements when heated and cooled.
As a result of this study, the perforated design of the V2 thermostatic bimetal
element was chosen as the best candidate for further research given the specific
application of the TBM component as the actuator of the shading device (see Figs. 8
and 9). Lab test results supported the trilobal petal-like TBM actuator design that
reduced material waste, increased the open/close ratio efficiency, reduced sound
emissions during the activation process, and showed slower ‘closing time’ during
the cooling process leading to increased solar shading performance (Fig. 10).
Once the ground components were defined in terms of material specification and
general shape, it was possible to create a larger mock-up model (see Fig. 11).
Fig. 9 V2 imperforated prototype. Change in shape within temperature variation. © ArtBuild
Fig. 10 Perforated prototype (Left: Photo of the folded position, Right: CAD of the open position).
© ArtBuild
Fig. 11 Section of a mock-up model after outdoor anti-corrosion tests of 36 months (Left: painted
TBM petals, Right: unprotected TBM petals). © ArtBuild
a. b.
Fig. 12 Outdoor test aperture. Comparison of the movement of painted and unpainted TBM
elements during the summer after being exposed for 10 s (a) and for 1 min on the left (b). ©
ArtBuild
The research team then focused on corrosion protection to the TBMs, all the while
seeking to optimize the reactivity of the petal curving dynamics. A combination of
decorative, Cr-8VI-free coatings was chosen, the chemical properties acting as an
anti-corrosion protection of the TBMs while the dark colour and matt finish enable
the petals to efficiently absorb the sun’s heat leading to faster actuation responses.
The flexibility of the TBMs related to the overall memory-shaped performance was
not compromised with the application of the coatings (Fig. 12).
Having produced several prototypes at various stages of the R&D, the team tested
different assembly configurations of the TBM actuator and PV cell subcomponents
to explore a cost-effective solution with the highest possible efficiency and reactivity.
The team continues to work on this concept through theoretical models and lab tests.
The renewable electricity production combined with the dynamic memory-shaped
movement of the TBM actuator distinguishes this patent-pending technology from
other existing solutions (see Figs. 13 and 14). As mentioned previously, the solar
shading device works without motorization or maintenance needs in the timeframe
of the warranty period. This unique passive kinetic device is activated and controlled
fully by solar radiation. The PV cells induce important heat loss during energy
production cycles, mostly because of the Joule heating effect as process output.
The positive interaction of both photo-sensitive (PV) and thermo-reactive (TBM)
materials’ heat exchange is beneficial to the overall energy efficiency of the device
resulting from the improvement of the actuator reactivity.
The PV components are connected to a resistance element using conducting cables
and could be expected to improve the overall performance of the system through the
increased speed of the opening and closure of the flowers. The use of PVs questions
the autonomous nature and the passivity of the system, which switches from being a
low-tech system to a high-tech one. Consequently, the team decided not to continue
research on the integration of PV components.
Fig. 13 TBM actuator (in blue) and PV cell (in white); the two supporting/conductive cables are
illustrated in black. © ArtBuild
Fig. 14 The PV components

(in grey) are physically
related to resistance (green
colour) through conductors
(blue/red colour) trapped in
between the LES and HES
TBM layers. © ArtBuild
3.2.3 Implementation and Limits of the Prototype
ArtBuild was selected to be the lead architects of the new headquarters of the CIRC—
IARC, the International Agency for Research on Cancer in Lyon, France, which is
planned to be completed by the summer of 2022. The bio-inspired shading system
Pho’liage will be installed on the façade to the circular courtyard, forming a vast
curtain between the two urban windows and covering 270 degrees of the building’s
round patio (Fig. 15). The shading device, composed of 1523 flowers and 82 cables,
will extend from the second floor to the fifth floor (Fig. 16). The TBM flower shading
elements are designed to be fastened to a support structure of tensioned metallic
cables using custom-made fixings. The cables matrix creates a vast mesh with one
Fig. 15 CIRC—IARC, International Agency for Research on Cancer in Lyon, view of the
courtyard. © ArtBuild
Fig. 16 Layout of the TBM flowers on the cables. Facade of the CIRC in the courtyard. © ArtBuild
flower per crossover and three flowers in between (Fig. 16). Each cable features a
turnbuckle mechanism and can be removed entirely should the shading system need
maintenance or replacement.
The implementation of Pho’liage on the CIRC—IARC has helped the team better
understand the challenges behind designing building envelopes with complex geome-
tries and the issues linked to translating the prototype into real-life architectural
projects (Fig. 17).
In September 2020, the lab team carried out an analysis and critique of the
Pho’liage project, taking into account the difficulties of the implementation of the
Fig. 17 Pho’liage fixing

elements on the roof of the
CIRC. © ArtBuild
CIRC. Indeed, the team reflected on and questioned the entire design process from
reconsidering the problem statement to looking at the implementation of the shading
system in a real project.
Several issues were raised concerning the cost, environmental impact, and effi-
ciency of the system. Measuring the overall performance of the device includes
measuring both ease of use and operation to understand how it responds to the initial
problem statement: improving the user’s comfort while reducing energy demand.
• The use of TBM poses economic concerns as TBM is expensive, on the CIRC,
the cost of one flower is 55 euros.
• Sourcing of the TBM has proved to be difficult as it can only be supplied by a
small number of companies manufacturing special alloys. The companies and
their teams of specialized engineers have been very difficult to contact.
• TBM is an alloy thus it cannot be recycled which raises environmental concerns.
• The curled (closed position)/uncurled (open position) ratio isn’t efficient enough
as the surface deployed when the flower is open is small, thus creating a small
amount of shade.
• Although some work has been made to improve acoustic disturbance, the system
still emits a sudden metallic snapping sound when coming back to its initial curled
position.
• The system cannot be turned on or off by the user. According to LEAMAN et
BORDASS’s study [66] there is increasing evidence that occupants prefer to have
some level of personal control of their local indoor environment [67].
• The cable mesh structure supporting the flower elements isn’t ideal as the orien-
tation of the flowers cannot be controlled and doesn’t suit free form or irregularly
shaped buildings.
Fig. 18 Different stages for designing an improved version of Pho’liage. Diagram adapted from
Shleicher, S. Bio-inspired Compliant Mechanisms for Architectural Design (2016), p. 68
4 Addressing Environmental Challenges
This section shows the process behind the development of a second improved version
of the shading device Pho’liage aiming to both address an environmental challenge
and to improve its operation. In this context, the team focused on the fact that thermo-
static bimetal isn’t environmentally efficient as it is an alloy, thus difficult to recycle
and costly in this specific field of application.
4.1 Optimizing Pho’liage
4.1.1 Research Method
Concerning the method, the team of architects and designers identified six distinct
stages behind the development of Pho’liage: research, problem formulation, design
process, prototyping, implementation, and evaluation. The below table describes the
steps for each consecutive phase, and the diagram in Fig. 18 details steps 2 and 3.
4.1.2 Exploring Biological Role Models for Deployment Mechanisms
Improving the open/closed ratio and reducing the amount of TBM were identified as
the two main technical challenges for designing a new improved version of the
Pho’liage flower. The team investigated biological role models in the scientific
literature in order to understand how plant species take advantage of mechanical,
compositional, and structural gradients to perform mobility with minimal energy
use. We explored a specific category of reversible plant movement linked to deploy-
ment or triggering movement, which are known as elastic instabilities and snap-
ping motions (see Fig. 19). The figure below shows the different categories within
nastic movements. After in-depth research in the available scientific literature, two
Fig. 19 Classification of nastic plant movements from Saad Elghazi Y., Hamza N., Dade-Robertson
M. Responsive Plant-inspired skins: a review. (Studied plant movement in red)
biological role models—the Venus flytrap (Dionaea muscipula) and the Aldrovanda
vesiculosa—were isolated and analysed (see Table 2).
According to Schleicher, plants’ flexibility represents a compliant mechanism that
reduces the number of mechanical parts by an integrative design (Schleicher 2016).
Taking this into consideration, the team made several paper mock-ups to analyze
curling and folding mechanisms in order to test various deployment movements
mimicking the elastic snapping motions found in plants. AB Lab’s team explored
the concept of curved line folding in the scientific literature and studied the fact
that in pliable systems the deformation of individual parts is constrained by their
neighbouring elements. Curve-line folding is a type of folding technique defined
as the act of folding a flat sheet of material along a curved crease pattern in order
to create a 3D shape [65]. It uses the combination of folding (plastic deformation)
and bending (elastic deformation). In other words, when one surface area is bent,
the forces and movements are transmitted through the curved creases to the adjacent
surface areas, which results in a folding motion. Vergauwen researched this approach
Table 2 Description of method behind redesign of Pho’liage. © ArtBuild

Phase Description
I. Research Documentation and understanding of the context,
formulation of a problem
II. Design process Using the biomimicry methodology: abstracting a
technical problem, transposing to biology,
identifying potential biological models, selecting
biological models of interest, abstracting biological
strategies, transposing to technology
III. Concept development and prototyping Refining shape, form, material, and finishes,
fabrication of the prototype
IV. Implementation Realization of the project on a building, the
challenges, and difficulties
Evaluation and impact Assessment of the system through multiple criteria
Fig. 20 Curve line folding principles © ArtBuild
and discussed its application in the context of kinetic shading systems in architectural
engineering. The researcher explains that the elastic deformations that occur when
a flat sheet is forced into a curved shape can produce an interesting transformation
process that could be used for the development of a new type of deployable structure.
The practical mock-ups and the exploration of the curve-line fold concept have
shown that the employment of elasticity within a structure facilitates not only the
generation of complex geometries but also enables the creation of elastic kinetic
structures. Indeed, compliant mechanisms combine strength with elasticity and gain
some of their mobility from flexible members’ deflection rather than only from
movable joints (Fig. 20).
4.1.3 Model Making and Testing
The above research enabled the team to start designing a deployable surface. To
create an autonomous shading element, the team focused on finding a trigger to
induce movement in order to open and close the flower. Previous investigations
using TBM in the initial concept proved to the team that the material could be used
as an actuator force. AB Lab subsequently attempted to create a new hybrid shading
element consisting of two distinct parts: a flat deployable surface and an actuator to
create a folding motion. The initial mock-ups involved paper surfaces with curved
creases and a TBM actuator causing the flower to deform and bend as it furled and
unfurled.
The architect/designer team then conducted a series of tests to find the best shape
for the deployable surface (Fig. 21). A triangular shape proved to be optimal as the
actuator area/polymer surface area ratio is highly efficient, with a small actuator’s
surface and a large deployable surface. Furthermore, it enabled a convenient tiling
pattern when juxtaposed. Once the team agreed on the shape, multiple curve-line
paper mock-ups were made to test different curvatures for each crease with various
radii (Table 3). Manual tests were undertaken to determine which design required
the least pressure and force for deformation and bending to occur. A series of tests
with weights were conducted (Fig. 22). The opening and closure of each paper/TBM
mock-up were tested by applying temperatures of up to 65 °C directly to the TBM
actuator with a heat gun (see Fig. 23). The actuator was prestressed into a curved
shape and then mechanically fastened to the paper surface. Following the heating
Fig. 21 Exploration of
shape and curve line folding
principles. © ArtBuild
phase, the TBM component deforms and lays flat, resulting in the flower’s opening
(Figs. 23 and 24).
4.1.4 Layout and Support Structure
The team then worked on a support structure to position each individual flower
element. A honeycomb matrix made from assembled folded aluminium strips was
retained, supporting the flowers and enabling the precise orientation of each flower
with respect to wind loads and solar movements. Each flower is screwed onto an
angle of the hexagonal shape, presenting its TBM actuator to the sun (Fig. 25). This
support structure presents several advantages compared to the initial cable system,
including greater resistance to environmental conditions and the ability to cover
irregularly shaped facades (Fig. 26).
Table 3 Describes the two selected biological role models. © ArtBuild

Name of selected biological Description of biological Image of the studied organism
models model
Venus flytrap (Dionaea The leaves of the Venus flytrap

muscipula) snap shut and trap prey within
milliseconds by turning
physical signals into electrical
signals. These carnivorous Trap of Dionaea muscipula.
plants rely on nutrients from Image from Wikipedia
small prey animals when Commons
growing in nutrient-poor soil.
When an unsuspecting prey
brushes up against two
touch-sensitive hairs on the
inside of the trap-shaped
leaves, the trap snaps shut,
ensnaring the prey for later
digestion. The touch-sensitive
hairs, known as trigger hairs,
signal trap closure using
sodium-activated action
potentials (APs)
Aldrovanda vesiculosa The trap consists of two lobes

connected with hinge zones to
a midrib. While the lobes and
the central area are of higher
stiffness, the hinge zone is
more flexible and describes a
curved fold line (Fig. 3). After
being triggered by prey, a Aldrovanda vesiculosa. Stem
change of turgor pressure leads with leaves with orbicular
to a small change in the lamina (trap). Image from
bending curvature of the Wikipedia commons
midrib, which is amplified by a
curved line folding mechanism
and leads to a complete closure
of the trap (Poppinga et al.
2016)
Fig. 22 Testing various curvatures with weights. © ArtBuild
Fig. 23 Test of flower deformation with a heating source (TBM and paper). TBM surface
temperature: a 20 °C, b 30 °C, c 45 °C, d 65 °C. © ArtBuild
Fig. 24 Drawing of flower aperture depending on heating. TBM actuator (dark grey) deployable
surface (light grey). TBM surface temperature: a 20 °C, b 30 °C, c 45 °C, d 65 °C. © ArtBuild
Fig. 25 a Exploded view. b Mechanism and operation. © ArtBuild

Fig. 26 Opening and closure of the flower element according to sun position. Red represents surface
temperature above 65 °C, orange and yellow temperatures between 30 and 40 °C and blue below
21 °C. © ArtBuild
4.1.5 Material Research
According to Shleicher, materials for bio-inspired compliant mechanisms need to

be chosen to maximize flexibility rather than stiffness. Stiffness and strength are
not the same, and it is possible to make a structure both flexible and strong. A
structure is described as demonstrating low stiffness when a small load can cause a
large deflection. Yet this reveals nothing about its strength. “Strength” is a material
property that specifies the stress that a structure can withstand before failure. The
deflection of a material under a given load, which appears before a structure fails, is
dependent on its stiffness and rigidity. A structure’s flexural rigidity, however, results
from its material properties and its geometry. We can say that there are two means
to effectively maximize the flexibility of a structure: either by changing its material
settings or by modifying its shape.
Material choice is of primary importance. It can be said that materials with a
higher strength-to-modulus ratio can undergo much larger deflections and achieve
smaller bending radii before undergoing plastic deformation and failure than those
with a lower ratio. High values can be found among plastics and polymers. This mate-
rial group is particularly well suited for compliant mechanisms and elastic kinetic
structures.
Translating the paper mock-ups to plastic prototypes has proven to be difficult
as polymers react differently to paper. The properties influencing material choice
include:
• Low environmental impact.
• Elastic: flexible and bendable.
• Durable: resistant to outdoor environment and weather (heat, light, wind, water).
• Secure: comply with French fire regulations.
The team ran a second series of tests using TPE (thermoplastic elastomers) to find
the right material with the right properties (Table 4). The different models were 3D
modelled, and the team noted that the models were too soft and flexible, especially
around the crease. Rhinoceros software was used to create models with greater mate-
rial thickness around the crease and thinner zones around the edges of the piece, as
in Fig. 27.
Table 4 Different curvatures of the folding crease (*r: Radius). Circles for tests 1, 2, 3 have the
same centre. © ArtBuild
Test 1 Test 2 Test 3

r = 68 mm r = 66 mm r = 64 mm
Test A Test B Test C

r = 46 mm r = 51 mm r = 68 mm
AB Lab collaborated with SIPLAST, a plastics processing company based near

Saint Etienne in France, which develops biopolymers. The aim of the collabora-
tion was to create a suitable biopolymer with the right properties for the deployable
surface of the flower. AB Lab specifically requested a biopolymer material, thus
produced from renewable biomass sources, such as vegetable fats and oils, corn
starch, straw, woodchips, sawdust, recycled food waste. SIPLAST tested multiple
molecular compositions for different materials in order to find the right balance for
the required biopolymer. Table 5 shows the different test results obtained according
to temperature and material combination. SIPLAST’s engineers designed a special
custom-made mould in order to create a triangular pliable surface with creases out of
biopolymer. After various tests, they decided it was best to remove some materials in
Table 5 Thermoplastic elastomers properties

Material Description Properties Environmental
name impact
TPE Highly Flexibility Resistance Aesthetics Security Can be
versatile Highly Excellent Surface can Fire supplied as
thermoplastic chemically UV be mat or resistant biosourced or
elastomers compatible resistance glossy recycled
(TPEs) with other
suitable for polymers
most
environments Elastic Mechanical
and processes memory properties
From soft to
semi-rigid
(from 40
shore A to
80 shore A)
Fig. 27 3D models using Rhinoceros and 3D prototyping with varying thicknesses. © ArtBuild
the middle in order to reduce TBM’s effort (Figs. 28 and 29) and created the appro-
priate tooling for injecting polymer. The team compared the paper and biopolymer
prototypes, noting that the operation of the flower with cut-outs in the centre was
close to that of the paper mock-up. Some trials were made to connect the TBM
actuator to the biopolymer surface, according to different points of contact (Fig. 30)
(Table 6) (Fig. 31).
4.2 Opportunities and Prospective Outlook
As outlined by this case of study and several comparative analyses [cruz] [kuru]
[al-oba], the building energy-saving potential of biomimetic building envelopes is
promising.
Crossover initiatives linking research bodies with public procurement bodies
could lead to new developments in biomimetic design. Public building projects noto-
riously suffer from limited time frames, and design application progress requiring
Fig. 28 The final shape,

ready to be produced. ©
ArtBuild
Fig. 29 The final shape ready to be produced. © ArtBuild
Table 6 Operation of the flower within different material compositions © ArtBuild

Material Temperature Hardness/flexibility Observation
stability (°C)
1 A 40% SEBS and 60% 135 Good flexibility A+ Operates well with
PP SEBS charged changes on the hinge
30% short wood fibre
+ red dye
2 B 50% SEBS and 50% 135 Good flexibility A++ Operates well with
30% short wood fibre
+ green dye
3 C 70% SEBS and 30% 135 Very good flexibility Operates well with
50% long wood fibre but fragile hinge when
fibre
Fig. 30 Aperture tests by SIPLAST. a Open flower, b folded flower. © ArtBuild
Fig. 31 Points of contact between biopolymer and TBM. © ArtBuild
knowledge generation, the creation of structuring tools, and biological data mining,
may be accelerated through biomimetics.
Selecting and abstracting the appropriate biological model for a biomimetic solu-
tion is intricate. To help focus a research project, even trained biomimetic practi-
tioners need a preselection of biological scales or organism groupings. This approach
has been shown to stimulate co-discoveries, a by-product beneficial for technological
breakthroughs and contribution in biological data. It would seem productive to apply
this multidisciplinary work specifically with a focus on several taxonomic groups at
a time and to assess the effects of hybridization of biological strategies on the design
of a biomimetic envelope element with multi-regulation targets and specifications.
As seen in this study, the methodologies and tools used in the bioinspiration design
process are diverse, and yet the number of projects in the literature reaching a TRL of
6 is low. Despite a high potential for product development, the implementation of Bio-
BS elements in practice is challenging. During abstraction and technical feasibility
steps, designers must consider both market specifications, and retrieve feedback and
experience from the users afterward, allowing scalable and repeatable models, and
avoiding successful but unique-application biomimetic designs.
In addition, we suggest that addressing multi-regulation requires mechanisms in
the early stage of the design process, assisted with data exploration and structuring
tools. Further research from the authors is ongoing and focuses on the development of
tools to access biological data during the design process, helping combine different
biological strategies.
ArtBuild is currently reflecting on upcoming potential research topics. AB Lab’s
overall research on biomimetic facades gives an overview of how an architectural
studio can link the different prisms of architectural design together with basic biolog-
ical research into one coherent narrative. The final rendered images (Fig. 32) showing
the biomimetic facade on a utopic project glass tower are part of a larger video and
hopefully a source of inspiration, which might spark new ideas and encourage the
next generation of researchers to contribute in their own way. Prototypes of Pho’liage
will be shown in various exhibitions in cities across Europe in 2022.
Fig. 32 Prototype of
Pho’liage showing different
polymers. © ArtBuild
Fig. 33 Render extract from (a)

video representing Pho’liage
on a circular building facade
view from the interior. a
Open position where the
flowers are deployed, b
closed position. © ArtBuild
(b)
The authors hope that this paper provides a comprehensive summary and helpful
considerations resulting from this complex, multi-variable challenge, as well as a
stimulus for further research on this topic. The chapter also outlines the challenges,
issues, and difficulties linked to the implementation of the project and the practical
use of the biomimetic approach. The reflections on the methodology show an attempt
to design a suitable biomimetic working process that acts as a framework for AB
Lab and which could be reused to frame future projects (Fig. 33).
It is interesting to note that engineers still tend to apply a traditional way of
thinking to their design of kinetic structures, which prioritizes rigid-body mechanics.
Bioinspired mechanisms and clever use of elastic material behaviour and structural
instabilities make compliant mechanisms a highly suitable solution for autonomous
shading systems but there is still a lot to be explored. Designers could investigate,
for example, how climatic requirements may best transform the shapes and tilling
symmetries of the shading systems. Material scientists and engineers could devote
themselves to increasing the durability of elastic materials in the most effective way.
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Bionics and Sustainable Design

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Bionics and Sustainable Design

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Environmental Footprints and Eco-design

of Products and Processes

Felipe Luis Palombini

More information about this series at https://link.springer.com/bookseries/13340

Bionics and Sustainable

ISSN 2345-7651 ISSN 2345-766X (electronic)

Sustainability in the Biom* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Bionics for Inspiration: A New Look at Brazilian Natural

Felipe Luis Palombini is a Post-Doctoral Researcher in the Graduate Program of

Nancy E. Landrum and Taryn Mead

Abstract Bioinspired innovation is a growing field and is often attributed to sustain-

Keywords Biomimicry · Biomimetics · Bionics · Bioinspired design · Sustainable

Early design work encouraged consumption which contributed to environmental

Nature-inspired or biologically inspired designs are now present in many fields,

Bionics, biomimetics, and biomimicry are biologically informed disciplines that

Otto Schmitt, a biophysicist formally trained as an engineer, is largely credited

The term biomimicry is generally acknowledged to have first appeared in a doctoral

Table 1 Differences between bioinspired design approaches

Table 2 Defining characteristics of bioinspired design approaches

3 Bioinspired Design and Sustainability

While intentionality can be a useful indicator of sustainability-oriented innovation,

3.1 Sustainability Spectrum

Sustainability can best be understood as a gradient ranging from less sustainable to

DICHOTOMOUS (OR BINARY) ORIENTATION OF SUSTAINABILITY IN BIOM*

GRADIENT (OR RELATIVE) ORIENTATION OF SUSTAINABILITY IN BIOM*

and operations. A regenerative approach is characterized by the goal of repairing

4 Positioning Bioinspired Design Approaches

Table 3 Bioinspired approaches and sustainability

5 Discussion and Implications

There is growing interest in sustainable design. Bioinspired approaches for sustain-

6 Limitations and Future Directions

1. Baek J, Meroni A, Manzini E (2015) A socio-technical approach to design for community

5. Biomimicry Institute (2020) The biomimicry design process. https://toolbox.biomimicry.org/

Felipe Luis Palombini, Fernanda Mayara Nogueira,

Abstract Bionics is fundamentally based on the development of projects for engi-

F. L. Palombini · J. E. de Araujo Mariath

properties of their internal organization. Conversely to the expected flow of a conven-

Keywords Biomimetics · Biomimicry · X-ray microcomputed tomography ·

different measures to help to protect from predators, attracting pollinators, rein-

in botany investigation is discussed, showing the importance of 3D technologies for

2 3D Technologies: Analyses and Simulations

As the awareness of the inherent complexity of biological materials increases—

2.1 X-Ray Microtomography (µCT)

or delicate specimens, like many plant-based materials, this is utterly important to

2.2 Finite Element Analysis (FEA)

As seen before, the segmentation process of a µCT-based investigation permits the 3D

be significantly magnified and physically handled by students. Like most biolog-

3 Bionics: From Design to Biodiversity

As seen before, bionics or biomimetics is fundamentally based on the relationship

By employing a “two-way bionics” like philosophy, research groups are able

stands for “Virtual Equivalent of a Real Object”, being proposed as a non-fungible

4 Conclusions and Future Directions

Bionics and biomimetics should be considered as a means to obtain interchangeable

Available methodologies for imaging samples with different compositions that

1. Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, Morgan D, Raff M, Roberts K, Walter P (2017) Molecular

Keywords Bionics · Biomimetics · Chemical food preservatives reduction ·

1 Biomimesis: Hints of History and Methodology

Searching technological solutions inspired by observing and studying organisms’

conception of innovative architectural and engineering intuitions such as gridshells

It is worth remembering as possible anticipation of these contemporary bioin-

The iconography, later taken up by Renaissance treatises, describes this concept

Fig. 2 The Vitruvian

Fig. 3 Updating the

Fig. 4 The BionikonLab&FABNAT14’s working space layout