A NCIE N T

EGYPT
TH E D EFI N ITI V E V I S UA L H I S TO R Y

STE VEN SNAPE

 contents
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Introduction 8
Chronology of dynasties 10

Early Egypt The Old Kingdom The Middle Kingdom

c.4400 –2686 bce c.2686 –2055 bce c.2055 –1550 bce

Introduction 14 Introduction 54 Introduction 98

Chronology and kings 16 Djoser’s Step Pyramid 56 Kings of the 12th Dynasty 100
The River Nile 18 Working with stone 58 Royal building projects 102
Farming the Black Land 22 The 4th & 5th Dynasties 60 Provincial cemeteries 104
Sailing on the Nile 24 The true pyramid 62 Coffin of Khnumnakht 106
Local government 26 The pyramids of Giza 64 Senwosret III 110
Predynastic Egypt 28 Khufu’s pyramid 66 Towns and houses 112
Cities of mud 30 The Great Sphinx 68 Sports and games 114
Predynastic pottery 32 The Pyramid Texts 70 A healthy diet 116
Hierakonpolis 34 Mastaba tombs 72 Medicine 118
Early temples and deities 36 False door 74 Magic wands 120
Gods and goddesses 38 Painting techniques 76 Foreign expeditions 122
The unification of Egypt 40 Fashion in the Old Kingdom 80 Jewelry 124
The invention of writing 42 Royal mortuary temples 82 The Myth of Osiris 126
The Narmer Palette 44 Music and dance 84 Abydos 128
Royal tombs at Abydos 46 Southern expeditions 86 Egypt and Nubia 130
The first kings of Egypt 48 End of the Old Kingdom 88 Buhen Fortress 132
Private tombs 50 First Intermediate Period 90 Storytelling 134
Ankhtify and the Intefs 92 Time of unrest 136
Montuhotep II 94
 The Early New Kingdom The Late New Kingdom The Late Period
c.1550 –1295 bce c.1295 –1069 bce c.1069 –332 bce

Introduction 140 Introduction 198 Introduction 250

Expelling the Hyksos 142 Seti I 200 Third Intermediate Period 252
Weapons and warfare 144 Karnak temple complex 202 Tanis 254
A family at war 146 The Precinct of Amen 204 Mummification 256
Hair and cosmetics 148 Theban mortuary temples 206 The coffins of Djeddjehutyefankh 258
Empire builders 150 The Book of the Dead 208 Shabtis 262
Hatshepsut 152 Religious festivals 210 Nubian pharaohs 264
Childhood 154 Ramesses II 212 The Saite Period 266
Hatshepsut’s temple 156 Family and foes 214 Inspired by the past 268
Thebes 158 Ramesses in Nubia 216 27th–31st Dynasties 270
The Valley of the Kings 160 Monuments at Thebes 220 Animal cults 272
Consolidating the empire 164 Memphis 222 Pets 274
Theban tombs 166 Sacred graffiti 224
Private statues 168 Khaemwese 226
New Kingdom fashion 170 End of the 19th Dynasty 228
Duties of the vizier 172 Life at Deir el-Medina 230
Amenhotep III 174 Deir el-Medina 232
Queen Tiy 176 Personal worship 234
Akhenaten 178 Tomb of Sennedjem 236
The Amarna Letters 180 Ramesses III 238
Amarna 182 Threatening invaders 240
House of Ranefer 184 Ramesses IV–XI 242
Nefertiti 186 Tomb robberies 244
Royal palaces 188 Figured ostraca 246
Tutankhamen 190
The tomb of Tutankhamen 192
End of the 18th Dynasty 194
 AUTHOR
Steven Snape
Steven Snape is Reader in Egyptian Archaeology at
the University of Liverpool, where he has also been
Director of the Garstang Museum of Archaeology.
He has directed archaeological fieldwork in Egypt
in Sinai, the Eastern Delta, Abydos, and Thebes
and is currently Director of the excavations at the
Ramesside fortress-town of Zawiyet Umm el-Rakham.
His main research interests are settlement
archaeology, the Ramesside Period, and sacred
landscapes in ancient Egypt. He has published widely
on topics connected to the archaeology of Egypt,
including the books Ancient Egyptian Tombs: The
Culture of Life and Death (Wiley-Blackwell, 2011)
and The Complete Towns and Cities of Ancient Egypt
The Greco-Roman (Thames & Hudson, 2014).

Period c.332 bce –395 ce

CONSULTANT
Joyce Tyldesley
Joyce Tyldesley is Professor of Egyptology at
the University of Manchester, where she teaches
Introduction 278 Egyptology online to students around the world.
Alexander the Great 280 She is also an Honorary Research Associate of
The early Ptolemies 282 the Manchester Museum and President of Bolton
Archaeology and Egyptology Society. Her research
Alexandria 284
focuses on the lives of the women of ancient Egypt.
Egyptian Hellenism 286
She has extensive excavation experience in both
Traditional religion 288 Egypt and Europe and is the author of more than
Greco-Roman temples 290 20 best-selling books on ancient Egypt, including
Philae Temple 292 Nefertiti’s Face: The Creation of an Icon (Profile
The later Ptolemies 294 Books, 2018) and Cleopatra: Last Queen of Egypt
Cleopatra VII 298 (Profile Books 2008), which was a BBC Radio 4
The end of ancient Egypt 300 Book of the Week.
The Rosetta Stone 302
CONTRIBUTOR (DIRECTORY)
Andrew Humphreys
Andrew Humphreys is a journalist, author, and
travel writer who specializes in Egypt. He is the
author of National Geographic Egypt, as well as
Egyptian and world history 304 On the Nile (American University in Cairo Press).
Rulers 308 He has written and contributed to guidebooks on
Deities 334 Egypt for DK and Lonely Planet. He is also the main
Sites 360 contributing author for Journey: An Illustrated History
Glossary 386 of Travel (DK).
Index 388
Acknowledgments 398
8 |

△ A pilgrimage to Abydos
This wall painting from the tomb of Sennefer depicts a
pilgrimage to the holy city of Abydos, where Osiris—
the god of the afterlife—was believed to be buried.
 | 9

Introduction
No ancient civilization is more intriguing and exciting than the Egypt of the pharaohs. Its art,
monuments, and gods are all still recognized today, but they are only part of its long and captivating
story. Surviving documentary evidence shows that the ancient Egyptians, from kings to carpenters,
were all part of a vibrant culture—one that continues to fascinate thousands of years later.

Ancient Egypt is one of the most famous, and yet most carved and painted for both future generations and the gods
mysterious, of ancient civilizations. It is also one of the to read, as well as official records needed to run the Egyptian
longest, covering a vast passage of time. When Cleopatra VII state; reports of legal cases; and personal letters addressed to
died in 30 bce, for instance, more than 2,000 years ago, the friends, neighbors, and enemies.
Great Pyramid was already 2,500 years old and hieroglyphs
had been in use for 600 years before that. The Egyptian civilization
This long period was filled with achievements that are Using meticulous maps and detailed images of hundreds
still very visible today. The monuments of ancient Egypt—its of the most amazing objects and buildings created by the
huge royal pyramids and vast temples, in particular—are Egyptians, this book investigates the many facets of their
some of the greatest of human architectural triumphs and civilization. We see how, from its humble beginnings as
seem even more astonishing when we take into account the a series of simple farming communities, Egypt became a
simple tools that were used to build them. unified country and went on to be a superpower that
dominated much of northeast Africa, western Asia, and
A lasting legacy the eastern Mediterranean for 3,000 years.
The kings and queens of ancient Egypt were determined The history of Egypt was not, however, one of continuous
to create a legacy that would last for ever, and we still know stability, and the book traces the fluctuating fortunes of the
their names today—names such as Tutankhamen, Ramesses, Egyptian state as it competed with fierce regional rivals, such
Hatshepsut, and Cleopatra. But the legacy of ancient Egypt is as Nubia, the Hittites, and later Rome. It also delves into the
not only to be found in the enormous buildings constructed lives and reigns of individual kings and queens to find out
by its rulers, but also in the exquisite objects that they created. how they altered the course of Egyptian history and culture:
These artifacts expressed the religious devotion and hopes for from Narmer, who first united Egypt, to Cleopatra VII, after
the afterlife of many thousands of Egyptians, and they are whose reign Egypt ceased to be an independent country.
among the most popular museum exhibits around the world. We explore the religion of the ancient Egyptians—the gods
These museum treasures, however, are not just limited that they worshipped and how they worshipped them. We
to spectacular and famous objects, such as the gold mask visit the tombs of both royal and nonroyal Egyptians, seeing
of Tutankhamen or the Rosetta Stone. They also include how carefully they were prepared for their owners, with wall
archaeological discoveries that remind us that the ancient paintings, texts, and the huge range of the everyday objects
Egyptians were very much real people who lived lives that needed for the afterlife. We also examine the breathtaking
were in some ways different, but in many ways similar, to works of art created for tombs and temples. Perhaps most
our own lives today. revealing of all, we visit the houses of ordinary Egyptians
We know about these lives lived thousands of years ago to see what life was really like for the people who lived near
from the archaeological evidence that is available. Crucially, the banks of the River Nile, from the food they ate to the
this includes documents written by the ancient Egyptians hairstyles they wore, and from the games they played to
themselves—inscriptions on the walls of temples that were the decorated coffins in which they were finally laid to rest.
10 |

Chronology of dynasties
The chronology of ancient Egypt is based on the reigns of individual kings, grouped
into dynasties, and further grouped into longer periods of time. Egyptologists know
the names and sequence of most of the kings of Egypt from 3000 bce onward.

Predynastic Early Dynastic Old First Intermediate Middle

Period Period Kingdom Period Kingdom
c.4400–3000 bce c.3000–2686 bce c.2686–2160 bce c.2160–2055 bce c.2055–1650 bce

The Badarian Period 1st Dynasty 3rd Dynasty 9th and 10th Dynasty 11th Dynasty
(c.4400–4000 bce) (c.3000–2890 bce) (2686–2613 bce) (2160–2025 bce) (2055–1985 bce)
Aha Nebka Khety I Montuhotep II
Naqada I/Amratian Djer Djoser Khety II Montuhotep III
Period (c.4000–3500 bce) Djet Sekhemkhet Khety III Montuhotep IV
Den Khaba Merikare
Naqada II/Gerzean Period Queen Merneith Sanakht 12th Dynasty
(c.3500–3200 bce) Anedjib Huni 11th Dynasty (1985–1773 bce)
Semerkhet Thebes only Amenemhat I
Naqada III/Dynasty 0 Qa’a 4th Dynasty (2125–2055 bce) Senwosret I
(c.3200–3000 bce) (2613–2494 bce) Montuhotep I Amenemhat II
Narmer 2nd Dynasty Snefru Intef I Senwosret II
(2890–2686 bce) Khufu (Cheops) Intef II Senwosret III
Hotepsekhemwy Djedefre Intef III Amenemhat III
Raneb Khaefre (Chephren) Amenemhat IV
Nynetjer Menkaure (Mycerinus) Sobekneferu
Weneg Shepseskaf
Sened 13th Dynasty
Peribsen 5th Dynasty (1773–after 1650 bce)
Khasekhemwy (2494–2345 bce) Wegaf
Userkaf Sobekhotep II
Sahure Iykhernefert Neferhotep
Neferirkare Ameny-intef-Amenemhat
Shepseskare Hor
Neferefre Khendjer
Niuserre Sobekhotep III
Menkauhor Neferhotep I
NAMING CONVENTIONS Djedkare Isesi Sahthor
For most of the Dynastic Period, Egyptian kings had a
Unas Sobekhotep IV
series of five names. The two most important names were Sobekhotep V
the Birth Name and the Throne Name, which were both 6th Dynasty Ay
written in cartouches (oval loops that encircle a royal (2345–2181 bce)
name). The Egyptians distinguished kings with similar Teti 14th Dynasty
Birth Names by their Throne Names, as they did not use
regnal numbers. The king we call Ramesses II was known
Userkara (1773–1650 bce)
to the Egyptians as Ramesses Usermaatre-Setepenre Pepi I Minor rulers, starting
(but some letters refer to him more familiarly as “Sese”). Merenre with Nehesy, probably
Greek and Roman historians also knew some kings Pepi II contemporary with 13th
by variants of their names. For example, Khufu became Nitiqret or 15th Dynasty
known as Cheops. Some of these Classical versions of
names are still used today. While most Egyptologists use
the name Senwosret for some 12th Dynasty kings, others 7th & 8th Dynasties
prefer the Classical version, Sesostris. (2181–2160 bce)
Numerous short-lived kings
 CHRONOLOGY OF DYNASTIES | 11

△ The north wall of Tutankhamen’s tomb showing the king at his funeral (right) and embracing Osiris, god of the underworld (left)

Second Intermediate New Third Intermediate Late Greco-Roman

Period Kingdom Period Period Period
c.1650–1550 bce c.1550–1069 bce c.1069–664 bce c.664–332 bce c.332 bce –395 ce

15th Dynasty 18th Dynasty 21st Dynasty 26th Dynasty Macedonian Dynasty
(1650–1550 bce) (1550–1295 bce) (1069–945 bce) (664–525 bce) (332–310 bce)
Salitis Ahmose Smendes Necho I Alexander the Great
Khyan Amenhotep I Amenemnisu Psamtek I Philip Arrhidaeus
Apepi Tuthmosis I Psusennes I Necho II Alexander IV
Khamudi Tuthmosis II Amenemope Psamtek II
Tuthmosis III Osorkon the Elder Apries Ptolemaic Dynasty
16th Dynasty Hatshepsut Siamun Ahmose II (305–30 bce)
(1650–1580 bce) Amenhotep II Psusennes II Psamtek III Ptolemy I Soter I
Theban early rulers Tuthmosis IV Ptolemy II Philadelphus
contemporary with Amenhotep III 22nd Dynasty (945–715 bce) 27th Dynasty Berenike II
the 15th Dynasty Akhenaten/Amenhotep IV Sheshonq (525–404 bce) Ptolemy III Euergetes I
Smenkhkare Osorkon I Cambyses Ptolemy IV Philopator
17th Dynasty Tutankhamen Sheshonq II Darius I Ptolemy V Epiphanes
(c.1580–1550 bce) Ay Takelot I Xerxes I Ptolemy VI Philometor
Rahotep Horemheb Osorkon II Artaxerxes I Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator
Sobekemsaf I Takelot II Darius II Ptolemy VIII Euergetes II
Intef VI 19th Dynasty Sheshonq III Artaxerxes II Ptolemy IX Soter II
Intef VII (1295–1186 bce) Pimay Ptolemy X Alexander I
Intef VIII Ramesses I Sheshonq V 28th Dynasty Ptolemy IX Soter II
Sobekemsaf II Seti I Osorkon IV (404–399 bce) (restored)
Seqenenre Ta’a Ramesses II Amyrtaios Ptolemy XI Alexander II
Kamose Merenptah 23rd Dynasty (818–715 bce) Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos
Amenmesse Pedubastis I 29th Dynasty Cleopatra VII Philopator
Seti II Iuput I (399–380 bce) Ptolemy XIII
Siptah Sheshonq IV Nepherites I Ptolemy XIV
Twosret Osorkon III Hakor Ptolemy XV Caesarion
Takelot III Nepherites II
20th Dynasty Rudamon Roman Period
(1186–1069 bce) Peftjauawybast 30th Dynasty (30 bce–395 ce)
Sethnakht Iuput II (380–343 bce)
Ramesses III Nectanebo I
Ramesses IV 24th Dynasty (727–715 bce) Teos
Ramesses V Tefnakht Nectanebo II
Ramesses VI Bakenrenef
Ramesses VII 31st Dynasty
Ramesses VIII 25th Dynasty (747–656 bce) (399–380 bce)
Ramesses IX Piankhy Artaxerxes III
Ramesses X Shabaqo Arses
Ramesses XI Shabitqo Darius III
Taharqa
Tantamani
 ◁ The Gerzeh Slate
This schist palette from
the Naqada II Period
shows that religious belief
was developing during the
Predynastic Period. It depicts
the head and horns of a cow
goddess (possibly Hathor)
surrounded by stars.

Early
Egypt
c.4000–2686 bce
14 | EARLY EGYPT

Early Egypt
In the period between 500,000 and 9000 bce, the northeast of a ruler. The rulers of such towns began to depict themselves
Africa was occupied by groups of hunter-gatherers. For much in art as powerful kings who defeated their enemies. This
of this time, the climate was wetter than it is today and these was probably a time of conflict between different warring
groups were able to roam across what is now the Sahara Desert, factions in southern Egypt, all of which wished to extend
hunting large mammals. A dry period put an end to that way their territories. Artifacts recovered from Hierakonpolis
of life, and when the climate became wetter again, in around include some bearing the names of people claiming to be
9000 bce, people adopted a different way of life. During the kings. The best known of these kings was Narmer, who may
Saharan Neolithic period (8800–6800 bce), humans began have defeated both his southern rivals and northern Egypt to
to live in more permanent settlements, herd cattle, and make unify Egypt as a single state.
pottery. By 5000 bce, similar communities had appeared in the
Nile Valley and Delta, and by 4400 bce, their way of life was The Early Dynastic Period
becoming culturally more sophisticated. The unification of Egypt had several consequences, one of
which was the founding of Memphis as the country’s capital.
The Predynastic Period It was strategically located close to where the Nile Valley
Archaeological sites in southern Egypt are better preserved meets the Delta, so it was an ideal place from which to
than those in the Delta, and many traces of an increasingly govern all of Egypt. The political structure of the new nation
sophisticated culture have been found was based on the idea of a divine kingship, which was ideally
at sites in Upper Egypt, especially passed down from father to son. From this point on, Egypt
cemeteries. The artifacts discovered was dynastic, and the Early Dynastic Period that followed
there suggest that the people who the unification was made up of the first two dynasties.
lived in the Predynastic Period were Much of what is known about the kings of these dynasties
skilled at producing ceramics and comes from the Umm el-Qa’ab cemetery at Abydos in
objects made of stone and metal. The southern Egypt. For reasons that are not known, most of
evolution of such artifacts has made it the kings of the 1st and 2nd Dynasties chose this as the royal
possible to identify different phases of this necropolis, just as late Predynastic rulers such as Narmer had
period, which lasted from 4400 to 3000 bce. done. Over time, the tombs that were built in this cemetery
The most important site in southern became larger and more elaborate and were used to celebrate
Egypt was Hierakonpolis. This settlement the lives of their royal owners. This interest in using funerary
grew in importance to become a city with a monuments to immortalize the power of kings was to reach
developed administrative system headed by its peak in the following Old Kingdom.

◁ Naqadan
figurine
c.4400 bce Beginning c.4000 bce Beginning
of the Badarian Period of the Naqada I Period
in Upper Egypt in Upper Egypt

c.5000 bce Settlement c.4200 bce First signs

of Merimde Beni Salama, of the Maadi culture
in Lower Egypt in Lower Egypt
 EARLY EGYPT | 15

Mediterranean Sea

Buto
Sais
Tell el-Farkha Minshat Abu
Omar
L OW E R
EGYPT Nile Delta
Merimde

Heliopolis
Abusir
Memphis Maadi
Helwan
Saqqara
Faiyum Tarkhan

Gerzeh
1 The Umm el-Qa’ab necropolis, Abydos

ile
N
v er
Ri

Gu
Eastern

lf
Desert

of
Su
ez

Western
Desert
Red
Badari Sea
Ri
ve

Arabian
rN

Early Egypt Desert

i le

The best-known 2 Pot from Naqada depicting a boat burial

archaeological sites Beit Khallaf
from this period are Abydos 11
those of the Naqada el-Amrah
culture in southern
UPPER
Egypt; the Maadi culture Naqada 2
EGYPT
close to present-day
Cairo; and sites in the Gebelein
Delta that have been
discovered more recently.

Hierakonpolis 33

0 50 km

0 50 miles
Kom Ombo
First Cataract
3 Tomb painting, Hierakonpolis

c.3300 bceHierakonpolis c.2686 bceEnd of the

becomes the dominant c.3200 bce Beginning c.2890 bce Beginning 2nd Dynasty and the
city in Upper Egypt of the Naqada III Period of the 2nd Dynasty Early Dynastic Period

c.3500 bce Beginning c.3250 bce Writing is c.3000 bce Narmer unites c.2690 bce Khasekhemwy
of the Naqada II Period first used in Egypt Egypt. Aha becomes the builds the largest Early
in Upper Egypt first king of the 1st Dynasty Dynastic tomb at Abydos
16 | EARLY EGYPT

King Seti I burns Prince Ramesses reads Name of Menes,

incense to honor the offering ritual from the legendary first
his ancestors a roll of papyrus king of Egypt

Chronology and kings Ra

Maat
King lists and the history of ancient Egypt
Men

Carved onto temple walls or copied into histories of Egypt, lists of royal names
known as king lists are an important source of information about the
chronology—the historical sequence—of the ancient Egyptian civilization. △ The name of a king
A cartouche is an oval frame
surrounding the birth name
or throne name of an
Egyptian king—two of the
Between 290 and 260 bce, an Egyptian priest named as dynasties. These king lists now inform our basic king’s five official “great
Manetho wrote a history of Egypt that he called understanding of ancient Egyptian chronology. names.” This cartouche
Aegyptiaca. It was probably written as part of an Manetho probably drew his information from refers to Seti I by his throne
attempt by the Ptolemaic kings, the Greek monarchs documents that he found in temple archives, but most name, Men-Maat-Ra.
of the Hellenistic Period (c.332–30 bce), to gather of these have been lost. The best surviving example
knowledge about the history of the country that they is the Turin Canon (so called because of its present
now ruled and about which they knew very little. location in the Egyptian Museum in Turin, Italy).
The Aegyptiaca itself has not survived, but later A fragmentary papyrus from the Ramesside Period
authors copied Manetho’s lists of ancient kings, (c.1295–1069 bce), it lists the names of kings, mainly
which were organized into ruling families known in their correct chronological order.
 CHRONOLOGY AND KINGS | 17

Name of Montuhotep II, Name of Khufu, the Name of Ahmose, Name of Amenhotep III,
the founder of the builder of the Great the founder of the the ninth king of the
Middle Kingdom Pyramid at Giza New Kingdom 18th Dynasty

△ Abydos king list King lists were not always accurate, partly because past, he had to know the order and length of the
This “official” list of kings, they were sometimes used as royal propaganda. A good reigns of earlier kings. However, dating time in this
both real and mythical,
example is the list carved on the walls of the Temple way was only of interest to the upper, literate level of
recognized by Seti I, was
carved on the walls of his of Seti I at Abydos (above). Here, the king selectively the population, and most Egyptians probably had only
temple at Abydos, c. 1280 bce. named those he claimed as his royal ancestors in a vague idea of who the current king was, let alone
It does not include the order to confirm his own right to rule. Other king how long he had been on the throne.
names of the female king lists exist, such as that of Tuthmosis III in the Karnak
Hatshepsut or the rulers
temple complex, but these are less helpful, because THE PALERMO STONE
of the Amarna Period
(1352–1323 bce). they do not list the kings in chronological order.
The largest of seven surviving fragments of a double-sided
basalt stela about 6 ft 6 in (2 m) high, the Palermo Stone
Dating by reigns is kept in the Archaeological Museum in Palermo, Sicily.
For literate Egyptians, the identity of the current king Its provenance is not fully known. In addition to
providing a list of royal names, the stela also provides
and the length of his or her reign were important in details of events that took place during the lives of the
other ways. The Egyptians did not have a universal kings listed. The original document from which it was
copied dated to the later part of the Old Kingdom
calendar that numbered years from a specific date (c.2686–2181 bce).
in the past: they counted time using the name of the
king; the year of his reign; and the day, month, and
season. The date on a document, a letter, or even a
wine label might therefore read: “Year 3, 2nd month
of Summer, Day 5, under the Majesty of the king of
Upper and Lower Egypt, Neb-Maat-Re [Amenhotep III].”
With this system, it was important to know both
the name of the current king and how long he had
reigned. If a scribe wanted to refer to events in the
18 | EARLY EGYPT

The River Nile

The lifeblood of ancient Egypt

The Greek historian Herodotus described Egypt as the gift of the River Nile.
Without the Nile, ancient Egypt would never have developed from a collection
of small early settlements into a powerful and vibrant civilization.

Apart from a tiny number of people who lived in the river, but just after it passes through modern Cairo, it
desert, every ancient Egyptian lived close to the Nile splits into a series of branches, creating a fan-shaped
or the canals that led from it. The river was vital to delta, before flowing into the Mediterranean. Along
life—without it, Egypt would have been restricted to its course, the river crosses a series of rapids formed
the fringes of the Mediterranean Sea, where limited by bands of hard stone—known as the cataracts of
rainfall provided the only source of fresh water. the Nile—which make river travel hazardous.
Ancient Egypt was blessed by the river, and even today, The Egyptians divided ancient Egypt into two parts,
it is the only area of North Africa able to sustain a based on the geography of the Nile. The term Lower
settled population of any size away from the coast. Egypt refers to the Nile Delta, while Upper Egypt
refers to the Nile Valley south of the Delta, as far as
Mighty river the first cataract at Aswan—the source of the river
The Nile is the longest river in the world. Around in ancient Egyptian mythology. The king of Egypt
4,200 miles (6,800 kilometers) long, it is mainly usually took the title “King of Upper and Lower
fed by the Blue Nile, which originates from rainfall Egypt” or “Lord of the Two Lands,” reflecting this
in the highlands of Ethiopia, and the White Nile, dual aspect of the kingdom.
which comes from the run-off from a series of East
African lakes. These two rivers meet just to the Settlements and inundation
north of Khartoum, the modern capital of Sudan, Both the Valley and the Delta were prime areas for
and continue north toward the Mediterranean. The settlement. Prehistoric villages were established
Nile runs through most of Egypt as a single, wide alongside the river, where people could water their ▷ Fowling
animals and grow their crops. The river provided In this tomb painting,
enough resources for the population to grow: villages the New Kingdom official
Nebamun and his family
became towns, and some eventually grew into cities.
hunt birds in the marshes
Regular flooding, or inundation, was one of the of the Nile. Many Egyptians
most important features of the Nile. The rainfall that used the river for hunting,
fed the Blue Nile was seasonal, so the river rose and fishing, and boating.

◁ The source of the Nile

This relief from the temple
of Isis at Philae shows Hapy,
the god of the river, guarded
by a great snake, pouring
the waters of the Nile from
two jars.

▷ Blue hippo
This glazed blue faience
figure made during the
Middle Kingdom depicts a
hippopotamus—a feared
threat to boatmen on the Nile.
 THE RIVER NILE | 19

Throw stick used

for hunting

Nebamun’s fell during the course of each year. At its highest level, The ancient Egyptians based the three seasons
agile cat in late summer, the river would breach its banks and of their year on the cycle of the inundation: akhet
catches a bird
flood the adjoining countryside before gradually (the inundation season), peret (the season of “coming
receding to its normal course. forth” of the crops on the land), and shemu (summer).
Although a particularly high inundation might For the agricultural workers who made up the vast
temporarily flood nearby villages and towns, the majority of the population, the year was a mixture
overall effect was beneficial. The inundation provided of intense activity during the growing season and
a natural form of irrigation, and the water could be periods of relative inactivity that lasted for much of
trapped in large basins specially made for that purpose. the summer and during the inundation itself. When
The waters that washed from the Ethiopian uplands they were not busy farming, these workers could be
were also full of silt, which provided a natural co-opted to help with other projects—such as
fertilizer for the crops sown after the floods. building tombs and pyramids.
The Nile
As the River Nile flows north past the island of Elephantine
(shown here on the left) and the modern city of Aswan, it is
immediately clear why it was such a vital resource for the
ancient Egyptians. The mighty river has created narrow
strips of rich, fertile land along each bank—in stark contrast
to the dry, sandy cliffs of the desert beyond—which made
it possible for them to cultivate crops. The sailboats on the
river are a visual reminder that the Nile was also the main
thoroughfare for transporting both people and cargo, such
as the granite that they used in famous monuments.
22 | EARLY EGYPT

Farming the Black Land

Agriculture in ancient Egypt

The River Nile made Egypt a fertile land able to produce an astonishing
abundance of crops. This fertility, more than gold, precious stones, or any other
raw material, was the basis of Egypt’s wealth and power in the ancient world.

The Nile’s annual flood cycle (see pp.18–19) brought ◁ Sickle of Amenemhat
major natural benefits to Egypt by irrigating the land This model sickle, which is only
along the river and enriching it with silt, a natural 9 in (23 cm) long, was made
for the “Fieldworker of Amen,
fertilizer. This created the perfect conditions for Amenemhat.” It was probably
farming and enabled the population to grow, for use in the afterlife.
helping make Egypt a powerful state.

Growing food
The river effectively made farming much easier:
farmers just had to plant their crops in the moist, and in many parts of Egypt, they also cultivated date
rich, black soil and then wait for them to germinate palms. The milder climate in the Delta made it
and flourish during the warm growing season. As possible to grow vines there and produce wine. Ducks
long as the floodwaters reached the right level, there and geese were an important source of protein, as were
would be a rich harvest. A low level of inundation, sheep and goats. Archaeological evidence suggests that
however, would fail to irrigate enough farmland, villagers also often kept pigs, but they rarely feature in
leading to poorer yields and possible famine. the depictions of animals in tomb scenes. Egyptians
Bread and beer were the staples of the Egyptian prized cattle for their meat, but they rarely ate beef,
diet. Both were made from cereals—wheat and because it was costly to produce.
barley—so these were the most important crops
grown in the Nile Valley and Delta. Farmers also grew The Red Land and Black Land
vegetables, including cucumbers, onions, and lettuce, The dramatic, contrasting landscapes of Egypt had
a profound effect on how the ancient Egyptians Sennedjem
pulls flax, a
perceived the world. For them, the difference between plant used to
what they called the Red Land and the Black Land was make linen
obvious. The Red Land was their name for the rocky,
red ocher–colored desert where nothing could grow
and where they buried their dead. The Black Land,
on the other hand, signified the dark, fertile land on
either side of the River Nile in which all their crops Orchard of
could be grown. fruit trees
The Egyptians therefore often used red in
their paintings as a negative color—one that
they associated with death. On the other hand, they
regarded black and green as positive colors associated
with life, growth, and resurrection after death.

◁ Lush fields and red desert

In many parts of the Nile Valley, as here at Thebes, the
contrast between the fertile black soil and the barren red
desert is a striking feature of the landscape.
 FARMING THE BLACK LAND | 23

▷ Watering a garden importance of agricultural work

This detail from a painting in the tomb of in ancient Egypt was reflected in
Ipuy at Deir el-Medina (c.1250 bce) shows
a gardener raising a bucket of water using a
people’s ideas about the afterlife.
pulleylike device called a shaduf. They believed, for example, that all of
the dead would have to work for the
▽ The Field of Reeds
god Osiris in an afterlife known as In this painting in their
It is easy to imagine ancient Egypt as the Field of Reeds (see pp.262–263). New Kingdom tomb at Deir
being full of grand stone buildings in Paintings of this afterlife, and farming el-Medina, an artisan named
cities populated by pharaohs and their in general, are often seen on the Sennedjem and his wife
retinues, but in fact the vast majority of walls of the tombs of high-ranking Iyneferti carry out various
agricultural tasks in the
the population lived in small villages people and provide vital evidence Field of Reeds—all while
and spent their lives working in the about how people worked the land wearing their finest white
fields—usually as tenant farmers. The throughout ancient Egyptian history. linen garments.

Sennedjem reaps wheat Iyneferti sows seeds for

with a sickle the next harvest
 24 | EARLY EGYPT

Sailing on the Nile

Boats and river transportation

Many scenes painted on the walls of Egyptian tombs and temples show gods,
kings, and ordinary people sailing on the river. The importance of the Nile as
a natural highway through the land cannot be overemphasized.

While the water provided by the River Nile was vital prevailing winds blew from north to south, making
to the survival of people and their crops and animals it easy to sail south, and the natural flow of the river
in ancient Egypt, it was also the main sewage and from south to north carried boats along with it. The
waste-disposal system for the villages and towns hieroglyphic sign for the word “to travel south”
along its banks. But the river helped define the depicts a boat in full sail, while the word meaning
civilization in other ways, too. “to travel north” shows a boat with the sail furled.
Traveling overland in ancient Egypt was difficult.
Other than tracks across the desert, there were no Transporting stone
roads, partly because the annual floods (see pp.18–19) Boats were used for a multitude of purposes: as
would have washed them away. People had to walk funeral barges, for pilgrimages to holy sites, and
everywhere, and if they wanted to transport small for moving large quantities of grain around the
quantities of goods, they would use donkeys as pack land. One aspect of river travel in particular,
animals. (Camels were unknown until late in however, had an important impact on the
Egyptian history.) Apart from a few chariots used by development of ancient Egyptian culture: the
the military and the elite, wheeled transportation was transportation of huge stone monuments. It would
extremely rare because of the lack of roads. have been impossible to drag ancient Egypt’s colossal
The Nile, however, provided an easy and accessible statues and obelisks—some weighing up to 1,102 tons
way to travel, whether in a small boat made of (1,000 tonnes)—over land for the vast distances
papyrus stems or in a state barge built from the finest between the quarries and the temples. Instead, they △ Modern felucca
Despite the advent of the
timber imported from Lebanon. During the flood could be floated up or down the river on barges from motorboat, traditional
season, boats were the only feasible way to travel from the granite quarries at Aswan, for example, to the Nile sailboats called feluccas
one village to another. Sailing was especially easy: the Valley or as far as the Nile Delta at the end of the river. still travel the Nile today.

The owner of the boat sits under a

canopy to shade him from the sun

A lookout keeps
watch for hazards
on the river

◁ Middle Kingdom model boat

This model boat (c.198o bce) was placed in
a tomb in Thebes in the belief that its
owner could make a pilgrimage to the
One of two large holy site of Abydos in the afterlife.
steering oars at
the rear of the boat
 SAILING ON THE NILE | 25

▽ Horus at Edfu
Isis, the Horus, wearing the In this carved scene from the Temple of Horus at Edfu,
mother double crown of Upper the god Horus, standing on his boat, harpoons a tiny
of Horus and Lower Egypt hippopotamus representing his enemy, Seth.

Seth, depicted as
a hippopotamus
 26 | EARLY EGYPT

Local government
Regions, nomes, and towns

Mediterranean Sea Ancient Egypt was a large, complex country that needed to be overseen by both
central government and local officials. It was therefore divided into a series of
geographical regions with different levels of administrative responsibility.

LOWER To Egyptians, their country was made up of two parts, Egypt. The term comes from nomos, the Greek
EGYPT Lower and Upper Egypt, and this was reflected in the version of the Egyptian word sepat, meaning a district
way in which it was governed. In the New Kingdom, with a town as its local capital. Although the size,
there were two separate civil administrations. The boundaries, and number of nomes varied over time,
Gu
lf o

northern capital was usually the city of Memphis, there were usually 42 altogether.
f
Su

UPPER and the southern capital was Thebes. The head of

ez

EGYPT
each administration was a Tjaty (Vizier), who reported Creating the nomes
directly to the king, the “Lord of Two Lands.” No one knows the origin of the nomes and their
Earlier, in the Old Kingdom, governance had been boundaries, although most were centered around a
simpler. The national center of power was Memphis, significant town. They seem to have been created by
and nearly all senior government officials were based central government rather than based on regions of
R there. However, some type of local government was Egypt that already existed. Smaller nomes were often
needed even then, if only to organize collecting taxes in more fertile parts of the Nile Valley than larger
i ve
r

il e
N

for the state. The “nome” was the most enduring form ones, which suggests that they were all meant to have
of local government, lasting throughout Dynastic roughly the same economic status. Each nome had its
N

0 50km
Symbol of the town of
0 50 miles Gbytyw (Coptos)

KEY
Lower Egypt nome numbers
Upper Egypt nome numbers

△ The nomes of Egypt

The classic divisions of
Egypt into its 42 nomes (22
for Upper Egypt and 20 for
Lower Egypt), each with a
nome capital which acted as
a central administrative hub.

▷ Regional gods
This scene on a wall of the
temple of Ramesses II at
Abydos (c.1279–1213 bce)
shows a procession of
regional deities personifying
the nomes of Egypt, bringing
offerings to the main god of
the temple.
 LOCAL GOVERNMENT | 27

Double-falcon
symbol of the ◁ A king and his nome god
Coptite Nome In this Old Kingdom statue,
King Sahure of the 5th Dynasty
(right) sits beside a “nome god”
(left), an Egyptian deity that
own distinctive symbol, which also acted as its name. personified a nome. This
Together, they symbolized the whole of Egypt, and particular god represents
they appear in “nome lists” on the walls of temples the Coptite nome.
right up until the Greco-Roman Period. Today,
however, nomes are usually referred to by the name
of their capitals: the Coptite nome in Upper Egypt,
for example, is named after the city of Coptos.

The power of the nomarchs

The most important official of each nome, the
nomarch or “Great Overlord of the Sepat,” was
in theory appointed by the king. In fact, this role
often became hereditary, leading to powerful local
“dynasties” of officials. These dynasties gained even
more power during the First Intermediate Period
(the time between the Old Kingdom and the Middle
Kingdom), when there was no king.
The most obvious archaeological legacy of the After the Old Kingdom, individual towns (usually
nome capitals is not the settlements themselves, but called Niwt) or new royal estates (often called Hwt)
the splendid cemeteries that many nomarchs built for became centers of economic and political power that
themselves as a statement of their regional prestige. were just as important as nomes. By the Ramesside
The walls of these splendid tombs often depict a vital Period, documents such as the Wilbour Papyrus
aspect of the nomarchs’ role: collecting taxes (in (an ancient tax assessment) suggest that some nomes
the form of agricultural surpluses) on behalf of the were thriving districts with important urban centers,
king or the state. whereas others were little more than grazing land.

Symbol of the estate Symbol of the town Symbol of the

of Hwt-sat-Aset of Iunet (Dendera) town of Nebutet
28 | EARLY EGYPT

Predynastic Egypt
The first settlements and their legacy

Ancient Egyptian culture, so recognizable in art, architecture, and artifacts, did

not suddenly appear at the beginning of the 1st Dynasty, but gradually evolved
during the time before political unification in 3000 bce—the Predynastic Period.

The later Neolithic Period in the Nile ◁ Model house

Valley is often referred to as the Few mud-brick buildings
Predynastic Period, because it have survived the
passage of time,
predated the dynasties of kings who
making this clay
ruled Egypt from around 3000 bce. model of a house
During this time, people began to a rare find. It dates
settle in one place and farm the from the Naqada II
land; they developed complex new phase and shows
what houses of the
skills; and the first political centers
time might have
formed around villages, which looked like.
then grew into towns.

Tracing the past

Much of the archaeological evidence for the The most characteristic pottery from the first two
Predynastic Period comes from burial sites, which periods is polished, black-topped red ware of various
have survived better than settlements. Sophisticated shapes (see pp.32–33). During the later two periods,
artifacts appear to have first emerged in Middle Egypt there was a preference for buff-colored pots, often
△ Ostrich palette (the northern part of Upper Egypt), especially at painted with stylized landscapes and scenes of life
This large siltstone palette Badari, Matmar, and Mostagedda. Soon afterward, along the river, including boats and human figures.
was not just functional, but they appeared farther south, at sites such as Mahasna,
is decorated in relief with a
line of ostriches—common
el-Amrah, Naqada, and Hu. At the northern end of the The Naqada culture
animals in the desert. Nile Valley, particularly at el-Gerzeh, the objects found Ceramic pots are the most striking objects of the
in graves show increasing levels of skill and artistry. Naqada culture, but they were not the only form
The artifacts found at the different sites differed of craftsmanship. Other high-quality objects have
over time—especially the pottery vessels, enabling been found that indicate the growth of wealth and
archaeologists to date them. Based on these social hierarchies in Predynastic communities.
variations, the Predynastic Period is divided into Stoneworkers created exquisitely flaked flint knives,
four phases: The Badarian Period, c.4400–4000 bce; as well as vessels made from decorative hard stones
Naqada I (or the Amratian Period), c.4000–3500 bce; such as breccia, diorite, and granite. They also made
Naqada II (or the Gerzean Period), c.3500–3200 bce; maceheads from hard stones, suggesting warlike
and Naqada III (or Dynasty 0), c.3200–3000bce. activity (maces played a central role both during

“… the adoption of a herding lifestyle

was associated over the long term with
the spread of new ritual practices.”
DAVID WENGROW, THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF EARLY EGYPT, 2006
 PREDYNASTIC EGYPT | 29

and after the Unification Period). Dark siltstone PREDYNASTIC TRADE

was the main stone used to make small palettes Archaeologists have found bone and ivory figurines in several
for crushing and preparing pigments for cosmetics Predynastic sites. This one (of unknown origin, but probably
dating to Naqada I) depicts a naked woman. The figurine is
(see far left). fairly typical, apart from its eyes, which are made of lapis
Metalworking developed throughout the Predynastic lazuli. A striking blue stone, lapis was highly valued throughout
Period, as seen in many copper objects, including Egyptian history and appears on other Predynastic artifacts.
The closest known source of lapis to Egypt, however, was in
large tools and weapons. Another metal, which was quarries at Badakhshan, in northeast Afghanistan. This
to become crucial in the development of some sites suggests that even before the unification of Egypt, the Nile
in southern Egypt, also made its appearance—gold. Valley was already part of an extensive trade network and
that valuable materials were transported huge distances,
Animals feature in all forms of Predynastic art. The both by land and sea. Such journeys would have required
mixture of wild creatures from the desert and river complex planning and a series of trading posts set up along
an established route.
valley (notably the hippopotamus) and farm animals
such as cattle suggests an economy that was in the
process of evolving from hunting to cultivation. IVORY FIGURINE WITH LAPIS LAZULI EYES

The Maadi culture

In Lower Egypt, archaeological evidence from the culture (or did not place them in graves), but it did
Predynastic Period is best preserved in a few sites appear to have an active copper industry. During the
on the edges of the Delta or in the region close to Naqada II phase, artifacts from the Naqada culture
modern Cairo, especially Maadi. This gives its name became common in northern sites, including Minshat
to the Maadi Cultural Complex, the site of a culture Abu Omar in the eastern Delta. This suggests that the
that lasted from c.4000 to 3200 bce. This produced Naqada culture was dominant in the north before
fewer artifacts than the roughly contemporary Naqada the unification of Egypt.

▷ Model of cattle
This small, painted
clay model of four horned
cows grazing was placed in a
grave in el-Amrah, c.3500 bce. This
shows how important cattle were to
their owners. Taming wild cattle and
managing herds was a key development
of the Predynastic Period.
30 | EARLY EGYPT

The mud mixture The brickmaker uses

is carried to the a mold to produce
brickmaker rows of bricks

△ Brickmakers at work
Kneading the This mural from the tomb of Rekhmire, a vizier and governor
mud-brick mixture of Thebes during the 18th Dynasty, contains the most
detailed known image of brickmaking known from ancient
Egypt. It is part of a series that depicts the different
industries and workshops that Rekhmire was in charge of.
 CITIES OF MUD | 31

Cities of mud
Building with mud brick

Mud bricks were the principal building material of ancient Egypt, and their
importance cannot be overstated. Their widespread use made it possible to
construct everything—from huts to cities—quickly and easily.

The buildings and monuments that have survived to water turned them back into mud—with the
from ancient Egypt create the impression that the inevitable consequences. This is the main reason why
main building material was stone. Certainly, the most so few mud-brick buildings have survived.
impressive monuments built to last for eternity, such
as temples and tombs, were often built from stone, Grand buildings
but the vast majority of buildings in Egyptian villages, Bricks were not just the simple building material
towns, and cities were made from mud brick. of the peasant farmer, however; they were also used △ Stamped mud brick
extensively for royal buildings. Modern studies have The mud bricks for major
Making bricks shown that a team of four brickmakers could produce projects were often stamped
Mud brick had several advantages over stone or other about 6,000 bricks a day. Far more brickmakers would with the name of the king
to indicate their owner.
materials. Mud was easy to find along the banks of have been required to produce bricks for the largest
This brick bears the joint
the Nile or local canals, so it was available to most state projects. The interior of Senwosret III’s pyramid names of Tuthmosis I and
people. The method for making mud bricks was also at Dahshur, for example, is built from around 24.5 Hatshepsut, who both ruled
extremely simple and cheap. Mud was mixed with million bricks, and Buhen Fort, in present-day Sudan, during the 18th Dynasty.
sand and straw to create a mixture of the right is made of around 4.6 million. It would have been far
consistency, then pressed into a rectangular mold more expensive and difficult to build these massive
to form a brick. The mold was then immediately structures from stone and would have required a
removed, ready to use for the next brick. much more specialized workforce.
Mud bricks were not fired like most modern clay The rapid construction of cities
bricks, but left to dry for about three days, then such as Amarna (see pp.182–183)
turned over to dry the other side. The mortar used and Pr-Ramesses (see pp.220–
to bond the bricks together was the same type of 221) was only made possible
mud mixture from which the bricks themselves were by the extensive use of the
made. With very little effort, just about anyone could modest mud brick.
produce large quantities of mud brick, which was
useful if, for example, someone wanted to rebuild
part of their house after an unusually high inundation.
There was a fundamental problem with the bricks,
however. As they were not fired, any lengthy exposure
The brickmaker mixes
mud, sand, and straw

Brick mold ◁ Model of brickmaking

Wooden models were a key
part of the burial goods of
many Middle Kingdom
tombs. The owner of this
model believed that it would
provide him with an eternal
supply of mud bricks.
32 | EARLY EGYPT

Predynastic pottery
Ceramic art from prehistoric Egypt

The ancient Egyptians produced some of their most sophisticated and striking
pottery during the Predynastic Period. Even before they had kings, hieroglyphs, or
stone buildings, the inhabitants of the Nile Valley crafted beautiful pots, including
their earliest attempts at creating two- and three-dimensional art.
Painted
hippopotamus
Shiny surface Narrow rim
created by with lip
polishing ▽ Black-topped beaker △ Hippopotamus hunt bowl
Another example of black-topped Hunting scenes featured on Predynastic
red ware from Naqada I, this pottery. This bowl from Naqada I–II
simple beaker may have been depicts a man harpooning a
either molded from slabs of clay hippopotamus—a scene that may
or made from coils. represent man’s control over nature.

Polished red ware body

without black top

△ Polished Badarian pot

The earliest form of black-topped
red ware can be seen in this vessel
from the Badarian Period (the first
part of the Predynastic Period).
△ Carrot-shaped vessel
Black-topped red ware, such as Distinctive
color formed
this, dates from the Naqada I
by iron oxides
Period and is one of the most in the clay
recognizable types of pottery
Flat rim from early Egypt. This vessel
has an unusual carrot shape.

◁ Vessel painted to imitate stone

It took hours of labor to carve vessels out
of stone. This ceramic pot from Naqada II,
imitating the shape and surface of a stone
vessel with two handles, was a less
costly alternative.

Geometric pattern
painted in white

▷ Red ware with geometric patterns

Surface painted to
look like stone In the Naqada I Period, this red polished ware
with white painted decoration was a popular
and decorative variant of red ware.
 PREDYNASTIC POTTERY | 33

MAKING POTS

The ancient Egyptians used two types of clay for their

pots. The first type was the alluvial silt that they found
on the banks of the Nile. It was easy to work, but usually
produced vessels that were rough and porous. The
second type was better-quality marl clay that they
dug up from deposits at
the edges of the desert in
southern Egypt. This required
rigorous treatment to make it
malleable, and it had to be fired
Dark red at high temperatures. The
painted line finished pots, however, were
hard, smooth, and white or
buff in color.

△ Vessel with netting decoration Sculpted

△ Bowl with human feet
human foot Here, a Naqada I–II vessel
This cylindrical pot has incised, wavy
combines a bowl with sculptural Model of potter
decoration near its rim. The painted
details. It may represent the forming a bowl on
lines may imitate the net bags that
hieroglyph “in,” meaning “to bring.” a potter’s wheel
were used to carry such vessels.

▷ Decorated ware
with human figures
This decorated ware pot
from Naqada II depicts
a boat with a cabin
containing human or
divine figures. Such
themes became more
important in art after the
unification of Egypt.

Large boat
with cabin

▽ Bowl in the form of a bird

The Egyptians of the Predynastic
Complex Simplified head
Period loved vessels shaped like
painted tree
animals, both in stone and
ceramic. This fine example is
modeled on the body of a bird.

◁ Decorated ware
with nature scene
This jar is a good example
of a Naqada II decorated ware
vessel: buff-colored pottery
with darker painted decoration.
It shows a scene from the natural
world, with a large, detailed tree
and a flock of flamingos.
34 | EARLY EGYPT

△ Master of the animals

This motif of a human seizing two wild beasts
was common in Mesopotamian art at the
time. It may symbolize control over nature.

◁ Smiting prisoners ▷ Human conflict

A figure advances with a mace Scenes of battle suggest that
raised over its head, ready to warfare was an important
slay defeated enemies. A feature of the late Predynastic
common way of depicting the Period. A range of weaponry,
victorious Egyptian king, such including spears, shields,
images continued in art until bows, and maces, was being
the Greco-Roman Period. developed at this time.

Hierakonpolis
The first known city of ancient Egypt

The most important archaeological site from the Late Predynastic or Unification
Period is Hierakonpolis in southern Egypt. For over a century, excavations there
have provided fascinating evidence about the earliest cities in the Nile Valley.

The ancient city of Nekhen is best known today as the Hierakonpolis had several characteristics that made
archaeological site of Hierakonpolis. It is situated in it a city rather than simply a large town. It was
the southern part of the Nile Valley, between Thebes obviously larger than a town, and more people lived
and Aswan—a significant area for the Naqada culture there, but it also controlled the land all around it so
(see pp.28–29). Hierakonpolis rose to prominence that it was able to commandeer its resources
some time during the late Naqada II and III phases of (especially the food grown there) for its residents.
the Predynastic Period. It seems to have been a local Cities also favor the development of specialized
center of power—its rulers were extremely ambitious industries, particularly those involving skilled labor or
and wanted to extend their authority over as much of new technologies. Social hierarchies also evolve over
the surrounding area as possible. a period of time, as indicated in ancient Egypt by
 HIERAKONPOLIS | 35

Large, banana-shaped boat of a type Boats may have belonged to local rulers,
often found in late Predynastic art and appear here as symbols of power

tombs of varying size and splendor and a political The location of Hierakonpolis was also favorable. It △ Wall painting from
system that holds sway well beyond the city boundary. was close to the Wadi Abbad corridor leading through Hierakonpolis “Tomb 100”
Grand architecture in the form of monuments or Egypt’s gold-rich Eastern Desert to the Red Sea. The The tomb that contained this
painting was discovered at
a ceremonial area is also a characteristic of a city. gold from this area seems to have attracted traders Hierakonpolis in 1899, but its
Hierakonpolis can be considered a true city in all from as far away as Mesopotamia, in southwest Asia. location has since been lost.
of these regards. No other site has shown evidence of Aspects of early cities in Mesopotamia may have It is the first Egyptian tomb
each one of these factors, so Hierakonpolis is usually influenced the development of Hierakonpolis, known to have had painted
walls, and it may have belonged
referred to as Egypt’s first city. and Egypt in general, during unification.
to a local ruler. The paintings
illustrate the important themes
Life in the city Appetite for conflict of conflict and warfare.
The inhabitants of Hierakonpolis Extensive excavations at Hierakonpolis have uncovered
used sophisticated technology. a great number of objects depicting scenes of warfare
Crafts and industries that had and enemies being slaughtered, particularly in
emerged in other Predynastic “Tomb 100” (see above) and the later Narmer Palette
sites, such as metalwork, pottery, (see pp.44–45). These artifacts provide compelling
stonework, and boat building, evidence of the growing power of the city’s rulers and
were developed further their desire to win new territory.
at Hierakonpolis. The
population’s food and MAP OF THE ANCIENT CITY
drink were, at least in
part, supplied by central By the end of the Predynastic Period,
Hierakonpolis occupied much of the area Second
Wadi Abu
production facilities, as around the Wadi Abu Suffian, a depression Suffian
Dynasty
“Fort”
shown by a large brewery at the edge of the desert. The ancient city
was not a single urban center, but a cluster
complex unearthed there. of settlements, cemeteries, industrial Kom el-Ahmar,
complexes (especially for making pottery), the dynastic
and ceremonial centers, often quite far N town
apart. During the 2nd Dynasty, King
◁ Lapis figurine Khasekhemwy built a huge sacred 0 500 m
This extraordinary lapis-lazuli figure enclosure known as the “Fort.” After Egypt
excavated at Hierakonpolis is in keeping was unified, however, people abandoned 0 500 yards
with previous figurines. It may represent much of early Hierakonpolis and settled on
what is now the Kom el-Ahmar mound in Cemeteries Cultivated land
a goddess. The head and the body were
found by different archaeological the flood plain of the Nile. Settlements Uncultivated land
expeditions and fitted together.
36 | EARLY EGYPT

Early temples and deities

Religion in the Predynastic Period

One of the core elements of ancient Egyptian religion—the worship of a variety

of gods and goddesses in specially built temples—developed during the Late
Predynastic and Early Dynastic Periods.

No one knows exactly when the Egyptians started to The god’s house
build temples for their gods, nor do they know exactly Because ritual activities involved a personal relationship
which gods the Egyptians worshipped during the between the deity and its servants, they could not
Predynastic Period. There is, however, plenty of just be carried out anywhere. The Egyptians believed
evidence to suggest that by the Unification Period, that a god, like a human being, required a house
and into the 1st and 2nd Dynasties, a number of in which to spend time privately among his or her
important sites for worshipping gods (known as cult servants. They referred to the temple itself as the
centers) had emerged in both the Nile Valley and pr ntr (god’s house), and they meant this literally.
the Delta. At these cult centers, groups of people had The relationship between humans and gods was
developed ritual practices relating to a god or gods. based on the actions of human beings, especially
The evidence for the identities of these gods comes servants and masters, and on the places where
partly from the surviving images of different deities humans interacted.
that appear on Predynastic pottery, for instance.
However, the Egyptians also created three-dimensional THE TEMPLE OF NEITH
representations—varying in size from small figurines
to colossal statues—which may have acted as cult The clearest image of an early Egyptian temple is
roughly sketched on a simple label from the 1st Dynasty
images of the gods themselves. that shows King Aha carrying out a series of mostly
obscure activities. However, one section shows a simple
temple possibly made from a few wooden uprights
Cult images supporting walls of reed matting, as suggested in
The worship of gods in ancient Egypt was based the reconstruction below.
upon the idea that a god or goddess could reside The temple belonged to the goddess Neith, who is
identified by her standard in the “courtyard” of the
within (but not be limited by) a divine image, such temple. Neith is especially associated with Sais in
as a statue. Worshippers could regard that statue as the western Delta, and the label may record a royal
the physical embodiment of a god and respect it visit there.
accordingly. Divine service was modeled on the way Courtyard, where
that a servant would treat their master or mistress. the divine image Hieroglyphic
A person’s servant would bring them food and drink, is revealed sign for “god”

wash them, and dress them. In a similar fashion,

a god’s priests would offer food and drink to the Name of the
statue of the god. They would also wash it and change goddess Neith

its clothes. When the Egyptians referred to a priest

as a hm ntr (god’s servant), they meant servant in the
most literal sense.

◁ Tell el-Farkha figurine

This gold-covered statuette is similar in shape to
other divine male figures from the late Predynastic Rear part of the
and early Dynastic Periods. It was found at Tell temple, where the
divine image is hidden
el-Farkha in the Nile Delta, where excavations have
uncovered an important cache of religious objects.
 | 37

Small head with

a beaklike face

Arms raised like

the horns of a cow

Stylized
long neck

The first temples

Despite their similarities, ordinary houses and
temples were different in a number of important
ways. This is most apparent in the great stone temples
of the New Kingdom—their form and scale make
them look completely different from houses, although
the underlying concept behind them is basically the
same. In the Predynastic and Early Dynastic Periods,
temples were not built from stone, but from materials
that were easier to come by, such as mud brick, reed
matting, and small amounts of wood. These simple,
perishable components would not have lasted for long
in the floodplain of the Nile Valley and Delta, so very
few traces of these early temples have survived. Slender waist
Historians have had to rely on a small number of
illustrations to work out what they might have looked
like (see box, left).
The architecture of later stone temples borrowed
decorative elements from these early buildings, which
were constructed of simple materials. For instance,
the walls of Greco-Roman temples were designed with
borders that mimicked the fringes of reed matting.
These ornaments were intended to bring to mind the
primitive nature of the ancient structures, which they
White skirt
were trying to emulate as homes for the gods.

Houses for gods

The very first temples included not only rooms at
their rear (where the image of the god could be kept
and served by priests), but also more open areas, such
as courtyards. These open areas were semipublic
places where the god could appear to a greater ◁ Terracotta female figure
This mysterious statue
number of people. This is the origin of the typical from around 3500–3400 bce
Egyptian form of temple, which developed throughout depicts a female figure with
the Dynastic Period. a simplified lower body and
The Egyptians seem to have built temples either in raised arms. It seems to be
response to orders from the king or as part of local celebrating a ritual and may
represent a mother goddess.
initiatives to make simple temples for local gods. The Similar figures often appear
second reason seems to have been more common at in Predynastic art, both as
this time in ancient Egypt. figurines and on pots.
38 | EARLY EGYPT

Gods and goddesses

The major Egyptian deities Double crown
of Upper and
Lower Egypt

Most Egyptian gods had distinct identities expressed by their different names and ▷ Mut
roles. They also often had a personal appearance and symbolic attributes that made The wife of Amen, Mut had
them instantly recognizable in art. Some were associated with specific cities or her own temple in the Karnak
complex in Thebes. The mother
regions of Egypt, and many formed family groups with other gods.
of the moon god Khonsu, she is
usually depicted as a woman
Was scepter, a wearing the double crown of
symbol of royal Upper and Lower Egypt.
authority

▷ Atum ▷ Isis and Horus

The most important The sister and wife of Osiris, Isis
of the creator gods, Atum had a crucial role as the ideal
was the ancestor of four divine mother, protecting her
generations of gods son Horus from Seth. In the Late
who ruled Egypt. People Period, her cult was especially
worshipped him alongside important at sites such as Philae.
Ra at Heliopolis, near
modern Cairo.
Vulture head
covering, worn
only by queens
and goddesses

Two-feather crown,
part of Amen’s
iconography
Curved animal head

▷ Horus Bright blue

Originally a sky god glazed faience
(as indicated by his
falcon form), Horus
came to embody
divine kingship. He
was usually shown
wearing the double
crown of Upper and
Lower Egypt.

▷ Amen
Figure of a king,
Originally a local god at
protected by the
falcon god
Thebes, Amen (who later
△ Seth merged with the sun god Ra)
The brother of Osiris, whom he became the most important
murdered, Seth also competed with deity of the New Kingdom.
his nephew, Horus, for the throne of His main “home” was the
Egypt. He had a human body but massive temple complex at
the head of a strange animal. Karnak in Thebes.
 GODS AND GODDESSES | 39

◁ Sekhmet Head of an ibis

Represented as a lioness (a sacred bird)
wearing a sun disk, Sekhmet
Statue made from
was the ferocious daughter
lapis lazuli, a
of the sun god Ra. She was semiprecious stone
also the wife of Ptah and, like
him, popular at Memphis.

Golden sun disk ▷ Ptah

The husband of Sekhmet
and the father of Nefertum,
Ptah was a creator god
▷ Thoth
and the patron of
Depicted as an ibis, an ibis-
craftsmen. His cult at
headed man, or a baboon,
Memphis was one of
Thoth was associated with
the most important in
writing and knowledge.
dynastic Egypt.
His main cult center was
at Hermopolis Magna in
Middle Egypt.
The sun disk
signifies her
relationship to
the sun god Ra

Platform
represents
hieroglyph for
universal order

◁ Hathor
A goddess with a number of different
roles, Hathor was the daughter of Ra.
Female priests often served her cult.
She was usually depicted as either a
cow or a woman wearing a sun disk
between two curved horns.

◁ Ra
The most important sun
god and chief royal god
Wings of the of the Old Kingdom, Ra
goddess Isis was said to cross the
wrap around Relief of Ra sky every day in his
his lower body as a falcon boat. He was usually
depicted as a falcon
or a falcon-headed
◁ Osiris man wearing
The king of Egypt, Osiris a sun disk.
went on to rule in the
afterlife after being
murdered by his brother, Small pyramid
Seth. His iconography capstone from
(a mummy with the crown, a private tomb
crook, and flail of royal
authority) reflects this.
40 | EARLY EGYPT

The unification of Egypt

Competing rulers and the dawn of the kingdom

The most important moment of Egypt’s history was in around 3000 bce, when
it became a single unified state. The unification was the result of competition and
conflict between local rulers, as well as economic factors.

During the Late Predynastic Period, ◁ Upper and Lower Egypt

Mediterranean Sea
Hierakonpolis developed into a large This map shows the areas of Upper and
Lower Egypt before unification, when the
and prosperous city in southern Egypt country was united under the rule of
(see pp.34–35). It might also have LOWER Great Bitter the first “King of the Two Kingdoms.”
Lake
become the capital of a larger region, EGYPT
Abusir/
as its rulers extended their control Saqqara Memphis
over more of the land around the city. where they originally came from
Gu

Birket
Their ambition for expansion probably Qarun before they fell into the hands of
lf o

brought them into conflict with the dealers in antiquities.

fS

UPPER
ue

EGYPT
rulers of other mini-kingdoms that Fortunately, the most important
z

were developing both to the north group of items comes from an

and, to a lesser extent, to the south. archaeological excavation, the so-called
Ri
ve

N
rN

This period of rivalry between “Main Deposit” in the temple area at

ile

different rulers is now known as the Abydos Hierakonpolis. This collection of

Unification Period, because the winner extraordinary objects seems to have
0 100 km
went on to become the first king of a Hierakonpolis been ceremonial in nature. They may
united Egypt. Many historians think 0 100 miles have been gifts to the god of the temple
that rulers from Hierakonpolis were (possibly Horus) that were presented
probably the victors in this power struggle and that by individuals who were both offering thanks to the
they eventually controlled territory that stretched deity and celebrating their own achievements. These
northward along the Nile Valley and into the Delta. individuals can be called kings, as they are shown
wearing the same crowns and other regalia that
Ceremonial objects symbolized Egyptian royalty for the next 3,000 years.
The most revealing sources of evidence about the
events of the Unification Period are the regal objects
that were commissioned by regional rulers—high- SCORPION MACEHEAD
ranking individuals with political and economic This huge limestone macehead is from
power. They used these artifacts to record their Hierakonpolis, c.3100–3000 bce. Its
carved reliefs record the actions of a
successes—especially military successes, because king whose name is written with the
warfare was becoming a key aspect of their authority. hieroglyph of a scorpion. It is unusual
Conflict is the central theme of the paintings in among the ornate ceremonial objects
from this period, because its primary
Hierakonpolis Tomb 100, but that tomb is unusual concern is not military achievement.
in depicting such themes on wall paintings—most of Instead, the king—holding a mattock
the artifacts celebrating war were things that were (a tool for digging)—appears to be
inaugurating a canal or irrigation
much more portable. They took the form of ordinary project. This suggests that the king
items such as knife handles, maceheads, and cosmetic played a part in economic activity at the
palettes, but they were much larger than their time when Egypt was becoming unified.

everyday counterparts and were decorated with

King “Scorpion,” mattock in hand,
elaborate, carved reliefs. Many of these objects have wearing the white crown of Upper Egypt
an uncertain provenance—no one knows exactly
 THE UNIFICATION OF EGYPT | 41

“Ideology emerges with the state: a body of ▽ Detail of handle

This “Master of the Animals”
figure also appears in art of
thought to complement a political entity.” the period from Mesopotamia.

BARRY KEMP, ANCIENT EGYPT: ANATOMY OF A CIVILIZATION, 2009

Some of these kings’ names are recorded, although their enemies or ripping them apart. These
hieroglyphs from the period are notoriously difficult animals may represent kings defeating their
to decipher. Perhaps the most striking features of the foes in battle, which suggests that the king who
carved reliefs used to decorate these artifacts are commissioned the reliefs wanted to be seen as
the detailed depictions of savage and powerful something more than human.
beasts, such as lions and bulls, which Although it is difficult to write a detailed history
are shown trampling on of the period based on these objects, it is clear that
the concept of royal power, and how it was enshrined
Figure grasps
in art, developed at around the same time as the birth
an animal in
of the unified Egyptian state. Royal power found each hand
its greatest expression in the Narmer Palette
(see pp.44–45) and was only able to flourish
because, during the same period, the Egyptians Ivory
invented a system of writing, which meant that handle
they were able to record their own history.

The rampaging lion may

represent the superhuman power Ripple-flaked
of the ruler, as sphinxes do later flint blade

△ Gebel el-Araq knife

The scenes of conflict on the
carved handle of this knife
(c.3500–3200 bce) are typical
of the Unification Period.

◁ Battlefield Palette
This segment of a stone palette from
A scavenging c.3100 bce depicts the aftermath of a
bird picks at the battle. The slain enemies are strewn
feet of a corpse on the battlefield at the bottom.
At the top, banners representing
the victorious army lead away the
prisoners of war.
42 | EARLY EGYPT

The invention of writing

Egyptian hieroglyphs

The kingdom of Egypt could not have existed without writing. It is no

coincidence that three key events—the unification of Egypt, the emergence of
kings, and the development of writing—all appeared at roughly the same time.

The development of writing was crucial for most

ancient cultures, especially those that were evolving
and expanding. Writing was essential for a state
to function—to send out messages and royal
decrees, record accounts, and collect taxes.
Although writing seems to have appeared
before unification, the kings of the newly
unified Egypt would have depended on it ANKH KA

to rule the Valley and Delta regions. △ Ankh-Ka vessel

Different systems of writing developed around the In this vessel, probably used to provide offerings for the soul
of its owner, the two hieroglyphs for “ankh” (life) and “ka”
Near East. Egypt’s form of writing was distinctive—a
(soul) are intertwined as a play on images and words.
hieroglyphic script based on recognizable images of
things. The script was used to represent the language
that had been spoken in what was now Egypt for From the Early Dynastic Period onward, hieroglyphs
centuries. Hieroglyphs first appeared both on labels were used in a more sophisticated way. The signs
and on objects such as the palettes and maceheads of began to represent sounds or groups of sounds
the Unification Period. As the hieroglyphic script (similar to letters or groups of letters), and their
of this time was purely pictorial, it is often hard to appearance lost any obvious relationship with their
know whether the symbols stand for text or should form—a door bolt represented the sound “s,” a foot
be interpreted as depictions of actual things. the sound “b,” and a horned viper the sound “f.”
The appearance of some other signs was important,
The name “Den” King Den, sitting on however, as they determined the meaning of a word.
in a serekh a raised throne Verbs denoting types of travel, for instance, might use
a boat or a pair of legs to make the meaning clear.

A swifter script
The problem with the hieroglyphic script was its very
pictorial nature. It takes a considerable amount of time
to write even a short piece of text using hieroglyphs,
because each sign, if written properly, is a small
drawing rather than a concise pattern of lines as
in most alphabetic scripts. Recognizing this, the
Egyptians invented an abbreviated, cursive form
of the script, now known as hieratic. This is the
script that they wrote on papyrus for letters and
administrative documents.
For grand public inscriptions on tombs and temples,
△ Label of King Den
Ivory and wooden labels once attached to containers are often
however, nothing could replace the authority of the
found in early royal tombs. More complex labels include events hieroglyphic script, which the Egyptians referred to
from the reign of a king—in this case, of King Den. as “God’s words.”
 THE INVENTION OF WRITING | 43

Part of the name of The hieroglyphs

Ramesses II, written for “King of Upper
within a cartouche and Lower Egypt”

△ Monumental hieroglyphs at the Ramesseum

This rectangular This elaborately carved owl Hieroglyphs, rather than the hieratic script, were used
hieroglyph stands stands for the sound “m” or, as for royal monuments throughout ancient Egyptian
for the word “house” here, the word “in.” history. Here, a dedication of Ramesses II describes
parts of the building on which it was carved.
44 | EARLY EGYPT

The white crown of Falcon possibly The red crown

Upper Egypt representing Horus of Lower Egypt

The name of the

king, Nar-Mer

A bull (the
The king’s king) tramples its
sandal bearer enemies underfoot

◁ Front of the palette

King Narmer is the focal point of this
side of the palette. He is shown as
the triumphant king, subjugating his
lowly enemies. His crown and mace
emphasize his power and authority.
 THE NARMER PALETTE | 45

Image of the cow

goddess Bat

The Narmer Palette

A statement of kingship

One of the most important objects ever excavated in larger scale than the other figures. His enemies
Egypt, the Narmer Palette was found in the so-called are smaller than him and his servant, the sandal
“Main Deposit” at Hierakonpolis. Made of siltstone bearer, is tiny.
and 25¼ in (64 cm) high, it is perhaps the most
spectacularly oversized ceremonial object found from Mythical beasts
this period. Based on the shape of a cosmetic palette On the back of the palette, the space is evenly divided
used to crush pigments for face paint, it is more like into a series of horizontal scenes, similar to present-
a tablet and might have been a gift from Narmer, the day cartoon strips. At the top, Narmer (on the left)
first king of unified Egypt, to a god, probably Horus leads his victorious troops to survey the headless
(who appears as a falcon on the front). The palette is corpses of his enemies lined up on the ground.
carved on both sides, each of which depicts symbolic The larger central scene is composed around a
aspects of Narmer’s military victories and power. shallow central hollow, which would have been
used to ground pigments in a normal palette. This
Triumphant ruler is defined by the entwined necks of two mythical
The main image, which dominates the front of the creatures that combine the features of a giraffe
palette, shows Narmer in a typical pose associated and a leopard or lion. These beasts may symbolize
with Egyptian kings, standing with his mace raised the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt.
over a subjugated enemy, ready to smite him. This Some scholars believe that the Narmer Palette
image is notable not just because it portrays what the celebrates Narmer’s unification of Egypt by military
king represented to the populace, but also because means. The scenes of conflict and victory, the
the depiction of the king himself is typical of two- mythical beasts, and the fact that Narmer is shown
dimensional art in ancient Egypt. In fact, some scholars wearing the crown of Upper Egypt on the front
◁ Back of the palette refer to the palette as the first piece of Egyptian art, of the palette and that of Lower Egypt on the back
Mythical beasts dominate or art of the Dynastic Period. The king is shown support this idea. Although this interpretation of the
here. The leopards with with his head in profile, his chest facing forward, unification might be simplistic, the Narmer Palette
entwined serpentine
necks might represent
and each arm and leg clearly visible. The palette also was clearly intended to be, above all, a clear visual
the joining of Upper follows other conventions of Egyptian art. The king, statement of the military prowess and royal power
and Lower Egypt. the main subject of the scene, is shown on a much of someone who definitely regarded himself as king.
46 | EARLY EGYPT

△ The tomb of King Djer

The only parts of the tombs
at Abydos to have survived
are those underground, as
here, which have numerous
Royal tombs at Abydos
chambers where objects for The necropolis of Egypt’s earliest kings
the king’s afterlife were
stored. There is no trace of
the buildings above ground.
The cemetery of the 1st and 2nd Dynasty kings at Abydos provides the earliest
evidence of what would later become a defining feature of kingship in ancient
Egypt—the monumental tomb.

The necropolis at Abydos was one of the most No one knows why Abydos rose to prominence as
important burial sites in Egypt. At different periods an early royal necropolis. It is not likely to have been
throughout Egyptian history, Abydos was closely due to its proximity to the town of Thinis, which
associated with the concept of the afterlife, primarily was powerful during the Unification Period. In fact,
Subsidiary tombs because it was regarded as the burial place of Osiris, kings who one would expect to have been buried at
Low mud-brick
the divine king of the afterlife. This association Hierakonpolis have tombs at Abydos—notably Narmer
building often overshadows the role of Abydos as the most (Dynasty 0) and his successor, Aha (1st Dynasty).
important royal cemetery of the kings of the 1st Abydos was certainly used for large important
Stela
and 2nd Dynasties. burials well before the Unification Period. Even after
Memphis became the capital of the newly unified
Egypt, it was Abydos, many miles away to the south,
◁ 1st Dynasty tomb which seems to have been chosen as the national royal
This reconstruction shows what the cemetery. The royal cemetery was gradually relocated
building above a 1st Dynasty royal tomb
at Abydos might have looked like. The
to Saqqara, closer to the state capital at Memphis
main tomb was surrounded by a series during the 2nd Dynasty, and most of the Egyptian
of smaller subsidiary tombs. kings were buried there by the 3rd Dynasty.
 ROYAL TOMBS AT ABYDOS | 47

“… the remains which

▷ Stela of King Djet
Each tomb was identified by a tall stone
stela with the name of the king carved on
it. Here, the name of King Djet is inscribed
within a serekh panel, on top of which have survived the lust
stands a falcon representing the god Horus.
of gold, the fury of
The 1st and 2nd Dynasty royal tombs fanaticism and the greed
were located a short distance into the
desert at Abydos, at a site that has of speculators …”
become known in modern times as
the Umm el-Qa’ab (Mother of Pots), FLINDERS PETRIE, 1900
because the ground is strewn with
broken pottery left behind by pilgrims
bearing offerings to Osiris. Most of the
kings of the 1st and 2nd Dynasties were buried here, As well as the tombs, which might have been small
within quite a limited area, clustered together in simply because of the lack of space in this sacred site,
relatively small tombs made largely of mud bricks. the Early Dynastic kings also built huge, rectangular
mud-brick enclosures closer to the edge of Abydos,
Disputed tombs in an area now known as the North Cemetery.
Some archaeologists questioned whether these tombs The only one of these enclosures still standing
belonged to the kings and thought that Saqqara, the above ground today is the Shunet el-Zebib (Storeroom
burial ground for Memphis, was also the royal burial of Raisins), built by Khasekhemwy, the last king of the
ground of the Early Dynastic Period. They identified 2nd Dynasty (see below). No one knows how these
the structures at Abydos as cenotaphs—monuments enclosures were used in the funerary rites of the
built to honor the kings—rather than actual tombs. kings, but some of them were surrounded by life-size
This view has been discounted now, partly because wooden models of boats, probably the predecessors
the Umm el-Qa’ab tombs were not the only parts of of the boat burials found close to some of the Old
the mortuary landscape created by these kings. Kingdom pyramids at a later date.

Shunet el-Zebib
enclosure

Buried model boats

◁ Enclosure and boats

The vast Shunet el-Zebib
enclosure, seen in the
background here, measures
410 x 19½ ft (125 x 65 m).
In the foreground are the
remains of a series of
life-size model boats, part
of the king’s burial goods,
which would have been
useful to him in the afterlife.
48 | EARLY EGYPT

The first kings of Egypt

Rulers of the 1st and 2nd Dynasties

During the Early Dynastic Period, the unification of Egypt was strengthened
by central rule. By the end of the 2nd Dynasty, around 350 years later, the key
characteristics of the ancient Egyptian civilization were already firmly established.

The role of the king was possibly the defining feature

of ancient Egyptian culture. The ceremonial objects of
the Unification Period show the king as a powerful
ruler and suggest that he had superhuman powers.
This idea grew and developed over time. Part of the
king’s power was thought to come from the gods,
because he was regarded as the intermediary between
the deities and the people.
The king demonstrated his absolute authority and
control over Egypt’s resources by building grand royal
monuments, such as the tombs at Abydos. His power
may even have extended to ordering the sacrificial
burials of attendants to accompany him in the afterlife.
Massive royal monuments, temples, and tombs are
an obvious characteristic of ancient Egypt. The most
striking examples were the huge stone pyramids that
△ Kingly aggression
were built in the following Old Kingdom. This ivory label for King Den’s sandals shows the king
in typically aggressive pose, smiting a foreign enemy.
Establishing territory The hieroglyphs on the far right may read “First time
The territorial boundaries of Egypt became more [of smiting] the East”.
clearly established during this period. The southern
border was defined as the First Cataract (shallow, This is suggested by the number of royal women
rapid sections) of the Nile, and Elephantine became whose names refer to the goddess Neith, who was
Egypt’s most southern town. The eastern and western traditionally connected with the western Delta
edges of the Delta probably also came to represent town of Sais.
the boundaries of what was now Egypt. The ruling “White Walls,” which later became the city of
dynasties and families of Upper and Lower Egypt Memphis, was founded close to the point where
appear to have made marriages of convenience among the Nile divides into the streams of the Delta. This
themselves to extend their power and influence. was a strategic location for ruling over the newly
integrated Egypt. The court officials who were
◁ Khasekhemwy based at Memphis were buried in nearby cemeteries,
This limestone statue of Khasekhemwy shows him on notably at Saqqara, where they would eventually be
his throne, wearing the white crown of Upper Egypt. joined by their kings.

Djer Den Anedjib Qa’a

1ST DYNASTY

Aha Djet Merneith Semerkhet

(Queen)
 THE FIRST KINGS OF EGYPT | 49

OBJECTS FOR ETERNITY

The royal tombs at Abydos had been

White crown thoroughly looted well before they were
of Upper excavated by archaeologists at the end of
Egypt the 19th century. This looting may have taken
place as early as the First Intermediate
Period. However, the tomb robbers missed
enough precious items to show that even
though the tombs themselves might be
small, they were full of treasures.
This stone vessel is typical of the fine
materials that were available to the king.
It is made from dolomite, a stone that is
hard and difficult to obtain. It is sealed
with a lid of gold foil and gold thread,
secured with small clay seals.
Relatively
large ears STONE VESSEL WITH GOLD FOIL LID

Elaborately
patterned Early Egyptian politics
ceremonial
robe In terms of foreign affairs, Egyptian policy, as at every
period, was to destabilize its southern neighbor,
Nubia. The Egyptians established trade routes along
the coast of northern Sinai toward the cities of
southern Palestine, but images of the king of Egypt
smiting “Easterners,” and specifically nomadic
groups in the Eastern Desert and Sinai, suggest
that they adopted a more aggressive approach.
Internal politics are more difficult to fathom.
Only one royal woman—Merneith—has a large
tomb at the Umm el-Qa’ab, suggesting that she
may have ruled as king. It is also not clear why
the first kings of the 2nd Dynasty seem to have
been buried at Saqqara and later kings back at
the royal necropolis at Abydos. Very little is
known about most of the 2nd Dynasty kings,
but Khasekhemwy, the last of them, built the
largest tomb to date at Abydos, as well as the
great enclosure of Shunet el-Zebib and a similar
one at Hierakonpolis. He set a high standard for
monument making at the end of the 2nd Dynasty—
one that the 3rd Dynasty kings, especially Djoser,
tried their best to surpass.

◁ King in jubilee robe

This small ivory figure of an elderly, unnamed
king wears the robe associated with celebrating
the Sed festival. Traditionally, this marked the
successful completion of 30 years on the throne.

Raneb Weneg Peribsen

2ND DYNASTY

Hotepsekhemwy Nynetjer Sened Khasekhemwy

50 | EARLY EGYPT

Private tombs
Feeding the dead for eternity

The development of the nonroyal tomb was an important feature of the Early Pots of offerings left
Dynastic Period. The inspiration for this development was centered on the in and around the
offering chapel
requirements of the spiritual form called the “ka.”
Offering
Burial chapel

The evidence from the Early Dynastic royal tombs Early Dynastic private tombs show the
at Abydos and the later royal tombs at Saqqara and development of beliefs that were later
other cemeteries close to Memphis shows that kings clearly expressed in Old Kingdom tombs.
expected a unique afterlife. Although no one knows Simple graves in the desert give away little
exactly what these kings thought would happen to them about the religious beliefs of those buried
after death, it is obvious that they expected something there, but larger and more complex tombs
that was unavailable to ordinary people. Egyptologists are more revealing.
believe it probably involved an afterlife with the gods.
Ordinary people, or everyone apart from the king, The ka
had rather different expectations regarding the afterlife. The ancient Egyptians believed that
The Egyptians did not have just one idea about what everyone had a spiritual life force called
happened to a person’s spiritual essence, their “soul,” the “ka” that existed within them while
after death, but various fluid ideas that changed they were alive. After death, the ka carried
a great deal in the First Intermediate Period and on living in this world and had similar
the New Kingdom. needs to those of a living human, but
it needed a physical host, which was provided by the △ Tarkhan tomb 1845
dead body itself. Perhaps coming across bodies buried This is a typical tomb. The
body is buried within a mud-
in the desert sands had made the Egyptians think that
brick enclosure that has an
preserving the body was vital in order for the ka to offering chapel attached to
survive. The body and ka together needed a home, it. The ancient Egyptians
the tomb, but this was not simply a resting place believed that the ka was
for the ka-filled body; it also needed to provide the able to travel between the
two parts of the tomb.
ka with food and drink.

Offerings
Ideally, people who were still alive would
supply food and drink on an ongoing
basis, in the form of offerings at the tomb.
Alternatively, people could prepare their
own tombs with magic models, images,
and texts (preferably to be read out loud
by the living) that would summon the
food that the ka needed. A tomb, therefore,
had a dual purpose: to protect the body
and to provide a place where the living

◁ Gaming disk
This disk was found in the tomb of Hemaka,
a high official, at Saqqara. Games were provided
in some tombs for the ka to entertain itself.
 PRIVATE TOMBS | 51

“A thousand loaves Decorative edge

of bread, a thousand
jars of beer for the
ka of …”
EXTRACT FROM THE “OFFERING PRAYER”

could bring offerings for the ka. They were therefore Egyptian private tombs developed architecturally △ Boat of death
built with two parts. The first was where the dead over time, depending on their location, the wealth of The corpse in this late
Predynastic ceramic model
person was buried, to keep the body safe. The second their owners, and new ideas about the afterlife. The
boat is shown in the fetal
was an offering chapel, where people could bring things two-part structure incorporating a burial chamber position, the most common
to feed the ka. The ka living in the tomb did not only and offering chapel was, however, fundamental pose for the body in simple
have to be fed, but also had to be able to amuse itself to all of them, because the concept of the ka and its burials at the time.
for eternity, so games of different kinds were often requirements formed a recurring theme throughout
provided for it in the larger tombs of wealthy people. ancient Egyptian history.

The deceased
eats from a table
of offerings

◁ Offering stela of Satka

Decorated stelae (stone
slabs) within tombs
indicated where offerings
could be made to feed
the ka. They depicted the
tomb owner eating and
also acted as magical
substitutes for offerings.
 ◁ Statue of Ranefer
This life-size limestone
statue is one of several that
belonged to Ranefer, High
Priest of Ptah at Memphis
in the 5th Dynasty. It shows
Ranefer as a young man.

The Old
Kingdom
c.2686–2055 bce
54 | THE OLD KINGDOM

The Old Kingdom

Pyramid building is the main thing that everyone associates and north of it, at Abusir and Abu Roash. The most famous
with the Old Kingdom (3rd–6th Dynasties). This was cluster of pyramids was at Giza, where the largest single
probably how the kings of the period saw it, too, because pyramid, that of Khufu, was built in the 4th Dynasty.
their motivation for expending such vast resources on these Unlike Djoser’s original pyramid, which had stepped
very visible monuments was partly to immortalize their own sides, these later pyramids had steep, straight sides.
memory. There were other reasons, however, for building
pyramids. They played a key role in the growing importance Court and regional cemeteries
of sun worship and were also places where the kings could The tombs of the kings’ relatives and important court
be provided for in the afterlife, in cult services held at the officials were built close to the pyramids. These were
mortuary temple attached to each pyramid. often substantial structures made of stone, with extensively
The pyramids of the Old Kingdom were the largest decorated walls, and they became larger and more elaborate
structures ever built in Egypt, so constructing them required during the course of the Old Kingdom. The royal pyramids,
an enormous amount of resources, not only in terms of on the other hand, became smaller after the 4th Dynasty.
stone and equipment, but also in terms of labor. This was The archaeology of Old Kingdom Egypt is less well-
only possible because Egypt was both politically and documented away from the area around Memphis, but
economically centralized in the Old Kingdom. a few regional cemeteries have provided some important
information about the period. These include the tombs
The royal cemeteries at Memphis of expedition leaders, which were built on Egypt’s southern
The first pyramid was built by Djoser early border with Nubia.
in the 3rd Dynasty at Saqqara. Building the
pyramid at Saqqara was significant, as The First Intermediate Period
the area to the west of Memphis, which The collapse of royal authority at the end of the Old Kingdom
was the capital of the Old Kingdom left Egypt politically fragmented, and power was seized by
kings, became an extended royal people who aspired to become kings of Egypt. The most
necropolis for the kings, replacing prominent of these warlords were initially based at
the Early Dynastic royal cemetery at Herakleopolis Magna (the 9th and 10th Dynasties), but the
Abydos. Saqqara was the heart of the ultimate victors in the competition to reunite Egypt under a
Memphite necropolis, but pyramids single king were the kings of the 11th Dynasty. This family
were also built to the south of it, at came from a city that would go on to play a leading role in
sites such as Dahshur and Meidum, Egypt’s immediate future—Thebes.

◁ Statue of Kai
and his children c.2487 bce Sahure
c.2667 bce Djoser c.2613 bce Snefru, the first becomes king. Abusir
becomes king. Step king of the 4th Dynasty, becomes a royal
Pyramid built at Saqqara becomes king necropolis

c.2686 bce Beginning of c.2613 bce Death of c.2589 bce Khufu

the 3rd Dynasty and the Huni, the last king of becomes king. The Great
Old Kingdom the 3rd Dynasty Pyramid is built at Giza
 THE OLD KINGDOM | 55

Mediterranean Sea

Nile Delta
Mendes
Kom el-Hisn
Bubastis
Merimde
LOWER Abu Roash
Heliopolis
EGYPT Giza 1
Saqqara 2 Memphis
Faiyum Dahshur
Meidum
Herakleopolis
Magna

le
Wadi Jarf

Gu
Ni
Serabit
el-Khadim
er

lf o
Riv
1 The Giza pyramid complex

fS
Bahriya Eastern

u
ez
Oasis Desert

Western Meir
Desert Kom Dara
Farafra
Asyut
Oasis
Ri

Arabian Red
ve

Sea
Desert
rN

UPPER
EGYPT
ile

Abydos Dendera
Dakhla Coptos
    
Oasis
Thebes
Gebelein
                                     Moalla

The Old Kingdom 2 Pyramid texts from the Pyramid of Pepi, Saqqara
The best-known sites of
this period are clustered Elephantine
Qubbet el-Hawa 33
around Memphis. Most (Aswan)
of the sites farther south First Cataract
became more prominent
at the end of the Old
Kingdom, and even
le
more so in the First
i
rN

Intermediate Period.
ve
Ri

0 100 km

0 100 miles Buhen

Second Cataract

3 The tombs of Qubbet el-Hawa, Aswan

c.2345 bce Teti c.2184 bce The death

becomes the first king of Pepi II and the end of c.2125 bce Thebans
of the 6th Dynasty the Old Kingdom rule southern Egypt

c.2375 bce Unas becomes c.2278 bce Pepi II c.2160–2025 bce c.2055 bce
king. The earliest Pyramid becomes king Herakleopolitans rule Montuhotep II
Texts are written northern Egypt reunifies Egypt
56 | THE OLD KINGDOM

Djoser’s Step Pyramid

The rise of the pyramid

In terms of historical significance, architectural invention, and technological

innovation, no building from ancient Egypt is as important as the Step Pyramid
of King Djoser at Saqqara, built around 2750 bce.

The Step Pyramid of King Djoser (also known as at Shunet ez-Zebib (see pp.46–47). Djoser’s pyramid,
Netjerikhet) was a landmark building in many ways. however, was visually striking and recognizably a
Not only was it the first Egyptian pyramid, it also royal monument. It was built just to the west of
broke the tradition of royal burial at Abydos by Memphis, on the edge of the desert plateau
being built at Saqqara—near the Egyptian capital overlooking the Nile Valley. This meant that it
of Memphis. Previously, royal tombs had been low, could be seen from many miles away in Memphis △ Wall tiles
square structures called mastabas (from the Arabic set against the akhet (the western horizon), which The underground rooms of
for “bench”). The most imposing parts of these tomb was increasingly regarded as the portal to the afterlife. the pyramid complex were
decorated with turquoise
complexes had been the huge mud-brick enclosures After Djoser, all of the 3rd to 6th Dynasty royal tombs tiles that imitated the reed
built a short distance away from the actual tombs, as were built there. matting covering the walls
of the king’s palace.
Apex, uniting the
Heb Sed Court Mortuary temple heavens and the Earth

Imitation Step Pyramid

chapels

△ The funerary complex

The pyramid itself was just
one part of a complex of
buildings designed to help
the king on his way to a
beneficial afterlife.
 DJOSER’S STEP PYRAMID | 57

▷ The Famine Stela at Sehel

Very little is known about Djoser or the events of his reign. He
was remembered in later times as a good king; the Ptolemaic
Famine Stela on the island of Sehel, near Aswan, describes
how the actions of Djoser (and Imhotep) saved Egypt from a
seven-year drought.

The first pyramid

Djoser’s tomb was built in stages. Initially, it seems
to have followed the traditional model of a mastaba
set within a walled funerary enclosure, but it
developed into something far more ambitious. To
increase the height of the tomb, three more “mastabas”
of gradually diminishing sizes were built on top of
it, creating a monument of four “steps.” An additional
two layers were then added to the top, creating
a six-step, pointed building—the very first
Egyptian pyramid.
The sheer scale of the pyramid immortalized
Djoser, but its stepped form may also have had a
religious significance. As mentioned in the Pyramid
Texts (see pp.70–71), it created a symbolic stairway came to make offerings to the dead king. Nearby was
to the heavens, thereby uniting heaven and Earth. a small stone chamber, known by the Arabic word
It was a form that was later adapted to make the serdab (cellar). This contained a life-size statue of
“true” straight-sided pyramids at the end of the 3rd the king—a feature that was to become common
Dynasty and the beginning of the 4th Dynasty. in the private mastaba tombs of the Old Kingdom.
The Step Pyramid was not only innovative from an It is not known for certain what many of the other
architectural point of view—it also represented a huge buildings within the complex were for, but some of
step forward in technology because it was built of them may represent full-size stone models of temples
stone. Earlier royal tombs had a few stone elements from different parts of Egypt. The entire southern
within them, but they were mainly built of mud part of the enclosure was taken up by the so-called
brick. This was the first time that an entire building Heb Sed Court. This was provided specifically for the
had been constructed from stone—it is the oldest dead king so that, in the afterlife, he could enact a
monumental stone building in the world. ritual that he had performed during his lifetime and
thereby demonstrate his kingly prowess.
Venerating the king
The Step Pyramid was the centerpiece of a whole
complex of buildings. The burial chamber itself IMHOTEP
was situated directly beneath the pyramid and was Imhotep was a high official during Djoser’s reign and
surrounded by underground galleries where burial is traditionally credited by many Egyptologists as
being the architect of the Step Pyramid. He had the
goods needed for the afterlife were stored. Above the rare distinction of being a nonroyal Egyptian who
ground, a tall enclosure wall formed the perimeter was later venerated as a god. He was associated with
of a rectangle containing the pyramid and a series of a similar range of scribal activity and learning as
that of the god Thoth, and in the Late Period and
other buildings. The mortuary temple built against the Ptolemaic Period, he was especially connected to
side of the pyramid seems to have been where people medicine and healing. The quantity of Imhotep-
related cult objects from this period, including this
bronze statuette, demonstrates the popularity of his
cult at the time. It is widely believed that Imhotep
◁ Step Pyramid was buried at Saqqara—but, despite several
The Step Pyramid of Djoser is one of the most attempts to locate his tomb, it has never been found.
immediately recognizable monuments from the
ancient world. It was the tomb and funerary
monument of King Djoser, who became known BRONZE STATUETTE OF IMHOTEP
as the “Discoverer of Stoneworking.”
58 | THE OLD KINGDOM

Working with stone

The building blocks of Egyptian culture

One of the defining features of ancient Egyptian culture is its enormous

monuments—temples, tombs, and colossal statues. None of this would have
been possible without an accessible source of good-quality stone.

One of the great natural resources of ancient Egypt stone, such as the Old Kingdom pyramids.
was stone—specifically, stone that could be used Limestone varied greatly in quality from
for buildings and for objects such as statues, stelae, one quarry to another. When the finest-
obelisks, and altars. It was the material chosen to quality stone was required, specific quarries
build monuments that were to last forever, such as were exploited, such as the Tura quarries across
tombs and temples. Everyday buildings, such as houses the river from Memphis, which supplied the fine
and palaces, were mostly made from mud brick. white stone used for the exterior casing of many △ Mallet and chisel
The most widely available stone for building was of the pyramids. Egyptian masons used stone
limestone, found at the edges of the desert along In the south of Egypt, the local building stone was tools to remove blocks of
most of the Nile Valley. Its easy accessibility made it sandstone. More regular in quality than limestone but stone from the quarries.
To carve reliefs and statues,
invaluable for projects that required huge amounts of less fine-grained, it was widely used to build temples however, they used wooden
in the New Kingdom at Thebes, and for many of the mallets and chisels made
THE DIARY OF MERER
great temples of the Greco-Roman period. of expensive copper.

This remarkable papyrus document was found at the site Harder stones and specialists
of Wadi el-Jarf, on Egypt’s Red Sea coast. It is a work
diary describing the activities of an official called Merer, Limestone and sandstone are relatively soft, and
who may have been at Wadi el-Jarf to oversee expeditions so they are fairly easy to quarry and work. For very
to Sinai, probably to find copper to make tools. The main
subject of the diary is the work that Merer undertook
special buildings, harder stones were required, and
on a related royal project, organizing the transport of Egypt also had access to such material: granite at
limestone from the Tura quarries across the river to Giza. Aswan; basalt in the Western Desert; quartzite in the
This stone was probably used in the fine casing of the
exterior of the Great Pyramid of Khufu (see pp.66–67). Eastern Desert; and travertine (Egyptian alabaster)
from quarries in the desert close to Amarna.
These stones were more difficult to quarry
and transport, and only specialists equipped
with appropriate tools could work on
them. Access to such craftsmen and the
stone itself was restricted to royalty
throughout most of ancient Egyptian
history. The difficulty of completing a project
such as quarrying and transporting a monolithic
granite obelisk from Aswan to Thebes was
itself an achievement worth celebrating as a
special gift from the king to the gods.

▷ Sandstone
The Gebel Silsila sandstone quarries in southern
Egypt were especially important for building in
the New Kingdom. They were situated close to the
riverbank, making it easier to move the cut stone
onto barges.
 WORKING WITH STONE | 59

▽ Stone sculpture
Scenes on the walls of Old Kingdom private tombs
often show craftsmen creating the features of the
Skilled sculptor Copper chisel tomb. Here, sculptors are at work on a statue of the
trained in fine set in a wooden tomb owner. As a potential substitute for the dead
carving shaft
body and receiver of offerings, the statue had to be
suitably durable—made of stone.
60 | THE OLD KINGDOM

The 4th & 5th Dynasties

The first pharaohs of the sun

The central period of the Old Kingdom, the 4th and 5th Dynasties, was a high
point for the power of the king and the growing importance of solar religion,
both demonstrated by building more royal pyramids.

Egyptian history is easier to understand from the 4th known as Mycerinus) built a pyramid that completed
Dynasty, when it is fairly clear who the kings were, the Giza group. Menkaure was himself succeeded by
who followed whom, and how they were related to Shepseskaf, who may have been his son, but who
each other. More is also known about the wider royal broke with tradition by building a huge mastaba-style
family at this time, as several royal pyramids were tomb rather than a pyramid at Saqqara.
surrounded by the mastaba tombs of courtiers and The first king of the 5th Dynasty, Userkaf, may
relations. However, all we know about most of these have been related to the 4th Dynasty royal family. △ King Neferefre
kings is that they built pyramids for themselves. Other He chose Saqqara as the site for his pyramid, very This statuette of Neferefre
comes from the king’s
events during their reigns are something of a mystery. close to the pyramid complex of Djoser, possibly
mortuary temple at Abusir.
signaling a desire to be associated with his illustrious He is protected by the god
Two dynasties royal ancestor. The next two kings, Sahure and Horus, who was often
The founder of the 4th Dynasty was Snefru, whose Neferirkare, may both have been Userkaf’s sons, depicted as a falcon.
successor was Khufu (also known as Cheops). Khufu whereas the following two, Neferefre and Niuserre,
was succeeded by two of his sons, first Djedefre were the sons of Neferirkare. These four kings form
(whose tomb at Abu Roash is the northernmost a clear group, as they were all buried at Abusir. Their
major pyramid) and then Khaefre (also known as royal names also all incorporate the name of the
Chephren), who chose to build his pyramid close sun god, Ra, indicating his growing importance at
to that of his father. Khaefre’s son Menkaure (also the time. The main cult center of Ra was at Heliopolis,

The eyes of the

goddess and the king
were later gouged out

As his divine
mother, Sekhmet
suckles Niuserre

◁ Niuserre suckled by Sekhmet

Old Kingdom rulers often depicted
themselves in the company of gods. This
relief fragment from a mortuary temple
at Abusir shows King Niuserre with the
goddess Sekhmet, his divine mother.

Khufu Khaefre Menkaure

2589 bce 2558 bce 2532 bce
4TH DYNASTY 5TH DYNASTY

Snefru Djedefre Shepseskaf Userkaf

2613 bce c.2566 bce 2503 bce 2494 bce
 | 61

A royal nemes
headdress worn
by the king

▷ Menkaure and Hathor

The Menkaure pyramid complex contains a
series of sculptures showing the king with
various gods. Here, Menkaure is supported by
a figure depicting either his mother or wife. She
may be associated with the goddess Hathor.

just across the river from Memphis, and additional

smaller sun temples were built by the first six kings
of this dynasty. Shepseskare was probably also one of
the “Abusir kings,” but no evidence of his monuments
has ever been found.
The relationship between the last three kings of the
5th Dynasty—Menkauhor, Djedkare Isesi, and Unas—
is not known. The latter two were buried in pyramids
at Saqqara, and the Pyramid of Unas is of particular
interest because it was the first pyramid in which the
Pyramid Texts were inscribed (see pp.70–71).

Growing influence
The success of pyramid building at this time suggests
that Egypt was a strong, centralized state during the
4th and 5th Dynasties. Its influence on its immediate
neighbors seems to have gradually expanded: kings
sent frequent expeditions to Sinai and into the
Western Desert in search of minerals, and trading
centers were established in Nubia, notably in the town
of Buhen. Egyptian artifacts have also been found in
the Near East, especially the coastal city of Byblos,
providing early evidence of a long-term relationship
between Egypt and a port that gave it good access to
the fine timber produced in Lebanon.
There is scant evidence of activity within Egypt
itself during this period, other than in the area
around Memphis. One development worth noting in
the cemeteries of high officials, however, is that their
tombs were becoming larger, especially at Saqqara.
This trend, both in the capital and later, more
significantly, in the provinces, foreshadowed key
political developments in the 6th Dynasty.

Sahure Shepseskare Niuserre Djedkare Isesi

2487 bce 2455 bce 2445 bce 2414 bce

Neferirkare Neferefre Menkauhor Unas

2475 bce 2448 bce 2421 bce 2375 bce
62 | THE OLD KINGDOM

The true pyramid

The evolution of an iconic building

During the 3rd and 4th Dynasties, the pyramid pyramid was a failure, because a part of it collapsed.
developed rapidly as a royal tomb in several ways. The This might have been due to structural weaknesses
most obvious change was a dramatic increase in size. caused by trying to convert a step pyramid into a
At 100 ft (60 m) high, Djoser’s Step Pyramid was already straight-sided one by giving it a heavy, new outer
impressive enough, but it is dwarfed by the largest skin of masonry, or it may simply have been built at
pyramid of all, that of Khufu (see pp.66–67), built less too steep an angle. The switch from a tall, pointed
than 100 years later, which was originally 481 ft pyramid to one that was more squat can be seen in
(147 m) in height. The other great change was the the change of shape of the so-called Bent Pyramid
transition from the stepped pyramid to one that had of Snefru at Dahshur.
straight sides—the “true” pyramid. Old Kingdom The most prolific of pyramid builders, Snefru built
pyramids decreased in size after Khufu’s reign, so the a second pyramid at Dahshur, the Red Pyramid. His
century from Djoser to Khufu was a golden age of son, Khufu, meanwhile, moved the royal necropolis
pyramid building—but it was not without problems. to Giza, where he started work on possibly the most
famous set of royal tombs in the world—those of
Trial and error Khufu, Khaefre, and Menkaure.
These problems can be seen in the pyramid at Other innovations followed the adoption of the
Meidum. There is much debate as to who built it, straight-sided pyramid. The most important of these
but it was probably Snefru, the first king of the 4th was the layout of the pyramid complex—a group
Dynasty; or Snefru may have completed a pyramid of buildings of which the pyramid was only one part.
started by his predecessor, Huni. In any case, the The rectangular enclosure that surrounded the Step

△ The Step Pyramid △ The Meidum Pyramid △ The Bent Pyramid

Although it was substantially smaller than Built by Snefru and possibly started by his predecessor, Originally called the Southern Shining
its immediate successors, Djoser’s pyramid, Huni, the Meidum Pyramid was structurally weak, and a Pyramid, this was Snefru’s second pyramid.
at 100 ft (60 m) in height, was still an part of it collapsed. It was originally built as a stepped The angle of its sides was reduced during
impressive monument. It was taller than the pyramid, but then more stone was added to its sides to construction, possibly due to concerns that
later pyramids of the 5th and 6th Dynasties convert it into a straight-sided pyramid. When finished, it, too, might collapse. It stands at 344 ft
and dominated the necropolis at Saqqara. it was 302 ft (92 m) in height. (105 m) in height.
 THE TRUE PYRAMID | 63

“Man fears time, but time fears

the pyramids.”
ARAB PROVERB OF UNCERTAIN ORIGIN

Pyramid was replaced by a standardized set of the Early Dynastic monuments. The later pyramids,
buildings: a mortuary temple built against the east however, were built from huge blocks of stone, which
face of the pyramid; a long causeway running down gave them a much more solid form but were difficult
from the temple on the desert plateau toward the to transport and use on site. Sophisticated systems of
valley; and a so-called valley building that acted as a construction and administration therefore had to be
terminus for the causeway. The exact functions of put in place to run the vast projects, and seasonal
these buildings are not clear, but they played an workers were imported to the building sites from all
important role in the king’s funeral ceremonies and over Egypt. The ancient Egyptians transported granite
in ensuring the continuation of offerings to him. down the Nile from Aswan and brought copper from
Another significant development was the building Sinai. The pyramid was, to a large degree, the
of rooms inside the pyramid. Djoser’s pyramid was a supreme demonstration of the power of the Egyptian
solid mass of masonry that rose above an underground state in the early Old Kingdom.
burial chamber. Later pyramids, however, had
interiors. The Great Pyramid of Khufu, for example, Step Pyramid
is honeycombed with rooms and corridors.

Logistical challenges
All the pyramids were built of local limestone. For
Djoser’s pyramid, the limestone was cut into relatively
small blocks, similar in size to the mud bricks used in THE COMPARATIVE SCALE OF PYRAMIDS FROM DJOSER TO KHAEFRE

△ The Red Pyramid △ The Great Pyramid △ The Khaefre Pyramid

The sides of Snefru’s third pyramid have At 481 ft (147 m) in height, the so-called Horizon of Khufu Only slightly smaller than the pyramid of
shallow slopes, like the Bent Pyramid. The is the tallest pyramid ever built. It took some 20 years his father, Khufu, Khaefre’s pyramid is 472 ft
Red Pyramid was made of sandstone and to build, and for most of history, it was the tallest human- (144 m) in height and was known, appropriately,
originally encased in white Tura limestone. made structure in the world. It was the ultimate symbol as “Great is Khaefre.” Its blocks diminish in
It is 344 ft (105 m) tall and is the largest of the ancient Egyptian kings’ ability to direct Egypt’s size as they get higher, and the top part of the
pyramid of the Dahshur necropolis. resources to a single royal project. pyramid retains its limestone outer casing.
 △ Giza pyramids
Completed in the 4th

The pyramids of Giza

Dynasty, the Giza pyramids
are possibly the most
impressive monuments
ever built in Egypt. No other
kings came close to building
on such a colossal scale.
The mountains of pharaoh

Instantly recognizable and the epitome of royal power, the pyramids of Giza
are for many people the most iconic monuments of ancient Egypt. They are
also profoundly mysterious buildings.

During the Old Kingdom, the kings of Egypt chose kings wanted be buried with their predecessors, so
to build their tombs—usually pyramids—in various important clusters of pyramids can be seen at the sites
locations on the west bank of the Nile. All of these of Abusir; Saqqara; Dahshur; and, most famously, Giza.
places were close to the city of Memphis, and many
of them were in sight of Heliopolis, the main cult Khufu’s pyramid
center of the solar god Ra, across the river. The most famous group of pyramids is at Giza. The
Within these general parameters, each king chose first pyramid to be built there was that of Khufu, who
the specific site for his tomb, taking certain factors did not follow his father Snefru to Dahshur, but chose
into consideration. For the site to be suitable, the this more northerly site. The most obvious feature of
underlying stone had to be strong enough to bear
the great weight of the tomb. The king also had to
▷ Khufu statue
decide whether he wished to be buried alongside The only complete statue to bear the name of King Khufu is
previous monarchs or in a completely new location, this tiny, 3 in (7.5 cm) tall ivory statuette that was excavated
free from any associations with the past. Most from a temple at Abydos.
 THE PYRAMIDS OF GIZA | 65

KHUFU’S SOLAR BOAT

The Giza pyramids are some of the most

extensively explored monuments in the world, Large oars for rowing
but a discovery in 1954 showed that there was and steering the boat
more to find. Several pyramids have large boat Cabin, possibly for
pits near them, but two unexcavated pits close transporting the body
to Khufu’s pyramid were found to be still intact, of Khufu
and one of them was opened. It contained
a full-sized boat, complete with oars and a
spacious cabin. No one knows what the purpose
of the boat was. It shows signs of having been
in water, so it may have been used to carry
Khufu’s body to Giza during his funeral
ceremonies. Or it might have been for Khufu’s
use after death, possibly to carry him across the
sky with the sun god Ra. Now reconstructed,
the 143 ft (44 m) long vessel is one of the oldest
boats in the world.

Khufu’s pyramid is its size—it is the largest of the Orientation

royal pyramids. The pyramid itself was just one part Khufu’s pyramid was laid out so that two of its sides
of Khufu’s funerary complex, however. Next to the aligned to true north with impressive precision. It
pyramid, he built a small mortuary temple connected was also built close to the edge of the desert plateau,
by a causeway to another building in the valley. The overlooking the valley. When his successors built
causeway is now in poor condition, and the valley pyramids at Giza, they did so with their predecessors’
building is buried beneath farmland. On either side monuments in mind. Khaefre’s pyramid was laid out
of the pyramid, Khufu also built huge cemeteries of to match his father’s, but his causeway was positioned
mastaba tombs, which were laid out in neat, regular so that his valley building stood right next to a small
rows. These were for his family and courtiers so that temple that stood in front of the Great Sphinx.
they could be buried beside him for eternity. Menkaure, building his pyramid with the two
earlier pyramids in mind, chose a spot so that a ▽ Plan of Giza
Khaefre and Menkaure straight line could be drawn linking the southwest The relationship between the
Khufu’s son, Khaefre, chose to build his pyramid close corners of all three of the Giza pyramids. The different parts of the Giza
to his father’s. Although it is smaller, it was built on reasoning behind these and other alignments is complex is best appreciated
higher ground and has steeper sides, which makes it not clear. Some writers have argued that the Giza from above. Khufu’s pyramid
is aligned with true north, and
look taller. In many ways, it is a better example of an pyramids were designed to mirror constellations the south side of Khaefre’s
Old Kingdom pyramid complex than Khufu’s. It has a of stars, especially that of Orion, but few scholars pyramid is roughly aligned
large mortuary temple, and its valley building, which have been convinced by this idea. with the Sphinx to the east.
is made of huge blocks of red granite, is one of the
best-preserved pieces of Old Kingdom architecture.
The pyramid of Khaefre’s own son, Menkaure, is Probable site of
Pyramid of Khufu’s valley
the smallest of the Giza group. It was still unfinished Khufu building
when Menkaure died, but it, too, has the classic
Western cemetery
features of an Old Kingdom pyramid complex. of mastaba tombs
Eastern cemetery
of mastaba tombs

“The whole is of stone Pyramid of

Khaefre

polished and fitted

Sphinx temple
Sphinx
Khaefre’s
Pyramid of mortuary temple Khaefre’s

together in the most

Menkaure
valley building

Tomb of Queen

exact manner.”
Khentkawes
N

Menkaure’s valley
0 200 m building
THE GREEK HISTORIAN HERODOTUS DESCRIBES 200 yards
0
KHUFU’S PYRAMID
66 | THE OLD KINGDOM

◁ King’s chamber The pyramid

The burial chamber is lined with red granite and was capped by a
contains a sarcophagus of the same stone. Above the now-lost pyramidion
room are five smaller chambers, designed to relieve
the weight of the stone above. Each one
is roofed with nine huge blocks of granite
weighing 28–44 tons (25–40 tonnes) each.

Roof of the Narrow shaft,

relieving chambers aligned with
the polar star
Alpha Draco
Blocks of granite
form the roofs of the
relieving chambers

Granite sarcophagus
that once contained
the king’s body

The burial chamber was sealed

by workmen: after removing
wooden props beneath each
of the three huge, granite slabs,
the men lowered the slabs using
wooden rollers and ropes.

Narrow shaft, aligned

with the circumpolar
star Mizar

The Grand Gallery,

28½ ft (8.7 m) high

Descending passage
leading to the
subterranean chamber

△ Original entrance
Once the king had been buried in the pyramid, the
The “well,” an irregular
passageways were blocked with huge stone plugs.
passageway whose
The entrance to the descending passageway was then purpose is unknown
covered with casing blocks to conceal the way into the
pyramid from unwelcome visitors. Today, the pyramid
is entered via a lower robbers’ tunnel.
 KHUFU’S PYRAMID | 67

Khufu’s pyramid
“The horizon of Khufu”

The pyramid built by King Khufu at Giza is not only the largest of the royal
△ A mountain of stone pyramids of Egypt, it is also one of the most intriguing. Compared to almost
Estimates based on the visible parts of the pyramid all other pyramids, it has a very complicated internal structure, with a series of
suggest that it was made of 2.3 million blocks of stone, interconnected rooms and passages—some of which, such as the Grand Gallery,
which may have weighed around 2.8 tons (2.5 tonnes) each.
are unique. Although the purpose of some of these internal features seems obvious,
Narrow shaft especially the king’s chamber, the function of others is less clear. They may have
oriented toward the been incorporated when plans changed during the construction of the pyramid,
constellation of Orion or they may have served purposes that modern scholars are unaware of.

Narrow shaft
oriented toward ◁ Outer casing
the star Sirius The exterior of the pyramid
was finished with a casing
of the finest white limestone,
which came from the Tura
quarries on the other side
of the Nile. This high-quality
stone was later stripped from
the pyramid and reused for
buildings during the later
dynastic periods and in
medieval Cairo.

Wedge-shaped blocks
of limestone create a
smooth surface

◁ Survival of the pyramid

The pyramid of Khufu has long been emptied of its
burial equipment and robbed of much of its stone,
Outer casing but it is still an impressive monument. It is the only
of fine, white one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World that
limestone from has remained largely intact, and it has been a constant
the Tura quarries source of fascination for both visitors and scholars.

BUILDING THE PYRAMID

The secret to building a large pyramid was good Stone blocks being put
So-called queen’s organization—the right number of workmen and in place on top of the
chamber, possibly for the right amount of stone in the right place. A growing pyramid
Straight ramp
a ka statue of the king series of ramps was probably used, with gangs
built against Blocks of
of workmen dragging the stone blocks into place.
the side of the limestone
At first, simple, linear ramps on each side of the
pyramid quarried locally,
Incomplete subterranean pyramid would have maximized the amount of
chamber, whose use stone that could be moved. As the pyramid grew for the interior
is unknown taller, the ramps would have been made longer to of the pyramid
avoid too steep an angle of ascent. At this point,
the linear ramps may have been replaced by a spiral
one running around the upper parts of the pyramid.
68 | THE OLD KINGDOM

▷ Ear stela
Visitors to the Sphinx in
the New Kingdom often
left dedicatory stelae.
Many of these featured
an ear, symbolizing their
hopes that the god would
hear their prayers.

The Great Sphinx

The “Father of Terror”

A colossal statue, the Great Sphinx at Giza is one Building, in an area where stone was quarried in
of the most instantly recognizable images of ancient Khufu’s time. A temple for worshipping the king
Egypt and rivals the pyramids as an expression of was built in front of the Sphinx.
royal power in the Old Kingdom. The ceremonial Exactly why such a grand statue of the king was
slate palettes of the late Predynastic and Early Dynastic built in the Old Kingdom is a mystery, but as a major
Periods first introduced images of the king as an part of the landscape at Giza, it attracted the attention
animal, such as a lion or bull. Later, images of hybrid of many Egyptians for the rest of dynastic history. By
human/animal creatures emphasized the special the New Kingdom, it was regarded as a statue of the
▽ A stone colossus nature of the royal person they represented. With the god Horemakhet and was worshipped as such by
At 248 ft (75.5 m) long and body of a lion and the head of a man, the sphinx is a kings and commoners alike.
65 ft (20 m) high, the Great supernatural creature representing the godlike power
Sphinx at Giza is one of the of the king. The word “sphinx” is believed to come A prince’s dream
largest statues ever built. No
statue in Egypt could match
from a Greek version of an Egyptian term for a statue, According to his own account, an 18th Dynasty prince
it until that of Amenhotep III, especially a statue of a king: shesep-ankh, which means called Tuthmosis fell asleep in the shade of the Sphinx
more than 1,000 years later. “living image.” while hunting. In a dream, the god Horemakhet
prophesied that he would become king if he cleared
Mysterious origin the sand covering much of the statue. The prince
Many images depicting kings as sphinxes survive from carried out the request, became Tuthmosis IV, and
ancient Egypt, but the Sphinx at Giza is by far the recorded the incident on a stela, which he set on the
most famous. It was built on a solid knoll of rock in ground, probably below an existing statue of his
the limestone quarries that supplied stone for the Giza father, Amenhotep II. Other New Kingdom additions
pyramids. Scholars agree that it represents one of to the Sphinx included a false beard and new
the 4th Dynasty kings—probably Khaefre or his cladding on parts of the worn statue.
father, Khufu. It sits close to Khaefre’s Valley During the Middle Ages, the
Sphinx’s nose was hacked off.
By this time, the Sphinx had
SIDE VIEW
acquired a new name: Abu’l-Hol,
meaning “the Father of Terror.”
 THE GREAT SPHINX | 69

◁ The face of the Sphinx

Although the Great Sphinx was
revered, it was not left alone by later
Nose damaged in
the Middle Ages
generations. Its head and chest
were subjected to several additions
(including a false beard), and it
has been altered and mutilated
throughout its 4,500-year history.

Position of New
Kingdom false
beard (later
removed)

Position of
a statue
of the New
Kingdom king
Amenhotep II

“Dream stela”
of Tuthmosis IV
70 | THE OLD KINGDOM

The Pyramid Texts

A handbook for the royal afterlife

Although they are extremely impressive, the great pyramids of the early Old
Kingdom are completely devoid of texts describing what the king expected
to happen to him after death. All that changed at the end of the 5th Dynasty.

Little is known about the expectations of the kings of the complete Pyramid Texts include more than a
the 4th, 5th, and 6th Dynasties regarding the afterlife. thousand different spells. No one knows why certain
From the end of the 5th Dynasty onward, however, spells were chosen over others, just that they were
religious texts about the royal afterlife were inscribed carefully inscribed on the walls of the king’s burial
on the walls of the chambers within pyramids. These chamber, the antechamber to the burial chamber,
are known as the Pyramid Texts. They first appeared and the corridor leading to the pyramid entrance.
in the Pyramid of Unas and then in the pyramids of The texts cover several different themes. Some refer
the 6th Dynasty kings Teti, Pepi I, Merenre, and Pepi II. to the offerings that should be made to the dead king,
They also exist in the pyramids of three queens of similar to those made to the ka spirit (the person’s
Pepi II and in the 8th Dynasty Pyramid of Ibi. soul) in private tombs. Others are protective spells
designed to shield the king’s body in its sarcophagus
Spells and rituals from any harm. The king was not, however, an
The Pyramid Texts are a selection of protective spells, ordinary mortal, and his afterlife was therefore
rituals, and a wide variety of sometimes contradictory different from anyone else’s.
ideas about the afterlife drawn from a much more
extensive body of literature. They were designed to Joining the gods
be read out loud, possibly as part of the funeral ritual. A particularly important set of spells summoned the
Unas’s pyramid, for example, contains 236 spells, but king to rise from his sarcophagus and join the gods.
His journey was a version of the journey of
the sun god, Ra, who travels through the
darkness of the Duat (underworld) to
emerge reborn into the light of day.
These spells connect the king with the
sun and place great emphasis on a solar
afterlife, in which the king will travel
alongside Ra. This solar afterlife might
also be reflected in the very shape of the
pyramid itself, as the Pyramid Texts
describe the rays of the sun being “made
firm” so that the king can walk on them
to heaven. Perhaps the sloping sides of
the pyramid could be seen as solidified
rays of the sun.

◁ The Pyramid of Pepi I

This small fragment of an interior wall from the
Pyramid of Pepi I has hieroglyphs that are filled
with blue paint for emphasis. The ownership of
this text is clear, because the name Pepi, in its oval
cartouche, appears four times.
 THE PYRAMID TEXTS | 71

◁ The Pyramid of Unas

Beneath a ceiling carved with a starry sky, the walls
of the internal chambers of the Pyramid of Unas are
covered with vertical columns of the Pyramid Texts.
Here, the antechamber opens into the burial
chamber containing the royal sarcophagus.

Other spells refer to a stellar afterlife, in which the

king will join the “undying stars” of the northern sky.
Osiris, a major afterlife deity, is also invoked, pointing
to the great importance that he had from the end of
the Old Kingdom onward. The power of the king as a
god in his own right is expressed in the so-called
“Cannibal Hymn,” in which the king eats the gods
in order to absorb their power.
The Pyramid Texts can also be seen as the first in a
series of religious texts about the afterlife that evolved
into the Coffin Texts in the Middle Kingdom (see
below). These in turn gave rise to the various New
Kingdom books concerning the afterlife that were
used by both kings and private individuals, including
the Book of the Dead (see pp.208–209).

COFFIN TEXTS

From the end of the Old Kingdom, religious texts

describing an afterlife were also used by people who
were not royal. Inscribed on the interiors of coffins,
these are known as the Coffin Texts. Much of the
material from the Pyramid Texts was reused in these
guides to the afterlife, but they were adapted to suit their
owners. The most important of these texts was the Book
of Two Ways, which was sometimes accompanied by a
painted plan of the underworld to help the deceased find
their way.

BOOK OF TWO WAYS IN THE COFFIN OF GUA, SHOWING

A PAINTED PLAN OF THE UNDERWORLD
 72 | THE OLD KINGDOM

Mastaba tombs
Tombs for the royal courtiers

During the Old Kingdom, it was not only the king who needed a magnificent
tomb. Members of the royal court also required a suitably visible eternal resting
place. Their tombs usually took the form of a mastaba.

Old Kingdom tombs, or rather the parts of them and its proximity to the pyramid reflected the status
Mud-brick above the ground, evolved from the squat, solid of its owner at the royal court. Because they were
and limestone
superstructure mud-brick mastabas used by kings and their high built as royal projects, these tombs were direct gifts
officials during the Early Dynastic Period. of the king.
The largest tombs belonging to court The standard mastaba was a solid, rectangular
officials of the 1st and 2nd Dynasties building with gently sloping limestone exterior
were located at Saqqara, on the edge of walls. The interior was filled with rubble, apart from
the desert, overlooking the valley. They a vertical shaft that ran through it to the small burial
were huge buildings, and they needed to chamber underground. The offering chapel was also
be, because they were essentially storerooms modest in size—just two or three rooms built around
for vast quantities of goods, especially food, that a false door fixed to the southern end of the mastaba’s
Vertical shaft the deceased would need in the afterlife. The mastaba eastern wall (see pp.74–75).
descending to the of the high official Hemaka, for example, is 187 ft
burial chamber (57 m) long and 75 ft (23 m) wide. However, from The growth of the mastaba
the beginning of the Old Kingdom, the purpose During the 5th and 6th Dynasties, mastabas developed
of elite mastabas changed. Instead of simply being in two important ways. First, they became larger and
storerooms, they became places where people could more complex. Rather than being a solid mass, they
make offerings to the ka (or soul) of the deceased. were given an increasing number of rooms with
△ Mastaba tomb specific purposes. Some rooms were used to store
The superstructure of
mastaba tombs became
Gifts of the king offerings or the equipment used in the offering
larger and more complex. In the 4th Dynasty, mastabas became standardized in ceremonies. Other semisealed rooms known as
However, the burial chamber, both form and size, largely because they were built serdabs were used as safes to house the statues of the
accessed by a vertical shaft, in the court cemeteries that formed part of the royal
remained small and, in most
pyramid-building project. Rows and rows of regularly
cases, undecorated.
sized mastabas can be found around the complex of
King Khufu, for instance, and the size of a mastaba

TWO BROTHERS?

The formalistic style of imagery in Old Kingdom tombs makes

it difficult to work out how the people depicted on their walls
were related in real life. Conventional labels, such as “his father,”
“her daughter,” or “his sister,” only provide a very basic idea of
how the different individuals were connected.
The unusual image of two men, Khnumhotep and Niankhkhnum,
embracing appears on the walls of the mastaba tomb that they
shared at Saqqara. The tomb is known as the Tomb of the Two
Brothers, but the painting might also be a rare, undisguised
representation of a same-sex relationship between two men from
ancient Egypt. Frustratingly, the texts written on the walls of the
tomb do nothing to clarify the relationship.
 MASTABA TOMBS | 73

▽ Mereruka’s tomb floor plan

In the 5th and 6th Dynasties, the interiors of the
largest mastabas were filled with rooms. These
were used for making offerings, storing the
ritual equipment used in offering ceremonies,
and to provide wall space for the increasingly
extensive scenes of daily life.

0 10 m
False door and
0 10 yards
ka statue

Offering room

Shaft to
burial chamber

Entrance to
the mastaba

▽ Limestone head
During the reigns of Khufu and Khaefre, there
was a short-lived and unexplained fashion for
placing limestone heads in courtiers’ tombs.
They are so individual in style that they are
likely to be portrait heads of the tomb owners.

△ Mereruka tomb owners that were becoming common in such

In this remarkable tombs. At the heart of the mastaba, there was a false
combination of a false door
door, where the offering ritual took place. The walls
and a life-size ka statue, the
Vizier Mereruka appears to of all the rooms were covered with scenes designed to
be entering the offering help the ka in its afterlife—not just pictures of food
chapel. The altar, on which offerings, but also images of Egypt, which the ka
offerings would have been would be able to enjoy forever.
placed, stands at his feet, at
The second development was that high officials’
the top of a flight of steps.
mastabas were no longer always built close to the
pyramids of their royal masters. This suggests that
court officials were becoming more independent and
often paid for their tombs. However, royal gifts (such
as stone sarcophagi) were always appreciated and were
mentioned in the tomb autobiographies inscribed on
the walls of these mastabas, which had become longer
and more detailed.
74 | THE OLD KINGDOM

▷ The false door of Neferiu

This large and complex false door belongs
to the Royal Seal Bearer Neferiu. Dating
from the end of the Old Kingdom or the
beginning of the First Intermediate Period,
it describes Neferiu’s good deeds in life.
An outstanding monument, it shows all the
different elements of the classic false door.

False door
The portal of the ka spirit

During the Old Kingdom, the idea that the tomb of a large table of food offerings. This showed visitors
was a home for the ka spirit (or soul) of the deceased what they were expected to do inside the offering
developed, so the tombs of courtiers and officials chapel—namely, leave food offerings in front of the
became increasingly complex. The false door, or false false door for the ka to “eat.” It also, however, served ▽ Eyes for the ka
The doorway at the center
door stela, was a key feature of tombs, because it as a magical substitute for real food, if offerings from of the false door is carved
formed the portal between the part of the tomb visitors were scarce. The pictures of food could then with false bolts and handles.
where the ka should remain undisturbed (the burial become real victuals for the ka and would be able to It also has two eyes so that
chamber) and the part provided for visitors bearing prevent it from being hungry for eternity. the tomb owner is able to
see into the offering chapel
offerings (the offering chapel). Prayers for offerings were also carved on false
from the burial chamber.
doors. These too had magical powers. Ideally, they These eyes are similar in
A magic threshold would be read out loud by a living visitor to the tomb appearance to the protective
Most false doors were made of solid slabs of stone, so in order to generate the “thousand loaves of bread, Eye of Horus amulet.
they were “false” in the sense that living people could thousand jars of beer, meat and
not pass through them. The ka, however, was able to fowl, and every good thing” that
pass through solid objects, especially those designed the ka required. If, however, the
to look like everyday things. prayers were not read out loud,
False doors became increasingly elaborate, as they the fact that they were written
provided a place where texts and images beneficial on the false door in hieroglyphs
to the tomb owner could be carved and painted. gave them magic powers and
The false door had first and foremost to be a realistic ensured that the things they
depiction of a doorway, but it also identified the tomb described became real.
owner, so the details of his name and title were very Although false doors were
important. These details gradually expanded and most commonly used during
included statements about the virtues of the deceased, the Old Kingdom, they remained
providing visitors with additional reasons to make an important feature of tombs
offerings to him (or less commonly, her). Over time, throughout the Dynastic Period.
it became traditional for people to provide their tombs They were also used by kings as
with detailed autobiographies. Pictures of the tomb portals to the afterlife in their
owner often appear on false doors—usually in a large mortuary temples, which were
rectangular panel above the carving of the doorway. royal versions of ordinary
The standard image depicts the owner sitting in front people’s offering chapels.
 | 75

Cornice of
palm fronds

Post resembling
bundles of reeds

Offering prayers

Lotus flower

Neferiu seated
at the table
of offerings

Autobiographical
text

Neferiu’s wife,
Wedjbet
76 | THE OLD KINGDOM

Painting techniques
Art and craft

The ancient Egyptians left behind a wealth of images that once covered the walls
of their temples and tombs. The techniques used by the artists who painted them
make them instantly recognizable as Egyptian.

Many paintings from Egyptian monuments have This search for “completeness” meant that bodies
survived for thousands of years, both on relief were broken down into different parts, each drawn
carvings and flat surfaces. The painted walls of in its most recognizable form, then reassembled.
underground tombs in the desert are especially Heads were almost always shown in profile, but with
well preserved, but some open-air temples have also the eye drawn as if it was seen front-on. Arms were
kept traces of their original decoration. This is partly painted hanging away from the body to make them
because the Egyptians used mineral pigments, which clear to see, and in standing figures, legs were shown
not only made their paintings glow with vibrant color, one behind the other. Chests were depicted front-on,
but which were remarkably permanent. while waists were shown from the side. This method
Most of these mineral pigments could be sourced of depicting the human figure served the Egyptians
△ Tomb painting locally, but some, such as lapis lazuli, came from well, as it changed remarkably little for 3,000 years.
This painting simply shows neighboring lands. As a result, artists had a wide
the hieroglyphs for the
variety of pigments at their disposal—ocher (clay) for Rules of proportion
sounds “k” and “a.” The
artist who painted this red and yellow, soot for black, copper compounds for The ancient Egyptians also tried to bring order and
basket and vulture did green, and lapis for deep blue. In the New Kingdom, regularity to their paintings by establishing a “canon
so with exquisite detail. artists added more colors to the palette, including of proportion”—a set of rules governing the relative
orpiment (a mineral related to arsenic) for bright proportions of different parts of the human body.
yellow and cobalt for a lighter shade of blue. These ensured that a painting of a king, for example,
would look the same, regardless of the scale on which
The human figure it was drawn. Professional painters and sculptors had
Not only is its color palette distinctive—Egyptian to follow these rules, which gave them little scope for
painting is also instantly recognizable because of the imagination or development. Today, they might be
rather stilted look of the human figures. This stylized considered artisans rather than artists. Even though
approach was deliberate, as the Egyptians rarely aimed they worked within rigid guidelines, they were still
for perspective or naturalism in their art. It was more able to demonstrate their skills, however, in the fine
important to them that any object, including the details of a painting or by the inventive way in which
human body, was shown as “complete” as possible. they interpreted a traditional theme.

▽ Palette and paintbrushes

Pigments were kept in small clay pots or, as in this example bearing Brush made from
the cartouche of Amenhotep III, in the recesses of palettes that both Empty hollow for a a bundle of reeds
artists and scribes used. Rough brushes were made from bundles of small pigment “cake” and rushes
reeds and fine-nibbed brushes and pens from single reeds.
 PAINTING TECHNIQUES | 77

▽ Working drawing
Artists achieved the “correct” proportions
by using squared grids. Seated figures were
The outline is drawn The grid squares are normally 14 squares tall from their feet up
with black paint drawn with red paint to their hairline. This working drawing of
Tuthmosis III shows just such a grid.
The Meidum Geese
These geese formed part of a scene painted on the north wall
of the early 4th Dynasty tomb chapel of Atet, the wife of the
Vizier Nefermaat, at Meidum, close to the pyramid of Snefru.
It was set below a scene of fowling on the marshes. As in
many elite tombs of all periods, the artists who decorated
it paid great attention to detail when depicting the natural
world so that the tomb owner would be able to enjoy it
for eternity. These boldly painted red-breasted geese were
painted to look as lifelike as possible, yet they are still
positioned according to artistic convention.
80 | THE OLD KINGDOM

Fashion in the Old Kingdom

Elegance for eternity

The images of upper-class Egyptians found in Old Kingdom tombs provide an

insight into how the ancient Egyptians dressed, but they are highly idealized,
because in the afterlife, it was important to look one’s best.

The purpose of the pictures and statues found ◁ Beaded dress

in Egyptian tombs was to show the tomb Unusual beaded dresses such as this have
been found in some tombs. It is not known
owners and their families as they wanted to
if they were worn in real life or if they were
appear for eternity, not how they actually intended for the afterlife only.
looked in real life. For both men and women,
this meant having an ideal body—being
young, slim, and physically fit, even though necklaces or collars. Men and women also
most tomb owners would have been quite wore perfume, described as “sweet oils” in
mature when they died. Where images of the offering texts of the time.
older people with fuller figures do appear
in statues or on tomb walls, it was not an Rahotep and Nofret
attempt at realistic portraiture, but to indicate The statues of Rahotep and Nofret on the right
their high social status. are typical of how an upper-class couple might
There were also conventions regarding be shown in the Old Kingdom. Rahotep is
skin color. High-status men were usually wearing a short kilt, which shows off his
shown with reddish-brown skin, possibly to muscular torso and legs; it is unlikely that he
signal the active, outdoor lives that even rich dressed so scantily in real life. Nofret’s costume
Egyptians lived. Women were fashionably pale, is possibly truer to life—a close-fitting, ankle- ▽ Princess Nofretiabet
maybe to show that they did not need to leave length sheath dress with broad shoulder straps Although elite Egyptians
the house to work in the fields like peasants. and a shawl around her shoulders. usually dressed in white linen,
The couple’s hairstyles are fashionable for the there were exceptions. This
image of Princess Nofretiabet
Dressing to impress period. Rahotep has short, cropped hair, and Nofret wearing a single-shouldered
The clothes worn by both men and women were sports a full bob, held in place by a broad band leopardskin dress is
usually made of fine white linen. Produced from flax, decorated with flowers. Rahotep also has a a striking example.
this was the staple fabric of ancient Egypt. Wool was mustache, which was
occasionally used for clothes, but cotton was not popular in the early
imported until the 1st century bce, and silk only 4th Dynasty. It was a
arrived six centuries later. Jewelry was usually only short-lived fashion:
worn by women in the Old Kingdom, although later, elite Egyptian men
in the New Kingdom, men also wore it. The most are rarely shown
popular forms of jewelry were broad, multicolored with facial hair.

“May he be given clothing from

the two treasuries and merhet-
oil from the two chambers.”
OFFERING TEXT OF THE OLD KINGDOM
 FASHION IN THE OLD KINGDOM | 81

Hieroglyphic text identifies the Hieroglyphic text identifies the Headband with
“King’s son, of his body” Rahotep “Royal Acquaintance” Nofret floral design

Broad,
multicolored
collar

Linen shawl worn

over a white linen
dress with broad
shoulder straps

◁ Eternal couple
These well-preserved
limestone statues are
of Rahotep and Nofret,
members of the royal family in
the early 4th Dynasty. Relations
of King Snefru, they were both
buried close to his pyramid at
Meidum. They are therefore
portrayed as the most elite and
chic of Old Kingdom Egyptians.
82 | THE OLD KINGDOM

Royal mortuary temples

Offerings for the pyramid owner

Although less spectacular than the pyramid itself, the other buildings of the
pyramid complex, especially the mortuary temple, played a crucial role in
ensuring that the king enjoyed a good afterlife within his tomb.

Mortuary temple
A pyramid could be seen from miles around, but it Main
was just part of a group of connected buildings that pyramid
Statue rooms
made up the pyramid complex. All of these buildings and storage
Open
were needed to create a suitable environment for the court Causeway
king’s funeral, the resting place of his body, and the leading to
rituals that continued after his burial. the valley
building
Approaching the pyramid complex, the funeral
cortege would first come to the valley building. Here,
it disembarked at the side of a canal before traveling
along a paved, and often covered, causeway to the Subsidiary pyramid
Mortuary temple
mortuary temple. Usually built against the eastern side
of the pyramid, the mortuary temple was a more
complex version of the offering chapels that were each of which had to be treated in a different way. △ Sahure reconstruction
linked to private tombs. A small subsidiary pyramid, The mortuary temple was where offerings were made Although his pyramid is less
impressive than some earlier
whose purpose is not fully clear, was the final part of to these different spiritual forms of the king.
examples, the pyramid
the complex. complex of King Sahure,
The Pyramid Texts (see pp.70–71) describe the Preparing for eternity of the 5th Dynasty, is an
afterlife that the king enjoyed beyond the tomb, but Unlike other people, kings did not rely on their excellent example of how
he had other needs, too, because he had several kas, families, friends, or passersby to provide them with the different elements of the
complex fitted together to
food, drink, or prayers after death. Instead, they used
form an architectural whole.
their wealth to finance preparations for a constant
supply of whatever their kas might need. Royal estates
from all over Egypt were gifted to a king’s pyramid so
that their produce would “belong” to the dead king
and provide food for the mortuary temple. Income
from these estates also paid the priests and officials
who collected the food, transported it, and offered
it in the temple. In the Old Kingdom, each royal
pyramid had its own administrative system that
required a large staff. This included priests who

“As the god is provided with

△ The mortuary temple of Sahure
a god’s offering, so Unas is
Although now all but destroyed, the mortuary temple next
to the Pyramid of Sahure at Abusir has retained some of
provided with this his bread.”
its original architectural features. The granite columns and
the basalt floor were built to last forever. OFFERING RITUAL FROM THE PYRAMID OF UNAS
 A flint knife cuts off the A butcher carries away a
foreleg of an oryx choice cut of meat

△ Sahure relief not only carried out the daily rituals within THE ABUSIR PAPYRI
The meat offerings to King the mortuary temple, but also took care of the
Sahure included beef and Three groups of papyri associated with the Pyramid of
equipment used in them. Neferirkare at Abusir provide details of the activities
venison. This relief from his
mortuary temple shows men of the priestly staff at an Old Kingdom mortuary temple.
Built to last These documents list rosters of priests who were on duty
butchering animals at the
as part of the offerings and at special festivals. The
pyramid complex, where The buildings of the pyramid complex were meant papyri also list the ritual equipment that was used
the meats were presented as to last forever, so they had to stand the test of time. on these occasions, as well as the different foods and
an offering to the king’s ka. other products that were received by the temple staff,
Mortuary temples in particular were built with great especially from the estates belonging to the pyramid.
care using durable materials that could withstand
the footsteps of endless generations of priests and
worshippers. Hard, black basalt was generally used
for the floors, its color possibly mimicking the black
land of the fertile Nile Valley. Red granite was used
for other parts of the temple, especially the columns
supporting the roof.
The Great Pyramid has a simple mortuary
temple, but from the reign of Khaefre onward,
mortuary temples became more complex. For the
rest of the Old Kingdom, they had five separate
rooms devoted to different aspects of the king, each
containing a statue of him that was used as a focus
for offerings.
84 | THE OLD KINGDOM

Music and dance

Funerals and festivities

One of the liveliest themes depicted in the wall have been found in hieroglyphic texts in tombs. Not
paintings of ancient Egyptian tombs throughout surprisingly, given the context, a common theme of
all periods was music and dance. Sometimes music these songs is the brevity of life.
was connected with religious rituals, and dances with A wide variety of musical instruments is shown
important ceremonies such as funerals, but they were in tomb scenes, and some actual instruments have
often simply portrayed as a form of entertainment. been found in burials. The Egyptians used percussion,
stringed instruments, and wind instruments. At its
Music simplest, percussion took the form of clapping and
Singing was the most common form of music making using simple instruments called clappers, often made
in Egypt. Some women were called “singers,” but they of bone or ivory. Drums did not appear in tomb
were usually priestesses who sang hymns to worship a paintings until the Middle Kingdom.
particular god or goddess in a temple as part of a The most common stringed instrument throughout
religious ceremony. Although no one knows what all periods of ancient Egyptian history was the harp.
ancient Egyptian music actually sounded like, the Lyres and lutes were first introduced during the New
words of some of the songs that were sung by harpists Kingdom and were usually played by women. Wind

△ A lady shakes her sistrum △ Lute player and young dancer △ A harpist entertains Inherkau
The sistrum was a rattle usually made of In the New Kingdom, there was an increasing number This scene from the tomb of Inkerkau at
bronze and often incorporating the face of of images of professional musicians and dancers who Deir el-Medina shows a harpist playing
the goddess Hathor. Its ancient name, entertained clients on festive occasions. This scene for the tomb owner and his family. Harpists
sesheshet, suggests the sound that it made. shows a woman playing a lute. She is accompanied by were often depicted as male and blind, and
Associated with religious ceremonies, it was a young dancing girl, who may have been an apprentice shown kneeling on the ground to play
considered suitable for upper-class women. with this particular troupe. a harp to accompany their songs.
 | 85

“Follow your … happiness, do the things

on Earth which your heart commands.”
HARPER’S SONG FROM THE MIDDLE KINGDOM

instruments were made from hollow reeds and came People also danced to entertain, however, and there
in various forms. Although the trumpets found in is evidence for this from early on, as seen in the
the tomb of Tutankhamen were made of silver and “pygmy of the god’s dances” brought back from
bronze, most military trumpets were made of reeds. Nubia as a gift for the king in the Old Kingdom tomb
of Harkhuf (see pp.86–87). By the New Kingdom,
Dance dancing as a form of entertainment seemed to involve
Wall paintings from private tombs suggest that mixed groups of musicians and scantily clad dancing
dancing also took place in two quite contrasting girls performing at upper-class banquets.
settings. Like music, dancing often formed an integral Upper-class Egyptians did not seem to dance for
part of religious ceremonies, and groups of dancers— pleasure. However, as all that is known about Egyptian △ Shoulder harp
always of the same sex—performed ritual dances, dancing is based on the formalized depictions on the This arched harp, with its
especially at funerals. These were closely associated walls of elite private tombs, it may be that there is individually pegged strings
and large sound box, is a
with local traditions, and the best known groups were simply no record of any tradition of the informal real-life example of the type
the male mww dancers who took part in funerals at dancing that took place in villages—especially at times of harp often depicted in
Thebes during the New Kingdom. of celebration, such as harvests or childbirth. tomb scenes.

△ New Kingdom instruments △ Dancers in the tomb of Antefoker △ Dancers at a banquet

Pictures of musicians in the New Kingdom This rather stylized painting of a group of female dancers In this famous scene of a banquet from the
showed an increasing range of musical and priestesses comes from a Middle Kingdom private New Kingdom tomb of a wealthy official named
instruments. The woman above is playing tomb at Thebes. It is fairly typical of many images of Nebamun, these dancing girls are shown
a long double pipe made from two reeds. dancers that predate the New Kingdom, as they were moving sinuously in a dance that is clearly
A stringed instrument known as a “thin usually associated with religious ceremonies and rituals, meant to be erotic. Tomb scenes tended to
lyre” is also visible on the right. such as funerals. present an idealized vision of life.
 86 | THE OLD KINGDOM

Southern expeditions
Egypt in Nubia during the Old Kingdom

Set on an island at the First Cataract of the Nile, the town of Elephantine was
on ancient Egypt’s southern border. It was also the starting point for trading
and other expeditions into Nubia.

Red During the Old Kingdom, the island of Elephantine A great deal is known about the activities of these
Sea
Elephantine was important both strategically, as Egypt’s border high officials from the autobiographies inscribed on
(Aswan) First Cataract
with Nubia, and economically, as a transfer point for the walls of the impressive tombs carved out of the
cargo being shipped along the Nile. Formed of the rock. These tombs lie on the west bank of the Nile,
N granite boulders that make up the First Cataract of the overlooking Elephantine at a site that is now known
WAWAT Nile, it remained Egypt’s southern border throughout as Qubbet el-Hawa. The main theme of these
Buhen
the Dynastic Period. Given its strategic position, it autobiographies is the extent of royal favors granted
Second
Cataract 0 150 km had a special status and is one of the few places in to the tomb owners as reward for their impressive
IRTJET
0 150 miles
Egypt where settlements can be traced from the Early deeds, especially in Nubia. The reports of these
Third Cataract Dynastic Period to the Greco-Roman Period. Today, activities provide a detailed account of Egypt’s
R i v er
SETJU it is part of the southern city of Aswan. relations with Nubia during the Old Kingdom,
Ni
le

Fourth
Cataract
especially in its later years.
Fifth Cataract
Tomb autobiographies
YAM
At a time when political and economic power was Harkhuf
concentrated in and around the city of Memphis, Historically, the most important autobiography is that
△ Harkhuf’s journeys Elephantine was unusual because it was the base of of an official named Harkhuf. The inscription reveals
No one knows exactly where a series of high officials who had important royal that Harkhuf enjoyed many titles, some of which
the regions Harkhuf visited duties. Not only was Elephantine on a border that suggest that he oversaw southern Egypt for Kings
are, but they were a long
way to the south of Egypt’s
had to be fiercely guarded, but it was also the starting Merenre and Pepi II. He also led four expeditions into
frontier at Elephantine. This point for trading expeditions southward along the Nubia, visiting the regions of Wawat, Setju, and Irtjet.
map shows where some of Nile into Nubia and beyond. The ancient name for It is difficult to specify exactly where these regions
these regions may have been. Elephantine, Abu, is related to the Egyptian word for were, and scholars debate how far into Lower or
elephant, possibly signifying the value of the ivory Upper Nubia Harkhuf traveled. He did, however,
trade between Nubia and Egypt. report one ominous development. During Harkhuf’s

▽ Qubbet el-Hawa
Standing high above the Nile, the Old and Middle
Kingdom tombs cut out of the rock at Qubbet
el-Hawa overlook the island town of Elephantine.
Long causeways lead from the river to the tombs.

Terraces of Old and

Middle Kingdom tombs
 SOUTHERN EXPEDITIONS | 87

▷ Harkhuf’s titles
In his tomb inscription,
Harkhuf is introduced by
many titles: The Count, Sole
Companion, Lector-Priest,
Chamberlain, Warden of
Nekhen, Major of Nekheb,
Royal Seal Bearer, Chief of
Scouts, Royal Councilor
of all the affairs of Upper
Egypt, and the favorite of
his, Lord Harkhuf.

first expedition, Wawat, Setju, and Irtjet were each continued north to Memphis, where the king praised
governed by a different Nubian leader, but by the time him for his heroic actions and for the goods that he
of his last expedition, the three regions had united had brought back from Nubia.
under a single ruler. This unification of Nubia The most famous of the tomb owners buried at
signified potential trouble on Egypt’s southern border. Elephantine was Pepinakht, also known as Hekaib.
Harkhuf’s autobiography also includes the text of He was held in such high regard that he was later
a letter that he received from Pepi II, in which the venerated as a sort of local saint during the Middle
young king expressed delight at one of the things that Kingdom, and shrines were erected in his honor
Harkhuf had brought back for him—a “pygmy of the at Elephantine. Pepinakht considered the Nubians
god’s dances from the land of the horizon dwellers.” a threat to Egypt, and he was happy to reduce their
numbers. The autobiography on his tomb recounts
Sabni and Pepinakht that the king “sent me to devastate the land of Wawat
The dangers of these expeditions are stressed on and Irtjet. I did what pleases my Lord and killed a
the tomb that Sabni shared with his father, Mekhu. great many there.”
Sabni’s autobiography describes how he set off on The collapse of the Old Kingdom brought Egypt’s
an expedition (served by 100 donkeys) to bring dominance of Nubia to a temporary halt, and in the
back the body of his father, who had died in Nubia. Middle Kingdom, a different relationship developed
Sabni buried his father at Qubbet el-Hawa and then between Egypt and its southern neighbor.

“I returned with 300 donkeys loaded

△ Pygmy toy
Dancing dwarves and
ivory were two of the most
with incense, ebony, panther-skins,
desirable products to be
brought back to Egypt
elephant tusks …”
from Nubia. Here, they are
combined in a single toy. AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF HARKHUF
88 | THE OLD KINGDOM

End of the Old Kingdom

The collapse of the Pyramid Age

One of the puzzles of ancient Egypt is why the Old Kingdom came to an end.
There are many different theories that might explain why central royal authority
collapsed in Egypt at the end of the 6th Dynasty.

There was probably no single reason for the ◁ Teti’s sistrum

collapse of the Old Kingdom. It was probably A sistrum was a rattle used in religious
ceremonies. This alabaster example has an
the result of a combination of related factors
inscription that describes Teti as “Beloved
that began to emerge during the 5th and 6th of the goddess Hathor, Lady of Dendera.”
Dynasties. One way to measure the extent of
royal power in the Old Kingdom is to look
at the size of the pyramids. Many scholars Local rulers
maintain that the larger the pyramid, the However, the 6th Dynasty kings also made
richer the state and, more importantly, the substantial donations to temples in different
greater the king’s control over state resources. parts of Egypt away from the capital,
including those at Bubastis, Abydos,
Pyramids and power Dendera, and Elephantine. These
Looked at it in this way, the kings of the early 4th towns were the homes of local
Dynasty would have been the most powerful kings officials who were becoming
of the Old Kingdom. The pyramids of the 5th and increasingly influential, and
6th Dynasties were certainly smaller than those this weakened the power of
of the 4th Dynasty, but they do not show a the king. Pepi I, for instance,
constant pattern of decline. On average, the married two sisters, both of
6th Dynasty pyramids were no smaller than them named Ankhnesmeryra,
those of the 5th Dynasty, and the regularity whose father, Khui, was an
of their sizes (the pyramids of Teti, Pepi I, important official at Abydos.
Merenre, and Pepi II were all planned to be The increasing power of
172 ft/52.5 m high) suggests consistency rather these local officials, who went
than decline. Also, the kings were paying on to become regional rulers,
more attention at the time to other parts was a contributing factor in the
of the pyramid complex apart from just collapse of both the Old Kingdom
the pyramid itself (see pp.82–83). and the First Intermediate Period
that followed it. This might,
however, have been the result
◁ Ankhnesmeryre and Pepi II rather than the cause of the collapse
This alabaster statuette shows
Queen Ankhnesmeryre holding her
of the kings’ authority, as local
son, Pepi II, who became king at “rulers” stepped in to fill the gap
the age of 6. created by weak leadership.

Pepi I Pepi II
2323 bce 2278 bce
6TH DYNASTY

Teti Merenre
2345 bce 2321 bce
 END OF THE OLD KINGDOM | 89

CLIMATE CHANGE

Drought was a major problem

during the Late Old Kingdom.
Rainfall was declining, and it was
becoming drier. As a result, the
water levels of the River Nile
dropped, reducing how much
food people could grow. Also, the
nearby savannah lands, which
had been used by seminomadic
people for grazing, gradually turned
into a desert. The nomads were then
forced into the Nile Valley and
Delta, where food was already
scarce. These starving nomadic
groups are depicted on the walls
of Unas’s pyramid complex.

RELIEF CARVING DEPICTING

A STARVING NOMAD

The statue was made in

different sections that
were bolted together
“Neferkare (Pepi II) is
established and living.”
INSCRIPTION ON THE LAST OLD KINGDOM PYRAMID

The last king of the 6th Dynasty, Pepi II, reigned

for a very long time—possibly 94 years. This
might have led to instability, because by the
time he was laid to rest in his pyramid, his
sons and heirs had already died, and it may
not have been clear who the next king was.
Pepi II might have been followed by the
short-lived female ruler later known as
Nitocris, an unusual king for unusual times.

Period of chaos
The Egyptian historian Manetho describes the
7th Dynasty as “70 kings in 70 days,” which is
another way of saying a period of chaos. The
8th Dynasty seems to have consisted of kings
who were based in Memphis. They had very
little power in Egypt beyond the capital and,
possibly, parts of the Delta.

◁ Royal copper statue

Most metal statues from ancient Egypt
were melted down, and the metal was
reused. This rare surviving example from
the reign of Pepi I (or possibly his son,
Merenre) suggests, however, that copper
was still being imported from the Sinai
mines during the 6th Dynasty.
90 | THE OLD KINGDOM

First Intermediate Period

A time of chaos

The collapse of royal authority at the end of the Old Kingdom created a crisis
for Egypt. After more than 800 years as a strong, centralized state focused on
royal rule, Egypt faced an unprecedented future without a king.

In later times, the First Intermediate ◁ Stela of Djemi

Period was regarded as an era of great In his tomb autobiography, a local ruler
called Djemi, the “Troop Commander and
calamity. With no king on the throne,
Overseer of Mercenaries,” claimed to have
the established order was turned on its successfully campaigned in Upper Egypt
head, and chaos reigned. Wealthy people and Lower Nubia.
were left poor and homeless; foreigners
flooded into Egypt, bringing their cattle
to graze on Egyptian land; and the royal the provinces. These tombs must have
cemeteries were ransacked. been built close to the capitals of the
However, much of our information nomes, where the local rulers lived, but
about the chaotic nature of the First almost every trace of these towns and
Intermediate Period comes from much cities built in the floodplain of the Nile
later sources, and in particular from has now vanished. The large, elaborate,
educational texts aimed partly at drilling into and highly decorated tombs built for the elite (the
students that an Egypt without a king was an local rulers) are especially noticeable in Middle and
Egypt without order or stability. In fact, the Upper Egypt, where they were cut into the rock face
situation was far more complicated than that. of the cliffs overlooking the Nile Valley.
An analysis of grave goods from this period Building local tombs continued well into the
suggests that away from the capital, Memphis, Middle Kingdom, a visible indication that regional
most people were just as wealthy as they had independence was not completely crushed at the
been during the Old Kingdom. end of the First Intermediate Period. Stone stelae
celebrating the lives of the deceased also started
Tombs for local rulers to appear in cemeteries, continuing the tradition of
Nevertheless, the collapse of centralized royal autobiographies on tombs that had begun during the
authority at the end of the Old Kingdom meant Old Kingdom (see pp.92–93). Local officials wrote
that the regions were now left to fend for on these stelae, describing all the good things that
themselves. In fact, the transition to local rule they had done for their local region, such as feeding
seems to have begun in the 6th Dynasty, when the hungry and clothing the naked—tasks that had
the control of Egypt’s regions, or nomes, previously been the king’s responsibility.
transferred to local rulers, who passed on power
from father to son with little royal interference. One
of the most obvious effects of this transition was the “Men will take up
emergence of regional cemeteries of elite tombs in
weapons of war
◁ Statue of Nakhti
During the First Intermediate Period, the city of
and the land will
Asyut became an ally of the Herakleopolitans. Its
rulers were buried in tombs containing the finest
live in turmoil.”
artifacts, such as this statue belonging to Nakhti,
the “Overseer of the Seal.” FROM THE PROPHECY OF NEFERTI
 | 91

△ Archers’ stela
Soldiers began to appear
A Nubian archer and an on stelae in southern Egypt,
Egyptian greet each other indicating the militarized
with a gesture of friendship nature of society in the
First Intermediate Period.
The 9th and 10th Dynasties were the rulers at Asyut, a city in a strategic position Many Nubian mercenaries,
including archers, were
It was only a matter of time before local rulers tried on a bend of the Nile. Its ideal position meant that the enlisted by southern
to extend their influence beyond their own nomes Herakleopolitans could easily fend off any competition warlords and were buried
and to compete with each other for a greater share from southern Egypt. in expensive tombs.
of Egypt. The earliest successful attempt at carrying
out such a power grab was made by the family of the
nomarchs based at Herakleopolis Magna, a city in a
strategic position to the south of Memphis.
The Herakleopolitan rulers, who began to refer to ◁ Scene of butchery
Regional tombs in the First
themselves as kings, seem to have taken control of Intermediate Period were
much of the Nile Valley and possibly the Delta, too. often decorated in a manner
Although they failed to unify the whole of Egypt based on that of the elite
under their control, they were influential enough mastabas of the Old
to later appear as kings in king lists and to form Kingdom. This scene of
butchery from the tomb
Manetho’s 9th and 10th Dynasties. Other powerful of Iti, at Gebelein, revives a
regional families either allied themselves with them common Old Kingdom motif
or became their vassals. The most important of these in a simple, naive style.
92 |

▷ Relief of Ankhtify
This image of Ankhtify from
the entrance of his tomb
chapel shows him as a
conventional upper-class
Egyptian of the Old Kingdom.
It contrasts with the
exceptional role he gives
himself in his biography.
At some point, the face
was vandalized, possibly by
Ankhtify’s victorious and
vengeful Theban enemies.

Long staff

Short scepter is a
traditional emblem
of authority

Traditional Old
Kingdom kilt
 ANKHTIFY AND THE INTEFS | 93

Ankhtify and the Intefs

Warlords in the south

While the Herakleopolitans and their allies were in control of northern Egypt,
there was a struggle for the leadership of the south between Ankhtify of
Moalla, a remarkable local ruler, and his enemies, the Thebans.

The tomb of Ankhtify in southern Egypt is a unique transporting food to some parts of Egypt
monument. Other rock-cut tombs were built in the during the early First Intermediate Period,
provinces during the First Intermediate Period, but and this led to famine.
Ankhtify’s tomb has multiple parts and was set on the
side of a hill that looks like a natural pyramid. The rise of Thebes △ Stela of Intef II
Ankhtify was not a king but a nomarch—one of There is no suggestion in the text on Ankhtify’s tomb This stela of Wahankh
Intef II of Thebes features
several influential local rulers who competed for that he was ever defeated in battle, but it is telling that
two hymns—one to the
power after the collapse of the Old Kingdom. Based he never mentions a final victory over the Thebans and god Ra and one to the
in the town of Hefat, in the third Upper Egyptian their Coptite allies. Nor is there any evidence that he goddess Hathor. Intef’s
nome, Ankhtify gradually extended his rule to the founded a local dynasty that survived after his death. name is written in a
south, over the first and second nomes. He also had Recent excavations suggest that his tomb was pillaged cartouche, which was
a royal privilege.
ambitions to push northward, which brought him soon after he was buried, possibly by victorious Thebans
into conflict with the local rulers of the Theban and eager to desecrate the tomb of a hated enemy.
Coptite nomes. It was the Thebans who ultimately gained control of
the south of Egypt and went on to compete with the
Competing warlords Herakleopolitans for the throne of a reunited Egypt.
Traditionally, the autobiographies written on tombs Their leaders, a family called Intef, or Montuhotep,
recounted the favors of the king enjoyed by the tomb were later known as the 11th Dynasty.
owner, but as there was no king during this period,
people wrote about their own achievements instead.
Ankhtify went further. In the text that covers the
pillars of his offering chapel, he describes how he was
summoned by the god Horus to take command of his ◁ Ankhtify’s tale
region of Egypt. The pillars of the offering
Although he did not claim to be a king, Ankhtify chapel of Ankhtify’s tomb
made himself sound royal, saying that he fed the are carved with Ankhtify’s
hungry and that none of the people he ruled were extensive autobiography.
The text is a key source of
short on food. In fact, he claimed that people had information about events in
begun to eat their children. This was probably an southern Egypt during the
exaggeration, but there was certainly a problem First Intermediate Period.

Herakleopolitan kings,
including Khety I–III and
the final king, Merikare Intef I Intef III Montuhotep III
2160–2025 bce 2125–2112 bce 2063–2055 bce 2004–1992 bce

Montuhotep I Intef II Montuhotep II Montuhotep IV

before 2125 2112–2063 bce 2055–2004 bce 1992–1985 bce
94 | THE OLD KINGDOM

Montuhotep II
Egypt reunited

The military successes of the Thebans against their Herakleopolitan enemies

paved the way for the political integration of Egypt as a unified state under a
single king. That king was Nebhepetre Montuhotep II.

Evidence suggests that a victory over Ankhtify gave Reuniting Egypt

the Thebans control of the southern nomes of Egypt, After his victory, Montuhotep reviewed the leaders
but the Herakleopolitans (see pp.92–93) challenged of the Egyptian nomes. Rulers who had opposed him,
their rule. For several generations, but especially such as the nomarch of Asyut, were removed from
during the reigns of Intefs I–III, military conflict power, whereas those who had supported him, or △ Royal regalia
flared up between these two powers, mainly for who had at least remained neutral, stayed in their This relief carving from Deir
el-Bahri shows Montuhotep
control of the stretch of the Nile between Abydos and hereditary posts. For this reason, cities such as Beni
in the regalia of a king,
Asyut. Although the details of the conflict are unclear, Hasan and Hermopolis Magna in Middle Egypt including the white crown
both the Thebans and the Herakleopolitans seem to were able to maintain stable local government of Upper Egypt, the false
have regarded themselves as the legitimate kings of throughout the First Intermediate Period and well beard, and the uraeus
Egypt and conferred themselves with royal titles. into the Middle Kingdom. (royal cobra) on his brow.
To emphasize that he was now in control of the
Man of destiny whole of Egypt, Montuhotep initiated an ambitious
The most important member of the Theban 11th building program that included constructing several
Dynasty was Nebhepetre Montuhotep II. For the new temples. Most of these were later demolished to
first 14 years of his 50-year reign, he ruled over make room for larger buildings, but their remains
the territories in the south of Egypt, which he show that he built temples at some of the
had inherited from his father, Intef III. The rest principal sites in Upper Egypt, including
of his reign was spent locked in an intermittent Elephantine, Dendera, and Abydos.
war with the Herakleopolitans. The two main
events of this war were the Theban’s capture of The rise of Thebes
Asyut (the strongest of the enemy allies) and Montuhotep II continued to rule from Thebes
the death of the last major Herakleopolitan after the reunification of Egypt. He based his
king, Merikare. national government there and showed no
A remarkable piece of evidence for this interest in reinstating the region around
conflict is the Tomb of the Warriors, Memphis either for the royal court or for
which was built close to Montuhotep’s royal burials. Instead, he concentrated his
tomb at Thebes. This mass grave contains efforts on transforming Thebes into a
the bodies of 60 soldiers who appear to suitably impressive capital city.
have died fighting the Herakleopolitans. The local patron god of the Thebans
In honor of their loyalty, they were buried was Amen, who was primarily worshipped
close to their king. at Karnak, in the northern part of Thebes.
Under the Intefs and Montuhotep I, Karnak ▷ Grand design
had grown as a place of worship The temple-tomb of
▷ Royal statue because Amen was now an Montuhotep II at Deir
Montuhotep II’s temple-tomb important state god thanks to el-Bahri represented a return
contained a life-size statue of the royal patronage. Thebes also to royal monument building
king associating him with the god after a century of political
Osiris. He is shown dressed in a
had more grand monuments, crisis. It is radically
white jubilee robe and wearing being the site of the grand innovative yet shows a
the red crown of Lower Egypt. tombs of the 11th Dynasty respect for tradition.
 MONTUHOTEP II | 95

“Respect the nobles,

support your people,
fortify your borders.”
ROYAL ADVICE FROM THE INSTRUCTION FOR MERIKARE

rulers. These tombs were built on the west side of the

Nile, to mirror the Temple of Karnak on the east side
of the river.
Like his Intef ancestors, Montuhotep II was buried
at Thebes, but he was the king of all Egypt, so his △ Expansion abroad
tomb had to reflect his importance. His architects As well as unifying Egypt, Montuhotep began to extend the
boundaries of his kingdom, both to the south and east. This
therefore designed a unique temple-tomb in the desert relief from his tomb seems to show Asiatic enemies being slain.
bay of Deir el-Bahri, close to the Theban mountain.

Possible Both the choice of site and the prominence given

▷ The temple-tomb pyramidal
This reconstruction is based
to Amen in the decoration reflected Montuhotep’s
superstructure
on the surviving evidence Theban roots. The addition of a pyramid-shaped
of the architecture of structure on top of the main building may also
Montuhotep II’s have paid tribute to an earlier royal tradition.
temple-tomb. Montuhotep II reigned for half a century, but
his two successors did not live for long. When
Montuhotep IV died, the throne passed to a
new family, the 12th Dynasty, which focused
on aggressively extending Egypt’s borders.
 ◁ Faience collar of Wah
This broad collar is made
from glazed faience beads,
a popular choice for jewelry
during all periods. It belonged
to the estate manager Wah,
who was buried at Thebes in
the 12th Dynasty.

The Middle
Kingdom
c.2055–1550 bce
98 | THE MIDDLE KINGDOM

The Middle Kingdom

The First Intermediate Period came to an end when the Theban 4th Dynasty, although they did bear comparison to those of
forces of Montuhotep II defeated the Herakleopolitans and the 5th and 6th Dynasties. Most of these pyramids were built
reunified Egypt. This began a new period of Egyptian history, farther south than those of the Old Kingdom, at sites such as
known as the Middle Kingdom, which was both similar to and Lisht (which was close to the new capital of Itj-Tawy) or at
different from the Old Kingdom. The most obvious similarity Kahun and Hawara, near the mouth of the Faiyum.
was royal authority and some of the ways in which the kings Another difference in the Middle Kingdom pyramids was
expressed it. One of the differences was that a considerable that few of them had extensive cemeteries for court officials
amount of political power now lay in the provinces, as a legacy built next to them, as in the Old Kingdom. Nonroyal elite
of the First Intermediate Period. Another difference was that tombs tended to be built in the provinces instead, near the
the kings of the Middle Kingdom took far more interest in the regional administrative centers of local officials. The best
world beyond Egypt’s borders. tombs were dug into the faces of cliffs high above the Nile
Valley. These were located at sites such as Beni Hasan,
The primacy of Thebes el-Bersheh, and Asyut, where regional governors were
As the rulers of the 11th Dynasty were based at Thebes, it is more important than they had been in the Old Kingdom.
not surprising that after the unification they built most of
their monuments in their own city. The main beneficiary Nubia and the Hyksos
of this was the god Amen, who had a temple During the Middle Kingdom, the Egyptians began to build
at Karnak, but other Theban gods, such as an empire that conquered and held large amounts of territory.
Montu, were also given new temples. Building A series of invasions, followed by the construction of an
temples at Thebes was continued by the kings impressive series of fortresses, brought Lower Nubia under
of the 12th and 13th Dynasties. direct Egyptian control. This had the double advantage of
giving the Egyptians access to the trade routes farther south
Pyramids and provincial tombs and of partly neutralizing any threat that the Nubians might
The ultimate expression of royal power in pose. However, at the end of the Middle Kingdom, the threat
the Old Kingdom was the pyramid. Middle to Egypt did not come from the south, but from the east. At
Kingdom kings wished to follow this example, the close of the 12th Dynasty, a dynasty of Canaanites, the
and every ruler with the resources to do so built Hyksos, established themselves in the eastern Delta, from
a pyramid. However, even the largest of their where they extended their rule into Middle Egypt. The
pyramids did not come close in size or Thebans in the south stood alone once again, but this time
sophistication to the greatest pyramids of the against an enemy that threatened the survival of Egypt itself.

◁ Model of a
servant girl
1985 bce Amenemhat I 1870 bce Senwosret III
becomes the first king becomes king. Fortresses
of the 12th Dynasty built in Nubia

2055 bce Montuhotep II 2004 bce Death of 1877 bce Senwosret II 1831 bce Amenemhat III
becomes king at Thebes Montuhotep II becomes king. becomes king and starts
and reunifies Egypt Foundation of Kahun building two pyramids
 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM | 99

Mediterranean Sea

Nile Delta
Busiris Tell ed-Daba

LOWER Bubastis
EGYPT
Heliopolis
Memphis
Dahshur 1
Faiyum Lisht

Medinet Maadi Hawara

Gu
Kahun
Heraklepolis Magna

lf o
Serabit
3 el-Khadim

fS
Eastern

ue
1 Pyramid of Amenemhat III, Dahshur

z
Bahriya Desert
Oasis
2 Beni Hasan
Hermopolis Magna el-Bersheh

Western Meir
Desert Asyut
Farafra Rifeh
Oasis Red Sea
Qau el-Kebir
Arabian
Ri
ve

UPPER Desert
rN

EGYPT
ile

Abydos
Dakhla
Oasis
Thebes Medamud
Tod
Kharga
Oasis

The Middle Kingdom 2 Nomarchs’ tombs, Beni Hasan

The key sites of the
Middle Kingdom are Elephantine
Qubbet el-Hawa
located in four areas: (Aswan)
First Cataract
royal pyramids around
the mouth of the
Faiyum; nomarchs’
tombs in Middle Egypt;
and Abydos and Thebes
in the south.

0 100 km

0 100 miles Buhen

Semna
Second Cataract
3 Stela Temple, Serabit el-Khadim

1750 bce The 13th 1580 bce The 17th

1777 bce Sobekneferu Dynasty kings Dynasty established
becomes king active at Abydos at Thebes

1773 bce End of 1650 bce Hyksos rulers take 1555 bce Kamose
the 12th Dynasty over the eastern Delta becomes king at Thebes
100 | THE MIDDLE KINGDOM

Kings of the 12th Dynasty

Egypt’s classical age

The Middle Kingdom includes the later part of the The 12th Dynasty was one of the most successful
11th Dynasty and some of the 13th Dynasty before ruling families in Egyptian history. Not only did it hold
it merged into the Second Intermediate Period. At its on to the throne for generations, but it also reigned at
core were the two centuries during which Egypt was a time when Egypt flourished in many ways.
ruled by the family known as the 12th Dynasty.
It is not known how or why the 12th Dynasty A stable dynasty
succeeded the 11th. Perhaps Montuhotep IV (the last The stability of the 12th Dynasty was partly due to
11th Dynasty king) had no obvious successor and the long reigns of the individual kings—apart from
Amenemhat I, who may have been a high-ranking Senwosret II, they all ruled for three decades or more
Theban court official, stepped in to fill the gap. It until the end of the dynasty. The succession of the
was certainly a period of instability: there is evidence throne from father to son was also more or less
to suggest that Amenemhat I himself was later guaranteed by a practice known as co-regency, in
assassinated as part of a coup at court, but even if which the king appointed his successor to rule
this were the case, the throne passed safely to alongside him as a junior partner. This meant that
Amenemhat’s son, Senwosret I. when the king died, his heir was already in place.

△ Amenemhat I △ Senwosret I △ Senwosret III

1985–1956 bce 1956–1911 bce 1870–1831 bce
The first king of the 12th Dynasty, The son of Amenemhat I, Senwosret I followed his Possibly the most powerful king of the 12th
Amenemhat I was possibly the Vizier father’s example by building a pyramid at Lisht. He Dynasty, Senwosret III reigned for nearly
Amenemhat of the 11th Dynasty. He was a prolific builder, especially at Thebes. He was 40 years. He built some of Egypt’s greatest
made Itj-Tawy the center of government also a warrior and pushed southward to begin creating monuments and established an Egyptian
and revived the art of pyramid building. an Egyptian empire in Nubia. empire (see pp.110–111).
 KINGS OF THE 12TH DYNASTY | 101

“A king shall come from the south,

Ameny, the justified, by name.”
FROM THE PROPHECY OF NEFERTI

A new capital kings pursued aggressive policies against their

Amenemhat I abandoned Thebes as the capital of neighbors, especially Nubia, which set the scene for
Egypt and chose a new site close to the junction large-scale martial activity in the New Kingdom. The
between the Valley and the Delta, but not at Memphis. building projects of the 12th Dynasty kings were far
The new capital was at a place called Amenemhat-Itj- more extensive than those of the Old Kingdom, and
Tawy, which means “Amenemhat seizes the Two local officials continued to build impressive tombs for
Lands.” The exact location of Itj-Tawy, as it is usually themselves in the provinces.
called, is not known, but it was probably somewhere The 12th Dynasty was not just a period of political
close to Lisht, where both Amenemhat I and transition, but also a time of cultural change. Some
Senwosret I were buried, reviving the custom of Old Kingdom traditions were revived, such as
burying kings in the north. building pyramids, but literature also flourished.
The new capital was not a great city, like Memphis Up until then, writing had been used mainly for
or Thebes, but a relatively small and possibly fortified accounts, keeping records, and inscriptions on tombs.
royal residence that was used mainly for government Now, however, people began to write imaginative
purposes and little else. From there, the 12th Dynasty works of fiction, such as The Story of Sinuhe.

△ Amenemhat III △ Amenemhat IV △ Sobekneferu

1831–1786 bce 1786–1777 bce 1777–1773 bce
The son of Senwosret III, Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV only reigned for around nine years. He Sobekneferu’s short reign, the last of the 12th
continued his father’s policies. Like sent expeditions into Sinai, Upper Egypt, and the Land Dynasty, was followed by a time of instability
Senwosret II, he developed the area of Punt, looking for minerals and precious stones. When in the land. Women rarely ruled ancient Egypt,
around the Faiyum Oasis and sent he died, the throne passed to Sobekneferu, who was and usually only did so when a king died
expeditions to the mines of Sinai. probably his sister-wife. without leaving an heir.
Royal building projects
△ The Black Pyramid
This shows the cheaper
type of pyramid built in the
Middle Kingdom. Erected by
Amenemhat III at Dahshur,

The return of the pyramid its mud-brick interior was

exposed when the stone
casing was removed.

During the Middle Kingdom, the kings of Egypt had two main architectural
ambitions—to resume building pyramids as royal tombs and to erect and
restore temples throughout the land.

Wishing to emulate their Old Kingdom predecessors, Amenemhat II, Senwosret III, and Amenemhat III
the 12th Dynasty kings built tombs in the shape of (see pp.62–63). Nearby, at Mazghuna, two pyramids
pyramids, but these Middle Kingdom pyramids were now in ruins may have been built by Amenemhat IV
different from those that came before them in several and Sobekneferu. Senwosret II favored sites near the
ways. They were often built more cheaply, and the mouth of the Faiyum, with his pyramid at Kahun, while
interiors were filled with rubble or mud brick instead Amenemhat III built a second pyramid at Hawara.
of blocks of stone. This might explain why most of
them are in such poor condition today. Temples in the provinces
The first 12th Dynasty pyramids were built at Lisht, The kings of the Middle Kingdom found Egypt full
close to the new capital, Itj-Tawy, for Amenemhat I of temples made of mud brick and left them standing
and Senwosret I. Both of these kings used simplified with some stone additions. They did this partly to
versions of the 6th Dynasty pyramid complexes, such restore damage caused during the First Intermediate
as that of Pepi II, as their model. Some of the later Period, but also to put their royal stamp on buildings
pyramids were built in the region around Memphis, that had, up until then, been made entirely from local
notably at Dahshur, where the two Old Kingdom materials by local people. The kings made generous
pyramids built by Snefru were joined by those of donations of stone elements to these local places of
 ROYAL BUILDING PROJECTS | 103

worship—a limestone gateway, an obelisk, or maybe SENWOSRET II’S PYRAMID COMPLEX

even an entire stone temple—but these gifts were
certain to show the god being worshipped by the Queen’s
pyramid
king and by him alone. They benefited him by
strengthening and publicly demonstrating his
personal connection with the god.
In some areas, especially the Faiyum, well-preserved
Middle Kingdom temples have survived to this day, Entrance
but most of them were wholly or partly destroyed shaft Burial
chamber
by work on later buildings. At Medamud, north of “Well”
Thebes, for instance, a temple built by Senwosret I
(itself on top of an earlier Old Kingdom building)
The pyramids of the 12th Dynasty kings are, with few exceptions, unimpressive when
has more or less disappeared beneath the New compared to those of the Old Kingdom, both in size and the quality of materials used.
Kingdom and Greco-Roman temples that were The interiors of the pyramids of Senwosret II and Amenemhat III, however, are remarkably
later built on the same spot. complex due to concern about the security of the royal burial chamber. Senwosret II’s
pyramid at Kahun was especially confusing for robbers looking for an entrance—instead
Similarly, at Hermopolis Magna, in Middle Egypt, of being on the side of the pyramid, it was accessed via a vertical shaft to the south of the
a single monumental gateway is all that remains of a pyramid. This branched into a complicated set of corridors and chambers (including a
“well,” the bottom of which has never been reached), which finally led to the burial
temple precinct built by Amenemhat II—it was later chamber itself.
filled with temples built by successive generations of
kings from the New Kingdom onward.
Amen was just as important to the New Kingdom
Heliopolis and Thebes kings, and yet many of the buildings constructed
The Middle Kingdom kings also built temples at the during the Middle Kingdom were later swept away
most important royal centers, such as Heliopolis, one or destroyed by the vast construction projects of
of the major temple sites of the Old Kingdom. Here, the 18th Dynasty. The best-known example of this
Senwosret I built a grand temple for the god Atum, was the so-called White Chapel of Senwosret I at
the partner of the god Ra. All that is left of this Karnak, which was built as part of a festival complex
important building today is a single granite obelisk. to commemorate the jubilee celebrating the 30th ▽ The White Chapel
The place that seems to have attracted the most year of his reign. The elegant White Chapel
attention in terms of building during the Middle The White Chapel was later demolished, and the stone of Senwosret I at Karnak is
Kingdom was Thebes, where the precinct of the was used as rubble fill for a pylon of Amenhotep III. a rare survival of what must
have been an impressive
god Amen (a minor, obscure god during the Old Fortunately, modern archaeologists recovered its set of buildings created
Kingdom) was expanded when Amen became the remains and were able to reconstruct the entire for Amen during the reign
divine patron of the Middle Kingdom kings. building (see below). of Senwosret I.

SENWOSRET I EMBRACES
THE GOD AMEN
104 | THE MIDDLE KINGDOM

Provincial cemeteries
Local tombs for local officials

Some of the most impressive buildings to have survived from the Middle
Kingdom are the large, well-decorated tombs of local dynasties of regional
officials, hewn out of the cliffs overlooking the Nile Valley.

In the Middle Kingdom, there were but it was sufficient for the nomarchs to continue
essentially four types of cemetery. this tradition and to build several important
The most lavish were the royal provincial cemeteries.
tombs—pyramids—and the court
cemeteries associated with them. The Grand monuments
least lavish were those of the vast The elite regional tombs that have survived the best
majority of the peasant population are found on the edge of the desert, high above the
of Egypt—simple graves containing floodplain of the Nile, in places where it was possible
a few grave goods. As well as these to cut into the cliffs. In some locations, such as at
two contrasting forms of cemetery, Beni Hasan, el-Bersheh, Meir, Asyut, and Rifeh,
there were two other types of tombs several generations of local rulers excavated tombs
in the provincial cemeteries of the for themselves alongside those of their ancestors,
Middle Kingdom. creating rows of rock-cut tombs looking out over the
Nile Valley, which can be seen from far away. These
△ Tombs at Beni Hasan Nomarchs’ tombs tombs often appear to be huge caves, but many of
The nomarchs’ tombs in the During the First Intermediate Period, Egypt’s regions them have splendid entrances with pillars, carved to
cliffs at Beni Hasan have
enjoyed an autonomy that they had not known in the look like the grand doorways of the large houses that
grand, elaborate entrances.
They were designed to look highly centralized Old Kingdom, and the reunification their owners had while they were alive.
like the pillared portals of of Egypt at the beginning of the Middle
their owners’ houses. Kingdom did not put a complete end to Honoring the dead
this (see pp.94–95). Local nomarchs As in the mastabas of the Old Kingdom,
(rulers) and administrators carried the largest part of these tombs was the
on building large, elaborate tombs offering chapel. The burial chamber
for themselves, which they itself was quite modest—usually a
funded from their resources, space just big enough for a coffin, set at
thus retaining a measure of the bottom of a vertical shaft that opened
independence from the king. up either in the offering chapel itself or
This autonomy was limited, in the courtyard in front of it.

Beautifully

“He made it as his carved hand

monument … ◁ Statue of Nemtyhotep

adorning his city and This impressive quartzite statue

from the Asyut region depicts
the steward Nemtyhotep. With

perpetuating his name.” its simple, cloaked body and

finely modeled head, it is a
typical example of a Middle
KHNUMHOTEP II ON HIS TOMB AT BENI HASAN Kingdom private statue.
The walls of these tombs were covered with texts soldiers, doctors, and minor officials who could △ The tomb of
and pictures chosen to guarantee the afterlife of their afford something better than a desert grave, but Khnumhotep II
In a scene reminiscent of
owners. The range of images was very similar to that not as expensive as the rock-cut tombs built by the
Old Kingdom mastabas,
of the multiroomed mastaba tombs of the Late Old nomarchs. The best example of this type of cemetery the nomarch Khnumhotep II
Kingdom. Many of them depicted scenes of everyday is at Beni Hasan, where archaeologist John Garstang and his family are shown
life, especially of people producing food and other excavated 888 shaft tombs on the rocky slope beneath enjoying the aristocratic
goods for the tomb owner. Others showed the owner the nomarchs’ tombs from 1902 to 1904. pursuits of hunting, fishing,
and fowling on the walls of
and his family enjoying themselves out in the country, These middle-class tombs were essentially the same
his tomb at Beni Hasan.
hunting, boating, or catching birds. as the burial shafts of the elite tombs. They were cut
These Middle Kingdom tombs also had another vertically into the rock, between 6–13 ft (2–4 m) deep,
purpose, however—to celebrate a tomb owner’s and at the bottom of the shaft, one or more tiny
accomplishments by recording outstanding things that chambers were carved out to make room for a box
he had achieved during his lifetime. This was partly coffin. This was usually surrounded by a few grave
intended to win the king’s approval, as was traditional, goods, such as wooden models of the servants needed
but some of the successes were beyond the sphere of for the afterlife.
royal authority, indicating a degree of independence. Although these tombs were far more modest than
the nomarchs’ tombs in the cliffside above them, they
Middle-class cemeteries mark an important point in Egyptian social history.
The fourth type of tomb belonged to people who Up until that point, only the high elite of Egyptian
might be called the middle class, although the term society would have been able to spend so much
does not apply to ancient Egypt. These people were money building and equipping a tomb.
106 | THE MIDDLE KINGDOM

◁ Protective goddesses
Like many Late Middle
Kingdom examples,
Khnumnakht’s coffin was
protected at each end by
images of goddesses. This
emphasized the link with
Osiris, whose body was
also defended by them.

Vertical bands enlist the protection Painted doorways Large eyes make it
of various deities, especially enable the ka to possible for the ka to
those connected to Osiris leave the coffin see out of the coffin
 COFFIN OF KHNUMNAKHT | 107

The Offering Formula

ensures eternal
offerings for the ka

Coffin of Khnumnakht
“Chests of life”

One effect of the First Intermediate Period was that Egypt from this period. These coffins appealed to an
ideas about the afterlife, which had previously been ancient Egyptian middle class, who could not afford
limited to the king, became common among a much large decorated tombs and for whom the coffin
wider range of people. The belief that the ka or spirit became, in effect, a miniature tomb. The interior of
within a tomb had to be fed and housed for eternity a box coffin contained lists and images of everything
continued. Now, however, people also believed that that the deceased might need in the afterlife, and the
a person had several spiritual forms, each of which floor often depicted a map of the underworld, taken
had specific needs of its own after the body had died. from texts known as the Book of Two Ways, which
These included an afterlife beyond the tomb. The described routes through the afterlife.
kings’ expectations expressed in the Pyramid Texts But the box coffin did not just serve the idea of
(see pp.70–71) included afterlives with the sun, the an Osirian afterlife; it also helped the ka. The texts,
stars, and Osiris himself. Nonroyal Egyptians seized prayers, and spells on the exterior were therefore just
upon this idea of an afterlife with Osiris and were as concerned with offerings for the ka as they were
concerned about how to enter his kingdom and be about the afterlife with Osiris. How the coffins were
accepted there. decorated varied from region to region, but in some
parts of Egypt, the texts and images covered every
Spells and images surface of the coffin, both inside and out.
The only way to achieve the Osirian afterlife was to
own the texts, spells, and magical images needed to Joined with Osiris
take you there. The main places to display these were The body inside the box was often enclosed within a
the surfaces of rectangular wooden “box” coffins, tight-fitting inner coffin that looked like a wrapped
found in large numbers in cemeteries throughout mummy whose head was exposed. This was meant to
represent the body of Osiris, emphasizing the close
connection between the deceased person and the god.
◁ Khnumnakht’s coffin The inner coffin was turned on its side inside the box
The exact location of Khnumnakht’s tomb is
not known, but the heavily decorated style
coffin so that its face lined up with the eyes painted
of his coffin suggests that it came from one of on the outside. This enabled the ka to see out of the
the provincial cemeteries of Middle Egypt. coffin into the world beyond.
Coffin of Djehutynakht
This coffin, which was discovered at el-Bersheh, in Middle
Egypt, is an excellent example of a Middle Kingdom box
coffin. At this time, many of the texts and scenes that were
commissioned to decorate the walls of large and impressive
tombs for the wealthy elite were also painted on the exteriors
and interiors of their wooden coffins. This particular panel,
from inside Djehutynakht’s coffin, shows him sitting in front
of a huge pile of food offerings. To the right of the offerings
are columns of hieroglyphs known as the Coffin Texts. These
texts were instructions to guide Djehutynakht to the afterlife,
where he would spend eternity with the god Osiris.
110 | THE MIDDLE KINGDOM

Senwosret III
The 12th Dynasty’s greatest king

Senwosret III was the most powerful king of the Middle Kingdom.
He preserved established royal traditions, but he was also an important
innovator in art, religion, and politics.

Under Senwosret III, the power of both Egypt and its as the burial place of the god Osiris. In the
king increased significantly. By hia reign, the regional 19th year of his reign, Senwosret sent an
influence of the local nomarchs had diminished, and official named Ikhernofret to carry out
a more limited form of government had passed to renovation work in the area and to organize
local town-mayors. This strengthened the authority a festival known as the Mysteries of Osiris.
of the royal court, and Senwosret took full advantage of Also, although Senwosret III built a pyramid complex △ Boundary stela
it to consolidate the conquests that his predecessor, for himself at Dahshur, it seems that only his family This is one of two
monumental stelae set
Senwosret I, had made in Nubia. He built a series of was buried there and that he himself was buried in
up by Senwosret III at the
fortresses on or near the Second Cataract of the Nile, a huge underground tomb that he had excavated at Second Cataract frontier.
bringing Lower Nubia under Egyptian control and Abydos. Partly for this reason, the site became even It proclaims the supremacy
creating a barrier against the Nubians who lived more popular with visitors, who left hundreds of of Egypt and demands that
farther south. He became so important in the stelae and statues there during his reign. future kings maintain this
border against the Nubians
area that the Egyptians who settled in Nubia later Like his predecessors, Senwosret III sometimes
to the south.
worshipped him as a god during the New Kingdom. depicted himself as superhuman, but on many of his
statues, his face looks careworn. There has been much
Immortalized in stone debate about what this means, but the images were
Senwosret III was a prolific builder throughout Egypt. probably not intended to be realistic, but rather to send
An inscription in the Wadi Hammamat, for example, a message. Perhaps the king wanted to show that he,
refers to an expedition that he sent there to quarry too, was human and listened to the concerns of his
basalt for the now-lost temple of the god Herishef people. This might also explain the large ears that
in Herakleopolis Magna. However, it was the site feature on his statues.
of Abydos that he singled out for special attention.
The body of a fierce
During the Middle Kingdom, Abydos had become an and powerful lion ▷ Careworn face
important place of pilgrimage because it was regarded The lined face, heavy eyelids,
downturned mouth, and
prominent ears make the
▷ Senwosret III sphinx statues of Senwosret III
Like many Egyptian kings, Senwosret used art to project some of the most distinctive
an image of himself as a superhuman. The sphinx was a of any Egyptian king. No one
hybrid creature often used to symbolize the strength and knows why he chose to be
otherworldly nature of the Middle Kingdom kings. depicted in this way.

1870 bce Senwosret III takes 1856 bce Sends a 1851 bce Sends 1831 bce Dies and is
the throne after the death of quarrying expedition Ikhernofret to renovate succeeded by his son,
his father, Senwosret II to Wadi Hammamat the site of Abydos Amenemhat III

1862 bce Sets up the 1854 bce Erects the 1840 bce Celebrates
first stela on the border second stela on the his 30-year jubilee
with Nubia border with Nubia
 SENWOSRET III | 111

The cobra is a
symbol of
kingship
112 | THE MIDDLE KINGDOM

Towns and houses

Homes for communities

Archaeological excavation and study of Middle Kingdom towns and villages

has provided a fascinating insight into how the Egyptian state planned and
built towns and villages for its workers and their families.

Detailed information about settlements is scarce of young men who were only employed on a seasonal
for every period of Egyptian history, but there basis, the accommodation looked like barracks—the
is more archaeological evidence of towns and basic sleeping quarters were divided into housing
villages from the Middle Kingdom than from the units for each work team. Towns such as Qasr
Old Kingdom. Although no “ordinary” towns or es-Sagha were the descendants of the pyramid-
villages still exist, some types of settlement have building towns of the Old Kingdom but on a
survived because the Egyptian state created them more modest scale.
for special circumstances. Realistic models of Another type of settlement first built during the
△ House and garden residential and industrial buildings found in tombs Old Kingdom was the town for priests. These towns
This large and elaborate
wooden model from the
have provided additional information about houses were built close to royal and elite tombs to house
Middle Kingdom tomb of and homes. the large numbers of priests needed to make regular
Meketre shows part of a offerings to the deceased. Unlike Qasr es-Sagha,
wealthy residence built for Town planning priests’ towns were in use all year round, but they
leisure—an open courtyard
The Egyptian state could build villages, towns, and seem to have been occupied by rotating staffs of
containing a central pool
surrounded by trees. even cities on very short notice. The best examples priests who worked there temporarily for a certain
of this state control in the Middle Kingdom are the number of days a year.
fortress-towns in Nubia (see pp.132–133). Within
Egypt itself, some projects required housing for Kahun
the people working on them. The town at Qasr A similar but more complex example of a
es-Sagha, north of the lush oasis called the Faiyum, priests’ town is Kahun. Senwosret II founded it
for example, provided accommodation for quarry to provide accommodation for the priests who
workers. As the work gangs were probably made up would make daily offerings on his behalf at his

PLAN OF KAHUN

Kahun is a typical example of a town planned by a

central government during the Middle Kingdom.
This map of the parts that have been excavated
illustrates an important feature that has been found
in other similar settlements. The houses are laid out
according to a strict grid system within an enclosure
wall that defines the exterior of the town. The map
also indicates that the layout of Kahun is divided
along social lines, with a large dividing wall between
the two sectors of the town. On the right, wealthy
community leaders managed large “mansions” that
ran along the main street from the entrance of the
town. Most of the population of Kahun, however, were
likely to have been agricultural workers and would N
have occupied the rows of back-to-back terraces
on the left side. This was a town designed for
generations of residents who would have raised their
families there and regarded Kahun as their home.
BLOCK OF TERRACED HOUSES MULTIROOMED MANSION
 | 113

pyramid complex (see pp.102–103) near the Faiyum. ▷ Soul house

Because it was so far away from any existing town, These clay models, known as soul houses, gave
poor people an alternative to the expensive
Kahun was probably meant to provide homes not
offering chapels in some of the Middle Kingdom
only for the priests, but also for their families on cemeteries. This example seems to have been
a permanent basis. It therefore needed a more modeled on a rather grand residence.
complex infrastructure.
The size of Kahun and the number of houses there
suggest that it had a population of many thousands developed during the 12th Dynasty. The town
(5,000 is a low estimate), which is well above the was divided into residential areas for the poor
number needed solely for the king’s offering cult. In and the wealthy. Although the vast majority of the
light of this, Senwosret II may have built Kahun with population lived in small houses, the community
a second aim in mind—namely to act as a major new leaders had large mansions in which food was
agricultural center in the fertile Faiyum, an area produced and stored for the whole community.

Workers empty buckets

of grain into a silo
◁ Model of a granary
Places for storing food
(especially the grain for
bread and beer) were an
important part of towns,
both as separate buildings
and as part of mansions.
Egyptians put models of
granaries in tombs to ensure
that the deceased would
have food for eternity.

Scribes note
the amounts of
grain received
and given out

The model is
color-coded.
Brown is used for
the wooden doorway
and white for the
limestone threshold
 114 | THE MIDDLE KINGDOM

Sports and games

Playing in ancient Egypt

Archaeological evidence suggests that throughout their history, the

ancient Egyptians were not very interested in athletic pursuits, apart from
possibly wrestling. They did, however, greatly enjoy board games.

One of the big differences between a city in ancient pairs of wrestlers or possibly a single pair of △ Senet board
Egypt and an ancient Greek or Roman one was the competitors practicing a wide variety of different Board games and their
lack of places where organized sports could take holds and throws. playing pieces were often
made from precious or
place. There are plenty of examples of Egyptian decorative materials, like
kings describing their prowess at chariot riding, Indoor games this senet board made of
archery, and hunting—all activities that showed The ancient Egyptians seem to have preferred blue faience. The pieces
off the skills vital for a warrior. But there is little leisure activities that were less physical, such as board could be stored in the
drawer under the board.
evidence of Egyptians taking part in team sports games, which were extremely popular. Several
or athletic competitions of any kind, which suggests different types of board game have been identified
that they only played sports at a very local level. from surviving examples of the boards themselves,
but as no copies of the rules have been found,
Outdoor sports reconstructing exactly how each game was played
There are some rare exceptions, mostly found in is largely guesswork.
private tombs. At the necropolis of Beni Hasan, The best known of these games was Senet, which
some of the Middle Kingdom nomarchs’ tombs was played on a board of 30 squares. It seems to
contain images of gymnastic displays and sports, have been a little like backgammon, as two players
including a primitive form of hockey. Even more competed by moving their pieces around the board
remarkable are the extensive scenes of wrestlers in to the finish. In another game, Mehen (below right),
several of these tombs. The wall painting at the tomb the board looked like a coiled serpent and players
of Khety, for example (far right), shows either 122 presumably moved their small spherical playing pieces
from slot to slot, from the outer edge of the
Jackal-headed board to the center. Unlike Senet, Mehen did
Hound-headed playing piece The central eye
playing piece not have a set number of slots, which could is probably where
range in number from 30 to 300. the game ended
Possibly the most visually appealing board
game was one known as Hounds and Jackals,
in which two players also raced their pieces to
an end point. In this case, the pieces were tall
pins that fit into 58 holes on top of the board.
Although the original name and the rules are not
known, the end point may have been the shen
(protection) symbol at the top of the board.
Each player had five tall pins with heads
carved to look like hounds and jackals. △ Mehen
This circular stone Mehen
board comes from a tomb
◁ Hounds and Jackals from the 1st Dynasty, when
This elegant ivory Hounds and Jackals set is from a Egyptians often played the
Container for Middle Kingdom private tomb at Deir el-Bahri. It shows game. It had ceased to be
the pieces that gaming boards were regarded as miniature works of popular by the First
art, as well as prized personal possessions. Intermediate Period.
 SPORTS AND GAMES | 115

△ Wrestling scene
This wrestler One wrestler
The tomb of Khety at Beni Hasan contains some of
is breaking lifts the other
the most detailed illustrations of the popular sport
a hold off the ground
of wrestling. The many figures shown are probably
meant to be “read” as a series of wrestling moves,
similar to a present-day comic strip.
116 | THE MIDDLE KINGDOM

A healthy diet
Eating and drinking in ancient Egypt

Thanks to Egypt’s warm climate and the rich, fertile land created by the Nile’s
annual floods, the Egyptians had a wide variety of food and drink available to
them. This ranged from bread and beer to poultry, game, and salad vegetables.

◁ Sharing a drink
The social aspect of eating and drinking is celebrated
in this relief from the Middle Kingdom. It shows a group
of men enjoying a drink together using the typical
hemispherical cups of the period.

and local brewers. Most Egyptian beer was probably

quite low in alcohol content, and it seems to have
been drunk in large quantities.

Animals
The most coveted foods were the more expensive
forms of animal protein, such as beef, but cattle
needed special grazing pastures and were usually
kept in large herds that were owned by institutions.

The ancient Egyptians left a wealth of evidence about Sifting flour

what they liked to eat and drink. Tomb paintings and

models, lists of offerings, animal bones, and storage
vessels are just some of the things that reveal which
types of food and drink they had at their disposal.
For every Egyptian, whether rich or poor, bread
was the staple diet and seems to have been eaten
at every meal. It was made from Egypt’s abundant
supply of emmer wheat and sometimes barley.
State workers were often paid in bread and
sometimes in grain, which suggests that bread
was not just made by official bakers, but also
by ordinary people in their homes.
Beer, which was made from the same basic
ingredients as bread, was also widely available.
It was produced by both large-scale specialists

◁ Butchery
Elite tombs were often decorated with
scenes of butchery or contained models
of a butcher in action. This was to ensure
that the tomb owner had a continuous
supply of the best meat for eternity.
 A HEALTHY DIET | 117

“If you have eaten three loaves WINE MAKING

The Nile Delta and the oases had climates that were

of bread and drunk two jugs of suitable for cultivating grapes, so they became centers
of wine production. Wine was a luxury item, and wine
making was often depicted in the tombs of wealthy
beer and your belly is still hungry, people. It was bottled in large jars, called amphorae,
which were often marked with details about the vintage.

restrain it!”
These included the estate on which it was produced; the
year in which it was bottled; and references to its quality,
which ranged from “good” to “very, very good.”

ANCIENT EGYPTIAN WISDOM TEXT

Sheep and goats were more common, but they were

probably prized for their milk more than for their
meat. The same may be true of ducks and geese,
which were valued for their eggs, as well as their
meat (although eggs never feature in the lists of food
offerings in tombs). Chickens were bred for the
same reason, but they were only brought to Egypt
in the Late Period.
Archaeological work at sites such as the workmen’s
village at Amarna has shown that people kept and ate MURAL OF WINE MAKING IN THEBES
pigs, although they are rarely mentioned as food in
either the written or visual records. Similarly, although
Greek writers claimed that the Egyptians had a taboo Hunting game was another way of supplementing
about eating fish, there is plenty of evidence that fish the diet, especially in the earlier periods of Egyptian
from both the Nile and the sea were caught to eat. history, when the Nile Valley was surrounded by
Grinding grain These were either consumed right away or split, savannah lands rather than desert. Different types
with a quern gutted, and sun-dried to eat later. of antelope were caught for their meat, and some
were even successfully bred in captivity.

Vegetables and fruits

The onion was the most common vegetable in Egypt.
Garlic and leeks were also in good supply, as were
salad vegetables, particularly lettuces and cucumbers.
Mixing flour Few Egyptians had a regular source of meat, so most
and water
people obtained their protein from legumes, such
as lentils, peas, beans, and chickpeas. The range of
fruits available was limited compared to modern
Egypt, but figs, and especially dates, were popular.

Cooking
The Egyptians’ cooking techniques included roasting,
baking, and grilling. There is no evidence that they
used sauces or combined different types of food to
make complicated dishes. The food that they ate was
cooked simply and served plain.

◁ Tomb model of a bakery

Huge quantities of bread were needed to feed
the population of Egypt. This tomb model
shows a team of bakers at work—in this
case, to produce bread for the afterlife.
118 | THE MIDDLE KINGDOM
 MEDICINE | 119

Medicine
Sickness and health in ancient Egypt

Egyptian doctors were esteemed in the ancient world for their advanced medical
skills. Many sources, including some of the earliest medical texts, show that the
ancient Egyptians were extremely interested in tackling ill health and disease.

Professional doctors (swnw) appear ◁ Juniper berries

early in Egyptian history and Egyptian medical texts often refer to plants to
include senior medical staff, use as medicine when treating illness. Only
a small percentage of these, including
as well as specialists such as juniper berries, have been identified
ophthalmologists and dentists. with species that are known today.
There was a certain overlap
between the role of a doctor and
that of a priest, because medical of the latter are attributed △ Figure vessel
training was mainly carried out in temple settings. to the problems associated with a The external appearance of
a vessel might indicate its
Although most doctors were men, there were a few “detached and wandering” uterus.
magical and/or medical
female doctors. In fact, unofficially, at a local level, The Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus from the early function. This elaborate
more women might have been involved in areas such New Kingdom was a physician’s guide to treating vase shaped like a kneeling
as childbirth, where magic and medicine traditionally external trauma. It provided a list of symptoms to woman might have been
merged (see pp.120–121). aid diagnosis and a recommendation of which made to contain milk to
give to a child.
By the Late Period, embalmers were also listed as conditions doctors should “treat,” “not treat,” or
doctors, and it is possible that the ancient Egyptians “contend with.” The most common recommendation
learned about the internal workings of the body from was to allow a patient to recuperate in bed without any
mummifying corpses, although historians may have form of invasive treatment. The papyrus also advised
overestimated the importance of this. doctors to treat external wounds with compounds
Modern research on the dead bodies of ancient of honey and copper, which had a positive
Egyptians has provided fascinating insights into some antibacterial effect.
of the illnesses from which they suffered, especially
parasitic infestations and dental disease. Some
THE EBERS MEDICAL PAPYRUS
mummies have even been found with prosthetic
toes, showing that the Egyptians made attempts to Dating from the early New
Kingdom, this is an important
replace parts of lost limbs. document in the history of
medicine, because it refers to
Medical textbooks liquids circulating around the
body and recognizes the central
The most advanced forms of medical knowledge are role played by the heart. The
found in some papyri relating to medical matters that Egyptians thought that, as well
as pumping blood and water
have survived. The Kahun Medical Papyrus from the around the body, the heart also
Middle Kingdom is the earliest of these and contains moved a corruptive substance
medical advice on matters ranging from veterinary called wekhdu. An excess of
wekhdu, which might present
matters to treatment for gynecological problems. Most as boils filled with pus, was
believed to cause disease
and eventually kill a patient.
◁ Tools of the trade Although this might seem
Hesy-Re was a high official of the 3rd Dynasty who owned primitive, it was an early
attempt to understand the
a tomb at Saqqara. It contained a series of wooden panels
nature of disease.
depicting him and lists his titles, one of which reads “Great
One of the Dentists.”
120 | THE MIDDLE KINGDOM

Text reading
“Protection by day”

Lion’s
Head

Each demon
carries a knife

The goddess
Taweret, protector
of infants and
pregnant women

△ Protective demons
Apotropaic wands were usually
decorated with images of
demons. These frightening
creatures were minor deities
(such as the lion-dwarf Bes)
who could be enlisted to
help human beings.

▷ Apotropaic wands
Dating from the Middle
Kingdom, these boomerang- “I will turn your face into the
shaped wands were used to
defend vulnerable humans
from evil spirits. Some show
back of your head, the front
signs of being mended after
being broken, indicating how
of your feet into your heels.”
valuable they were to the
people who used them. A MAGIC SPELL ATTACKING A DEMON
 MAGIC WANDS | 121

Head of a
long-eared fox

End of the wand

shows signs of wear

Magic wands
Controlling the supernatural world

Thanks to the many texts and images that have A remarkable set of objects from the Middle Kingdom
survived on temple walls, papyri, and stelae, there is provides an insight into how this magic was used.
a good deal of information about the official religion The so-called Magician’s Tomb, discovered near the
of ancient Egypt. Far less is known, however, about Ramesseum in Thebes, yielded a wooden box that
▽ Snake wand
the religious practices of ordinary Egyptians, which proved to be a treasure trove of magical artifacts of This bronze serpent staff
seem to have been a mixture of religion, magic, various dates. These included papyri inscribed with from the Magician’s Tomb
superstition, and folk medicine. magical spells, a wooden statuette of a woman may represent the goddess
wearing a lion mask and holding two snakes, Weret-Hekau (meaning
Priests and magicians and a bronze snake-headed wand. “great of magic”). It recalls
the staves of the Egyptian
The highest-ranking magicians of ancient Egypt were The Magician’s Tomb box also contained a group magicians in the biblical
Lector Priests, who read out the books of ritual during of flat, boomerang-shaped objects made from Book of Exodus, which
temple ceremonies. In Egyptian fiction, these men hippopotamus tusks. Decorated with images of turned into snakes.
are often depicted as characters who could perform protective demons (many of which carried knives),
miracles. The priests of Sekhmet, the goddess of these wands were probably used to scare off malicious
healing, were held in particularly high regard for spirits that were intent on doing harm. Exactly how
their abilities to cure the sick, as Sekhmet was they were used is not known, but they were certainly
connected to pestilence and plague. apotropaic (meant to ward off evil). One of the wands
Texts from Deir el-Medina also refer to local depicts a group of protective demons. The reverse
people who acted as “wise women” or “scorpion side bears the inscription: “We have come so
charmers” in the New Kingdom. Their role that we may extend our protection around
seems to have been to protect villagers from the healthy child Minhotep.”
evil spirits thought to torment the living
with problems ranging from sickness
and sudden death to bad luck and being
attacked by poisonous creatures.
122 | THE MIDDLE KINGDOM

Foreign expeditions
New horizons

During the Middle Kingdom, Egypt increasingly looked beyond the Nile Valley
and Delta for the resources it needed. Military-style expeditions were sent to
quarry and mine, to trade with strong neighbors, and to raid weaker ones.

From its very foundation as a state, Egypt had Sinai probably also reached their peak of production
Mediterranean Sea Gaza been interested in its neighbors. There is during this period, yielding vast quantities of copper
ad
evidence of it suppressing the Nubians and that were shipped back to Egypt. Turquoise, which
o
Hor u s” R fighting “Easterners” from the 1st Dynasty the Egyptians used to make decorative objects such
The “Ways of
Qantara onward. There are, however, also indications as jewelry, was also mined there.
Tell ed-Daba
(Avaris) that Egypt’s economic interests extended The work in Sinai was organized along military
Great Bitter
Lake beyond its borders during the Old Kingdom: lines. At first, expeditions were sent to work at the
it traded with Nubia, bought timber from mines there for a specified time before returning to
Sinai
Lebanon, and sent expeditions to quarry stone Egypt, and temporary campsites were set up to house
in the Western Desert. The Egyptians also the seasonal workers. An important mountain-top
Bir Nasb
Wadi Kharig Serabit established sources of valuable or important temple built for the goddess Hathor, “Mistress of
el-Khadim
Wadi Jarf metals, developing gold mines in the Eastern Turquoise,” at the site of Serabit el-Khadim indicates,
Gu

N Wadi Maghara
lf

Desert and copper mines in southern Sinai. however, that the Egyptian occupation of Sinai
of
Su

0 50 km Records show that meanwhile, Egypt was became more permanent.

ez

0 50 miles also engaged in military action with various,

mostly nomadic groups of people who lived in The Levant
△ Map of Sinai areas of particular interest to them, such as Sinai and Having expanded into Nubia and successfully
This map of Sinai shows the southern Palestine. These people, usually referred to exploited Sinai, Egypt took a greater interest in
sites of Egyptian expeditions
by scholars as “Asiatics,” were known to the Egyptians the Levant (an area in the present-day Middle East). It
during the Middle Kingdom.
The Egyptians used the north as “Aamu” or “Retenu.” continued to foster its long-term relationship with the
of Sinai as a route into the In the Middle Kingdom, Egypt’s interest in its Lebanese port city of Byblos, which was a source of
Levant and beyond, while neighbors grew. Its conquest of Lower Nubia good-quality timber, but several sources suggest that
they exploited the southwest (see pp.130–131) was an obvious example of this, but the Egyptians also had political interests in the region.
for its mineral resources.
there were other areas on which it also set its sights. Although the Story of Sinuhe is fictional, the amount of

Mines and quarries

Egypt stepped up its ambitious mining and quarrying
projects throughout the Middle Kingdom. The town
of Qasr es-Sagha, north of the Faiyum, was used for
quarrying basalt and the Wadi Hammamat, in the
Eastern Desert, became an important center of
gold production. The copper mines of southern

▷ Semiprecious stones
This pectoral (chest ornament) of
Princess Sithathoriunut incorporates
garnet and carnelian from the Eastern
Desert, gold from the Eastern Desert or
Nubia, turquoise from Sinai, and dark
blue lapis lazuli from Afghanistan.
 FOREIGN EXPEDITIONS | 123

background detail in it shows that the Egyptians knew MULTICULTURAL INFLUENCES △ Serabit el-Khadim
a great deal about the political and economic situation Several kings of the Middle
Not all of the people who served on Egypt’s mining Kingdom, and later those
of the Levant (see pp.134–135). The stela of a soldier expeditions were Egyptian. Asiatics based in Egypt were of the New Kingdom, added
named Khusobek also reveals that Egypt embarked on enrolled as guides to the Sinai region, and the mining to the temple of Serabit
several military campaigns in the southern Levant gangs included local Sinai people who may or may not
el-Khadim in southern Sinai.
have worked voluntarily. One remarkable artifact that
during the 12th Dynasty. shows the multicultural nature of these expeditions is a The temple is notable for the
Perhaps the most intriguing evidence of these small stone sphinx that was found at the site of Serabit stelae erected by both kings
el-Khadim. The sphinx bears two short inscriptions. One and expedition leaders.
campaigns is a large block of granite that was used as is written in Egyptian hieroglyphs, and the other is in
the base of a statue in Ramesses II’s building works at Proto-Sinaitic—a lettering system that would later
Memphis. The block was covered with an inscription evolve into the first alphabet scripts.
indicating that it was originally part of a 12th Dynasty
building. Now known as the Annals of Amenemhat II, Egyptian
hieroglyphs
this inscription records a series of events that took
place during the reign of Amenemhat II. Proto-Sinaitic
Among references to visitors from Kush and script
turquoise arriving from Sinai, it refers to expeditions
setting off to and returning from foreign lands. The
locations of these lands are not known, but they
were probably in the Levant, and the expeditions
may have been raiding parties of Egyptian soldiers.
Some scholars suggest that these raids went as far
north as Syria and possibly even to Cyprus. The main
aim of these expeditions may have been to bring back
foreign goods, but they were also the precursor to SANDSTONE SPHINX FROM
Egypt’s far more ambitious imperialist actions in the SERABIT EL-KHADIM
region at the beginning of the New Kingdom.
124 | THE MIDDLE KINGDOM

Jewelry ◁ Middle Kingdom anklet

Claw-shaped pendants made
from semiprecious stones
such as carnelian are often
found in amulets. This gold
Personal ornaments pendant is set on an anklet
of amethyst beads, which
were typical of the period.

The Egyptians did not have precious gemstones, such as diamonds, rubies, sapphires, Amethyst beads
and emeralds, until the Greco-Roman Period. However, they did have access to gold,
silver, and semiprecious stones, such as turquoise, lapis lazuli, amethyst, carnelian, Gold claw
and garnet. Colored faience was a cheaper and popular option for jewelry.
Sun disk made
of carnelian
Cartouche of
King Khyan

◁ Broad collar ▷ Scarab ring

Most broad collars were Seals shaped like a
not made of precious scarab were often
materials, but of cheap △ Scarab ornament used as a decorative
faience beads. This one This unusual ornament shows a scarab part of jewelry. This
from the Middle Kingdom beetle in flight. It has elements that can one, which shows the
was found in the tomb of a be read as the name of Senwosret II, for base of the scarab, has
man buried at Thebes. whom it may have been made. been set within a gold ring.

◁ Gold broad collar

Royal broad collars were more
Gold head
elaborate and were made of
of a falcon
gold and beads of semiprecious
stones. This falcon-headed
broad collar belonged to a ▽ Gold clasp
12th Dynasty woman named Clasps in the shape of an
Senebtisi, who was buried intricate double knot were
with her jewelry collection popular with the Middle
at Lisht. Kingdom upper classes. This
particular clasp belonged to
the same Senebtisi who was
buried wearing the royal
broad collar shown below.

Double-knot clasp

Tear-shaped
gold beads
 JEWELRY | 125

▷ Gazelle-head diadem
This unusual diadem, made
of gold, carnelian, and
colored glass, was
found in the tomb of Gold gazelle
Tuthmosis III’s three heads
foreign wives.

△ Ring of Nefertiti △ Wedjat-eye ring

This gold ring bears the Most ancient Egyptians wore
Carnelian and
glass rosette
name of Nefertiti, but its inexpensive jewelry made of
real owner is not known. faience. This blue faience
It is said to be part of ring with a wedjat eye would
a hoard of jewels found also have been used as a
at Amarna. protective amulet.

▷ Hinged cuff bracelet

Wide, cuff-shaped bracelets were
popular among elite women of the
Earring posts New Kingdom. This example, made
for attachment △ Butterfly bracelets
of gold with colored panels, had
to earlobes Silver was less common than gold in Inlaid
hinges so that it would fit tightly. butterfly
Egypt, so silver jewelry was rare. These
silver bracelets inlaid with semiprecious
stones belonged to Hetepheres, the
mother of Khufu.

▽ Faience necklace
with menat
Some of the necklaces worn
by Egyptians were so heavy
that they required a menat,
or counterweight. These
were often as decorative
△ Ribbed hoop earrings as the necklaces
Gold earrings with this distinctive themselves.
ribbed design were popular in the
New Kingdom. This pair belonged
Medium-sized
to one of Tuthmosis III’s wives.
faience beads

Menat
counterweight
△ Decorative earplugs
Glass was more widely available
in the New Kingdom and was
used in many different ways. Multiple strands
These striking earplugs are of tiny, colored
made of blue and green glass. faience beads
The Myth of Osiris
△ Judging the dead
As king of the Field of Reeds,
Osiris sat in judgment over
the dead, who sought to
live with him for eternity.
Depictions of this process,
King of Egypt, king of the dead and its successful outcome
(a good afterlife), were often
drawn on papyri.The papyrus
shown above depicts the
No god was more important to the Egyptians than Osiris, who became judgment of Hunefer, a scribe.

king of the dead. The series of connected stories that make up his myth
relate exactly how this came to be.

The ancient Egyptians did not have one of the same events. The most important
core religious text that explained the myths of all are those that are associated
relationship between humans and the with the god Osiris.
divine. What they had instead was a
series of myths in which the gods Creating the world
played the leading roles. These myths The story of Osiris begins with a
explained the world and how people tale about the creation of the world.
were supposed to behave in it. In the beginning, an island rose
One of the most notable aspects of
these myths is that the gods are often
guilty of bad behavior and have the ◁ Seth stela
vices, as well as the virtues, of human Although the god Seth, depicted on
the left of this stela, is an aggressive
beings. Taken as a whole, the myths
character in the Osiris myth, he was
do not form a coherent narrative. not portrayed as wholly evil. He was
They are often contradictory and also shown as a powerful god who
sometimes give different versions could be worshipped like any other.
 THE MYTH OF OSIRIS | 127

“Hail to thee Osiris, Lord of

Eternity and King of Gods.”
FROM THE GREAT HYMN TO OSIRIS

thought that he was the rightful heir to the throne.

In the ensuing dispute between Horus and Seth, Isis
protected Horus until he was old enough to meet his
uncle in combat. When he did so, he defeated Seth
and finally gained the throne of Egypt.
This myth told the Egyptians many things—how
the world was created, how the gods came into being,
and why kingship was important to Egypt. It also
showed how royal succession should pass from father
to son and the importance of being a supportive wife ▽ Osiris and Isis
and mother. For most Egyptians, however, the most This Late Period statue shows
the goddess Isis standing
important aspect of the story was its promise of an
behind the smaller figure
afterlife in a kingdom ruled by Osiris—a dead god of her husband, Osiris. Her
and also god of the dead. wings are spread around
him to protect him.
The kingdom of Osiris
from the great sea of chaos, and on it the primeval This idea of an afterlife rose from the close association
god Atum appeared. On his own, Atum generated between Osiris and the king. When a king died, he
the gods Shu and Tefnut, a brother-and-sister couple, joined with Osiris (became “an Osiris”), while his
who produced the siblings Geb and Nut. successor inherited “the Horus-Throne of
The four children of Geb and Nut were the the Living.” The living king was regarded
brothers Osiris and Seth and the sisters Isis as an embodiment of Horus, so he was
and Nephthys. In the next part of the story, divine in nature, but he was also human
Osiris is married to Isis, and Seth is and formed a link between the gods and
married to Nephthys. humans. An afterlife in the kingdom of Osiris,
Osiris was the divine king of Egypt, but the Field of Reeds, was also possible for
his popularity attracted the jealousy of Seth, ordinary Egyptians, and they actively
who trapped his brother in an elaborate chest prepared for this. For this reason,
and threw him into the Nile. Isis then Osirian beliefs can be found inscribed
tracked down the body of Osiris, only on Middle Kingdom coffins (see
for Seth to dismember and scatter it pp.106–107) and in the literature
around Egypt. Isis (aided by Nephthys) now known as the Book of the Dead
recovered the body of her husband and, (see pp.208–209).
by magic, put it back together again and Much of ancient Egyptian burial
revived Osiris enough to become pregnant culture stemmed from this belief
by him. Osiris then left Egypt and became in an afterlife. Egyptians decorated
the god of the dead. Horus, the son of Isis their coffins with images of Isis and
and Osiris, then became the rightful king of Nephthys, who protected the body
Egypt. However, Osiris’s brother, Seth, also of Osiris and so could protect
ordinary people, too. Speculation
about the afterlife also led to the
▷ The goddess Nephthys creation of shabti figurines. These
Wooden statuettes and other depictions of Isis and miniature helpers were buried
Nephthys are often found in tombs from the Middle
Kingdom and later. Their purpose was to protect the
with the dead to carry out work
body of the tomb owner, just as Isis and Nephthys for them in the underworld
had protected the body of Osiris. (see pp.262–263).
128 | THE MIDDLE KINGDOM

Abydos
Pilgrims at the tomb of Osiris

By the Middle Kingdom, Abydos was regarded as the burial site of Osiris, the Amenysonb
raises his arms
god of the afterlife. From then onward, it was an important pilgrimage site in prayer

for kings and commoners alike.

The growing importance of Osiris as a god ◁ Sihathor statue

of the dead for the whole of Egypt had a This block statue of an official named Sihathor was found
among a range of monuments in a mahat-chapel. He
dramatic impact on the site of Abydos in
is shown in the patient pose of a pilgrim, squatting
the Middle Kingdom. The Msyth of Osiris on the ground, with his cloak wrapped around him.
(see pp.126–127) described the death,
dismemberment, and burial of the god, and
Abydos was regarded as the place where he overnight. He was then brought back to life
was buried. The exact spot was thought to be and taken back to his temple. Most of what
the 1st Dynasty royal tomb of King Djer, at is known about these events comes from a
the Umm el-Qa’ab cemetery. Perhaps, by the stela left at Abydos by an official named
Middle Kingdom, vague memories of early Ikhernofret. He was sent to Abydos by
royal burial at Abydos had combined with Senwosret III (who also had a tomb built
the idea of a mythic time when gods ruled for himself there) to renovate the temple
Egypt to create a sense of a special location. and, especially, the sacred boat in which
Osiris was carried, and to reorganize the sacred
The festival of Osiris drama of the Osiris festival.
The main center of worship for Osiris was his cult Many Egyptians wished to visit Abydos during the
temple in the town of Abydos. Between the temple festival as pilgrims witnessing the miraculous rebirth
and the tomb at the Umm el-Qa’ab (known in the of Osiris. By doing this, they hoped to receive favors
Middle Kingdom as Peker), there was a valley between from the god for their afterlives. They also wanted to
two low plateaux now known as the North and be present at Abydos forever, so, like Ikhernofret, they
Middle cemeteries. The North Cemetery was where erected stone stelae there, which listed their names
the Early Dynastic kings had built huge funerary and possibly those of their families. To make sure that
enclosures, one of which, the Shunet ez-Zebib, was these stelae (and sometimes statues) could be seen by
still visible in the Middle Kingdom (see pp.46–47). Osiris during his procession, they placed them in small
A processional route 1 mile (2 km) long ran along mud-brick structures called mahat-chapels, overlooking
the valley floor between the Osiris Temple and Peker. the processional route. The largest chapels contained ▽ The Osiris Bed
This was used during an annual festival, now collections of stelae and statues belonging to several The idea that Osiris was
known as the Mysteries of Osiris, that was similar generations of the same family. buried in Djer’s tomb was
reinforced by later additions
in character to a medieval passion play. The idea The slope of the North Cemetery, made to the tomb, such as
behind the festival was to transport the dead Osiris which was considered a very this Middle Kingdom statue
from his temple to his tomb, where he remained desirable position to have a known as the Osiris Bed.
 ▽ Amenysonb stela
Cooking meat
This double-sided stela is designed around the symbol
in a pot
of an ankh. It was erected at Abydos by a man named
Amenysonb. The front (left) bears texts and images for
worshipping and petitioning Osiris. The back (right)
shows scenes of everyday life that are more commonly
found in the large, decorated tombs of this period.

Symbol of
Baking
an ankh

Gathering the harvest

Smelling a
lotus flower Sowing seeds
in the field

TA-DJESER, THE “SACRED LAND”

mahat-chapel, was called the Terrace of the Great

God. There, both robbers and archaeologists have
recovered thousands of stelae, whose inscriptions
have provided the most important evidence of the
genealogy and religious customs of ordinary people
during the Middle Kingdom.

“I made my mahat-chapel upon The necropolis at Abydos was one of the most important
burial sites in ancient Egypt because of the presence of
the Tomb of Osiris at the Umm el-Qa’ab. In the Middle

the Terrace of the Great God to Kingdom, the northern part of the site was dominated by
the Terrace of the Great God (referring to Osiris) with
its hundreds of tombs and mud-brick mahat-chapels.
see the god every day.” In the New Kingdom, the so-called “Portal Temple” of
Ramesses II was built (above) close to the main temple
of Osiris, giving access to the Terrace.
DECLARATION ON A MIDDLE KINGDOM STELA FROM ABYDOS
 130 | THE MIDDLE KINGDOM

Egypt and Nubia

The first Egyptian empire

Egypt’s most important neighbor was Nubia, which had considerable mineral
wealth. In the Middle Kingdom, Egypt moved to conquer Lower Nubia, thereby
creating an empire, and built forts to defend its new territory.

Egypt’s relationship with Nubia was governed by two Lower Nubia soon developed into something that
Mediterranean Sea
major factors: opportunity and threat. With extensive went far beyond the ambitions of the Old Kingdom
natural resources, including gold, and trade routes kings, even at the height of their power.
LOWER leading farther south into Africa, Nubia offered riches Amenemhat I claimed to have conquered Lower
EGYPT
Memphis that contributed to the wealth of Egypt. However, Nubia (Wawat) by the 29th year of his reign. His
left to itself, Nubia could develop into a powerful son, Senwosret I, then started to build fortresses
UPPER
N
EGYPT
kingdom, like Egypt itself. For these reasons, from the in the region, notably at Buhen, which became the
Early Dynastic period onward, Egypt tried to control greatest fortress-town of Middle Kingdom Nubia.
Ri

or destabilize Nubia by any means possible, including Under Senwosret III, many more fortresses were built,
ve

Re
rN

e
il

dS

0 120 km by military force. especially around the natural frontier of the Second
e
a

Thebes
0 120 miles During the Old Kingdom, Egypt was relatively Cataract. These fortresses were constructed on rocky
Elephantine successful in controlling Nubia, exploiting quarries outcrops overlooking the Nile, such as Semna and
(Aswan)
First in Nubia’s Western Desert and establishing a trading Kumma, or on islands in the river, such as Uronarti.
Cataract
center at Buhen, near the Second Cataract of the Nile. Buhen and Mirgissa meanwhile became heavily
LOWER
Buhen NUBIA It was only during the Middle Kingdom, however, defended trading posts. As a result of all this building,
Mirgissa
Second Cataract that Egypt tried to conquer and hold territory in Lower Nubia was brought firmly under Egyptian
Semna
Kumma Nubia, creating the first Egyptian empire.
Remnants of
△ Map of Nubia The conquest of Nubia black paint
This map roughly shows Although Montuhotep II’s greatest achievement was
the extent of Lower Nubia.
to reunify Egypt by defeating his Herakleopolitan rivals,
Egyptian control of Lower
Nubia in the Middle he also carried out a series of military campaigns
Kingdom was based on a farther south as part of a policy that would be
system of fortresses built continued by his successors. The aim of this policy
close to the Second Cataract seemed to be to reduce the power of the
of the Nile.
Nubians, who had been encroaching
on Egypt’s traditional
southern boundary
during the First
Intermediate Period,
but this largely
punitive action in

▷ Egyptian soldiers
This model of Egyptian soldiers was
found in the tomb of an 11th Dynasty
Egyptian nomarch named Meshety next
to a model of Nubian archers. In Middle
Kingdom Egypt, the military included both
Egyptian soldiers and Nubian mercenaries.
 | 131

◁ Nubian tribute bearers

This scene from an Egyptian private
tomb of the New Kingdom shows
Nubians bearing large quantities of
gold in tribute. The Nubian gold mines
were far more productive than those in
Egypt’s Eastern Desert and were the
main reason for Egypt’s interest in
annexing Nubia.

Basket of
gold nuggets

Large gold
chains

control, and Egypt was able to defend its new known, describe Egyptian patrols scouting around ▽ Bread token
The administration of the
southern border against attack from the Upper Semna in search of unwelcome Nubians and the
Nubian fortresses included
Nubians who lived farther south. Medjay people who lived in the desert. systems for the distribution
Although Lower Nubia was now firmly under of food to the soldiers, like
Semna and Kush Egyptian control, the huge area to the south of the this token for loaves of bread.
Semna Fort played a strategic role in Egypt’s defense Second Cataract that the Egyptians called Kush held
plans. A set of stelae erected by Senwosret III proclaim onto its independence. During the Middle Kingdom,
that Semna was to act as a checkpoint to prevent and particularly during the Second Intermediate
Nubians from the south—primarily economic Period, Kush saw urban expansion around key
migrants—entering the territory controlled by Egypt sites such as Kerma and Sai. These sites became
unless they were coming to carry out closely the basis of an administration that may have
controlled trading at Mirgissa. been a kingdom itself, although there are no
Various reports sent from Semna to the southern written records from Kush at this time. It was too
administration at Thebes have also survived and strong for the Egyptians to defeat in any case, and
describe what happened at Semna. Written on later, in the Second Intermediate Period, it would
papyrus, these Semna Dispatches, as they are go on to become a threat to southern Egypt.
132 | THE MIDDLE KINGDOM

Buhen Fortress
▽ Buhen reconstructed
Most of our evidence for Buhen comes
from the extensive excavations that took
place there between 1957 and 1964. This
work was an attempt to excavate and

The nucleus of the Nubian defenses record as much as possible of the site
before it was destroyed by Lake Nasser.

The fortress-town of Buhen was one of the most impressive feats of military Buhen town, built
within the outer
architecture from ancient Egypt. It had been a small trading center in the Old wall but outside
Kingdom, but in the Middle Kingdom, it became the centerpiece of a sophisticated the citadel
group of fortified settlements and smaller forts around the Second Cataract of the
Nile. Buhen was built on the riverbank and consisted of an outer town and an inner
citadel. It was designed to be capable of withstanding any attack mounted by the
Nubians, but it does not seem to have seen major action. It was abandoned in the
Second Intermediate Period, but occupied again in the New Kingdom.

Staircase to Staircase to
ramparts second floor

Columned
Hall

◁ Command center
A large and distinctive building in
the northwest corner of the citadel was
probably the garrison headquarters and
the residence of the garrison commander.
A staircase provided easy access to the
ramparts of the citadel.

Garrison Living Storage area

commander's room (possibly for Bridge across
bedroom weapons) the moat into the
outer western gate
A FORTRESS OF MUD

The strong, thick walls of Buhen were made of unfired

mud brick, which was easily available and quick to build
with. It is estimated that over 4.6 million bricks were A drawbridge Two massive towers extended
used in its construction. Unfortunately, after the Aswan crossed the the entrance passage to make
High Dam was built, the fortress was submerged by Lake ditch here it easier to defend The weakest part of the
Nasser and its walls turned back into mud. outer wall, its entrance,
was defended by the huge
outer western gate

The gateway crossed

the inner ditch

◁ Inner western gate

The most elaborate defenses at Buhen
appear in the inner western gate. Two
tall towers flank a passageway that had
at least four doors, and a drawbridge,
RUIN OF BUHEN FORTRESS
which ran on rollers over the ditch.
 BUHEN FORTRESS | 133

◁ Temple of Horus stela

This stela is from the main The covered
walkway on
temple of the fortress, which had
the ramparts
sanctuaries for three gods, one of protected the
whom was Horus, Lord of Buhen. soldiers within
A New Kingdom temple was later
built over it.

Horus blesses ▷ Citadel ramparts and bastions

Senwosret I
A lower set of ramparts was built as
Later temple built part of the defenses of the citadel.
during the New A covered walkway gave access to
Kingdom a series of projecting bastions that
enabled archers to fire in a 180° arc.

Quayside and
river entrance Arrow slots made it Soldiers could
possible for archers quickly move along
to shoot while being the ramparts to the
shielded from place under attack
incoming missiles from the enemy

Most traffic to and

from Buhen would
have come by river

Large tower
Inner walls, projecting from
16 ft (5 m) thick and the external wall
over 33 ft (10 m) tall Inner ditch, Outer ditch, 20 ft
24 ft (7.3 m) wide and (6 m) wide and
10 ft (3.1 m) deep 10 ft (3 m) deep
Storytelling
The varied delights of Egyptian literature

The literature of ancient Egypt is a rich treasury of imaginative stories about

gods and people, talking animals, magical realism, long journeys, and the
eventual triumph of right over wrong.

Ancient Egypt was one of the first civilizations to Travelers’ tales

create fiction. Some of its stories read like fairytales, A common theme in Egyptian stories is travel. The
some are like religious texts about the exploits of the most popular—and most copied—tale is the Story of
gods, and others reflect the everyday experiences of Sinuhe, about a courtier who flees Egypt and makes a
ordinary Egyptians. It is difficult to assess Egyptian new life for himself among the tribes of Lebanon. △ Uraeus
The rearing cobra was a
literature as a whole, however, because the only stories After many adventures, Sinuhe returns to Egypt to
symbol of royalty worn by
to survive are those that were written down, often as ensure that he has a proper burial. The moral of this kings and queens. The role
training exercises for young scribes. Stories were story seems to be that there is no place like home. of the snake in Shipwrecked
usually told out loud and passed down from one Sinuhe’s tale follows the same format as the tomb Sailor reflects the ambiguity
generation to the next. autobiographies of high-ranking officials in the that Egyptians felt toward
snakes—they were regarded
Storytelling might have been a common form of Middle and New Kingdom Egypt, and this, together
as both good and bad.
entertainment both in villages and palaces, and the with the historical accuracy of the background detail,
stories are a blend of comedy and tragedy, with a has made scholars wonder if Sinuhe was a real person.
moral element. The tradition of Egyptian storytelling Another tale in the same tradition is the Voyage of
seems to have been established in the Middle Wenamun. Written at the end of the New Kingdom,
Kingdom, but it developed later. it tells the story of Wenamun, an official, who also
 STORYTELLING | 135

◁ Woman and crocodile entertainment for himself—being rowed across

This illustration shows a woman drinking close to a
crocodile—a creature that could represent retribution
a lake in a boat by beautiful maidens clad only
in Egyptian literature. In one story, a priest creates a in fishing nets. The king’s idyllic day is spoiled
crocodile from wax to eat the lover of his adulterous wife. when one of the maidens drops her turquoise
fish-shaped pendant into the lake. Fortunately,
the famous magician Djadjaemankh is on
travels to Lebanon, but this time by ship to find hand to help and simply rolls back the lake
timber for the temple of Amen at Karnak. It is thought to retrieve the pendant.
by some to be an account of a real trading mission, The actions of the characters in these
as the problems that Wenamun encounters with stories may have caused a lively debate
people he meets reflect Egypt’s diminished status among Egyptian listeners. There is
in the Eastern Mediterranean at that time. certainly a strong moral sense in
In a less realistic vein, the Shipwrecked Sailor many of the tales. Those who
tells of a traveler who is cast away on an do wrong are usually punished
island inhabited by a huge talking snake. at the conclusion of the story,
In a story within the story, the snake tells a particularly if they have
sad tale of how he came to be alone after his done something that
family was killed by a falling star. Unlike the would have been
snake, the sailor eventually returns home frowned upon in
and is reunited with his family. Egyptian society.
Likewise, good actions are
Stories with a moral rewarded, and shrewdness
Another theme of many Egyptian stories is is shown to be a virtue.
men and gods behaving badly. In the Destruction One story that seems to have
of Mankind, the god Ra, angry with humans been deeply rooted in the
for rebelling against him, transforms his everyday experience of most
daughter Hathor into the ferocious god △ Fish pendant Egyptians is The Eloquent
Sekhmet and sends her to kill every human The piece of jewelry Peasant. In this tale, a simple
being. Ra then realizes that he has made a at the heart of the story man is traveling with a
about Snefru and the
mistake. He is only able to stop Hathor- pendant may have been
donkey laden with goods to
Sekhmet by mixing a large quantity of beer inspired by fish pendants sell. As he travels from place to
with a red dye and pouring it over the earth. such as the one shown. place, he is beset by problems
Convinced that she is drinking the blood of caused by spiteful, petty
humans, Hathor-Sekhmet becomes drunk and bureaucrats, which he tries to solve simply by
is unable to continue her slaughter. speaking persuasively. Unlike many Egyptian stories,
In many stories, kings are also shown to have this one must have struck a chord with listeners, who
human weaknesses. In one of a group of tales, may have experienced similar struggles with difficult
called Wondrous Tales, King Snefru devises some local officials. △ Sinuhe ostracon
Judging by the number of
copies that have survived,
the Story of Sinuhe was very
SCRIBES
popular in ancient Egypt.
Very few people in ancient Egypt were able to read or write, Versions have been found
possibly only around 5 percent of the population. Being written on papyrus and, as
literate gave people (men) access to careers that were only here, on limestone ostraca.
available to the highest social classes—the government, the
priesthood, and the highest ranks of the army. Literacy was
a badge of the ruling class in ancient Egypt throughout its
entire history, but it was particularly important during the
New Kingdom because it enabled a talented, literate scribe
from the provinces to rise through the ranks of society to
become an important minister of state. Scribes were trained
in several different places, including temple schools, but the
most important start in life for an educated Egyptian was to
have a parent—invariably a father—who was himself literate.

SCRIBES FROM THE TOMB OF HOREMHEB

136 | THE MIDDLE KINGDOM

Time of unrest
The Second Intermediate Period

At the end of the Middle Kingdom, Egypt was threatened by Asiatics from the
north and Nubians from the south. The following period of turmoil is known
as the Second Intermediate Period. Only the Thebans stood up to the invaders.

The 13th Dynasty was very different from ◁ Wooden statue of King Hor
the 12th, when a small number of related This statue of the 13th Dynasty king Hor
was designed to house the king’s ka after
kings had enjoyed relatively long reigns. The
his death. The hieroglyph for ka was a pair
13th Dynasty lasted for 123 years and had of raised arms, which are seen here
up to 50 kings, most of whom must have attached to the king’s head.
reigned for a very short time. It is unlikely
that all of these kings came from the same had captured on their raids into foreign
family. There may have been a system of lands. The Asiatics’ wealth of local
elective kingship, in which people from knowledge made them valuable to the
important families took turns being king. Egyptians, who used them as scouts on
As a result, the 13th Dynasty was weak. their expeditions to Sinai and the Levant
Two of the kings, Ameny-Qemau and (an area in the present-day Middle East).
Khendjer, made modest attempts to build A large Asiatic community settled △ Worshipping Montu
pyramids at Dahshur and South Saqqara, and grew in the eastern Delta, at a site Sobekemsaf II, a 17th
Dynasty king, extensively
and Neferhotep I was active at Abydos, later known as the city of Avaris. As
restored the temple of
which remained an important central royal authority declined during Montu, a Theban warrior
destination for pilgrims. However, the the 13th Dynasty, Avaris was gradually god, at Medamud, north
13th Dynasty was essentially a time when taken over by Canaanites, who already of Thebes. In this relief
the authority of the kings broke down and Egypt controlled much of the southern Levant. When the from the temple, the king is
shown worshipping Montu,
fell under the control of foreign rulers. 13th Dynasty finally drew to a close, these Canaanites alongside the god Amen.
proclaimed themselves kings based in the eastern
The Hyksos Delta, but they harbored ambitions to control the
During the 12th and 13th Dynasties, large numbers whole of Egypt. At some stage, they controlled great
of Asiatics arrived in Egypt. Some were seminomadic swathes of territory, including the Nile Valley and
people, and others were slaves that Egyptian soldiers Delta and areas to the south of Thebes.

ASIATICS AT BENI HASAN

Excavations carried out at the site of Tell ed-Daba

(Avaris) in the eastern Delta have produced the most
telling evidence of Asiatics being in Egypt during the
Late Middle Kingdom. The immigration of people from
the east was not, however, a sudden phenomenon. Small
groups of Asiatics had been making their way into Egypt
throughout the Middle Kingdom, as this scene from the
tomb of Khnumhotep II at Beni Hasan shows. It depicts
a band of colorfully dressed Aamu Asiatics, led by a man
named Absha. The metalworking equipment strapped to
one of the donkeys suggests that they might have been
a group of itinerant tinkers.

AN ASIATIC FAMILY IN EGYPT

These Canaanite kings later became known as the formidable power in their own right, as shown by
Hyksos, a term that comes from an Egyptian word the increasing size of Kerma (one of the largest
meaning “rulers of foreign lands,” and they formed archaeological sites in ancient Nubia). The Kushites
the 15th Dynasty. (Very little is known about the 14th took control of the Egyptian fortresses in Nubia and
Dynasty.) The Hyksos were probably few in number claimed the region for themselves. The danger to
compared to the native population of Egypt, but Egypt was clear—the Kushites wanted to expand their
they nevertheless ruled for around a century. They territory, so southern Egypt was now vulnerable.
presented themselves as kings of Egypt and inscribed
their names in royal cartouches in monumental texts, The 16th and 17th Dynasties
just as the kings before them had, possibly to convince The Hyskos’ domination of northern Egypt led to
the Egyptians under their control that not much had the end of the 13th Dynasty, and they ruled as the
changed. The best-known Hyksos rulers were Sheshi, 15th Dynasty. Meanwhile, the 16th Dynasty, the true
Khyan, and Apepi. successors of the 13th, ruled southern Egypt from
Thebes, with around 14 kings over a period of 60
The rise of Kush or 70 years. This dynasty was followed by the 17th.
The 13th Dynasty kings also failed to follow the Founded by Rahotep, a king of unknown origin, this
exhortations of Senwosret III, who commanded on new Theban dynasty also had a rapid succession of
his stelae at Semna that Egypt should maintain its kings, but it clearly had a mission: to expel Egypt’s
boundaries in Nubia forever. Instead, Egypt gradually foreign rulers and to reunite the country under its
lost control over Lower Nubia, especially in the face leadership. When it eventually achieved this, the 17th
of aggression from the Kushites, who were now a Dynasty came to an end and the New Kingdom began. △ Scarab of Khyan
The Hyksos kings announced

“Prince Apepi was in Avaris and all their presence throughout

Egypt by issuing small
scarab seals and amulets.

the land paid tribute to him.” These were engraved with

hieroglyphs of their names
set in cartouches, like those
THE QUARREL OF APEPI AND SEKENENRE of the kings preceding them.
 ◁ Ostrich fan
The tomb of Tutankhamen is
famous for its rich collection
of royal treasures, including
this large gold-covered fan,
which originally held ostrich
feathers. It is decorated with
an image of the king hunting
ostriches from his chariot.

The Early
New Kingdom
c.1550–1295 bce
140 | THE EARLY NEW KINGDOM

The Early New Kingdom

Although King Ahmose was a member of the Theban 17th Kings and built conspicuous monuments in the form of huge
Dynasty, he is regarded as the founder of 18th Dynasty, and temples. These were sometimes additions to temples that
therefore of the New Kingdom. This is because his reign, already existed, especially the Amen-Ra complex at Karnak,
which began in 1550 bce, represented a new beginning for but many kings also built new temples for themselves—their
Egypt. By expelling the Hyksos from Avaris (Tell ed-Daba), mortuary temples. As a result of all this building work, fueled
their east Delta capital, and reunifying Egypt, he ended the by the kings’ desire to be close to Amen-Ra (now the
political fragmentation of the Second Intermediate Period. principal god of the Egyptian pantheon), Thebes became
the most important site in Egypt in terms of monuments.
The Egyptian Empire High-ranking Egyptians continued to be buried in heavily
Ahmose’s military exploits set an example for the kings who decorated tombs at Thebes, as well as at Saqqara, near Egypt’s
followed him, as they conquered territories in Nubia and the administrative capital, Memphis.
Levant, bringing them under direct Egyptian control. In Nubia,
the conquest was total, as the Egyptian forces fought their way A time of change
up the Nile until there were no more opponents left. The new Due to their monuments, which contain extensive
territory that they gained was rich in gold and brought Egypt summaries of their achievements, far more is known
great wealth. In the Levant, Egyptian kings conquered lands as about the individual New Kingdom kings and how they
far north as Syria, but this brought them into conflict with the wished to be remembered than about the monarchs of
kingdom of Mitanni, and later the Hittites. The shifting balance earlier periods. Tuthmosis III, for example, appeared as a
of power between Egypt and these two kingdoms dominated great warrior, and Amenhotep III as a king at a time when
foreign relations for the rest of the New Kingdom. Egypt was a superpower. Hatshepsut was represented as
a successful female king, and Akhenaten as a ruler with a
Monument makers unique religious vision.
The kings of the 18th Dynasty were eager to celebrate their Archaeologists have also, however, uncovered other kinds
achievements, including their military victories, of evidence that reveal some fascinating information about
and to emulate the great buildings of earlier the New Kingdom. These include the ruins of Amarna,
kings. However, these New Kingdom rulers one of ancient Egypt’s best-known cities; diplomatic
also had ideas of their own, particularly with correspondence; new types of burial goods; and paintings
regard to the form that a royal tomb should and artifacts illustrating the lavish lives led by the elite. Most
take. They abandoned pyramids in favor of striking of all was the spectacular tomb of Tutankhamen,
tombs cut into the rock of the Valley of the which was discovered in the Valley of the Kings.

◁ Gold statuette from

the tomb of Tutankhamen
1492 bce Tuthmosis I becomes the 1458 bce Tuthmosis III
first king to be buried in becomes sole king, and
the Valley of the Kings wins the Battle of Megiddo

1550 bce Ahmose 1504 bce Tuthmosis I becomes 1473 bce Hatshepsut, the most
defeats the Hyksos king. He then conquers territory successful female king, takes
and reunites Egypt from Syria to Sudan the throne
 THE EARLY NEW KINGDOM | 141

Carchemish

RHODES 1 Aleppo
Ugarit
CRETE

CYPRUS Kadesh
Byblos

Mediterranean Sea

Megiddo
Jerusalem

Nile Delta Gaza

LOWER Tell ed-Daba 1 Syrians bringing horses as tribute
EGYPT
Siwa
Memphis
Oasis
Gu

Serabit
lf

el-Khadim
of

Bahriya Eastern
Su

Oasis
Desert
ez

Farafra Western
Oasis Desert Amarna 2 Arabian
UPPER Desert
Ri
ve

EGYPT
rN
ile

3 Thebes
Dakhla Kharga
Oasis Oasis
Red Sea

Aswan
First Cataract

The Early 2 Official’s house, Amarna

New Kingdom
Aniba
At this time, Egypt had
extensive international
trade links, which linked Buhen
Semna
the country to regions Second Cataract
in northeast Africa,
Amara West
southwest Asia, and the
Soleb/Sedeinga
eastern Mediterranean.
Sesebi
Third Cataract
Kerma le
r Ni Kurgus
N
R ive

0 200 km
Gebel Barkal Fourth
Cataract Fifth Cataract
0 200 miles

3 Hatshepsut’s mortuary temple, Thebes

1390 bce Amenhotep III becomes 1336 bce Tutankhamen

king. The peak of Egyptian becomes king, and
international power abandons Amarna

1427 bce Amenhotep II 1352 bce Amenhotep IV 1295 bce Death of

becomes king, and makes (Akhenaten) becomes king, Horemheb, the last king
peace with the Mitanni and founds the city of Amarna of the 18th Dynasty
142 | THE EARLY NEW KINGDOM

Expelling the Hyksos

Egypt reunified

The Hyksos rulers had to be defeated and their capital at Avaris captured before
Egypt could be reunified under an Egyptian king. The experience of that war
influenced Egypt’s view of the world during the New Kingdom.

The only effective resistance to foreign powers trying ▷ Ahmose I ax Ahmose I in the
form of a sphinx
to carve up Egypt in the Second Intermediate Period One of the most striking
objects in the cache of burial
was mounted by the Thebans, who continued to fight
goods from the tomb of
both the Hyksos and the Kushites. They also claimed Queen Ahhotep was this
to be the kings of Egypt and are now known as the ceremonial gold ax. It
17th Dynasty. The state of Egypt at the time is clearly celebrates the victories
depicted on stelae erected by Kamose, the last of these of her son, Ahmose.
Theban kings. When describing his wars against the
△ Kamose dagger Hyksos, he refers to himself as “sitting joined with an look as if they were made by a Hyksos
Distinctively shaped daggers Asiatic and a Nubian, each man having his own share battle-ax. Kamose himself did not live to
such as this seem to have of this Egypt.” The military struggle was long, hard, see the ultimate victory over the Hyksos.
been prized by high-ranking and sporadic for several generations. The Kamose stelae describe one of the
Egyptian officers during the
war with the Hyksos. This
One of the most telling and gruesome pieces of strategies adopted by the Thebans against
dagger was found with the evidence for this is the body of Kamose’s predecessor, their enemies—they seized control of the
mummy of Kamose. Sekenenre Taa II. His skull was riven with holes that Western Desert oases to prevent the Hyksos
and the Kushites from communicating,
making it effectively impossible for them
AHMOSE, SON OF IBANA
to coordinate their attacks on the Thebans.
Although it was considered inappropriate to depict scenes of battle in private tombs,
there was no reluctance to celebrate a soldier’s career in text. An entire wall of the tomb
of the career soldier Ahmose, son of Ibana, at el-Kab, is covered with an extensive account Ahmose the soldier
of his life spent fighting the enemies of successive Egyptian kings, including the Hyksos, A dramatic piece of evidence for the
the Nubians, and Egyptian rebels. His successes, which brought him royal rewards and loot Thebans’ eventual victory over their
taken from his enemies, made his family rich. This made it possible for him to have a large
and impressive tomb in which to immortalize his achievements. Hyksos and Nubian enemies comes not
from a royal monument, but from an
autobiographical text from a private tomb.
Ahmose, son of Ibana, came from the
town of el-Kab, south of Thebes, and
was a career soldier at a time of intense

“When Avaris was

besieged, I fought on
foot in the presence
of His Majesty.”
AHMOSE AT THE HYKSOS CAPITAL
 EXPELLING THE HYKSOS | 143

military activity. His tomb biography describes how The wings of

Horus, “Lord
he rose through the ranks and was rewarded by of the Sky”
successive kings. A wealthy man, he eventually retired
to el-Kab, where his grandson built a tomb for him.
Ahmose served under Ahmose I, Amenhotep I, and
Tuthmosis I, following in the footsteps of his father,
who had served under Sekenenre Taa II.
Ahmose saw service mainly as a marine, operating
from fighting boats on the Nile. His first posting as a
young man was on a ship named The Wild Bull, but he
also refers to fighting on foot and accompanying the
king “when he rode about on his chariot.” This shows
that new forms of military equipment (chariots only
first appeared in Egypt in the Second Intermediate
Period) along with combined land/water operations
were being employed by the Theban army to defeat
a strong and entrenched enemy.

Egypt reunited
The Thebans managed to drive the Hyksos north
from the territory that they controlled in Middle
Egypt. They then successfully laid siege to the
Hyksos capital at Avaris and eventually captured it.
Egypt was finally liberated from foreign occupation.
This had several significant consequences. The
victorious Thebans were now the kings of a united
Egypt, and they established a new dynasty, the 18th
Dynasty, which would last for more than 250 years.
This dynasty was, however, defined in its early reigns
by continued military activity. It was not enough to
simply drive the foreigners out of Egypt; they had
to be pursued and crushed and their territories
brought under the direct control of a new and
extensive Egyptian empire.

▷ Kamose stela
This is one of two stelae erected by Kamose
at Karnak. They describe details of the war
against the Hyksos during his short reign.

In this cartouche,
the king refers to
himself as Kamose
the Brave
144 | THE EARLY NEW KINGDOM

Weapons and warfare

Military equipment from ancient Egypt

Until the Second Intermediate Period, the weaponry of the Egyptian

army was relatively unsophisticated. That changed when more
technologically advanced weaponry, such as the chariot and
sharper swords and axes, was needed to combat dangerous
enemies such as the Hyksos, the Mitanni, and the Hittites.

Rock-crystal Wooden handle

pommel with bronze studs

▽ Golden dagger sheath ▷ Bronze dagger

Weapons, especially This type of dagger, with its
royal weapons, were distinctive handle, was typical of
sometimes decorated with the Second Intermediate Period
expensive materials, as and early New Kingdom. It seems
this finely embossed gold to have been carried by high-status
sheath for Tutankhamen’s troops and officers.
△ Ceremonial shield
iron dagger shows.
Like many military states, the ancient
Egyptians made some weapons not for the
Bronze blade with battlefield, but for parade and display. This
reinforced central rib
ceremonial shield depicts Tutankhamen as
a sphinx crushing his Nubian enemies.

◁ Arrowhead
Egyptian armies relied on archers for
much of their firepower on the battlefield.
Arrow shafts were usually made from reeds
and arrow heads were made from flint; bone;
wood; and, more rarely, metal.

◁ Tutankhamen’s dagger △ Chariot of Yuya

Although the elaborate Elite chariot regiments in the
handle immediately attracts New Kingdom rode these light, A single shaft
attention, an Egyptian would fast vehicles, drawn by two connected the
carriage to the horses
have noticed that the blade horses. This rare example
was made from a metal even belonged to Yuya, the chariot
rarer than gold—iron. officer who was the father of ▽ Khepesh sword
Queen Tiy. The khepesh, or “sickle sword,” was a
weapon used right across the Near East.
It was particularly favored by Egyptian
kings during the New Kingdom.

Blade and handle made from

a single piece of bronze
 WEAPONS AND WARFARE | 145

Shield painted ▽ Golden flies ▷ Self bow

to look like The Egyptians awarded some items Archers were an important
cowhide of jewelry as military decorations. part of the Egyptian army.
Known as the “Gold of the Brave,” Most bows, especially
they might have included these those for foot archers rather
gold fly amulets. than charioteers, were self
bows—made from a single
piece of wood.

The symbolism of the

◁ Model shield flies is unknown, but
they may have been
and spears
associated with war
These models from the
Middle Kingdom show some
of the typical weapons of the
period, including the large,
Ax-head attached
round-topped shield that was to the haft with
made of cowhide. binding

Spear case also

made of cowhide
Socket for
attachment to
the haft

Carriage for two people:

a driver and a warrior
△ “Duckbill” ax
The modern name for this ax-head is
derived from its shape. Originating in
present-day Syria/Palestine, this Hyksos
ax was more efficient than the D-shaped
Egyptian axes. ▷ Middle Kingdom ax
An example of the relatively
simple technology of Egyptian
weaponry before the New
Kingdom, this weapon has a
long cutting edge attached to
a handle, but it could not be
swung with much force.

◁ New Kingdom ax
This type of ax was a big
improvement on earlier
axes. Its shape, weight,
and curved blade made
it a fierce weapon that
could be swung with real
force on the battlefield.
146 | THE EARLY NEW KINGDOM

A family at war
The queens and kings of the 17th and 18th Dynasties

At the end of 17th Dynasty and the beginning of 18th Dynasty, Egypt was ruled
by a royal family that produced not only warrior-kings who reunited Egypt, but
some of the most remarkable women in Egyptian history.

One of the main assets of the family ◁ Tetisheri stela

that reunified and then ruled Egypt On this stela, King Ahmose makes offerings
to Tetisheri, the “mother of his mother,
in the late 17th and early 18th mother of his father.” Ahmose erected
Dynasties was its women. Royal the stela in a mortuary complex that
women feature prominently on he built for Tetisheri at Abydos.
the monuments of the period,
and this seems to reflect their the wife of Sekenenre Taa I.
status. Up until this time, Tetisheri was the mother
Egyptian royal women had not only of Sekenenre Taa II,
stayed in the background, but but also of his sister-wife,
now they did more than simply support their Ahhotep, and possibly Kamose, too.
husbands and sons and stood alongside them as Sekenenre Taa II fathered 10 or 11 children with
figures of considerable political importance. They Ahhotep and two of her sisters, but his death in battle
seemed to have taken to heart the role of the goddess may have caused a succession crisis. This was because
Isis and wanted to support their own Osiris and/or despite having many children, the next male in line
Horus, possibly to ensure continuity in the royal for the throne, his son Ahmose, was too young to
family at a time when Egypt was constantly at war assume the role of a fighting monarch. The crown
and the king was always at risk of being killed. therefore seems to have passed to Kamose, who may
have been Ahmose’s uncle. When Kamose died just
The vulture’s Complex line of succession three years later, the throne passed to Ahmose, who
spread wings form
the arm bracelet
The woman who was recognized by later followed family tradition and married one of his
generations as the great matriarch of this sisters, Ahmose-Nefertari.
family was Tetisheri,
Powerful women
Ahmose was particularly eager to honor the female
members of his family. He built a mortuary complex
Gold inlaid with
lapis lazuli, for his grandmother, Tetisheri, at Abydos and
turquoise, and recorded on a stela there that this was in addition to
carnelian insets
the tomb that he had already built for her at Thebes.
In the 18th year of his reign, he also set up a stela at
Karnak, on which he described his mother, Ahhotep,
as someone who had controlled the Theban army,
◁ Armlet of Ahhotep
expelled rebels, and pacified Upper Egypt. Ahhotep’s
This gold armlet belonged to part in this, unusual for a queen, demonstrates not
Ahhotep. The vulture was an just her forceful nature, but also the important role
appropriate symbol for her. The that royal women had played in the struggle against
goddess Nekhbet was depicted
the Hyksos (see pp.142–143).
as a vulture and was one of two
goddesses, known as the Two
The seven children of Ahmose and Ahmose-
Ladies, who symbolized Upper Nefertari included the next king, Amenhotep I,
and Lower Egypt. and his sister-wife, Merytamen, who may have died
 A FAMILY AT WAR | 147

young. On his monuments, Amenhotep I is often

shown alongside his mother, who was still clearly
a formidable presence at court. Amenhotep did
not remarry, and when he died without an heir,
the throne passed to an experienced soldier named
Tuthmosis, whose origins are not clear.
Tuthmosis I may have been one of Amenhotep I’s
trusted courtiers, but he might also have been the
grandson of Sekenenre Taa II through one of the lesser
princes whom Sekenenre had fathered. Whatever his
origins, Tuthmosis’ marriage to Mutnofret, another
one of Amenhotep I’s sisters, gave him a claim to be
a member of the royal family of the 18th Dynasty. In
fact, he was the first in a long line of kings that would
rule Egypt until the death of Tutankhamen more than
170 years later.

AHMOSE-NEFERTARI, QUEEN AND GODDESS

Queen Ahmose-Nefertari appears in many works of art

from the Ramesside Period, especially at Thebes, where
she was worshipped as a local deity, alongside her son
Amenhotep I, as a protectress of the Theban Necropolis.
This may have been because Thebes became a royal
burial place in the early New Kingdom. Nowhere is the
worship of the goddess Ahmose-Nefertari more apparent
than at Deir el-Medina, where her image often features
on stelae used for private worship. She also appears on
the walls of private tombs at Thebes, such as the one
below from the tomb of Kynebu. A priest, Kynebu lived
during the reign of Ramesses VIII, four centuries after
Ahmose-Nefertari’s death.

The name of
Ahmose-Nefertari
within a cartouche

Vulture
headdress of a
Great Royal Wife

TOMB PAINTING OF
AHMOSE-NEFERTARI

◁ Ahhotep’s coffin
The tomb of Queen Ahhotep was discovered in the
Dra Abu el-Naga cemetery at Thebes by Auguste
Mariette in 1858. It contained a magnificent collection
of objects, including this gilded coffin.
148 | THE EARLY NEW KINGDOM

△ Ramose and Meryptah

The tomb of Ramose, the Overseer of Horses, from the late 18th Lotus flower held Broad, beaded collar
Dynasty is a masterpiece of relief work. It shows how elite men by Meryptah worn by men and women
and women of this period liked to be seen—with elaborate at the time
hairstyles and jewelry and strongly emphasized eyes.
 HAIR AND COSMETICS | 149

Hair and cosmetics

Keeping young and beautiful

The pictures of men and women on the walls of their tombs, and the range
of beauty products and accessories placed within the tombs, show how
important it was to the Egyptians to look their best.

Elite Egyptians were not only generally fell in wavy strands past their shoulders and women’s
portrayed as being young and physically hair was even longer, but these were just the major
fit—statues and paintings of them also trends, and there were considerable innovations and
emphasize that they were the proud variations in hairstyles throughout every period.
owners of the latest hairstyles. Many
of these hairstyles, however, were Toiletries and cosmetics
probably wigs, as most men wore their The Egyptians did not wear perfume in the modern
natural hair shortly cropped. Wigs were sense of an essential oil mixed with alcohol, but used △ Copper mirror
possibly the best way to reconcile people’s a range of oils and fats that they blended with fragrant Egyptian mirrors were simple
disks of metal—usually
wish to have an elaborate and sometimes floral scents, including lotus and henna. Frankincense copper, but occasionally
extremely heavy hairstyle with the intense and myrrh were also used. silver—that were polished to
heat of the Egyptian climate. Both men and women wore makeup. Eye makeup provide a good reflection of
was common, especially as it was thought to be good someone’s face. Their handles
Changes in hairstyle for the eyes. Kohl, usually made from galena (lead) or often took the form of a
woman or a female deity.
Egyptian art provides a glimpse of the malachite (copper) ores, was the most popular type
different types of hairstyles that people wore of makeup, as shown by the large number of small,
at different periods. In the Old Kingdom, kohl-filled cosmetic jars that have been found in
women tended to wear their hair shoulder- Egyptian tombs and by the striking images of dark-
length or longer. A popular variation on this rimmed eyes in tomb paintings.
was a wig that was divided into three parts: There is less evidence of other kinds of makeup
one hung down the woman’s back, while the in ancient Egypt, but there is at least one picture of
two on either side were brought forward a woman painting her lips. This can be seen in the
over her shoulders. In the Middle Kingdom, Turin Erotic Papyrus.
women were shown with thick, wavy hair,
whereas in the New Kingdom, long, straight
wigs were popular. Example of wigs found
in tombs from the latter period are often
very large. They would have enveloped the
head, apart from the face, and come down
to the shoulders.
In the late 18th Dynasty and the
Ramesside Period, elite men and women
were often shown with long hair. Men’s hair
◁ Luxury comb
Hair accessories and styling
◁ Tiy’s kohl tube implements are often found
The dark kohl used around eyes was kept in tombs. Many of them were
in various types of vessels. Long tubes decorated with motifs drawn
with applicators were especially popular, from the natural world, such
like this decorative example inscribed as this comb featuring a
with the name of Queen Tiy. sleeping gazelle.
150 | THE EARLY NEW KINGDOM

Empire builders
Warrior kings on the Nile and Euphrates

During the early reigns of the New Kingdom, Egypt conquered vast tracts of land
in the Levant and in Nubia. This was largely in response to the insecurity caused
by the foreign occupations of Egypt in the Second Intermediate Period.

The accession of King Ahmose, his expulsion of ◁ Statue of Amenhotep I

the Hyksos, and the subsequent reunification Amenhotep I successfully continued Ahmose’s
of Egypt marked the start of a new phase of empire-building program. He was also the
patron of the royal necropolis workers at Deir
Egyptian history—the beginning of the 18th
el-Medina, where this statue was found.
Dynasty and the New Kingdom. The new
dynasty introduced many innovations,
including a new royal burial ground in the needed for the occasional military or
Valley of the Kings (see pp.160–161), but punitive action, they were recruited from
other changes had wider implications for the civilian population.
both Egypt and its neighbors. This changed in the Middle Kingdom,
because the conquest of Nubia and the
The warrior king maintenance of the fortresses, built to
Since Narmer, military power had been defend Egypt’s southern borders, made a
considered a key attribute of kingship. professional army necessary. This created
Destroying both foreign enemies and careers for men like the soldier Khusobek
domestic rebels was an aspect of maat, (see pp.120–121), but the number of
or cosmic order, that the king needed to professional soldiers was small in
carry out for the gods, as well as for his relation to the population of Egypt,
own security and that of Egypt. and the upper echelons of society
In the Old Kingdom, however, military activity were unlikely to aspire to a military career.
seems to have been modest in scale. Although in The New Kingdom, by contrast, was much more
art the king was constantly shown smiting his militaristic. The extensive conquests of the early New
enemies, the reality was rather different. Egypt Kingdom, and the need to defend those conquests
had, for example, neither a permanent army nor a against powerful external enemies, made an official
professional officer class, because when troops were army a necessity. Army service became mandatory
for a significant number of Egyptians, and the status
KERMA
of professional officers rose to equal that of priests
and civil servants.
The city of Kerma was the most The king himself played a leading role in this new,
important urban center of Kush. It
appears to have been the capital of militarized Egypt, and he was depicted not just in
some powerful rulers during the the traditional smiting pose, but also using the latest
Second Intermediate Period. The
Kushites did not have a written script,
military equipment, such as the chariot. Royal regalia
so the names of these rulers are not now included the “blue crown,” which was based on
known. The purpose of the ceremonial a military helmet.
buildings at Kerma, such as the tall
mud-brick structure that is known
today as the Western Deffufa, is a Foundations of the empire
mystery. However, an elite cemetery For Ahmose and his immediate successors, the
was found at the site. It contains huge
tumulus tombs in which servants capture of Avaris, important though it was, was not
were buried with their masters. the end of the war against the Hyksos. Immediately
after the sack of Avaris, Ahmose laid siege to the town
 EMPIRE BUILDERS | 151

of Sharuhen for three years. Sharuhen lay in southern crush the Hyksos in Egypt—other Canaanites had to
Palestine, well beyond the traditional borders of be destroyed to prevent further invasions, and once
Egypt. Ahmose was clearly taking the fight to other conquered, their territory had to be held. The same
Canaanites in the region and not just to those who applied in Nubia. The destruction of the Kushite
had occupied Egypt. kingdom was a priority during the reigns of Ahmose,
It is not clear why Egypt developed such a large Amenhotep I, and Tuthmosis I, but it was only under
empire in New Kingdom, but it might have been Hatshepsut/Tuthmosis III that both Lower and Upper
driven by a need for security. It was not enough to Nubia were brought firmly under Egyptian control.

The king’s
statue is shaded
from the sun

Incense is burned
to worship the
king’s statue

◁ Worshipping the
statue of Tuthmosis I
No king extended
Egypt’s borders farther
than Tuthmosis I. His
conquests were marked
by two boundary stelae.
One stood by the Euphrates
at Carchemish (on the
border between modern
Turkey and Syria). The other
was 1,240 miles (2,000 km)
away at Kurgus, in Upper
Nubia (modern Sudan).

Sled on which the

king’s statue is
being dragged
152 | THE EARLY NEW KINGDOM

Hatshepsut
A queen becomes king

One of the most remarkable monarchs in Egyptian history was Hatshepsut,

a rare example of a female king of Egypt. During her reign, she consolidated
Egyptian imperial power and built many important monuments.

In around 1492 bce, Tuthmosis I died. His successors

had probably been his sons by Queen Mutnofret,
Amenmose or Wadjmose, but they had died before
their father. The throne then passed to their younger
brother, who became Tuthmosis II. Following dynastic
precedent, Tuthmosis II married his half-sister,
Hatshepsut, who appeared on his monuments
standing behind him in a suitably queenly pose.
The couple produced a daughter, Neferure, and
Tuthmosis II had a son, also called Tuthmosis, by a
minor wife. It is not known how long Tuthmosis II’s
reign was, but it appears to have been short and he
seems to have achieved little.

The succession
When Tuthmosis II died, the throne passed to his
male heir, who became Tuthmosis III. The new king
seems to have been too young to take control as ruler △ Hatshepsut as a man and a sphinx
of Egypt, and so Hatshepsut, his aunt/stepmother, These two statues show Hatshepsut in the traditional guises
became regent to govern until he was old enough to of a strong male king and a powerful sphinx. Hatshepsut
rule by himself. There was nothing unusual in this; commissioned such statues in order to align herself with
▽ Offering to Amen-Ra
royal tradition and assert her suitability to be king.
On this block of stone from their family had included several strong women who
the Red Chapel shrine at supported their husbands and children. What was
Karnak, Hatshepsut (on unusual was that by the 7th year of Tuthmosis III’s The precedents for female kingship were not
the left) is shown offering
Amen-Ra (on the right) the
reign, Hatshepsut had started referring to herself as a encouraging—notably the short reign of Sobekneferu
two colossal granite obelisks king, writing her name within a cartouche, and giving at the end of the 12th Dynasty—but Hatshepsut
that she set up at the site. herself the throne name “Maatkare.” set about establishing an identity that would coincide
with the traditional role of a male king. On royal
monuments, therefore, she was increasingly depicted
as a conventional, physically fit male king.

Royal fathers
To emphasize her right to rule as king, Hatshepsut
went out of her way to associate herself with her
father, or rather her two fathers—Tuthmosis I and the
god Amen-Ra. Tuthmosis I had been a powerful king,
and Hatshepsut used his authority to strengthen her
claim to the throne. On the walls of her mortuary
temple at Deir el-Bahri, she is shown in a royal
coronation scene in which Tuthmosis I presents her
 HATSHEPSUT | 153

The uraeus on
to the court as his successor to the throne. The role of her brow has
Tuthmosis II in this is not mentioned. Other scenes been damaged
depict Amen-Ra, whom she referred to as “father”
not just in the sense in which kings referred to
themselves as the “sons” of various gods, but as her
real-life father. These two fathers come together in
the so-called Divine Birth scenes on the walls of
Deir el-Bahri, where it is explained that Amen-Ra
was present within Tuthmosis I when he made
Hatshepsut’s mother, Ahmose, pregnant with her.
This ingenious myth provided all the divine and
dynastic justification that Hatshepsut needed to
claim the throne.

Hatshepsut at Karnak
Hatshepsut’s devotion to Amen-Ra manifested
itself in other ways, too. The development of
Karnak, the home of Amen-Ra, had been
a major part of the building projects of
previous rulers of the 18th Dynasty.
Hatshepsut made a point of continuing
her father’s work there, and two of
her projects stand out. One was the
quarrying, transport, and erection of
a series of enormous granite obelisks
at Karnak, whose inscriptions clarify
that their purpose was to honor
Amen-Ra. The second was the
construction of a shrine, now known
as the Red Chapel, at the heart of Karnak.
This was made of red quartzite and black
basalt, and it contained the god’s image.
These monuments were places
where Hatshepsut could proclaim
her close relationship with
Amen-Ra. An inscription on
a statue of herself makes this
clear: “My reward from my
father is life, stability, and
dominion on the Horus-throne
of the Living, like Ra, forever.”

Striped nemes
headdress

▷ Woman king
This statue from Hatshepsut’s
mortuary temple at Deir el-Bahri
is one of several that show her
as king, but with a female body.
Hatshepsut’s status is indicated
by the striped nemes-headdress
that she is wearing and by the
royal titles on her throne.
154 | THE EARLY NEW KINGDOM

Childhood
Little Egyptians

Everything that is known about children in ancient Egypt comes from the art
and literature created by adults. Although it is hard to generalize, these suggest
that the ancient Egyptians treasured their children.

The importance of the ◁ Two girls squabbling

family in ancient Egyptian The artists who painted
New Kingdom tombs clearly
society is often stressed in
found the things that children
religious texts and maxims. did amusing, as in this small
In the school text the illustration of girls arguing
Instruction of Ani, male while adults around them
students are advised to: gather in the harvest.
“Take a wife while you are
young so that she will them how to be good
▽ Seneb’s children make a son for you; she Egyptians. If a boy was
This statue is famous partly
because it depicts Seneb, a
should bear for you while successful at school, he
high-status dwarf who lived you are youthful.” would become the sort of
during the Old Kingdom. While children were fine young person who was
It also shows his wife and certainly considered a a credit to his parents, and
two tiny children, who are social and economic asset in farming communities, to his father in particular. According to the Teachings
standing where Seneb’s
legs might be in a more
there is also plenty of evidence of deep emotional of Ptahhotep, a father should treat a worthy and upright
conventional group statue bonds within families. This might have been partly son well: “Do every good thing for him because
of a family. because they recognized how vulnerable young he is your son begotten of your very being; do not
children, especially newborns, were to illness and separate your love from him.”
death. Ani says: “When death comes, he takes the
infant who is in his mother’s arms just as one Families in art
who has reached old age.” As a result, protective The ancient Egyptians recognized that children were
magic was very much focused on pregnant different from adults, and the special regard in which
women and infants (see pp.120–121). they were held is often captured in art. Children are
usually shown naked, sometimes with a distinctive
Growing up hairstyle—the “sidelock of youth”—and possibly
Most Egyptian sons learned the same trade as with a finger in their mouth. Family groups are often
their father, whether he was a peasant farmer portrayed in statues or on the walls of tombs. These
or a king. Equally, girls were expected to follow artworks affirm the identities of everyone depicted
in their mothers’ footsteps and grow up to and often create the impression of happy families.
take on domestic tasks.
The only children who went to school
▷ Feeder cup
were the sons of elite, literate officials, This remarkable example
and scribes. At school, they learned of a feeder cup is made
how to read and write by using of blue faience. It is
imaginative stories, administrative decorated with
illustrations of
documents, or wisdom (religious)
protective creatures
literature such as the Instruction of Ani that have been enlisted
as models. These not only helped to safeguard the health of
them learn to write, but also taught children who drink from it.
 CHILDHOOD | 155

▽ Inherkau and his family

On the walls of his tomb at Deir el-Medina, the craftsman Distinctive The text identifies this
Inherkau is shown surrounded by different generations of hairstyle typical girl as Inherkau’s
his family. He appears to be especially fond of the three of a child grandchild
grandchildren who are standing and kneeling at his feet.
156 | THE EARLY NEW KINGDOM

Hatshepsut’s temple
A monument built on history and myth

Hatshepsut’s main monument was her mortuary temple at Deir el-Bahri, where
she commemorated her achievements and her relationship with the gods, notably
Amen-Ra, in texts and reliefs that blend historical and mythical events.

Hatshepsut’s 15-year reign was filled with impressive especially when he is depicted as tutor to Princess
achievements, the greatest being that as a female Neferure, a position of great trust. He also seems to
monarch she was able to hold on to power for so long. have been involved in building Hatshepsut’s mortuary
Unlike other female monarchs, such as Sobekneferu temple at Deir el-Bahri, as the project’s Controller of
and Twosret, Hatshepsut did not take the throne at Works. Known as Djeser-Djeseru, the “Holy of Holies,”
the end of a dynasty, but in the middle of the 18th this magnificent temple was the most important
Dynasty. She had the ongoing problem of Tuthmosis III, building of Hatshepsut’s reign.
the “rightful” king, becoming old enough to replace
her one day, but her short-term solution was to Deir el-Bahri
portray him on her monuments, especially at Karnak, The site that Hatshepsut chose for her temple was
as a partner king. Co-regency between older and unusual but not unique, as it was built alongside the
younger rulers was fairly common at the time. temple-tomb of Nebhepetre Montuhotep II, which
Hatshepsut could not rule alone, however, and she may have partly inspired her. Rising in a series of
depended on the loyalty of high-ranking government terraces at the foot of the Theban mountain, Djeser-
officials. The most prominent of these was Senenmut, Djeseru is one of the most beautiful buildings created
whose title, “Overseer of the Granaries of Amen,” by an Egyptian king. It was where Hatshepsut was to
obscures the key role he played at court. His statues be celebrated after her death, but it also had another
portray him as a loyal servant of King Hatshepsut, purpose—to justify her kingship. The building
included a chapel dedicated to her father, Tuthmosis I,
△ Senenmut and and chapels linking Hatshepsut with Osiris and Ra.
INCENSE TREES FROM PUNT
Princess Neferure Most important of all, the central shrine on the
Senenmut owned an Hatshepsut did not just describe her expedition to Punt highest level of the temple was built to house the
extraordinary number of on the walls of Deir el-Bahri, she also illustrated it in a
statues, often made from series of vivid reliefs. Punt’s strangeness was conveyed barque that carried the statue of Amen-Ra of Karnak
expensive stone. These by images of its unfamiliar flora and fauna, the odd- to the temples on the west bank during the Beautiful
were probably gifts from looking people who lived there, and their houses built Festival of the Western Valley. Scenes on the walls
on stilts. Most important of all were the pictures of the
Hatshepsut and allowed him of the temple’s terraces depict key moments of
incense trees. These are shown being placed in baskets
to show how close he was to and carried to ships to be taken back to Egypt. Hatshepsut’s life, including her divine birth, obelisks
the king and her daughter.
being taken to Karnak, and the expedition to Punt.

The land of Punt

No one knows exactly where the land of Punt was,
but it was somewhere to the south of Egypt and could
only be reached by sea. It may have been in present-
day Eritrea, Somalia, or even southwest Arabia. Punt
was famous above all for its trees, which produced the
sweet-smelling incense that was such an important
part of religious ritual in Egypt.
Previous kings had sent expeditions to Punt, but
Hatshepsut’s expedition was vitally important to her,
because the incense (and the trees that produced it)
taken back to Egypt was destined for rituals dedicated from the tomb and buried elsewhere, and many △ Deir el-Bahri
to the worship of Amen-Ra, another example of her images of Hatshepsut—her statues and the paintings Nestling in a desert bay on the
west bank at Thebes, Hatshepsut’s
close relationship with her divine “father.” of her on the walls of her temple—were destroyed.
mortuary temple rises in a
This destruction is generally attributed to Tuthmosis harmonious series of elegant
Death, burial, and legacy III, who seems to have tried to erase Hatshepsut’s terraces. Its innermost rooms are
Hatshepsut was buried in the Valley of the Kings in a legacy during the later part of his reign. cut into the Theban mountain itself.
tomb with a long, undecorated, curving corridor that
led to her burial chamber. She apparently intended to
be buried alongside Tuthmosis I in a pair of matching
stone sarcophagi. The new king, Tuthmosis III,
however, seems to have harbored ill feelings toward
the woman who had barred him from active kingship
for so long. The body of Tuthmosis I was removed

“I have made for him

a Punt in his garden ◁ Hatshepsut and
Tuthmosis III

at Thebes, just as he This relief on the exterior

of the Red Chapel at Karnak

commanded me.”
shows identical images
of both Hatshepsut and
Tuthmosis III, distinguished
only by their names, although
HATSHEPSUT DESCRIBES THE PLANTING one is an older woman and
OF INCENSE TREES FOR AMEN-RA the other a young man.
158 | THE EARLY NEW KINGDOM

Thebes
The monumental capital of the New Kingdom

The ancient city of Thebes is one of the richest archaeological sites in the
world. It is a treasure trove of monuments, which include royal temples,
decorated tombs, and even workers’ houses.

The monumental landscape at Thebes was shaped by Kingdoms were keen to enhance their native city by
two key factors, especially during its heyday in the building monuments of national importance there.
New Kingdom. The first of these was its geography. Chief among these was Karnak, the home of Amen,
Most other Egyptian cities were built either to the the Thebans’ local—and later Egypt’s national—god.
west or the east of the Nile (such as Memphis and
Amarna respectively), but Thebes was cut in half by The east bank
the river and had important monuments on each side. Most of the population of Thebes lived on the east
It is often said that the eastern bank belonged to the bank. The houses that once stood there have mostly
“land of the living” and the west to the “land of the gone, but the great monuments that were built around
dead.” Although this is partly true, it is a simplification. them are still there. The largest of these by far is the
Amenhotep III, for instance, built an enormous palace Karnak complex, at the northern end of the city. This
complex at Malqata, on the west bank. consisted of the huge temple of Amen (later Amen-
The second major factor in Thebes’ development Ra), plus a temple for his wife, Mut, and one for the
was its history. In the Old Kingdom, it had been god Montu. Together, these temples formed one of
something of a backwater in the south of Egypt, the largest religious complexes in the world.
but during the First Intermediate Period, Theban As Amen-Ra had become the patron god not just of
rulers came to the fore and eventually unified Egypt Thebes, but also of the Egyptian empire, vast resources
under the Middle Kingdom. It was Theban kings, too, were poured into Karnak and successive kings aimed
who reunified Egypt after the Second Intermediate to equal or surpass the works of their predecessors.
Period to found the New Kingdom. Both of these Much of the Middle Kingdom temple was removed
achievements gave the city a huge amount of prestige, during enlargements carried out in the New Kingdom,
and the Theban kings of both the Middle and New but it is clear that most of the rulers of both periods

▷ Plan of Thebes
The distribution of the
main archaeological sites at
Thebes shows the difference Valley of the Kings
Mortuary
temple of Mortuary temple
between the monuments Hatshepsut of Seti I
on the east and west banks
of the Nile. The west side Mortuary temple
of Merenptah
is dominated by tombs
and mortuary temples. Deir el-Medina Mortuary temple of Ramesses II

Mortuary temple of Precinct

Valley of Amenhotep III of Montu
the Queens
Colossi of Memnon

Mortuary temple Precinct

◁ Luxor Temple obelisk of Amen
and palace of
The Theban kings put an Palace of Ramesses III
N Precinct
enormous amount of Amenhotep III
of Mut
resources into building
0 1 km
monuments at Thebes.
Luxor Temple
This gigantic obelisk was 0 1 mile
raised at Luxor Temple.
 THEBES | 159

△ View of Luxor added to the Karnak complex. To the south of the city As well as requiring a tomb, each king also needed a
All of the temples at Thebes stood Luxor Temple, which faced north and served as mortuary temple where his cult could be celebrated
have suffered some form of
a subsidiary of the complex. During the annual Opet for eternity. These mortuary temples also had an
damage, but the sheer scale
of the remains has attracted Festival, the statues of Amen-Ra, Mut, and Khonsu important connection to Karnak. During the Beautiful
many artists. This view of were carried from Karnak to Luxor Temple in a Festival of the Western Valley, the divine family of
Luxor was painted by the procession visible to all the inhabitants of Thebes. Amen-Ra, Mut, and Khonsu would leave Karnak,
19th-century British artist cross the river, and visit different mortuary temples,
David Roberts.
The west bank celebrating the link between the kings and the gods.
This side of the river was largely devoted to mortuary However, the west bank was not only for kings. On
monuments. These included royal tombs, especially the lower slopes of the Theban mountain, behind and
those in the Valley of the Kings, which was where around the royal mortuary temples, many hundreds
most of the New Kingdom kings were buried. Close of decorated tombs were built for the kings’ high-
to the Valley lay the village of Deir el-Medina, which ranking officials. This ensured that nonroyals could
housed the artisans responsible for decorating the also enjoy an afterlife in the domain of the god
royal tombs (see pp.230–233). Amen-Ra, the ultimate “owner” of Thebes.

Top of the column

is shaped like a
papyrus bud

▷ The sun court

of Amenhotep III
Each king was influenced
by personal preferences
when building at
Thebes. Amenhotep III
was very interested in
solar religion, so he built
this open courtyard at
Luxor Temple.
The Valley of the Kings
△ View of the valley
By the end of the New
Kingdom, the floor of the
Valley of the Kings was filled
with tombs. Today, partly

“The Great Place” due to uncertainty about

who owned them, these
tombs are referred to by
their KV (King’s Valley)
number. KV62, the last royal
Possibly the most famous necropolis in the world, the Valley of the Kings contains tomb to be discovered here,
the tombs of the kings who ruled Egypt in the New Kingdom, the time of its belonged to Tutankhamen.

greatest power. Magnificently decorated, they were once filled with treasure.

In many respects, the rulers of the New the New Kingdom was different from
Kingdom built similar things to their the Middle Kingdom. Whereas the
predecessors in the Middle Kingdom, but 12th Dynasty kings had returned
they made them much larger and better. to the Old Kingdom practice of
During both periods, Egypt was unified building pyramids in the north
by Theban monarchs who went on to build of Egypt, the kings of the 18th to 20th
empires and who regarded Thebes as the Dynasties did not, and chose—with very
home not just of their dynasties, but also few exceptions—to be buried close to
of their patron god, Amen. The expansion
of Amen’s temple at Karnak during the
New Kingdom was therefore essentially a ◁ Guardian deity
The dead king needed protection during his
continuation of the work that the Middle
dangerous journey to the afterlife. This was
Kingdom rulers had begun at the site, but provided by guardian deities, such as the
it was on a far grander scale. There was, one represented by this wooden model
however, one significant way in which found in the tomb of Tuthmosis III.
 THE VALLEY OF THE KINGS | 161

PLAN OF A ROYAL TOMB

“Drawn with outlines, This drawing, on a papyrus kept in the Turin Museum in Italy, is the best-preserved plan of

cut with the chisel,

a royal tomb from the Valley of the Kings. It shows the tomb of Ramesses IV and is likely
to have been drawn when work on the tomb had been completed. The speckled red band
represents the rock of the valley into which the tomb was cut, and the white rectangle

filled with color, and (bottom center) indicates the king’s sarcophagus. The burial chamber is given its ancient
Egyptian name, the “House of Gold,” and is set within four gold shrines, like those found
in the tomb of Tutankhamen (see pp.192–193). The text also lists the measurements of

completed.” different parts of the tomb.

FROM THE PLAN OF RAMESSES IV’S TOMB

Amen, at Thebes. Also, the New Kingdom royal tombs

at Thebes were not like the imposing structures of the
past—they were meant to be hidden. One possible
reason for this is that the earlier tombs had been
broken into and plundered. It seems that neither the PLAN OF RAMESSES IV’S TOMB
thick stone masonry of the Old Kingdom pyramids
nor the cunning internal design of the later Middle
Kingdom pyramids had been sufficient to keep Pyramid Texts of the Old Kingdom (see pp.70–71),
robbers out and protect the bodies and burial goods but the New Kingdom texts provide a much more
of the tomb owners within. coherent account of the journey that the dead king
had to undertake before he could be reunited with
Hidden tombs Osiris and Ra.
The new site for the royal tombs was the Valley of During the New Kingdom, tombs in the Valley
the Kings, which cut through the Theban mountain became increasingly large, partly because their walls
and was difficult to access. The tombs were dug in and ceilings had to provide enough space for the
unlikely parts of the valley, and once sealed, they were extensive religious texts required. Paradoxically,
effectively invisible. The words of the official Ineni, the smallest tombs tend to belong to powerful 18th
architect for Tuthmosis I, testify to this secrecy. In the Dynasty kings, while some of the largest belong to the
autobiography inscribed in his tomb, he says that he, weaker rulers of the 20th Dynasty. Ramesside royal
“Oversaw the excavation of the tomb of His Majesty, tombs also tended to have large, elaborate entrances,
alone, no one hearing, no one seeing.” which suggests that secrecy was no longer as
The location of these tombs could not, however, important in the late New Kingdom.
have been entirely secret. Teams
of workers were needed to
build them, and they were
housed in the village of Deir
el-Medina. They referred to
their place of work as “The
Great Place” or “The Valley.”

Decorating royal tombs

The tombs in the Valley of the
Kings were in some ways
◁ Interior of KV11
similar to the royal pyramids, The tomb of Ramesses III
with multiple corridors and (KV11) is one of the best
rooms that eventually led to examples of a large New
the king’s burial chamber. The Kingdom tomb. This pillared
hall is inscribed and painted
internal walls of the rock-cut
with colorful scenes showing
tombs in the Valley of the Kings Ramesses making offerings
were covered with colorful to the gods of the afterlife,
scenes and texts similar to the especially Osiris.
The tomb of Ramesses IV
By the 20th Dynasty, Egyptian kings had long abandoned
the idea of building secret royal tombs in the Valley
of the Kings. Instead, they focused on building large and
impressive tombs there. For some of the Late New Kingdom
kings, such as Ramesses IV, it was their only impressive
monument. This is the chamber in which Ramesses IV was
buried. It is richly decorated with scenes and texts to ensure
that the king passed successfully to the next life, but as in
many other tombs in the Valley of the Kings, Ramesses IV’s
sarcophagus was smashed and looted by robbers.
 164 | THE EARLY NEW KINGDOM

Consolidating the empire

Tuthmosis III and Amenhotep II

The reigns of Tuthmosis III and Amenhotep II were vital in the development of
Egypt’s empire. Through war and diplomacy, these kings crushed the Canaanites,
neutralized Mitanni, and brought all of Nubia under the imperial yoke.

Despite the military achievements of the first kings the Canaanites. He achieved a stunning victory
of the 18th Dynasty, the Levant remained a thorn in outside the walls of Megiddo, and, after a siege,
Asia Minor
Aleppo
Egypt’s side. Far from being subjugated, the Canaanite captured the city and the Canaanite leaders within it.
Kadesh
cities of the southern Levant (an area in the Middle
Mediterranean Sea
Megiddo East) continued to cause trouble for Egypt. Major War and peace with Mitanni
movements of people during the Second Intermediate To consolidate his victory at Megiddo, Tuthmosis III
Period had also led to the emergence of a new power carried out a series of campaigns over the following
Ar
ab

Western in the region between the River Euphrates and the years, culminating in an invasion of Mitanni itself.
ia

Desert Thebes
River Balikh. This was the kingdom of Mitanni. However, the Mitannians retreated deep into their
n

N
Pe
il e

Re

own territory, leaving Tuthmosis III far from his lines

ni
rN

dS

ns
ve
Ri

Mitanni of communication and forcing him to withdraw. In

ul
ea

Kerma
a

Kurgus
0 200 km During its relatively short history, Mitanni faced fact, the Egyptian and Mitannian forces never met in
0 200 miles numerous problems with its neighbors, including the battle at all. Instead, the Mitannians continued to stir
military ambitions of the first kings of the 18th up insurrection within Egypt’s Levantine empire,
△ The Egyptian Empire Dynasty. Tuthmosis I’s campaigns in Syria and the making it necessary for Tuthmosis III’s successor,
By the end of the reign of erection of his boundary stela on the Mitannian Amenhotep II, to continue carrying out sporadic
Tuthmosis III, Egypt had not border on the Euphrates were regarded by the punitive military campaigns in the region.
just conquered vast swathes Mitannians as a clear provocation and threat. In This stand-off between Egypt and Mitanni was
of neighboring territory but
response, they encouraged the Canaanites who were resolved during the reign of Amenhotep II, who
had created an empire that
strengthened its security
under Egyptian control to rebel against their masters, signed a peace treaty with his enemy. By then,
and gave it an invaluable which they were more than willing to do. Mitanni was facing more pressing problems,
source of revenue. During the latter part of Hatshepsut’s
reign, the Mitannian client states of
Kadesh and Tunip expanded their
areas of control, pushing westward
toward Byblos and southward.
When Hatshepsut died, the ruler
of Kadesh, possibly sensing an
opportunity, began to gather a
substantial Canaanite coalition at
the city of Megiddo (Armageddon).
Tuthmosis III took decisive action,
leading an Egyptian army against

▷ Tuthmosis III, warrior-king

The best sources of information about
the campaigns of Tuthmosis III are the
accounts that the king inscribed on
the walls of the temple of Karnak. Here,
he is shown crushing his enemies.
especially from its western neighbors, the Hittites. temple of Karnak provide evidence of this subjugation. △ Slain enemies
It was therefore to its advantage to make a quick peace In the 31st year of Tuthmosis III’s reign, both Wawat The destruction of its
enemies was a popular
with Egypt. Similarly, the Egyptians were only too (Lower Nubia) and Kush (Upper Nubia) sent tribute to
subject in Egyptian royal art.
happy to negotiate firm borders for their empire, Egypt. By then, an imperial administration—based on This vivid relief, which was
within which they could do as they wished without that of Upper and Lower Egypt—had been created for reused in a temple built by
interference from the Mitannians. Upper and Lower Nubia. The overall responsibility Ramesses IV, shows Asiatic
for this jewel in the crown of Egypt’s empire was soldiers being killed in battle
with Amenhotep II.
The subjugation of Nubia given to an official known as the “King’s Son of
During the reigns of Hatshepsut and Tuthmosis III, Kush.” With Nubia now firmly under its control,
Nubia seems to have finally been brought under Egypt no longer had any significant enemies on its
complete Egyptian control. Kerma was captured, southern border, freeing it to concentrate its full
Upper Nubia (as far as the Fourth Cataract) was military attention on the Levant.
turned into an Egyptian province, and
Tuthmosis III set up a boundary stela
beside that of his grandfather at Kurgus.
The lists of all the tribute-bringing lands
that are carved onto the walls of the

▷ Ivory wrist guard

Despite enjoying a generally peaceful reign,
Tuthmosis IV still had images made of himself
as a mighty warrior. This ivory wrist guard,
which was found at Amarna, shows the king
in the classic pose of smiting an enemy.
166 | THE EARLY NEW KINGDOM

Theban tombs
Portals to the afterlife

The private tombs that were built during the New Kingdom shared some
of the features of their Old and Middle Kingdom predecessors. However,
they also had their own unique characteristics.

In the Old Kingdom, the largest and ◁ Cosmetic box from the tomb of Kha
best-decorated private tombs belonged Although most New Kingdom tombs were robbed in
antiquity, some retained their contents until modern times.
to members of the court, so they were
They demonstrate that people were buried with their
built at the Saqqara necropolis, near most prized everyday possessions.
the capital, Memphis. In the Middle
Kingdom, such high-class tombs
could also be found in the provinces. featured an offering chapel and
This was due to the fact that local an adjoining burial chamber.
governors had gained a measure of However, local variations of
independence from the king, so they this style also appeared at
could afford to build their own tombs. Thebes and elsewhere.
The best examples of these are the △ Painting from the
tomb of Nebamun
rock-cut sepulchers built by the nomarchs T-shaped tombs Some of the paintings
of Middle Egypt. The style of the earliest tombs of the produced for the Theban
18th Dynasty was inspired by that of a small tombs are clearly the work
Saqqara and Thebes number of Middle Kingdom rock-cut tombs that had of highly skilled artists.
The painter of this gaggle
In the New Kingdom, Saqqara once again became been built into the Theban mountain. These tombs
of geese at the tomb of
an important cemetery for Memphis-based officials. are sometimes called saff tombs (from an Arabic Nebamun had an excellent
However, the best-preserved private tombs, like word meaning “row”) because of their wide, pillared, grasp of composition.
those of the kings, were built at Thebes. These portico entrances. Behind these very visible parts
sepulchers belonged to high-ranking members of the of the offering chapel, a deep corridor led straight
administration—such as civil servants, priests, and into the rock so that, from above, the tomb looked
military officers—who were often buried in family like an upside-down letter “T.” This Middle Kingdom
or occupation-based groups. Most of their tombs design was adopted by New Kingdom architects,
retained the traditional two-room format, which and some of the existing tombs were altered to

Saff tomb
 THEBAN TOMBS | 167

PAPYRUS OF NEB-KED

Although New Kingdom private tombs were designed to

welcome visitors, they were also portals to a life beyond
the tomb. This remarkable Book of the Dead, from the
tomb of a man named Neb-Ked, shows the tomb’s shaft
(left) leading down to the burial chamber. The deceased’s
ba spirit, which lived in the tomb but could leave it during
the day, is represented by a human-headed bird. This is
traveling down the shaft to the burial chamber, which
contains the mummy in its coffins and various burial
goods. Above the chamber, Neb-Ked is shown emerging
into the bright sunlight of the afterlife.

accommodate new owners. A key change in the celebrated the person’s life, the long hall was devoted
design was that the spaces between the porticoes were to their death and afterlife. Here, the wall scenes
sealed, leaving room for a door, which led into two focused on the process of being laid to rest and
narrow rooms. These were the broad hall, which stood then being greeted by the gods, especially Osiris.
just beyond the entrance, and the long hall, which The burial chamber itself was usually quite modest.
contained the shrine. Because of the poor quality of Located beneath the long hall, it was undecorated
the rock at Thebes, the internal walls of these tombs and was just big enough to hold the tomb owner’s
were usually plastered before they were painted. This coffins and burial equipment. It was accessed via
gave the painters a smooth, flat surface to work on. a shaft that was dug either in the tomb itself or in
the courtyard in front of it.
Tomb decoration
The tombs were decorated in a way that was similar Ramesside tombs at Thebes
▽ West bank view
to that of traditional Theban offering chapels. The At Thebes, this basic design evolved over the
The hills to the west of walls of the broad hall were covered with scenes from 500 years of the New Kingdom. The T-shape
Thebes are honeycombed the deceased person’s life. Following Old and Middle was gradually abandoned in favor of a squarer,
with tombs that were built Kingdom tradition, these emphasized the tomb sometimes columned format. By the Ramesside
there for over 500 years. owner’s career. In the largest tombs, such as that Period, the interior decoration had also changed.
The most visible of these
are the saff tombs, which
of the Vizier Rekhmire, a wide range of activities Scenes of the individual’s daily life had been reduced
have characteristically is depicted, demonstrating the breadth of the in favor of images of their devotion to the gods
pillared porticoes. individual’s responsibilities. While the broad hall and their hope of joining them in the afterlife.
168 | THE EARLY NEW KINGDOM

Private statues Hieroglyphic

inscription

People in wood and stone

▷ Block statue of Keret
The block statue was a popular
During the New Kingdom, a huge range of statues of people who were not royal form of statue. It simplified
the cloaked form of a
was created. Most of them served as stand-ins for their owners either to receive human body into a series
offerings in their tombs or to make offerings in the temples of the gods. of flat surfaces. These
were ideal for holding
Yellow flesh tones, inscriptions relating
conventional for elite women to the person depicted.

◁ Idet and Ruiu

The relationships between individuals Heavy wig,
depicted in group statues are usually made popular in
the late New
clear in the texts inscribed on them. This is
Kingdom
not the case with this statue of two ladies,
whose connection remains a mystery.

Necklace

△ Yuny and Renenutet

This statue of a husband and wife
from the city of Asyut shows the pair
dressed in the most fashionable
clothing, hairstyles, and jewelry
of the Ramesside Period.

Scribal
palette

△ Nebsen and Nebet-ta

The inscriptions on this pair statue identify
Pen in
the couple as husband and wife. He was a
hand
treasury scribe, and she was a musician at
a temple of Isis.

▷ Amenhotep, son of Hapu

This fine example of a scribal statue
shows the famous Amenhotep, son
of Hapu. He is sitting on the ground,
ready to start writing, with a papyrus
spread between his knees.
◁ Minemhab and Thoth
The god Thoth was often worshipped Image of Ahmose-
Nefertari
by scribes, including high officials.
In this statue, a scribe named
Minemhab offers an image of Naos shrine
a baboon to the god.
▷ Penmernab
and ram head
The baboon was sacred This painted statue
to the god Thoth from Deir el-Medina
depicts a man named
Penmernab offering a
model of the head of a
▷ Yuny and Osiris
ram to Amen-Ra.
Yuny from Asyut owned
this naophorous
(shrine-carrying) statue,
which was found in his
father's tomb-chapel.
The shrine contains the
image of the god Osiris.

Staff topped
with a seated
figure of
Amen-Ra
Amulet of
the god Bes

Girdle of
gold leaf

◁ Ramose △ Hapi ▷ Servant girl

On this wooden This unusual statue shows a man and pot
statue from named Hapi squatting or kneeling This wooden,
Deir el-Medina, on the ground or possibly on a ivory, and gold-leaf
the scribe Ramose cushion, with one leg tucked up statuette was both
is shown carrying beneath him. an artwork and a
a pole bearing practical object.
an image of the ▷ Huwebenef The large vessel
god Amen-Ra. Made of wood, this small statuette being carried by
of a child named Huwebenef was the servant girl
one of a pair of child statues found could be used to
in a woman’s coffin. store cosmetics.
170 | THE EARLY NEW KINGDOM

New Kingdom fashion

Dressing to impress

The New Kingdom elite, men and women alike, wished to be portrayed in
art wearing clothes that were both highly fashionable and luxurious. To them,
their appearance was mainly a marker of wealth and status.

Archaeologists have recovered surprisingly few actual

clothes from the grave goods of the New Kingdom
elite, possibly because so many of the tombs were
robbed. However, the tomb paintings and private
statues that have survived from this period give a The pointed
front curves
good idea of what well-dressed, upper-class Egyptians upward on
▽ Statue of
wished to look like in the 18th to 20th Dynasties. some sandals
Akhenaten and Nefertiti
Images of the royal family
often show them in clothing Love of luxury
particular to their position, Overall, the most obvious difference between the
which nonroyals would not clothes worn during the New Kingdom and △ Nefertari’s sandals
have worn. Nefertiti’s finely Ancient Egyptian people of all classes mainly
pleated dress below is,
those of the previous Kingdoms was a
wore sandals woven from simple materials such
however, similar to the greater sense of extravagant luxury. At the
as palm fronds. This pair was found in the tomb
fashions of the period. beginning of the 18th Dynasty, the style of Nefertari, Great Royal Wife of Ramesses II.
of dress was relatively restrained, but by
the end of the dynasty and the Ramesside
Period, it had become sophisticated and People wore their hair longer and in more elaborate
more ostentatious. People no longer hairstyles than previously, and jewelry, especially
wore the simple sheath dresses the colorful broad collars worn by both men and
popular in the Old and Middle women, were more detailed and opulent.
Kingdoms, but long, loose outfits
whose decorative effect was largely Occasion dressing
created by the pleated linen that The guests at a banquet depicted in a wall painting in
they were made of. These were the tomb of Nebamun, a wealthy official (right), show
worn by both men and women. what elite men and women wore on special occasions
The typical outfit of an upper- in the late-18th Dynasty. The women are all dressed
class man during the Ramesside almost identically in long, pleated linen dresses; long,
Period consisted of a shirt with curly wigs; large, colorful collars; and enormous gold
short, wide sleeves; a long, earrings. The men are dressed in a similar fashion,
tightly pleated skirt; and a loose, but without the large earrings, and their hairstyles
pleated garment like an apron that are not quite as extravagant. Although the guests at
was worn over the skirt. the banquet are shown in their best finery, it is
Women showed their taste and status noticeable that the serving girls are virtually naked.
by wearing long, loose, tightly pleated Their hairstyles and jewelry, however, are very similar
dresses. Color does not seem to have to those of the women who they are serving.
been very important, but both men One intriguing part of the outfits is the cone that
and women liked to be seen in each guest is wearing on their head. There is no
dazzling white linen, which consensus about what these were. They might have
was difficult to maintain, and been cones of perfumed wax that wafted perfume
therefore a sign of wealth. as they melted during the banquet.
 NEW KINGDOM FASHION | 171

A serving girl is This girl is carrying a floral

offering a couple of headband and a bowl of wax
guests a drink for the head cones

Each guest is Broad collar of

△ Banquet scene from the tomb of Nebamun
holding fragrant colored beads Scenes of tomb owners and their friends and families, like this wall
flowers painting from Nebamun’s tomb, are the best source of information
about what people wore in the New Kingdom. The images were
idealized, however, as they were intended to be for eternity.
172 | THE EARLY NEW KINGDOM

Duties of the vizier

The prime minister of Egypt

Although the king was the nominal head of the were so great that the vizierate was split between two
government in dynastic Egypt, the effective head of officials, who were responsible for Lower Egypt and
state in many periods was an official known as the Upper Egypt respectively. The power of these viziers
Tjaty, or vizier. Little is known about the viziers of was at its greatest during the early New Kingdom, but
the Old Kingdom, except that they seem to have been it waned during the Ramesside Period. By then, other
relatives of the king. The viziers of the late Middle officials had gained prominence, especially the High
Kingdom are better known, largely because they Priests of Amen at Thebes.
provided permanence in government at a time when
there were numerous kings. Although viziers were The Vizier Rekhmire
theoretically appointed by the king from the various One of the best known of all the viziers is Rekhmire,
officials who served him, it was common practice for who served under Tuthmosis III and Amenhotep II.
the office to be passed on from father to son. Rekhmire’s tomb is one of the largest private tombs at
The best evidence for the role played by the vizier Thebes, and its walls are inscribed with an extensive
comes from the New Kingdom, especially the 18th text that can also be found in the tombs of other
Dynasty. In this period, the vizier’s responsibilities viziers of the time. This text has two major segments,

△ Judgment △ Tax collection △ Official warehouses

This painting shows Rekhmire sitting in Egyptian taxes were paid in the form of agricultural The goods that were received as taxes
judgment at court. He holds the staff and produce. In this scene, a minor official working for were carefully accounted for and then
scepter of authority and wears the long Rekhmire organizes the transport of a shipment stored in large warehouses. From there,
halternecked garment that was typical of of jars that probably contain wine or oil. The official they were distributed to state employees as
New Kingdom viziers. He was ordered to is scolding an exhausted porter, who has taken a wages, while any surplus could be traded
judge all people impartially and fairly. brief rest from his backbreaking work. for other items.
 DUTIES OF THE VIZIER | 173

“See to it that all is done in accordance

with the law and … done correctly.”
TUTHMOSIS III INSTALLS REKHMIRE AS VIZIER

which are known as the Installation of the Vizier In addition to the Installation and Duties texts,
and the Duties of the Vizier sections. These describe the walls of Rekhmire’s tomb are decorated with
how Rekhmire was confirmed in his office by numerous images and inscriptions of Rekhmire
Tuthmosis III and what his responsibilities were. himself discharging his duties. These provide a
The Duties of the Vizier section makes it clear that fascinating pictorial guide to the life of a vizier in
Rekhmire’s chief responsibility was to make sure the early 18th Dynasty. Needless to say, they inform
that justice was served on behalf of the king. He visitors to the tomb that Rekhmire discharged these
was therefore a legal judge who settled disputes and duties in an excellent manner and to the great
dispensed judgment in court cases, but he was also satisfaction of the king.
responsible for the administration of the major state
institutions. This involved making sure that taxes
were collected and that royal revenues were spent on ▷ Statue of Iuy
Iuy was one of the viziers of the Second Intermediate
royal projects. He was also expected to deputize for Period. His tomb at Thebes contained this remarkable
the king in a variety of situations, such as when wooden statue, which shows him dressed in the long
foreign officials came to Egypt to pay tribute. robe of a high official of the time.

△ Foreign tribute △ Metalworking △ Making statues

A large part of Rekhmire’s tomb is Part of the vizier’s job was to oversee work Overseeing the production of statues,
devoted to images of foreigners bringing on major projects. In this scene, a group of especially the royal statues intended for
exotic tribute to Egypt. Here, in the midst metalworkers is shown pouring molten metal temples, was another responsibility of the
of a procession, a Nubian tribute bearer from a crucible into a large mold in order to vizier. Here, craftsmen climb scaffolding to
brings a giraffe, which has a monkey on cast a pair of huge bronze doors. On the right, add polish and final details to a stone statue
its neck. a porter provides charcoal for the furnace. of the seated king.
174 | THE EARLY NEW KINGDOM

Amenhotep III
King of the Golden Age

The reign of Amenhotep III was one of the high points of Egyptian history.
It was a period of peace and prosperity in which craftsmen produced some
of Egypt’s most magnificent works of art.

Amenhotep III came to the throne at a particularly

fortunate time. He was the latest of a long-established
dynasty of kings, and thanks to the military and
diplomatic successes of his predecessors, he inherited
a rich and extensive empire and a period of peace
with Egypt’s most dangerous enemy, Mitanni.
Amenhotep capitalized on this success during
his 38-year reign. Egypt’s relationship with Mitanni
became closer, as is clear from the Amarna Letters
(see pp.180–181). These show that there was a
strong personal relationship between Amenhotep III
and King Tushratta of Mitanni. Amenhotep also
strengthened his grip on Nubia by building temples △ The Luxor Temple
there. Nubia was where the Egyptians experimented Known as the Southern Harim, the Luxor Temple was built to
with displays of divine kingship, so he built temples at provide a resting place for Amen-Ra and his family during the
Opet Festival, when the king’s ka was regenerated.
Soleb and Sedeinga, where he and Queen Tiy could be
worshipped as gods.
decorated tombs and temples, and exquisite objets
Egypt’s Golden Age d’art and jewelry made from faience, glass, precious
Amenhotep’s reign is often referred to as Egypt’s metals, and semiprecious stones.
Golden Age, partly because of the wealth, peace, It was also a golden age of Egyptian architecture.
and political stability that it enjoyed, but also Amenhotep III built temples throughout Egypt, and
because of the exquisite works of art that although many of these were damaged, destroyed, or
Egyptian craftsmen produced at the time. reused by later kings, enough evidence has survived
These included royal and private sculptures to show the grand scale of his projects. At Memphis,
in a variety of colorful stones, relief carvings, for example, he built a temple for the god Ptah that
and paintings of the highest quality in rivaled the great Amen-Ra temple at Karnak.

SEKHMET STATUES

Very little remains of Amenhotep III’s temple at Kom

el-Hetan, but many statues have been found at the site,
the most numerous being life-sized statues of the goddess
◁ Colossus of Memnon Sekhmet. These Sekhmet statues show the goddess either
This is one of a pair of seated or standing, but each one is inscribed with an
statues that flanked the individual identity, such as Sekhmet the fiery one, or
entrance to Amenhotep III’s Sekhmet, Lady of Imaut. It is thought that there were
mortuary temple. The originally 730 of these statues (two for each day of the
Colossi of Memnon are so week) and that together they may have been used to invoke
called because they were Sekhmet’s help in fighting plague and pestilence in Egypt.
later attributed to the
Ethiopian king who fought SCULPTURE OF SEKHMET
with the Greeks at Troy.
 AMENHOTEP III | 175

“The one who

Blue crown,
originally made
of metal disks

brings plans into

existence, abundant
in monuments,
plentiful in miracles.”
AMENHOTEP III ON HIMSELF

He also erected a series of monolithic quartzite

statues of the god Thoth in the form of a baboon
at Hermopolis Magna, each of which stood at
more than 14 ft (4 m) in height. But the main
focus of Amenhotep’s building ambitions was
Thebes. At Karnak, he extended the temple of
Amen-Ra and that of his wife, the goddess Mut.
He also greatly enlarged the Luxor Temple to make
it a suitable place for the reception of Amen-Ra
and his family during the Opet festival.

Solar religion
Amenhotep III’s afterlife was secured by a
huge underground tomb, which he built not
in the Valley of the Kings, but in the nearby
Western Valley. His mortuary temple at Kom
el-Hetan, on the west bank at Thebes, was also
built on a grand scale, but little of it remains.
A striking aspect of both the Kom el-Hetan
and Luxor temples was the space devoted
to large, open courtyards. These expressed a
particular aspect of theology that fascinated
Amenhotep—the divine significance of
the sun. This focus on the sun and sunlight
as manifestations of the divine increased
during the reign of his son, Amenhotep IV, who
renamed himself Akhenaten (see pp.178–179).

▷ Amenhotep III
The statues from Amenhotep III’s time were
very distinctive. The faces of both gods and
humans were often stylized, with almond-shaped
eyes and pursed lips. In this statue of Amenhotep
III, the king is shown wearing the blue crown,
which was based on a military helmet.
176 |

Pendants from
original crown

QUEEN TIY WITH

HATHORIC CROWN

Inlaid eyes
make the
head look
lifelike

▷ Bust of Tiy
This wooden bust
of Tiy has silver,
gold, and glass
additions. At some
point, it was adapted
and its original silver,
baglike wig was covered.
This gave prominence to the
tall plumes, sun disk, and
Hathoric horns that
emphasize Tiy’s divinity.
 QUEEN TIY | 177

Queen Tiy
Amenhotep III’s great queen

The leading royal consort of the New Kingdom was not one of the queens
of the early 18th Dynasty, nor the famous Nefertiti, but Queen Tiy, Great Royal
Wife of Amenhotep III.

Although Tiy became one of the prominent queens divine being. A temple was built for her at
in Egyptian history, she was not of royal birth. Her Sedeinga, in Nubia, where she was worshipped
parents came from the town of Akhmim; her father as a form of the goddess Hathor. She was also
was the chariot commander Yuya, and her mother depicted as a sphinx and as a form of the
was his wife Thuyu. goddess Taweret.
After the death of Amenhotep III, Tiy continued
Queen, mother, goddess to be active. Tushratta of Mitanni regarded her as an
By the 2nd year of Amenhotep III’s reign, Tiy was influential person, writing directly to her to complain
not just his wife, but his chief queen. She was the about his deteriorating relationship with her son.
mother of four daughters and at least two sons. Her A stela of Tiy found at Medinet Gurob suggests that
eldest son, Tuthmosis, died before his father, making she went there some time after her husband’s death.
Amenhotep IV crown prince. Tiy’s importance, Gurob was a major harim palace in the Faiyum,
despite her humble background, is proclaimed on built to house some of the many royal wives and
a series of commemorative scarabs that Amenhotep III their attendants. Tiy also seems to have visited the
produced to celebrate their union: “Royal city of Amarna, where she is depicted alongside
Wife Tiy, may she live. The name of her Akhenaten in the tomb of her steward, Huya. △ Faience figure of Tiy
father is Yuya. The name of her mother Amenhotep III’s tomb contained a suite Images of Tiy often associated
her with goddesses. The
is Thuyu. She is the wife of a strong of rooms intended for Tiy’s burial with
inscription on this figure
king.” Strikingly, both in this text him. A stone sarcophagus was also refers to the vulture goddess
and elsewhere, Tiy’s name is written prepared for her in Akhenaten’s tomb Nekhbet. Her vulture
in a cartouche. She was also given at Amarna, and items of her burial headdress with its triple
unprecedented prominence in royal equipment were also discovered in the uraei identifies her as both
a royal and a divine mother.
monuments. She is shown alongside mysterious KV55, in the Valley of
the king and even portrayed as a the Kings. The current whereabouts
of Tiy’s body are disputed.
▷ Commemorative scarab Tutankhamen’s tomb contains a
Amenhotep III distributed scarabs to model coffin housing a lock of her
announce events that were important to
him. These events included his marriage
hair, presumably a memento of his
to Queen Tiy, and the creation of a beloved grandmother. He may have
pleasure lake for her. ordered a burial for her at Thebes.

1379 bce Amenhotep III

1390 bce Amenhotep III creates a pleasure lake 1342 bce Tiy possibly
becomes king for Tiy at Akhmim visits Amarna

1388 bce Royal Marriage 1352 bce Amenhotep III 1340 bce Likely
scarab issued dies, and Amenhotep IV death of Tiy
becomes king
178 | THE EARLY NEW KINGDOM

Akhenaten
Egypt’s heretic king

No king of ancient Egypt had a more dramatic impact on the culture of the
country he ruled than Akhenaten. More than three thousand years after his
death, he is still the subject of fierce controversy.

Akhenaten did not expect to be king. His elder THE ATEN

brother, Tuthmosis, was the heir to Amenhotep III,
but when Tuthmosis died before his father, the
younger son, Amenhotep, became co-regent. When
Amenhotep III died, Amenhotep IV became sole ruler
and then changed his name to Akhenaten.

Solar religion and the Aten

Amenhotep III had been interested in solar religion,
but Amenhotep IV developed this interest much Akhenaten rejected the pantheon of gods worshipped by
further than his father. He believed that he had a the Egyptians. His god, the Aten, came from a tradition
special bond with Aten, a form of the sun god that of solar deities but without the human characteristics
of gods such as Ra. The Aten was depicted as a sun disk
appeared as a sun disk whose rays shone down upon with sun rays like arms stretching out to the Earth. Each
the king and his family. ray had a hand, often holding out an ankh—representing
life—to the royal family. This simple image represented
Having a favorite deity was not unusual, but a god who was, in essence, life-giving sunlight.
Amenhotep IV worshipped the Aten to the exclusion
▽ Talatat blocks of all the other gods in the official state religion. In
Amarna was built quickly, the early years of his reign, he tried to persuade the Akhenaten (meaning “Effective for the Aten”). He also
because it was mostly
constructed of small blocks
Thebans to worship the Aten by building temples to began to move his court to a new capital city that he
of limestone called talatat. him at Karnak, but the religious identity of Thebes called Akhetaten (“The Horizon of the Aten”), now
These were much easier to was too closely bound up with Amen-Ra, so known as Amarna. He created the entire city from
transport and use than the Amenhotep had to look for another place in which scratch at a new site in Middle Egypt and carved
large stone blocks that had to worship his god. boundary stelae in the cliffs to the east and west of it.
traditionally been used to
build temples. This talatat
In the fifth year of his reign, Amenhotep did These set out the city’s purpose—to build temples for
block depicts Akhenaten several extraordinary things. He changed his name the Aten, residences for the royal family, a new royal
sacrificing a duck. from Amenhotep (meaning “Amen is Satisfied”) to cemetery, and tombs for members of the court that
Akhenaten took with him to Amarna. Although they
are not mentioned on the boundary stelae, there were
also villas and small houses for the civilian population
of Amarna, and these have been the focus of much of
the archaeological work carried out there.

The image of the king

All of this was revolutionary, but Akhenaten also
changed another fundamental aspect of Egyptian elite
culture—the way in which the king and his family
were represented in art. A series of colossal statues
found at Karnak show that he made this change
early in his reign. Instead of depicting the king
with a conventionally powerful physique, images
 | 179

The sun disk Aten’s

of the Aten names

△ Akhenaten as a sphinx
Not all of the art of Akhenaten’s reign was revolutionary.
The king was sometimes shown in the traditional form of
a superhuman. Here, he is depicted as a sphinx offering the
Aten a pair of cartouches containing the god’s own name.

of Akhenaten show him as a slim, attenuated figure

with a narrow chest, wide hips, and spindly arms and
legs. He is also given a strangely elongated head, a
prominent chin, and full lips. A false beard
There have been many theories about the reasons elongates
for this dramatic change of style in art. Some claim the face

that it was an unusually accurate depiction of an

acute medical condition that afflicted the king.
Others maintain that it aimed to reflect the theology
of “Atenism” in art—Akhenaten wanted to depict
himself as an androgynous figure in honor of
the Aten, who was essentially neither male nor
female. Whatever the explanation, this extreme
Amarna style of art was not just applied to
images of the king, but also to those of other
members of the royal family.
Akhenaten died in around the 17th year
of his reign (1336 bce). He may have been
buried in the royal tomb that he had
prepared for himself at Akhetaten, but he
probably did not rest there for very long.
With Akhenaten dead, there seems to
have been little interest among the court,
or even his own family, in continuing the
revolution that he had started.

▷ Colossal statue of Akhenaten

The new royal image introduced by Akhenaten
is evident in the statues of him. They retain
the traditional regal emblems of the crown,
flail, and scepter; but the king looks neither
male nor female, but a mixture of the two.
180 | THE EARLY NEW KINGDOM

The Amarna Letters

Diplomacy and trade in the 14th century bce

Sometimes, archaeological discoveries, even illicit ones, completely transform

our understanding of the past. The Amarna Letters are just such a discovery.
They enable us to read the actual words that ancient kings wrote to each other.

In 1886 or 1887, illegal excavations at the site of The letters fall into two groups: those written
Amarna uncovered hundreds of hard clay tablets that to or from “brother” kings and those to or from
were covered with strange patterns. These tablets fell Egypt’s vassals.
into the hands of antiquities dealers, museums, and
others and were eventually recognized as letters Brothers and vassals
written in the wedge-shaped cuneiform script of the In the 14th century bce, there was no doubt who
ancient Near East. Today, 382 examples of these tablets the great powers in the Near East and the Eastern
are known and are referred to collectively as the Mediterranean were. These were territories whose
Amarna Letters. rulers regarded each other with a grudging diplomatic
respect and addressed each other as “brothers” in
Writing and filing their correspondence.
The Amarna Letters were found in what seems to Egypt had a special place in these relationships,
have been the “Place of the Letters of Pharaoh,” where because it did not feel threatened by its neighbors,
△ Cretans bearing gifts the king’s correspondence was filed. They cover the as the Mitanni and Hittites did. For this reason,
Scenes of foreigners bearing period from the 30th year of Amenhotep III’s reign everybody wanted to befriend the Egyptian king,
tributes feature in several
to the first year of Tutankhamen’s. The earliest letters and the main point of their “Brother” letters was to
New Kingdom private tombs.
This group of visitors from were probably “live” correspondence taken to Amarna ensure Egypt’s continued friendship and to maintain
Crete, which was never by Egyptian foreign officials.
part of Egypt’s empire, Correspondents seem to have written to each other
was probably engaged in Babylonian, the diplomatic language of the period, ▽ “Brother” and “Vassal” states
in some form of trade. The range of states that took part in the “Brother”
using cuneiform script inscribed on clay tablets. When
and “Vassal” correspondences with Egypt shows
tablets arrived in Egypt, they were translated into that Egypt’s sphere of influence stretched from Turkey’s
Egyptian and copied onto papyrus. Then, when the Aegean coast in the west to the Persian Gulf in the east.
king wrote back, this process was reversed. Almost Mycenaean Greece remained independent.
all of the Amarna tablets are letters received by the
king, but many of them refer to the king’s previous ARZAWA
replies, making it possible to reconstruct the replies
that were sent from Egypt. HATTI
MITANNI
The tablets were left behind when Amarna was
ALASHIYA Ugarit
abandoned, but the papyrus copies were presumably AMURRU
ASSYRIA
taken with the government to Memphis or Thebes. Byblos
APU Eu
ph Ti
Mediterranean Sea Damascus ra gr
te is
s
CANAAN

“May my brother send Gaza

Jerusalem BABYLONIA

to me very large quantities Memphis

Persian
Ara

N Gulf
bia

of gold.” Amarna
nP

0 300 km
en
Re
Ri

ins
dS
ve
rN

300 miles
ul

0
ea

a
i le

KING TUSHRATTA WRITES TO AMENHOTEP III

 | 181

Wedge-shaped
cuneiform text

the diplomatic status quo. In one such letter, for △ Longer letters
example, Tushratta of Mitanni expresses concern These clay tablets are particularly
fine examples of some of the longer
that Amenhotep IV does not seem as committed
Amarna Letters. The one on the left
to Egypt’s special relationship with Mitanni as was sent from King Burnaburiash
Amenhotep III had been. of Babylon to Akhenaten; the one
The “Brother” letters are full of assurances of on the right was sent from King
respect and sometimes refer to gifts that accompanied Tushratta of Mitanni to Queen Tiy.
the letters. These were often personal presents from
one king to another, but some letters intimate trade ULU BURUN
on a significant scale, most notably the large quantities
This replica of a ship that sank off Ulu Burun, on the
of copper sent to Egypt from Alashiya, king of Cyprus. southern coast of Turkey, in around 1300 bce, gives
The “Vassal” letters are also full of assurances, a good sense of what a Late Bronze Age trading
this time given by the rulers of the Levantine cities vessel looked like. The original ship provides the
best evidence for the existence of international trade
that lay within the three provinces of Egypt’s during this period and indicates the importance of
Levantine Empire—Canaan, Apu, and Amurru. These maritime transport for moving large cargoes around
vassals had to express their loyalty in word and deed, the Mediterranean. It is not known where the ship
came from or where it was going, but it contained a
as they were expected to put themselves and their variety of goods that were transported around the
cities at the disposal of the Egyptian state—to provide Eastern Mediterranean at the time. Its most significant
cargo in both weight and value was 354 ingots
quarters for passing regiments of the Egyptian army, (10 tons/9 tonnes) of raw copper.
for example. They were also expected to provide
resources that the king of Egypt required on
demand—technologically sophisticated materials such SHIPWRECK CLOSE TO THE
SHORE OF ULU BURUN
as glass, for instance.
Amarna
The court of the sun king

Akhenaten’s devotion to the sun god called the Aten inspired him to build a
new city where he could worship his god in a setting that was completely free
of associations with any other deities.

Akhenaten decided that Thebes was not the other gods. Akhenaten named his new city Akhetaten,
appropriate place for his religious capital, because meaning “The Horizon of the Aten.” It is better
it was closely associated with the worship of Amen- known today as Amarna.
Ra. His early attempts to build new temples suitable △ Scepter tip
for worshipping the Aten at Karnak were not enough. The temples of Amarna During the Amarna Period,
He wanted to found an entirely new city that would Akhenaten clearly stated his intentions for Amarna artisans made particularly
be the exclusive domain of the Aten, just as Thebes in a series of inscriptions that he carved into the face fine objects out of precious
was the domain of Amen-Ra. of the cliffs surrounding the city. On these boundary materials. This exquisite
foot of a gold scepter is
The site that Akhenaten chose for his new city, stelae, he claimed that his primary aim was to build inscribed with the name
supposedly on the advice of the Aten itself, was suitable places of worship for the Aten. These were of Princess Meketaten.
roughly halfway between Memphis in the north chiefly the House of the Aten and the Mansion of the
and Thebes in the south. It was a large bay formed Aten, which have been identified as the Great Aten
by surrounding cliffs on the east side of the Nile, Temple and the Smaller Aten Temple, which stood
and he selected it mainly because no significant within the Central City. The Great Aten Temple was
building work had been carried out there before. made up of several linked buildings. The Gempaaten
It was a virgin site, free of connections with any (“[The Place where] the Aten is found”) had a
 AMARNA | 183

◁ North Palace conventional pylon entrance but consisted of open

One of the most extensively courts filled with more than 700 stone altars for North Riverside Palace North City
excavated buildings at
offerings to the Aten. The area next to the Gempaaten
Amarna is the North Palace.
It contains inscriptions that was filled with an even greater number of altars, Boundary
stela
strongly suggest it was the which were made of brick. Behind the Gempaaten North Palace
residence of Akhenaten’s stood the Sanctuary, which was probably reserved
eldest royal daughter, North tombs
for the exclusive use of the king and his immediate
Princess Meritaten.
family. The purpose of the Small Aten Temple is not
clear, but it might have been a mortuary temple for North Suburb
Akhenaten. Farther south, the smaller temples of the
Kom el-Nana and Meru-Aten were constructed for Central City
the Amarna queens.

Palaces and tombs

Main City (north)
The main residence of the royal family at Amarna
seems to have been the North Riverside Palace. The Workers’
village
royal road that cuts through the heart of the Central Main City
(south)
City probably ran as far north as this palace. The South
Line of cliffs
road made it possible for the royal family to travel Suburb
in chariots to the Central City, passing the North Kom el-Nana South
Palace and eventually reaching the Great Palace, tombs
which was mainly used for royal ceremonies and
Maru-Aten N
displays. A bridge over the road connected the Great
Palace to the King’s House, which seems to have been 0 1 km
a relatively small residence for the king within Boundary stela
0 1 mile
the Central City.
▽ Palace floor
Akhenaten clearly planned to develop a royal △ Plan of Amarna
Much of the interior cemetery similar to that of the Valley of the Kings at Amarna ran from north to south, to the east of the Nile and
decoration of the palaces Thebes. His tomb was in a deep desert valley to the lying roughly parallel to it. The site includes the desert bay
at Amarna was inspired by east of Amarna. As at Thebes, the elite were buried and cliffs to the east.
scenes from the natural in rock-cut tombs in the face of the cliffs overlooking
world. Plants and animals
found along the river were
the city (again, similar to those at Thebes), while the
popular and were painted lower classes were buried in cemeteries in the desert The people of Amarna
in vivid pigments on plaster. between the city and the cliffs. The texts on Akhenaten’s boundary stelae provide
very little information about the houses, workshops,
and government offices that made up the majority
of the buildings at Amarna. Archaeologists have,
however, unearthed traces of extensive living quarters
that were used by people of all the different social
classes in Amarna. Most of these dwellings were
excavated in the Main City and in the North and
South Suburbs (see pp.184–185).

“I shall make
Akhetaten for the
Aten, my father,
in this place.”
AKHENATEN ANNOUNCES HIS PLAN FOR AMARNA
184 | THE EARLY NEW KINGDOM

House of Ranefer
Beds were often placed
on raised platforms

Roof of wooden beams,

overlaid with matting
A typical New Kingdom villa and mud plaster

One of the great archaeological discoveries at Amarna has been the houses of the
people who lived there; such evidence of homes rarely occurs elsewhere. The large
and complex houses of the elite population, normally referred to as Amarna villas,
are particularly important, as they provide detailed information about the buildings
in which these families lived and, in some cases, worked. One of the best examples
of an Amarna villa, although by no means the largest, is the one that belonged to
the chariot officer Ranefer in the southern part of the main city at Amarna.

▽ Bathroom
Amarna villas included well-equipped and
comfortable bathrooms. Servants probably
carried out tasks such as pouring water over Roofed entrance
people taking a shower and removing the hall leading to
container of waste from beneath the toilet seat. ground floor

Limestone shower tray

with sunken stone tank
or jar for water run-off

Whitewashed
mud plaster

Toilet, including Window grilles,

limestone made from single
toilet seat pieces of limestone

RANEFER HOUSE AND SURROUNDING STRUCTURES

Second story
Although the details of Amarna villas Apartments Small of several rooms
differ, their floorplans have several Bedroom chamber
elements in common, such as a Bathroom
central hall and ancillary rooms. Double doorway
Western hall
Most of the villas also had facilities with jambs and lintels
outside the main house, which might Central hall bearing name and titles
have included extensive grounds and of house owner
Well Stairs to
a chapel. The external facilities
upper floor
attached to Ranefer’s villa included △ Survival of Amarna villas
granaries, a well, and rooms that Amarna is the only city in Egypt where
were probably used for preparing Granaries
Small large New Kingdom villas still exist in
food. These were vital amenities chamber
Probable sufficiently good condition to reveal their
necessary to produce bread and beer
to feed the household. kitchen layout in any detail. Written records show
Stairs to Transverse
rooms that other cities in Egypt, such as Thebes
entrance hall
and Memphis, also had such mansions for
PLAN OF THE RANEFER COMPLEX elite officials and their families, but these
buildings have not survived.
 HOUSE OF RANEFER | 185

Pottery wine jars with

stoppers sealed with mud
▷ Upper story Upper level,
Although none of the Amarna probably
Painted decoration including
villas still have an upper story,
including floral bedrooms
images of houses on tomb walls
friezes
and the presence of staircases
in houses at Amarna show that
they did exist in many cases.

Room possibly used as

an office by the high-
Ground floor,
ranking householder
with windows

Wine jar in
wooden stand

“False door” painted

red with yellow panel,
showing house owner
before a table of offerings

Walls and floors

mostly made of
mud brick

Room containing
evidence of
weaving, where
women produced
linen cloth

Unusual triangular
space (possibly
for storage)

Roofs of large rooms Door frames

supported by wooden usually made
columns from limestone

Limestone or
plastered platform
for jars of water for
washing or drinking

▷ Central hall
The central hall was usually the largest
room in an Amarna villa and was both the
Transverse hall, Food and
an unusually dry goods physical and social heart of the house. It
large room stored in was probably used for various functions,
with columns baskets including family time, entertaining guests,
and business meetings.
 The unique
crown identifies
the uninscribed Missing
bust as that of eye inlay
Nefertiti

Soft plaster
modeling over a
limestone core

▷ Bust of Nefertiti
The “Berlin Bust” of Nefertiti is a
life-size image of the queen wearing
her distinctive tall crown. It was
found in the Amarna workshop of the
royal sculptor Tuthmose. Scholars
still debate whether its purpose was
to be a prototype of a royal sculpture
or an object of worship.
 NEFERTITI | 187

Nefertiti
“A Beautiful One Has Come”

Akhenaten may have been the dominant personality behind the major artistic and
religious changes of the Amarna Period, but he had an indispensable partner in
these changes—the Great Royal Wife Nefertiti.

Today, Nefertiti is one of the most recognizable slightly less important than the king himself.
ancient Egyptians, known through her famous bust Religious scenes of the royal family, for instance,
in Berlin. It is surprising, therefore, that so little is depict a divine triad not of god father, goddess
really known about her. The lack of evidence about mother, and king, as was normal, but of god (Aten),
her origins, importance, and ultimate demise has king (Akhenaten), and queen (Nefertiti). Nefertiti’s
only added to her allure as the most mysterious and role as a reflection of Akhenaten even extends to
beautiful queen of ancient Egypt. artworks showing her with the same distinctive △ Amarna princess
Nefertiti’s name, meaning “A Beautiful One Has physiognomy as him. The unique art style of the
Come,” has led to speculation in the past that she Nefertiti’s disappearance from all records after Amarna Period extended to
the royal daughters, who
was not Egyptian, but possibly a Mitannian princess Year 12 of Akhenaten’s reign (when Amarna may were shown with similar
sent to Egypt as a diplomatic bride. However, most have been struck by plague) led to speculation facial features to their father,
scholars think she was Egyptian and had a sister, about her death, banishment, or transformation but also with these strangely
Mutnodjmet. Nefertiti may have come from the same into Smenkhkare, Akhenaten’s successor. A recently elongated heads.
well-connected Akhmim family as Queen Tiy, and discovered quarry inscription near Amarna shows,
her father may have been Tiy’s brother, Ay. however, that she was still alive in Year 16. She was
Nefertiti is best known as meant to be buried in the
Akhenaten’s Great Royal Wife royal tomb at Amarna,
and the mother of six but her final resting place
daughters. She seems to is unknown.
have been a key figure in
the developing theology
of the Amarna Period (see
pp.178–179). She was one ◁ The Amarna royal family
of the few people apart This stela shows the king,
from the king, for example, queen, and three of their
to whom the god Aten daughters relaxing beneath
the rays of the Aten.
extended his life-giving
High-ranking members of
hands. In fact, art of the society were expected to
Amarna Period often shows worship the Aten through
Nefertiti as being only the royal family.

1352 bce Amenhotep III 1349 bce Akhenaten 1341 bce Princess Meritaten 1336 bce Akhenaten
dies and is succeeded by and Nefertiti move becomes her father’s Great dies and is succeeded
Amenhotep IV to Amarna Royal Wife by Smenkhkare

1349 bce Amenhotep IV 1342 bce Nefertiti 1338 bce Nefertiti

changes his name disappears from all is still alive
to Akhenaten records in Amarna
 △ Floor tiles

Royal palaces
The decorative features of a
palace often emphasized the
king’s role as a vanquisher
of foreign enemies. These
glazed floor tiles depict
various enemies who could
The dwelling places of the kings now be trodden underfoot.

It is easy to imagine that the palaces of the Egyptian kings must have been as
grand in scale and impressive as the European royal palaces of the 18th and
19th centuries, but they were in fact relatively modest.

Although the royal tombs and major temples of stone or wood in places. This means that just like
ancient Egypt were built of the strongest and most domestic houses, very few palaces have survived.
durable materials available—usually stone—the royal Tombs and temples were built to last so that kings
palaces were not. Much like the houses of ordinary and gods could be worshipped for eternity, but a
Egyptians, they were constructed from less permanent king may rarely have stayed in one place for long
materials, usually mud brick, with small amounts of during the course of his lifetime.
 ROYAL PALACES | 189

◁ Medinet Habu palace

As part of the complex of the
mortuary temple of Ramesses III,
this palace may have been built in
Ramesses’ lifetime. If so, he may
have used it both as his residence
at Thebes and also for ceremonies.

king did not need elaborate

suites of rooms while he was
traveling around the country
on business.

Ceremonial palaces
Another type of palace might
be called a “ceremonial
palace,” where different public
or semipublic ceremonies were
carried out in an appropriately
Temporary and permanent residences formal setting. These palaces sometimes had a high
Some of the most interesting information about window, elaborately framed with images of royal
life in Egyptian palaces comes from administrative power, through which the king could look down on
documents that talk about how they were run. loyal officials and reward them. These so-called
They refer to “Mooring Places of Pharaoh,” the Windows of Appearance are often shown in the
places in which the king and his retinue stayed for tombs of officials who had been rewarded in this
short periods of time as they traveled around Egypt. way. One such window has also been found in the
Throughout Egyptian history, the king would be on remains of a small palace attached to the mortuary
the move, traveling around the country on tours temple of Ramesses III at Medinet Habu. Built △ Window of Appearance
This tomb relief depicts a
on inspection, and he needed rest houses in which alongside the great court of the temple itself, this Window of Appearance. This
to stay. This accommodation had to be built quickly, palace would have been a suitable place for a large was an ideal location for the
a short time ahead of the king’s arrival, so they were crowd to gather before the king. king to reward loyal subjects.
not meant to be permanent. The king usually traveled
by boat along the Nile, so the rest houses were THE NORTH PALACE AT AMARNA
probably built close to the river. This explains why
Permanent palaces for long-term occupancy are rare in Egypt, but one place that still
they were called Mooring Places, and also why they has remnants of a group of royal palaces is Amarna. Here, several palaces used both as
have not survived. residences and for public ceremonies have survived. One of them, known as the North
A more permanent form of residence was the Palace, seems to have been the residence of a royal woman, possibly Princess Meritaten.
The palace is a self-contained complex within its own enclosure wall and combines the
so-called “harim-palace,” which provided long-term attributes of a luxurious home, including a large central swimming pool, with more
accommodation for the numerous royal women and functional features, such as stalls for cattle and residential quarters for servants.
their children. The best-known example of this is the
palace-town of Medinet Gurob in the Faiyum. Residential
quarters
Palaces for work
Archaeological remains also indicate that not all palaces Chapel
were primarily royal residences. The palace of King
Merenptah that has been excavated at Memphis, for
example, is essentially a large and complex audience
hall. Based on the architecture of a temple, its layout
meant that a petitioner had to walk through a series
of courts and halls before reaching the throne room,
where the king made his legal judgments. A few
private apartments were attached to this sequence
of halls, but they were little more than a small RECONSTRUCTION OF AMARNA PALACE Central pool

bedroom and a bathroom, which suggests that the

190 | THE EARLY NEW KINGDOM

Tutankhamen
The break with Amarna and new beginnings

Although famous for his tomb, which was discovered in 1922, Tutankhamen
was also an important, if short-lived, king. It was during his reign that the city
of Amarna, and all it stood for, was dramatically abandoned.

The events immediately after the death of Akhenaten clearly laid out on the so-called Restoration Stela,
are hotly debated by Egyptologists, who cannot agree which he set up at Karnak. On it, he describes
on the existence, gender, or identities of some of the the chaotic state of Egypt when he came to the
key figures involved. It is likely that Akhenaten was throne and how he restored all of the ancient
succeeded by Smenkhkare, who was probably his gods to their rightful places.
son and who was married to Meritaten, the eldest Attempts to restore the damage caused by the
daughter of Akhenaten and Nefertiti. The similarity Amarna Period—which had included removing
of Smenkhkare’s throne name, Neferneferuaten, to the name of Amen from many monuments—began
that of Nefertiti, has led to speculation that they during the reign of Tutankhamen. It is less clear
were in fact the same person, but the probable whether actual attacks on Akhenaten’s legacy,
identity of the body found in tomb KV55 (see left) including the fabric of the city of Amarna itself,
makes that unlikely. Whoever Smenkhkare (1338– began in Tutankhamen’s reign or later.
1336 bce) was, he or she ruled for little more than
a year before being succeeded by Tutankhaten, who Tombs KV55 and KV62
was possibly his/her younger brother. Part of this restoration may have included the creation
of the small tomb in the Valley of the Kings known as
The reign of Tutankhamen KV55. It was badly excavated in 1907, but was found to
Two facts suggest that Tutankhaten came to the contain a collection of material that seemed to have
throne as a child—he only reigned from 1336 to come from Amarna. This included objects that may
1327 bce, and the body in his tomb was that of a have belonged to the Amarna tomb of Akhenaten’s
teenager. This means that many of the actions mother, Queen Tiy, and burial goods belonging to his
ascribed to Tutankhaten were in fact those of his wife, Queen Kiya. The most impressive item was a
close advisors, most of whom were the same officials coffin covered in gold, which was probably made for
who had advised Akhenaten. Kiya and then altered later. It
It is remarkable how quickly contained the body of a man
Akhenaten’s innovations were who was comparatively young
△ Coffin from KV55 overturned. Tutankhaten’s name at the time of his death. It is
This coffin may have been was “de-Atenized” and changed tempting to believe that this
used to bury Smenkhkare.
to Tutankhamen, and his queen, was the body of Tutankhamen’s
Its royal cartouches have
been carefully removed and Ankhesenpaaten (another brother, Smenkhkare, which had
its face roughly ripped off, daughter of Akhenaten and been brought from Amarna to
but it is still an impressive Nefertiti), became Ankhesenamen. be reinterred at Thebes.
piece of burial equipment. The city of Amarna was
abandoned and the court was
moved to Memphis. Thebes ◁ Smenkhkare and Meritaten
became the most important The king and queen on this stela,
religious site in Egypt once depicted in the Amarna artistic style,
are usually identified as Akhenaten’s
again, and Amen was reinstated son and successor, Smenkhkare,
as the principal Egyptian god. and Meritaten, the daughter of
Tutankhamen’s agenda was Akhenaten and Nefertiti.
 TUTANKHAMEN | 191

Vulture and cobra

goddesses of Upper
and Lower Egypt
“His Majesty made
monuments for the gods …
building their shrines anew.”
TUTANKHAMEN’S RESTORATION STELA

The cause of Tutankhamen’s death is not known.

His successor, Ay, was buried in a large tomb close to
that of Amenhotep III, but Tutankhamen was buried
in a small tomb (KV62) in the Valley of the Kings.
Ay might have switched tombs, and the larger tomb
may originally have been meant for Tutankhamen,
but the fact that his body and burial goods were
crammed into such a small space ultimately worked
in Tutankhamen’s favor. Unlike larger royal tombs,
KV62 was small enough to be buried under flood
debris in the Valley, so it lay undisturbed until
Howard Carter discovered it in 1922.

◁ Gold funerary mask

This gold mask from Tutankhamen’s tomb
was placed over the head of the wrapped
and mummified king. It is one of the most
spectacular objects from the ancient world.

△ Golden throne
This gold throne was one of the treasures found in
Tutankhamen’s tomb. The back panel shows the
king with his wife, Ankhesenamen. The Aten shines
above them, suggesting that the throne was made
in Amarna before the royal court moved to Thebes.
192 | THE EARLY NEW KINGDOM

ALABASTER CANOPIC JARS

Apart from the coffins containing the body ANNEXE

of the king, the most important object in One of six beds
the tomb was the gilded canopic shrine, found within
which was the main item in the treasury. the tomb
Inside the shrine, an alabaster chest held
the internal organs of the king, stored in Pole from a
a series of four alabaster jars with lids portable pavilion Woven baskets
carved to represent Tutankhamen himself. and pottery jars
Case for
throwing sticks
Carved stoppers
and slings

Chest made
to contain
clothing

▽ Cross-section of tombs
This cross-section of the tomb of
Tutankhamen (KV62) shows how small One of three couches,
it was compared to a more conventional decorated with divine
royal tomb, that of Ramesses VI (KV9), hippopotamuses,
which lies above it. cows, and lions

Stairway and
sloping corridor
Entrance of Tomb of
Ramesses VI’s tomb Ramesses VI

Tomb of
Tutankhamen

The tomb of
Tutankhamen Dismantled
chariots
Stool of ebony
and ivory

Equipped for eternity Boxes containing

preserved joints
of meat

Tutankhamen was buried in the small KV62 tomb in the Valley of the Kings rather Box containing
than the larger tomb being prepared for him, close to that of Amenhotep III in the faience vessels and
Western Valley. Ay took over the larger tomb when he became king on Tutankhamen’s other objects

death, leaving the problem of how to fit Tutankhamen’s immense collection of burial
equipment in the limited space available. Although the burial chamber is well laid out, Sloping corridor
the annexe and antechamber in particular were found filled with wonderful objects (originally filled
piled on top of each other. This chaotic distribution of the grave goods was also partly with rubble)
caused by the activities of tomb robbers, who ransacked these rooms, especially boxes
and chests, looking for small, valuable objects to steal.
 BURIAL CHAMBER | 193

The solar barque

crosses the ◁ Burial chamber
night sky The burial chamber of the tomb was
almost completely filled by the elaborate
containers which housed the body of the
king, making it very difficult to excavate.
The mummified and wrapped body, with
gold mask, was placed within three gold
Baboons coffins, which were themselves placed
represent the within a red quartzite sarcophagus
12 hours of enclosed by four gilded gold shrines.
the night

ANTECHAMBER Three nested

gold coffins

Quartzite
Traveling
sarcophagus
chest with
carrying poles
Nest of four
gilded shrines

Entrance to
the burial
chamber
(originally
blocked)

TREASURY

Wooden statue
of Anubis, god of
the underworld

Jewellery boxes
(robbed in
antiquity)

Large box with Life-size

elaborately guardian figures
painted protect the
decoration entrance to the
burial chamber

Large chest
containing clothing
and weapons
Large wooden
boat models

Main entrance
to the tomb

A series of black
chests containing gilded Coffins for two
statues of the king fetuses (possibly
Gilded figures of The gilded canopic Tutankhamen’s
four goddesses shrine, containing children)
protect the shrine the canopic jars
194 | THE EARLY NEW KINGDOM

End of the 18th Dynasty

The struggle for the throne

At the end of the 18th Dynasty, powerful individuals tried to take the throne
of Egypt for themselves. It was a time when the royal line had failed, after two
centuries of rule by the same family.

The early death of Tutankhamen, who performed by a new king named Ay. It is possible
died without leaving an heir, created a that Ay was Nefertiti’s father. He was certainly a
succession crisis of great complexity. member of the Amarna court and went on to serve
There was no other suitable male of Tutankhamen and then to put himself forward as
the royal family—neither another son king. His bid for the throne will have been made
of Akhenaten nor one of Amenhotep III. easier by the absence of another member of
The elder daughter of Akhenaten, Tutankhamen’s court—the ambitious General
Princess Meritaten, had also died. Horemheb, who may have been campaigning against
One possible heir was Tutankhamen’s the Hittites when Tutankhamen died. Ay must have
widow, Ankhesenamen, and it seems been very old when he became king. He reigned for just
that she may have tried to secure the three years, after which Horemheb seized the throne.
throne for herself. A letter addressed
to the Hittite king has been found in King Horemheb
which an unnamed Egyptian queen, Even before he became king, Horemheb had had an
△ Ay in the tomb whose husband has just died, invites the king to send impressive tomb built for himself. Like other high-
of Tutankhamen a son to marry her and to become king of Egypt. The ranking officials of the period who were most active
In his tomb, Tutankhamen
Hittite king sent a son, but he died on his way to in northern Egypt, especially at Memphis, he intended
(center) is shown being
prepared for the afterlife by
Egypt, which did little to improve the already poor to be buried at Saqqara. This ancient Memphite burial
Ay (right). The new king is relationship between Egypt and the Hittites. ground was important again, and the area to the
identified by his blue crown, south of the pyramid of Unas started to fill with elite
and because his own name is King Ay tombs designed to look like temples, with grand pylon
written in a cartouche.
The identity of the king who emerged from this gateways, columned halls, and open courts. In his
crisis is made clear on the walls of Tutankhamen’s own tomb, Horemheb is depicted as a successful
tomb. The dead king is shown having his funeral rites general who took numerous prisoners of war and
Distinctive
Nubian hairstyle
“Behold, Amen has
come to the palace …,
to establish his crown
on his head.”
CORONATION PROCLAMATION OF HOREMHEB

◁ Nubian prisoners
Horemheb demonstrated his military successes
by decorating the walls of his Memphite tomb with
scenes of foreign prisoners being brought to Egypt.
 END OF THE 18TH DYNASTY | 195

Gold necklaces, a royal Royal uraeus added after

reward for military success Horemheb became king

was rewarded by Tutankhamen. When he became Dynasty, however, the relationship between the two △ Horemheb’s rewards
king, however, Horemheb started work on a second superpowers had deteriorated into one of hostility Scenes of being rewarded by
the king were common in
tomb, in the Valley of the Kings, which was eventually and open warfare.
New Kingdom private tombs.
used for his burial. In the meantime, his Memphite Horemheb had no son and wanted to avert a In this fragment of a relief
tomb was adapted to honor his new royal status succession crisis, so he appointed another from his tomb at Memphis,
and uraeus serpents were carved upon his high-ranking military officer, named Paramessu, Horemheb is shown enjoying
previously nonroyal brow. as his heir. This was a wise choice. It ensured the military decorations that
Tutankhamen has awarded
that the throne passed to a military officer
him. Such decorations were
Horemheb and Paramessu at a time when Egypt was at war with known as “the gold of
During his reign, Horemheb continued a strong enemy. Also, Paramessu, who the brave.”
the post-Amarna restoration of Egypt that became Ramesses I, already had a son and
Tutankhamen had begun (see pp.190–191). a grandson. This meant that Egypt had a
Otherwise, he focused mainly on foreign ready-made new royal family, which would
affairs. During the reign of Akhenaten, become the 19th Dynasty.
the Hittites had effectively conquered
Mitanni and taken over its Levantine
empire. At first, this did not pose a ◁ Scribal statue of Paramessu
Members of Egypt’s elite often chose to be
problem for Egypt, as the Hittites were depicted as humble scribes. However, as
careful not to impinge on Egyptian these inscriptions show, their high status
territory. By the end of the 18th was also made abundantly clear.
 ◁ Coffin of Ahmose
Ahmose founded the New
Kingdom by defeating the
Hyksos and reunifying Egypt.
His coffin (left) was found with
the bodies of many other kings
in the Deir el-Bahri cache,
hidden from tomb robbers
in the Late New Kingdom.

The Late
New Kingdom
c.1295–1069 bce
198 | THE LATE NEW KINGDOM

The Late New Kingdom

The 19th and 20th Dynasties, both of which were roughly the early years of Ramesses II was eventually replaced by mutual
100 years long, constituted The Late New Kingdom. The understanding, confirmed by a treaty that led to four decades
dominant figure of this era was Ramesses II, who ruled of relative peace. When Merenptah became king, however, a
for nearly a third of the entire period. problem that had been increasing during the reigns of his
predecessors burst upon Egypt—large groups of Libyans from
Ramesside Egypt the west attempted to migrate en masse into the Nile Delta.
Ramesses II continued the work of his father, Seti I, in Merenptah’s military defeat of these persistent people had to
carrying out building works throughout Egypt and in Nubia. be repeated during Ramesses III’s reign, but the settlement of
As well as completing Seti I’s temple at Abydos, Ramesses II Libyan prisoners of war in the eastern Delta had consequences
also built one there for himself. Virtually every major town that became apparent during the Third Intermediate Period.
and city in Egypt benefited from his activities, especially Perhaps even more challenging for Ramesses III was the
Thebes and Memphis, where he built on a colossal scale. In Sea-Peoples’ attempted invasion of Egypt. This confederation
Nubia, he built even more impressive monuments, including of seafarers had swept everything before them before they
the temple of Abu Simbel. He also turned his hometown in were halted at the gateway to Egypt itself.
the east Delta into an imperial capital city, which he named
Pr-Ramesses, after himself. Problems of the 20th Dynasty
Another major archaeological site from this period is the The difficulties faced by the kings of the 20th Dynasty were
village of Deir el-Medina, built for the craftsmen who worked not confined to foreign invasions, but also encompassed
in the Valley of the Kings. It has yielded artifacts that shine an domestic issues. Ramesses III was the most successful king
extraordinary light on the domestic lives of ordinary, working of the dynasty, not just because of his military victories, but
Egyptians. Thanks to these finds, Deir el-Medina is now one because he was the last king who managed to build all three
of the best-known villages of the ancient world. of the Theban monuments that every king wished to build:
a tomb in the Valley of the Kings, additions to Karnak, and a
Foreign friends and foes large mortuary temple for himself.
For most of the 19th Dynasty, Egypt’s After Ramesses III’s death, a further eight kings named
foreign policy had been dominated by Ramesses ruled Egypt, but none of them was able to equal
her relationship with the other major their predecessor’s achievements. By the reign of Ramesses
power in the region—the Hittites. But XI, royal authority had declined and Egypt was beset by
military confrontation between the numerous troubles—a failing economy, tomb robberies,
two powers during Seti I’s reign and and the rise of Libyan warlords.

◁ Mummy mask
of Khonsu
1294 bce Seti I becomes 1274 bce Ramesses II
king. He later builds his fights the Hittites at
temple at Abydos the Battle of Kadesh

1295 bce Ramesses I 1279 bce Ramesses II 1259 bce Peace

becomes the first king becomes king. Begins treaty signed
of the 19th Dynasty work on Abu Simbel with the Hittites
 THE LATE NEW KINGDOM | 199

Carchemish
RHODES Ulu Burun Aleppo
Ugarit
CRETE

Kadesh
CYPRUS
Byblos

Mediterranean Sea

Zawiyet Umm
el-Rakham Jerusalem
Gaza
Nile Delta
LOWER Pr-Ramesses 1 West Hall of Ramesses II, Memphis
Siwa EGYPT
Oasis Memphis 1
Gu

Serabit
lf

Bahriya el-Khadim
of

Oasis Eastern
Su

Desert
ez

Farafra Western
Oasis Desert Arabian
Ri

Desert
ve

UPPER
rN

EGYPT
ile

2 Thebes Red Sea

Dakhla Kharga
Oasis Oasis

Aswan First Cataract

Gerf Hussein 2 Luxor Temple, Thebes

Aniba Wadi es-Sebua

The Late Abu Simbel 3
New Kingdom
Buhen
Important archaeological
Semna
sites in Nubia and the Second Cataract
Levant reveal that Egypt Amara West
maintained its interest
Soleb/Sedeinga
in the wider world during
Sesebi
the Late New Kingdom. Third Cataract
Kerma le
r Ni Kurgus
R ive
N Gebel Barkal/
Napata
Fourth Fifth Cataract
0 200 km
el-Kurru Cataract
0 200 miles
Meroe

3 Great Temple, Abu Simbel

1184 bce Ramesses III

1213 bce Death of becomes king. Wars with
Ramesses II. Merenptah the Libyans and the 1099 bce Ramesses XI
becomes king Sea Peoples succeeds Ramesses X

1188 bce Twosret 1126 bce Ramesses VII takes 1069 bce Death of Ramesses XI.
becomes the last ruler the throne. Robberies begin The end of the 20th Dynasty and
of the 19th Dynasty in the Valley of the Kings the New Kingdom
200 | THE LATE NEW KINGDOM

Seti I
Restoring harmony

Seti I’s reign was a period of stability after the upheaval of the Amarna Period. Seti I
was a king in the traditional mold of New Kingdom monarchs: a soldier and a
builder at sites associated with Egypt’s gods, especially Thebes and Abydos.

The death of the elderly Ramesses I after little more Seti followed custom in his work at Thebes, not only
than a year on the throne left his son, Seti I, as king adding to Karnak, but also building a mortuary temple
of Egypt. After burying Ramesses in one of the for himself at Gurna, on the west bank. He was also
smaller tombs in the Valley of the Kings, Seti set an innovator, building temples in unusual places, such
about establishing his own legacy. as at Kanais in the Eastern Desert. This temple, next
to a well, was for miners working in the area.
Order and harmony His most impressive monument, however, was
Restoration was a common theme in the texts that the temple that he built at Abydos, the site of Osiris’s
new kings inscribed on the monuments that they burial. Following ancient tradition there, Seti I built
erected—they hoped to distinguish themselves from a massive mahat-temple with seven chapels for the
△ Seti I shabti previous rulers by repairing the damage that they had gods worshipped, featuring members of Osiris’s
Seti I’s burial equipment caused. Seti I wanted to restore Egypt to maat, cosmic family and the divine Seti himself. Behind the temple,
included hundreds of blue order, after the chaos wrought by the Amarna Period. he built the so-called Osireion—a false underground
glazed shabtis. Each figure
wears the royal nemes
His restoration works did include major projects, but tomb made of massive blocks of granite.
headdress and carries the he may also have added his name to public buildings
tools needed to work for simply to make his presence known in places all over Seti the warrior
Osiris in the afterlife. Egypt. He was also happy to continue projects that Right from the start of his reign, Seti was determined
were already in progress, most notably the Great to win back the Levantine provinces of the Egyptian
Hypostyle Hall at Karnak. empire that had been lost during and just after the

Horus pours libations

for his father, Osiris

▷ Temple of Seti I
With its delicately carved and
painted walls, Seti I’s temple
at Abydos is one of the most
beautiful temples in the whole
of Egypt. It was built of the
finest grade limestone and is
remarkably well preserved.
 SETI I | 201

△ Making an offering
Ramesses I built few monuments in his short reign.
The most substantial was a small chapel at Abydos,
which Seti I finished. This relief carving of his father
making an offering to Osiris is on a wall of the chapel.

Amarna Period. In Year 1, he crossed northern Sinai

and recaptured Gaza, the capital of the province of
Canaan. In later campaigns, he pushed farther north
and brought the province of Upe back under Egyptian
control. He also took the third Levantine province,
Amurru, along with the city of Kadesh, although the
Hittites soon reversed these gains.
Seti I’s campaigns were commemorated on victory
stelae that he erected in towns such as Beth-Shan and
Damascus. They also feature in the reliefs he carved
on the walls of his temples. An exterior wall of the
hypostyle hall at Karnak displays detailed images of
some of his wars. Seti is shown crossing into Sinai
with his army and crushing his enemies, including
the Bedouin Shasu people. He is also seen winning
victories against the Libyans in the west.
Seti I died in the north of Egypt, after 16 years
on the throne. His body was transported up the Nile
to Thebes, where it was placed in a sarcophagus of
translucent calcite in the tomb that had been prepared
for him. It was the longest and deepest tomb ever built
for a monarch in the Valley of the Kings.

▷ The king with a goddess

Seti I commissioned some of the most exquisite royal
monuments. On this plastered, carved, and painted
pillar from his tomb in the Valley of the Kings, he is
depicted with the goddess Hathor.
202 | THE LATE NEW KINGDOM

Karnak temple complex

The home of the Theban gods

In the New Kingdom, the temple complex at Karnak, in the northern part of Thebes,
became one of the largest religious centers in the world. At its heart was the great
Temple of Amen-Ra, which was added to and amended by a succession of kings
over a period of 2,000 years. It was the nucleus of a network of religious buildings,
The Sacred Lake of
including Luxor Temple and the Valley of the Kings. Immediately to the south of the Karnak Temple
Amen-Ra enclosure was a smaller complex of buildings for Amen-Ra’s wife, the Akh-Menu
goddess Mut, while to the north was the temple of the Theban god Montu. building of
Tuthmosis III
Temple of the
Hearing Ear

Main Sanctuary
of the Temple

△ Aerial view of the Hypostyle Hall

One of the most impressive parts of the Amen-Ra
Temple is the Great Hypostyle Hall, which was
mainly the work of Seti I and Ramesses II.
It is filled with 134 columns that are
50–72 ft (15–22 m) tall.

Temple
of Maat

Temple
of Montu
Temple
of Ptah

Colonnade, built
by Taharqa Chapels built
against the
Small Amen enclosure wall
Temple

Sacred Lake PRECINCT OF MONTU

▷ Karnak temple
complex reconstruction
Karnak changed dramatically
over the 2,000 years that it was
an active place of worship. This
reconstruction shows its layout
at the end of the Dynastic Period.
 KARNAK TEMPLE COMPLEX | 203

◁ Avenues of sphinxes
Processional routes to and from Karnak
were often lined with human-headed Temple of
or ram-headed sphinxes, especially Khonspakhered
Horseshoe-shaped lake
the road leading from the Amen-Ra around the temple
enclosure to the Mut enclosure, the
approach to the first pylon, and South Temple, built
the route to Luxor Temple. by Ramesses III

Storehouse and
Court of the
Sacred Fowl Temple of Mut, built
Pylons and
by Amenhotep III
courtyards leading
to the Mut Enclosure
PRECINCT OF MUT

TO LUXOR

Temple of
Khonsu
Temple
of Opet Processional
way

▽ Forecourt of the temple

The space in front of the second pylon
(built by Horemheb and Seti I) was
used for later buildings—a shrine built
by Seti II, a small temple of Ramesses III,
and a colonnade erected by Taharqa in
the 25th Dynasty, shown here.

First pylon, built

by Nectanebo I

PRECINCT OF AMEN

Quayside for
boats, including
processional barques

Canal connecting
Enclosure wall, built Karnak to the Nile
by Nectanebo I
△ The Great Hypostyle
Hall in the Amen Temple
This immense, columned
hall is one of the most
imposing parts of the Amen
The Precinct of Amen
Temple. Completed by The house of Amen-Ra, king of the gods
Ramesses II, it was designed
to be an intermediary area
between the open court and
the hidden sanctuary.
The Amen Temple is one of the most impressive monuments of ancient Egypt,
a site of vast scale where visitors feel dwarfed by the giant columns, pylons,
obelisks, and statues that surround them.

If pyramids were the defining buildings of the Building for Amen

Old Kingdom in terms of monuments, in the New The first burst of building activity at Karnak took
Kingdom, it was temples. Many cities in Egypt had place in the Middle Kingdom, when rulers of a
impressive temples, but the Amen Temple at Karnak Theban origin, now kings of a united Egypt, had
was the most spectacular of them all. the resources to create a suitably magnificent home
for their patron deity, Amen. Most of this temple,
mainly the work of kings of the 12th Dynasty, was
swept away during later building work, although
some elements, such as the White Chapel built by
Senwosret I, have survived. It was the New Kingdom
that saw the most dramatic building works at Karnak,

◁ Central axis of the temple

As the great doors that once guarded access to the temple are
now gone, visitors can look straight from the main entrance to
the sanctuary at the very heart of the temple.
 | 205

as kings competed with their predecessors to ▷ Colossus of Ramesses II

construct ever more majestic buildings for Amen, Ramesses II erected colossal statues of himself throughout
Egypt. This example, which is 50 ft (15 m) tall, stands in front
who was now merged with the sun god and called
of the second pylon at Karnak.
Amen-Ra. Some of the grandest additions are the
monolithic granite obelisks erected by Tuthmosis I,
Hatshepsut, and Tuthmosis III and the Great Hypostyle shrine was taken on procession at different times
Hall completed by Ramesses II. Amenhotep III added of the year, and the layout of the Amen Temple
several pylon gateways to the temple. reflected this: the building was arranged around
central, processional routes that led directly out
Temple design of the temple, west toward the Nile, or south
Although the pharaohs’ additions over 2,000 years toward the Mut Temple and Karnak. This
make Karnak look complicated, it is actually very arrangement had to be taken into account when
simple in concept and followed the same basic planning any later additions to Karnak, so all
blueprint as temples of the Early Dynastic Period pylons, courtyards, or pillared halls were built
(see pp.36–37). A sanctuary contained the image symmetrically, either around the central axis or to
of Amen-Ra, sitting in a barque shrine. This barque one side of it, like the side temple of Ramesses III.

▽ Temple of Amen-Ra
Building work had to be planned Akh-Menu (Festival
around the central axis of the Amen Hall) built by
Temple, a straight, processional route Tuthmosis III
along which priests carried the barque
Obelisks of Tuthmosis I,
of Amen. All new elements were
Hatshepsut, and
therefore built on either side of the Tuthmosis III
central axis, giving the temple a
distinctive sense of symmetry.
Great
Hypostyle Hall

Flagpoles
attached to the
front of the pylon
Courtyard with
some remains
of the Middle
Porch added by Kingdom Temple
rulers of the Third
Intermediate Period Sanctuary
containing the
barque shrine of
the god Amen-Ra

Second pylon,
built by Horemheb
and Seti I

Side temple
added by
Ramesses III
Colonnade added
by Taharqa in the
25th Dynasty
First pylon, built by
Nectanebo I in the
30th Dynasty Outer walls that enclosed
the entire Precinct of Amen
206 | THE LATE NEW KINGDOM

Theban mortuary temples

“Mansions of Millions of Years”
▽ Medinet Habu pylon
The huge pylon gateways In the New Kingdom, the Valley of the Kings was chosen as the new site for
of mortuary temples were
often used as billboards for
royal burials. As a consequence, it was no longer possible to build mortuary
images of the king. Here, temples adjacent to the kings’ tombs.
Ramesses III is shown
defeating his enemies.

From at least the beginning of the For this reason, a mortuary temple was built
Old Kingdom, a royal tomb was more beside the king’s pyramid. This was often a large
than simply a place where a king was and impressive structure made of the most durable
buried; it was also a place that served materials and set within a complex of related
the dead king’s cult for eternity. As buildings (see pp.82–83). When kings began to build
expressed in the Pyramid Texts, when pyramids again in the Middle Kingdom, mortuary
a king died, he joined the gods in the temples were therefore built next to them.
afterlife, but his ka, or kas, remained In the New Kingdom, a new tradition was
in the tomb to receive food offerings established. At the beginning of the 18th Dynasty,
from his people (see pp.70–71). kings started to be buried in secret tombs in the
 THEBAN MORTUARY TEMPLES | 207

Valley of the Kings (see pp.160–161). Because these

tombs were meant to be hidden, it was no longer
possible to build mortuary temples beside them.
Not only would doing so reveal the location of
the tomb, but the topography of the valley made it
unsuitable for large buildings. The valley was also
difficult to reach, and the king’s cult required that
his temple be visited regularly.

A new architecture
The solution to this problem was to separate the
mortuary temple from the tomb. One stage of this
development can be seen in Hatshepsut’s mortuary
temple at Deir el-Bahri, which was built against the
side of the Theban mountain. The rock of the △ Ceiling of Medinet Habu
mountain physically connected her temple to her The decorated surfaces of most of the Theban temples
have lost their former pigments, but a few exceptions,
tomb, which was cut into the Valley of the Kings on such as this ceiling at Medinet Habu, show how
the far side of a high ridge. However, most mortuary colorfully they were originally painted.
temples of this period were built at the edge of the
desert, close to the inhabited areas of the west bank
at Thebes, so they were even further removed from with the gods, and they had architecture to match.
their tombs. This extreme separation of the temple Both Hatshepsut’s temple and that of Ramesses III—
from its tomb was inspired by a new form of which was built 300 years later—had an enclosed
architecture that was already in use for conventional suite of rooms dedicated to Osiris, an open sunlit
cult temples. court dedicated to the sun god Ra-Horakhty, and a
All of these temples had certain characteristics in side chapel that honored the dead king’s father.
common, namely pylon gateways, open courts, and However, the most important element of these
hypostyle halls. Externally, there was no obvious temples, and all of the mortuary temples of the
difference between the Medinet Habu mortuary period, was a central chapel, or set of chapels,
temple of Ramesses III, for example, and any of which was built at the very heart of them.
△ Medinet Habu the major cult temples. The king’s temple, however, These chapels were designed to house the sacred
This relief in the solar court was referred to differently, and was called a “Mansion barque of Amen-Ra and his family, who, in the form
at Medinet Habu shows a
of Millions of Years”—a phrase that celebrated the of statues, visited the royal mortuary temples during
scene of sun worship. The
king leads a procession of enduring legacy of the now-divine king. religious festivals. This ritual connected the chief gods
baboons, who were believed of Thebes to the monarch, who was buried just across
to worship the sun, in praise Decoration and function the river from Karnak in the Valley of the Kings.
of the sun god Ra. Hatshepsut’s mortuary temple
was also influential in other ways.
Broadly speaking, the external
parts of her temple celebrated
her achievements as king. This
theme was picked up by later
kings, although their achievements
tended to be more military in
nature. The inner parts of her
temple were more directly
connected to her relationship

▷ Ramesses II crowned by Amen-Ra

Mortuary-temple reliefs often depict
an individual king’s relationship with
the gods. Here, Amen-Ra affirms
Ramesses II’s right to rule, blessing
him with a long and fruitful reign.
208 | THE LATE NEW KINGDOM

▽ The Papyrus of Ani

One of the finest Books of
the Dead belonged to Ani,
a scribe at Thebes during the
19th Dynasty. This vignette
shows the “Weighing of the The ba of Ani Anubis weighs the Thoth records
Heart,” in which Ani and his watches the heart against the the result of
wife face final judgment proceedings feather of maat the test
before the gods.
 THE BOOK OF THE DEAD | 209

Ammit,
“Eater of
the Dead”

The Book of the Dead

“Chapters of Coming Forth by Day”

In the New Kingdom, one of an Egyptian’s main The Negative Confession

concerns was how to reach the Field of Reeds—the The dead needed to be innocent of the crimes and
kingdom of Osiris—and be accepted there for eternity. sins that would prevent them from being accepted
The journey to this paradise was not easy. The hopeful into the afterlife. They did this by reciting another
dead had to pass through a series of doorways guarded section of the Book of the Dead called the “Negative
by fierce demons who demanded to know the correct Confession,” which was essentially a denial of any
answers to a series of questions before letting them sort of wrongdoing. These wrongdoings fell within
pass through on their way. the broad categories of what could be described as
Luckily, for wealthy Egyptians, the solution to criminal acts, blasphemy against the gods, and
this problem, as was so often the case with religious antisocial behavior. Whether or not the dead had
problems involving the afterlife, was to make sure that in fact committed any of these wrongdoings seems
they had the correct piece of funerary equipment. In to have been less important than their official denial.
this case, it was a guidebook to the afterlife, which
was both a road map and a helpful prompt to the Weighing the Heart
questions that the deceased might face. Books of the Dead varied in length and quality, but
This guidebook took the form of a papyrus the most important episode common to all of them
document that was called the “Chapters of Coming was the final judgment in the court of the gods. In
Forth by Day.” This name emphasizes the optimistic this trial, the heart of the deceased was weighed
aspect of the book, but it is more commonly known against the feather of maat to assess whether they
today as the “Book of the Dead.” Books of the Dead were suitable to join the ranks of the blessed dead.
were divided into series of “chapters,” each of which If the heart failed in its test against the feather
had hieroglyphic text written by a scribe, usually of maat, its owner would not be allowed into the
accompanied by an illustration of what the text kingdom of Osiris, but would be thrown to a
described, often referred to as a vignette. The most ferocious creature called Ammit, “Eater of the Dead.”
important chapters of the Book of the Dead were However, as all Books of the Dead show their owner
not only found in these documents, but were also being greeted by Osiris after passing this test, it is safe
sometimes painted on the walls of the inner rooms of to assume that the papyrus was not just a guidebook,
private tombs, especially during the Ramesside Period. but also a guarantee of a successful outcome.
210 | THE LATE NEW KINGDOM

Religious festivals
The gods meet the public

For most of the year, the great temples of the New Kingdom were not accessible
to the public, but during religious festivals, their doors were opened and the gods
left their houses to go on procession.

The wide, open courtyards of many New Kingdom in a boat-shaped shrine. For the public, though, this
temples look as if they were built to hold large, was when the god’s image (or, at least, a shrine in
regular gatherings of worshippers, but this was not which the god was kept, hidden from view) was
the case. Egyptian temples, especially the great royal paraded through the city for everyone to see, giving
temples at places such as Thebes, were not made for them the chance to shout out their praises and
worshippers, but to provide houses for the deities who offer prayers to the passing deity. Pictures of these
owned them. The gods, usually in the form of statues, processions appear on the walls of temples that
were kept in the innermost part of the temple—the hosted them and show ranks of priests carrying
sanctuary—where they would be offered food and the elaborately decorated boats of the gods on their
incense and washed and dressed, sometimes several shoulders with poles.
times a day, by special priests. Egyptologists know most about the major religious
festivals at Thebes—notably the Opet Festival and the
Going on parade “Beautiful Festival of the Western Valley.” In the first, △ Temple statue
Although an ordinary person could not worship in the Amen-Ra would be carried from Karnak to the Luxor A typical temple statue might
major temples, there were ways in which they could Temple. The route of the procession varied from one show the worshipper offering
engage with the great state gods such as Amen-Ra. period to another but might include traveling by river images of the gods of the
One of these was to leave a statue of themselves in or along a road that was lined with sphinxes in the temple. This statue of
Amennakht from Karnak
a suitable pose within the outer parts of the temple Late Period. In the Western Valley Festival, the god depicts the Theban divine
representing those occasions when they were allowed would cross the Nile and visit some of the royal family of Amen-Ra, Mut,
in, namely during the great festivals that took place mortuary temples on the West Bank. and Khonsu.
annually. For kings, this was an occasion to follow Festivals and processions were not, however, limited
royal theology by taking the god to visit other temples to the great state temples. Local people also held
festivals in their villages and paraded images
of their gods from small, local temples.
Shrine containing Archaeologists know most about
the god’s statue
this from the artisans’ village
of Deir el-Medina, where
religious holidays formed
an important part of life
for the villagers.

◁ A procession
This vivid ink sketch of a
procession on an ostracon
from Deir el-Medina shows a
god’s shrine in its ceremonial
boat. Priests are carrying the
barque on their shoulders,
supported by long poles.
 RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS | 211

△ Min Festival at Medinet Habu

A canopy with gold The statue of the Many mortuary temples were decorated with
rosettes covers the priests god Min appears images of festivals held in and around them. This
carrying the barque without a shrine colorful relief of a procession of the god Min is from
Ramesses III’s temple at Medinet Habu.
212 | THE LATE NEW KINGDOM

Ramesses II
Egypt’s greatest king

The wealth and power of Egypt during the 66-year reign of Ramesses II
(1270–1213 bce) enabled the long-lived and ambitious king to leave an
unparalleled stamp on ancient Egypt that is still in evidence today.

The reign of Ramesses II was one of tradition and him the chance to develop many new projects. He
innovation. By emulating the kings of the past whom rebuilt or added to virtually every significant temple
he admired, Ramesses hoped to create a royal dynasty in Egypt and built far more temples in Nubia than
that could rival the powerful 18th Dynasty. any previous king had. He also strengthened Egypt’s
borders by constructing fortress-towns along the edge
△ Ramesses II as a child Building on the past of the Western Delta and the Mediterranean coast,
Although this relief shows To Ramesses II, Amenhotep lll was a hero. The anticipating the Libyan invasions of the late-19th
Ramesses II in a childlike
king lists drawn up during the Ramesside Period and 20th Dynasties (see pp.240–241).
pose—seated on a cushion,
finger to mouth, hair in a exonerated Amenhotep III from the much-hated
sidelock—the presence of a Amarna Period (see pp.178–179) and Pr-Ramesses
royal cartouche indicates left out all of the kings who ruled But Ramesses II’s greatest achievement
this was made after he between Amenhotep III and was a new royal city. The desire to
became king as an adult.
Horemheb. Ramesses II continued enhance his hometown, the need
the work that his father had started, for a military base closer to the threat
developing Amenhotep III's plans from the Hittites, and possibly the
for some monuments and building simple desire for self-glorification
significant additions for others. inspired Ramesses II to found a
He showed his “respect” for new city near the old Hyksos capital
Amenhotep III by adapting royal of Avaris. It was called Pr-Ramessu
statues that had been carved during Aa-Nakhtu (The House of Ramesses,
his reign and reusing them as his Great of Victories) but is normally
own. Ramesses' long reign gave referred to as Pr-Ramesses. Very
little of this city now remains
above ground, but a combination
▷ Divine being of textual evidence and a series of
Ramesses II is often portrayed as a excavations have made it clear that
divine being. In this triad statue of it was built on a massive scale,
a family group, he is depicted as a
child sitting between his “father,”
with temples, palaces, colossal
the god Amen-Ra, and his statues, industrial areas, and
“mother,” the goddess Mut. military barracks.

1303 bce Birth of 1274 bce Battle 1255 bce Abu Simbel
Ramesses II of Kadesh inaugurated

1279 bce Ramesses II 1259 bce Peace treaty 1213 bce Death
becomes king with the Hittites of Ramesses II
 RAMESSES II | 213

△ Gold pectoral with cartouche

Most Ramesside jewelry that belonged to the
king himself or were royal gifts to his advisers
and family has been lost, but some rare
examples have survived, such as this amulet
bearing the king's name in a cartouche.

“He shall direct

this land.”
SETI I'S DECREE ABOUT
PRINCE RAMESSES

Heka scepter of
royal authority

▷ Strong king
This life-size statue of a
youthful Ramesses II depicts him
in a sophisticated style typical
of the early part of his reign.
Despite being made of hard
granodiorite, the carving of
Ramesses’ muscular body
beneath his finely pleated
robe demonstrates the
skill of the sculptor
or sculptors.
214 | THE LATE NEW KINGDOM

Family and foes

Wives, children, and Hittites

In the first five years of his reign, Ramesses II tried to solve two of the problems
faced by his predecessors. He needed to establish the succession by producing
royal sons, and he had to face the Hittites, Egypt’s most dangerous enemy.

Ramesses II is known to have fathered over 100 processional scenes in Ramesses II’s temples, which
children, and to do that, he clearly needed more show a few of the most important royal children.
than one wife. Even before he came to the throne, Isetnofret was the mother of at least four children,
he had been in a position to produce many sons and including Khaemwese; Merenptah (Ramesses’
daughters. He refers to his father having “selected eventual successor); and a daughter, Bintanath.
for me … harim-women and female companions.” After the deaths of Isetnofret and Nefertari, their
These women were not equal in status though. The daughters Bintanath and Meritamen took on the
most important of them—those whose children roles of Great Royal Wives. In Year 34, they were
formed the core of the royal family and would give joined by the Hittite princess Maathorneferura,
the king an heir—were a small number of queens, whose marriage to Ramesses was part of a growing
including the Great Royal Wives. diplomatic understanding between Egypt and the
Hittite state. Meritamen disappeared late in the
Nefertari and Isetnofret reign of Ramesses II and was replaced by Princess
The first of these queens was Nefertari, who was not Nebettawy, another of Nefertari’s daughters.
of royal birth herself, but quickly rose to prominence
as Ramesses II’s favored queen. Even before Seti I had The Hittites
died, she had produced Amenhirwenemef, The early years of Ramesses’ reign were
Seti’s grandson and her husband’s first successful in terms of domestic affairs,
heir. She gave birth to five royal princes, but less so regarding foreign policy, and
but they all died before their father. Egypt’s empire in particular. Ramesses’
Nefertari had a special position at father had succeeded in regaining parts
△ Queen Nefertari the royal court, similar to that of of the Levantine Empire that Egypt had lost
In her tomb in the Valley Queen Tiy during Amenhotep III’s at the end of the 18th Dynasty, but by the
of the Queens, Nefertari
reign (see pp.176–177). She was time Ramesses acceded to the throne, the
is depicted with her name
written in a cartouche. She worshipped as a form of the Hittites were threatening this territory.
is described as the “Great goddess Hathor and had her The young Ramesses II may have seen this
Royal Wife, Lady of the own Smaller Temple next to crisis with the Hittites as an opportunity for
Two Lands, Mistress of Ramesses II’s Great Temple at him to demonstrate his military prowess,
Upper and Lower Egypt.”
Abu Simbel in Nubia. She was but he was tactically naive. When he
also given one of the most took a large Egyptian army into Syria
exquisitely decorated tombs in the 5th year of his reign, he failed
in Egypt, in the Valley of the
Queens, where she was buried
after about 20 years of marriage. ◁ Princess Meritamen
During his marriage to The daughter of Ramesses and
Nefertari, Ramesses was also Nefertari, Princess Meritamen, owned
married to another important an extraordinary range of sculpture.
This included colossal statues
secondary queen named at Akhmim and Bubastis and
Isetnofret. Her children, this smaller statue once known
like Nefertari’s, appear in as the “White Queen.”
 FAMILY AND FOES | 215

Elite Egyptian Egyptian infantry armed with

chariot regiments shields and battle-axes

to realize that a large Hittite army was waiting for the battle, as Ramesses’ army retreated to Egypt, much △ The Battle of Kadesh
him close to Kadesh and let the four divisions of his of Canaan rose in revolt against them. It would take This relief from Ramesses II’s
cenotaph temple at Abydos
army lose contact with each other. another 16 years of fighting before the Egyptians
shows the charioteers and
and the Hittites signed a peace treaty. When they infantry of the Egyptian army
The Battle of Kadesh did, they agreed on the borders between their realms advancing into battle
When the Hittites launched a surprise attack, vast and promised to cooperate with each other against along the banks of the
numbers of the Egyptian army were scattered and, their mutual enemies. River Orontes.
according to Ramesses’ own accounts of the battle, A suitably edited story of the Battle of Kadesh,
it was only his personal bravery that saved the day. highlighting Ramesses II’s role as a mighty warrior
The Hittites had missed their chance to crush the leading his troops into the fray, became a major
Egyptians and capture their king, but this was hardly theme in the relief carvings with which Ramesses
an Egyptian victory. In the immediate aftermath of decorated the walls of his many temples.

“You are the son of Amen… you devastate

the land of Hatti by your valiant arm.”
RAMESSES II IS PRAISED BY HIS TROOPS AT KADESH
 △ Abu Simbel Temple
One of the most spectacular
temples ever built by an
Egyptian king, both in terms
of location and scale, Abu
Ramesses in Nubia
Simbel is dominated by
four massive figures of
A god builds his temples
Ramesses II at the entrance
that are 66 ft (20 m) tall.
At the beginning of his reign, Ramesses II launched a major program of temple
building in Nubia to reinforce the idea of Egypt’s imperial ownership and to
convey the idea that the living king was himself divine.

Inner
sanctuary
By the time that Ramesses II took the throne, Nubia and worked in Nubia in their own towns. The
had been under the firm control of Egypt for 200 remains of some of these towns have survived,
years. The administrative system that had been set up so more is known about the Egyptians in Nubia
in the 18th Dynasty continued and Egyptians occupied than about the Nubians themselves.
the most important posts, especially that of head
official, who was known as the “King’s Son of Kush.” Colonial towns
During the New Kingdom, the population of Nubia Towns such as Amara West were well-planned
was largely made up of indigenous Nubians, but settlements laid out in Egyptian style. They had
Colossal
significant numbers of Egyptian colonists lived buildings that any Egyptian would recognize, such as
Columned
statue hall a large temple built by Seti I. Nubia was governed at a
local level from these towns, and their main purpose
◁ Plan of Abu Simbel was to maximize income from Nubia for the Egyptian
Although the rock-cut temple could not have the
open-air court present in most New Kingdom
state, particularly from gold. Under Seti I, new regions
temples, Abu Simbel followed their architectural of Nubia were explored for gold reserves, including
lead in most other ways. the territory of Akuyta in the Eastern Desert.
Temple entrance
 RAMESSES IN NUBIA | 217

Despite their differences, the lives of the Egyptian

colonists and the Nubians were not totally separate.
Egyptian objects are often found in Nubian graves,
and there is archaeological evidence that the local
Nubian rulers adopted some Egyptian customs. Several
high-profile Nubian leaders, who were involved in the
imperial administration, lived in a way that blended
elements of both Nubian and Egyptian culture.
The best known of these Nubians is Hekanefer,
prince of the Nubian territory of Miam. He built
a rock-cut tomb for himself in Egyptian style and
decorated in Egyptian fashion that was remarkably
similar to the Theban tomb of his Egyptian
contemporary, Amenhotep-Huy, “King’s Son of Kush.”
Hekanefer is also depicted in Amenhotep-Huy’s tomb
as one of the leading Nubian tribute bearers, wearing
a mixture of Egyptian and Nubian dress.

Abu Simbel
By the Ramesside Period, several important Egyptian out of rock in the landscape. A few temples like this △ Nubian tribute bearers
temples had already been built in Nubia during the had already been built in Egypt, such as the Speos This painting from the tomb
of Amenhotep-Huy shows
18th Dynasty. The most significant were the two that Artemidos of Hatshepsut and Seti I near Beni Hasan.
Nubians, clad in a mixture of
Amenhotep III built for himself and his wife, Queen The sandstone cliffs and mountains of Nubia were Nubian and Egyptian clothes
Tiy, at Soleb and Sedeinga. Ramesses II continued this ideal materials for this type of temple, and Ramesses and sporting Egyptian
tradition, but on a much grander scale. During his experimented with small examples, such as Beit hairstyles, bearing gold.
reign, he built temples throughout Lower Nubia. el-Wali. But at Abu Simbel, he transformed an entire Their chariot, which is
Egyptian, is being pulled
One of the earliest temples to be started was also the mountain into a temple and adapted features used in
by Nubian cattle.
most impressive—Abu Simbel. The Temple of Abu conventional temples of the period to suit the
Simbel was a speos (cave) temple—one hewn directly limitations of a cave temple.
The most striking features of Abu Simbel are the
four colossal figures of Ramesses II at the entrance.
▽ The Small Temple at Abu Simbel
Next to the temple of Abu Simbel stands a smaller one
They were based on free-standing statues at places
dedicated to Hathor and Ramesses II’s wife, Nefertari. Here, the such as Luxor Temple but made much larger. Abu
queen is shown as Hathor, flanked by statues of her husband. Simbel seems to say that Egypt, during the reign of
Ramesses II, had such strong ownership of Nubia that
the king’s presence was embedded in the landscape.
The temple also conveyed a subtler message—that
anyone who entered it and understood the texts and
scenes on its walls would realize that the main god of
the temple was, in effect, Ramesses himself.
In Year 38, a new “King’s Son of Kush,” Setau, built
two more large temples, at Gerf Hussein and Wadi
es-Sebua. Hastily built, they lacked quality and paled
in significance in comparison to Abu Simbel.

“He has made a temple,

excavated in the mountain,
of eternal workmanship.”
RAMESSES II DESCRIBES HIS WORK AT ABU SIMBEL
Great Temple of Ramesses II
The exterior of the Great Temple of Ramesses II is justly
famous, but the interior is equally spectacular in its own
right. The vast halls of the temple were cut from the living
rock of the Nubian mountain into which it was excavated,
in an attempt to replicate the great open-air temples of the
period. The Great Hall is flanked by eight colossal statues
of Ramesses II in the guise of Osiris, the god of the afterlife
and resurrection. At the far end of the hall, a statue of the
deified Ramesses is shown seated with those of three other
gods: Ra-Horakhty, Amen-Ra, and Ptah.
220 | THE LATE NEW KINGDOM

Monuments at Thebes Obelisk made

from a single
piece of granite

Building in the domain of Amen-Ra

Adding to the collection of royal tombs and temples at Thebes was an important
undertaking for the kings of the New Kingdom, and Ramesses II was one of the
most enthusiastic contributors, erecting numerous monuments and temples.

Although Ramesses II’s building program spanned ◁ Colossal head

the whole of Egypt, there are a few places where its This giant head of Ramesses II was found
separated from its body in the Ramesseum.
impact is particularly apparent today. One of those Large-scale statues of the king were a common
places was Thebes, where Ramesses focused a feature of New Kingdom temples, and no ruler
great deal of his attention. produced more of these than Ramesses.

Karnak and Luxor tomb known as KV5, in the Valley of the

At Karnak, Ramesses II completed the Kings, is very unusual. It was not just for
hypostyle hall in the temple of Amen-Ra. one individual, or even for a couple (like
He also added personal touches to the Yuya and Thuyu’s tomb), but had more
building, including a small temple at the than 100 burial chambers that seem
eastern end, which was dedicated to to have been reserved for some of
“Ramesses-who-hears-prayers at the Ramesses’ many children.
Upper Gateway of the Temple of Ramesses also took care to ensure
Amen.” This dedication hints at his that his important queens were given
interest in the new idea that the king suitably royal burials. They were
himself was a god. buried in the nearby Valley of the
Ramesses also made additions to the Luxor Temple, Queens, which had been established during the
which Amenhotep III had built on the site of an 18th Dynasty. It was there that Ramesses built
earlier building. It was planned to be a suitably a tomb for his most favored wife, Nefertari,
impressive terminus for the procession of Amen-Ra and some of their children.
and his family during the Opet festival. The final
temple was the combined work of Amenhotep III The Ramesseum
and Ramesses II. Ramesses’ most visible contribution At the start of his reign, Ramesses II began
was its pylon-fronted courtyard. a new project—to build his own mortuary
temple on the west bank of the River Nile.
West bank Known as the Ramesseum, it is one of the
Ramesses II’s tomb in the Valley of the Kings was not few mortuary temples at Thebes that is
as big as his father’s, but it was by no means small. still partially standing today—unlike, for
Indeed, large tombs were an increasingly common example, the great mortuary temple of
feature of the Ramesside Period. However, Ramesses Amenhotep III. Although it was very
does seem to have been inventive in one respect. The different in terms of architecture, the

“I am Ozymandias, King of Kings;

look on my Works … and despair!”
PERCY BYSSHE SHELLEY, OZYMANDIAS
 MONUMENTS AT THEBES | 221

Osiride pillars of the king

surround the courtyard

▽ Luxor Temple
Ramesses II added to Amenhotep III’s temple at
Luxor by building a great colonnaded courtyard
fronted by this massive pylon gateway. He also
added a pair of obelisks (the missing one is now
in Paris) and colossal statues of himself to the
front of the temple.

Statue of Ramesseum had similar functions to Hatshepsut’s △ The Ramesseum

the king With its surviving columned
mortuary temple at Deir el-Bahri. It was where the
interior halls and a colossal
gods of the afterlife could be honored; it provided a statue of the king that has
resting place for the barque of Amen during festival collapsed, the Ramesseum is
processions; and it was a place where the king’s one of the most picturesque
achievements (the Battle of Kadesh in the case of ruins of ancient Egypt.
Ramesses II) could be displayed.

Colossal statues
In art, the word “colossal” is often used to refer to
any statue that is larger than life. Egyptian kings
produced many statues that were bigger than the
kings themselves, but some commissioned statues
that were enormous. When building his own
statues, Ramesses II looked to Amenhotep III
for inspiration, especially the Colossi of
Memnon statues built outside Amenhotep’s
mortuary temple at Kom el-Hetan.
Ramesses ordered colossal statues of
himself to be erected in the major centers
of the Nile Valley and Delta, especially at
Pr-Ramesses (where none remains standing)
and at Thebes. Part of their purpose was to
serve as gods that ordinary people could
worship, so many of them were placed
where they could be seen by most of
the Egyptian population, who did not
have access to the interiors of temples.
One of the largest statues is a seated
one of Ramesses in the Ramesseum.
Now toppled over and broken, it was
originally more than 62 ft (19 m) tall
and weighed 1,000 tons (907 tonnes).
Many scholars believe it was Shelley’s
inspiration for his poem Ozymandias.
Memphis
△ Colossus
As at Thebes, Ramesses II
erected several colossal
statues of himself at
Memphis to dominate

The lost city the entrances of the main

temple enclosure. This
one, lying on its back, is so
enormous that a museum
has been built around it.
The foundation of Memphis as the capital of a newly united country was one
of the defining moments of Egyptian history. For the next 3,000 years, it would
remain one of the largest and most important cities in Egypt.

The ruins of Memphis lie on the western side of the Ineb-Hedj, or “White Walls,” and probably
Nile, not far from Cairo, in an area roughly 2 miles stood to the northwest of the current ruins.
(4.5 km) from north to south and 1 mile (1.5 km) One of the problems with the archaeology
from east to west. They are located in agricultural of Memphis is that the location of the city
land and a cluster of large mounds and depressions, gradually changed during the Dynastic
such as Kom Rabia, Kom el-Qala, and Mit Rahina.
These are the archaeological remains of the great
metropolis that the historian Diodorus Siculus ▷ Hathor at Memphis
Although the Temple of Ptah was the main
described as “the most famous city of Egypt … the building at Memphis, the kings also built minor
most favorable spot in the whole land,” but they are temples to other deities, as seen in this capital
not the remains of the earlier city, which was called of a column carved to look like Hathor.
 MEMPHIS | 223

RAMESSES II’S GREAT WESTERN HALL

The most visible archaeological remnant of the

“A monument for his father Ptah in
New Kingdom at Memphis is the great western hall
that Ramesses II added to the Ptah Temple. Unlike excellent eternal work … its beauty
was like the horizon of heaven.”
Ramesses II’s work at Luxor Temple, the Western Hall
was not added to the front of the existing temple, but to
the back (and possibly separate from it) and facing west
rather than east. Maybe this orientation was planned so
that the hall would look toward the pyramid-tombs of the AMENHOTEP III DESCRIBES THE TEMPLE HE BUILT AT MEMPHIS
Old and Middle Kingdom. Ramesses II also reused stone
blocks from ancient buildings to build the western hall,
suggesting that this might also have been part of a
deliberate attempt to associate himself with past kings, little remains, and other important structures. These
especially at the time of his jubilee festival.
include the “Nebmaatra-United-with-Ptah” Temple,
which was built by Amenhotep III as a “Mansion of
Millions of Years.” Although this temple no longer
exists, its chief builder, Amenhotep, High Steward
of Memphis, refers to its magnificence in his tomb
autobiography. Under the Ramesside kings, more
buildings were constructed in and around the
enclosure, including smaller temples to Ptah and
other deities. Seti I and Ramesses II were responsible
for many of these, as was Merenptah, who built a
palace there.
Beyond the temple enclosure, far less is known
about what Memphis was like for the people who
lived there, but a set of administrative documents
from the reign of Seti I refers to the South District.
This was a suburban area with a range of houses,
including large villas like those excavated at Amarna.

Period, following the Nile as it moved east across its Eventual decline
flood plain. Another problem is that the monuments Memphis remained an important city even after
▽ Horemheb’s tomb
of Memphis are poorly preserved compared to Alexandria became the capital of Ptolemaic Egypt in The tomb of Horemheb is
those of other sites, such as Thebes. 332 bce. It was a significant commercial center and one of the finest examples
The name “Memphis” did not originally refer the Ptolemaic kings were crowned there, but its of the temple-tombs that
to the city, but was the Greek version of the name of status declined during the Roman Period. The were popular at the New
the nearby pyramid of Pepi I, Men-Nefer. The name foundation of Fustat/Cairo after the Muslim Kingdom necropolis
at Saqqara. They
that was given to the temple of the city’s main god, invasion in the 7th century ce signaled were built for
Hwt-Ka-Ptah, was also used to refer to the city as a the end of Memphis, and the city officials based
whole, and when this was transcribed as Aigyptos by was finally abandoned. in Memphis.
the Greeks, it became the name of the entire country.

Memphis in the New Kingdom

Thebes and Memphis were the two greatest cities in
Egypt during the New Kingdom. Both received lavish
royal patronage, and with good reason—Thebes was
the domain of Amen and the place where the kings
were buried, and Memphis was the administrative
center of northern Egypt. Thebes is the better-
known of the two cities today, but there is still
enough archaeological evidence of some aspects
of Memphis to create a sense of what it was like.
The heart of the city was the temple enclosure
of the god Hwt-ka-Ptah, or Ptah. This enclosure
contained both the Ptah temple itself, of which
224 | THE LATE NEW KINGDOM

Sacred graffiti
Writing yourself onto history

In the New Kingdom, literate people were able to forge a link with the kings
of the ancient past by visiting their monuments and inscribing their own
The Great
personal record of their trip on them.
Sphinx at Giza

During the New Kingdom, especially the Ramesside wrote that he “came to the district of the pyramid
Period, educated people took an active interest in the of Teti-beloved-of-Ptah and the pyramid of Djoser-
past by visiting historic monuments. Although the discoverer-of-stoneworking.” These graffiti were not
sites were ancient to these New Kingdom “tourists,” intended to be disrespectful or damaging in any way,
they did not seem strange, because they represented a but to express respect for these ancient kings.
culture and outlook very similar to their own. Most of
these visitors had neither the resources nor authority Tourism with benefits
to restore ancient buildings as Prince Khaemwese had As well as demonstrating respect, some graffiti make
done (see pp.226–227), but they were able to leave it quite clear that their writers expected to gain some
written evidence of their visits with graffiti. benefits for themselves. This can be seen in a piece
of graffiti from the 47th year of Ramesses II’s reign
Pilgrims at Memphis that was found at the Djoser Step-Pyramid complex
Some officials from Memphis made a record of their at Saqqara. The treasury official Hednakht wrote that
trips to the greatest monuments of the distant past, he had come to “take a stroll and enjoy himself in
the Old Kingdom royal pyramids. These monuments the West of Memphis” with his brother, Panakht.
were nearby in the desert at sites such as Saqqara, But there was a more spiritual purpose to his trip
where wealthy people from the New Kingdom were than just an idle bit of weekend tourism. In his
△ Visiting the sphinx increasingly building their own tombs. graffito, Hednakht addressed the gods and spirits
This reconstruction of a New A good example of graffiti comes from the associated with the Saqqara necropolis, asking them
Kingdom stela shows two
pyramid at Meidum. Within the small mortuary to give him a long, happy life and a good burial at
scribes visiting Old Kingdom
monuments at Giza. Armed temple attached to the side of the pyramid is the the necropolis when his time came.
with writing implements, following graffito: “Year 30 under the Majesty of Not all graffiti were written on royal monuments,
they are ready to inscribe [Amenhotep III] … the scribe May came to see the nor just at Memphis. A graffito from the Middle
graffiti wherever they chose. very great pyramid of the Horus-King Snefru.” May Kingdom tomb of the Vizier Intefiker at Thebes
clearly knew what he was visiting, even though the shows that scribes also visited private tombs. One
pyramid had been built more than 1,000 years before graffiti writer expressed admiration for what he had
he was born. Many other graffitists also knew which been seen: “The scribe Bak <came> to see <this>
monuments from the Old Kingdom each king had tomb <of> the time of Sobekneferu. He found it
built. In one graffito from Saqqara, the scribe Nashuyu like heaven in its interior.”

The graffito begins

with the date—Year 47

◁ Hednakht’s graffiti
Most graffiti was written in black ink. This
example from Djoser’s Step Pyramid complex
at Saqqara is written in the cursive script,
hieratic, rather than in hieroglyphs.
△ Graffiti on boulders at Sehel
A different form of graffiti can be seen on the island of Sehel,
on the First Cataract. Officials on quarrying missions left a Amenemopet, dressed
memorial of their visit by chiseling their graffiti on the huge in fashionable New
boulders of the island. Kingdom style

“Year 50 [of Ramesses

II] … The coming of
the scribe Ptahemwia ◁ Detail on boulder
The Overseer of Work,

and his father Yupa to Amenemopet (right),

left a graffito at
Sehel showing him

see all the pyramids.” worshipping Anuket

(left), one of the local
deities of the First
RECORD OF A VISIT TO MONUMENTS AT ABUSIR Cataract and Nubia.
Relief of Khaemwese
Khaemwese is shown here
on a relief from Memphis
or Saqqara. The sidelock of
hair is not a sign of youth
but, like the necklace he
wears, part of the traditional
dress of the High Priest of
Ptah at Memphis.
 KHAEMWESE | 227

Khaemwese Mask made from a

molded sheet of gold

Restorer of Old and Middle Kingdom monuments

Khaemwese, royal prince, son of Ramesses II, and High Priest of Ptah at
Memphis, spent his life studying and restoring the ancient monuments of his
ancestors. For this reason, he is sometimes described as the first Egyptologist.

Khaemwese was the fourth son of Ramesses II, born imagination to go further. Living in Memphis, he was △ Gold funerary mask
to the Great Royal Wife Isetnofret. Although he was also close to the greatest monuments of the Old and In 1851, Auguste Mariette
began a destructive
behind his older brothers in the line of succession, Middle Kingdoms—some were even visible from
“excavation” of the
he was a senior royal prince who briefly became heir the Ptah Temple in the city. Khaemwese ordered an Serapeum at Saqqara
to the throne toward the end of Ramesses II’s reign. extensive program of repair and restoration of the using dynamite. He
ancient monuments, which were in a poor condition. recovered many burial
High Priest His method was to repair neglected stone buildings goods, including this
funerary mask.
During the New Kingdom, the great temples of Egypt such as pyramids and sun temples and organize cults
had become wealthy. They employed thousands to perform offerings for the ancient kings who owned
of people and owned a large amount of land and them. He then added an inscription to the repaired
other economic assets, such as mines and quarries. buildings telling the world what he had done.
The High Priests of these temples were the chief Khaemwese also started new projects in the area
executives of major corporations, as well as religious around Memphis, notably a series of underground
leaders. The most important of these temples were galleries at Saqqara—known as the Serapeum—for the
Amen-Ra at Thebes and Ptah at Memphis. burial of the sacred Apis bulls (see pp.272–273). It was
In the 16th year of his father’s reign, Khaemwese in this complex that he probably planned to be buried.
became a Sm-Priest, or senior priest, of Ptah. He was
in charge of the temple for 30 years before becoming
the High Priest. Khaemwese carried out his duties
diligently, knowing they were on behalf of his father.
He oversaw the major expansion of temple building
at Memphis (see pp.222–223) and organized jubilee
festivities and building works throughout Egypt. But ◁ Unas’s pyramid
Khaemwese also had interests of his own. Khaemwese’s restoration
work included two Old
Old and new tombs Kingdom pyramids: the
During the Ramesside Period, Egyptians were Step Pyramid of Djoser
(background) and the
fascinated by their history. For most people, a visit pyramid of Unas (foreground),
to an ancient site was all that was possible. But where an inscription from the
Khaemwese had the resources, the authority, and the restoration is visible.

1282 bce Khaemwese 1265 bce Khaemwese 1235 bce Khaemwese

born during the reign of appointed Sm-Priest of becomes High Priest of Death
c.1224 bce
his grandfather, Seti I Ptah at Memphis Ptah in Memphis of Khaemwese

1279 bce Ramesses II 1249 bce Khaemwese 1230 bce Khaemwese 1213 bce Death
becomes king organizes his father’s becomes crown prince of Ramesses II
30-year jubilee
228 | THE LATE NEW KINGDOM

End of the 19th Dynasty

The successors of Ramesses II

The long reign of Ramesses II was followed by a period in which five kings
ruled in just 27 years. It was a time of increasing instability, which ended
with the collapse of the 19th Dynasty.

When Ramesses II died in 1213 bce, most ◁ Golden earring

of the obvious candidates to inherit the The Golden Tomb (KV56) in the Valley of the Kings
contained a cache of gold jewelry dating to the
throne had already died before him. It was
end of the 19th Dynasty. It included this pair of
his 13th son, Merenptah, whose mother had earrings inscribed with the cartouche of Seti II.
been Queen Isetnofret, who became king.

Merenptah of Seti II by a minor queen. The events of

Already an old man when he took the the next three years are unclear, partly
throne, Merenptah ruled for a decade. because Seti II removed the royal
He built the standard set of monuments, cartouche of Amenmesse from his
including a mortuary temple on the west monuments, but it is possible that
bank of Thebes, next to the Temple of Amenmesse deposed Seti II for a short
Amenhotep III, which he made full use period or possibly only ruled in the south of Egypt.
of as a source of building material. Whatever the case, Amenmesse died in around
▽ Merenptah’s tomb The most important events of Merenptah’s reign 1200 bce, and Seti II himself only lived for another
In this painted relief at the involved Egypt’s external enemies. He carried out six years. This was just enough time for him to build
entrance to Merenptah’s a series of punitive military expeditions against temples at Karnak and Hermopolis Magna.
tomb in the Valley of
the Kings, the sun god
troublesome vassals in the Levant and fought a
Ra-Horakhty welcomes defensive war against the Libyans, who had made Siptah and Twosret
the king to the afterlife. serious incursions into Egyptian territory. This war Seti II’s successor was Siptah, who may
took place in the fifth year of have been the son of Seti II by a minor
his reign and was recorded wife of Syrian origin, or even the son
at Karnak on a victory stela of Amenmesse. Siptah seems to have
that had once belonged to been too young to rule when he came
Amenhotep III. Although he to the throne, so the real power lay in
won the war, his victory did the hands of Seti’s senior queen,
not resolve the Libyan problem, Twosret. The situation was similar to
which resurfaced during the that of Hatshepsut and Tuthmosis III,
reign of Ramesses III. but Siptah did not live to adulthood.
As regent, Twosret appears to have
Merenptah’s heirs been supported by a man known as the
Merenptah’s death in 1203 bce “Chancellor of the Whole Land” Bay,
triggered a succession crisis
that dominated the remainder
of the 19th Dynasty. Seti II, ▷ Statue of Seti II
Merenptah’s eldest son, was This fine quartzite statue of Seti II
the legitimate heir, but was found at Karnak. It shows the king
seated with a ram’s head, representing
his claim to the throne was Amen-Ra, on his lap. The king’s name
challenged by Amenmesse, is inscribed on his shoulders and on
who may have been the son the base of the statue.
 END OF THE 19TH DYNASTY | 229

whose name suggests that he may not have been of After Siptah’s death, Twosret took the throne for
Egyptian origin. Bay claimed that he “Established the herself, adopting the throne name Sitre-Meriamen.
King on his father’s throne,” an extraordinary boast She ruled for only two years. Tomb KV14 in the Valley Ostrich feather,
the symbol
for someone who was not royal, and which hints at of the Kings, which had been started for Seti II and of Maat
the pivotal role that he played in the turbulent events also possibly for Twosret, was extended during her
of the period. Bay was executed in the fifth year of regency with Siptah, and then again during her sole
Siptah’s reign, leaving Twosret as sole regent, and reign, but it was usurped by the man who succeeded
Siptah died the following year, 1188 bce, after a her as king, Sethnakht, the founder of the 20th
nominal reign of just six years. Dynasty. Twosret’s final resting place is unknown.

Outspread wings
attached to
Maat’s arms

“He was appointed to

sustain the nobles, he
had arisen to protect
the ordinary people.”
MERENPTAH IS MADE KING BY THE GODS

▷ Order in troubled times

Although they were built at a time of
political crisis, the royal tombs of the
late 19th Dynasty were delicately
painted. This painting of Maat—
the goddess of truth, justice,
and cosmic order—was found
in the tomb of Siptah.
230 | THE LATE NEW KINGDOM

Life at Deir el-Medina

A community of royal tomb builders

The village of Deir el-Medina is one of Egypt’s most important archaeological

sites. Its treasures provide a unique insight into the daily lives of ordinary
working people in ancient Egypt.

When the New Kingdom tomb builders also created their own tombs,
kings decided to build a new which were often highly decorated, close to the
royal necropolis near Thebes, village (see pp.236–237).
they needed a skilled The plan of Deir el-Medina changed over the
workforce. They did not years as new houses were added to accommodate
require huge numbers of more workers and their families. At its peak, there
laborers to transport vast were around 70 houses in the village. The lives of the
quantities of stone or mud villagers were unusual, because they were working on
brick as in the past, because a state project and so were directly supported by the
the new royal tombs were government. Previous royal tombs had been broken
not going to be pyramids, but into and robbed, so the remote Valley of the Kings
would be built underground, was meant to be a secure place for royal burials.
in the sides of a steep valley Deir el-Medina was not meant to be secret, nor was
in the desert. What this it designed to keep its inhabitants prisoners, but it was
project needed, however, built in a desert valley some distance from the main
△ Domestic help were skilled artisans who could carefully excavate settlement at Thebes. Although villagers could walk
The villagers were given a the tombs and also, most importantly, decorate the down to the riverbank or the local market in an hour,
team of support staff who
internal walls. this was rarely necessary, as the community was given
supplied them with food and
drink. These staff provided
water, grain, and bread, as A village of artisans ATTENDANCE REGISTER
well as other types of food As these royal tombs were all in the same place,
such as vegetables and fish. Several of the documents that have been found at
the Valley of the Kings, it made sense for the tomb Deir el-Medina record the attendance and absences
builders and their families to live nearby, so a village of workers at the Valley of the Kings. It was clearly
was built to house them in the place that is known important to keep records,
but the excuses that men
today as Deir el-Medina. The workers who lived there gave either for not
were part of a community that passed its skills down turning up for work
from father to son. The village was occupied for at all or for turning
up and then not
almost all of the New Kingdom—nearly 500 years— working sometimes
and the responsibility for creating the royal tombs seem frivolous.
On this ostracon,
was passed down through the generations. The
which dates from the
40th year of Ramesses
II’s reign, the reasons
that different workers

“Year 1, third month of give for not working

include having to brew
beer, drinking beer with
winter, day 15. Giving clothes friends, working on their
own house improvements,

today to the washermen.”

and simply being too ill.

A LAUNDRY RECEIPT FROM DEIR EL-MEDINA

 LIFE AT DEIR EL-MEDINA | 231

△ Fuel for a fire

Agricultural waste, such as animal dung,
provided most of the fuel for fires in ancient
Egypt. This bowl of dung was found in the
tomb of the architect Kha at Deir el-Medina.

everything that it needed, including food and drink.

Supplying the village with water alone must have
been an enormous undertaking, and a train
of donkeys carrying water jars to the village
was probably a common sight. The village was
situated at too high an altitude to sink a well:
an attempt to do so was abandoned, leaving a
huge, dry pit at the northern end of the village.

A village of scribes
When Deir el-Medina was excavated, the
abandoned well yielded a very exciting find
from ancient Egypt—a treasury of written
documents, mainly on fragments of
limestone called ostraca (see pp.246–247).
These texts were written by the villagers,
who were able to read and write because
they had to write inscriptions on tombs.
This was unusual for nonelite Egyptians.
Ranging from personal letters to receipts
and records of court cases, the ostraca
reveal a great deal about the everyday lives
of the villagers. Along with remains of
artifacts found in the village itself, which
provide information about the villagers’
religious practices (see pp.234–235),
these texts have made it possible for
archaeologists to find out more about
Deir el-Medina than about any other
community of the pre-Classical world.

▷ Bust of an ancestor
The villagers of Deir el-Medina worshipped both
local and national gods, but they may also have
revered their ancestors. Several busts found at
the site appear to depict the deceased members
of various households.
232 | THE LATE NEW KINGDOM

Main entrance
Open area (possibly to the village ▽ Artisans' village
for storage), part of Although the desert valley in which
the later expansion Kitchen roofs made it was built had plenty of space, Deir
of the village of loose matting to el-Medina was deliberately made up
allow smoke of closely packed, terraced houses,
to escape
with one narrow main street and an
enclosure wall. The villagers seem
to have preferred living in close
contact with their neighbors to
having space and privacy.

Donkey trains
bringing water and
other supplies to
the village
Original external wall of
the village, before it
was expanded to house
a larger workforce
Temporary shelters
could be erected on
the flat roofs of
village houses

Deir el-Medina External wall

surrounding the
entire village

The workmen’s village

▽ Artisans' tools
Deir el-Medina, which housed the workers who made the royal Evidence from Deir el-Medina indicates that
tombs in the Valley of the Kings, is the best-known settlement site although the workers who lived there were
primarily employed on the state project of
from ancient Egypt. Thanks to the huge number of written texts
building royal tombs, they also did other work
that have survived from the village, a great deal is known about in their spare time, notably making funerary
the lives of the people who lived there. These texts record everyday equipment for private customers. Hand saw
matters, from inventories and shopping lists to accusations of
infidelity and theft; they even include jokes. Combined with this
ancient written information, there are the physical remains of the
village itself, the individual houses within it, and the objects that
the owners left behind when the village was abandoned. This all Mortise chisel
provides a uniquely detailed insight into this ancient community.
 DEIR EL-MEDINA | 233

Narrow street Roof vents Main living room Cellar for Stairs leading Kitchen with oven Second cellar for
running through allowed air with simple underground to the roof and a quern for kitchen storage
the village and light into furniture storage grinding grain
the house

Some roofs were supported

△ Artisans' home
by columns of wood, which Excavations at Deir el-Medina provide not only
were removed when the a good sense of the village as a whole, but also
village was abandoned the layout of individual houses, most of which
follow a similar, simple pattern. Exactly how
these rooms were used by their inhabitants is
Open area at the
not always clear.
southern end of
the village
THE ABANDONMENT OF DEIR EL-MEDINA

In the final years of the 20th Dynasty, Deir el-Medina

became an unappealing place to live. Its position on the
edge of the desert made it vulnerable to raids by Libyan
nomads, and the deteriorating political and economic
situation disrupted supplies to the village. When the
New Kingdom came to an end, there was no longer any
need to build royal tombs in the Valley of the Kings. The
village had lost its purpose and was abandoned. Before
long, it was buried beneath the wind-blown sands.

Coffin makers
at work

The purpose of the

raised platform in
the first room of
many of the village
houses is not known

One of the larger houses

belonged to Sennedjem,
whose tomb was just
outside the village
(see pp.236–237) THE RUINS OF DEIR EL-MEDINA
234 | THE LATE NEW KINGDOM

Personal worship
Stelae in the New Kingdom

Some the most revealing pieces of evidence for the range of deities worshipped
by the ancient Egyptians are stelae. Usually carved from limestone, these
inscribed and painted stone slabs were used as reminders of the eternal
devotion of people to their chosen gods.

△ Nebethetepet hears Usersatet △ Worshipping the moon god

The ears on this stela show that the The text above is a long prayer to Thoth
worshipper wants the deity to listen to in his ibis form as the moon god Iah. He
their requests, especially the goddess is being offered a wedjat-eye by a baboon,
Nebethetepet, “Who hears Prayer.” another animal associated with him.

△ Baki worships “The Good Ram” △ Two women worship Renenutet

The long text in the lower part of this In this unusual stela with two parts,
stela is a hymn of praise by Baki to the two women devote themselves to the
god Amen-Ra in the form of his sacred snake goddess Renenutet, who had a
animal, “The Good Ram.” protective role in the home.
 PERSONAL WORSHIP | 235

“I will make this stela in your name and establish

this hymn for you in writing on its surface.”
NEBRE ADDRESSES THE GOD AMEN-RA

◁ Foreign gods
The Egyptians' acceptance of foreign gods is
shown in this stela, on which the Egyptian Four snakes The sun god
god Min is joined by the Canaanite deities emerging from Ra-Horakhy in
Qadesh (center) and Reshef (right). the mountain his solar boat

△ Amennakht worships the Peak △ Mahu worships three deities △ Tripartite stela of Khabekhnet
On this stela, a scribe worships both This stela may be unfinished or was possibly In the middle scene of this stela,
the goddess Isis and "the Peak of the intended just to be sketched in black paint. Khabekhnet worships an unnamed
West,” a Theban mountain associated Mahu is seen worshipping, from left to right, prince and the cow goddess Hathor
with the snake goddess Meretseger. the gods Meretseger, Mut, and Amen-Ra. emerging from the Theban mountain.

△ Mehytkhati worships Taweret △ Amennakht praises Meretseger △ Huy and friends worship Hathor
The goddess Taweret is shown here in On this stela, a penitential Amennakht The lower part of this stela depicts the
the form of a hippopotamus next to a seeks forgiveness from the goddess worshippers and the upper part a king
table of offerings. Unusually, Mehytkhati Meretseger, believing she had punished (Ramesses II) acting as an intermediary
is holding a bowl of burning incense. him with temporary blindness. between them and the goddess Hathor.
236 | THE LATE NEW KINGDOM

Tomb of Sennedjem
“Servant in the Place of Truth”

Although it is one of the smaller private tombs at Thebes, the tomb of Sennedjem
at the workmens’ village of Deir el-Medina is rightly famous. Its vivid paintings
demonstrate the extraordinary skill of the craftsmen who lived at the site.

The villagers of Deir el-Medina were unlike most of A family tomb

the population of Egypt in several respects. One was Sennedjem lived at Deir el-Medina with his family
that they could enjoy the benefit of well-constructed, during the reigns of Seti I and Ramesses II. His title,
▽ Interior of the tomb
Every inch of Sennedjem’s
well-equipped, and well-decorated tombs, because “Servant in the Place of Truth,” identifies him as
burial chamber is covered Deir el-Medina was a workmen’s village, and the one of the workmen who were employed cutting
with paintings that show villagers built the tombs in the Valley of the Kings. and decorating royal tombs during the New Kingdom.
him and his wife meeting This gave them the skills and maybe some of the Sennedjem’s own tomb, one of the most important
the gods in the afterlife.
raw materials to create such tombs for themselves. in the western cemetery at Deir el-Medina, was
The paintings stretch up the
walls and across the ceiling,
In the 18th Dynasty, most tombs were built to the discovered with its contents intact in 1886.
over the space where the east of the village, but in the Ramesside Period, they Unfortunately, the circumstances of the discovery
coffins were laid. developed a new site on the desert slopes to the west. meant that the objects recovered from the tomb
 TOMB OF SENNEDJEM | 237

were not kept together and found their way into

various collections and museums around the world, Mud-brick
but the tomb itself remains a small jewel among pyramid
Theban private tombs.
Sennedjem’s tomb was shared by members of his
family—his wife, Iynofret; his son and daughter-in-
law, Khonsu and Tamaket; and Khonsu’s daughter-in- Decorated
law, Isis. Multiple burials seem to have been common burial N
chambers
at Deir el-Medina, where entire generations of Shaft leading
to the burial
families often shared the same tomb. Khabekhnet,
chambers
another one of Sennedjem’s sons, owned his own
0 5m
tomb, which contained a list of the people who would
eventually come to use it. These include the Foreman 0 5 yards

△ Decorated jar Nekhemmut and his father Khonsu, who were

This wine jar from descendants of Khabekhnet, but also the names △ Cross-section of the tomb
Sennedjem’s tomb is of several workmen who may not even have been Sennedjem’s tomb is typical of those belonging to senior
painted with garlands of craftsmen of the Ramesside period at Deir el-Medina, with
flowers similar to those used
related to Khabekhnet’s family.
an exterior offering chapel and a painted burial chamber.
in scenes of funeral feasts.
Painting a tomb
Like other Deir el-Medina tombs of this period, Nefertari (see pp.146–147), and an elaborate funeral
Sennedjem’s tomb had a simple building above procession. A graffito from this tomb records that it
ground—a tiny offering chapel topped with a took three months and 19 days to paint.
small mud-brick pyramid. The underground rooms,
however, although small, were covered with vividly Coffins
painted scenes showing Sennedjem and Iynofret Among the burial goods recovered from Sennedjem’s
enjoying life after death and being accepted by the tomb is a fine set of coffins that belonged to his
gods into the Field of Reeds—the fertile fields of the family. By the Ramesside Period, the exterior box
afterlife (see pp.22–23). coffins of earlier periods had been adapted, and the
Sennedjem probably decorated the tomb himself, preferred style was now an outer and an inner coffin
but workers sometimes paid more skilled colleagues that were both shaped like a person. This shows that
to do the work for them rather than doing it the skills of the Deir el-Medina workmen were not
themselves. A contract has been found, for example, limited to tomb decorating—they were also excellent
in which a worker named Aanakht promises carpenters and could make coffins.
a colleague named Merysekhmet food and The price of a coffin depended on the
various items of clothing in return for quality of both the workmanship and
painting the underground rooms of the materials (wood, paint, varnish)
his tomb. This included the cost that were used. Most coffins from the
of the paint. Ramesside Period cost between 20
The tomb of a priest named and 40 deben. The most expensive
Kynebu reveals how long it took to ones recorded are a pair of inner
paint his tomb, a small rectangular and outer coffins costing 295 deben.
room decorated with a standard At the time, a donkey cost from
set of tomb scenes depicting 25–40 deben, a pig 3–5 deben,
banquets, Kynebu worshipping and a bed 15–20 deben.
Amenhotep I and Ahmose-

The god Osiris,

king of the Field ◁ Mummy-board of Iynofret
of Reeds Iynofret’s body was laid beneath
a mummy-board inside an
anthropoid coffin. The board
was painted to show her as
Large and she was in life—in everyday
elaborate floral linen clothes, including a
collar floral collar, and wearing a wig.
238 | THE LATE NEW KINGDOM

Ramesses III
The last great king of the New Kingdom

Ramesses III had a long and eventful reign. He put an end to the political
instability of the late 19th Dynasty and achieved a great deal as a builder
and warrior, influenced by his role model, Ramesses II.

The origins of the 20th Dynasty ◁ Tomb of Amenherkhepeshef

are something of a mystery. The The Valley of the Queens was an
important cemetery for the tombs
first king was Sethnakht, who
of Ramesside royal princes. Here,
came to the throne 27 years Prince Amenherkhepeshef stands
after the death of Ramesses II. behind his father, Ramesses III,
The timing suggests that he may as he meets the goddess Hathor.
have been one of Ramesses II’s
grandsons by a lesser wife.
Sethnakht ruled for less than Apart from Deir el-Bahri, this
two years—maybe he was is the most complete mortuary
already an old man—and the temple in Egypt, mainly because
throne then passed to his son, no king after Ramesses III was able
Ramesses III. The new king had to build a monument on such an
a very obvious role model whom impressive scale or to plunder
he wished to emulate—his famous stone from the temple. Not only
namesake, Ramesses II. This was the ground plan of Medinet
emulation was made clear in three different areas: Habu essentially the same as that of the Ramesseum
in his roles as a builder, a father, and as a warrior. built by Ramesses II, but the themes of the pictures on
its walls were also remarkably similar (see pp.212–213).
Medinet Habu One of these themes was the royal children. Like
Ramesses III made significant additions to Karnak his namesake, Ramesses III commissioned scenes of
Temple and other minor buildings throughout Egypt, the princes and princesses in royal procession. The
but his main architectural achievement was the last of children at the front of each procession are named
the great mortuary temples at Thebes, Medinet Habu. and—in an extraordinary act of plagiarism—the
names that they bear are the names of Ramesses II’s
THE STELA OF BAKENKHONSU own children. The procession of princes at Medinet
Bakenkhonsu was High Priest of Amen in the early part Habu is a historically important document, as royal
of the 20th Dynasty. This stela commemorates the role cartouches were later added to the princes who went
that he played in restoring the royal statues at Karnak
during the reign of Sethnakht. Bakenkhonsu describes the
on to become kings Ramesses IV, Ramesses VI,
statues as “noble kings which had fallen into a state of and Ramesses VIII.
destruction … some on their sides, others on their backs …
by hands of the poor people.” The stela proves that high
officials were able to act on their own initiative in royal Problems from abroad
temples, but they did not always do so as a selfless act of Maybe the greatest historical importance of Medinet
piety. Bakenkhonsu also says that he “set up his (own) Habu was that it depicted and described Ramesses III’s
statue with them, through the wish that he might endure
like them forever and ever in the Domain of Amen.” great military achievements. Like his predecessor,
Ramesses had plenty of opportunities to prove
Bakenkhonsu is kneeling, himself as a powerful warrior king, but unlike
with arms raised in praise Ramesses II, the wars that he had to wage were not
of Amen-Ra
in far-flung corners of the Egyptian empire, but on
Egypt’s very borders and within the country itself.
 RAMESSES III | 239

Ramesses III’s greatest military achievement ▷ Ramesses III’s sarcophagus

was to successfully repel three invasions: two The huge, 7.7-ton (7-tonne) granite
lid of Ramesses III’s sarcophagus
by Libyans approaching from west of Egypt
shows the king modeled in high
in the 5th and 11th years of his reign, and relief in the form of Osiris. He
another by the Sea-Peoples from the east in is flanked by the protective
the 8th year of his reign (see pp.240–241). goddesses Isis and Nephthys.
At a time when several of the major states in
the Near East and eastern Mediterranean were
being destroyed by similar invasions, Egypt Problems at home
under Ramesses III was able to stand firm and Internal unrest began to cause
retain its sovereignty, even if its power was problems toward the end of
somewhat diminished in the process. Ramesses III’s reign. In his 29th
year, the workmen at Deir
el-Medina went on strike,
because their wages had
Crossed arms,
typical of royal not been paid. This was an
mummies of indication of the economic
the period
problems that lay ahead for
later kings of the 20th Dynasty.
More seriously for the king
himself, there was a plot to
take his life within the royal
court in Year 30 of his reign.
One of the minor queens
apparently conspired with other court officials to put
her son, Pentaweret, on the throne instead of Prince
Ramesses. The plot failed, the plotters were put to
death, and Prince Ramesses later became king.
Whether Ramesses III was actually murdered as
a result of this plot is not known, but he died
around this time and was succeeded by his chosen
successor, Ramesses IV.

“Praise to you! You

have captured your
enemies, you have
defeated the invader
of your boundary.”
AMEN-RA PRAISES RAMESSES III AT MEDINET HABU

◁ Mummy of Ramesses III

Ramesses III’s mummy is one of the best-
preserved royal bodies of the New Kingdom.
It was one of several mummies that were
removed from their tombs in the Valley of
the Kings and secretly reburied in the Deir
RAMESSES III el-Bahri cache (see pp.244–245).
240 | THE LATE NEW KINGDOM

Threatening invaders
Sea-Peoples and Libyans

During the New Kingdom, the settled order of the civilizations in the
eastern Mediterranean and the Near East was shattered by a series of violent
mass migrations that Egypt only just managed to survive.

The greatest threat to Egypt during ◁ Libyan prisoner

the New Kingdom did not come from Like all foreigners, Libyans were stereotyped in
Egyptian art, following established conventions.
any of the rival empires that had
They were usually depicted with short, cropped
emerged in the Near East, such as hair with a sidelock; a short, pointed beard;
the Mitanni or the Hittites. Nor did and a long, open robe tied at the shoulder.
it come from Egypt’s long-standing
enemy, Nubia, but from two groups
of peoples that the Egyptians had Egyptian records as early as the
either failed to consider a threat or Unification Period (c.3000 bce), they
had not even heard of: the Libyans seem to have been of little interest
and the Sea-Peoples. to the Egyptians. They offered no
potential for economic exploitation ▽ Battle with
the Sea-Peoples
Libyans and, apart from the occasional raid on Ramesses III’s battles
Egyptologists use the term “Libyan” to refer to the frontier settlements, they posed no military threat to with the Sea-Peoples
seminomadic people who lived west of the Nile Egypt. This situation changed drastically in the latter on land and on water
Valley and Delta. Most of them lived along the part of the 18th Dynasty, when new and much more are depicted in great
Mediterranean coast but traveled great distances powerful groups began to emerge. detail on the external
walls of his Medinet Habu
over the Western Desert with their herds. The two The Meshwesh first appeared during the reign temple. On the left, an
main groups of Libyans were known to the Egyptians of Amenhotep III, and the Rebu/Libu during that of Egyptian boat attacks
as Tjemeh and Tjehenu, and although they appear in Ramesses II. They probably came from the uplands a Sea-Peoples vessel.

Distinctive
Egyptian troops Sea-People’s
armed with bows helmet
and spears
 | 241

▷ The Israel stela

This important stela describes
Merenptah’s war with the Libyans in
detail. It also contains the first-known
reference to a group of people called
the Israelites, so it is popularly known
as the Israel stela.

of Cyrenaica, in what is the modern

state of Libya today. The problem
for the Egyptians was that these
new groups of Libyans had a
long-term strategy of trying to enter
Egypt in vast numbers, possibly to
escape from the increasingly arid
conditions on the Mediterranean
△ Hands of the enemy coast. This was not a military invasion in the
To ascertain how many of traditional sense, but a mass movement of entire
the enemy had been killed
communities of people who were prepared to fight
in battle, the Egyptians
cut off parts of their enemy’s for new territory.
bodies and gathered them Early indications of this problem can be seen in the
to be counted. Here, a pile war scenes depicted by Seti I at Karnak and the forts
of hands is being collected. built by Ramesses II in the west, but the real crisis
came during the reigns of Merenptah and Ramesses III.
Between them, they had to contend with three
serious Libyan invasions, each of which threatened
the existence of Egypt. These wars ended in victories
for the Egyptians, but they failed to solve the problem,
which had major ramifications in the Third
Intermediate Period.

Sea-Peoples
Sea-People armed
with round shields Ramesses III’s wars against the Libyans took place in
and long swords the 5th and 11th years of his reign. He also fought a
major defensive war against the Sea-Peoples. Probably
originating from the Ionian coast
of Turkey, the Sea-Peoples first
appeared as heavily armed
pirates in the Mediterranean.
One group, the Sherden,
raided the Nile Delta early in
△ “Israel” detail
Ramesses II’s reign. A hundred This hieroglyphic text is a close approximation of the
years later, these people were no word “Israel.” It is not the name of a place, but of a group
longer just a nuisance to the of people who may have been nomads.
established coastal powers, but a
powerful military force that
crushed both the Mycenaean civilization flourished across the eastern Mediterranean and Near
of Greece and the Hittite empire. East. Only the Egyptians were able to stand against
The Sea-Peoples attacked Cyprus them. Ramesses III’s victory in Year 8 of his reign
and rampaged through the Levant, saved Egypt from destruction, but the annihilation of
sacking important cities, such as its traditional partners forced it to face a new world
Ugarit. They upturned the status quo in order. This included a new threat to its empire in the
the region and brought an end to the Levant, where groups of Sea-Peoples, such as the
Late Bronze Age civilization that had Peleset (or Philistines), had settled.
Ramesses IV–XI
△ Ramesses IV’s tomb
Although the later kings
of the 20th Dynasty did not
have the resources to build
temples on a grand scale,

The end of the New Kingdom they had suitably impressive

tombs built for them in the
Valley of the Kings.

The history of Egypt between the reigns of Ramesses IV and Ramesses XI

was one of increasing instability. This affected both the authority of the king
and the economic and political well-being of the country at large.

One of the astonishing features of the period (1136–1129 bce), who also died soon after.
that followed the death of Ramesses III in Ramesses VIII (1129–1126 bce), another son
1153 bce was the speed with which the of Ramesses III, stepped forward to be king,
crown changed hands among his sons and but he soon died, too, leaving the throne
grandsons. He was succeeded by his son to Ramesses IX (1126–1108 bce), whose
Ramesses IV (1153–1147 bce), whose short relationship to the rest of this unfortunate
reign put a second son, Ramesses V (1147–
1143 bce), on the throne. Ramesses V’s
early death without an heir meant ◁ Shabti of Ramesses IV
that the next king was another of The royal tombs of the late 20th Dynasty
had the same sets of burial goods as their
Ramesses III’s sons—Ramesses VI predecessors, but relatively few objects
(1143–1136 bce)—who was followed of quality have survived from that time,
in turn by the next son, Ramesses VII apart from some royal shabti figures.
 RAMESSES IV–XI | 243

“You shall double for

▷ Statue of Ramesses VI
This half-life-sized statue of Ramesses VI shows the
king grasping the hair of a foreign captive. Ironically,
it was during his reign that Egypt lost most of its
empire, especially in the Levant. me the long lifespan
and the prolonged reign
family is not known. Ramesses X of Ramesses II.”
(1108–1099 bce) might have been the son of
Ramesses IX and the father of Ramesses XI RAMESSES IV MAKES AN UNSUCCESSFUL DEMAND OF OSIRIS
(1099–1069 bce). This rapid turnover of rulers
may have been due to the relative ages and
unlucky medical history of Ramesses III’s officials, however, became warlords.
descendants, but it reflected a more general During the reign of Ramesses XI,
sense of Egyptian decline during this period— Panehesy, the “King’s Son of Kush,”
a decline that was only going to get worse. invaded southern Egypt, possibly in
support of the king (based in Memphis)
Royal tombs and to try and reinstate royal authority there.
After the death of Ramesses III, no major However, he was forced back into Nubia,
building projects went ahead for the rest which was lost to Egyptian control.
of the New Kingdom—apart from creating Other emerging warlords were
royal tombs in the Valley of Kings. The descendants of Libyan prisoners of war
workmen of Deir el-Medina were kept busy who had settled in Egypt and risen to high
producing large tombs for Ramesses IV, military ranks. Foremost among these was
Ramesses V, and Ramesses IX. They also a general called Herihor. When Panehesy was
built a small but serviceable tomb for Ramesses VII. removed, Herihor became not only the real power
Ramesses X’s tomb has not been fully excavated, and in southern Egypt, but also the High Priest of Amen
that of Ramesses VIII has never been found. Although at Thebes. When he built monuments at Karnak, he
a tomb was completed for Ramesses XI, the last ruler did so in the name of Ramesses XI, but he showed
of the New Kingdom, it is likely that it was never used his own royal ambitions by writing his name in a
and that he was buried at a location at Memphis that cartouche and depicting his children in procession,
has yet to be discovered. just as Ramesses III had done before him.

The end of the New Kingdom HERIHOR AND NODJMET

Ramesses XI’s reign may have been the longest since
that of Ramesses III, but it was far less successful. In General and High Priest of Amen Herihor is shown below with his wife, Nodjmet, in a
Book of the Dead that belonged to her. This document proves that the couple had royal
fact, his death hastened Egypt’s decline, leading to pretensions, because Herihor is shown with a uraeus on his brow and Nodjmet is wearing
the collapse of the New Kingdom, the end of royal the vulture crown of a queen. Herihor had 17 sons in total, and each one is described
at the Khonsu Temple at Karnak as being the “King’s Son of his Body.” Despite the
authority, and the start of the Third Intermediate Egyptian names of their parents, some of these princes had names such as Masaharta,
Period. It was a time of civil war and competing Masaqaharta, and Osorkon, which betray their Libyan origins.
warlords, but also of great economic disruption.
The failure of the central administration to address
these problems is proved in documents found at
Deir el-Medina. These describe both the increase in
the price of grain due to inflation and the increasing
number of tomb robberies at Thebes.

Priests and warlords

The short reigns of kings in this period meant that
high officials had to maintain a sense of continuity
in the country’s government. Ramessesnakht, the
High Priest of Amen, for example, remained in post
from the first year of Ramesses IV’s reign to some
point during the reign of Ramesses IX. Some of these
244 | THE LATE NEW KINGDOM

Tomb robberies
Thieves in the Valley of the Kings

The tombs in the Valley of the Kings, richly provided with valuable burial
goods, were some of the most sacred sites in New Kingdom Egypt. But
that did not prevent repeated attempts to steal from them.

The Egyptian approach to the afterlife meant that ◁ Impalement on a stake

the graves and tombs of people of all classes The Tomb Robbery Papyri refer to convicted
had objects placed in them to help the criminals being “put to the wood.” A hieroglyphic
sign in this phrase leaves little doubt as to their
deceased. The wealthy elite were often grisly fate.
buried with extremely valuable items
made of gold, silver, and semiprecious
stones. This should not have been a secret underground tombs in the Valley
problem, as the relationship between the of the Kings to prevent further desecrations,
living and the dead, according to tomb inscriptions, but many of the tombs were not very secret at all
was one of respect. There were, however, always and had large, obvious entrances. And so, when
people willing to break taboos and risk the wrath the authority of the New Kingdom kings began to
of the gods by stealing from the dead, so in Egypt, collapse toward the end of the 20th Dynasty, little
there was a long history of robbing graves. could be done to protect the Valley tombs. In fact,
their semihidden location often worked in thieves’
Stealing from royal tombs favor, as it enabled them to work without being
Robbing a royal tomb was considered an especially disturbed by guards or passersby. By the end of the
▽ Bastinado in Mereruka serious crime, but it still happened, especially at times 20th Dynasty, even local officials were colluding in
This scene from the Old when law and order was breaking down. When the the robbery of tombs and temples.
Kingdom tomb of Mereruka Old Kingdom pyramids were robbed in the First
at Saqqara shows a group of
Intermediate Period, the state increased security at The Tomb Robbery Papyri
criminals being interrogated.
The process clearly involved many of the Middle Kingdom pyramids, but to little A set of documents from the reigns of Ramesses IX
physical violence. effect. In the New Kingdom, royals were buried in and Ramesses XI, known as the Tomb Robbery Papyri,
indicate that some of these robbers were brought to
trial. The papyri describe tours of inspection of the
royal tombs to discover which of them had been
robbed, the questioning of suspects, and the
sentencing of those found guilty.
The robbers’ confessions make it clear that they
were after the precious materials from which the
stolen items were made rather than the actual items
themselves. One group of robbers, who broke into
the tomb of Sobekemsaf II, ended their pillaging spree
by setting fire to the coffins they found, presumably
to make it easier to remove the gold foil from them.

▷ Coffin of Ahmose-Meritamen
The body of Ahmose-Meritamen was one of those found in the
Deir el-Bahri cache. Stripped of any precious covering when it
was removed from its original tomb, her coffin was painted
yellow to replace the missing gold leaf.
 TOMB ROBBERIES | 245

“We took our copper tools

and forced a way into the
pyramid of this king.”
CONFESSION OF A ROBBER FROM THE
LEOPOLD-AMHERST PAPYRUS

Although robbing royal tombs was clearly a lucrative

business, the punishment for those caught was an
extremely brutal death. It was described as being “put
to the wood,” which meant being impaled on a stake.

Caches of kings
One response by local authorities to the pillaging of
the Valley of the Kings was to collect what was left
in the semirobbed tombs and bury it in “caches” at
more hidden locations, most notably the High Priest
Pinudjem II, at Deir el-Bahri. In most cases, however,
little more than the royal body itself was reinterred,
in a much simpler coffin than the one in which it
had originally been buried.
The Deir el-Bahri cache contained more than 50
bodies, including many of the New Kingdom kings,
from Ahmose to Ramesses IX. The project seems,
however, to have given Theban officials at the end of
the New Kingdom a chance to enrich themselves with
the precious materials stripped from the original
tombs, claiming that they were acting in the best
interests of the ancient kings. The main Deir el-Bahri
cache was not discovered until the end of the
19th century.

▽ Casket of Ramesses IX
Most objects stolen from royal tombs were
stripped of their precious metals and stones, but
a few pieces survived and were reburied with the
Deir el-Bahri cache. Among them was this gold
and ivory casket inscribed for Ramesses IX.
246 | THE LATE NEW KINGDOM

Figured ostraca A person climbs

down the
tomb shaft

Art in miniature
▷ Funeral scene
This detailed line
Ostraca are small fragments of pottery or, more commonly in ancient Egypt, flakes drawing of a funeral
shows both mourners
of limestone on which people wrote and did drawings. Deir el-Medina is the richest and the ceremony at the
source of the most interesting and skillful of these informal works of art, produced mouth of the tomb shaft,
by the craftsmen who painted the tombs in the Valley of the Kings. as well as the numerous
underground burial chambers.

◁ Woman nursing a child

Coffins in the
Detailed pictures of mothers
burial chamber
nursing children are a common
The tied-up hair of
theme on ostraca at Deir a woman who has
el-Medina—maybe they were just given birth
made to commemorate the
arrival of a new child.
▷ Building plan
Some ostraca appear
to have been working
sketches for real building
projects. This ostracon
made of ceramic provides
a plan for a shrine,
including a set
of measurements.

◁ Domestic scene
The artist has used a palette
of several colors in this
sketch of a mother with a
child and a servant girl
holding up a mirror. The distinctive
features of Akhenaten
The king wears,
the blue crown The khepesh
sickle-shaped sword

The king
smites his
enemies
A fist holding
horse reins

△ Head of Akhenaten
◁ Amen gifts a sword This practice piece
This scene, found in depicting the head of
△ Bearded king many temples of the New Akhenaten shows the
On this sample piece, the artist practiced Kingdom, shows Amen-Ra influence of the Amarna
drawing hands and arms. He has also offering a sword to the art style (see pp.178–179)
drawn a royal head with some stubble, king (Ramesses IX here) in the modeling of the
which may be a sign of mourning. to defeat his enemies. king’s features.
 FIGURED OSTRACA | 247

△ Female acrobat △ Worker with hammer and chisel △ Sketch of Senenmut

This is one of the most beautiful ostraca to survive This simple but vivid sketch of an artisan This image of Hatshepsut’s adviser may
from ancient Egypt. The artist probably created the working might be a portrait of the artist have been a preparatory sketch for the
colorful and detailed image of a female acrobat to be himself or one of his workmates. almost identical images on the walls of
kept as a finished artwork. his tomb at Thebes.

Ostrich- An animal priest

feather fan reads out the ritual

▷ Cat and mouse

The Egyptians were very
amused by the idea of role
reversal between humans
and animals. This
ostracon shows
a cat serving an
upper-class mouse.

▽ Meretseger △ A religious procession

This large ostracon, 9 in (23 cm) across, was In this parody of one of the religious
probably used as an object of devotion to the This section reads festivals at Thebes, animals assume
snake goddess of western Thebes, Meretseger. “Meretseger, Lady of the West” the roles of the god and the priests
The text claims that it was made by the who are bearing him in procession.
“Deputy of the Gang” at Deir
el-Medina, Amenkhau.
 ◁ Bracelet of Sheshonq II
This bracelet—made of
gold, lapis lazuli, carnelian,
and faience—was found
in the royal tomb of King
Sheshonq II at Tanis.
The main panel depicts the
wedjat eye of the god Horus.

The Late
Period
c.1069–332 bce
250 | THE LATE PERIOD

The Late Period

The death of Ramesses XI in 1069 bce marked the beginning The Late Period
of a long period of political instability in Egypt. For the next The beginning of the Late Period can be dated to the
700 years, few Egyptian kings ever ruled the entire country. accession of Psamtek I in 664 bce. Initially a vassal of
Historians have divided this period into two phases—the the Assyrians, Psamtek managed to wrest power from his
Third Intermediate Period (1069–664 bce) and the Late overlords so that Egypt once again became unified under
Period (664–32 bce)—each of which had its own distinctive an Egyptian king, but this state of affairs did not last for
characteristics. Not only was Egypt now divided—it no long. One of the defining features of the Late Period was
longer had an empire. that Egypt came under Persian rule on two occasions.
The first of these, from 525–404 bce, was after Psamtek III
The Third Intermediate Period was defeated by Cambyses, the first Persian ruler of Egypt.
After the collapse of the monarchy at the end of the New Persian rule was then broken by the 30th Dynasty, during
Kingdom, competing factions and individuals attempted to which, from 380 bce, Egypt was once again independent
gain power in a weakened Egypt. In the south of the country, and united. However, the Persians returned in 343 bce,
the High Priests of Amen were politically and economically only to be dislodged in 332 bce by Alexander the Great,
powerful, while in the north, various local rulers based at whom the Egyptians regarded as their liberator.
Tanis in the eastern Delta claimed their right to the throne.
The most dominant group of people during Art and culture
this period were not Egyptians, however, but the Although this long period was a time of political instability,
descendants of Libyans who had settled in Egypt and none of its rulers could equal the achievements of many
after the great wars of the Late New Kingdom. of the Old, Middle, or New Kingdom kings, it was still a time
These men had made careers for themselves of cultural innovation. The kings now built their tombs in
as soldiers and were now powerful warlords. temple precincts. Many of these tombs—those at Tanis in
The names of these self-proclaimed kings any case—remained intact, and their contents were not
indicate their Libyan origin; the 22nd Dynasty, unearthed until the 20th century. Both the style of tombs
for example, consists mainly of rulers named and burial equipment changed during the period, but there
Sheshonq, Osorkon, and Takelot. They were was also a significant trend for archaism—looking back to
ousted by the Nubian king Piankhy, who the past for artistic inspiration. Although most of them are
invaded Egypt and established the 25th Dynasty. in poor condition, the monumental cityscapes of places
However, the Nubians were then deposed after such as Sais and Tanis show that the Late Period kings
the Assyrians invaded Egypt. built innovative structures on a truly impressive scale.

◁ Gold statuette of Amen

1039 bce Psusennes I 874 bce Osorkon II 727 bce Invasion of Egypt by
becomes king. He is begins building Piankhy. Egypt comes under
later buried at Tanis works at Bubastis rule of Nubian kings

1069 bce Smendes 945 bce Sheshonq I becomes 773 bce Death of Sheshonq III.
becomes the first ruler the first, and most effective, Political fragmentation in
of the 21st Dynasty king of the 22nd Dynasty northern Egypt
 THE LATE PERIOD | 251

Mediterranean Sea

Buto
Sais Behbeit el-Hagar
Naukratis Pelusium
Mendes 1 Tanis

Tell el-Muqdam

LOWER 2 Bubastis
EGYPT Nile Delta

Heliopolis

Saqqara Memphis

Faiyum

1 Temple precincts, Tanis

Gu
le

lf
Ni

Eastern

of
er

Desert

Su
Ri v

ez
Tuna el-Gebel Hermopolis Magna

Western
Red
Desert Sea
Ri

Arabian
ve

Desert
rN
ile

2 Temple of Bastet, Bubastis

The Late Period Abydos Dendera

Egypt no longer had an
empire during this time. UPPER
Coptos
For this reason, its most
EGYPT
significant sites all lie 33 Thebes
within its traditional
borders, particularly in
the Delta.

0 75 km

0 75 miles
Elephantine (Aswan)
Philae
First Cataract
3 Tomb of Montuemhat, Thebes

664 bce Psamtek I 380 bce Nectanebo I, the first 332 bce Alexander the
of Sais becomes the first king of the 30th Dynasty, begins Great takes Egypt
king of the 26th Dynasty major building works from the Persians

671 bce Assyrian invasions 525 bce Cambyses conquers 343 bce Beginning of
drive the Nubian kings Egypt. The first period of the second period
out of Egypt Persian rule begins of Persian rule
252 | THE LATE PERIOD

Third Intermediate Period

Dynasties 21–24

In the period following the collapse of the New Kingdom, Egypt was once again
divided between local ruling families and powerful individuals, including high
priests and Libyan warlords, who vied with each other for supremacy.

The death of Ramesses XI marked the end of the Sheshonq’s line of the family had been based in the
New Kingdom, but any real central authority had eastern Delta, in the city of Bubastis. For the next 230
already been crumbling for many decades. The 21st years, therefore, northern Egypt was ruled by kings
Dynasty (1069–945 bce) was made up of a series of with unashamedly Libyan names—Sheshonq,
men calling themselves kings, who were based in Osorkon, and Takelot—from their capital at Tanis.
the northern city of Tanis, which had replaced Sheshonq’s reign (945–924 bce) was the most
Pr-Ramesses as the major city of the eastern Delta. effective of the period. He installed his son, Iuput,
The south of Egypt, meanwhile, was effectively as High Priest of Amen and built temples at Karnak.
ruled from Thebes by the High Priests of Amen. He also campaigned in what had once been Egypt’s
Levantine empire and even sacked Jerusalem. He was
North and south unable to unify Egypt, however, and after his death,
This arrangement seems to have worked well, and the the different regions began to pull apart once more.
relations between the two regions was strengthened
by the fact that people on both sides were often Increasing fragmentation
related to each other. For half a century, Psusennes I During the reign of Sheshonq III (825–773 bce),
was king at Tanis, while his brother Menkheperre the challenge to royal authority began to make itself
was High Priest at Thebes. In 984 bce, felt even in northern Egypt. The lists of kings
Osorkon the Elder became king in the in Manetho’s 23rd and 24th Dynasties are an
north, his name revealing the extent to attempt to make sense of what had become
which the ruling classes of Egypt had an increasingly confusing situation, as Egypt
been infiltrated by families of Libyan broke down into a number of different regions
origin. A precedent for this had already competing with each other.
been established by the ascendancy of the By the time Sheshonq V died in 730 bce, local
General/High Priest Herihor at the end rulers had exerted their authority, and many
of the 20th Dynasty (see pp.242–243). of them were calling themselves king. The
Sheshonq I, a “Great Chief of the Ma” Delta was divided between rulers at Tanis,
(the Meshwesh Libyans) who was a Bubastis, and Leontopolis in the east and
nephew of Osorkon the Elder, founded several Great Chiefs of the Ma
the 22nd Dynasty (945–715 bce). in the western Delta. There

The gods Horus (left)

and Thoth (right) Globular
pot for ▷ Osirian triad
offerings This piece of temple treasure inscribed
for Osorkon II shows Horus and Isis
▷ Osorkon I flanking the unusual crouching
Metal statues were one of the specialties of figure of Osiris. The finest
the craftsmen of the Third Intermediate Period. materials were used for the
On this bronze statue of Osorkon I from the triad: the figures are made of
eastern Delta, the king’s name and kilt are gold and the pillar is carved
inlaid with gold. from lapis lazuli.
 THIRD INTERMEDIATE PERIOD | 253

was also a Prince of the West named Tefnakht

(Manetho’s 24th Dynasty), who was based at Sais.
In the Nile Valley of Middle Egypt, new local
rulers gained control of Herakleopolis Magna and
Hermopolis Magna, while the high priests of Amen
remained the dominant power in the south.
Crouching One positive result of this increasing fragmentation
figure of was that the rival rulers of the different parts of Egypt
Osiris
began to build temples, tombs, and monuments in the
various cities in which they were based rather than
concentrating on a few principal sites, such as Thebes.
The monuments built at this time were therefore
much more diverse in character than they had been
during previous periods.
These fragmentary sections of a divided Egypt were
never brought back together again by the Egyptians
themselves, nor by the Libyans. The reunification
of Egypt required the intervention of a strong
external power, and the Nubian 25th Dynasty
was to prove just such a power.

BUBASTIS

With a longer history than either Tanis or Pr-Ramesses,

Bubastis (modern Tell Basta) was one of the main urban
centers of the eastern Delta. Archaeological remains at
the site provide evidence of Old Kingdom ka-temples
built by Teti and Pepi I, a palace of the Middle Kingdom,
and extensive cemeteries for humans and sacred cats.
Ramesses II probably built there, but some of the
monuments at the site were originally erected at
Pr-Ramesses. The monumental center of Bubastis
was extended during the Third Intermediate Period,
especially under Osorkon I and Osorkon II, who built
a huge festival hall within the main temple complex.

Lapis-lazuli
pillar

THE CITY OF BUBASTIS

254 | THE LATE PERIOD

Tanis
The “Thebes of the North”

The most ambitious—and for archaeologists, the most exciting—project of

the Third Intermediate Period was the development of the city of Tanis.
It was built as a city fit to be a royal capital.

◁ The temple enclosure at Tanis

This view of Tanis shows the remains of the great
Amen Temple in the background and the royal
tombs in the foreground. The city was mostly built
of stone that had been taken from Pr-Ramesses.

They therefore removed much of the building △ Mask of Psusennes I

material from Pr-Ramesses in particular—not just The gold funerary mask
of Psusennes I is the best
stone blocks, but also statues and obelisks—and
known of the artifacts
reused it to suit their own purposes at Tanis. They discovered at Tanis. It
built a great temple to Amen, as well as temples to looks very similar to the
Mut, Khonsu, and Horus. mask found in the tomb
The kings who were most actively involved in this of Tutankhamen.
construction work were Psusennes I and Sheshonq III.
Some of the Ramesside monuments were reinscribed
by the kings who moved them, but others were not.
This caused considerable confusion among
By the end of the 20th Dynasty, the great Ramesside archaeologists when they began to excavate Tanis,
city of Pr-Ramesses had more or less been abandoned and for many years, scholars believed that it was in
(see pp.220–221). A change in the direction of the fact the site of Pr-Ramesses. More recent work at
branch of the Nile on which it stood had made the Qantir finally proved that it was not.
city useless as a river harbor, so it was replaced by a
new city. This was built farther downstream on
a large gezira (sand-island) alongside the Nile, at what
became the site of Tanis (present-day San el-Hagar).
Silver coffin embossed
For the kings of the early Third Intermediate Period, with figures of
the decision to build a new city represented a golden protective deities
opportunity to create a metropolis that could rival
Thebes as a great monumental center, dedicated to
the god Amen. Tanis did in fact flourish for a short
period of time, but it was then abandoned during
the Roman Period.

Borrowed temples
In order to create this splendid “Thebes of the North”
as quickly as possible and with few of the resources
that had been available to the earlier kings of the
New Kingdom—namely great wealth and the stone
quarries of southern Egypt—the kings of the 21st and
22nd Dynasties had to plunder existing monuments.
 TANIS | 255

“The temple precincts are

Royal tombs
One of the most obvious ways in which Tanis was
different from Thebes was that it had no desert valley
nearby that could be used as a royal cemetery, as the still impressive, even in
Valley of the Kings had been. The kings of the Third
Intermediate Period were also not wealthy enough to their utter ruin.”
build huge, impressive royal tombs to rival those of
the Old and Middle Kingdoms. They did not want to, KEN KITCHEN, THE THIRD INTERMEDIATE
however, because safety and secrecy were now vital. PERIOD IN EGYPT, 1995
The Valley of the Kings had been plundered by thieves
and the royal bodies had recently been moved to new
locations (see pp.244–245), so the current ◁ Scarab pectoral
rulers placed their tombs in the safest This rare pectoral shows a
place they knew—within the enclosure scarab with its wings spread
for flight. Found in the tomb
walls of the main temple of their city. of Psusennes I, it bears the
They also kept the tombs modest in king’s cartouche, which refers
size to aid discretion. to him as “Beloved of Amen”.
At Tanis, a corner of the Amen
Temple Enclosure was set aside for a
complex of small chambers, each just Sheshonq II and Takelot II were
big enough to hold a sarcophagus and also buried there, and the other original
a few burial goods. Like the Enclosure occupants, or later interlopers possibly,
itself, these were mainly built from stone may have included as many as eight
taken from earlier structures. more kings.
The burial equipment recovered from
Hidden splendor these tombs includes objects that were
This strategy of hiding tombs proved to made for their owners, together with ▽ Coffin of Sheshonq II
be successful, and the small royal necropolis others that had been taken from previous This silver coffin belonging
at Tanis remained undisturbed until it was tombs, especially from tombs built during to King Sheshonq II is one
rediscovered by archaeologists in 1939. It seems to the reign of Ramesses II. Although the number of of the most remarkable
have had an eventful history, however, because both funerary goods belonging to each king was relatively objects found at the Tanis
necropolis. The king has
the tombs and the burial goods and equipment were small, they included objects that were extraordinarily a falcon’s head, which
used and reused during the 21st and 22nd Dynasties. fine in quality. In fact, apart from the tomb of possibly associated him
Four of the tombs may have been built for Psusennes I, Tutankhamen, the Tanis necropolis is the most with the god Horus.
Amenemope, Osorkon III, and Sheshonq III. spectacular find of an Egyptian royal burial.

A flail, one of the

symbols of kingship
256 |

The stomach was stored

in a jar protected by the
jackal-headed Duamutef

△ Canopic jars

Mummification
By the New Kingdom,
canopic jars, which were
used to store body parts,
were adorned with images
of the Sons of Horus. These
four deities were believed
Beneath the bandages to guard the dead.

One of the most distinctive features of ancient Egyptian culture was the practice
of preserving dead bodies. Known as “mummification,” this custom played a key
role in ensuring that when a person died, they had a successful afterlife.

The Egyptians believed that when a person died, their dessication. This natural form of preservation no
ka needed to be fed for eternity (see pp.50–51). For longer took place, however, when the Egyptians began
this to happen, the ka also required a physical host to bury their dead in coffins. Something that started
in which it could be nourished. Ideally, this was the as a means of respecting the dead resulted
body of the person who had died, so it in speeding up decomposition. To solve
became important to preserve the
bodies of the dead. This idea may
have been linked to the chance ◁ Embalmers’ cache
discovery that bodies buried in The materials that were left over from
preparing a body for mummification
pits filled with sand had were often buried near the tomb of
remained astonishingly well- the deceased. This bag of natron was
preserved as a result of natural found close to the tomb of Tutankhamen.
 MUMMIFICATION | 257

THE MUMMY OF YUYA

By the end of the 18th Dynasty, the Egyptians had finished

developing their painstaking techniques for preserving the
dead, but the results of these procedures were not always
successful. The mummies of Yuya and Thuya, the parents
of Queen Tiy, were given the best possible treatment before
they were buried in their tomb in the Valley of the Kings.
Even today, some 3,000 years later, their bodies still have
a remarkably lifelike appearance. The body of Tutankhamen,
however, which was buried at around the same time, was in
a very poor state when it was discovered, owing to the
botched efforts of his undertakers.

◁ Anubis mummifies Sennedjem

The Egyptians believed that the god Anubis guided the
dead from this world to the next. He acted as a divine
undertaker, so he oversaw the mummification process.

this problem, rather than abandoning coffins and was either drawn out through the nose or via
returning to desert burials, the Egyptians began to the atlas vertebra at the base of the skull. Once the
devise methods of artificially preserving bodies. important organs had been removed, they were
stored in jars called canopic jars—one each for
Wrapping the body the intestines, the liver, the lungs, and the stomach.
The first attempts at mummification were made Little attention was given to preserving the heart,
during the Early Dynastic Period and the Old which was often replaced by a more durable stone
Kingdom and focused on maintaining the body’s substitute, or the brain.
lifelike appearance. Linen bandages were bound
tightly around it and were sometimes stiffened with Drying the skin
plaster or resin that were shaped into features before After all of the internal organs had been extracted,
they set. Although this failed to stop the flesh from the exterior of the body still had to be treated. The
decomposing inside the wrappings, it was often very main method of doing this was to apply natron, a
effective in preserving the body’s outer appearance. naturally occurring salt compound, to the skin.
The embalmers used natron as a dry powder, which
Removing the organs they heaped over the body, much as sand had been
By the Middle Kingdom, the Egyptians had made piled on top of bodies in desert burials.
considerable progress in solving the real problem, According to Herodotus, this drying process took
namely decomposition, which spread from the soft 70 days. In some cases, before a body was dried, ▽ The mummy of Wah
internal organs to the rest of the body. Their solution the muscle tissue beneath its skin was removed and One of the most remarkable
was to remove the internal organs and preserve them replaced by an inorganic substance, such as sand or examples of a wrapped
separately, in case the body required them in the linen. Finally, to enhance the appearance of the body, mummy is that of Wah, an
“Overseer of the storehouse”
afterlife. By the Third Intermediate Period, they had its toenails and fingernails were tied on to prevent from the Middle Kingdom.
begun to extract not just the easily accessible organs them from dropping off. In some cases, false hair and His body was wrapped in
of the abdomen and chest, but also the brain. This false eyes were also added. numerous sheets of linen.
258 | THE LATE PERIOD

▷ Nest of coffins
This view of all of the coffins belonging to
Djeddjehutyefankh shows how they were
carefully designed to fit inside each other.
Together, they formed a multilayered
sheath of physical and religious protection
around Djeddjehutyefankh’s body.

The coffins of
Djeddjehutyefankh
Burial in the Late Period

▽ The inner coffin From at least as early as the Middle Kingdom, vertically on its end during the Opening
Djeddjehutyefankh’s Egyptians who could afford it chose to be buried in of the Mouth ceremony that was often
innermost coffin is painted
with images of protective
two coffins, one nested within the other. The inner performed at funerals (see pp.260–261).
deities. These include the coffin was anthropoid, or human-shaped, and the Djeddjehutyefankh’s innermost coffin was
four Sons of Horus and outer one was box-shaped. In the New Kingdom, decorated with funerary texts and images of
the sky goddess Nut, who this standard pair of coffins was gradually replaced funerary deities. The coffin in which it was
spreads her wings over by several different sizes of anthropoid coffins all nested was also highly decorated and was in
his chest.
nested inside each other. This style is best exemplified turn contained by an outer coffin, the design
by the series of coffins (and stone sarcophagus) in of which was innovative for the period. This
which Tutankhamen was laid to rest (see pp.192–193). outer coffin had a vaulted lid and tall corner
In the Ramesside and Third Intermediate Periods, posts that were clearly designed to replicate
the external decoration of coffins became increasingly the form of a chapel or shrine. The figure of
intricate, incorporating traditional religious texts and either Anubis or Wepwawet—both of whom
panels showing scenes of gods and goddesses. By the were jackal deities that guided the dead to
Late Period, this extensive elaborate decoration, along the afterlife—was fixed to the lid, and each
with the desire for multiple anthropoid coffins, led to of its four posts held a wooden statue of the
the creation of some of the most complex coffin sets god Horus in the form of a falcon.
that were ever made. As Horus was a sky god, the coffin lid
itself probably represented the heavens.
Pedestal coffins The complexity of the coffins from this
A good example of a coffin set from the 25th Dynasty period was part of a more general trend,
is the one that belonged to Djeddjehutyefankh—one evident from the New Kingdom to the Late
of a group of priests of the god of Montu who were Period, of decorating coffins with scenes
buried at Deir el-Bahri, near Luxor. The innermost of gods and funerary texts rather than the
part of his coffin set is the wrapped and mummified walls of tombs. As the tomb walls became
body of Djeddjehutyefankh himself, which was bare, the tombs themselves also became
covered with a netting of faience beads. simpler. This marked a significant move
The anthropoid coffin in which the mummy was away from the Old and Middle Kingdom
housed was typical of the period. It had a pedestal traditions of building lavish tombs with
base, which may have been used to stand the coffin elaborate offering chapels attached to them.
 THE COFFINS OF DJEDDJEHUTYEFANKH | 259

Anubis or Wepawet, The boat of the sun god A false beard connects
jackal gods of the Ra is dragged across the deceased with Osiris
underworld the sky

Falcons Hieroglyphic texts Wrapped body

representing the ask for the protection covered with
sky god Horus of the gods bead netting

Protective deities
depicted within
individual shrines
The Opening of the Mouth
Hunefer’s Book of the Dead is one of the finest examples of
these funerary texts from the New Kingdom. This sheet
of papyrus showing the Opening of the Mouth ceremony,
a key part of major funeral ceremonies, is particularly well
written and painted. Hunefer’s coffin is held upright in front
of his tomb by the jackal-headed god Anubis, and a pair of
women are mourning before it. The officiating priests are
approaching the coffin to touch its mouth with implements.
These will magically open the mouth so that Hunefer will be
able to speak, eat, and breathe in the afterlife.
262 | THE LATE PERIOD

Shabtis Amenmose in
everyday clothes

Servants for the afterlife

The Egyptians believed that when they died, they would have to work for Osiris
in an afterlife known as the Field of Reeds. To avoid eternal physical labor, they
were buried with shabtis—servant figurines that would magically do the work
for them. They were shaped like mummies and equipped with tools.

▷ Painted shabti
This shabti of the late New Kingdom
clearly shows the head emerging from
the white mummy wrappings and an
agricultural tool in each hand. The lower
part of the body has hieroglyphs on a
yellow background.

Agricultural tool
held by shabti

Detachable
◁ Stick shabti △ Shabti of Amenmose
lid for the The most basic form A variation of the shabti was
shabti box of shabti was a crude the small funerary figure
piece of wood roughly representing the deceased.
carved to look like a In this example, a faience
mummy. It has an figurine in everyday dress is
ink inscription that contained within a box that
identifies the owner. resembles the owner’s coffin.

◁ Shabti box
Shabtis were usually produced as
work gangs rather than single figures.
Tomb owners stored large numbers
(sometimes several hundreds) of their
figures in boxes, which often had text
to identify whom they belonged to.

Owner of the shabti

box, Paramnekhu

▷ Family shabtis
These three shabtis from the
tomb of the artisan Sennedjem
at Deir el-Medina belonged to
different members of his family.
The female shabti belonged to his
wife, the male “overseer” shabti
was his son’s, and the standard
shabti belonged to Sennedjem.
 | 263

Incised text Cartouche

with blue identifies
paint infill the king

△ Shabti of Yuya △ Shabti of Maya △ Shabti of Taharqa

The finest shabtis were This large 16 in (41 cm)- This shabti is part of a set
works of art in their own tall New Kingdom wooden belonging to King Taharqa
right, small statuettes carved shabti has striking eyes and of the 25th Dynasty. It is not
and painted with care, like eyebrows inlaid with stone particularly well-modeled,
this example belonging to and glass, which give it a but it is made from granite,
Yuya, father of Queen Tiy. vivid, lifelike appearance. making it extremely durable.

Colored
glaze
provides a
dramatic
effect

Incised text
wraps around
the body of
the shabti

△ Shabti of a high priest △ “Overseer” shabti △ Shabti of Ankhu

Shabtis of the Late Period, “Overseer” shabtis took the Middle Kingdom tombs
owned by the elite, are form of foremen who were in contained fewer shabtis than
better-modeled and larger charge of work gangs. The the tombs of the New Kingdom △ Shabti of the lady Sati
than those from earlier Egyptians thought that like and later periods. They were An example of the exquisite craftsmanship often
periods. Like many coffins real workers, large numbers sometimes made from very seen during the reign of Amenhotep III, this
of the same era, they are of shabtis needed managers hard materials, like this faience shabti has a white glazed background
mounted on pedestal bases. to oversee their tasks. example in granodiorite. and hieroglyphs infilled with a blue glaze.
Nubian pharaohs
△ Shrine of Taharqa
The shrine of Taharqa
at Kawa, in Nubia, was
primarily dedicated to
Amen-Ra, who is depicted
here in his ram-headed form.
The 25th Dynasty in Egypt Taharqa is shown making
offerings to the god, who sits
beside the goddess Anuket.

The reunification of Egypt at the end of the Third Intermediate Period came
in an unexpected way, when the Kushite kings of Nubia conquered their
northern neighbor to create a short-lived joint kingdom.

By the end of the New Kingdom, the Egyptians had they governed the whole of Nubia from their power
lost control of their Nubian empire, and they made base at Napata and buried their rulers at the site of
no attempt to reconquer this territory during the el-Kurru. Their earliest tombs were round tumuli,
Third Intermediate Period. Left to their own devices, similar to those that they had previously built at
and without any interference from Egypt for the next Kerma, but these tombs became increasingly Egyptian
300 years, the inevitable happened—the Nubians in appearance and eventually became small pyramids.
developed a strong state, much as they had previously
during the Second Intermediate Period. ▷ Piankhy’s pyramid
However, the Nubian rulers who emerged from The tomb of Piankhy at el-Kurru is an early example of
the ruins of Egypt’s empire were different from their the way in which the Kushite kings took the basic form
predecessors in several respects. The most important of an Egyptian pyramid and adapted it for their own
use. The Nubian pyramids were much
power group of Nubians that emerged at this time smaller than the earlier
came from farther upriver than Kerma and closer to Egyptian ones and
the Fourth Cataract. By the end of the 8th century bce, had steeper sides.
 NUBIAN PHARAOHS | 265

Another site that was very important to the Nubians ESARHADDON’S VICTORY STELA
was the ancient religious center at Gebel Barkal. This
Esarhaddon became king of the Neo-Assyrian empire
was dedicated to the god Amen, whom the Nubians in 681 bce, and ruled until his death in 669 bce.
had adopted as their own principal god. Although his reign was fairly short and plagued by
both illness and fighting within the royal family, it
boasted one major achievement—the conquest of
Nubian conquest of Egypt Egypt. Esarhaddon’s initial attempt to invade Egypt
These Nubian rulers were ambitious to expand in 674 bce was beaten back by Taharqa, but the
beyond Nubia’s traditional frontiers, and they were Assyrians returned in 671 bce and moved into northern
Egypt, defeating Taharqa’s army and taking Memphis.
able to take full advantage of Egypt’s weakness. Their Taharqa fled south, but his family was captured and
ruler, Kashta, started to refer to himself as the King of sent to Assyria as hostages. Esarhaddon celebrated
his victory on this stela, which shows him towering
Upper and Lower Egypt—a claim that became more over two captives. The smaller prisoner, with a rope
of a reality when his son, Piankhy, or Piye (747– round his neck and wearing a uraeus, is either
716 bce), began to take control of southern Egypt. Taharqa or his son.
In the 21st year of his rule, Piankhy invaded Esarhaddon
northern Egypt in a campaign that was recorded on
Egyptian captive
a great stela that the victorious king erected at Gebel
Barkal. Piankhy’s army then moved north down the
Nile toward Memphis. He captured the city after
a difficult siege, then returned to Nubia. It was building kings of the Old Kingdom. Under Taharqa
still necessary, however, for Piankhy’s successor, (690–664 bce), extensive building works were carried
Shabaqo (716–702 bce), to invade Egypt again early out in both Egypt and Nubia.
in his reign to bring the rulers of the Nile Delta
firmly under Nubian control. The Assyrian invasion
Nubian control of Egypt was eventually ended by
Nubian pharaohs a series of Assyrian invasions that penetrated as far
As rulers of a unified Nubian/Egyptian kingdom, south as Thebes. Tantamani (664–656 bce) attempted
the Kushite kings of the 25th Dynasty were very to recapture Egypt from the Assyrians, but he was
careful to present themselves in traditionally Egyptian defeated. This brought the 25th Dynasty to a close. Double uraeus,
representing both
ways, so they built or added to the temples of The Assyrians did not aim to rule Egypt directly, Egypt and Nubia
traditional Egyptian deities. As Amen was already so there is no Assyrian dynasty in Manetho’s list of
its major deity, Thebes received kings. Instead, they left control of the country in
particular royal favor, but the the hands of local rulers, who had sworn
political capital of the Nubian oaths of loyalty to the Assyrian king.
kings was Memphis, possibly This created a network of people
in deference to the earlier who would compete for
models of royal power power when the Assyrian
established by the pyramid- empire itself collapsed.

◁ Lion pendant ▷ Sphinx of Taharqa

The gold base of this The Kushite kings were
Nubian pendant shows keen to present themselves
clear Egyptian influence. It in traditional Egyptian
depicts a series of baboons ways. This included
with their hands raised to depicting the king in
worship the sun god. the form of a sphinx.

747 bce Piankhy 690 bce Taharqa 664 bce Death

becomes ruler of Nubia becomes king of Egypt of Taharqa

735 bce Piankhy 671 bce Esarhaddon

invades Egypt invades Egypt
266 | THE LATE PERIOD

The Saite Period

The Egyptian kings of the 26th Dynasty

The Saite kings of the 26th Dynasty were the first native Egyptian rulers of
a unified Egypt since Ramesses XI, but they had to cope with an increasing
number of foreign enemies.

During the 26th Dynasty, Egypt became ◁ Psamtek I gold plaque

much more involved in the politics of the This small gold plaque, bearing the name of
Psamtek I, was part of a foundation deposit
Near East and eastern Mediterranean and
that the king buried under a temple he built
had to contend with the threats posed by at Tell Defenneh, in the Delta.
various foreign powers, including Nubia,
Assyria, Babylonia, Persia, and Greece.
The works of the Greek historians exploited Assyria’s problems in other
provide invaluable information about this parts of its empire to extend his authority.
period, especially those of Herodotus, who He had taken control of the whole Delta
recorded all kinds of historical facts about by 660 bce, and the rest of Egypt by
the Egyptians, as well as unlikely gossip. 656 bce. Without openly breaking with
These show that the Egyptians relied on the Assyrians, he became the effective
both diplomacy and military measures to king of the whole of Egypt and the first
maintain its independence. native Egyptian to be so in 400 years.
Psamtek I built alliances with other local
Psamtek I rulers, including the priesthood at Thebes, but he
One of Assyria’s most important Egyptian vassals was also created a powerful army that employed a large
Necho I of Sais (672–664 bce), who was killed during number of foreign mercenaries. He encouraged other
Tantamani’s attempt to reconquer Egypt in 664 bce. foreigners to enter Egypt, especially Greek traders,
Necho I’s son, Psamtek I (664–610 bce), succeeded his for whom he developed the city of Naukratis in the
father as a vassal of the Assyrians and controlled the western Delta and gave it a monopoly on receiving
western Delta and Memphis. Early in his reign, he Greek trade into Egypt.

△ Khonsirdis statue GOD’S WIVES OF AMEN

Temple donations in the
Late Period often included Originating in the 18th Dynasty, the title “God’s Wife of
Shepenwepet’s name
bronze statues of a donor Amen” was used to designate a royal woman who played
written in a cartouche
making a gift. This 16 in an important role in the cult of Amen at Thebes. In the Third
(40 cm) tall statue bears Intermediate Period, and especially during the 25th and 26th
Dynasties, this role became increasingly important,
the name of Khonsirdis
as it was associated with the political and
and dates from the reign economic power of the Theban region. It
of Psamtek I. became customary for the post to be held
by a royal daughter and for the incumbent
God’s Wife to “adopt” her successor. The
importance of these Wives is clear from
the art of the period. Here, the God’s Wife
Shepenwepet II is depicted as a sphinx
making an offering to the god Amen.

Name of Shepenwepet’s
father, Piankhy

GOD’S WIFE OF AMEN SPHINX

 | 267

“It is said that in the reign

of Amasis, Egypt attained
to its greatest prosperity.”
HERODOTUS DESCRIBES THE REIGN OF AMASIS

The city of Sais

Although they ruled the whole of Egypt, the Saite
kings, as their names suggests, were closely associated
with the city of Sais in the western Delta. For this
reason, Sais became a major monumental center
under their rule. Building work centered on the
temple of the goddess Neith, the patron deity of the
26th Dynasty. Following the practice of other Delta
rulers, such as those of the 21st and 22nd Dynasties,
the Saite kings also built their tombs in the city’s
temple enclosure, but sadly, these tombs and all of
Sais’s temples were thoroughly pillaged in later years.

Later kings of the 26th Dynasty

Psamtek I’s long and successful reign brought a
stability to Egypt that was rarely seen under the
kings who succeeded him, but his son, Necho II
(610–595 bce), continued Psamtek I’s policy of
increasing Egypt’s military strength. The army,
with its large mercenary component, was vital in
preventing an invasion of Egypt by the Chaldeans
(Babylonians). It was also used by Necho’s son,
Psamtek II (595–589 bce), in a campaign to neutralize
a potential threat from Nubia. However, Apries
(589–570 bce), the son of Psamtek II, had a turbulent
reign and was defeated in battle by the Babylonians
in the Levant and the Greek colonists in Libya. This
latter defeat was followed by a successful coup against
Apries by the general Amasis, who became king
(570–526 bce).
Despite its inauspicious start, Amasis’ reign was
both long and prosperous, but his son, Psamtek III
(526–525 bce), had the misfortune of coming to the
throne only a few months before the Persians, under
King Cambyses, invaded Egypt. After Cambyses
captured Memphis, Psamtek III was taken prisoner
and was held in Persia, where he died.

▷ Statue of Necho
This bronze statue is a likeness of Necho, although
it is not known which one. Kneeling with his hands
open at his sides, the king is in the classic pose of
making an offering to a god.
268 | THE LATE PERIOD

Inspired by the past

Archaism in art

During the 25th and 26 Dynasties, both kings and members of the nonroyal
elite looked back to the artistic styles of Egypt’s distant past for inspiration.
This imitation of styles from ancient times is known as archaism.

Many Egyptians, both royal and elite, ◁ Relief from the

looked back at the long history of their tomb of Montuemhat
country and the extraordinary number These scenes of men gutting fish
and women carrying baskets are
of monuments and works of art created reminiscent of the “scenes of daily
by their forbears with great admiration. life” depicted in Old Kingdom tombs
This respect for their cultural legacy is in the area around Memphis.
shown in the graffiti left behind in the
New Kingdom and also by the many the sphere of literature is the “Shabaqo
monuments that Khaemwese restored Stone,” which proclaimed itself a 25th
(see pp.226–227). This reverence also Dynasty copy of an ancient text that the
explains why the Egyptians sometimes revived styles king had found on an ancient, worm-eaten papyrus.
of monuments that had been popular in ancient
times, and built new royal pyramids at the beginning Montuemhat
of the Middle Kingdom, for example. The best example of archaism is the tomb of a high
official, Montuemhat, whose career encompassed the △ Statue of Montuemhat
Archaism in the Late Period end of the 25th Dynasty, as well as the ascendancy This hardstone statue with
The desire to emulate the art of the past was of the Saites. His tomb, one of the largest at Thebes, its closely modeled face is
clearly Late Period in style,
especially strong during the Late Period, notably was decorated with exceptionally fine reliefs copied
but the form and dress of the
during the 25th and 26th Dynasties. For the Kushites in content and style from those of earlier monuments figure are based on those of
(25th Dynasty), reviving ancient forms was one way at Thebes—mainly from the New Kingdom, but also Old Kingdom private statues.
to affirm that they were culturally Egyptian and thus dating as far back as the Old Kingdom.
fit to rule as kings of Egypt. The kings of the 26th More than a dozen statues of Montuemhat have
Dynasty followed suit, possibly also wishing to stress also survived, and these are an interesting blend of
their credentials as native Egyptian rulers and to Late Period features (such as the hard, dark stone
imply that the great days of the past were returning. popular at the time) and ancient forms, including
A good example of this tendency in some that hark as far back as the Old Kingdom.

◁ Montuemhat’s tomb
This tomb was built not far
from Hatshepsut’s mortuary
temple at Deir el-Bahri. The
mud-brick superstructure is
just one part of a complex
with extensive underground
rooms and open courts.
 INSPIRED BY THE PAST | 269

This woman
is described
as the “Lady
of the House”

Long halterneck
robe of an elite male

△ Archaic style
The style of this finely carved
relief in Montuemhat’s tomb
was modeled on reliefs in
early 18th Dynasty tombs.
There were many of these
tombs at Thebes, and
Montuemhat was probably
familiar with them.
 270 | THE LATE PERIOD

27th–31st Dynasties
Persians and Egyptians

For nearly 200 years, between 525 and 332 bce, the native rulers of Egypt
struggled, usually without success, to maintain their independence from
the new regional superpower: the Persian Empire.

Egypt’s experience of falling Chief Physician, Wadjhorresne. He carried out

Aral
Sea under the control of a powerful reconstruction work at Sais under Cambyses and
Ca s

Black Sea
empire from the east—the Darius I, but not all of the Persian kings wanted to
pia
nS

Assyrians—was repeated when uphold Egyptian traditions in this way to display their
ea

Sardis
the Persians invaded Egypt in kingship, notably Darius I’s son Xerxes (486–465 bce).
Mediterranean Sea
525 bce. Psamtek III of Egypt As Egypt was now a part of the Persian Empire, its
Babylon Susa was defeated by the Persian most senior official, the satrap, was Persian, but much
N Memphis Pe
rs
Persepolis king, Cambyses, and Egypt duly of the Egyptian administration was left as it was. The
Ar

ia
n became a satrapy (province) of Persians intervened very little, as long as Egypt paid
ab

G
ul
Thebes
ia

f
the Persian Empire. Cambyses its taxes and contributed to Persia’s military efforts,
n
Re
le

Pe
dS

died just three years later, and especially against the Greeks. There was also, though,
Ni

ni

0 500 km
er

A ra b i a n
a
Riv

ns

Sea
the Egyptians mounted a brief little integration, cultural or otherwise, between the
ul

0 500 miles
a

revolt that was crushed by Egyptians and their new masters during Persian rule,
△ The Persian Empire Cambyses’ successor, Darius I (522–486 bce). and this fermented the minor revolts that local
At its greatest extent, the Egyptian leaders staged against the Persians.
Persian Empire stretched
The first Persian Period
from Greece in the west
to Pakistan in the east. Unlike the Assyrians, the Persians were keen to be The last native dynasties
Egypt formed its most seen as pharaonic-style rulers of Egypt, so they built The most serious of these revolts resulted in some
southwesterly frontier. temples in which they were depicted as Egyptian local rulers, especially from the Delta, making claims
kings worshipping Egyptian gods. They were helped on the throne itself. Although there is little detailed
with this by a few key Egyptian officials who were evidence from this period, it seems that after the
willing to work for them, such as the death of Darius II in 405 bce, a local ruler based at
Sais, Amyrtaios (404–399 bce), declared himself
king of Egypt and became the sole ruler of the
Water spout that
was added later 28th Dynasty. Internal divisions within the Persian
ruling family prevented a quick response to this
revolt, but Amyrtaios’ reign was cut short by another
local ruler in the Nile Delta, Nepherites of Mendes,
who founded the 29th Dynasty (399–380 bce).

Cartouche of Nectanebo II
based on that of Senwosret I

◁ Lion of Nectanebo II
This is one of a pair of lions
that Nectanebo II set up at the
temple of Thoth in Hermopolis
Parva. They were taken to
Rome during Roman rule.
 | 271

TOMB OF PETOSIRIS

The family of Petosiris held the

important post of High Priest of
the god Thoth at Hermopolis Magna
for five generations, from the 30th
Dynasty, through the second Persian
Period, and into the reign of Alexander
the Great. During this time, the priests
carried out significant building works
within the great temple enclosure,
restoring damaged structures and
building new ones. All of this is
recorded in the autobiographical texts
in Petosiris’ tomb. In the form of a
miniature temple, it is located at the Horus, wearing
nearby cemetery of Tuna el-Gebel. the double
crown of Upper
and Lower Egypt

Although the three kings of this dynasty had some ▷ Nectanebo II

authority over the whole of Egypt, they seem to The kings of the 30th
Dynasty were keen to be
have followed the example of other Delta rulers seen as traditional Egyptian
in choosing to be buried in their home city—in pharaohs. This statue of
this case, Mendes. Nectanebo II shows him
The kings of the 30th Dynasty, who would be being protected by the
towering figure of the
the last independent, native Egyptian rulers of Egypt
god Horus.
for nearly 2,000 years, were more successful than
their immediate predecessors. The two most
important kings of this dynasty, which originated
in the Delta city of Sebennytos, were its founder,
Nectanebo I (380–362 bce), and his grandson
Nectanebo II (360–343 bce). Both of these kings
built temples on a grand scale that had not been
seen in Egypt since the New Kingdom, notably
in the Delta, but also in Upper Egypt.

The second Persian Period

In 343 bce, the Persians, under Artaxerxes III, invaded
Egypt again and defeated the forces of Nectanebo II,
who fled south. Egypt became a Persian satrapy
once more, and this time the Egyptians suffered
greatly under the occupation. The Persians looted
temples and imposed an oppressive imperial Royal uraeus

administration on the country. The Persians were so

hated that when Alexander the Great invaded Egypt
in 332 bce, he was welcomed by the Egyptians as
The king,
their liberator. carrying a
khepesh
sword

“All the temples were

without their servants and
the priests fled, not knowing
what was happening.”
PETOSIRIS DESCRIBES PERSIAN RULE IN EGYPT
 272 | THE LATE PERIOD

The goddess Isis Horudja’s title is

accompanies “Doorkeeper” of
the Apis bull the temple of Ptah

△ Apis bull stela

The site of the Apis bull burials, the Serapeum at Saqqara, This stela is dated
became a place where devotees of the god left stelae the 21st year of
recording their piety. In this stela, the worshipper, a Psamtek I’s reign
man named Horudja, kneels before a statue of the god.
 ANIMAL CULTS | 273

Animal cults
Sacred animals

There is a common misconception that the ancient Egyptians were obsessed

with the worship of live animals. This was possibly closest to the truth during
the Late Period, when animal cults became popular.

Even before the Late Period, Egypt had a long that had been specially excavated for
tradition of sacred animals. Many gods were given them at Tuna el-Gebel, the main desert
the appearance of a specific animal to identify them, necropolis for Hermopolis Magna.
and temple statues dedicated by nonroyals often show Payment for burial included the
them offering a sacred animal (see p.169), but these mummification and elaborate
offerings were only of images, not wrapping of the dead animals.
of actual animals. There were, however, The enterprise was presumably an
a few real animals that the Egyptians important source of income for the
believed to be the embodiments of actual temple of Thoth. The same thing
gods. The most famous of these was the also happened at other sites in Egypt,
god Apis, who was worshipped at and many millions of creatures
Memphis in the form of a living bull. associated with local deities
When the bull died, it was buried with were mummified and buried
full honors (see p.227) and was then in specially built mass graves.
replaced by another living bull. No animal was too small:
near Esna, archaeologists
Sacred animals have excavated preserved
This situation changed in the Late Period, and wrapped fish that were
▷ Figure of Bastet however, when there was a huge surge of associated with a local deity.
Donations to the goddess interest in sacred animals, and many of It is not clear why there was such
Bastet at Bubastis could the animals that were associated with an explosion of interest in animal
include the gift of a
particular gods began to be treated as cults at this time, other than the
mummified cat to the
large cat cemetery there, sacred in their own right. financial rewards for temples. One
but an alternative was a The god Thoth, for example, was the theory is that it might have been a
bronze figure of the main deity at the city of Hermopolis cultural reaction to having to live
goddess herself. Magna, and his sacred animals were the under repeated foreign rule during
ibis and the baboon. During the Late the Late Period. For the native
Period, ibises and baboons were kept in population, animal cults may have
a sort of sacred zoo at Hermopolis, and represented something distinctly
pious pilgrims could pay for them to be Egyptian when they were facing
buried in the underground tomb galleries domination, particularly by the Persians.

“The practices of the Egyptians Elaborate multi-

colored bandaging

in their worship of animals are ▷ Ibis mummy

The care taken with the external

astonishing and beyond belief.” appearance of animal mummies did

not always extend to the insides. When
x-rayed, many of them have proved to
DIODORUS SICULUS, WRITING IN THE 1ST CENTURY bce be random collections of bones.
274 | THE LATE PERIOD

Pets
Dogs, cats, and monkeys

The Egyptians were not great pet owners in the sense that they grew
personally attached to many different types of animals, but they were
often especially fond of dogs and cats.

As an agricultural people, the ancient Egyptians

lived alongside a wide variety of animals, both
domesticated and wild. To them, animals were
primarily a potential source of food, but they also
provided a rich source of imagery when people
wanted to represent the qualities and powers of
the gods. Although lions, bulls, and crocodiles made
excellent models for powerful deities, they were not
suitable as domestic companions.

Appreciating animals
Pictures of animals in Egyptian tombs, especially New
Kingdom tombs, suggest that artists were fascinated △ Dogs in the tomb of Sirenput
by the beauty of animals’ fur, feathers, and colors. This relief of hunting dogs was carved on the exterior of the
Middle Kingdom tomb of Sirenput at Qubbet el-Hawa. Many
▽ “Green monkey” Given this appreciation of the beauty and entertaining
such images have been found on tombs, showing just how
The space under a chair behavior of some animals, it is not surprising to important dogs were to their upper-class owners.
provided an ideal place to learn that many Egyptians, or upper-class Egyptians
depict a pet. In this painting, at any rate, had pets—domestic animals with little
a “green monkey” is shown
eating fruit from a basket,
or no economic importance. Some of these animals Dogs were recorded or portrayed in the company
but it is wisely tethered to were popular for aesthetic reasons—fish, for example, of all kinds of people, including kings. Intef II, for
the chair leg. which were kept in garden ponds. The only two types example, had his pack of five Libyan hunting dogs
of animals with which Egyptians depicted on the funerary stela of his tomb at Thebes,
seemed to form a personal bond while a dog owned by a late Old Kingdom king was
were dogs and cats. given its own tomb at Giza. Further down the social
scale, humble agricultural workers were also shown
Dogs in the company of a faithful canine companion
The most popular pet throughout (see p.23). The Egyptians rarely gave their animals
every period of ancient Egyptian personal names, but dogs were treated differently.
history was the dog, depicted in Some of the names recorded are “Good Watcher,’
art as both a companion or pet “Brave One,” and “Reliable One.”
and a working animal. Numerous
tomb scenes depict the tomb Cats
owner out hunting with dogs Egypt has often been claimed as the original home of
that had been specially bred for the household cat. They were probably domesticated
the purpose, such as the soluki, from the Middle Kingdom onward, as images of
which was the dominant hunting them do not appear in Old Kingdom tomb reliefs,
dog during the New Kingdom. but wild species are known from much earlier. The
Other breeds included mastiffs Egyptian word for cats, miw, is certainly derived from
and a short-legged dog that was the sound that they make. During the New Kingdom,
similar to a dachshund. cats were often shown as pets in the tombs of the
 PETS | 275

▷ The goddess Bastet upper classes, especially with women. Unlike dogs,
This bronze statue from the Late cats were rarely given personal names, but there were
Period shows Bastet in the form of exceptions. One cat, known as “The Pleasant One,” is
a cat. As well as a gold nose-ring
and earrings, she is adorned with
depicted in the tomb of Puiemre, at Thebes. Another
religious symbols, including a silver famous exception is “The She-Cat,” who was buried
pectoral with a protective wedjat-eye. in a stone coffin ordered specially for her by her
The statue was probably presented owner, Prince Tuthmosis, son of Amenhotep III.
to a temple as a gift.

Unusual pets
Other animals apart from dogs and cats have been
suggested as possible domestic pets in ancient Egypt.
In New Kingdom art, monkeys, ducks, and geese
Silver wedjat are often shown in surprising domestic settings
pectoral hung
around the where pets might normally be—sitting beneath
cat’s neck the chairs of their owners, for example (see far left).
These images might not, however, be realistic
depictions of actual pets, but could symbolize the
sexuality of the people shown alongside them.
A good argument for this interpretation is the fact
that so-called “green monkeys” are often shown
in domestic settings, when in actual fact they
were extremely dangerous and destructive.

▽ Hunting cat
This painting from Nebamun’s tomb shows that
dogs were not the only animals to accompany their
owners on hunting expeditions. Cats were useful for
catching fowl during boating trips in the marshes.
 ◁ Mummy portrait
This realistic Roman mummy
portrait of a young woman
was painted in the Classical
style on a heavily decorated
Egyptian-style coffin. There
were many such examples
of cultural crossover during
the Greco-Roman Period.

The Greco-
Roman Period
c.332 bce–395 ce
278 | THE GRECO-ROMAN PERIOD

The Greco-Roman Period

By 332 bce, Egypt had become a passive corner of the part ancient world, filled with magnificent buildings displaying
of the Mediterranean dominated first by the Greek states and Ptolemaic power and culture. Beyond this Hellenistic city,
then by the Romans. It is not surprising therefore that Egypt the Ptolemies were also keen to stress their credentials as
should be governed by rulers of Greek origin and then later conventional kings of Egypt by building huge temples in
absorbed into the Roman Empire. traditional style. On the walls of these temples, they appeared
in a manner that would have been recognized in the Old
The Ptolemies Kingdom. This trend continued in a more modest fashion
After the break-up of Alexander the Great’s empire that under the Roman emperors. A blend of Classical and
quickly followed his death in Babylon in 323 bce, his general Egyptian styles can also be seen in many of the tombs
Ptolemy took control of Egypt. By 305 bce, Ptolemy had and burial goods of nonroyal individuals.
declared himself king, and his dynasty went on to rule
Egypt for the next three centuries. Cleopatra VII and Rome
The most striking feature of the Ptolemaic royal family was The end of the dynasty is entwined with the personal
its internal power struggles, which it often resolved by means story of the Ptolemies’ most famous queen—Cleopatra VII.
of murder or marriage. The rapid shifts of royal authority Cleopatra’s relationships with Julius Caesar and then Mark
between individuals and couples within the dynasty are not Antony can be seen as her attempt to hold on to her own
easy to follow, especially when all of the men power and to maintain Egyptian independence. After her
were called Ptolemy and most of the women defeat at the Battle of Actium in 31 bce and her death the
either Arsinoe or Cleopatra. Meanwhile, following year, Egypt was swiftly incorporated into the
alongside these deadly family conflicts, Roman Empire.
Ptolemaic Egypt was gradually Few Roman emperors apart from Hadrian ever visited
becoming dependent on Rome as Egypt, but they were keen to present themselves as Egyptian
its protector and potential overlord. kings on the walls of Egyptian temples. To the Romans,
Egypt’s main purpose was to supply grain. There were few
Art and culture revolts against Roman rule, as they were doomed to failure.
Culturally, the Ptolemies’ greatest achievement The most significant development during this period was the
was the expansion and embellishment of arrival of Christianity, its adoption as the state religion, and
Alexandria. This city, which Alexander the the subsequent banning of pagan cults. This was the main
Great had founded, became one of the great reason why traditional Egyptian culture, which had lasted
maritime ports and centers of learning in the for more than 3,000 years, finally disappeared.

◁ Statuette of Anubis

305 bce Ptolemy I becomes

king and founds the 196 bce The Rosetta
Ptolemaic dynasty Stone is created

332 bce Alexander the 237 bce Edfu Temple 180 bce Ptolemy VI
Great takes Egypt from is founded becomes king. The
the Persians Seleucids invade Egypt
 THE GRECO-ROMAN PERIOD | 279

Mediterranean Sea
Rosetta (Rashid)

Alexandria 1
Pelusium
Taposiris-Magna Behbeit el-Hagar
Mendes
Nile Delta
LOWER Bubastis
EGYPT

Fustat (Cairo)
Saqqara Memphis

Faiyum

Hawara 1 Catacombs, Alexandria

Gu
Herakleopolis

lf
Magna ile

of
N

Su
er
Ri v

ez
Eastern
Desert

Hermopolis Magna
Antinoopolis
Tuna el-Gebel

Myos Hormos

Western Red
Desert Arabian Sea
Ri

Desert
ve
rN

Mons
ile

Claudianus
2 Entrance pylon, Edfu Temple

The Greco-
Abydos Dendera
Roman Period
Various new settlements UPPER Coptos
were built in this period, EGYPT
including Alexandria. Thebes
New temples were also
constructed at sites such Esna
as Edfu and Dendera.

2 Edfu

0 75 km
Kom Ombo
0 75 miles Elephantine (Aswan)
33 Philae
First Cataract
3 Kiosk of Trajan, Philae Temple

30 bce Cleopatra dies and 298 ce Emperor 379 ce Theodosius becomes

80 bce Ptolemy XII Egypt becomes a part of Diocletian crushes emperor and bans pagan
becomes king the Roman empire a revolt in Egypt worship in Egypt

51 bce Cleopatra VII 130 ce Emperor Hadrian 306 ce Constantine

becomes the joint visits Egypt becomes emperor. He
ruler of Egypt legalizes Christianity
280 | THE GRECO-ROMAN PERIOD

Alexander the Great

The Macedonians arrive in Egypt

In 332 bce, the Macedonian king Alexander the Great invaded Egypt and liberated
the country from its Persian oppressors. In doing so, he paved the way for the
ascendancy of Egypt’s final royal dynasty: the Ptolemies.

In 336 bce, King Philip II of Macedon ◁ Silver coin depicting Alexander

(northern Greece) was assassinated, Many of the coins produced after Alexander’s
and the throne passed to his son, death show him deified. As here, he is often
depicted wearing a ram’s horn, indicating
Alexander III, who is known today that he is the son of Zeus-Amen (the ram
as Alexander the Great. Alexander was sacred to Amen).
inherited a kingdom that had risen to
▽ Alexander at war
dominate Greece and the southern
This mosaic, from the House Balkans and was now ready to challenge year, he defeated Darius III, the Persian
of the Faun at Pompeii, is the Persian Empire. Alexander accepted this king, at the Battle of Issus. This left him
one of the most famous challenge and was determined to replace the free to take the cities that were still loyal to
images of Alexander the Persians as the dominant regional superpower. the Persians along the Levantine coast as far south
Great. Probably based on
an earlier painting, it shows
In 334 bce, Alexander crossed the Hellespont into as Gaza. He then marched his army south into Egypt,
Alexander’s victory over Asia Minor and claimed his first major victory against which was surrendered without a fight in 332 bce.
the Persians at Issus. the Persians at the Battle of Granicus. The following He seems to have been warmly welcomed by many

Alexander leads his cavalry Alexander’s famous Oxyathres, brother of Darius,

to attack the Persians horse, Bucephalus tries to protect the king
 ALEXANDER THE GREAT | 281

Egyptians as a liberator from Persian rule. Alexander ORACLE AT SIWA

only stayed in Egypt for a short time, however, after
The isolation of the Siwa Oasis, deep
which he pursued the Persians deep into their own in the remote Western Desert, meant
territory, where he defeated them at the Battle of that it was not considered to be part of
Gaugamela in 331 bce. Egypt until the Late Period. It became
significant during the 26th Dynasty,
when a temple dedicated to Amen
Alexander in Egypt was built there at a site known as
Although brief, Alexander’s stay in Egypt was eventful. el-Aghurmi. The temple stands on a
hill surrounded by groves of lush date
He was careful to present himself as an Egyptian palms. It is thought to be the place
pharaoh, and duly had his name inscribed in a where Alexander went to consult the
oracle of Amen in 331 bce. Alternatively,
cartouche on monuments such as the sanctuary of he may have visited him at the temple
Luxor Temple. His most significant physical legacy, at Umm Ebeida, which was built by
however, was the foundation of Alexandria, the city Nectanebo II.
named after him, which was to become one of the
greatest urban and cultural centers in the Classical
world (see pp.284–285).
Soon after his arrival in Egypt, Alexander set off The death of Alexander
on the long and arduous journey to the remote Siwa Alexander died in Babylon in 323 bce. The next
Oasis in Egypt’s western desert to consult the famous rulers of Egypt were his half-brother, Philip
oracle of Amen. He returned apparently satisfied with Arrhidaeus, and Alexander IV, Alexander’s son,
whatever the oracle told him, which may have been who had not yet been born at the time of his
confirmation of his divine parentage. After this, he death; however, these rulers were kings in name only.
began to refer to himself as the son of Amen, just as In reality, Alexander’s empire was divided between
Egyptian rulers such as Hatshepsut and Amenhotep III his ambitious senior officers, the so-called Diadochi,
had done before him. Alexander, however, claimed or “successors.” During the turbulent time of their
his father was Zeus-Ammon, as the Greeks associated rule, the general Ptolemy, son of Lagos, emerged as
Zeus, the king of their gods, with Amen (known as the custodian and then the king of Egypt. He was
Ammon in Greece), the most prominent Egyptian deity. crowned Ptolemy I Soter (“the Savior”) in 305 bce.

Darius, in his chariot, panics Alexander in Alexandria

at the sight of Alexander When Alexander died, his body became a precious
item, and the problem arose of where it should be ▽ Basalt water clock
buried. Its travels are described in the works of There are relatively few
various Greek and Roman historians. It was initially monuments naming Philip
Arrhidaeus, Alexander’s
placed in a gold anthropoid coffin, which was then
successor, as king of Egypt.
sent to Macedon for burial. Ptolemy I, however, This elaborate water clock,
realizing that owning the body would help legitimize showing him with a variety
his rule, hijacked the coffin on its way there of gods, is one exception.
and had it kept at Memphis.
His successor, Ptolemy II, then moved the
body to Alexandria, where it remained in a
tomb in the very center of the city. There,
Alexander was not only remembered as
the founder of the city, but was also
worshipped as its patron god.
Under Ptolemy IX, Alexander’s coffin
was melted down to make gold coins and
replaced with a glass coffin. This enabled
visitors, such as Julius Caesar, Augustus,
and even Emperor Caracalla in the 3rd
century ce, to view Alexander’s body.
Records show that by 400 ce, the body
had been removed from its tomb, but
where it was taken remains a mystery.
282 | THE GRECO-ROMAN PERIOD

The early Ptolemies

Ptolemy I offers
incense to the
goddess Hathor

Greeks on the throne of Egypt

Descended from the Macedonian general Ptolemy, the Ptolemaic dynasty was
an intriguing mixture of Greek and Egyptian influences. This dual identity
had a huge impact on Egyptian culture and foreign policy.

In 285 bce, Ptolemy I appointed his son, Ptolemy II, they saw fit, in their attempts to seize or hold onto
Attachment for
headdress
as co-regent, following a long-established Egyptian power. Both the men and the women of this family
tradition. This ensured a smooth transition of power were equally ambitious—and vicious.
when Ptolemy I died in 282 bce, and the crown passed
safely from the first king of the Ptolemaic dynasty to Arsinoe II
the second, but the history of the rest of the dynasty A good example of a Ptolemaic woman swiftly rising
proved to be far less straightforward. to prominence was Arsinoe II. The daughter of
Thanks to the detailed accounts of Greek and Ptolemy I, she was first married to Lysimachus, ruler
Roman historians, it is clear that the following of Thrace, as part of a diplomatic alliance against the
Ptolemies were constantly fighting with each other. rival Seleucid dynasty, which was based mainly in
Parents and children and brothers and sisters were all Syria. After Lysimachus’ death, she married her
prepared to marry or murder each other whenever half-brother, Ptolemy Keraunos, and then her brother,
Ptolemy II, after Keraunos murdered two of her sons.
Unusually, Arsinoe assumed the same titles as her
◁ Statue of Arsinoe II
Unusually, the queen is wearing a double uraeus on her
brother/husband, and she appeared alongside him
brow. The main part of her headdress is missing, but it on coins that they minted (see p.284). Various towns
probably associated her with the goddess Hathor. were also named after her, and when she died, she
 THE EARLY PTOLEMIES | 283

◁ Relief of Ptolemy I
This relief, from a now-destroyed temple at Kom Abu Billou, in
the western Delta, shows Ptolemy I offering incense to Hathor.
Depicted in a traditional Egyptian artistic style, Ptolemy is
indistinguishable from a king of the Late Period.

Problems abroad
The most pressing foreign policy issue for the early
Ptolemaic kings was the competition between Egypt
and the other major powers in the Near East and
eastern Mediterranean. All of these territories were
ruled by Alexander the Great’s successors. The Seleucid
Empire, for example, was founded by Alexander’s
general, Seleucus, who became one of the Diadochi
(see pp.280–281). These kings were part of a broader
Hellenistic culture, and at different times over the next
300 years, they were both close allies and bitter rivals.
The high point of the Ptolemies’ military success △ Mosaic of Berenike II
was during the reign of Ptolemy III (246–221 bce), This remarkable mosaic from
Mendes is probably a portrait,
who captured Babylon from the Seleucids before being
in Hellenistic style, of Queen
forced to return to Egypt. The low point was under Berenike II. Her strange
Ptolemy V (205–180 bce), when Egypt was defeated headdress, shaped like a
Cartouche containing Ptolemy’s in the Sinai by Antiochus III, the Seleucid king. ship’s prow, may symbolize
throne name, “Chosen of Ra, Antiochus invaded Egypt twice during the war of the Ptolemies’ naval power.
Beloved of Amen” 170–168 bce, and was even crowned king of Egypt
in Memphis, but the intervention of the Romans
was deified. Her cult persisted in Alexandria well into forced the Seleucids to leave Egypt.
the Roman Period. In many ways, Arsinoe II became a This retreat of the Seleucids signaled the end
role model for the later Ptolemaic queens. of Egypt as an independent Hellenistic state, but
the country had not been destroyed. Instead, it
Royal epithets had become a client state of the new superpower
All of the male rulers of the Ptolemaic dynasty were in the region—the Roman Republic.
called Ptolemy. At the time, they were not given
regnal numbers (I, II, and so on), but epithets
(descriptive phrases), to distinguish them from all the The winged scarab god
Khepri pushes the sun
other kings with the same name. These epithets often across the sky
sum up the kings and the close family bonds that they
shared. Ptolemy I, for instance, was known as “Soter”
(Savior), Ptolemy III was “Euergetes” (Benefactor),
and Ptolemy IV was “Philopator” (Father-loving).
Appropriately, Ptolemy II and Arsinoe II shared the
epithet “Philadelphus” (Sibling-loving).
Egyptian funerary texts

“He brought back the in hieroglyphs

sacred images of
the gods which were ◁ Coffin of Dioscorides
Dioscorides was a general

found within Asia.”

under Ptolemy VI. Despite
his Greek origins, he was
buried in a stone coffin that
looked Egyptian in style and
PTOLEMY I RESTORES THE THEFTS OF was covered with texts from
THE PERSIANS the Book of the Dead.
284 | THE GRECO-ROMAN PERIOD

Alexandria
Queen of the Mediterranean

Alexandria was one of the greatest cities of the Mediterranean. The capital city
of the Ptolemies, it was famed throughout the Classical world for its power,
its wealth, and its stunning monuments.

The importance of maritime trade and naval ◁ Coin of Ptolemy II and Arsinoe II
power in the 3rd century bce mean it is The Alexandrian mint produced coins
no surprise that Alexander founded his that were made of precious metals.
Egyptian capital on the Mediterranean This gold oktadrachm is stamped
with the image of the joint rulers
coast. The site that he chose was the Ptolemy II and Arsinoe II.
modest harbor town of Rhakotis,
strategically positioned on a spit of
land, with the sea to the north and and the royal palaces—have completely
Lake Mareotis to the south. It also had or largely disappeared. One hope for
easy access by river to the Canopic branch recovering more of the ancient city is
of the Nile, which provided transport and the underwater archaeological exploration of
▽ Plan of Alexandria communications links to the rest of Egypt. the Great Harbor that is currently taking place, which
The street plan of Alexandria Detailed descriptions of the city made by ancient has produced important evidence of palace complexes
was based on a grid, which Greek and Roman writers mean that a good deal is that sank into the sea as a result of a natural disaster.
the Ptolemies adapted to known about the layout of ancient Alexandria.
suit the geography of the
city. The Mediterranean
However, very little of the city has been traced by A wonder of the world
lay to the north, and Lake archaeologists, and the most famous buildings As well as being the new capital of Egypt and the
Mareotis to the south. there—the Pharos lighthouse, the tomb of Alexander, heart of Egypt’s government, Alexandria was one
of the most important trading centers in
the Greco-Roman world. A great deal of
N
Lighthouse of wealth flowed into and through the city,
Pharos
0 500 m and to accommodate the huge amount
Great Harbour
0 500 yards
of goods that arrived in Alexandria, the
Pharos
Island
Ptolemies built an artificial causeway
Antirrhodos
island between the mainland and Pharos Island.
Eunostos Harbour Timonium
Known as the Heptastadion, this created
two main harbors—the Great Harbor to
Heptastadion Palace The Jewish the east and the smaller Eunostos Harbor
complex Quarter
to the west.
Gate of Gate of Alexandria also became the cultural
the Moon Kom el-Dikka Canopus Street
the Sun center of Egypt—especially for the
Soma Ptolemies, who used it as an expression
Serapeum of tryphe, or conspicuous display. The
Rhakotis district Soma Street
Greek historian Strabo, who visited the
city early in the Roman Period and left a
Kom Shuqafa
cemetery detailed description of what he saw, noted
City wall Canal that Alexandria “contains most beautiful
public precincts and also the royal palaces
which constitute one fourth or even one
Lake Mariotis
third of the whole circuit of the city.”
 ALEXANDRIA | 285

“It contains 4,000 palaces; 4,000

bathhouses; 400 theaters; 12,000 Statue of
Poseidon
(or Zeus)

greengrocers; and 12,000 tax-paying Jews.”

AMR IBN AL-AS DESCRIBES ALEXANDRIA IN 642 ce

◁ Kom el-Dikka
One of the few places in
modern Alexandria where
Fire and
the ancient city can be
reflecting
seen is Kom el-Dikka. mirror
Built in the area of the
Mouseion, it became a
residential area in the
Roman Period.

Statue
The most impressive of Alexandria’s buildings by far research that was known as of Triton
was the lighthouse on the island of Pharos. One of the Mouseion. An important
the ancient Greeks’ “Seven Wonders of the World,” part of it was the Library of
it stood on the outer rim of the great harbor and Alexandria, which was a major
served as a major statement about the power and attraction for scholars from
wealth of the kings who built it. Nothing remains all over the Greek-speaking
of the ancient lighthouse today due to centuries of world. At its height, this library
neglect and earthquakes. contained more than 700,000
volumes. The Mouseion stood
Downtown near the center of the city,
The main part of Alexandria was defined by two possibly close to Kom el-Dikka,
main roads—Canopus Street, which ran roughly the ruins of which can still be
west-east from the Gate of the Moon to the Gate of seen today.
the Sun, and Soma Street, which ran roughly south-
Spiral
north. The point at which these two streets crossed staircase for
▷ Pharos lighthouse
was effectively the heart of the city, and it was there The lighthouse on Pharos Island
transporting
fuel
that the Ptolemies built the Soma. This was a burial was not just impressive in size. It also
complex containing the tombs of Alexander the Great required an extraordinary amount of
and the Ptolemaic kings. Most of the city’s other resources to keep its beacon burning.
cemeteries were located outside the eastern or
western gate of the main city. Consisting of
underground tombs, these are the most impressive
parts of ancient Alexandria that are still visible today.

The Mouseion and library

The Ptolemies were determined to make
Alexandria the principal center of
Greek learning, so they built and
staffed an institute for
teaching, learning, and
286 | THE GRECO-ROMAN PERIOD

Egyptian Hellenism
Greek culture in Egypt

The arrival of the Greeks and Greek culture in Egypt during the Ptolemaic
Period had a profound effect on the country and its people. This influence
of Greek culture is known as Hellenism.

Alexander the Great’s conquest of Egypt, and the it is often difficult to determine who was Greek and
foundation of the Ptolemaic dynasty that went on who Egyptian in the written records. After a couple
to rule for 300 years, had a much greater impact of generations, ethnic origins probably mattered little
on Egypt than any of the previous foreign invasions. to elite Egyptians, and this included the royal family.
The Hyksos, the Assyrians, and the Persians had left The bilingual nature of the Egyptian court, and
few lasting marks on Egypt, while if anything, the increasingly of Egypt at large, is reflected in the public
Kushite kings revived traditional Egyptian culture. documents of the time. These include the royal stelae
The Ptolemies, however, brought with them an that were set up in temples and often had trilingual
entirely new culture. This culture was Greek, or inscriptions—the most famous of which is the Rosetta
Hellenistic, in nature, and it was taking root in Stone (see pp.302–303).
all of the territories conquered by Alexander. Alexandria was the hub of this meeting of
cultures, and its position as a major seaport
Greek culture exposed it to many influences from overseas
The continuing immigration of Greek settlers apart from that of the Greeks. An important
△ Funerary stela into Egypt, and the establishment of a Greek- ingredient in this social and cultural mix came
This stela from a tomb in speaking political elite around the Ptolemaic as the Jewish population of the city, and Egypt
Alexandria is entirely Greek court, meant that Greek culture dominated Egypt. in general, increased during the 2nd century bce.
in style. The central figure
represents the deceased,
By controlling Egypt’s political and economic
clasping hands with the institutions, the Ptolemies created a situation in Greek and Egyptian cities
woman standing in front of which ambitious Egyptians had to adopt Greek Before the arrival of Alexander, Egypt already had
him in a gesture of farewell. customs to become part of the ruling elite. This a city that was predominantly Greek in character.
rise of Hellenism had little impact on the lives This was the trading center of Naukratis, in the
of the average peasant farmer, but acceptance western Delta. The Ptolemies founded several
of a hybrid Egyptian/Greek culture became the similar new towns and cities, including Ptolemais
norm among the upper classes. in Upper Egypt. These were places in which the
Many of Egypt’s new ruling class spoke lives of Greek citizens were organized on both
both Egyptian and Greek, and many educated social and political levels in ways that would
Egyptians took Greek names. For this reason, have been familiar in Greece itself.

Egyptian-style “Pompey’s Pillar,” ◁ Ruins of the Serapeum

sphinx actually a triumphal This temple complex dedicated to the god
column built by Diocletian Serapis (himself a Hellenistic invention)
was a major center of Greco-Egyptian
culture in Alexandria. The tall column
is a later addition, erected by the
Emperor Diocletian.
△ Underground tombs at Alexandria STATUE FROM ANTIRRHODOS
The subterranean elite cemeteries are some of the best-
preserved parts of ancient Alexandria. Their mixture of Greek The island of Antirrhodos was part of a
and Egyptian features shows that in death as in life, their Ptolemaic palace complex located in what
occupants regarded themselves as hybrid Greco-Egyptian. is now the eastern harbor of Alexandria.
Like much of the seafront part of the ancient
city, the island sank after an earthquake
in around the 4th century ce. Ongoing
Most of the well-established cities were now given underwater excavations have unearthed
new Greek names linking the Egyptian god most some very fine sculptures from the site.
They include this statue of a priest, carved
closely associated with the city with its nearest Greek in a Hellenistic style very different from that
equivalent. Many of those cities are still known by of traditional Egyptian sculpture. The priest,
who may have belonged to a cult of Isis, is
their Greek names today. The place that the Egyptians clasping a vessel that may represent the god
originally called Khemenu, for example, is now better Osiris, the husband of Isis.
known as Hermopolis Magna, because its principal
god, Thoth, was considered to be on a par with the STATUE OF A PRIEST
Greek god Hermes.

“The Alexandrians flocked to the festival, filled

with enthusiasm, and shouted acclamations
in Greek and Egyptian, and some in Hebrew.”
C. P. CAVAFY, “ALEXANDRIAN KINGS”
288 | THE GRECO-ROMAN PERIOD

Traditional religion
Egyptian gods in Greco-Roman Egypt

The arrival of the Ptolemies did little to change the basic nature of Egyptian
religion. People still worshipped a variety of different gods, but the merging
of Greek and Egyptian culture introduced new gods and rituals.

Hellenism could have posed a threat to the ◁ Bust of Serapis

way in which Egyptian religion was practiced, Although his figure looks much like a Greek god
as the Ptolemies built new, Greek-style temples such as Zeus, it represents a new god, Serapis. He
was created from a combination of the underworld
in which to worship the Greek gods that they deity Osiris and the living bull god Apis.
brought with them. But although the educated
Egyptian elite, who historically made up the
priesthood for all the major temples in Egypt, Gods associated with youthfulness came to
may have had to adopt Greek customs in the fore, including the child Horus in the
many aspects of their daily life, this was Greco-Egyptian form of Harpocrates.
not the case with religion. New gods were also created to suit
In fact, Egyptian Hellenism was the spirit of Egyptian Hellenism.
a blend of Greek and Egyptian The most significant god added
customs, and the Greeks seem to to the pantheon of Egyptian gods
have been especially intrigued by at this time was Serapis. Based on a
Egyptian religion, as shown by some of combination of the Egyptian gods Apis
△ Ptolemaic priest their mortuary rituals. Building traditional-style and Osiris, Serapis did not look like either
As in earlier periods, the Egyptian temples was an obvious way for the of them, but had a heavily bearded human head and
Egyptians carved statues
Ptolemaic kings to enhance their credentials as the looked very much like Zeus. This was a deity who
of priests to place within
temples. The distinctive legitimate rulers of Egypt, approved by the Egyptian could be worshipped by both Greeks and Egyptians.
appearance of this statue gods. This was made obvious by the grand scale of The cult worship of divine statues within temples,
is due to the combination their temple building, as it was to a lesser extent in which was not very different from Greek customs,
of Egyptian and Greek the case of the Roman emperors. continued, as did processions and festivals. In one
styles of sculpture.
of the most important festivals of the Ptolemaic
Old gods, new gods Period, the “Beautiful Feast of Behdet,” statues of
The range of gods worshipped did, Horus from Edfu and Hathor from Dendera were
however, change, and new forms borne 105 miles (170 km) along the Nile to visit each
of old gods became popular. other in their respective temples.

▷ Statue of Tutu Egyptian gods outside Egypt

Son of the goddess Neith, During the Roman Period, traditional Egyptian gods
Tutu was a deity who took and Greco-Egyptian deities like Serapis continued to
the form of a royal sphinx.
flourish among the educated elite in the major cities.
He first appeared in the
Late Period and was
Egyptian deities were also worshipped farther afield
popular in the Ptolemaic within the Roman Empire. Serapis and Isis were
and Roman Periods. especially popular—a temple was built for Isis in
London and one for Serapis in York.
 TRADITIONAL RELIGION | 289

▽ The cult of Isis in Italy

Isis was worshipped throughout the Roman Empire, including
Chief priest Priest shakes Italy. This wall painting from the city of Herculaneum shows
Egyptian-style sphinx with cult image a sistrum a religious ceremony for the goddess, with several features
imported from the Egyptian cult, such as sacred ibises.
 290 | THE GRECO-ROMAN PERIOD

Greco-Roman temples
Reviving traditions of kings from the past

The defining monuments of the Ptolemaic and Roman Periods are the many
great temples that were built. In structure and style, these hark back to the
temples of the New Kingdom, but they also had innovative features.

Mediterranean Sea The Ptolemaic kings clearly thought it politically ◁ Horus at Edfu
expedient to show that they were the rulers As in earlier periods, the temples of the
Rashid
Behbeit el-Hagar Ptolemaic Period were embellished with
Alexandria of Egypt in the time-honored way—by being
Taposiris statues depicting the gods of the temple.
Magna
Great Bitter
Lake
portrayed as pharaohs on the walls of temples, This black granite statue of Horus stands
Faiyum following Egyptian artistic convention. They in the courtyard of his temple at Edfu.
Gu

therefore built and maintained traditional

lf o

Egyptian temples, adding to existing ones

fS
ue
z

Hermopolis
Magna
or building new ones of their own. In fact, exceptions. They did relatively little to alter the
Red their legacy in terms of monuments is not so basic structure of the most important temples,
Ri

Antaeopolis Sea
ve

much the classical architecture of Alexandria, such as those at Thebes and Memphis, but in
rN
ile

Dendera
Coptos the city that they created, but what is left many places they swept away the existing
N Armant
Esna
Thebes of the temples that they built, most of which temples to build entirely new ones. Many
Edfu are in the south of Egypt and Nubia. of these are still standing today and
Kom Ombo
Elephantine
(Aswan)
The subsequent Roman emperors were also represent what many people think
0 100 km Philae
Kalabsha keen to be seen as pharaohs, but as they stayed of as a typical Egyptian temple.
Dendur
0 100 miles
in Rome, they were less involved in building The best of the major temples built
projects in Egypt than the Ptolemies. by the Ptolemies are those dedicated to
△ Ptolemaic temples Hathor at Dendera, to Khnum at Esna, to Horus at
The Ptolemies built temples Ptolemaic temples Edfu, and to Horus and Sobek at Kom Ombo. They
throughout most of Egypt.
The best-preserved of them
As the Ptolemies had enormous resources at their also undertook a massive redevelopment of the
lie in the far south of the disposal, they were able to build on a grand scale that modest earlier temple buildings on the island of
country and Nubia. had not been seen since the New Kingdom, bar a few Philae (see pp.290–293).

Preserving tradition
Determined to uphold Egyptian tradition, the
Ptolemies built temples in the style of their New
Kingdom predecessors. At Edfu, for example, a
massive pylon gateway opened onto an open,
colonnaded court. Behind this, densely columned
halls (now called the pronaos) hid the sanctuary
(the naos) at the heart of the temple, where the god’s
statue was kept. At Dendera, the great pronaos with
its Hathor-topped columns looks original, but it was
in fact based on a similar but more modest style of

◁ Kom Ombo
The outer walls of the Kom Ombo temple are
no longer standing, so its columned interior is
open to the elements. It is similar in style to the
architecture of the New Kingdom.
 GRECO-ROMAN TEMPLES | 291

architecture of the New Kingdom. ◁ Column at Esna

Likewise, the double-axis and Column capitals carved to look like
parallel shrines of the temple at leaves and flowers had been popular
in temples since the Old Kingdom. In
Kom Ombo look innovative, but
Greco-Roman temples, they were made
they were based on existing more complex and colorful.
architectural styles.

Change in emphasis The temple as cosmos

The decoration on the walls of The Ptolemies’ interest in
temples did change in some ways. mythology did not just influence
The basic repertoire of images temple decoration, but also
showing kings making offerings extended to the temple itself. They
to the gods, smiting enemies, and regarded the building as a model of
processing at festivals remained the cosmos and its innermost parts
important, but now there was a as the mythical island on which
▽ Magnificent ceiling
new emphasis on showing scenes from mythology creation took place (see pp.134–135). This helps Every surface inside a
that were connected to the gods of the temple. explain some of the new architectural features in Ptolemaic temple was
At Edfu, for example, there are extensive images of Ptolemaic temples, including underground crypts completely covered in texts
Horus, the god of kingship, fighting his uncle Seth for to mimic the underworld and chapels on the roof and pictures. On this ceiling
in the temple at Dendera,
the throne of Egypt in a way that would have been of the temple to symbolize the sky, as at Dendera.
images of gods are shown
considered inappropriate in the New Kingdom. Seth, The Ptolemies also included decorative features to against a blue background
in the form of a hippopotamus, is shown being represent marshland plants, illustrating the flora representing the sky, as was
hunted down and speared by Horus. that might have grown on the Island of Creation. appropriate for ceilings.
292 | THE GRECO-ROMAN PERIOD

Gate of the Emperor

Diocletian—the last
significant temple building
in ancient Egypt

Temple dedicated to
the cult of the
Emperor Augustus

Temple of
Harendotes, a form
of Horus, built by the
Emperor Claudius

△ Temple of Isis
The cult of Isis was extremely popular during the Mammisi
Ptolemaic Period. The two most important cult centers (Birth House),
associated with this goddess were the now-ruined associated with
temple of Behbeit el-Hagar in the Delta and her temple the birth of Isis’s
son, Horus
at Philae. Most of the work here was carried out by
Ptolemy II and his successors.

First pylon of the

Isis Temple, built
by Ptolemy VI

Eastern colonnade,
including a small
chapel for Imhotep

Western colonnade,
part of the remodeling
of Philae by Augustus

◁ Temple of Isis reconstruction

Although Philae has undergone a considerable
amount of building, demolition, and reconstruction
during its history, most of the surviving buildings
are well preserved. Unfortunately, due to high water
levels caused by building the first and second Aswan
Dams, the paintwork of the brightly colored walls,
recreated here, has not survived as well.
 PHILAE TEMPLE | 293

◁ Kiosk of Trajan
Temple of Hathor, One of the most striking buildings
started by Ptolemy at Philae is the Kiosk of Trajan. It
VI and completed
was partially decorated during
by Augustus
Trajan’s reign, but its construction
may have been begun earlier in
the Roman Period.

Temple of Gate of
Augustus Diocletian

Dotted line
indicates parts
of the complex
Granite boulders relocated to
of the natural Agilkia Island
landscape
Isis Temple

Kiosk of
Trajan
Western
colonnade

△ Plan of Philae
The creation of Lake
Nasser after the Aswan
Dam was built meant that
the buildings at Philae had
to be moved from their
original site, which was
flooded by the dam water,
and rebuilt on the nearby
island of Agilkia.

Temple of
Arensnuphis,
a Kushite god
Philae Temple
△ Philae
This digital reconstruction
worshipped
in Egyptian
The Pearl of the Nile
shows Philae Temple in its Nubia from the
original setting, before the Ptolemaic Period
main buildings were Philae is one of the best-preserved and most beautiful temple complexes from the
moved to Agilkia island.
Kiosk of Late and Greco-Roman Periods. South of modern Aswan, it is a series of sacred
Nectanebo I of buildings built on an island in the Nile. It was dedicated mainly to the goddess Isis
the 30th Dynasty (a nearby island, Bigeh, was dedicated to Osiris), with ancillary temples for other
deities, including Hathor, and Nubian deities such as Arensnuphis. Shrines to Isis
were first erected in the 26th Dynasty, but the main building work began under
kings of the 30th Dynasty and continued during the Ptolemaic and Roman Periods.
The later Ptolemies
△ Co-regents
This scene from the temple
of Kom Ombo illustrates the
Ptolemaic tradition of having
several rulers on the throne
at the same time. The god
The decline of dynastic Egypt Horus is shown handing a
sword to Ptolemy VIII, who
is accompanied by his
co-regents, Cleopatra II
During the reigns of the later Ptolemies, the political infighting within the royal and Cleopatra III.

dynasty reached its peak. At the same time, the Roman influence over the
Ptolemies—and Egypt itself—was becoming an increasing problem.

Ptolemy V’s marriage to the Seleucid princess Lenaeus, who decided that Ptolemy VI and Cleopatra II
Cleopatra I had been an astute diplomatic move, should marry and join with Ptolemy VIII to form a
because it put an end for the time being to the rivalry triumvirate of rulers. It was Eulaeus and Lenaeus who
between the Ptolemaic and Seleucid empires. The were responsible for the disastrous Sixth Syrian War
couple had three children: Ptolemy VI, Ptolemy VIII, (see pp.282–283), during which they fell from power.
and Cleopatra II, all of whom went on to rule Egypt. In the aftermath of the war, Ptolemy VI was briefly
After Ptolemy V was poisoned in 180 bce, Cleopatra supported as a puppet king by the Seleucid king
I acted as regent until her own death four years later. Antiochus IV, while the people of Alexandria
When she died, the control of Egypt passed into the supported Cleopatra II and Ptolemy VIII. But Ptolemy
hands of two powerful courtiers, Eulaeus and VIII was incompetent and dissolute, so the
 THE LATER PTOLEMIES | 295

“All the kings after the third Ptolemy

… administered government badly.”
STRABO, GEOGRAPHY

Alexandrians banished him from Egypt. To take his Ptolemy XII

place, they invited Ptolemy VI to return from exile Ptolemy XI had only been on the throne for a
in Rome and to rule alongside Cleopatra II. few days in 80 bce when he was assassinated
by an Alexandrian mob, who installed Ptolemy
Ptolemy VIII XII on the throne. This new Ptolemy, who called
The death of Ptolemy VI in 145 bce, from wounds himself Neos Dionysos and was better known
incurred while fighting in Syria, encouraged as Auletes (the flautist), was an illegitimate son
Ptolemy VIII to return to Egypt, where he married of Ptolemy IX.
Cleopatra II. Cleopatra II may have felt that this was Ptolemy X’s will had bequeathed Egypt to Rome,
necessary to protect her young son, Ptolemy VII, but and this became a problem for Ptolemy XII. He
he was murdered soon afterward anyway. Ptolemy VIII began to bribe leading Roman politicians with
also married Cleopatra II’s daughter, Cleopatra III. The huge sums of money that he raised by increasing
king and the two queens ruled Egypt together for a taxes in Egypt and drawing loans from Roman
while, but tensions within this uneasy group of three creditors. Although he was confirmed on the throne
dominated Egyptian politics until the deaths of both by Julius Caesar in 59 bce, Ptolemy was a lazy king
Ptolemy VIII and Cleopatra II in 116 bce. and was forced into exile the following year. His △ Ptolemy XII
Cleopatra III was left as regent for her two sons, attempts to restore himself to the throne with Roman Like other Ptolemaic rulers,
Ptolemy XII saw himself
Ptolemy IX and Ptolemy X. According to the terms backing bore fruit in 55 bce, when he returned to
as both a Greek ruler and
of Ptolemy VIII’s will, Cleopatra III was to choose which Egypt with a Roman army led by Aulus Gabinius. an Egyptian pharaoh. In
son should became king, but she did not do this, so When Ptolemy XII died in 51 bce, Rome acted as this Classical sculpture,
the family descended into yet another round of the executor of his will and his son, Ptolemy XIII, the artist emphasized
feuding over the throne. During this turbulent time, and his daughter, Cleopatra VII, were nominated joint Ptolemy XII’s Greek heritage.
Ptolemy IX was exiled in 107 bce; Cleopatra III died rulers of Egypt. The real legacy that Ptolemy XII left to
in 101 bce; Ptolemy X ruled on his own until 88 bce; his children, however, was yet another dynastic feud,
and Ptolemy IX returned from exile in 88 bce, only set against the background of an increasing Roman
to die just eight years later. threat to Egyptian independence.

◁ Mosaic of soldiers
Ptolemy XII relied heavily
on support from abroad to
control Egypt, mainly from
Roman statesman, soldiers,
and bankers. He was also
backed by a mercenary army
called the Gabiniani, which
remained in Egypt when
Ptolemy XII was restored to
the throne in 55 bce.
Roman mosaic of the Nile
This enormous mosaic measuring 19 x 14 ft (5.80 x 4.30 m)
was found in a grotto in the ancient town of Praeneste (now
known as Palestrina), not far from Rome. Created sometime
between the 1st century bce and the 1st century ce, it is a
good illustration of the Romans’ growing fascination with
Egypt around the time that it became part of the Roman
Empire. A blend of fact and fantasy, it depicts Egypt as a
place of exotic wonders. The swirling Nile is crammed with
islands that are home to all kinds of mysterious temples,
towns, and strange, savage beasts, and boats of all kinds
carry people across its waters.
298 | THE GRECO-ROMAN PERIOD

◁ Statue of Cleopatra
There are few surviving
statues that can confidently
be identified as depicting
Cleopatra VII. The triple
uraeus on the brow of this
royal head may indicate that
it belongs to her, but this
royal insignia has also been
attributed to Cleopatra II
and Cleopatra III.

Distinctive triple
uraeus

Damage, possibly
deliberate, to the
statue’s nose
 CLEOPATRA VII | 299

Cleopatra VII
A queen of infinite variety

The view of Cleopatra as an exotic temptress, fostered by Shakespeare and

Hollywood, owes much to the partial accounts of Roman authors. In reality, she
was a skilled politician who tried to maintain Egypt’s independence from Rome.

Caesar and Cleopatra ◁ Coin of Mark Antony

Cleopatra’s first serious problem was not Coins issued by Mark Antony and Cleopatra
show them both in profile as strong-featured
Rome but, as so often with the Ptolemies,
individuals. Antony is depicted with a
her own family. Sharing the throne of Roman nose and a very determined jaw.
Egypt with her brother, Ptolemy XIII,
did not last, and the siblings soon found
themselves at the heads of armies facing Antony and Cleopatra
each other in the Delta. After the assassination of Caesar in
Caesar’s arrival in Egypt was 44 bce, Cleopatra—now a widow again after
fortuitous for Cleopatra, as he took her the death of Ptolemy XIV—needed a new Roman
side against her brother, but the pair protector. The two most powerful men to emerge
were besieged in Alexandria in the from the crisis in Rome were colleagues, and later
winter of 48/47 bce until deadly rivals, Octavian and Mark Antony. By 40 bce,
Roman reinforcements Cleopatra had allied herself with Mark Antony and
arrived and freed them. given birth to twins by him, Alexander Helios
Ptolemy XIII fled and and Cleopatra Selene.
drowned in the Nile. Together, Cleopatra and Antony planned an
Cleopatra then married her Egyptian-Roman alliance that would lead to Egypt
11-year-old brother, Ptolemy XIV. regaining some of its former territories. They
She later gave birth to a son, nominated Cleopatra’s children as the future rulers
Ptolemy XV Caesar (known as of much of Rome’s eastern empire and announced
Caesarion), whose name indicated it in a public ceremony known as the “Donations of
clearly who his father was. Alexandria.” This was effectively a declaration of war △ Caesarion at Dendera
against Octavian and the western empire. Octavian’s Cleopatra’s son by Caesar,
victory over Antony and Cleopatra’s forces at Actium Ptolemy XV (Caesarion) is
◁ Julius Caesar in 31 bce was decisive. By the end of 30 bce, Cleopatra shown with his mother on
This statue of Caesar in Rome shows the rear wall of the temple of
and Antony had committed suicide and Caesarion had Hathor at Dendera, making
him in Roman armor. He dedicated a
gold statue of Cleopatra in the temple
been murdered. Egypt was then absorbed into the an offering to the goddess.
of Venus Genetrix in Rome, the year Roman Empire, ruled over by its first emperor,
before he was assassinated. Octavian, soon to be known as Augustus.

69 bce Birth of Cleopatra, 48 bce Caesar 44 bce Death 31 bce Battle

daughter of Ptolemy XII arrives in Egypt of Caesar of Actium

51 bce Death of Ptolemy 47 bce Birth 34 bce Donations 30 bce Death

XII. Cleopatra co-regent of Caesarion of Alexandria of Cleopatra
with Ptolemy XIII
300 | THE GRECO-ROMAN PERIOD

The end of ancient Egypt

The death of a civilization

The Roman Period was undoubtedly one of terminal decline for ancient
Egyptian culture. By the 4th century ce, the Egyptians had not only lost
their independence, many of them had also converted to Christianity.

Although the Ptolemies were Greek by origin, bred Hadrian also founded the city of Antinoopolis, which
among themselves, and felt culturally Hellenistic, he named after his friend Antinous, who had died
most of them had been born in Egypt, lived there, during Hadrian’s Egyptian tour.
and had some idea of Egyptian cultural traditions,
which they patronized by building temples and Coming of Christianity
worshipping the Egyptian gods. By contrast, the The Ptolemaic Period, and the subsequent rule of the
Roman emperors who replaced the Ptolemaic Romans in particular, effectively destroyed Egypt as
kings as the effective rulers of Egypt had no a self-governing, independent country. Old cultural
connection with the country, did not live there, traditions such as building temples continued, and the
and saw Egypt as just one part of their wider empire. pantheon of Egyptian gods was adapted to make room
Egypt’s primary importance to the Romans was for newcomers, such as the god Serapis. Hieroglyphic
economic. This was best demonstrated by the huge texts were still written, but these became increasingly
Roman cargo ships that were loaded with Egyptian anachronistic—the ability to read and write the script
grain in Alexandria and then sailed to the port of must have been rare even among literate Egyptians.
Ostia, in Italy, to feed the citizens of Rome. Documents, including those of an official nature,
△ Head of Augustus were written in Greek or Demotic, a cursive script
The Roman emperors often Egypt under Roman rule used to transcribe the form of the Egyptian language
portrayed themselves as
The Romans paid lip service to Egyptian culture, that was spoken at the time.
traditional kings of Egypt.
This bust of Augustus, which having themselves depicted as The factor that was most
shows his curly hair beneath traditional kings of Egypt on responsible for the demise of
a nemes headcloth, is a temple walls, for example. Egyptian culture was the spread
mixture of Classical and Sometimes they even attempted of Christianity. This made the
Egyptian artistic styles.
to write their names or titles pagan gods irrelevant, their
(Kaisaros Autokrator, Caesar the temples useless, and hieroglyphic
Ruler) in hieroglyphs, but few script pointless. This change
Roman emperors ever visited did not happen overnight, but
Egypt other than when they several key points stand out.
had to, as when Diocletian The most important were the
recaptured Alexandria after a accession of the Christian-friendly
local revolt in 298 ce. Emperor Constantine (306–
A notable exception was 337 ce) and the Edict of
Emperor Hadrian, who made Toleration, which put an end
a “grand tour” of the country to the persecution of Christians
during 10 months in 130–131 ce.
This led to a fashion for building
mock-Egyptian monuments in ◁ Defaced goddess
Rome, and Hadrian himself The attempts of later monotheists to
destroy or disfigure images of pagan
adapted his villa at Tivoli to gods were often crude. This image of
incorporate Egyptian-style the goddess Mut at Luxor Temple has
buildings and statues. In Egypt, been defaced but is otherwise intact.
 THE END OF ANCIENT EGYPT | 301

“I added Egypt to the empire

of the Roman people.”
AUGUSTUS’ OFFICIAL AUTOBIOGRAPHY, THE RES GESTAE

◁ Coffin of Artemidorus
This Roman Period coffin found at Hawara
is one of the finest examples of a hybrid
Egyptian-Classical work of art. Its body
case is decorated with the Egyptian gods
of the underworld, while the “mummy
portrait” is Roman in style.

in the Roman Empire. This edict was

issued by Constantine’s previously
anti-Christian co-Emperor, Galerius,
in 311 ce. Christianity, which had
been an underground cult until that
time, rapidly increased its following
after this official sanction. By the
time of Constantine’s death, more
than half of the population of
Egypt was probably Christian,
and by the end of the 4th
century ce, Christianity had
become the dominant religion
in the Roman Empire.
During the reign of
Emperor Theodosius I
(379–395 ce), the first of a series of
official decrees banning pagan worship was △ Roman Horus
issued. Also during the same reign, the last Attempts to depict Egyptian
gods in a contemporary
hieroglyphic text was written on a temple
Roman way led to some odd
at Philae. Temples were gradually closed or results. This statue shows
converted into churches, and the images of the god Horus clad in the
the ancient Egyptian gods were vandalized. armor of a Roman soldier.
These acts of destruction were often organized
by enthusiastic, anti-pagan monks, such as the
famous Shenoute, who attacked many pagan
monuments in Middle Egypt.
As new types of burial practice were
introduced, elaborate painted tombs were
no longer needed, nor were the paintings
that had been used to decorate them. With the
disappearance of her ancient kings, religion,
art, architecture, and script, ancient Egypt had
ceased to exist as a living culture.
302 | THE GRECO-ROMAN PERIOD

“Ptolemy” written in hieroglyphs ▽ The three scripts

within a royal cartouche The text of the Rosetta Stone is
carved on the face of the stela
three times—in hieroglyphs (top),
Egyptian demotic (middle), and
Greek (bottom).

△ Hieroglyphic text
The hieroglyphic text is an archaic script
that would probably have been familiar to
Egyptian scribes living 2,000 years before
the Rosetta Stone was inscribed.

“Ptolemy” in Greek

△ Greek text
This part of the text acknowledges the Greek
(Macedonian) origins of the Ptolemaic
rulers of Egypt, including Ptolemy V, who
ordered the writing on the Rosetta Stone.

△ Royal names
The key to understanding hieroglyphic
text lay in recognizing that these two very
different ways of writing the name Ptolemy,
in Greek and hieroglyphs, should be
pronounced the same way.
 THE ROSETTA STONE | 303

“Je tiens l’affaire!

(I have the thing.)”
CHAMPOLLION DISCOVERS THE KEY
TO THE ROSETTA STONE

The Rosetta Stone

Decoding Egyptian hieroglyphs

In 1799, during the Napoleonic occupation of Egypt, forms of text and two different languages: Classical
a group of French engineers was restoring a fortress Greek, Demotic (the everyday cursive script of the
of medieval origin at the town of el-Rashid (Rosetta) Egyptians), and the traditional hieroglyphs used by
at one of the mouths of the Nile Delta. Among the priests, which were by then no longer in general
stone rubble that had been used to build the fortress, use. Once scholars guessed that the Rosetta Stone,
they found blocks of stone that had been taken from like some other monuments from roughly the same
ancient Egyptian monuments, including some from period, bore the same text written three times, they
the western Delta city of Sais. could use the text that they could read—Greek—as a
One of these stone blocks in particular caught their key to deciphering the other two scripts. The language
attention. It was a large fragment of dark granodiorite underlying these scripts was of course very different
(a type of granite) 44 in (112 cm) tall, and the front from Greek, but at least it gave them a starting point.
of it was inscribed with horizontal lines of text that
were clearly in three different scripts. This important Signs and symbols
artifact, now known as the Rosetta Stone, was handed The most important discovery was that most of the
over to the British as part of the terms of the French hieroglyphs did not have some strange symbolic
surrender in Egypt, and by 1802, it was in the British meaning, but represented sounds. This was most
Museum. However, although the stone itself was in obvious in the name of the king, Ptolemy, which
London, copies of the texts on it had been circulated was easy to read in the Greek script. The fortunate
among scholars who had been trying for some time guess that the text written within cartouches (ovals)
to decipher Egyptian hieroglyphs. was also a version of “Ptolemy” enabled scholars to
start finding correlations between the Greek letters △ Reconstructed stela
Cracking the code and the individual hieroglyphic signs. Based on similar donation
The text of the Rosetta Stone is not overwhelmingly Deciphering the hieroglyphs was a long, slow stelae from the Late and
important in the history of Egyptology. It was a decree process, but the most important contribution was Ptolemaic Periods, the entire
announcing changes to the economic relationship made by French scholar Jean-François Champollion. Rosetta Stone was probably
about 71 in (180 cm) tall
between Ptolemy V and the priests of Egyptian By 1822, he had effectively cracked the code, thereby originally, and had images
temples. What is interesting about it is not what is enabling people to read and understand the ancient of the king and the gods
said, but how it is said. It is written in three different texts of dynastic Egypt once again. running along the top.
 304 |

Egyptian and world history

A timeline of dynasties, empires, and events
• c.1777 bce Sobekneferu, the first
woman to rule in her own right as
Egypt had one of the earliest civilizations, lasting thousands of years. The chart king of Egypt, begins her reign
below shows how Egypt compares to some of the world’s other great empires and
includes a selection of key events and innovations that put the history of Egypt in • c.2055 bce Montuhotep II
the context of the wider world. reunites Egypt
• c.1650–
• c.2667 bce Djoser’s reign begins; 1550 bce Hyksos
commissions the Step Pyramid • c.2181 bce Pepi II dies;
end of the Old Kingdom rulers are in
• c.3000 bce First known at Saqqara
power alongside
use of papyrus rulers in Thebes
• c.2375 bce Unas becomes
king; first Pyramid Text
• c.3100 bce Narmer unifies Egypt
• c.2550 bce The Great
Pyramid of Giza is built c.2181–2055 bce 1650–1550 bce
First Intermediate Second Intermediate
Period Period
EGYPTIAN DYNASTIES

c.3000–2686 bce c.2686–2181 bce 2055–1650 bce

Early Dynastic Period Old Kingdom Middle Kingdom

3000 bce 2750 bce 2500 bce 2250 bce 2000 bce 1750 bce

WORLD EMPIRES AND KINGDOMS

Early Dynastic Sumer Akkadian Empire Ur III Old Assyrian Empire

Indus civilization

Chinese civilization

Minoan civilization

Early Kerma, Nubia Kerma kingdom, Nubia

Ancient Andean civilization

• c.3200 bce Newgrange • c.2600 bce A stone circle is • 1790 bce Hammurabi
passage tomb is built in Ireland erected at Stonehenge in England establishes a legal code
for his Babylonian Empire

• c.2340 bce Sargon of • 1800 bce Bronze is first

Akkad’s reign begins used in central Europe
• c.3500 bce The Bronze Age
begins in Mesopotamia
• c.2000 bce The
• c.2600 bce Planned Minoan Palace of
cities in Indus Valley Knossos is built in Crete
 EGYPTIAN AND WORLD HISTORY | 305

• c.1296 bce Reign of Seti I begins

• 51 bce Cleopatra
• c.671 bce Assyrians invade Egypt VII’s reign begins

• c.1279 bce Ramesses II’s • 525 bce Persian conquest of Egypt

reign begins; fights in the
Battle of Kadesh
• c.726 bce Nubian king
• c.1550 bce Reign of • c.1126–1069 bce Royal tomb Piankhy captures Egypt
Ahmose starts; continues robberies at Thebes
to expel the Hyksos

• c.945 bce Sheshonq I • c.305 bce Ptolemy I’s reign begins;

• c.1352 bce Akhenaten takes the captures Jerusalem starts construction of the Pharos
throne; founds the city of Amarna lighthouse and Alexandria’s library

• 1325 bce Egyptian king

Tutankhamen dies and • 664 bce Psamtek I develops • 332 bce Alexander the Great
is entombed captures Egypt from the Persians
Sais as a royal capital

• c.1184 bce Ramesses III

becomes king; defeats the
Libyans and the Sea-Peoples • c.31 bce Egypt comes
1550–1295 bce under Roman rule
Early New Kingdom

1295–1069 bce 1069–664 bce 664–332 bce 332–395 bce

Late New Kingdom Third Intermediate Period Late Period Greco-Roman Period

1250 bce 1000 bce 750 bce 500 bce 250 bce 1 ce

Vedic civilization Indian kingdoms

Ancient Rome
Mycenaean
civilization Classical Greece

Napatan kingdom, Nubia Meroitic kingdom, Nubia

Olmec civilization in Mexico

• c.508 bce Democracy

• 1003 bce Jewish king is established in Athens • c.146 bce Romans
David unites Israel destroy Carthage
and Judah

• c.600 bce Coins

used in Phoenicia
• c.1046 bce The Zhou • c.200 bce Paper
Dynasty founded in China invented in China

• c.4 bce
• c.750 bce The Iron Age • c.490 bce The Jesus Christ
• c.1400 bce In Mesoamerica begins in central Europe Battle of Marathon is born
(Mexico and central America),
rubber is used in games
• c.776 bce First Olympic Games
 ◁ Pectoral of Mereret
This large and exquisite
gold pectoral belonged to
Princess Mereret, a daughter
of Amenemhat III. On either
side of the king’s cartouche,
a pair of falcon-headed
sphinxes crush the foreign
enemies of Egypt.

Directory
Rulers
 THE EARLY DYNASTIC PERIOD | 309

The Early Dynastic still in use in Greek times. An

ivory tablet from Abydos records
trips to the cities of Buto and
■ 2ND DYNASTY
(2890–2686 bce)

Period (c.3000–2686 bce)

Sais in the Nile Delta, and an
inscription at Wadi Halfa, near
the modern-day border of Sudan,
Hotepsekhemwy
Raneb
Nynetjer
documents Djer’s military Weneg
The origins of civilization in the Nile Valley remain a subject campaigns in Nubia. Sened
He was buried at Abydos along Peribsen
for debate, but it was around 3000 bce that the first kings of with more than 300 retainers Khasekhemwy
Egypt emerged. From a capital at Abydos in Middle Egypt, who either committed suicide
these early kings molded two dynasties that would set the or were killed before being
buried alongside their king. Khasekhemwy
foundations for three millennia of pharaonic rule.
Date unknown

Queen Merneith Khasekhemwy, whose name

■ DYNASTY 0 Anedjib
Date unknown
means “The two powers have
Semerkhet appeared,” came to power during
(c.3000 bce)
Qa’a Djet’s queen was his probable a time of internal conflict in
Narmer sister Merneith. After his death, Egypt. An inscription on a stone
she may have ruled as regent to vase records him “fighting the
Djer their son, Den, before he was northern enemy within Nekheb.”
Narmer Date unknown
old enough to rule. This would Nekheb was a city on the other
make her the first female king side of the Nile, opposite of the
Date unknown
Djer enjoyed a lengthy reign and the earliest known queen in southern capital of Nekhen.
The first named ruler of dynastic of 41 years, according to the history. Evidence for her rule Khasekhemwy was victorious,
Egypt appears on an early artifact Palermo Stone, or 57 years, comes from a seal found in the and to seal the peace, he married
known as the Narmer Palette (see according to 300 bce Egyptian tomb of Den, which includes a princess, Nemathap. His
pp.44-45). Discovered at the site priest Manetho. The priest Merneith’s name among a list of extensive tomb at Abydos was
of Hierakonpolis (the former describes Djer as a scholar and 1st Dynasty kings, accompanied one of the largest that had been
ancient city of Nekhen), north of the author of a book on anatomy by the title “King’s Mother.” built up to that time.
Aswan, it dates from c.3000 bce.
On one side the Palette shows
the king wearing the white
crown of Upper Egypt and on
the other the red crown of Lower
Egypt. From this, Narmer is
usually credited with the
unification of Egypt. Many
Egyptologists believe that Narmer
was the same person as Menes,
who appears as the first king
on the Abydos king list.

■ 1ST DYNASTY
(c.3000–2890 bce)
Aha
Djer
Djet
Den
Queen Merneith △ Detail of the back of the Narmer Palette showing Egypt’s first named king parading past his beheaded enemies
310 | RULERS

The Old he may have been the son of

Khasekhemwy, the last king of
the 2nd Dynasty, or the son (by
Djedefre (Radjedef )
2566–2558 bce
Khaefre (Chephren)

Kingdom (2686–2181 bce)

a previous husband) of Nemathap,
Khasekhemwy’s queen.
During his 19-year reign (some
2558–2532 bce
Menkaure (Mycerinus)
2532–2503 bce
scholars argue that it was 28), Shepseskaf 2503–2498 bce
The four dynasties of the Old Kingdom saw the first great Djoser extended his rule as far
south as Aswan and into Sinai,
flourishing of Egyptian civilization. Ruling from the royal where his minions mined Snefru
capital at Memphis, the newfound power of the kings was precious turquoise and copper.
2613–2589 bce
reflected in the funerary monuments they erected at Saqqara He also commissioned the
construction of one of the most Snefru’s reign demonstrates the
and Giza. These reached their apogee in the Great Pyramids. impressive monuments of the power wielded by Egypt’s kings.
ancient world and the first Inscriptions record that Snefru
building ever to be constructed commanded raids into Nubia to
entirely from stone, the Step the south and Libya to the west.
Pyramid complex at Saqqara. The three major pyramids that
he left behind are proof of the
centralization of government
Sekhemkhet and its organizational abilities.
Snefru’s earliest pyramid, at
2648–2640 bce
Meidum, was originally
Little is known about the third constructed as a step pyramid
king of the 3rd Dynasty, who but later modified to become a
seems to have ruled only briefly. true pyramid. The first of his
He is recorded in two rock pyramids at Dahshur was the
inscriptions at Wadi Maghara first to be designed as a true
in Sinai, suggesting that mines pyramid, although builders
there were still active during were forced to reduce the angle
his reign. of the sides halfway through
Excavations at Saqqara in the construction, producing the
1950s unearthed the remains of “bent” appearance of the
his pyramid complex at Saqqara, final structure. Later, Snefru
just southwest of that of Djoser. successfully built a true pyramid
Only the first layer of the Step at Dahshur, known today as the
Pyramid was completed, but “Red Pyramid,” which might be
judging from the size of its base, where he was buried.
it would have been larger than
Djoser’s pyramid, if it had been
completed. The name Imhotep Khufu
△ Life-size statue of Djoser found in his Step Pyramid complex at Saqqara is inscribed in Sekhemkhet’s Other name: Cheops
complex, which suggests that
2589–2566 bce
■ 3RD DYNASTY the architect who planned
(2686–2613 bce) Djoser Djoser’s pyramid also worked Khufu followed the 24-year reign
Other name: Netjerikhet for his successor. of his father, Snefru, with his
Nebka 2686–2667 bce own reign of 23 years. Little
2667–2648 bce
Djoser (Netjerikhet) ■ 4TH DYNASTY is known about him. Rock
2667–2648 bce Although he is now known as (2613–2494 bce) inscriptions in Wadi Maghara
Sekhemkhet 2648–2640 bce Djoser, the second king of the record the presence of his
Khaba 2640–2637 bce 3rd Dynasty was called Snefru 2613–2589 bce soldiers in Sinai, and an
Sanakht Netjerikhet during his reign. Khufu (Cheops) inscription on a boulder on
Huni 2637–2613 bce There is evidence to suggest that 2589–2566 bce Elephantine Island in Aswan
 | 311

indicates that his rule reached

deep into the south of the
country. His fame rests on the
funerary monument that he built
for himself, commonly known as
the Great Pyramid of Giza.

Khaefre
Other name: Chephren

2558–2532 bce

Khaefre was the son of Khufu

and the brother of his predecessor
Djedefre. Not much is known
about him. The Greek historian
Herodotus described Khaefre
as a cruel and tyrannical ruler
(and said the same of Khufu),
but he was writing 2,000 years
after Khaefre’s time, and modern
historians consider this negative
characterization of the king as
untrustworthy. Egypt prospered
under his reign, with evidence
of trade with what are now
Lebanon and Syria. Khaefre built
the second-largest pyramid at
Giza and is also usually credited
with building the Sphinx, which
appears to guard his pyramid.

Menkaure
Other name: Mycerinus

2532–2503 bce

Menkaure was the son of Khaefre

and grandson of Khufu and the
builder of the third and smallest of
the three main pyramids at Giza.
Herodotus wrote that, unlike his
father and grandfather, Menkaure
was a benevolent ruler but that
this displeased the gods, who had
decreed that Egypt should suffer
150 years of tyranny. According
to the Greek historian, Menkaure
endured much misfortune, notably
the early death of his only
daughter. Menkaure’s pyramid,
unfinished on his death, was
completed by his son, Shepseskaf. △ Menkaure (right) with the goddess Hathor (center) and a nome god (left)
312 | RULERS

Unas
2375–2345 bce

The last king of the 5th Dynasty

is known largely because of his
pyramid. He ruled during what
historians believe was a period
of economic decline. For reasons
unknown, he broke with the
tradition of the majority of his
5th-Dynasty predecessors and
built his pyramid not at Abusir,
but at Saqqara, near the
southwest corner of the Step
Pyramid of Djoser. He was not
a particularly powerful king and
his pyramid is the smallest of
those from the Old Kingdom,
but it is notable for being the
first to be inscribed with
Pyramid Texts.

■ 6TH DYNASTY
(2345–2181 bce)
Teti 2345–2323 bce
Userkara 2323–2321 bce
Pepi I (Meryra) 2321–2287 bce
Merenre 2287–2278 bce
△ Ruins of the mortuary temple of Sahure, king of the 5th Dynasty, at Abusir Pepi II (Neferkare)
2278–2184 bce
■ 5TH DYNASTY for heralding the elevation of Nitiqret 2184–2181 bce
(2494–2345 bce) the sun god Ra to state deity. Sahure
Userkaf introduced a new kind
2487–2475 bce
Userkaf 2494–2487 bce of monument to Egypt, a sun Teti
Sahure 2487–2475 bce temple, which he built at Abu Evidence suggests that Sahure
2345–2323 bce
Neferirkare 2475–2455 bce Gurob, a little way north of was the son of Userkaf. He
Shepseskare 2455–2448 bce Saqqara. This took the form of was the first to build a pyramid The relationship between Teti
Neferefre 2448–2445 bce an enclosure containing a sun complex at Abusir, close to his and his predecessor, Unas, is
Niuserre 2445–2421 bce altar in front of a stumpy obelisk, father’s sun temple. Wall reliefs uncertain. Unas appears to have
Menkauhor 2421–2414 bce also known as a Benben stone. at the pyramid’s mortuary temple died without any male heirs.
Djedkare Isesi 2414–2375 bce Userkaf also constructed a depict many scenes of trade Some historians suggest that Teti
Unas 2375–2345 bce pyramid complex near the with other nations. One shows came to the throne through his
enclosure wall of Djoser’s Step Egyptian ships bearing cedar marriage with Iput I, a daughter
Pyramid at Saqqara. A stone trees from what is now Lebanon. of Unas. Manetho records that
Userkaf vessel, which was discovered The temple also records the first Teti’s rule came to an end when
on the Greek island of Kythira known expedition to the land of he was murdered by his palace
2494–2487 bce
and bears Userkaf’s name, is Punt, thought to have been in the guard. He was buried in the
The parentage of Userkaf, the the earliest evidence of contact Horn of Africa. Sahure is shown pyramid complex he built at
first king of the 5th Dynasty, is between ancient Egypt and the celebrating this venture, tending Saqqara, in a chamber inscribed
unknown. His reign was notable Aegean world. a myrrh tree in his palace garden. with Pyramid Texts. Evidence
 THE OLD KINGDOM | 313

suggests that during Teti’s reign, was also challenged on at least continued to wane, and this
he faced a challenge from the one, if not two occasions by Pepi II decline probably became more
increasingly powerful nobles. internal conspiracies against Other name: Neferkara marked as the king grew older.
His vizier, named Mereruka, left him. Attempts to cement his Under Pepi II, more power was
2278–2184 bce
behind a funerary monument authority resulted in an extensive passed on to regional, high-
to rival that of the king in the building program, and temples Pepi II may have been the longest ranking officials, especially
form of a mastaba with 33 richly and chapels were built all over reigning of any Egyptian ruler. in the south of Egypt, and
carved rooms. Egypt during his reign. He was once thought to be the this continued to draw central
There were also several son of Pepi I, but it seems more authority away from the royal
military campaigns during his likely that he was the son of his capital of Memphis.
Pepi I rule: into Nubia, Sinai, and the immediate predecessor, Merenre.
Other name: Meryra southern Levant. Pepi I built his Pepi came to the throne as
2321–2287 bce
funerary complex at Saqqara, an infant—an alabaster statuette ■7TH AND 8TH
along with at least another six displayed in the Brooklyn Museum DYNASTIES
Pepi I was the son of Teti. pyramids for his wives. A copper depicts the young Pepi II wearing (2181–2160 bce)
Although he enjoyed a lengthy statue of him that was found at the royal nemes headdress and
reign, it took place against the Hierakonpolis is the earliest a kilt, sitting on the lap of his These were two little known
background of a continuing known example of a life-size mother, Ankhnesmeryre II. dynasties of a short-lived line of
decline of royal power. He metal sculpture. During his reign, royal power kings reigning in rapid succession.

△ Hieroglyphs from the burial chamber of the Pyramid of Pepi I at Saqqara

314 | RULERS

First Intermediate The Middle

Period (2181–2055 bce) Kingdom (2055–1650 bce)

Following the breakdown of the Old Kingdom, the rule Following Montuhotep II’s reunification of Egypt, successive
of Egypt was divided between rival dynasties—those in dynasties, ruling initially from Thebes and then later from
Herakleopolis in northern Middle Egypt and Thebes Lisht in the Faiyum region, brought back strong central
in Upper Egypt. It was a time of disorder, during which government. Egypt’s territorial domain increased as the
no monuments were built. warrior king Senwosret III extended its borders into Nubia
in the south. Advancements in art led to the quality of
Egyptian statues reaching a peak.
■9TH AND 10TH south to the First Cataract
DYNASTIES (modern Aswan), but the allied
rival rulers of Hierakonpolis
(2160–2025 bce) and Herakleopolis prevented ■11TH DYNASTY
Khety I (Meryibra) him from extending his CTD. Montuhotep II
Khety II (Nebkaura) influence into Lower Egypt, (2055–1985 bce) Other name: Nebhepetra
Khety III (Wahkara) so Intef did not succceed in
2055–2004 bce
Merikare reunifying the two regions of Montuhotep II (Nebhepetra)
Egypt during his reign. When 2055–2004 bce The fifth king of the 11th
he died, he was buried in a Montuhotep III (Sankhkara) Dynasty is credited with
■ 11TH DYNASTY rock-cut tomb on the West Bank, 2004–1992 bce reunifying Egypt after the
(THEBES ONLY) opposite Thebes, at a site known Montuhotep IV (Nebtawyra) turmoil of the First Intermediate
today as Saff el-Dawaba. 1992–1985 bce Period and with beginning the
(2125–2055 bce)
Middle Kingdom.
Montuhotep I (Tepy-a) In the 14th year of his reign,
Intef I (Sehertawy) he sent an army to confront
2125–2112 bce Herakleopolitan forces who had
Intef II (Wahankh) invaded Abydos. The exact date
2112–2063 bce when reunification was achieved
Intef III (Nakhtnebtepnefer) is not known, but it is thought
2063–2055 bce that the conflict lasted for many
years. The reunification led to
a surge in trade and building.
Intef I Montuhotep II removed all the
Other name: Sehertawy nomarchs who had opposed
him and promoted his authority
2125–2112 bce
through numerous building
Intef is thought to have been the projects throughout Egypt,
son of Montuhotep I and Neferiu I including his own mortuary
and was the first of the 11th temple at Deir el-Bahri, on
Dynasty to declare himself king, the west bank at Thebes, which
adopting the name Sehertawy, had become the national capital.
meaning “He who has brought This mortuary temple marked a
calm to the Two Lands.” In radical break with the pyramids
reality, he was the nomarch, of his predecessors, taking the
or regional governor, of Thebes. form of multiple terraces raised
He managed to extend his rule △ Relief from the mortuary temple of Mentuhotep II, the reunifying king on colonnades.
 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM | 315

■ 12TH DYNASTY
(1985–1773 bce)
Amenemhat I
(Sehetepibra)
1985–1956 bce
Senwosret I (Kheperkara)
1956–1911 bce
Amenemhat II
(Nubkaura)
1911–1877 bce
Senwosret II (Khakheperra)
1877–1870 bce
Senwosret III (Khakaura)
1870–1831 bce
Amenemhat III (Nimaatra)
1831–1786 bce
Amenemhat IV
(Maakherura)
1786–1777 bce
Sobekneferu (Sobekkara)
1777–1773 bce

Amenemhat I
Other name: Sehetepibra

1985–1956 bce

Amenemhat I might have been

the vizier of his predecessor,
Montuhotep IV, and was of
noble, not royal, lineage.
Although he built and restored
monuments at Thebes, he is
best known for transferring
the capital to a new town named
Itj-Tawy, not far south of
Memphis, in the region of
the oasis of Faiyum.
Historians think that the △ Pillar statue of Senwosret I portraying him as Osiris, god of the dead, holding the ankh, the “key of life”
move may have been a way
of signaling a new beginning the south. He was probably experience of ruling as co-regent. Heliopolis, one of which is still
while dissolving the established assassinated and was buried at He continued his father’s push standing as the oldest obelisk in
power bases of his officials in his pyramid complex at Lisht. into Nubia, establishing his Egypt. Senwosret’s reign was
Thebes. It may also have been authority as far south as the characterized by great wealth
militarily expedient, as it put the Second Cataract. He also sent and prosperity and supreme
king and his army closer to the Senwosret I expeditions into Egypt’s Western craftsmanship in jewelry and
source of the ongoing Asiatic Other name: Kheperkara Desert and established diplomatic sculpture, using materials such
incursions from the north. From relations along the coast of the as amethyst, turquoise, copper,
1956–1911 bce
Itj-Tawy, Amenemhat I mounted eastern Mediterranean. gneiss, and gold from Nubia.
expeditions against the Asiatics. When Senwosret became king on In Egypt, he promoted his rule Senwosret was buried in his
He also still had to deal with the death of Amenemhat I, his by building temples. He erected pyramid at Lisht, close to that
challenges from the Nubians in father, he already had 10 years’ two large granite obelisks at of his father.
316 | RULERS

the Head of the South

(Elephantine and Lower Nubia),
which were governed by officials
appointed by the king. Art
became marked by greater
realism and attention to detail,
evident in the many surviving
representations of the king,
who is usually depicted with a
somber expression and hooded
eyelids. He commissioned
numerous building projects,
including expanding the Temple
of Amen at Karnak and building
his own pyramid complex at
Dahshur and second tomb at
Abydos. Senwosret III was one
of the few Egyptian kings deified
during their own lifetime.

Amenemhat III
Other name: Nimaatra

1831–1786 bce

Senwosret III’s son, Amenemhat

III, reigned for 45 years, presiding
△ Pectoral composed around the throne name of Senwosret II, possibly belonging to the king’s daughter over a period of great prosperity.
He continued work begun by his
father on a canal, known as the
Amenemhat II Senwosret II Senwosret III Mer-Wer (Great Canal), to link
Other name: Nubkaura Other name: Khakheperra Other name: Khakaura the Faiyum with the Nile. He
built a large temple dedicated
1911–1877 bce 1877–1870 bce 1870–1831 bce
to Sobek at Kiman Faris, later
The stability and longevity of The reign of Senwosret II, fourth The reign of Senwosret III, son known as Crocodilopolis by the
Senwosret’s 45-year reign was king of the 12th Dynasty, may of Senwosret II, marks a high Greeks, now buried beneath
replicated by that of his son, have lasted only seven or eight point of the Middle Kingdom. modern Faiyum City. He erected
Amenemhat II, who ruled for years, but he achieved much in He was a towering warrior king two pyramids: one in the Middle
about 34 years. Records show an that short time. He constructed who led a series of campaigns Kingdom necropolis at Dahshur
expedition to the land of Punt an extensive irrigation system to into Nubia to secure Egypt’s and the other where he was
during his reign, while jewelry develop agricultural land in the southern borders. He added buried, at Hawara in the Faiyum.
bearing the king’s cartouche area around the Faiyum Oasis, to the forts there, from the Like his father, he left behind
found in royal tombs at Byblos 50 miles (80 km) southwest of northern fort at Buhen at the many statues notable for the
in Lebanon is evidence of Memphis. Middle Kingdom Second Nile Cataract to Semna. realistic portrayal of his features.
diplomatic relations. Toward the rulers established this region as To facilitate his fleet, he had
end of his life, Amenemhat II an agricultural and religious a canal cut around the First
shared a brief co-regency with center, and Sobek the crocodile Cataract in the Nile at Aswan. He Amenemhat IV
his successor and probable son, god became a prominent deity. also campaigned in what is now Other name: Maakherura
Senwosret II. Unlike his two While Senwosret’s direct Syria. To consolidate royal power
1786–1777 bce
predecessors who had built their predecessors were buried at within Egypt, he got rid of most
pyramids at Lisht, Amenemhat II Dahshur, he built his necropolis of the nomarchs, dividing the Amenemhat IV’s relationship to
chose to build his mortuary and pyramid at el-Lahun, on the country into the three districts of his predecessor, Amenemhat III,
complex at Dahshur. edge of the Faiyum Oasis. Lower Egypt, Upper Egypt, and remains unverified: he may have
 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM | 317

been his son or grandson. ■ 13TH DYNASTY Hor (Awibra) ■ 14TH DYNASTY
Their rules overlapped in a (1773–after 1650 bce) Khendjer (Userkara) (1773–1650 bce)
two-year co-regency. The Mer-Wer Sobekhotep III
(Great Canal) was completed Wegaf (Khutawyra) (Sekhemra-sewadjtawy) The obscure 14th Dynasty
during Amenemhat IV’s reign, Sobekhotep II Neferhotep I of minor kings ruled from
channeling fresh water to the (Sekhemra-khutawy) (Khasekhemra) the eastern Delta, and the capital
Faiyum Depression to fill ancient Iykhernefert Neferhotep Sahthor of the dynasty was probably
Lake Moeris. He features little (Sankhtawy-sekhemra) Sobekhotep IV (Khaneferra) Avaris. The 14th Dynasty was
in written records except in Ameny-intef-Amanememhat Sobekhotep V probably contemporary with
relation to expeditions to the (Sankhibra) Ay (Merneferra) the 13th or 15th Dynasties.
turquoise mines of Serabit
el-Khadim in the Sinai; to mine
amethyst at Wadi el-Hudi in
southern Egypt; and, farther
afield, to the land of Punt.
Amenemhat IV completed a
shrine at the temple of Hathor
in the Sinai, but his tomb has
not been identified.

Sobekneferu
Other name: Sobekkara

1777–1773 bce

Sobekneferu, whose name means

the “Beauty of Sobek,” is the
first woman for whom there is
confirmed proof that she reigned
in her own right as a female king
of Egypt. She was the daughter of
Amenemhat III, who ascended to
the throne when Amenemhat IV
died prematurely without a male
heir. Her name appears on
multiple king lists, including
Turin, indicating she reigned for
three years and 10 months.
Three headless statues of the
queen, discovered in the Faiyum,
depict her wearing a costume
that combines elements of male
and female dress. Unfortunately,
the only head identified as
Sobekneferu, which was held at
the Egyptian Museum in Berlin,
was lost during World War II.
She is known to have made
additions to her father’s funerary
complex at Hawara and to have
built at Herakleopolis Magna.
Her own burial place, however,
is unknown. △ Statuette of Amenemhat III showing a youthful king, recognizable from other, similar portrayals
318 | RULERS

Second Intermediate Kamose

Other name: Wadjkheperra
Egypt from their base in the Nile
Delta. In Kamose’s third year, he
led a fleet from Thebes down the

Period (1650–1550 bce) 1555–1550 bce

Kamose was the king who

Nile attacking Hyksos garrisons
throughout Middle Egypt. A
detailed account of the campaign
brought to an end the political was left on two stele at Karnak.
Once again, central government broke down. Rule in the uncertainty of the Second Kamose also led two campaigns
Intermediate Period and ushered into Nubia. However, the king’s
north of Egypt was assumed by a foreign power, the Hyksos in the beginning of the New reign was short, lasting no
from the eastern Mediterranean region, who established a Kingdom. He took up the battle more than five years. There
capital at Avaris in the Nile Delta. begun by his probable father, is no record to indicate how he
Sekenenre Taa, against the died, and he was buried in a
Hyksos, who ruled much of simple coffin at Thebes.

■15TH DYNASTY
(HYKSOS)
(1650–1550 bce)
Salitis (Sekerher)
Khyan (Seuserenra) c.1600 bce
Apepi (Aauserra) c.1555 bce
Khamudi

■ 16TH DYNASTY
(1650–1580 bce)
This dynasty of kings ruled
Upper Egypt from Thebes
for 70 years and were
contemporary with the 15th
Dynasty, the Hyksos rulers
based in Lower Egypt. The two
dynasties warred with one
another during this period of
division betwen Upper and
Lower Egypt.

■ 17TH DYNASTY
(c.1580–1550 bce)
Rahotep
Sobekemsaf I
Intef VI (Sekhemra)
Intef VII (Nubkheperra)
Intef VIII
(Sekhemraherhermaat)
Sobekemsaf II
Sekenenre Taa c.1560 bce
Kamose (Wadjkheperra)
1555–1550 bce △ Detail from sarcophagus showing the face of Kamose, last king of the 17th Dynasty
 THE NEW KINGDOM | 319

The New completed the expulsion of the

Hyksos from the Delta, Thebes
became the national capital.
el-Medina, because he and his
mother were its patron deities.
The Ebers Papyrus, which is the

Kingdom (1550–1069 bce)

It would become the political
center, as well as the religious
center, as the worship of its local
main source for information on
ancient Egyptian medicine,
probably dates from this time,
god Amen grew in importance. and texts suggest that the first
This era, which spanned three dynasties of kings, marked the With reunification came the water clock was invented during
start of a revival of the arts and Amenhotep I’s reign.
pinnacle of ancient Egyptian civilization. These rulers were monumental constructions. He He was the first king to have a
godlike beings that commanded vast territories and left built a cenotaph complex at tomb separate from his mortuary
behind immense works. Abydos (with a small pyramid) complex, setting a trend that
but was buried at Thebes. would continue throughout the
New Kingdom.
His temple was located at
■ 18TH DYNASTY Amenhotep I the north end of Deir el-Bahri,
(1550–1295 bce) Ahmose Other name: Djeserkara but it was demolished to make
Other name: Nebpehtyra way for the Temple of Queen
1525–1504 bce
Ahmose (Nebpehtyra) Hatshepsut; the location of
1550–1525 bce
1550–1525 bce Amenhotep I’s 21-year reign Amenhotep I’s tomb has not
Amenhotep I Ahmose I ascended the throne at was peaceful for the most part, been definitively identified.
(Djeserkara) a young age following the death although tomb texts indicate that
1525–1504 bce of his uncle, Kamose. Initially, he led campaigns into Nubia, at
Tuthmosis I (Aakheperkara) his mother, Ahhotep, reigned as the very least. Tuthmosis I
1504–1492 bce regent. About halfway through Records also show that he Other name: Aakheperkara
Tuthmosis II his own reign, the king resumed executed a number of building
1504–1492 bce
(Aakhepererenra) the conflict with the Hyksos, projects, including a massive
1492–1479 bce leading attacks on Memphis; limestone gateway and a barque Amenhotep I’s reign was marked
Tuthmosis III (Menkheperra) Heliopolis; and Avaris, the shrine at Karnak. Egyptologists by a series of military campaigns.
1479–1425 bce northerners’ capital in the believe that Amenhotep I Tuthmosis I campaigned in
Hatshepsut (Maatkara) eastern Nile Delta. Once probably founded the artisans’ Nubia, leading a fleet up the Nile,
1473–1458 bce Ahmose had village at Deir and subsequent expeditions
Amenhotep II (Aakheperura) extended Egyptian rule south to
1427–1400 bce the Fourth Cataract. Additional
Tuthmosis IV military actions pushed Egyptian
(Menkheperura) 1400–1390 bce influence all the way to the
Amenhotep III (Nebmaatra) Euphrates in modern Syria.
1390–1352 bce On a stela at Abydos,
Akhenaten /Amenhotep IV Tuthmosis I records, “I made
1352–1336 bce the boundaries of Egypt as far as
Smenkhkare (Neferneferuaten) that which the sun encircles …
1338–1336 bce I made Egypt the superior of
Tutankhamen (Nebkhepererura) every land.” In the Egyptian
1336–1327 bce capital of Thebes, he made
Ay (Kheperkheperura) significant expansions to the
1327–1323 bce temple at Karnak.
Horemheb (Djeserkheperura) Tuthmosis I was the first king
1323–1295 bce known to be buried in the Valley
of the Kings. His mortuary
temple has not been found,
possibly because it was
▷ Anthropoid coffin inscribed
for Ahmose showing the long, curved demolished or incorporated into
beard of divinity strapped to his chin the Temple of Hatshepsut.
320 | RULERS

royal half-sister, Hatshepsut, country. When Tuthmosis III

Tuthmosis II daughter of Ahmose, the Great Tuthmosis III came of age, he became co-regent,
Other name: Aakheperenra Royal Wife of Tuthmosis I. Other name: Menkheperra then sole ruler in the 20th or
Records of his reign are few, 21st year of Hatshepsut’s reign.
1492–1479 bce 1479–1425 bce
possibly due to Hatshepsut’s During his 32 years of sole rule,
After the two oldest sons of later attempts to erase and The reign of Tuthmosis III is Tuthmosis campaigned in Nubia
Tuthmosis I died prematurely, replace his name with her considered a golden era, during and stormed through the Levant,
the throne passed to his third own. Some historians believe which Tuthmosis both expanded gathering the spoils of war in
son, who would become Hatshepsut was the real power Egypt’s territory and accumulated what are now Israel, Palestine,
Tuthmosis II. His mother was during her husband’s reign. wealth. As he was an infant when Syria, and Lebanon. The wealth
Mutnefret, a minor wife of the No royal tomb or a mortuary his father, Tuthmosis II, died, his he acquired was used to fund
king, making him a lesser son, temple for Tuthmosis II has aunt and stepmother, Queen building projects throughout
so he married his fully ever been identified. Hatshepsut, assumed rule of the Egypt, most notably at Karnak,
where he refashioned the great
temple complex. Several walls at
Karnak feature scenes depicting
Tuthmosis in traditional kingly
fashion, smiting his enemies and
accompanied by inscribed lists of
captured cities and booty. When
he died, Tuthmosis III was buried
in the Valley of the Kings.

Hatshepsut
Other name: Maatkara

1473–1458 bce

Hapshetsut was only the second

historically confirmed female
king to have ruled in Egypt by
this time. In order to emphasize
her right to rule, she associated
herself with her powerful father,
Tuthmosis I, and also with the
god Amen-Ra. A “Divine Birth”
scene at her mortuary temple at
Deir el-Bahri shows Amen-Ra
present within the body of
Tuthmosis I when he
impregnated Hatshepsut’s
mother, Queen Ahmose. In
statuary and royal monuments,
she often had herself portrayed
as a male king. Her many
achievements included a trading
expedition to Punt that returned
bearing 31 live myrrh trees,
commemorated in relief at Deir
el-Bahri. In addition to her own
striking mortuary temple, she
built prolifically throughout
△ A statue of Queen Hatshepsut at her mortuary temple in Deir el-Bahri, Luxor, portrays her as a male king Egypt. At Karnak, she raised twin
 THE NEW KINGDOM | 321

△ The vast Colossi of Memnon at Luxor, which once stood at the entrance gate to the mortuary temple of Amenhotep III

obelisks, at the time the tallest father, Tuthmosis IV, bequeathed followed, so very little remains of that a new capital be built
in the world, one of which still a settled and flourishing empire, it today, apart from the two huge halfway between Thebes and
stands. When she died, she was which stretched from the statues of the king, popularly Memphis, called Akhetaten,
buried in the Valley of the Kings Euphrates in modern Syria down called the Colossi of Memnon. better known today as Amarna.
in the tomb of her father, which to the Fourth Cataract in present- Along with the new cult and
she adapted by adding a second day Sudan. Amenhotep’s reign is new city came a new artistic
burial chamber for herself. one of the best documented of Akhenaten style in which representations
Toward the end of the reign of any Egyptian king, partly thanks Other name: Neferneferuaton of people, animals, and plants
Tuthmosis III, Hatshepsut’s name to more than 200 large inscribed are more naturalistic than the
1352–1332 bce
and cartouches were chiseled soapstone scarabs extolling his traditional art of ancient Egypt.
out of her monuments, her accomplishments. Amenhotep IV was the second The portrayals of Akhenaten
statues pulled down, and even her Although Amenhotep had a son of Amenhotep III and Tiy; are radically different from
obelisks walled up in an attempt large harem, his chief wife Tiy their elder son died prematurely. other kings: he is shown with
to erase her name from history. It was highly revered, portrayed Amenhotep IV married Nefertiti, an exaggeratedly long face;
is still unclear why this happened. in statuary and temple reliefs his Great Royal Wife, about the thick lips; a sagging belly;
at the same size as her husband, time he took the throne. and broad, almost feminine
symbolizing a relationship of Early in his reign, he hips. The reasons for this are
Amenhotep III equals. The pair commissioned introduced a monotheistic cult not understood.
Other name: Nebmaatra great monuments, the most of sun worship of the Aten, After his death, later kings
magnificent of which was a portrayed as a solar disk. He built sought to erase Akhenaten’s
1390–1352 bce
mortuary temple that was a temple to the Aten at Karnak heretical reign from history: his
The long reign of Amenhotep III larger in size that any previous and, in the fifth year of his reign, monuments were dismantled, his
represented another prosperous king’s complex. The temple was changed his name to Akhenaten. statues destroyed, and his name
age for Egypt. Amenhotep’s quarried for stone by kings who About the same time, he decreed excluded from lists of rulers.
322 | RULERS

there for only a short time before were probably not taken by prior to Tutankhamen and
Tutankhamen he abandoned the city of his Tutankhamen himself but by his the actions taken to restore the
Other name: Nebkhepererura father and moved the royal advisors, who included a general gods to their proper position.
court to Memphis, while Thebes named Horemheb and the king’s The king restored monuments
1336–1327 bce
reverted to being the religious vizier and eventual successor, Ay. defaced under Akhenaten and
While still a child, Tutankhaten center of the country. The The actions are recorded in the undertook new building work,
(as he was first named), probable religious shift was reflected in so-called Restoration Stela, including at the temples of
son of Akhenaten, ascended the the king’s change of name to erected at Karnak, which outlines Karnak and Luxor.
throne at Amarna. He remained Tutankhamen. These decisions the damage done in the reign The cause of his death,
while still a teenager, remains
unconfirmed. As a young and
possibly crippled and sickly king
who spent a relatively short time
on the throne and whose rule
was massively overshadowed by
the divisive legacy of his father,
Tutankhamen’s reign achieved
little of note. His fame today
rests on the fact that his tomb
remained intact and full of
treasures that were only
discovered in the 20th century.

Horemheb
Other name: Djeserkheperura

1323–1295 bce

Horemheb was the commander-

in-chief of Akhenaten’s army
and held the same role under
Tutankhamen, as well as being
a diplomatic envoy and advisor.
He was also the designated
crown prince, but on the death
of the boy king, the elderly vizier
Ay assumed control, possibly
while Horemheb was away
campaigning. Ay’s reign was
brief, and before he died, he
named Nakhtmin, who was
possibly his son or adopted son,
as his successor. Horemheb was
still, however, able to seize the
throne. He undertook domestic
reforms with the aim of further
reasserting the power of Thebes
and Memphis, actions that are
recorded on a stela known as the
Great Edict of Horemheb, erected
at Karnak. He added three pylons
to the temple complex at Karnak,
△ Detail of jeweled back of Tutankhamen’s throne showing the queen offering the king a drink using recycled talatat blocks from
 THE NEW KINGDOM | 323

△ Colorful reliefs on columns in the Osiris Suite of the Temple of Seti I at Abydos

Akhenaten’s monuments. He Siptah (Akehnrasetepenra) him almost no time to make his reign, notably the great Hypostyle
had two tombs: one at Saqqara 1194–1188 bce mark on history. He was buried Hall in the Temple of Amen at
and the other in the Valley of Twosret (Sitrameritamun) in a small and hastily finished Karnak, where Seti I’s reliefs
the Kings, where he was buried. 1188–1186 bce tomb in the Valley of the Kings. cover the north side. These
scenes are executed in a more
realistic style than previously
■ 19TH DYNASTY Ramesses I Seti I seen, showing the influence of
(1295–1186 bce) Other name: Menpehtyra Other name: Menmaatra Amarna art. However, when Seti
built a temple to the god Osiris
1295–1294 bce 1294–1279 bce
Ramesses I (Menpehtyra) at Abydos and had it inscribed
1295–1294 bce The first king to carry the name In contrast to the almost with a king list, this omitted
Seti I (Menmaatra) Ramesses was previously vizier to negligible reign of his father the Amarna kings, skipping
1294–1279 bce his predecessor, Horemheb. He Ramesses I, Seti I left an indelible directly from Amenhotep III
Ramesses II (Usermaatra was not of royal blood— mark on Egyptian history. He to Horemheb.
Setepenra) 1279–1213 bce Horemheb seems to have died campaigned in Syria, where he Seti constructed a mortuary
Merenptah (Baenra) childless—and was a military fought the Hittites, and in the temple on the west bank at
1213–1203 bce officer from a family with its Western Desert, where he battled Thebes and his own splendid
Amenmesse (Menmira) roots in the Nile Delta. It is Libyan incursions into Egypt. tomb in the Valley of the
1203–1200 bce thought that he was already old These episodes were recorded on Kings—the longest, deepest,
Seti II (Userkheperura when he came to the throne, and some of the magnificent building and most finely decorated of
Setepenra) 1200–1194 bce his extremely brief reign gave projects carried out during his any of the kings’ tombs.
324 | RULERS

△ Vast head at the Temple of Luxor, all that remains of a statue of Ramesses II—one of the many statues he commissioned during his reign
 THE NEW KINGDOM | 325

Amenmesse, who may have been

Ramesses II another son of Merenptah, or
Other name: Usermaatra Setepenra even a son of Ramesses II.
Some Egyptologists argue that
1279–1213 bce
Amenmesse did not succeed
From an early age, the boy who Merenptah, but was a rival king
would become Ramesses II who briefly usurped Seti in
campaigned with his father Seti I. Upper Egypt sometime around
Once on the throne, he acquired the third year of his reign. What
a self-promoted reputation as a is clear is that once Seti II was in
great warrior king, with his power, he destroyed all traces of
exploits—notably the significant his rival.
Battle of Kadesh, against the A papyrus dating from Seti II’s
Hittite armies in Syria—typically rule relates the “Tale of Two
celebrated in stone. As a base for Brothers,” a story of family
these campaigns in the eastern conflict following the death of
Mediterranean, he established the the father, which may have been
new capital city of Pr-Ramesses a satire on the real-life political
in the Nile Delta, but it was in struggle between Seti and
the south that he left his mark. Amenmesse. Due to his short
He built on a monumental reign, Seti was buried in an only
scale, adding to existing great partially completed tomb in the
temples at Karnak and Luxor Valley of the Kings.
and inscribing his cartouche
prominently, even on buildings
that he did not construct. On Twosret
the west bank, he raised the Other name: Sitrameritamun
Ramesseum, while at Abu
1188–1186 bce
Simbel, he had workers carve out
a temple fronted by four colossal Seti II was succeeded by Siptah,
seated figures of himself. whose lineage remains the
Rather than the shallow subject of debate. He was only
reliefs of traditional Egyptian about 10 years old at the time,
art, Ramesses had his masons so his stepmother, Twosret,
engrave deeply into the stone, royal wife of Seti II, ruled as
making it much more difficult regent. When Siptah died after
for them to be erased or usurped just six years as king, Twosret
later. During his 66-year reign, assumed the throne as king in
he ensured his name would live her own right. Her reign
on: he erected more statues of △ Granite sarcophagus from the tomb of Merenptah was short—just long enough
himself than any other king and to construct a modest mortuary
fathered more than 100 children. he was probably in his late sixties bank at Thebes and a tomb in temple next to the Ramesseum
or early seventies. His reign is the Valley of the Kings. on the west bank at Thebes.
documented in three inscriptions It ended in a civil war, recorded
Merenptah on a wall at the Temple of Amen in the Elephantine stela of
Other name: Baenra at Karnak and on two stelae. They Seti II her successor Sethnakht, who
document campaigns Merenptah Other name: Userkheperura possibly overthrew Twosret
1213–1203 bce
undertook against the powerful Setepenra and became the founder of
Merenptah was the 13th son of Libyans and other groups, the 20th Dynasty. He usurped
1200–1194 bce
Ramesses II, who only came to including the Israelites. Although the tomb of Twosret in the
power because all his older his reign was a relatively brief Seti II was the crown prince and Valley of the Kings and replaced
brothers had died. By the time he 10 years, he managed to build a nominated successor to his father all images of the queen with
succeeded his long-lived father, mortuary temple on the west Merenptah. He was usurped by those of himself.
326 | RULERS

■ 20TH DYNASTY
(1186–1069 bce)
Sethnakht (Userkhaura
Meryamun) 1186–1184 bce
Ramesses III (Usermaatra
Meryamun) 1184–1153 bce
Ramesses IV (Heqamaatra
Setepenamun) 1153–1147 bce
Ramesses V (Usermaatra
Sekheperenra) 1147–1143 bce
Ramesses VI (Nebmaatra
Meryamun) 1143–1136 bce
Ramesses VII (Usermaatra
Setepenra Meryamun)
1136–1129 bce
Ramesses VIII (Usermaatra
Akhenamun) 1129–1126 bce
Ramesses IX (Neferkara
Setepenra) 1126–1108 bce
Ramesses X (Khepermaatra
Setepenra) 1108–1099 bce
Ramesses XI (Menmaatra △ Remains of the hypostyle hall of Medinet Habu, the mortuary temple of Ramesses III at Luxor
Setepenptah) 1099–1069 bce
foreign invasion. The main threat economic crisis in Egypt caused conducted with the complicity
came from the Sea-Peoples, a food rationing and workers’ of a secondary wife and a group
Ramesses III coalition of unidentified peoples strikes. There were still funds to of his court officials.
Other name: Usermaatra that had swept down the eastern build, however, and Ramesses III’s
Meryamun Mediterranean shore. funerary temple at Medinet
1184–1153 bce
During the eighth year of his Habu, complete with carved Ramesses IV
reign, Ramesses met them in a scenes commemorating his Other name: Heqamaatra
Ramesses III is generally great land and sea battle from victories in battle, is one of the Setepenamun
considered to be the last of which the Egyptians emerged largest built in Egypt.
1153–1147 bce
the great kings to rule Egypt. victorious. He was also forced Ramesses III was assassinated
He spent much of his 31-year to confront at least two Libyan as a result of the “harem The first act of Ramesses IV
reign defending Egypt from invasions. At the same time, an conspiracy,” a plot that was on assuming the throne was
to punish those who conspired
against and murdered his father,
Ramesses III. He had them tried
and executed. Like the majority
of New Kingdom kings, he
initiated a building program: a
stela at Wadi Hammamat in the
Eastern Desert records that on
one expedition, he sent 8,368
men to quarry stone for building.
He enlarged his father’s Temple
of Khonsu at Karnak and began
to build a large, colonnaded
mortuary temple at Deir el-Bahri.
But after a reign of just six years,
he died and was buried in the
△ The mummy of Ramesses IV has remained intact for thousands of years Valley of the Kings.
 THE NEW KINGDOM | 327

Ramesses VI
Other name: Nebmaatra Meryamun

1143–1136 bce

Ramesses VI was a son of

Ramesses III. He ruled in a
period characterized by the
waning power of the institution
of the king and resided in
Pr-Ramesses in Lower Egypt.
There were no means for the
lavish building projects of old;
instead, the king usurped the
monuments of past rulers by
engraving his cartouche over
theirs. In the Valley of the Kings,
Ramesses VI claimed a tomb
created for his predecessor,
Ramesses V, and had it extended
and redecorated for himself. In
doing so, his workmen covered
up the entrance to the tomb of
Tutankhamen, saving it from
future tomb robbers.

Ramesses IX
Other name: Neferkara Setepenra

1126–1108 bce

The reigns of both Ramesses VII

and VIII were short and marred
by instability across the whole of
Egypt. Ramesses IX was able to
restore a certain degree of order
and enjoy some success in his
attempts to restore Egypt’s power
and wealth during a reign that
lasted for 18 years.
His building activities were
largely centered on the sun- △ One of many wall murals from the tomb of Ramesses VI in the Valley of the Kings
temple center of Heliopolis in
Lower Egypt, although he would glorious era of ancient Egyptian The High Priest of Amen ruled
also leave his mark on the Ramesses XI civilization. He ruled for 30 the south from the religious
Temple of Amen-Ra at Karnak. Other name: Menmaatra years, but Egypt was a seriously center of Thebes, which itself
During his reign, tomb robbing Setepenptah weakened country, periodically was drawn into a violent internal
in the Valley of the Kings became in the grip of famine thanks power struggle during Ramesses
1099–1069 bce
so common that an inspection of to poor harvests. He seemed to XI’s reign. While the king had a
the royal tombs was carried out. Ramesses XI was the last king of have spent much of his time tomb prepared in the Valley of
As a result of the investigation, the 20th Dynasty and the final in Memphis, and for much of the Kings, it was unfinished at
several thieves were arrested and king of the New Kingdom, his reign, his authority barely the time of his death, and it is
subsequently tried. bringing to a close the most stretched beyond Lower Egypt. not known where he was buried.
328 | RULERS

Third Intermediate Egyptian army and chief advisor

to his predecessor, Psusennes II.
Sheshonq’s reign was a high point
Osorkon III (Usermaatra)
787–759 bce
Takelot III (Usermaatra)

Period (1069–664 bce)

in the Third Intermediate Period:
he brought the divided factions
of Thebes and Tanis together into
764–757 bce
Rudamon (Usermaatra)
757–754 bce
a loosely unified Egypt. Peftjauawybast 740–725 bce
By the end of the Ramesside Period, strong centralized He cemented his control by Iuput II (Usermaatra) 754–712 bce
making one son governor of
control had been replaced by the return of regional centers Upper Egypt and High Priest
of power, and high priests and kings wrangled for control of Amen, while another son ■ 24TH DYNASTY
of the country. Where once kings had ruled over vast became military commander (727–715 bce)
at Herakleopolis. Stability at
foreign territories, Egypt had now become inward-looking. home allowed Sheshonq to Tefnakht (Shepsesra)
A steady influx of non-Egyptians into the Nile Valley pursue aggressive foreign 727-720 bce
policies, and he campaigned in Bakenrenef (Bocchoris)
permeated society up to the highest level.
the Levant, leaving monuments 720–715 bce
bearing his name at Byblos in
what is now Lebanon and at ■ 25TH DYNASTY
■ 21ST DYNASTY Megiddo in Palestine. (747–656 bce)
(1069–945 bce) Sheshonq
Other name: Hedjkheperra Piankhy (Menkheperra)
Smendes (Hedjkeperra
Dates unknown
■ 23RD DYNASTY 747–716 bce
Setepenra) 1069–1043 bce (818–715 bce) Shabaqo (Neferkara) 716-702 bce
Amenemnisu (Neferkara) Sheshonq was of Libyan descent. Shabitqo (Djedkaura) 702–690 bce
1043–1039 bce His ancestors had settled in Egypt Pedubastis I (Usermaatra) Taharqa (Khunefertemra)
Psusennes I [Pasebakhaenniut] during the New Kingdom. Prior 818–793 bce 690-664 bce
(Akheperra Setepenamun) to taking the throne, he had Iuput I 800 bce Tantamani (Bakara) 664–656 bce
1039–991 bce served as commander of the Sheshonq IV 793–787 bce
Amenemope (Usermaatra
Setepenamun) 993–984 bce Taharqa
Osorkon the Elder (Akheperra Other name: Khunefertemra
Setepenra) 984–978 bce
690–664 bce
Siamun (Netjerkheperra
Setepenamun) 978–959 bce Taharqa was the fifth in the
Psusennes II [Pasebakhaenniut] dynasty of Nubian (Kushite)
(Titkheperura Setepenra) kings. He was crowned in
959–945 bce Memphis, and from Tanis in
the Delta he ruled all Egypt,
as well as his Nubian kingdom.
■ 22ND DYNASTY His reign was a time of
(945–715 bce) great prosperity, and he built
extensively throughout Egypt
Sheshonq (Hedjkheperra) and Nubia. His army campaigned
Osorkon I (Sekhemkheperra) in the Levant, where it came
Sheshonq II (Heqakheperra) into conflict with the Assyrian
Takelot I empire. Early victories were
Osorkon II (Usermaatra) followed by later reversals,
Takelot II (Hedjkheperra) with the Assyrians capturing
Sheshonq III (Usermaatra) Memphis and advancing south as
Pimay (Usermaatra) far as Thebes, forcing Taharqa to
Sheshonq V (Aakheperra) retreat into Nubia, where he
Osorkon IV △ The ancient city of Tanis, capital of both the 21st and 22nd Dynasties died in 664 bce.
 LATE PERIOD | 329

Late Period (664–332 bce)

challenged by a general from the
Delta city of Mendes. Amyrtaios
was defeated in battle, and the
than that of his predecessor, but
he did raise monuments across
the country, and his name is
victor went on to proclaim mentioned in an inscription
Following rule by the Nubians of the 25th Dynasty, the himself king under the name at the Serapeum at Saqqara in
Nepherites I. The new king’s connection to the cult of the
Late Period was the last era of native Egyptian rule,
reign was hardly any longer sacred Apis bull.
squeezed between two periods of Persian occupation.
▷ Funerary figure
or shabti bearing the
name of Nepherites I,
■ 26TH DYNASTY ■ 27TH DYNASTY found in a tomb that

(664–525 bce) (1ST PERSIAN may have belonged

to the king
PERIOD)
Necho I 672–664 bce (525–404 bce)
Psamtek I (Wahibra)
664–610 bce Cambyses 525–522 bce
Necho II (Wehemibra) Darius I 522–486 bce
610–595 bce Xerxes I 486–465 bce
Psamtek II (Neferibra) Artaxerxes I 465–424 bce
595–589 bce Darius II 424–405 bce
Apries (Haaibra) 589–570 bce Artaxerxes II 405–359 bce
Ahmose II [Amasis]
(Khnemibra) 570–526 bce
Psamtek III (Ankhkaenra) ■ 28TH DYNASTY
526–525 bce
(404–399 bce)
Amyrtaios 404–399 bce
Psamtek I
Other name: Wahibra

664–610 bce
■ 29TH DYNASTY
(399–380 bce)
Psamtek I’s father, Necho I, ruled
at Sais, in the Delta, when Egypt Nepherites I [Nefaarud]
was occupied by the Assyrians. 399–393 bce
When Necho I died, the Assyrians Hakor [Achoris]
recognized his son as king of [Khnemmaatra] 393–380 bce
Egypt, but his power extended Nepherites II c.380 bce
no farther than the Delta. Via
strategic alliances, he secured the
support of Thebes and raised an Nepherites I
army aided by Greek mercenaries Other name: Nefaarud
to break the Assyrians’ hold,
399–393 bce
becoming absolute ruler of Egypt
by 656 bce. Amyrtaios, a native Egyptian,
After consolidating Egypt, revolted against the Persians;
Psamtek made expeditions into with the assistance of Cretan
northern Nubia to discourage any mercenaries, he succeeded in
further ambitions of the Kushite expelling them from his country,
kings. He would also ally with at which point he proclaimed
old enemies, the Assyrians, to himself king. Little else is known
confront the growing threat of about Amyrtaios except that five
the Babylonians. years into his reign, he was
330 | RULERS

■ 30TH DYNASTY
(380–343 bce)
Syria. Nectanebo was able to do
this by leveraging the support
of the priests, who were unhappy
The Greco-Roman
Nectanebo I [Kheperkara]
380–362 bce
Teos (Irma atenra) 362–360 bce
at the heavy taxes imposed by
Teos to fund his war. Nectanebo
maintained the support of the
Period (332 bce–395 ce)
Nectanebo II (Senedjemibra priests by engaging in acts of
setepenanhur) 360–343 bce piety—he began his reign by The Greeks came to Egypt not as conquerors, but as liberators
participating in the burial of a
sacred Apis bull—and building
from Persian rule. During a roughly 300-year period of rule
Nectanebo I many temples and religious by kings largely named Ptolemy, Egypt became a fusion of
Other name: Kheperkara sanctuaries, including those at Greek and Egyptian cultures. Toward the end of the period,
Heliopolis, Athribis, and
380–362 bce a third culture was added to the mix: Roman.
Bubastis. In about 351 bce, the
Nectanebo was an army general. Persians invaded in an attempt to
A stela found at Hermopolis reclaim Egypt; after a year of
suggests he came to power by fighting, in which Egypt was ■MACEDONIAN Darius III at Issus in 333 bce and
overthrowing his predecessor, aided by its Greek allies, they DYNASTY entered Egypt the following year.
Nepherites II, the last king were repelled. In 343 bce, the At the oasis of Siwa, he consulted
of the 29th Dynasty. Early in Persians returned. This time, at
(332–310 bce) the oracle of Ammon and was
Nectanebo’s reign, Egypt was the Battle of Pelusium, Nectanebo Alexander the Great hailed as the god’s son and king.
invaded by a combined Persian was defeated; he fled to Nubia 332–323 bce On the Mediterranean coast, he
and Greek army of over 200,000 and the Persians took control Philip Arrhidaeus 323–317 bce founded a city named for
troops; although the Egyptians over Egypt for a second time. Alexander IV 317–310 bce himself: Alexandria. He would
suffered an initial defeat, they not remain in Egypt long, but
were able to make a successful he initiated a rebuilding of
counterattack and repel the ■ 31ST DYNASTY Alexander the Great monuments damaged by the
invaders. After this, Nectanebo (2ND PERSIAN 332–323 bce
Persians, and he appears in
seems to have had a stable reign. PERIOD) reliefs in the sanctuary at Luxor
Another stela records how After the assassination of Philip II Temple. On leaving Egypt, he
10 percent of all taxes were to
(343–332 bce) of Macedonia in 336 bce, his embarked on a series of
be used to fund temple building Artaxerxes III Ochus 343–338 bce 20-year-old son Alexander took campaigns that extended his
and support the priesthood. Arses 338–336 bce up his father’s fight against the empire all the way to the Indus
Nectanebo restored previously Darius III Codoman 336–332 bce Persians. He defeated the army of River on the borders of India. He
damaged or neglected
monuments across the country;
he also initiated many new
buildings, including the Temple
of Isis at Philae. Nectanebo was
succeeded by his son, Teos.

Nectanebo II
Other name: Senedjemibra
Setepenanhur

360–343 bce

Nectanebo II was the last native

ruler of ancient Egypt. It is
probable that he seized power
when his predecessor and uncle,
Teos, was campaigning against
the Persians in Palestine and △ Alexander the Great in a detail from a Roman mosaic depicting the Battle of Issus
 THE GRECO-ROMAN PERIOD | 331

died of fever in Babylon in 323 bce.

His funeral cortege, which was
bound for Macedonia, was seized
and redirected to Egypt, where
his body was eventually laid to
rest in Alexandria. The location
of his tomb remains unknown.

■PTOLEMAIC
DYNASTY
(305–30 bce)
Ptolemy I Soter I
305–285 bce
Ptolemy II Philadelphus
285–246 bce
Berenike II 246–221 bce
Ptolemy III Euergetes I
246–221 bce
Ptolemy IV Philopator
221–205 bce
Ptolemy V Epiphanes
205–180 bce
Ptolemy VI Philometor
180–145 bce
Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator
145 bce
Ptolemy VIII Euergetes II
170–116 bce
Ptolemy IX Soter II
116–107 bce
Ptolemy X Alexander I
107–88 bce
Ptolemy IX Soter II (restored)
88–80 bce
Ptolemy XI Alexander II 80 bce
Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos
(Auletes) 80–51 bce
Cleopatra VII Philopator
51–30 bce
Ptolemy XIII 51–47 bce
Ptolemy XIV 47–44 bce △ Pharos of Alexandria, the lighthouse that may have been partially built by Ptolemy I Soter I
Ptolemy XV Caesarion 44–30 bce
took it with him to Egypt as a into prominent Macedonian worship of a new god named
means of legitimizing his rule dynasties in order to cement Serapis, who was a composite
Ptolemy I Soter I in that country. Externally, much valuable alliances. Within made up of both Egyptian and
of his reign was spent warring Egypt, he presented himself Greek gods. It was probably
305–285 bce
with other former generals and as a king and paid respect to Ptolemy who began the
Ptolemy was a childhood friend would-be successors of Alexander the old gods and priesthood. construction of the Pharos
of Alexander and one of his to establish, maintain, and He looked to consolidate the lighthouse and the Mouseion,
trusted generals. On Alexander’s expand their kingdoms. Ptolemy religions of the Egyptians Alexandria’s great library and
death, he hijacked the body and married several times, notably and Greeks by promoting the center of learning.
332 | RULERS

Ptolemy II
Philadelphus
285–246 bce

Ptolemy II was the son of

Ptolemy I. Like many kings
before him, he fought campaigns
in Syria against the Seleucids,
defended Egypt from Libyan
incursions, and clashed with
Nubia. Egypt was the dominant
naval power in the eastern
Mediterranean at the time,
with a sphere of authority
that extended all the way up
into the northern Aegean.
Under Ptolemy II’s rule,
Alexandria reached new heights
of technical and intellectual
splendor as he completed the
Pharos lighthouse and extended
the Mouseion, the great library.
He undertook building work
throughout Egypt, including at
Philae, and founded ports on the
Red Sea, through which Egypt
established trade links with India.
Ptolemy II also commissioned
an Egyptian priest, Manetho, to
compile a history of this already
ancient land.

Ptolemy III
Euergetes I
246–221 bce

Immediately on ascending to the

throne on the death of his father,
Ptolemy III was drawn into a war
with the Seleucids. For the five
years that he campaigned, he
left his wife Berenike II to be the
head of state in Egypt. She was
the daughter of King Magas of
Cyrene, a woman who possibly
had her first husband assassinated
for infidelity and who raced
victorious chariot teams in
games. According to a legend that
arose much later, Berenike had
△ Bronze bust of Ptolemy II Philadelphus, during whose rule the city of Alexandria flourished vowed to sacrifice her long hair
 THE GRECO-ROMAN PERIOD | 333

to the gods if Ptolemy III but unquestionably refused to became Caesar’s lover. After year, Cleopatra committed
returned safely from battle; the share the throne with him. Caesar’s death, Egypt became a suicide. Although popular
shorn hair disappeared from The ensuing sibling conflict pawn in the struggle for power legend attributes her with
the temple where it was placed, was resolved by the arrival of between Octavian and Mark great beauty, she was above
only to reappear in the heavens Roman general Julius Caesar in Antony, with Cleopatra all highly intelligent and a
as the constellation of stars Alexandria, who settled in favor supporting the latter. skilled politician. She was
known as Coma Berenices (Latin of the young queen. Cleopatra When Octavian triumphed also said to be the only
for Berenike’s Lock). Ptolemy III then married her younger at the Battle of Actium and Ptolemaic ruler who could
is credited with beginning the brother, Ptolemy XIV, and also entered Egypt the following speak Egyptian.
Temple of Horus at Edfu, but
it wasn’t completed until the time
of Ptolemy XII.

Ptolemy XII Neos

Dionysos
80–51 bce

Ptolemy XII was the illegitimate

son of Ptolemy IX who came to
the throne after Ptolemy XI was
lynched by the people when he
murdered his popular queen
after just 19 days of marriage.
He wanted to legitimize his
tenuous rule by gaining the
approval of Rome. He spent
heavily on bribing Roman
officials to support him, using
money gained by raising
Egyptian taxes. This, and his
subservience to Rome, made
the Egyptian people rise up,
and Ptolemy fled across the
Mediterranean.
He was replaced on the
Egyptian throne by his daughter
Berenike IV. After three years,
Ptolemy returned to Egypt with
a Roman army, executed his
daughter, and ruled until his
death in 51 bce. He was
succeeded by a younger daughter,
Cleopatra VII.

Cleopatra VII
Philopator
51–30 bce

Cleopatra became queen of Egypt

at the age of 18. She possibly
married her brother, Ptolemy XIII, △ Cleopatra VII and her son, Caeserion, presenting offerings to the gods in a relief on the Temple of Hathor at Dendera
Deities
 AKER–AMEN-RA | 335

Gods and goddesses and was a member of the

Hermopolitan Ogdoad—the eight
primordial deities worshipped
Temple was said to occupy
the site where Amen brought the
world into being.

of ancient Egypt in Hermopolis. He appeared

as a local god in the Theban
region in the 12th Dynasty,
Amen-Min

when four kings all took the From the 12th Dynasty, Amen
It is thought that the ancient Egyptians had around 1,500 gods name Amenemhet, meaning was portrayed in an ithyphallic
“Amen is preeminent.” form as a fertility god and took
and goddesses during the 3,000 years of their dynastic history. As the chief deity of Egypt, on the identity of Min to become
The deities are difficult to count, because some of them had Amen was also worshipped Amen-Min. An alternative name
multiple names, while others merged to create multiple beyond the Nile valley, within the for this incarnation was Amen-
Egyptian empire, including Nubia. Kamutef, meaning “Bull of his
personae. As time went by, many gods waned in importance He is usually depicted in human mother,” a reference to his
and new, sometimes foreign deities joined the pantheon. form wearing a short kilt and a strength and potency.
double-plumed crown. He is also
sometimes depicted as a ram. Amen-Ra

A Amen Amen-Kamutef As the cult of Amen grew, he

was linked with the sun god Ra,
Also written as Amun, Amen was As Amen-Kamutef, Amen was the previous principal god of
Aker one of the most important gods the first primeval god, who Egyptian kings. Eventually, he
of ancient Egypt. He was first took the form of a snake to merged with Ra to become
An ancient earth god who guarded mentioned in the Pyramid Texts fertilize the first egg. Karnak the all-powerful Amun-Ra.
the gate to the underworld. He
allowed the king to enter it and
protected him from demonic
serpents. Aker dated back to the
Early Dynastic Period and was
described in the Pyramid Texts.
The earliest depictions show him
as a strip of land, with two heads
representing the entrance and exit
of the underworld. Later, he was
shown as sphinx, with two heads
facing away from each other.

Amaunet

The female counterpart and a

consort of Amen, and one of the
eight primeval deities known as
the Ogdoad that were worshipped
at Hermopolis Magna. Amaunet
is usually shown in human form,
wearing the red crown of Lower
Egypt, even though she was not
worshipped much beyond Thebes.
A colossal statue of her that was
erected in Tutankhamen’s reign is
still standing in the Record Hall of
Tuthmosis III at Karnak. △ Wall painting in Tuthmosis III’s temple at Thebes showing him making an offering to Amen-Ra
336 | DEITIES

realm of the dead. He then

admitted the innocent to the
afterlife or abandoned the guilty
to Ammit. He was also the god of
embalming. His head was always
black—rather than brown, as in
real jackals—because black
symbolized the regeneration
made possible by the black,
fertile soil of the Nile.

Anukis

The goddess Anukis (also known

as Anuket) was worshipped in
the area around the First Cataract,
close to what is now Aswan,
as well as farther south in
Nubia. Along with Khnum
and Satet, she was one of the
triad of gods worshipped on
Elephantine Island.
Every year, a Festival of Anukis
△ Tomb painting depicting Anubis preparing the deceased for his journey to the afterlife was held when the Nile began
to flood, during which people
popular in Egypt during the iconography that had previously threw gifts into the river to
Ammit Middle Kingdom, notably during been associated with Andjety, please the goddess. She was
the Hyksos’ period of rule. She such as the crook and flail. usually depicted as a woman
Also spelled Ammut, Ammit was was a fiercesome warrior goddess, wearing a tall headdress made
a composite creature made up and Ramesses II adopted her as of ostrich plumes.
of the most dangerous animals his personal guardian in battle. Anti
known to the ancient Egyptians: She was also a goddess of fertility
the head of a crocodile, the and sexuality and was regarded Also known as Nemty, Anti was Apophis
forelegs and body of a lion (or as the daughter of Ra and the a falcon-headed god whose cult
leopard), and the hindquarters wife of Seth. She was worshipped center was at Tjebu (later known Whereas Ra was the bringer of
of a hippopotamus. in Memphis and Tanis and was as Antaeopolis) in Middle Egypt. light, Apophis was a great serpent
Her name meant “Eater of the usually depicted as a human with A ferryman who transported Ra that represented darkness and
damned,” and she supposedly a plumed crown and wielding a and other gods, he was often nonexistence. According to
devoured those who had led spear or battleaxe. depicted in a stylized boat that mythic texts, just before dawn
wicked lives and were not to looked like a crescent moon. each day, Apophis attacked Ra as
be admitted into the afterlife. he emerged from the underworld
More demon than deity, she was Andjety in his solar barque, and the
feared rather than worshipped. Anubis serpent had to be defeated.
She appears in funerary texts, An early minor god, Andjety
such as the Book of the Dead. was the local deity of the Lower Also known as Anpu or Inpu,
Egyptian nome centered at Busiris Anubis was the jackal-headed Astarte
in the Delta. In the Pyramid protector of graves and the dead
Anath Texts, he is described as “Lord as far back as the Early Dynastic The Syro-Canaanite equivalent
of the Dead” and as a god of Period. He was present at the of the Babylonian goddess Ishtar,
Also spelled Anat, Anath was rebirth. These roles were Weighing of the Heart ceremony, Astarte joined the pantheon
a deity introduced into Egypt eventually usurped by Osiris, which determined whether a soul of Egyptian gods during the
from the Near East. She became who also adopted some of the would be allowed to enter the 18th Dynasty. She was a goddess
 AMMIT–ATEN | 337

of love and fertility, but also of depicted as a falcon-headed man, In Akhenaten’s reign, the Aten
war, and she was worshipped Aten similar to Ra. During Amenhotep was depicted as a solar disk
in Egypt primarily as a warrior IV’s reign, the Aten became the with a uraeus (royal cobra) at its
goddess. She was linked to the The Aten was the solar disk, or central god of the Egyptian state base. Its sun rays were like arms
use of horses and chariots and sun. By the middle of the New religion, and Amenhotep IV stretching to the Earth and each
was believed to protect the king’s Kingdom, people worshipped the changed his name to Akhenaten, ray had a hand, often holding out
chariot during battles. Aten as a sun god and he was meaning “Effective for the Aten.” an ankh, representing life.

△ Wall painting in the tomb of Ramesses I showing Atum fighting the serpent Apophis, the enemy of the sun
338 | DEITIES

from being a dangerous, warlike was linked to the 7th Upper

Atum deity to one who was protective. Egyptian nome, the area around
Bastet’s cult was based at modern Nag Hammadi in Middle
Atum was the first god, who Bubastis in the eastern Delta. Her Egypt. By the beginning of the
arose at the beginning of time priests kept cats in her temple, New Kingdom, Bat had been
having created himself out of which were regarded as sacred superseded by Hathor.
nothing. With his semen (or and therefore mummified when
saliva), he also created two they died.
offspring, Shu and Tefnut, who Bastet was often depicted Bes
in turn gave birth to the Earth holding a sistrum (the sacred
(Geb) and the sky (Nut). As father rattle of Hathor) and an ankh. A dwarflike demigod, Bes was
of the gods, Atum was also the not worshipped at temples and
father of the kings. had no priests, but he was greatly
Atum was a creator god. He Bat valued as a protector of women
was worshipped alongside Ra △ Bronze statuette of Bastet dating and children, and he provided
at Heliopolis, which means the from the Late Ptolemaic Period Bat (or Bata) was an early cow protection from snakes. He
“City of the Sun.” Atum is goddess and an important deity became a god of childbirth, able
usually depicted wearing the in the Predynastic Period. Her to scare off evil spirits, and often
double crown of Upper and Bastet name is the feminine form of the appeared in reliefs on the walls
Lower Egypt. He is often shown word ba, the name of one of the of mammisi (birth houses).
sitting on a throne. In her earliest form, dating back major elements of the soul. She He was often depicted on
to the Early Dynastic Period, may have been the deity depicted household items, including

B
Bastet was depicted as a woman on the Narmer Palette, but she bedheads, to protect those asleep,
with the head of a lioness. By the was rarely shown otherwise. and on jewelry and amulets. He
Middle Kingdom, she had become Hathor and Bat may have been had a squat appearance, enlarged
a cat-headed woman instead. Her the same deity worshipped in head, and masklike features, as
Babi character changed accordingly, different regions of Egypt. Bat well as a beard that curled into

Dating back to the Old Kingdom,

Babi was a baboon god and the
guardian of the sky. He was
aggressive and bloodthirsty
and was said to live off the
entrails of the dead. He was also
considered to be a god of virility
who ensured that the deceased
were able to have sexual
intercourse in the afterlife.

Banebdjedet
A ram god about whom very
little is known, Banebdjedet
(Banebdjed) had a cult center at
Mendes, in the northeast Delta,
during the Late Period.
He was known in the New
Kingdom and is mentioned in
reliefs at the temple of Ramesses
III at Medinet Habu, where
the god was claimed to be the
king’s father. △ Detail of a limestone relief of a ram-headed god from the Early Ptolemaic Period
 ATUM–GEB | 339

spirals. His appearance might

have been inspired by that of
a male lion rearing up on its
hind legs.

F
Four Sons of Horus

The Four Sons of Horus were

four deities who personified
the four canopic jars used during
mummification and guarded the
organs removed from the body.
They were the human-headed
Imseti (guardian of the liver),
baboon-headed Hapi (lungs), the
dog-headed Duamutef (stomach),
and falcon-headed Qebehsenuef
(guardian of the intestines).

G
Geb

One of the original gods, Geb

was the son of Shu and Tefnut
and the grandson of Atum, the
self-created creator god. Geb
personified the Earth. His
worship began during the
Predynastic Period, and his
importance as one of the
primeval gods is shown by
the number of times that he is
mentioned in the Pyramid Texts.
Geb was usually depicted as
a man wearing the crown of
Lower Egypt or as a man
reclining on his side. He is
sometimes green in color,
with plants growing from his
body, and he lies beneath the sky
goddess Nut—who was his sister
and his wife. He was occasionally
portrayed as a goose—a bird that
was often linked with creation—
or as a man with a goose upon
his head. △ Wall painting from a tomb in the Valley of Kings depicting Horus (with a falcon head) and Geb
340 | DEITIES

H
but was particularly popular inundation) or tying together or Har-pa-khered, from which
around Aswan and Gebel Silsila. the symbolic plants of the two the name Harpocrates comes.
Hapi is usually shown as a man lands—the papyrus and lotus. In the Pyramid Texts, he is
with a swollen belly, drooping referred to as the “child with
Hapi female breasts, and long hair. He his finger in his mouth,”
often has blue skin and a clump Harpocrates which is how he was often
The god Hapi (not the son of of papyrus on his head. He was depicted. The Greeks mistook
Horus, who had the same name) also depicted as the twin deities In Ptolemaic Alexandria, this for a gesture of silence, so
was the god of the inundation, Hap-Reset (Upper Egypt) and Harpocrates was the infant son they made Harpocrates the god
the annual Nile flood that made Hap-Mehyt (Lower Egypt), of Isis and Serapis. He was the of secrets.
the Nile Valley fertile. He was shown either pouring water Greek version of the Egyptian
worshipped throughout Egypt from a jug (representing the infant god Horus the Child,
Hathor

One of ancient Egypt’s greatest

deities, Hathor was an ancient
cow goddess closely connected
to the sun god Ra and said to be
his wife or daughter. Her name
was written as a hieroglyph of a
falcon within a walled building,
hwt hor, meaning the “House of
Horus,” or mother of the falcon
god. She had many roles, but,
often described as the “Beautiful
one,” she was best known as the
goddess of love, motherhood, and
female sexuality.
Hathor worship was well
established by the Old Kingdom,
and her most important cult
center was at Dendera. She was
usually portrayed as a woman
wearing a long wig, with a sun
disk held between curved cow
horns above her head, and often
appears in a red sheath dress.
She was also depicted as a woman
with the head of a cow or as a
cow with a face that was a blend
of the human and the bovine.

Hatmehit

Her name means “She who is

before the fishes,” and Hatmehit
was Egypt’s only entirely piscine
deity. She was worshipped in
the Delta, particularly in Mendes,
and was depicted as a fish or as
a woman with a fish emblem
△ Tomb painting of the burial gods Kebehsenenuef, Hapi, and Imseti with the god Osiris (right) on her head.
 HAPI–HERYSHEF | 341

million. Very little is known Heket for protection, and it is

about the snake-headed thought that her priestesses were
goddess Hauhet. trained midwives. She was
depicted as a frog or as a woman
with a frog’s head. She appears
Heka beside Khnum, the creator god,
in the birth colonnade at the
Heka, whose name means “Using mortuary temple of Hatshepsut.
the ka,” was the god of magic, or Khnum created each person on
creative energy. He was believed his potter’s wheel and Heket
to be the son of Khnum and breathed life into them.
Menhet, and the three formed
the triad of Latopolis (Esna) in
Upper Egypt. Heryshef
Heka helped the sun god Ra
on his daily journey across the The name of the ram god
sky by warding off evil spirits Heryshef means “He who is
and demons. He was not served on his lake,” which suggests that
by a regular cult, but doctors he was a god of creation who
were called “priests of Heka.” emerged from the waters of
He was usually depicted as a Nun. He was associated with
man, but in the Late Period, he Osiris and Ra and was known
was worshipped in the form as the ba of these gods.
△ Stone head of the goddess Hathor of a child. His cult dates as far back as the
Early Period and was centered at
personifications of infinity. Herakleopolis Magna. Ramesses II
Hauhet and Heh Heh is usually depicted kneeling Heket enlarged his temple there in
with a notched palm branch in the New Kingdom. Heryshef
Hauhet (female) and Heh (male) each hand—notched branches A frog midwife, Heket was took the form of a king with
were two of the eight primeval such as these were used for a goddess of childbirth and the head of a long-horned ram.
deities, or Ogdoad, that were recording time in temples. fertility. She is mentioned as early He wore the atef crown when
worshipped at Hermopolis In hieroglyphics, the figure of as the Pyramid Texts. Pregnant associated with Osiris and the
Magna. They were the dual Heh was used to denote 1 women wore amulets depicting sun disk when linked with Ra.

△ Piece of a coffin depicting the god Heh kneeling and holding up two renpet (years) symbols
342 |

△ Wall painting from 1069–664 bce depicting a harpist worshipping the god Ra-Horakhty, shown here with the head of a hawk
 HESAT–IMHOTEP | 343

bread” and “Master of brewing.”

Hesat Horus Ihy He did not have any temples
specifically dedicated to him
Hesat was a cow goddess thought Horus was one of the earliest Ihy (or Ahy) was a child god but was worshipped at the
to be the earthly manifestation Egyptian gods, first appearing associated with playing the Temple of Hathor at Dendera.
of Hathor. She was believed to in the Early Dynastic Period. sistrum (a sacred rattle). He was depicted as a young boy
provide humanity with milk The name Horus is Greek—in The sistrum was closely wearing the sidelock of youth,
(called “The beer of Hesat”) ancient Egyptian, the god was connected with the goddess with his finger held to his mouth
and to suckle the king. She called Hr (or Har or Hor), which Hathor, who was said to be and a sistrum in his right hand.
was connected with Mnevis, means “The distant one” or Ihy’s mother (“calf” is another
the living bull god worshipped “The one on high.” He was meaning of Ihy). In the Coffin
at Heliopolis. Hesat was depicted worshipped in many forms and Texts and Book of the Dead, Ihy Imhotep
as a divine white cow either with assimilated many other gods, is referred to as the “Lord of
a sun disk between her horns or but his original form was as A real person, Imhotep was
carrying a tray of food on her lord of the sky. the vizier to the 3rd Dynasty king
horns, and with milk flowing Horus was the son of Isis and Djoser, for whom he oversaw the
from her udders. Osiris. After Seth murdered Osiris construction of the Step Pyramid
(who was then the king of Egypt), complex at Saqqara. Among his
Horus fought Seth for the throne. other achievements, he may have
Horakhty As the rightful heir, Horus was been a skilled physician, because
the god of kingship, and he was considered a demigod of
With a name meaning “Horus of Egyptian kings were thought to healing after his death. Because
the two horizons,” Horakhty was be the living incarnation of him. of his scholarship, he was also
an aspect of Horus specifically There were many sites linked with the cult of Thoth, the
linked to the rising and setting associated with the worship god of knowledge and writing.
sun. More specifically, he was of Horus, but he was closely The worship of Imhotep was
the god of the east and the associated with Nekhen, also particularly strong in the Greco-
sunrise. He was eventually known as Hierakonpolis, the Roman Period, when his cult
drawn into the sun-god cult “City of the Hawk.” In the centers attracted the sick. He was
of Heliopolis and fused with its Delta region of Lower Egypt, usually depicted with a shaven
solar god to become Ra-Horakhty. he was worshipped at Khem head, wearing a long kilt, and
Horakhty was usually depicted (the Greek Letopolis), where with a papyrus roll on his lap.
as a falcon or as a man with a he was known as Horus
falcon’s head. He wore the solar Khenty-khem, the “Foremost
disk and the double crown, or one of Khem.”
alternatively, the atef crown and

I
the uraeus.

Horemakhet
Iah
As “Horus in the horizon,”
Horemakhet was another Iah means “Moon,” and he was
sun-god aspect of Horus. In a lunar god. He was an early
this guise, he was often depicted deity, and he is mentioned in
as a sphinx with the head of a the Pyramid Texts, but later
man, a lion, or a ram (the latter he was overshadowed by
providing a link to the god other, more prominent lunar
Khepri, who represented the gods, such as Khonsu and
rising sun). The Sphinx at Giza Thoth. He was depicted as a
◁ Late Period bronze
may have been a representation man wearing the symbols
statuette of Imhotep
of Horemakhet with the face of of the full and holding a papyrus scroll
the 4th Dynasty king Khaefre. crescent moons. open on his lap
344 | DEITIES

Isis
was not worshipped in her own
temples but in those of other
deities with whom she was
dress and crowned with the
hieroglyphic throne symbol, or
later, with the horns and solar
K
The devoted sister-wife of Osiris associated. The first dedicated disk appropriated from Hathor.
and mother of Horus, Isis was temples to Isis appeared in the She is also often shown kneeling Kauket and Kek
Egypt’s most powerful goddess. 30th Dynasty, which was also with winged arms outstretched.
Her origins are unclear, but she when her most famous temple, The image of Isis and the Kauket (female) and Kek (male)
appears many times in the 5th at Philae, was begun. Isis worship infant Horus was also popular were two of the eight primeval
Dynasty Pyramid Texts. Over subsequently spread around the in Egyptian art, and this deities, or Ogdoad, that were
time, her importance grew, and eastern Mediterranean and may have influenced the worshipped at Hermopolis
she took on the attributes of throughout the Greek and Roman iconography of Mary and the Magna. They were the dual
many other goddesses. For much empires. She was usually depicted infant Jesus Christ in the early personifications of the chaotic
of ancient Egyptian history, she as a woman in a long sheath Christian Church. darkness that existed before the

△ Detail of a wall painting in the Tomb of Horemheb showing Hathor facing the king
 ISIS–KHONSU | 345

creation of the world. Kek

was also associated with the
dawn and given the epithet
the “Bringer-in of the light,”
while Kauket was associated
with the dusk and given the
epithet “Bringer-in of the night.”
Kek was depicted as a frog or
as a man with a frog’s head, and
Kauket was depicted as a snake
or a snake-headed woman.

Khentyamentiu

Meaning the “Foremost of the

Westerners,” this was the name
of the original canine god of the
necropolis at Abydos and patron
of its Old Kingdom temple.
“Westerners” was another name
for the dead, because most of the
Egyptian cemeteries were located
on the western bank of the Nile,
the symbolic direction of the
setting sun and the underworld.
In time, Khentyamentiu was
superseded by Anubis.

Khepri

Khepri was a beetle god and △ The goddesses Isis and Nephthys sail in the solar boat with Khepri
represented the rising morning
sun. He was undoubtedly beetle, sometimes pushing a solar black silt in which the Egyptians
inspired by the dung beetle, disk, but he was occasionally also grew their crops. The silt also Khonsu
which rolls a ball of mud along shown as a man with the head formed the clay from which the
the ground, suggesting the god of a scarab beetle. god molded all living things on Khonsu was a lunar god and
pushing the solar disk across the his potter’s wheel. a member of the all-powerful
sky. He was swallowed by the sky The cult of Khnum was based Theban triad, with Amen and
goddess Nut in the evening, then Khnum on Elephantine Island in what Mut, venerated at their cult
traveled through her body at is now Aswan, near the First center at Thebes. As well as being
night and was born again in the Khnum was an important ram Cataract. He was worshipped associated with the moon, he
morning. As a result, Khepri was god, closely associated with the there as head of a triad with his was also a god of time and was
strongly associated with rebirth River Nile and the creation of wife Satet and daughter Anukis. believed to help women conceive
and resurrection, and scarab life. One of the most ancient He was also worshipped at Esna. children, livestock to breed,
amulets were placed over the gods, he was worshipped as Khnum was depicted either as a plants to grow, and fruit to ripen.
heart of the deceased during early as the Predynastic Period. ram or as a man with the head of Khonsu is usually depicted as
the mummification ritual. Khnum was associated with the a ram. He was sometimes shown a young man in the pose of a
Khepri did not have a cult of First Cataract of the Nile and was with a potter’s wheel or holding a mummy. He wears the sidelock
his own, but he was worshipped thought to control the annual jar with water flowing out of it, of youth and a lunar disk resting
in many Egyptian temples. He inundation of the river from indicating his association with in a crescent moon on his head.
was usually depicted as a scarab there. This deposited the fertile the source of the Nile. He often carries a crook and flail.
346 | DEITIES

△ Detail of a 30th Dynasty mummy’s cartonnage from Saqqara depicting winged Maat with a solar disk

M whether a soul could pass into The Coffin Texts describe the She represented the vast
the afterlife. She was depicted as serpent god as being nine waterway of the sky upon which
a goddess wearing a tall ostrich concentric rings that encircle the sun god and the king sailed.
feather on her head or was the sun god.
Maat represented by the feather alone.
Rulers were often depicted with Menhyt
The goddess Maat is the emblems of Maat to emphasize Mehet-Weret
personification of the concept their righteousness and their role Menhyt (or Menhit, Menkhet)
of maat, or cosmic order. She in upholding justice. Her name means “Great flood,” was a lesser-known lioness-
existed as early as the Old and Mehet-Weret was a cow headed goddess, possibly
Kingdom and was mentioned in goddess who was born from the originating in Nubia. A war
the Pyramid Texts. As well as Mehen waters of creation. Mehet-Weret goddess who led the king’s troops
combating chaos, she also played was said to have given birth to into battle, she was worshipped
a role in the Weighing of the Mehen was a coiled serpent the sun god Ra in the primeval at Esna in Upper Egypt and in
Heart ceremony—her feather that protected Ra on his nightly marsh and then lifted him up the Delta. Depictions show her
was the measure that determined journey through the underworld. into the sky between her horns. wearing a solar disk and uraeus.
 MAAT–MIN | 347

scorpion bites, so she was by a birthing brick, sometimes harvest season, Min’s statue
Meretseger variously depicted as a cobra, a with a human head. She was also was carried through the fields
cobra with the head of a woman, shown as a woman wearing a in a festival known as “The
A goddess with a very specific or a snake with three heads (a columnar hat with two loops at departure of Min.” His cult
role, Meretseger guarded the woman, a cobra, and a vulture). the top representing a uterus. center was Coptos (present-day
Theban necropolis. Her name Qift), the capital of the fifth
appropriately meant “She who nome of Upper Egypt.
loves silence,” but she was also Meskhenet Min Min was usually depicted as
known as Dehenet-Imentet, a mummiform human with an
“Peak of the west,” a reference A goddess of childbirth and a One of Egypt’s most ancient erect penis, wearing a crown
to the pyramidal peak at the head divine midwife, Meskhenet deities, Min was an ithyphallic with two large feathers. In his
of the Valley of the Kings. She determined the destiny of the god of creation linked with male right hand, he held a flail up
was primarily worshipped by the newborn, according to Egyptian potency whose worship dated above his shoulder. His skin
workers at the necropolis, many mythology. She had no cult back to the Predynastic Period. was black, like the fertile soil of
of whom lived at Deir el-Medina, following, and there were no Some of the earliest large-scale the Nile. He was often shown
where numerous stelae devoted temples specifically dedicated to statues found in Egypt were standing in front of tables of
to the goddess have been found. her, but she appeared on birthing images of Min. He was a god Egyptian long-leaf lettuce. This
Meretseger was believed to bricks on which ancient Egyptian of the Eastern Desert and the was regarded as an aphrodisiac,
punish those who committed women squatted while giving protector of traveling caravans. because if you broke off a leaf,
crimes by blinding the offenders birth. In ancient Egyptian He was also a god of fertility and it oozed a milky substance that
or inflicting poisonous snake or iconography, she was represented sexuality. At the beginning of the resembled semen.

◁ Limestone ostracon
showing the workman
Khnummose worshipping
the snake goddess
Meretseger
348 | DEITIES

spirit of kings. He was regarded popular with warrior kings such deities, who rose to prominence
Mnevis bull as the Upper Egyptian counterpart as Tuthmosis III and Ramesses II. during the Middle Kingdom.
of Ra of Heliopolis and was Montu was often depicted in Mut’s origins are unknown, but
The Mnevis (known to Egyptians worshipped as the combined human form with a falcon’s head, she was probably a minor deity
as Mer-wer) was the sacred bull of Montu-Ra, a god with the wearing a headdress of two long who replaced Amaunet, Amen’s
Heliopolis, regarded as the destructive power of the sun. plumes, a solar disk, and the original wife, as time went by
earthly manifestation of Ra. Four rulers of the 11th Dynasty double uraeus. He sometimes and became the god’s new chief
The bull was black all over, adopted the name Montuhotep, carried a weapon to symbolize wife. When her husband merged
without any markings, and there meaning “Montu is content.” his warlike nature. Because of his with the sun god to become
would only be one Mnevis bull Montu was mainly worshipped links to bull cults, he was also Amen-Ra, Mut inherited the
at any one time. When it died, at Thebes, where his temple depicted with the head of a bull. title the “Eye of Ra.”
it was honored with a burial complex was part of the sacred She was associated with the
in a special cemetery. precincts of Karnak. There was lioness and was the southern
another temple dedicated to him, Mut counterpart of the northern
the earliest parts of which dated lioness goddess Sekhmet. Mut
Montu back to the Old Kingdom, at Mut was the mother goddess of was worshipped at her temple
Medamud, northeast of Karnak. Thebes, the consort of Amen, complex at Thebes, at Heliopolis
Montu was the falcon-headed As Amen became more important and the mother of Khonsu. and Tanis, and in the Western
warrior god who was the at Thebes, Montu’s prominence Together, they formed the Desert oases of Dakhla and
personification of the conquering waned, but he continued to be all-powerful Theban triad of Kharga. She was sometimes

△ Detail of a wall relief showing the god Montu holding an ankh up to the face of Alexander the Great
 MNEVIS BULL–NEHEBU-KAU | 349

depicted as a lioness-headed
goddess or as a woman wearing a
vulture headdress surmounted by
either the white crown of Upper
Egypt or the double crown of the
combined Two Lands.

N
Naunet

Naunet was the feminine

counterpart of Nun. Together,
they were two of the eight
primeval deities, or Ogdoad,
that were worshipped at
Hermopolis Magna.

Nebethetepet

A female counterpart of the

creator god Atum, Nebethetepet
was a minor Heliopolitan
goddess. Her name meant
“Lady of the offerings” or
“Mistress of contentment.”

Nefertem

The youthful god Nefertem was

the personification of the blue
lotus flower (nymphaea cerulea)
that emerged from the primeval
waters. Unsurprisingly, he was
also the god of perfume. He was
linked with Ra, the sun god, who
also emerged from a lotus, and is
referred to in the Pyramid Texts
as “The lotus blossom that is △ Wall painting from the tomb of Horemheb at Thebes depicting Nefertem wearing a lotus headdress
before the nose of Ra.”
At Memphis, Nefertem formed mother, Sekhmet) or standing deceased kings in many ways.
a triad with the god Ptah and his on the back of a lion. Egyptians Nehebu-kau He was also one of the 42 judges
wife Sekhmet and was thought to often carried small statuettes of in the Court of Maat, which
be their son. He was usually him as protective amulets, as The serpent god Nehebu-kau judged the deceased. Early
portrayed as a beautiful young they did with many other deities. was a helpful, protective being depictions show the god as a great
man wearing a lotus blossom A small, lifelike, carved wooden whose name means “He who serpent, but he often appeared
on his head. He was sometimes head of the young god emerging harnesses the spirits.” He was later as a man with the head and
shown as a lion-headed god from a lotus was found in the associated with the afterlife and tail of a serpent or as a serpent
(possibly in reference to his tomb of Tutankhamen. was thought to act on behalf of with human arms or legs.
350 | DEITIES

△ The vulture goddess Nekhbet protects the name of King Amenhotep III

reference to a myth in which mothers. Nekhbet was usually

Neith Neith wove the world into Nekhbet depicted as a vulture, often with
being. Texts at Esna refer to her the circular shen or “eternity”
Neith was one of Egypt’s most as the creator of the world and Nekhbet was the vulture goddess hieroglyph in her claws. She
ancient and powerful goddesses, the mother of the sun, Ra. By the of the city of Nekheb (present- was also depicted in the form
worshipped as far back as the New Kingdom, she was seen as day el-Kab) in Upper Egypt. She of a woman wearing the white
Predynastic Period. She was the mother of all the gods and of was strongly identified with the crown of Upper Egypt or a
worshipped right up until the humanity. She was also connected white crown of Upper Egypt and vulture headdress.
end of dynastic Egypt, and over with Egyptian funerary rites. As with the king. She appeared on
the centuries, her mythology the inventor of weaving, she was the king’s nemes headdress as a
continued to develop. associated with the shrouds used vulture or a snake and, from the Nephthys
In early times, she was seen in mummification. Neith was 4th Dynasty, in a vulture headdress
as a warrior goddess, and her usually depicted as a woman, worn by the chief royal wife. The sister of Isis and Osiris and
emblems were crossed arrows initially wearing two bows above She was also a protector of the sister-wife of Seth, Nephthys
and bows. Another emblem was her head, then later the red royal children, and later of all was a funerary goddess. Nephthys
a weaving shuttle, a possible crown of Lower Egypt. young children and expectant is the Greek form of her name,
 NEITH–ONURIS | 351

O
and the Egyptians knew her as The outstretched figure of Nut a short wig topped with a uraeus
Nebet-hwt, meaning “Mistress of was often painted inside the lids and several tall plumes. In
the Mansion.” The term of sarcophagi to protect the popular myth, he was the god
“mansion” may have referred to deceased. In other instances, she sent by Ra to Nubia to bring
the sky or to Egypt as a whole. took the form of a naked woman Onuris back Mekhit, his lioness goddess
She was one of the four deities at painted with stars, with her daughter. The original cult center
the core of the Osiris myth. When body arching over the Earth Onuris is the Greek name for the of Onuris was at Thinis, near
Osiris was murdered, she joined below. Her arms and legs were Egyptian god of war and hunting, Abydos. Later, during the 30th
Isis in searching for the god, the pillars of the sky, meeting the Anhur. He is usually shown as a Dynasty, he was worshipped at
then reassembled and protected Earth at the horizon. standing man with a beard and the Delta city of Sebennytos.
him when he was found.
This protection extended to the
dead in general and, together
with Isis, Nephthys became one
of the four guardian deities of
coffins and canopic jars. She was
depicted as a female figure
characterized only by the
hieroglyphic symbols for her
name above her head or
occasionally as a kite. She often
appeared at the ends or the
corners of sarcophagi.

Nun

Nun was the personification of

the primeval waters that existed
at the time of creation, along
with Naunet, the female form.
He was more element than deity,
and any body of water—including
the Nile—could be called Nun. He
was also depicted in human form,
often shown supporting Ra’s
solar boat on his upraised arms.

Nut

Nut was the personification

of the sky and the vault of the
heavens. She was the daughter
of Shu and Tefnut, the deities
of air and moisture, and the
granddaughter of the creator god
Atum. The sun was believed to
travel through her body each
night to emerge again at the
beginning of each new day. As a
result, she was closely associated
with the idea of resurrection. △ Funerary stela showing Thoth introducing the deceased to Osiris and Isis beneath the arching body of the goddess Nut
352 | DEITIES

Opet

Opet (or Ipet) was a

hippopotamus goddess greatly
venerated in the area around
Thebes. A temple was built for
her within the Karnak complex.
In Theban theology, she was
thought to be the mother of
Osiris. She is mentioned in the
Pyramid Texts in connection to
offering kings nourishment at
her breast. Opet was depicted
as a female hippopotamus with
sagging breasts and a big belly,
standing upright on lionlike
legs. Her back and tail were
those of a crocodile.

Osiris

One of the most important

deities in the ancient Egyptian
pantheon, Osiris was the
mythological ruler of Egypt
who was viciously murdered
and dismembered by his jealous
brother, Seth. His scattered body
parts were found by his sisters,
Isis and Nephthys, and Osiris was
brought back to a semblance of
life to serve as lord of the dead.
In this role, he presided over
the judgment of dead souls.
To the Egyptians, he also
symbolized renewed life, so
he was regarded as a god of
fertility, making the Nile flood
and plants grow. The cult
of Osiris was already well
established by the 5th Dynasty,
and the god’s name appears
frequently in the Pyramid Texts.
His main cult centers were
Abydos in Middle Egypt and
Busiris in the Delta. He was
depicted as a green-skinned deity
with a pharaoh’s beard, partially
wrapped like a mummy, wearing
the atef crown, and holding a
△ Painting of the god Ptah sitting on a throne from the tomb of Irynefer at Deir el-Medina crook and flail.
 OPET–RA | 353

P during the Ptolemaic Period. also depicted as a man with a

Ptah-Sokar-Osiris He was depicted in art in many falcon’s head or simply as a
forms, often as a fiery sun disk falcon, wearing the sun disk
From the end of the New encircled by a cobra. He was on his head in both cases.
Pakhet Kingdom, Ptah also formed part
of the triple deity Ptah-Sokar-
With a name that means “She Osiris. The union of creator god,
who scratches,” Pakhet was a god of the dead, and god of the
ferocious lioness goddess who afterlife represented the cycle
hunted the desert by night. Her of life. This composite god was
main cult area was around Beni depicted as a single mummiform
Hasan in Middle Egypt, where figure with a headdress of a sun
there is a rock-cut chapel to the disk with twisted ram’s horns
goddess that was created during and an atef crown. Statues of him
the 18th Dynasty. Pakhet was often included a copy of spells
portrayed as a feline-headed from the Book of the Dead.
woman or as a large cat, often

R
depicted killing snakes.

Ptah
Ra
Ptah was one of the earliest
Egyptian gods, worshipped The sun god Ra (or Re) was one
from the Early Dynastic Period of Egypt’s most important deities.
onward. His center of worship He was considered to be the king
was Memphis, where he formed of the gods and largely remained
part of a holy triad with his so throughout the long history of
consort, the lioness goddess dynastic Egypt. Even when other
Sekhmet, and their son Nefertum. gods rose to prominence, Ra was
He was presented by the not superseded but became part
priests of Memphis as a god of of a composite deity, such as
creation, known as the “Sculptor Amen-Ra, Atum-Ra, or Ra-
of the earth.” Like the ram god Horakhty. There was an extensive
Khnum, he formed everything, mythology regarding Ra, who
including the other gods. He was variously the supreme
was also a god of arts and crafts creator, the king of the heavens,
and the patron of sculptors, and the father of the king. From
masons, carpenters, smiths, the 4th Dynasty onward, kings
and other artisans. adopted the epithet “Son of Ra,”
Ptah was also widely celebrated and in the 5th Dynasty, several
as a god who listened to people’s rulers built sun temples dedicated
prayers. Egyptian temples often to Ra in the vicinity of their own
had shrines of the “hearing ear,” mortuary complexes.
where a worshipper’s prayers Ra enjoyed a renaissance in
were transmitted to the deity the New Kingdom, when the
within the temple, and Ptah is 18th Dynasty kings built several
often depicted on these shrines. solar temples. This culminated in
He was usually depicted as a Akhenaten’s attempts to establish
mummiform figure, with his the sun god, in the form of the
hands emerging from his shroud Aten, as the one and only god.
to clasp a was scepter. He often The Greeks associated Ra with
wore a tight-fitting skullcap. Zeus, so he remained popular △ Wooden figure of Ra, the ancient Egyptian sun god
354 | DEITIES

△ Wall painting of the lioness-headed goddess Sekhmet at the Temple of Khnum in Esna

in general and the king in Shrines to Renenutet were often

Renenutet particular. She was also a goddess erected in the fields or granaries Ruty
of the harvest, the serpent who where the harvest was stored. She
Despite taking the form of a protected crops and stored grain was usually depicted as an erect Ruty was not one but twin
snake, Renenutet was a benign from being eaten by rats and cobra wearing a solar disk and a divine lion gods who guarded
goddess. Her name means “She mice. Her cult was particularly double-plumed headdress. She the eastern and western horizons.
who nourishes,” and she was a strong in the Faiyum and Delta, was also portrayed as a woman In the Book of the Dead, Ruty
divine nurse who suckled babies both important agricultural areas. with a snake’s head. becomes the double lion over
 RENENUTET–SESHAT | 355

whose back the sun rises every fearsome of Egypt’s various a link between the Greek and
day. The god was worshipped lioness-headed goddesses. She Egyptian populations when Seshat
from early dynastic times and could breathe fire, and the hot Greek Alexandria became
was linked with Heliopolis. Ruty desert winds were said to be her Egypt’s new capital. Seshat means “Female scribe,”
was usually depicted as two lions breath. She could also cause Serapis was the personification and she was the goddess of all
positioned back to back with the plagues and pestilence. However, of divine kingship, healing, forms of writing and record-
solar disk between them. she could avert plague and cure fertility, and the afterlife. His keeping, including accounting.
disease, too, so she was the consort was Isis. He was depicted She was also the mistress of

S
patron of physicians and healers. as a man with a flowing beard, builders and was consulted about
Sekhmet’s main cult center wearing Greek-style robes and the planning of every temple. In
was at Memphis, but when royal often a cylindrical hat that looked particular, she was linked with
power shifted to Thebes in the like a woven basket. the ritual known as pedj shes
Sah New Kingdom, her attributes (stretching the cord) that was
were added to those of Mut, used to mark out the floor plan
Sah personified the constellation who sometimes also took the Serket of a building’s foundations.
of Orion. He was the consort of form of a lioness. Amenhotep III Seshat was the king’s scribe
Sothis, who represented Sirius. had hundreds of statues of The scorpion goddess Serket was and duly recorded all of the royal
According to Egyptian mythology, Sekhmet carved and set around a protective deity with strong achievements, including how
Sah was swallowed by the the Temple of Mut at Karnak. She healing powers, especially against many people had been killed or
underworld each dawn and then took the form of a lioness-headed poisonous bites. Together with taken captive in battle. She was
rose again every night. He was woman wearing a long wig and Isis, Neith, and Nephthys, she closely associated with the god
depicted as a human figure had a solar disk on her head. She was one of the four protective Thoth and was variously said to
surrounded by stars and sailing was often shown with the ankh deities who guarded sarcophagi be his consort, sister, or daughter.
across the sky in a skiff. of life in her hand. and canopic jars. She was also In art, Seshat was depicted as a
associated with motherhood. woman, often wearing a leopard
In the Pyramid Texts, she was skin, with an unusual headdress
Satis Serapis said to nurse the king. that looked like a seven-pronged
Serket also had a dark side and star on a stick beneath a bowlike
Satis was the goddess guardian of The Ptolemies invented Serapis could use venomous scorpions arc. She was often shown writing
Egypt’s southern borders. Because as a hybrid of the Egyptian and snakes against transgressors. or marking notches on a palm rib
the route from the south was deities Osiris and Apis and She was usually depicted as a to record the passage of time,
along the Nile, she was closely several Greek deities, notably scorpion or a woman with possibly to record the length of
associated with both the river Zeus. Serapis was meant to form a scorpion on her head. the king’s reign.
and the annual flood and with
Elephantine Island in what is
now Aswan. She was the consort
of Khnum and the mother of
Anukis. Satis was worshipped
beyond Upper Egypt, because she
also purified the dead with water
from the underworld. In the
Pyramid Texts, she is described ▽ Late Period bronze temple ornament
of the scorpion goddess Serket
performing this service for the
king, and her name is inscribed
on stone jars found at Saqqara
dating back to the 3rd Dynasty.

Sekhmet

Sekhmet, whose name means

“Powerful one,” was the oldest,
most important, and most
356 | DEITIES

Seth

Seth (or Set) was one of the most

ancient gods of Egypt. A desert
deity, he represented chaos and
confusion and was linked with
terrifying events such as storms
and earthquakes. He was
worshipped in the Predynastic
Period and was depicted on the
famous Scorpion macehead.
Part of the Ennead of
Heliopolis, Seth was the son
of Geb and Nut and the brother
of Osiris, Isis, and Nephthys. In
one of the best-known Egyptian
myths, he murders Osiris in a
bid to become king, then loses
his crown to his nephew, Horus.
Like many gods, Seth had a
dual personality. He symbolized
rage and was regarded as evil
personified and the disruptor
of maat (harmony), but he was
also a god of great strength, and
many warrior kings aligned
themselves with him. In the
Middle Kingdom, he was the god
who stood at the front of the sun
god Ra’s barque to defend him
against the serpent Apophis.
Seth was often worshipped
in the eastern Delta and also in
Upper Egypt, where one of his
earliest cult centers was at
Nubt, at the entrance to Wadi
Hammamat. He was depicted
as a man with a strange, curved,
long-nosed animal’s head and
tall, erect, square-topped ears.

Shai

Shai personified fate or destiny

and determined the length of a
person’s life. He was born with
each person and remained with
them until they faced their final
judgment before Osiris, when he
proffered a true and accurate
△ 19th Dynasty limestone stela of Aapehty from Deir el-Medina showing Aapehty worshipping the god Seth (left) account of their life.
 SETH–SOTHIS | 357

Egyptian art, Sobek was depicted to Thebes. Sokar was usually

as a crocodile or as a man with a depicted in the form of a
crocodile’s head. He often wore a hawk- or a falcon-headed figure
plumed headdress with a horned with a was scepter. He was also
sun disk or the atef crown. represented by a funerary mound
topped by a falcon’s head that
was sometimes set in a boat.
Sokar

An ancient falcon god of Sothis

Memphis, Sokar was associated
with the afterlife. He was also Also known as Soped, Sothis was
the patron of the artisans who the goddess who personified
created the tombs and made the Sirius, or the Dog Star, the
objects connected with burials brightest star in the night sky.
and mummification. Her husband was Sah, god of
Every year, Memphites the constellation of Orion. The
celebrated a Sokar festival, during importance of Sirius for the
which a statue of the god was Egyptians was that its annual
paraded on a henu barque (a boat appearance on the eastern
△ Bronze crocodile on a shrine, representing the god Sobek with a high prow shaped like the horizon heralded the arrival of
horns of an oryx). By the New the Nile flood and the start
scepter and an ankh. He was also Kingdom, the festival had spread of the new agricultural year.
Shed sometimes shown standing on
Geb (the Earth) with his arms
An aspect of Horus the Child, raised to support Nut (the sky).
Shed protected people from the
wild beasts of the desert and
river. He was a minor god Sobek
venerated mainly during the
New Kingdom. He had no cult Sobek was one of the oldest
or temples of his own. He was Egyptian gods and was by far
depicted as a young boy wearing the most powerful of several
a kilt, usually grasping an animal Egyptian gods that were
in each hand and standing on the associated with the crocodile.
back of a crocodile. He was a god of the Nile who
brought fertility to the land
and acted as a symbol of kingly
Shu potency and might. In the
Pyramid Texts, he was also
One of the original Heliopolitan referred to as the merciless one
Ennead, Shu was the god of the “who takes women from their
air and sunlight. He created the husbands whenever he wishes.”
atmosphere that enabled life to The two main centers of Sobek
flourish and the winds that worship were in the Faiyum, at
powered sailors’ boats. Four what became known under the
pillars located at the cardinal Ptolemies as Crocodilopolis, and
points and known as the “Pillars at Kom Ombo in Upper Egypt. In
of Shu” helped him keep the the Late Period, Sobek’s temples
Earth and sky apart. He was usually had pools containing
usually depicted as a man sacred crocodiles, which were
wearing a tall ostrich feather mummified when they died and
on his head and carrying a was then buried in necropolises. In △ The god Ptah-Sokar-Osiris in the form of a falcon on a sacred barque
358 | DEITIES

T Thoth

The god Thoth (or Djehuty) was

Tatenen associated with knowledge and
writing. He was one of the
The name Tatenen means “Risen earliest gods, and his picture
land,” and the god symbolized appeared on slate palettes of the
the rising of the primeval mound Predynastic Period. He was said
from the waters of original to have invented not only writing,
creation. He also represented the but also medicine, magic, and
emergence of the black, fertile even music. He was the keeper
silt following the Nile’s annual of secrets unknown to even the
inundation. He was primarily other gods, all of which were
worshipped in Memphis. inscribed in the mysterious Book
of Thoth. He was the scribe of
the underworld who recorded
Taweret the verdicts on the souls of the
deceased, so he was known
Taweret was the most popular as “Master of the balance.”
of the Egyptian hippopotamus Thoth’s enduring importance
goddesses and was believed to is shown by the insertion of
protect women and babies during his name in the names of
childbirth. She had no formal New Kingdom rulers such as
cult temples but was often Tuthmosis (meaning “Thoth
depicted on household goods, is born”). He was worshipped
as well as on items relating to throughout the land, but his
fertility and childbirth. main cult center was at
Expectant mothers often Hermopolis in Middle Egypt.
carried amulets depicting Depictions of Thoth often
Taweret, in the hope that she show him in the form of either
would protect them. She was an ibis or a baboon, but he was
depicted with the head and body most commonly portrayed as a
of a pregnant hippopotamus, the man with the head of an ibis.
back of a crocodile, and the paws

W
of a lion, with a woman’s long
hair. She often wore a short,
cylindrical hat topped by two
plumes, or horns and a solar disk.
Wadjet
Tefnut The cobra goddess Wadjet was
the patron deity of Lower Egypt,
Tefnut was the daughter of Atum a counterpart to her sister, the
and the sister-wife of Shu. She vulture goddess Nekhbet of
was the goddess of moisture Upper Egypt. The two combined
and was also closely associated as the nebty (meaning “two
with both the sun and moon. ladies”), one of the names that
the kings used to indicate their
rule over both parts of Egypt.
Wadjet was often described
◁ 26th Dynasty graywacke statue of as an aggressive deity—she
the hippopotamus goddess Taweret was sometimes called the
 TATENEN–WERET-HEKAU | 359

“Mistress of fear,” as she could the uraeus and the crown of on an independent identity and depicts her as a snake-bodied
spit flames when defending Lower Egypt as manifestations became regarded as a goddess in figure with a plumed and horned
the king. of the goddess Wadjet. Later, it is her own right. A pendant found headdress, suckling a standing
Wadjet was usually depicted believed that Weret-Hekau took in the tomb of Tutankhamen figure of the boy king.
as an erect cobra with its hood
extended in readiness to strike.
It is in this form that Wadjet is
depicted in the uraeus often
shown attached to the solar disk.

Wepwawet

Wepwawet (or Upuaut) was an

ancient jackal or wolf god who
predated Anubis and all the other
ancient Egyptian canine gods.
Wepwawet is shown on one of
the standards on the Narmer
Palette. He was one of the earliest
gods worshipped at Abydos, and
his popularity spread throughout
Egypt from there.
Wepwawet’s name means
“Opener of the ways” and is
thought to refer to a number of
things, one of them being the
route into the underworld. In
funerary texts, Wepwawet led the
deceased through the underworld
and guarded them during their
perilous journey. He also led the
king to ascension.
He was generally depicted as a
wolf or jackal or a man with the
head of a wolf or jackal. He was
indistinguishable from Anubis
and can often only be identified
by the inclusion of his name or
his attributes of a mace and bow.
In animal form, however, Anubis
was usually depicted as being
black, while Wepwawet was gray.

Weret-Hekau

Weret-Hekau means “Great in

magic” or “Great enchantress.”
The name was given to several
goddesses, including Isis,
Sekhmet, and Mut. In the
Pyramid Texts, it was applied to △ Wall painting in the Tomb of Khaemwese at Thebes depicting offerings being made to the god Thoth
Sites
 ALEXANDRIA AND THE DELTA | 361

Alexandria and uncovered, including a design

of nine panels, each of which
depicts a different bird.
Tanis

the Delta
112 miles (180 km) northeast of Cairo

The ancient city of Tanis was one

Kom el-Shuqafa of the largest cities in the Delta
for hundreds of years and a seat
The city of Alexander the Great only has a small number of El-Nasseriya Street
of power during the 21st and
mainly Roman ruins still visible. Few of the many ancient One of the most fascinating 22nd Dynasties. The site, which
places in Alexandria is this is only partly excavated, contains
sites of the Delta have substantial remains today.
subterranean burial complex ruins of temples; numerous
from 200 ce. Its three levels of statues and carvings; and an
tombs, hollowed out of solid important royal necropolis,
from Abydos, and a sandstone rock, were probably for a wealthy where the tombs of three kings
Greco-Roman statue of Akhenaten. In the family of nobles from the Roman were discovered in 1939 with
Museum basement, a jackal-headed Period. The decoration is a fusion their burial goods still intact.
Anubis guards two Late Period of cultures, mixing elements of
5 El-Mathaf el-Rumani Street
painted sarcophagi. ancient Egyptian, Greek, and
Housed in a historic building Roman iconography of the dead. Bubastis
with a neoclassical façade, this
50 miles (80 km) northeast of Cairo
museum has a large and Kom el-Dikka
important collection relating to
El-Muhafza Street
Bibliotheca One of Egypt’s oldest cities,
the Macedonian, Ptolemaic, and Alexandrina Bubastis was once a royal
Roman Periods of ancient Egypt. At the southern end of the Soma, residence, which reached the
Al Azaritah WA
The exhibits begin with busts of one of the two main streets of height of its power during
the city’s founder, Alexander the ancient Alexandria, Kom el- Inspired by the original great the 22nd Dynasty. It was also a
Great. Other key items include Dikka (Arabic for “mound of library of Alexandria, the new center of worship for the feline
statues of the god Serapis, in rubble”) is an excavation of the Bibliotheca opened in 2002. Its goddess Bastet, and many cats
whom elements of both the Panion, or Park of Pan, a Greco- design is intended to represent a were mummified and buried
Egyptian god Osiris and the Roman pleasure garden. There is second sun rising, with letters here. The most visible remains
Greek god Zeus were combined, a small, well-preserved Roman and hieroglyphs carved on the at Bubastis today are the fallen
and mosaics of Queen Berenike II. theater and the remains of external walls. It contains ancient blocks from the temples built in
Cleopatra VII is depicted on a Roman baths and a villa, where manuscripts and books and the New Kingdom and Third
silver coin, and there are large floor mosaics have been houses a permanent exhibition. Intermediate Period.
terracotta models of the Pharos
of Alexandria, made when the
lighthouse was still standing.
A large Roman Period mosaic
with a central panel of a Medusa’s
head offers a fine example of the
blend of cultures that made up
ancient Alexandria.

Alexandria National
Museum
110 Horeyya Avenue

A villa that was once the United

States consulate now serves as an
introduction to ancient Egyptian
history. Exhibits include alabaster
statuary from Giza, a false door △ The Roman theater at Kom el-Dikka, built during the 3rd century ce
362 | SITES

Cairo and around

CAIRO
Cairo is a modern city, but it lies close to several major
NEW
ancient sites. From the 7th century onward, the city Egyptian Museum
CAIRO
developed around a Nile crossing that used to connect Grand Egyptian National Museum of
Museum Egyptian Civilization
the Old Kingdom capital of Memphis, west of the river,
Pyramids
to the sun temple center of Heliopolis, east of the river. of Giza

Riv
er
Ni
le
of wooden models of daily life Abusir
KEY
Egyptian Museum from the Middle Kingdom, and Minor roads
Memphis Major roads
the painted mummy panels Saqqara
Tahrir Square, central Cairo Sites
known as the Faiyum portraits. HELWAN
This is the country’s original There are also royal mummies N

museum of ancient Egyptian and the treasures of Tanis—gold 0 50 km

Dahshur
culture, built in Cairo in 1902. funerary artifacts recovered from 0 50 miles
To Meidum
Until recently, it contained by far royal tombs in the Nile Delta.
the world’s greatest collection of
artifacts from ancient Egypt. Greco-Roman Periods. The
Although many key exhibits National Museum of highlight is a gallery displaying The Pyramids of Giza
have now been moved to the Egyptian Civilization the mummified remains of 18
Giza Plateau, 10 miles (16 km)
new Grand Egyptian Museum, kings and four queens, including southwest of central Cairo
Fustat, southern Cairo
the original museum remains a Ahmose I; Amenhotep I;
wonderful storehouse of Egyptian As part of its coverage of the Tuthmosis I, II, and III; Seti I; and In the present age of towering
treasures. There is an immense entirety of Egyptian history, this Ramesses II and III. The room in skyscrapers and voyages to Mars,
number of statues from all new museum includes many which they are displayed is a the pyramids have lost none of
periods, a wonderful collection artifacts from the Dynastic and recreation of a Theban tomb. their capacity to evoke awe.

△ Interior of the main hall of the Egyptian Museum in Cairo

 CAIRO AND AROUND | 363

The Pyramid of Khufu is the sole of Ankhma-Hor has painted of the three Pyramids of Giza
survivor of the Seven Wonders of Saqqara scenes depicting surgical and are dilapidated, which means
the Ancient World. operations. that few tourists ever visit.
27 miles (44 km) south of central Cairo
Inside the Great Pyramid, it The Tomb of Mereruka has Visitors may sometimes be able
is usually possible to access the Little visited in comparison to many lavish reliefs, including to access the northernmost of the
main burial chamber along a the Giza Plateau, Saqqara is one scenes of hunting from a boat group, the Pyramid of Sahure,
series of inner passages. Back of the richest archaeological sites among birds, fish, and to reach a small burial chamber.
outside, the Solar Boat Museum in Egypt. It is the desert hippopotamuses. Saqqara is also On the east side of the pyramid
on the south side of the Great necropolis built for several kings the home of the Serapeum, a are the remains of Sahure’s
Pyramid displays a reconstructed and many nobles of the Old series of catacombs created for mortuary temple. The pyramid
boat that was found in a pit Kingdom, who ruled from the burial of sacred bulls, known and complex of Neferirkare to
beside the causeway that led to nearby Memphis. as Apis bulls, complete with the south was the site of a
Khufu’s mortuary temple. The highlight is Djoser’s Step massive granite sarcophagi. significant find in the late 19th
Khafre’s valley temple is in Pyramid. This was the prototype century—illegal excavations
remarkably good condition but for the structure that would uncovered documents, known as
it is completely overshadowed reach its greatest glory at Giza. Abusir the Abusir Papyri, which revealed
by its neighbor, the enigmatic There are many points of interest how mortuary temples were
17 miles (27 km) south of central Cairo
Great Sphinx. in the enclosure surrounding the planned during the Old
The site also includes the Step Pyramid, including a statue Lying between Giza and Saqqara, Kingdom. North of the pyramids
Pyramid of Menkaure, three of Djoser in his stone serdab. Abusir is a cluster of 5th Dynasty is the site of Abu Gurob, which
small queens’ pyramids, and The nearby Pyramid of Teti pyramids set among the sand is known for its remains of two
several Old Kingdom tombs boasts walls inscribed with dunes. They are all considerably royal sun temples, one of which
with reliefs. Pyramid Texts, and the Tomb smaller than even the smallest has a large limestone obelisk.

Grand Egyptian
Museum
Giza Plateau, 10 miles (16 km)
southwest of central Cairo

This new state-of-the-art glass-

and-concrete museum is set into
the side of the Giza Plateau and
has views of the neighboring
pyramids. A colossal statue of
Ramesses II greets visitors in the
main atrium from where a grand
staircase lined with 87 statues of
kings and gods leads up to the
galleries. Exhibits cover all
periods from Predynastic to
Greco-Roman and are arranged
chronologically.
The highlights are the galleries
for Tutankhamen, displaying the
contents of his tomb almost in
their entirety, including his gold
death mask and his coffins.
The museum has a replica
of the boy king’s small tomb, but
the galleries used for the display
are more than 60 times the size
of the original burial space. △ Djoser’s Step Pyramid at Saqqara, with shrines representing temples in different parts of Egypt
364 | SITES

Dahshur
40 miles (64 km) south of central Cairo

There were originally as many

as 10 pyramids at Dahshur,
built during the 4th and 12th
Dynasties. Still in evidence are
three Middle Kingdom pyramids
and two pyramids built for
Snefru, the father of Khufu,
builder of the Great Pyramid
at Giza. The earlier of Snefru’s
two pyramids is known as the
Bent Pyramid. It was built with
a shallower slope partway up,
making it look “bent”. The other
is the Red Pyramid.

Meidum
75 miles (120 km) south of central Cairo

This site contains several mud-

brick mustabas and a large
pyramid—Egypt’s first straight-
sided pyramid, probably built for
Snefru of the 4th Dynasty. The
structure was unsound, however,
and the outer masonry appears
to have collapsed over time to
leave only the stepped core
of the pyramid.

Kahun
78 miles (125 km) south of central Cairo

The most important surviving

settlement of the Middle
Kingdom, Kahun, was a town
△ The Sphinx of Memphis, thought to honor Hatshepsut occupied by workers responsible
for constructing the nearby
a colossus of Ramesses II. The king up close. In the garden of pyramid that was built for
Memphis enormous statue is lying on its the museum are more statues Senwosret II. The town has been
back, but if it were to stand of Ramesses II, along with one recovered with sand since its
Mit Rahina, 24 miles (40 km) south of
central Cairo upright, it would measure 40 ft of the largest alabaster sphinxes excavation from 1888–1890, but
(13 m) in height—it is the twin ever found. the pyramid remains. The fine
During the Old Kingdom, of the statue that greets visitors Memphis lies on the road limestone casing that once
Memphis was the capital of Egypt at the Grand Egyptian Museum to Saqqara, and a visit there can protected it was stripped away
and one of the greatest cities of in the Giza Plateau. Its prone be easily combined with a long ago and its mud-brick
the ancient world. Today, an position gives visitors the journey to the Step Pyramid structure has been badly eroded
open-air museum is built around opportunity to examine the of Djoser. by the elements.
 MIDDLE TO UPPER EGYPT | 365

Middle to Samalut

Upper Egypt Minya

Beni Hasan
Tuna el Hermopolis
Ancient Egypt was divided into Lower and Upper Egypt. Gebel Mallawi
Tell el Amama
“Middle Egypt” was a 19th-century European term that KEY
Minor roads
R Major roads
included the region south of the Faiyum and north of Asyut.

iv
Sites

er
Ni
Cities
Its sites were well known to tourists on Nile steamers, but as

le
Asyut
visitors now fly to Luxor and Aswan, they are often passed over.

Amenemhat has beautiful scenes

Beni Hasan of hunting and farming, while Akhmim

the Tomb of Khnumhotep has Sohag

12 miles (20 km) south of Minya
figures hunting, fishing, and
Named after a local tribe that netting birds, among a menagerie
N
once inhabited the area, the of animals, including crocodiles,
0 30 km Abydos Dendera Qena
Beni Hasan tombs date from hippopotamuses, and big cats.
the Middle Kingdom. There are 0 30 miles
Nagaa Hammadi
39 of them in total, all belonging
to nobles and regional governors, Hermopolis and Tuna
but only four of them are open el-Gebel
to the public. The site’s highlights include There is more to be seen at
5 miles (8 km) northwest of Mallawi
All the tombs contain wall 24 huge columns from a nearby Tuna el-Gebel, which
paintings of scenes of everyday From the Middle Kingdom, the Christian basilica from the is the site of the ancient city’s
life in ancient Egypt. The Tomb city of Khemenu was a cult 5th century ce and two colossal necropolis. Visitors can explore
of Baqet has a wall depicting center for Thoth, the god of quartzite statues of Thoth in the catacombs, which were
wrestlers, and the Tomb of Kheti writing and wisdom. The city the form of a baboon. once filled with thousands of
has images of dancing, wine- was later named Hermopolis Other ruins include a temple mummified ibises and fewer
making, and figures playing Magna by the Ptolemaic kings, gateway from the Middle numbers of baboons, both
senet—a game that was similar who associated Thoth with the Kingdom and a pylon of animals that were considered
to checkers. The Tomb of Greek god Hermes. Ramesses II. sacred to Thoth.
Above ground are numerous
mausoleums, including the Tomb
of Petosiris, which was dedicated
to a high priest of Thoth and
designed to look like a temple.
The decoration of the building
combines elements of both
Egyptian and Greek culture.
Nearby is the Tomb-chapel
of Isadora, which displays the
well-preserved mummy of
Isadora. She was a wealthy
woman who drowned in the
Nile in around 150 ce. A cult
subsequently grew up around
△ An 18th Dynasty relief from Amarna depicting three cows grazing her tomb.
366 | SITES

Tell el-Amarna
7 miles (12 km) southwest of Mallawi

The remains of Akhetaten, the

city built by the “heretic king”
Akhenaten (Amenhotep IV), lie
at a site known today as Tell
el-Amarna. The ruins are widely
spread over a site that stretches
around 9 miles (15 km), north
to south, on a desolate but
atmospheric plain bounded by
the River Nile on one side and
a bay of cliffs on the other.
Amarna is the only ancient △ The North Palace ruins at Tell el-Amarna
Egyptian city for which an almost
complete ground plan exists. of Huya, a steward to Akhenaten’s is considered to be the finest Akhenaten and his family.
However, there are no standing mother, Queen Tiy. A relief tomb at Amarna: its wall Unfortunately, its wall paintings
structures left, and the many shows Tiy dining with her son paintings show Ay and his wife have been virtually obliterated,
impressive finds from here have and his family. The Tomb of receiving ceremonial golden with only a few scenes surviving.
been moved to various museums. Mery-Re I is decorated with a collars from Akhenaten and
What remains for the visitor are depiction of Akhenaten and his Nefertiti, watched by crowds
two sets of rock-cut cliff tombs, great temple that shows what of cheering onlookers. Akhmim
one at each end of the former the city looked like during its About 4 miles (6.5 km) up a
1.8 miles (3 km) east of Sohag
city. There are six Northern brief phase of glory. Part of the narrow wadi in the cliffs is the
Tombs, which include the Tomb Southern Tombs, the Tomb of Ay royal tomb that was intended for On the outskirts of the city of
Sohag, Akhmim is a large town
traditionally known for textiles.
It stands on the site of the ancient
Egyptian settlement of Ipu. In
1982, excavations here uncovered
a 33 ft (11 m) high statue of
Meritamen, daughter and wife
of Ramesses II. It is the largest
statue of a queen found in Egypt.
There is also a museum in Sohag
with finds from the excavations
of the Temple of Ramesses II
at Akhmim.

Abydos
6 miles (10 km) southwest of
El-Balyana

Abydos was the cult center of

the god Osiris and the holiest
town in ancient Egypt. It was
the necropolis of 1st- and 2nd-
Dynasty kings, and Senwosret III
might have been buried there.
△ Painted relief from the Tomb of Seti I depicting Seti kneeling between the gods Khnum (left) and Amun (right) The highlight for modern visitors
 MIDDLE TO UPPER EGYPT | 367

is the Temple of Seti I, one of

the most complete and beautiful
temples in Egypt. It has a
particularly fine inner hypostyle
hall of 24 columns that resemble
papyrus stems. The walls are
inscribed with sunken reliefs,
including a panel that shows
Seti in front of Osiris. Many of
the reliefs have retained their
original colors. At the back
of the hall is an unusual
arrangement of seven shrines,
each of which is devoted to a
different god or goddess. A
corridor known as the Gallery
of the Kings contains a king list
with the cartouches of 76 kings
in more or less chronological
order, ending with Seti.
Behind the temple is an
unusual structure known as the
Osireion, which is a cenotaph
built by Seti I. Unfortunately,
it is half-buried and filled with
stagnant water. Northwest of
Seti’s temple, there is a smaller
temple that was built by his
son, Ramesses II.

Dendera
3 miles (5 km) southwest of Qena

Dendera was a cult center for

the goddess Hathor from the
Predynastic Period onward.
The current temple dates from the
Greco-Roman Period and is well
preserved. Visitors walk straight
into the Hypostyle Hall, which
has columns topped with capitals
carved to resemble the cow-eared
goddess. It is possible to go up a
staircase to the roof, where there
are twin chapels. Inside one of
the chapels is a plaster cast of the
famous Dendera Zodiac—the
original is now in the Louvre in
Paris. Back on the ground, there
are reliefs of Cleopatra and her
son, Caesarion, on the exterior
of the rear wall of the temple. △ Interior of the Hypostyle Hall at Dendera Temple showing the columns topped with capitals of the goddess Hathor
368 | SITES

Luxor N

0 1 km
Valley of the Kings
Mortuary Temple
of Hatshepsut
Temple
of Seti I
0 1 mile

Valley of Deir el-

The present-day city of Luxor covers the site of Thebes, the the Queens Medina Ramesseum
EAST BANK

ile
er N
religious center of the cult of Amen. Across the Nile, on Colossi of Memnon

Riv
Medinet Karnak
Habu
the west bank, is the royal necropolis, the site of numerous KEY
Sites WEST BANK
mortuary temples and rock-cut tombs. Together, these sites Minor Roads
Luxor Museum
Major Roads
Mummification
make up a vast open-air museum. Pathways
Museum LUXOR
Seasonal Rivers
Luxor Temple

Ramesses II, this temple sits because it was buried beneath the complex at Karnak. (This
Temple of Luxor alongside the Nile at the heart sand for 2,000 years, until it was processional route has been
of present-day Luxor. rediscovered in the 19th century. under excavation for many
Corniche el-Nil, east bank
It is a perfect encapsulation of The temple is approached by years.) The great entrance pylon
Largely built by two of the ancient Egyptian architecture an avenue of sphinxes, which at is the work of Ramesses II, and
greatest kings of the New and culture. The site has been one time stretched for 2 miles its reliefs show him slaying
Kingdom, Amenhotep III and remarkably well preserved, (3.2 km) to the great temple Hittites at the Battle of Kadesh.

△ Colossi in the Great Court of Ramesses II at the Temple of Luxor

 LU XOR | 369

The entrance is fronted by six labeling in English and Arabic.

colossal statues of the king and Much of the collection dates
one obelisk—its missing twin from the New Kingdom, which
now stands on the Place de la is considered to be a golden
Concorde in Paris. Beyond the age of Egyptian art. One of its
pylon is the Great Court of greatest kings, Amenhotep III,
Ramesses II, leading to the appears in the museum in two
Colonnade of Amenhotep III. very different representations.
This was the original entrance to The first is a massive head,
the temple before the Ramesside part of a colossus that belonged
additions. The walls here were to the king’s lost funerary temple
decorated during the reign of on the west bank at Thebes.
Tutankhamen. The second is a life-sized statue
The highlight of the temple of the crocodile god Sobek,
is the paved Sun Court of shown with his arm resting
Amenhotep III, enclosed on three paternally around the young
sides by towering columns that king’s shoulders.
look like bundles of papyrus. There are also some fine
Archaeologists discovered an sculptures of Tuthmosis III,
impressive cache of statues in a who shared part of his reign
pit beneath this court in 1989. with his aunt and stepmother,
Parts of the temple’s innermost Hatshepsut. On the upper floor,
chambers, which served as the there are a few items from the
cult sanctuary of Amen, were tomb of Tutankhamen and
plastered over by the Romans exhibits relating to his father,
between the 4th and 6th Akhenaten, who is portrayed in
centuries ce and made into a three sandstone heads in the
shrine for their own gods. distinctive Amarna style.
The central sanctuary of the There is also a wall of painted
temple was rebuilt by Alexander sandstone blocks (talatat), which
the Great, with reliefs showing come from one of the temples of
him as an Egyptian king. Amenhotep IV, which he erected
During the Roman Period, the at Karnak before moving his
temple was converted into a fort capital north to Amarna and
for garrisoned troops. Visitors △ Sandstone bust of Amenhotep IV (Akhenaten) at Luxor Museum calling himself Akhenaten.
can find the remains of a Roman A wing dedicated to the glory
camp outlined in the earth to embalmers used to prepare a and embalming. There are of Thebes during the New
the east of the site, beside the corpse for the afterlife. There are numerous examples of animal Kingdom contains two royal
approach to a 14th-century 19 display cases in the museum, mummies, but there is only one mummies: those of Ahmose I,
mosque that is still used for spread across 11 topics. These human mummy—that of founder of the 18th Dynasty,
worship today. include tools such as a spoon Maserharti, who was a High and a mummy that is believed
and metal spatula used to scrape Priest of Amen at Thebes during to be Ramesses I, founder of
the brain out of the skull, and the 21st Dynasty. the 19th Dynasty.
Mummification embalming materials, such as A side gallery contains 16
Museum samples of natron salts, bitumen, mostly life-sized statues that
Corniche el-Nil, east bank
sawdust, and linen. Luxor Museum were discovered by chance
There are also examples of when archaeologists were
Corniche el-Nil, east bank
This small museum is devoted to canopic jars used for storing collecting soil samples at Luxor
Egyptian burial practices, notably internal organs, some beautiful This modern archaeological Temple in 1989. The pride of the
the art of mummification—the painted coffin lids, and a statue museum is largely devoted to find was a 8 ft (2.5 m) tall red
process of preserving a corpse. of Anubis—the jackal-headed finds made in and around Luxor. quartzite statue of one of the
The exhibits concentrate on the god of the dead who was closely Its treasures are well lit and temple’s main patrons,
implements and treatments that associated with mummification displayed, with informative Amenhotep III.
370 | SITES

Precinct of Mut

A second processional axis runs

south from the Temple of Amen.
It is marked by a series of four
pylons and courts. Beyond the
last of the pylons, an avenue
of sphinxes leads to a partly
excavated southern enclosure
dedicated to Mut, the mother
goddess of Thebes and consort
of the god Amen.
Her temple was built during
the reign of Amenhotep III. It
contains the main Temple of
Mut, as well as the remains of
at least five minor temples and
a U-shaped sacred lake.
More than 500 large, black
granite statues of the lioness
△ Painting of the Precinct of Mut, part of the Karnak complex, Carl Friedrich Werner, 1867 goddess Sekhmet, who was
associated with Mut, have been
Most of the complex was the Horemheb, an 18th Dynasty discovered on the site. Some of
Karnak work of New Kingdom rulers, king, to arrive in the Great them are still in place, but many
but the oldest parts date back Hypostyle Hall. One of the most are now in various museums
Sharia el-Karnak, east bank
to the Middle Kingdom. The impressive ancient Egyptian around the world.
Although much of it is now in Ptolemies, Romans, and even structures, the hall is filled with
ruins, Karnak is still one of the the early Christians all left 134 columns that are around Precinct of Montu
most spectacular sites in Egypt. their mark. Most of the site lay 50 ft (15 m) tall except the center
At its heart lies the Temple of beneath the sand until excavation 12, which are 69 ft (21 m) high. North of the Temple of Amen,
Amen. From modest beginnings work began in the mid-19th The columns originally supported still within the Amen precinct
in the 11th Dynasty, Karnak grew century. Restoration is still in a roof, but this is long gone. enclosure, is an open-air
in size as one king after another progress today. Another two pylons act as museum that gathers together
amended the existing buildings gateways to the earliest part of various archaeological finds
and made their own additions, Precinct of Amen the temple, which is in a far from the site. This includes
hoping to leave their mark on more ruinous state. Huge granite three shrines that were
the country’s most important Amen was the local god of obelisks were also erected by reconstructed from parts that
religious center. Karnak. During the New Tuthmosis I, Hatshepsut, and were discovered elsewhere.
As well as being a place of Kingdom, he was also the state Tuthmosis III. A gate in the northern wall
worship, attended by a staff of god of Egypt. A canal once Deep within the complex is of the precinct, beside a small
professional priests, Karnak was connected his temple complex to the Sanctuary of Amen, with a Temple of Ptah, leads to the
also a center of administration, the River Nile. From the ancient boxlike structure known as the Montu Temple enclosure.
employing tens of thousands of canal’s quay, a processional Sacred Barque Shrine. This still Falcon-headed Montu was one
workers. At its height, there were avenue of ram-headed sphinxes contains the plinth on which the of the original deities of Thebes,
three main compounds: the forms the approach to the first barque of Amen would have and his temple dates back to the
main precinct, dedicated to pylon, which serves as the grand rested. This was a model boat Middle Kingdom, predating most
Amen and dominated by the precinct entrance. The pylon was that would be carried aloft on of the Temple of Amen. It was
Great Temple of Amen; the a late addition, raised by the 30th poles by the priests during later rebuilt by Amenhotep III,
precinct of Amen’s consort Mut, Dynasty king Nectanebo I, and festivals and processions. among others, but is now in a
linked to the main temple by an was never completed. Visitors South of the main temple is very poor state. Its most notable
avenue of ram-headed sphinxes; pass through the entrance into a large sacred lake, where the feature is an ornate gateway,
and the precinct of the old the Great Court and through priests performed rituals which dates from the reigns
Theban falcon god, Montu. a second pylon, built by involving washing. of Ptolemy III and Ptolemy IV.
 LU XOR | 371

△ Close-up of reliefs at the Great Hypostyle Hall at Karnak Temple

372 | SITES

New Kingdom. At its height,

Colossi of Memnon Medinet Habu would have
looked like a walled city with
West bank
temples, palaces, chapels, and
These two enormous statues of accommodation for the priests
Amenhotep III, standing alone in and officials.
a dusty clearing on the Theban The site is entered via the
plain, are almost all that is left High Gate, which was inspired
of what may once have been by Syrian architecture. Through
Egypt’s largest mortuary temple. the gate is the great court and
The temple was built for the the approach to the massive
worship of Amenhotep III, but main temple. Ramesses III’s
later kings plundered the site, many military campaigns are
which was also gradually recorded in detail on the main
destroyed by annual floods. pylon, including scenes of scribes
The two faceless colossi, each tallying up the dead enemy by
carved from a single block of counting their severed hands and
stone, would have stood at the genitals. Reliefs on the second
main entrance. pylon show Ramesses III
During the Hellenistic Period, presenting his prisoners to
the northernmost statue was the god Amen and his goddess
famous for “singing” at sunrise, wife, Mut. Some of the wall
leading the Greeks to claim that reliefs, ceilings, and columns
the statues were of the legendary have retained traces of their
Ethiopian king Memnon. The original colors, giving some idea
Greeks thought that Memnon of how dazzling these places
greeted his mother, the dawn must once have been.
goddess Eos, each morning.
Archaeologists think that the
sound might have been caused by Ramesseum
air passing through the stone
West bank
when it was warmed by the first
rays of the sun. It stopped after The most self-aggrandizing of
the statue was restored by the kings, Ramesses II—whose four
Roman emperor Septimius colossi tower over mere mortals
Severus. Excavation of the at Abu Simbel—built his
mortuary temple behind the mortuary temple at Thebes as
statues is still in progress. a further monument to his
eternal greatness.
The huge complex took more
Medinet Habu than 20 years to build, but it has
not survived the passage of time
West bank
and is now in ruins, with just
Although not as famous as the trenches, holes, and bases to
nearby temples of Hatshepsut indicate where the rest of the
or the Ramesseum, the often complex once stood. The first
overlooked Medinet Habu is and second entrance pylons,
nevertheless one of the best which are covered in reliefs
preserved and most impressive displaying Ramesses II’s
temple complexes on the west achievements and victories
bank. It is dominated by the huge in battle, are also in a poor
mortuary temple of Ramesses III, condition. All that remains to
△ One of the two Colossi of Memnon on the west bank, Thebes the last of the great kings of the show the former glory of the
 LU XOR | 373

main courts is a row of columns

fronted by statues of Ramesses II Deir el-Medina
as the god Osiris with his arms
West bank
crossed, bearing the crook and
flail. The link to Osiris—the lord Excavations at this site have
of the afterlife—is not only a revealed a walled workers’ village
signal of the funerary nature of more than 70 houses. This
of the temple, but was intended would have been home to many
to honor him. of the workmen and artisans
Nearby is the toppled and who decorated the royal tombs
smashed head and shoulders of a cut into the surrounding cliffs
colossus of Ramesses II. Estimated and mountainsides, a settlement
to have stood over six stories that lasted over 400 years. The
high, this was possibly the largest ground floors of the individual △ The artisans’ village of Deir el-Medina, surrounded by a protective wall
free-standing statue ever made in homes are still clearly visible.
ancient Egypt. An image of the Beside the village is its small and Ramesses IV, has a famous wife working in the Field of
fallen statue inspired the poet necropolis, with several tombs wall painting of a long-eared cat Reeds (the afterlife). The Tomb of
Percy Bysshe Shelley to write his open to the public. The Tomb of killing the serpent Apophis. The Peshedu shows this 19th Dynasty
meditation on hubris and decay, Inherkhau, a foreman who lived Tomb of Sennedjem displays servant praying beneath a palm
the poem “Ozymandias.” during the reigns of Ramesses III scenes of the occupant and his tree beside a stream.

△ The Ramesseum, the mortuary temple of Ramesses II, with Osiride statues facing the second court
374 | SITES

just an antechamber with an

annexe and a main burial
chamber, every surface is
adorned with painted scenes
of the queen wearing luxurious
gowns while in the company
of the gods. The ceiling of the
burial chamber has a fantastic
astronomical ceiling of gold
stars on blue, representing
the heavens. Extensive restoration
has restored the artwork to
its original glowing colors.
The other three tombs that
can be visited are all fairly small,
consisting of a short corridor that
leads to one or two chambers,
but they are richly decorated
with colored reliefs.
The Tomb of Amenherkhepshef
belonged to the appointed heir
of the throne, who died young,
before he could succeed his
father, Ramesses III. Scenes on
the walls show the prince and his
father paying homage to the gods
of the underworld.
The Tomb of Khaemwese
belongs to another son of
Ramesses III, and again, the pair
are depicted in the company of
△ Falcon statue guarding the stairway leading to the Temple of Hatshepsut various gods and goddesses.
The other tomb open to
renovated and reconstructed visitors is that of Queen Titi,
Temple of Hatshepsut to show quite clearly what it Valley of the Queens who was married to one of
might once have looked like. the later Ramesside kings.
Deir el-Bahri, west bank West bank
The original garden that was
The mortuary temple Hatshepsut full of exotic trees and plants no At the far end of a wide wadi
had built for herself is prominent longer exists, and nor does the west of Deir el-Medina is Biban Tombs of the Nobles
among the surviving monuments grand sphinx-lined procession, el-Harem, or the Valley of the
Gurna, west bank
of ancient Egypt. The structure but some wonderful reliefs Queens. This is where many
forgoes the usual arrangement have survived. of the royal brides, princesses, Less famous than the royal
of pylons and hypostyle halls Scenes on the walls of the princes, and other members of tombs in the Valley of the
and instead rises from the temple’s middle terrace depict the royal families of the 19th and Kings are the more than 400
Theban plain in a series of broad Hatshepsut’s divine birth and 20th Dynasties were buried. small tombs collectively known
terraces to meet the Theban tell the story of an expedition There are at least 75 tombs, as the Tombs of the Nobles,
mountains. that she sent to the distant and they include one of the most which dot the hills behind the
The innermost rooms are cut land of Punt. beautiful tombs in Egypt, that of Ramesseum. They belong to
into the cliff face. The design The highest level still has a Nefertari. She was the favorite nonroyals, such as governors,
may have been copied from few of the 24 colossal statues wife of Ramesses II, builder of mayors, and scribes.
that of the neighboring Temple of Osiris that it once had. It also the Ramesseum and Abu Simbel, Because of the poor quality of
of Montuhotep. Hatshepsut’s leads to the shrine to Amen-Ra, and her tomb reflects her status. the limestone here, there are few
temple has been extensively cut into the mountainside. Although modest in plan, with carved reliefs, but the tombs are
 LU XOR | 375

extensively painted with scenes Fields, Gardens, and Cattle of during which time the Egyptian of Nakht contains some of
that provide an insight into Amen. Reflecting this latter role, empire was expanding. One wall the best-known Egyptian
everyday life in ancient Egypt. the ceiling of his tomb is covered of his tomb shows him accepting tomb paintings, among
Some of the finest tombs on with a tangle of painted vines, tribute from foreign countries, them a group of three
the site are those belonging to heavy with grapes. including gifts of animals: female musicians: one
Sennefer and Rekhmire. Sennefer Rekhmire was a vizier (chief baboons, monkeys, and a playing the lute, one a harp,
was a mayor of Thebes and advisor) during the reigns of giraffe from Nubia, as well as and another a type of
Overseer of the Granaries and Tuthmosis III and Amenhotep II, a bear from Syria. The Tomb wind instrument.

△ The Tombs of the Nobles necropolis on the west bank, Thebes

376 | SITES

descending into either an tombs, only the burial chamber sequence in which it was found.
Valley of the Kings antechamber or a series of was decorated, but later, the wall Not all of the tombs are open to
pillared halls, ending in a burial paintings were extended into the the public.
West bank
chamber. No two tombs are other rooms and corridors.
This isolated, arid valley in the exactly the same, although they Builders attempted to hide the Tomb of Tutankhamen
steep-sided, rocky Theban Hills, share common features. Early entrances to the tombs but,
dominated by the pyramid- tombs have a right-angled plan despite their best efforts, tomb This is the most visited tomb in
shaped peak of El-Qurn (The and later tombs one straight axis. robbers still discovered them the valley, as it is the only one
Horn), was the burial site of To assist them in the afterlife, and looted almost all of them. that was discovered with all its
choice for the kings of the kings decorated their tombs with To date, 62 tombs have been contents intact. However, almost
New Kingdom. symbolic depictions of the discovered in the valley, but not all of the treasures were taken to
Their tombs were designed journey that they would take all of them belong to kings. Each Cairo, where they can be seen at
to resemble the underworld, through the underworld and has been assigned a KV (Kings’ the Grand Egyptian Museum,
with a long, sloping corridor ritual paintings. In the earliest Valley) number, reflecting the along with a full-size replica of
the tomb as it was when Howard
Carter first cleared his way
inside. What remains in the
valley is a small and, for the most
part, undecorated tomb—many
scholars believe that it was
originally built for a nonroyal.
The quartzite sarcophagus can
still be seen and the body is
now displayed in a modern
case in the tomb.

Other tombs

The longest, deepest, and most

lavishly decorated tomb in the
valley is the Tomb of Seti I
[KV 17]. It burrows some 450 ft
(137 m) down into the hillside
through a series of steeply
descending corridors and
chambers. It contains well-
preserved reliefs in all but two
of its 11 chambers and side
rooms. Wall paintings in the
lower corridor depict the
Opening of the Mouth ceremony,
in which the king’s soul was
reawakened after death and
his senses restored.
At the bottom of the passage
is a six-pillared burial chamber
with a vaulted ceiling showing
the constellations and a line-up
of the gods and goddesses.
A very long tunnel leads
from this chamber deeper
into the hillside, but it was
△ Stairs leading to the entrance of a royal tomb in the Valley of the Kings never finished.
 LU XOR | 377

△ The burial chamber of Tukankhamen’s tomb, with its quartzite sarcophagus

The Tomb of Horemheb [KV 57] entrance high above the valley of western Thebes. The temple’s hypostyle hall, sanctuary, and
was the first to introduce floor designed to deter thieves, location, set away from the main antechambers at the heart of the
bas-reliefs, in which the figures which it failed to do. tourist trail, means it receives temple are well preserved. There
were carved out before being The Tomb of Amenhotep II relatively few visitors. Although are also several reliefs that offer
painted, as opposed to the earlier [KV 35] is decorated in similar the pylons and surrounding superb examples of New
method of applying the paint style to that of Tuthmosis III, buildings are in ruins, the Kingdom art.
straight to the wall. but the complex is on a larger
Many of the figures remain scale. In one of the small
unfinished—some were just annexes off the unusual,
roughly sketched out, while split-level burial chamber,
others were partly incised into archaeologists found nine
the rock by a sculptor, ready for royal mummies.
painting, which for some reason
never took place.
The Tomb of Tuthmosis III Temple of Seti I
[KV 34] predates those of
West bank
Horemheb and Seti, and its
decoration is far less elaborate: The grand mortuary temple
the figures adorning its walls of Seti I, which was completed
are like stick figures. His tomb by his son Ramesses II, was
is hard to reach, as it has an one of the major monuments △ The Temple of Seti I on the west bank, with the Theban Hills beyond
378 | SITES

Upper Egypt and Luxor

Lower Nubia
Moalla

Esna
R iv
er
Ni el-Kab
le

Edfu
The town of Aswan, beside the First Cataract, marked the Tombs of
the Nobles ASWAN
southern border of ancient Egypt for much of its history. For Elephantine Unfinished
Obelisk Gebel Silsila
long periods, however, Egyptian rule extended much farther. Sehel Nubian Kom Ombo
Museum
Daraw

Philae
on the site of an earlier temple Aswan
Moalla built by Tuthmosis III. Both
Beit et Wali
of the temples were dedicated
21 miles (33 km) south of Luxor Kalabsha Temple
to the ram-headed god Khnum,
The desert cemetery of Moalla who, according to one of the
contains the rock-cut tombs ancient Egyptian creation KEY
Major roads
of the officials who were based myths, molded humankind Pathways
Lake
Nasser
at the town of Hefat during the out of clay. Seasonal rivers
Sites
First Intermediate Period. The Over time, the temple was Cities
largest and most famous of buried under silt that was N

these is the decorated tomb deposited by the annual Nile 0 40 km

Wadi es-Sebua
of Ankhtify, who ruled much of floods, and the present-day 0 40 miles Amada
southern Egypt at this time. town was built on top of it.
Only the hypostyle hall, which
was built during the reign of
Abu Simbel
Esna the Roman emperor Claudius
(41–54 ce), has survived. Its
33 miles (54 km) south of Luxor
roof is still intact and is at the
A busy market town on the west same level as the foundations el-Kab Edfu
bank of the Nile, Esna is the of the houses surrounding it.
50 miles (80 km) south of Luxor 71 miles (115 km) south of Luxor
site of the Greco-Roman Period The ceiling of the hall displays
Temple of Khnum. It was raised astronomical scenes. This is the site of the former city Halfway between Luxor and
of Nekheb, which stood across Aswan, Edfu is the largest and
the river from the city of best-preserved Greco-Roman
Hierakonpolis. Nekheb dates temple in Egypt. With its
back to the Early Dynastic Period succession of increasingly small
but rose to prominence in the spaces, culminating in the
New Kingdom. Its most notable darkened, innermost Sanctuary
feature today is the mudbrick city of Horus, it gives visitors a good
wall around it. Within the wall sense of how these ancient
are the remains of a temple monuments might originally
dedicated to Thoth, built by have been experienced. The
Ramesses II, and the Temple of temple was begun by Ptolemy III
Nekhbet, built during the Late Euergetes I on the site of an
Period. A nearby necropolis has earlier temple and completed
some important New Kingdom by Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos,
tombs, including that of Ahmose, the father of Cleopatra VII. It
whose engagement in battles is entered by way of an almost
against the Hyksos are recorded intact great pylon, guarded by
△ Painting of Edfu Temple, David Roberts, c.1847 in wall texts. two great statues of Horus as
 UPPER EGYPT AND LOWER NUBIA | 379

a falcon. This leads to a large, was quarried to provide the raw Ptolemy VI Philometor began
colonnaded court and two material for many of ancient Kom Ombo work on the temple, and Ptolemy
hypostyle halls before reaching Egypt’s buildings. XII Neos Dionysos mostly
25 miles (40 km) north of Aswan
the inner sanctuaries, where The former quarries still bear completed it. Roman emperor
there is a series of chapels clear masons’ marks, as well as Located on an arid bluff Augustus added the entrance
with fine reliefs. carved inscriptions. There are overlooking the River Nile, the pylon. The Crocodile Museum
also several small chapels and temple at Kom Ombo has an nearby has a collection of around
shrines, including the Speos of unusual symmetrical layout— 40 mummified crocodiles, along
Gebel Silsila Horemheb, a rock-cut chapel there are twin entrances, halls, with crocodile coffins and
with a sanctuary containing and sanctuaries. This is because statues depicting Sobek. Many
43 miles (70 km) north of Aswan
seven statues, including those the temple was dedicated to two of the mummies came from the
South of Edfu, the Nile narrows of Horemheb and the god Amen. gods: the crocodile god Sobek nearby necropolis of El-Shatb,
as it forces its way between two The walls are covered in and the falcon god Haroeris south of the present-day town
sandstone cliffs. The rock here numerous reliefs. (Horus the Elder). of Kom Ombo.

△ The entrance of Kom Ombo Temple, dedicated to the gods Sobek and Haroeris
380 | SITES

Nearby is a rock-cut Nilometer,

with stone stairs leading down to
a small basin and walls calibrated
to record the height of the annual
flood, and so indicate the likely
crop yield for the coming year.
Just north of the Nilometer
is the Aswan Museum, which is
home to a collection of artifacts
found on digs in and around
Aswan. These range from weapons
and everyday utensils to statues,
mummies, and sarcophagi.

Tombs of the Nobles

West bank of the River Nile at Aswan

The cliffs on the west bank of the

River Nile, across from central
Aswan, are pockmarked with
the rock-cut Tombs of the
Nobles. (In Arabic, the site is
known as Qubbet el-Hawa.)
Dating from the Old and
Middle Kingdoms, the tombs
have a simple layout of an
entrance hall, a pillared
antechamber, and a corridor
leading to a burial chamber.
Many of the tombs are decorated
with scenes of everyday life.
The largest and best preserved
of these is the Tomb of Prince
Sarenput II, governor of southern
Egypt during the 12th Dynasty.
A six-pillared entrance hall leads
into the burial chamber, which
is decorated with paintings of
the prince and his son hunting
and fishing.
△ Elephantine Island, with feluccas sailing nearby on the River Nile The tombs of Mekhu, a noble
from the 6th Dynasty who was
when a fortress existed here Khnum. The surviving structure murdered while on a military
Elephantine Island guarding Egypt’s southern dates from the Ptolemaic Period, expedition in Nubia, and his
border. The island was also the but it stands on the site of much son Sabni are crudely decorated
The River Nile at Aswan
cult center of the ram-headed earlier temples—there are with funeral and family scenes.
Known as Abu or Yebu god Khnum, who was believed references to a Temple of Khnum The Tomb of Sarenput I,
(elephant) in ancient times, to control the flooding of the on the island in the 3rd Dynasty. Guardian of the South during
this island on the River Nile Nile. The ruins of the ancient There are also the remains of a the 12th Dynasty and grandfather
is the oldest inhabited part of settlement cover the southern tip temple to Satet, Khnum’s female of Sarenput II, contains charming
Aswan. Settlers arrived as far of the island and include the counterpart, and a chapel of the wall paintings that depict him
back as the Early Dynastic Period, partially reconstructed Temple of local “saint” Heka-ib. with his family and dogs.
 UPPER EGYPT AND LOWER NUBIA | 381

as well as adornments for

Nubian Museum temples, burial chambers,
and other structures.
0.6 miles (1 km) south of central Aswan
In one of these quarries lies
This museum is dedicated to the an obelisk with three sides of
history and culture of Nubia, its shaft almost completed. As
the area between Aswan and the obelisk was being removed
Khartoum in present-day Sudan. from the ground, the masons
Nubia was controlled by Egyptian discovered a flaw in the rock,
kings. At the end of the Third so they abandoned it, still partly
Intermediate Period, Egypt was attached to the surrounding rock.
ruled by a Nubian dynasty. △ The Nubian Museum at Aswan If it had been completed, it
The exhibits are displayed would have weighed a staggering
on three floors in a beautiful, also displays documenting the 1,200 tons (1,090 tonnes) and
purpose-built building that is massive UNESCO rescue effort Unfinished obelisk stood 138 ft (42 m) high. This
inspired by traditional Nubian to move Nubia’s monuments, is nearly one-third larger than
1 mile (1.5 km) south of central Aswan
architecture. Highlights include notably the temple at Abu Simbel, any other Egyptian obelisk ever
statues from the 25th (Nubian) away from the rising waters of Quarries in the vicinity of Aswan erected. It is thought that the
Dynasty and pottery bowls that Lake Nasser after the Aswan High supplied some of the granite used obelisk dates from the reign
date back 6,000 years. There are Dam was built. to make ancient Egyptian statues, of Hatshepsut.

△ Partially quarried obelisk in an ancient Aswan quarry

382 | SITES

△ Glimpse of the River Nile through a doorway at the Temple of Isis, Philae, on Agilika Island
 UPPER EGYPT AND LOWER NUBIA | 383

Sehel Island
2 miles (3 km) south of Aswan

Sehel is a large island halfway

between the town of Aswan
and the old Aswan Dam. In
ancient times, it was the site
of a temple to Anukis (Anuket),
the patron deity of the River
Nile and consort of Khnum.
The island was also used as a
quarry for granite, and there are
many inscriptions on boulders
and cliffs at the southern end
of it, mostly dating to the 18th
and 19th Dynasties.
The most famous of the
inscriptions is known as the
Famine Stela. It records a
seven-year period of drought
and famine during the reign △ The relocated Temple of Kalabsha, built during the reign of Emperor Augustus
of Djoser in the Old Kingdom,
but Egyptologists believe that only for Egyptians, but for Isis columned pavilion by the water’s court and a roofless hypostyle
the stela was actually inscribed worshippers from all around edge known as the Kiosk of hall noted for its ornate column
about 2,500 years later, during the Mediterranean. Trajan. The site also includes capitals and its reliefs, which
the Ptolemaic Period. When the High Dam was the remains of a church, which show various kings and emperors
built in the 1960s, the rising shows that Philae continued in the presence of gods.
waters of Lake Nasser threatened to be a significant center of Close to the Temple of
Philae to submerge the island temple Christian worship after people Kalabsha is the Temple of Beit
completely, so it was dismantled had ceased to worship the el-Wali, which is dedicated to the
Agilika Island, 4 miles (6 km) south
of Aswan and moved to the higher ground ancient Egyptian gods. god Amen. Built during the reign
of nearby Agilika Island. The of Ramesses II, it is a small
Philae was the cult center of the UNESCO-led project took temple cut into the rock and
goddess Isis, who, together with from 1972 to 1980 to complete, Kalabsha fronted by a brick pylon and
her husband Osiris, became one during which time Agilika was stone-floored forecourt. On the
West of the Aswan High Dam
of the most important and widely landscaped to look like Philae. walls of the forecourt, Ramesses
worshipped Egyptian deities Boats drop visitors at the Like nearby Philae, the Temple II is shown smiting his enemies,
from the Late Period onward. landing at the southern tip of the of Kalabsha is another Ptolemaic which include Nubians, Libyans,
Her temple on the island of island, near the oldest building, and Roman building that mimics and Syrians. Inside the temple,
Philae was one of the last ones the Kiosk of Nectanebo. From earlier ancient Egyptian ones. there is simply an antechamber
built in traditional Egyptian style. there, a long courtyard flanked The construction of the temple and a sanctuary. The latter
The earliest buildings on the by colonnades leads to the main began in the late Ptolemaic contains a niche with a triad
site were probably constructed Temple of Isis, built mainly in Period and was completed statue cut out of the rock that
during the time of Taharqa of the late Ptolemaic and early during the reign of the Roman depicts Ramesses II between
the 25th Dynasty, and the earliest Roman Periods. Emperor Augustus in the 1st two deities.
surviving structures date from The temple’s Gate of Hadrian century ce. Both Kalabsha and Beit el-Wali
the reign of Nectanebo I of the was inscribed in 394 ce with Dedicated to the Nubian (along with the battered remains
30th Dynasty. Most of what can Egypt’s last hieroglyphics. Other fertility god Marul (Mandulis), of the Roman Kiosk of Kertassi)
be seen today, however, dates buildings on the island include the temple is approached by an were moved to this site near the
from the Ptolemaic Period, when the Temple of Hathor, which imposing causeway leading up Aswan High Dam in a German-
the island became an important is decorated with reliefs of from the water’s edge to the first funded rescue operation after
pilgrimage destination not musicians, and the unfinished pylon. Beyond is a colonnaded the flooding of Nubia.
384 | SITES

including those found on the

sanctuary’s back wall, which
depict Amenhotep II killing
Syrian prisoners of war.
A short distance away is the
rock-cut Temple of Derr, which
was built during the time of
Ramesses II. Its pylon and court
are gone, but a ruined pillar hall
remains, with reliefs depicting
the Nubian campaigns of the
warrior king. Also nearby is
another rock-cut tomb, which
belonged to Pennut, the viceroy
of northern Nubia under
Ramesses VI. The tomb is
decorated with scenes of
its owner’s life.

△ Entrance to the avenue of sphinxes at Wadi es-Sebua Abu Simbel

174 miles (280 km) south of Aswan
be ascended for views of the
Wadi es-Sebua surrounding landscape. Also in Amada Carved out of a solid cliff in
the vicinity is the small Temple the 13th century bce, the
87 miles (140 km) south of the Aswan 115 miles (185 km) south of the Aswan
High Dam of Maharraka, which dates High Dam Great Temple of Ramesses II
from the Roman Period. It is and the adjacent smaller
The Temple of Ramesses II at dedicated to Isis and Serapis, Constructed during the reigns of Temple of Hathor are second
Wadi es-Sebua is memorable for the Alexandrian god. All that Tuthmosis III and Amenhotep II, possibly only to the Pyramids
its striking location on the lonely remains now is the hypostyle the Temple of Amada is the of Giza in terms of ancient
desert shores of Lake Nasser. It hall. The temples were originally oldest surviving monument on Egyptian spectacle.
is approached by an avenue of located elsewhere and were Lake Nasser. It is dedicated to the Although dedicated to Amen,
sphinxes that lend their name moved here when Lake Nasser gods Amen-Ra and Ra-Horakhty. Ptah, and Ra-Horakhty, the
to the site: Wadi es-Sebua means rose after the construction of The temple has some of the Great Temple is really all about
“Valley of Lions.” the Aswan High Dam. best-preserved reliefs in Nubia, Ramesses II, whose four colossal
Beyond an entrance pylon is
a courtyard with 10 statues of
Ramesses II, and, beyond that, a
12-pillared hall and a sanctuary
that is partly carved into the
rock. The sanctuary was later
converted into a Christian
church, and faint images of
saints can be seen over the
original reliefs.
A little farther north, in the
3rd century bce, the Nubian
king Arkamani began the Temple
of Dakka, which was added to
in the Ptolemaic and Roman
Periods. It was dedicated to
Thoth and has a large pylon, still
in excellent condition, which can △ The Temple of Amada, the oldest surviving temple in Nubia
 UPPER EGYPT AND LOWER NUBIA | 385

enthroned statues—each 108 ft an Osiride statue of Ramesses II. in which Ramesses II sits in Beside his Great Temple,
(33 m) high—proclaim the Another antechamber with four the company of Amen, Ptah, Ramesses also had a smaller
might of the king to anyone columns is decorated with scenes and Ra-Horakhty. On two days temple dedicated to the goddess
approaching from the south. of Ramesses II and his wife every year, the sun penetrates Hathor carved out of the cliff
A doorway between the statues Nefertari making offerings to the building and shines on these face. The front of it is lined
leads to a hypostyle hall with the gods. The innermost part four statues that were once with six 30 ft (10 m) statues
eight columns, each fronted by of the temple is the sanctuary covered in gold. of Ramesses II and Nefertari.

△ Entrance to the Great Temple of Ramesses II and colossi at Abu Simbel

386 | GLOSSARY

Glossary F
faience A ceramic material made
mainly from quartz and usually glazed
blue or green.
K
ka The life force of a person formed at
birth. After the person’s death, the ka
lived in the tomb of the deceased,
false door A magical, inscribed door where it was provided funerary
A canopic jars Four containers used found in tombs, which the spirit of the offerings to eat. It was represented
aegis A protective necklace bearing to store the internal organs (the deceased (ka) can travel through to in art as a double of the deceased.
the head of a deity. stomach, lungs, liver, and intestines) receive funerary offerings. Kemet The ancient Egyptian name for
Akhet The first season of the Egyptian during the mummification process Field of Reeds The Egyptian afterlife Egypt meaning “Black Land.” It refers
calendar when the River Nile was (see mummification). where the god Osiris rules. Ancient to the mud deposited from the River
flooded (see inundation). cartonnage A material made from Egyptians considered it to be Nile during the annual flooding
Amarna The modern name for the city layers of linen or papyrus covered heavenly paradise—an idealized (see inundation).
founded by Akhenaten. It also refers with plaster. version of Egypt. king list An ordered record of
to aspects of culture during his reign. cartouche An oval ring drawn around flax A flowering plant used for its the kings of Egypt since the first
Amarna Period (1352–1323 bce) An the name of a king or a queen. textile fibers. It was often spun into unification of Upper and Lower Egypt.
era in the late-18th Dynasty when Cataracts Six outcrops of rock that linen cloth. kohl A black powder often used
the capital of Egypt was moved to form rapids on the River Nile. The first funerary offerings Goods such as as eyeliner.
Akhetaten, a site now referred to as one is at Aswan. bread, beer, and wine provided by Kush An area to the south of Egypt,
Amarna. The period is associated with causeway A paved pathway, often mourners or magically, through in present-day northern Sudan.
a radical departure in religious and linking a pyramid to a temple or pictures and inscriptions.
artistic ideas. a canal. L
amulet A magical pendant with cenotaph A ceremonial tomb that is G lapis lazuli A dark-blue semiprecious
protective properties, worn by the not built for burial. gezira The Arabic word for “island,” stone, which the Egyptians imported
living and the dead. Coffin Texts Magic spells that are often used to refer to islands in the from present-day Afghanistan.
animal cult The worshipping of a inscribed into the interior of a coffin. River Nile. Late Period (664-332 bce) The era
deity through a representative animal. colossus (pl. colossi) A statue that is God’s Wife The religious title held that immediately followed the Third
ankh The hieroglyphic symbol for larger than life-size. by some royal women, indicating a Intermediate Period when Egypt
“life” in the shape of a looped cross. cult A system of religious worship connection to the god Amen. was ruled by its last native Egyptian
antechamber A small room that leads or ritual. Greco-Roman Period (332 bce –395 ce) rulers, as well as Persian kings (see
to a larger room. cuneiform A script used across the An era in the history of ancient Egypt Intermediate Period).
anthropoid In Egyptology, this ancient Near East, distinguished by when the country was ruled by lector priest A priest responsible
refers to a coffin shaped to resemble its wedge-shaped symbols. Macedonian and Roman leaders, for reciting ritual texts.
a human. starting with Alexander the Great. Levant The ancient name for a
Apis A sacred bull believed to be the D region on the eastern coast of the
living representative of the god Ptah. Delta The triangular-shaped area H Mediterranean Sea, which included
apotropaic The magical ability to of fertile land between Cairo and Hedjet The name for the white crown present-day Jordan, Lebanon, Syria,
ward off harm and evil. the Mediterranean Sea. of Upper Egypt. Palestine, Israel, and parts of
archaism A style of art, architecture, demotic A cursive script based on Hellenism The culture and ideas of southern Turkey.
and writing that imitates older works. hieratic that was quick to write. ancient Greece. Lower Egypt The northern area of
This became a cultural trend during Deshret The name for the red crown Hellenistic Period (332–30 bce) see Egypt at the end of the River Nile;
the 25th and 26th Dynasties. of Lower Egypt. Ptolemaic Period. the land around the Delta.
atef crown The feathered white Duat The underworld, which the sun hieratic A cursive script derived Luxor A city on the eastern bank
crown of the god Osiris. god Ra traveled through every night. from hieroglyphs and typically used of the River Nile, which includes
Aten The god promoted by King dynasty A succession of rulers from for correspondence. the site of the Temple of Karnak.
Akhenaten, depicted as solar disk related families. hieroglyphs A script of pictorial signs
emitting rays that end in hands. typically used for official inscriptions. M
E Hittites The people of an ancient maat The concepts of order, truth,
B Early Dynastic Period (c.3000– nation located in present-day Turkey. and justice. They are represented
ba The part of the soul believed to make 2686 bce) The period in Egyptian Hyksos The Semitic people who ruled by a goddess of the same name.
an individual unique. In art, it was often history immediately following the first Egypt during the Second Intermediate mastaba A bench-shaped tomb
represented by a human-headed bird. unification of Upper and Lower Egypt. Period (see Intermediate Period). with a flat roof and an underground
barque A ceremonial boat used to embalming The preservation of hypostyle hall A pillared temple hall. burial chamber.
transport statues of deities. a dead body from decay using Memphis For most of the Dynastic
Book of the Dead A collection of chemicals, perfumes, salts, and I Period, this city south of the Delta
spells intended to enable the soul of ointments (see mummification). Intermediate Period An unsettled was the administrative capital.
the deceased to navigate the afterlife. epithet A descriptive word or a phrase period of time without a king in menat necklace A broad, beaded
that identifies a specific attribute of a charge of the whole of Egypt. necklace with a counterpoise to
C person, place, or thing. For example, inundation The annual flooding of the redistribute the weight.
calcite The crystalline form the epithet of Ptolemy I was River Nile from August to November Menes The mythical first king of
of limestone. “Soter” (Savior). (see Akhet). unified Egypt.
 GLOSSARY | 387

Middle Egypt An area that is roughly P Roman Period (30 bce –395 bce) The soul house A miniature model dwelling
south of the Faiyum and north of papyrus (pl. papyri) A writing material era when Egypt was a province of the placed in the tomb of its dead owner
Asyut. The term often refers to sites made from the stalks of a papyrus plant. Roman Empire. It followed Octavian’s for use in the afterlife.
surrounding Amarna and Beni Hasan. pectoral A jeweled ornament worn as victory over the forces of Mark Antony sphinx A creature with a lion’s body
Mitanni The area of northern a pendant around the neck. and Cleopatra VII at Actium in 30 bce. and human head, often depicting
Mesopotamia between the Tigris and Peret The second season in the a king.
Euphrates Rivers. Egyptian calendar when the crops S stela (pl. stelae) An inscribed stone
mortuary cult A group of people who were planted and grew. Saite Period (664–525 bce) An era that or wooden slab.
provided funerary offerings. peristyle court An open court lasted throughout the 26th Dynasty of swnw The ancient Egyptian word
mortuary priest A person appointed with columns. ancient Egypt, when the capital of for “doctor.”
to provide funerary offerings, usually pharaoh The title of a king, meaning Egypt was moved to Sais.
on a daily basis. the “great house.” sarcophagus A stone container for the T
mortuary temple A temple erected Predynastic Period (c . 4400 bce – coffin and/or mummy of the deceased. Thebes The religious capital of Egypt
for funerary offerings and worship of c.3000 ce) The era before the scarab A dung beetle that the ancient during the New Kingdom, located in
a deceased royal person. Mortuary unification of Egypt in 3000 bce. Egyptians believed was sacred and present-day Luxor.
temples were usually constructed It predated the dynasties of associated with rebirth. tomb model A wooden figure or
close to the deceased’s tomb. Egyptian kings. Sea-Peoples An alliance of seafaring set to be placed in a tomb as a
mummification The process of Ptolemaic Period (332–30 bce) An era tribes that invaded Egypt during the funerary offering.
preserving a corpse. during the Greco-Roman Period when Ramesside Period. tumulus (pl. tumuli) An artificial
mummiform To resemble, or be in Egypt was ruled by Macedonian kings, Sed festival A royal jubilee or festival mound built over a grave.
the shape of, a wrapped mummy. named after the 15 kings who took the celebrating the king after 30 years
mummy The corpse of a human or name Ptolemy during this period (see of rule. U
animal that has been preserved by Greco-Roman Period). senet A popular board game from udjat eye (or wedjat eye) A protective
either natural or artificial means. Punt The ancient Egyptian name for a ancient Egypt, played on a board of symbol representing the eye of the
land in eastern Africa. The Egyptians 30 squares. god Horus.
N sent expeditions there to obtain sepulchre A building or room, cut into unification In Egyptology, this refers
Naqada A village near Luxor with goods such as incense, ebony, and rock, in which a dead person is buried. to the merger of Upper and Lower
a predynastic cemetery. The word animal skins. serapeum A temple dedicated to the Egypt into one kingdom, Egypt.
also refers to a predynastic Egyptian pylon In Egyptology, this refers to the god Serapis. It is also the burial place Unification Period (c.3000–2686 bce)
culture, which is divided into three monumental entrance to a temple. for Apis bulls at Saqqara (see Apis). see Early Dynastic Period.
phases known as Naqada I–III. pyramid A tomb with a square base serdab A walled-up chamber in a Upper Egypt The south of Egypt. The
natron A natural salt used to and four sloping sides, built to hold tomb made to contain a statue of term sometimes includes Middle Egypt.
dehydrate the body during the the mummified body of a king. the deceased. uraeus A depiction of a rearing cobra,
mummification process. Pyramid Texts The magical spells serekh A rectangular panel containing worn on crowns or royal headdresses.
necropolis The term can refer to any inscribed on the interior walls of Old the king’s name, used in the Early
ancient Egyptian cemetery. Kingdom pyramids. Dynastic Period. V
nemes A striped headscarf worn pyramid town A village built for shabti A magical servant figurine Valley of the Kings The burial site,
by kings. pyramid workers. believed to work on behalf of the used during the New Kingdom, that
nomarch The governor or ruler of deceased in the Field of Reeds. contained the royal tombs of the
a nome (see nome). R Shemu The summer and third season kings in Thebes.
nome An administrative area of Ramesseum The mortuary temple in the Egyptian calendar, after the Valley of the Queens The burial site
Egypt, controlled by a nomarch of Ramesses II on the west bank crops were harvested. of queens and royal children of the
(see nomarch). of Thebes. side-lock A distinctive hairstyle worn 19th and 20th Dynasties in Thebes.
Nubia The region south of Aswan, Ramesside Period (1295–1069 bce) by children. vizier The highest official in ancient
in present-day southern Egypt and An era that lasted throughout the 19th Sinai A peninsula in northeast Egypt, Egyptian government.
northern Sudan. and 20th Dynasties of ancient Egypt, used by the Ancient Egyptians as a
named after the 11 kings who took the source for copper and turquoise and W
O name Ramesses during this period. as a passage to the Levant. wadi A term for a dried-up river bed,
obelisk A tall, square-based stone registers In ancient Egyptian art, sistrum A rattlelike instrument. often used to refer to a valley.
with a pyramidal top that symbolizes these are horizontal lines that separate Sm-priest A senior priest who was Ways of Horus An ancient road that
the sun’s rays and was often erected the different scenes of an artwork and responsible for reciting the Opening lined Egypt with the Levant (see Levant).
at the entrance of a temple. provide a “ground” for the figures. of the Mouth ritual. Weighing of the Heart A ceremony in
Opening of the Mouth A ritual relief A carving technique in which solar boat The mythical boat in which the Duat in which the deceased’s heart
performed on a mummy before burial. pictures are cut into a flat surface or the sun god Ra and his companions was weighed against a single feather to
The priest releases the ka from the raised out of a surface with the travel the sky, providing light to see if they were worthy of entering the
body, magically restoring its senses background cut away. the world. Field of Reeds.
(see ka). reserve head A stone carving of a Sons of Horus The four deities (Imsety, Window of Appearances A covered
ostracon (pl. ostraca) A fragment of head that was placed in the burial Hapy, Duamutef, and Qebehsenuef) balcony in a royal palace where the
pottery or stone upon which people shaft of a deceased’s tomb. There is who protected the organs in the four king and his family would appear
drew or wrote. no record of what its purpose was. canopic jars (see canopic jars). before the public.
388 | INDEX

Index
Page numbers in bold refer to main entries Abusir 363 Alexander Helios 299
graffiti 225 Alexandria 223, 278, 279, 281, 283, 284–285, 286
1st Dynasty 10, 14, 15, 28, 36, 46–47, 48–49, 309 Pyramid of Sahure 54, 82–83 287, 290, 299, 300, 361
2nd Dynasty 10, 14, 15, 35, 36, 46–47, 48–49, 309 royal tombs 60, 61, 64 Alexandria National Museum 361
3rd Dynasty 10, 46, 54, 56, 62, 310 Abusir Papyri 83 Bibliotheca Alexandrina 361
4th Dynasty 10, 54, 56, 57, 60–61, 62, 64–65, Abydos 128–129, 366–367 catacombs 279
72, 88, 310–311 13th Dynasty building 99, 136 Great Harbor 284
5th Dynasty 10, 56, 60–61, 70, 72–73, 88, 312 burial place of Osiris 8, 110, 128 Greco-Roman Museum 361
6th Dynasty 10, 55, 56, 61, 70, 72–73, 88–89, 312–313 king list 16–17 Kom el-Dikka 285, 361
7th Dynasty 10, 89, 313 necropolis 128, 129 Kom el-Shuqafa 361
8th Dynasty 10, 70, 89, 313 Old Kingdom temples 88, 94 Library of Alexandria 285, 361
9th Dynasty 10, 54, 91, 314 Osireion 200 Mouseion Alexandria 285
10th Dynasty 10, 54, 91, 314 royal tombs 14, 15, 46–47, 48, 49, 50, 128 Pharos lighthouse 284, 285
11th Dynasty 10, 54, 93, 94, 94–95, 100, 314 Shunet ez-Zebib (Storeroom of Raisins) 47, 49, Serapeum 286
12th Dynasty 10, 95, 98, 99, 100–101, 101, 102, 56, 128, 129 Soma 285
113, 123, 152, 160, 315–317 Temple of Ramesses II 26, 198 tomb of Alexander the Great 281, 284, 285
13th Dynasty 10, 98, 99, 100, 136–137, 317 Temple of Seti I 17, 198, 200 alphabetic scripts 123
14th Dynasty 10, 137, 317 Terrace of the Great God 129 Amada, Temple of 384
15th Dynasty 11, 137, 318 Actium, Battle of 278, 299 Amara West 216
16th Dynasty 11, 137, 318 Aegyptiaca (Manetho) 16 Amarna 31, 117, 140, 141, 165, 177, 182–183, 366
17th Dynasty 11, 99, 136, 137, 140, 146–147, 318 Afghanistan 29, 122 abandoned 190
18th Dynasty 103, 140, 143, 150, 160, 164, 319–323 afterlife construction of 178
end of 194–195 Abydos and 46 House of Ranefer 184–185
fashion 170 Book of the Dead 208–209 North Palace 182–183, 189
foreign threats 240 Coffin Texts 71, 109 Amarna Letters 174, 180–181
kings and queens 11, 146–147 dress for the 80–81 Amarna Period 17, 178–179, 187, 200–201, 212
mortuary temples 206–207 false doors as portals to 74 Amasis 267
viziers 172–173 Field of Reeds 23, 126–127, 237 Amaunet 335
19th Dynasty 11, 195, 198, 323–325 kings’ expectation of 50, 54, 56, 57, 70–71, Amen-Kamutef 335
end of 228–229 82, 107, 206 Amen-Min 335
Ramesses II 212–221 mummification 256–257 Amen/Amen-Ra 38, 94, 95, 98, 103, 140, 152, 153,
Seti I 200–201 myth of Osiris 126–127 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 175, 178, 182, 190,
20th Dynasty 326–327 nomarchs’ expectation of 105 204–205, 207, 210, 212, 218, 220, 221, 234,
end of 11, 198, 242–243, 252, 254 ordinary people and 50–51, 107, 236 235, 265, 281, 335
foundation 229, 238 preparing for 82–83 Amenemhat I 98, 100, 101, 130, 315
Ramesses III 238–239, 240–241 Pyramid Texts 70–71, 206 pyramid (Lisht) 102
Ramesses IV-XI 242–243 sacrificial burial of attendants 48 Amenemhat II 103, 123, 316
21st Dynasty 11, 250, 252, 254, 255, 328 shabtis as servants for 262 pyramid (Dahshur) 102
22nd Dynasty 11, 250, 252, 254, 255, 328 see also tombs Amenemhat III 98, 101, 110, 316
23rd Dynasty 11, 252, 328 Agilkia Island 293 pyramids (Dahshur/Hawara) 98, 99, 102, 103
24th Dynasty 11, 252, 253, 328 agriculture 22–23 Amenemhat IV 101, 316–317
25th Dynasty 328 and Nile floods 18–19, 22 pyramid (Mazghuna) 102
art 268 Aha 36, 46, 48 Amenemope 255
coffins 258–259 Ahhotep, Queen 142, 146–147 Amenemopet 225
Nubian pharaohs 11, 250, 264–265 Ahmose 17, 140, 143, 146, 150–151, 196–197, 245, 319 Amenherkhepeshef 238
26th Dynasty 329 Ahmose, son of Ibana 142–143 Amenhotep I 143, 146–147, 150, 151, 237, 319
art 268 Ahmose-Meritamen, Queen 244–245 Amenhotep II 68, 69, 141
Saite kings 11, 251, 266–267 Ahmose-Nefertari, Queen 146, 147, 153, 237 consolidation of empire 164–165
27th Dynasty 11, 270, 329 Aker 335 Amenhotep III 17, 68, 140, 141, 174–175, 178, 180,
28th Dynasty 11, 270, 329 Akhenaten 140, 141, 170, 175, 177, 178–179, 181, 181, 194, 212, 214, 281, 320
29th Dynasty 11, 271, 329 187, 190, 194, 195, 246, 321 mortuary temple (Kom el-Hetan) 174, 175, 220, 221
30th Dynasty 11, 251, 271, 330 Amarna 182–183 palace complex (Malqata) 158
31st Dynasty 11, 271, 330 Queen Nefertiti 186–187 Queen Tiy 176–177
Akhetaten 178, 179 temple building 159, 174–175, 203, 205, 217,

A
Aanakht 237
Akhmim 177, 214, 366
Alashiya of Cyprus 181
Alexander IV of Macedon 281
221, 223, 228
tomb (Western Valley) 175, 192
Amenhotep IV see Akhenaten
Abu Roash 54, 60 Alexander the Great 178, 251, 271, 280–281, 283, Amenhotep, High Steward of Memphis 223
Abu Simbel, Temple of Ramesses II 198, 199, 284, 286, 330–331 Amenhotep, son of Hapu 168
214, 216, 217–219, 384–385 tomb (Alexandria) 281, 284, 285 Amenhotep-Huy 217
 INDEX | 389

Amenmesse 228 Asyut 90, 91, 94, 98 royal palaces 188–189

Amenmose 152, 262 Aten 178, 179, 182, 187, 337 stone 31, 58–59
Ameny-Qemau 136 Atet, tomb (Meidum) 78–79 burial chambers 57, 66, 70, 72, 74, 104, 161,
Ammit 209, 336 Atum 38, 127, 338 166, 167, 192–193, 236, 237
Amurru 181 Augustus, Emperor 281, 292, 293, 299, 300, 301 burial goods
Amyrtaios 270 Avaris 136, 137, 140, 142, 143, 150 Early Dynastic 49
Anath 336 axes 142, 145 Early Egypt 47, 51
Andjety 336 Ay 187, 191, 194 Early New Kingdom 138–139, 140, 142, 161,
Anedjib 48 Aysut 104 167, 190, 191, 192–193
Ani, Papyrus of 208–209 games 50, 51
animals
cults 272–273
for food 116–117, 274
B
Babi 338
Greco-Roman Period 278
Late New Kingdom 227, 237, 242, 244
Late Period 255
mythical beasts 45 Babylon/Babylonia 181, 266, 267, 278, 281, 283 Middle Kingdom 24, 31, 113, 116–117, 130
pets 274–275 Babylonian language 180 Old Kingdom 57
in Predynastic art 29 Badakhshan (Afghanistan) 29 Predynastic Period 28, 29
representing kings 68 Badari/Badarian Period 10, 14, 28, 32 Tanis necropolis 255
working 274 Bak 224 tomb robberies 244–245
Ankh-Ka vessel 42 Bakenkhonsu, stela of 238 Burnaburiash of Babylon 181
Ankhesenamen, Queen 190, 191, 194 Balikh, River 164 Byblos (Lebanon) 61, 122, 164
Ankhnesmerye, Queen 88 bandages, mummification 257
Ankhtify of Moalla 92–93
Ankhu 263
Annals of Amenemhat II 123
Banebdjedet 338
barques, ceremonial 156, 205, 207, 210, 211, 221
barracks 112
C
caches, tomb robberies 244, 245
Antefoker 85 basalt 58, 83 Caesar, Julius 278, 281, 295, 299
Anti 336 Bastet 251, 273, 275, 338 Caesarion see Ptolemy XV
Antinoopolis 300 bastinado 244 Cairo 223, 362–363
Antiochus III 283 Bat 338 Egyptian Museum 362
Antiochus IV 294 Battlefield Palette 41 Grand Egyptian Museum 363
Antirrhodos 287 Bay (“Chancellor of the Whole Land”) 228–229 National Museum of Egyptian Civilization 362
Antony, Mark 278, 299 beaded collars 96–97, 124, 148, 170 calendar, Egyptian 17
Anubis 257, 258, 259, 260, 336 beaded dresses 80 Cambyses II of Persia 250, 251, 267, 270
Anukis 336 beauty products 149 Canaan/Canaanites 98, 136–137, 151, 164, 181,
Apeni 137 beer 22, 116 201, 215, 235
Apis/Apis bulls 227, 272, 273, 288 Beir el-Wali 217 Cannibal Hymn 71
Apophis 336 Beni Hasan 94, 98, 99, 104, 105, 114, 115, 217, 365 canopic jars 192, 256, 257
apotropaic wands 120–121 Asiatics at 136 capital punishment 244, 245
Apries 267 Berenike II 283 Caracalla, Emperor 281
Apu 181 Berlin Bust (Nefertiti) 186 Carchemish 151
Arensnuphis 293 Bes 120, 338–339 Carter, Howard 191
army 135, 143, 144–145, 146, 150, 181, 201, 214– Beth-Shan 201 cartouches 16
215, 265, 266, 267, 295 Bintanath, Princess 214 cataracts of the Nile 18, 48
arrows 144 Black Land 22 cats
Arsinoe II 282–283, 284 black-topped red ware 32 as pets 274–275
art blue crown 150, 175, 194, 246 sacred, in cemeteries 253, 273
Amarna Period 178–179, 187, 246 Blue Nile 18 cattle 29, 116
archaism in 250, 268–269 board games 114 cave temples 217
Early Dynastic 45 boats cemeteries
families and children in 154–155 boat burials 15, 47 Abydos 128
figured ostraca 246–247 model 24, 47, 51 Amarna 183
Greco-Roman period 276–277, 278 Nile 21, 24–25 middle-class 105
Late Period 250 Predynastic Period 35 nomarchs 27, 104, 166
painting techniques 76–79 Book of the Dead 71, 127, 167, 208–209, 243, provincial 54, 98, 104–105, 166
Predynastic Period 34–35, 37 260–261 see also tombs
scale in Egyptian 45 Book of Two Ways 71, 107 cenotaphs, Abydos 47, 215
significance of colors 22 bows 145 ceremonial areas, cities 35
see also pottery bread 22, 116, 117 ceremonial palaces 189
Artaxerxes III of Persia 271 brickmaking 30–31 Champollion, Jean-François 303
Artemidorus 301 British Museum (London) 303 chapels
Asiatics 122, 123, 136, 142, 165 brother states 180–181 mahat 128–129, 200
Assyrians, invasions of Egypt 250, 251, 265, Bubastis 88, 214, 250, 251, 252, 253, 273, 361 mortuary temples 207
266, 270, 286 Buhen 31, 61, 130, 132–133 offering 50, 51, 72, 73, 74, 82, 93, 104, 113,
Astarte 336–337 building 166, 167, 237, 258
Aswan 18, 21, 24, 55, 86, 378 mortuary temples 83 Red Chapel (Karnak) 152, 153, 157
Dams 132, 292, 293 mud bricks 30–31 White Chapel (Karnak) 103, 204
Nubian Museum (Aswan) 381 pyramids 63, 67, 102 chariots 24, 143, 144–145
390 | INDEX

Cheops see Khufu Darius II of Persia 270 Amarna Letters 180–181

Chephren see Khaefre Darius III of Persia 280 Amenhotep III 174–175
childbirth celebrations 85 death see afterlife; cemeteries; pyramids; tombs consolidating the empire 164–165
childhood 154–155 Deir el-Bahri 114, 155 empire building 140, 150–151
Christianity 278, 300–301 cache 197, 245 end of 18th Dynasty 194–195
cities coffins of Djeddjehutyefankh 258–259 expulsion of the Hyksos 142–143
Predynastic/Unification 34–35 Hatshepsut’s mortuary temple 141, 152–153, Hatshepsut 152–153, 156–157
see also by name 156–157, 207, 221, 374 imperial expansion 150–151
Claudius, Emperor 292 Montuemhat’s tomb 268–269 Nefertiti 186–187
Cleopatra I 294 tomb-temple of Montuhotep II 94–95, 156 Queen Tiy 176–177
Cleopatra II 294, 295, 298 Deir el-Medina 23, 121, 147, 150, 159, 161, 198, Tutankhamen 190–191
Cleopatra III 294, 295, 298 32–33, 243, 373 earrings 125, 170
Cleopatra VII Philopator 278, 279, 295, 298–299, 333 figured ostraca 246, 247 Eastern Desert 49, 122, 131, 200, 216
Cleopatra Selene 299 life at 230–231 Ebers Medical Papyrus 119
climate change 89 Tomb of Sennedjem 236–237 Edfu, Temple of Horus 25, 278, 279, 288, 290,
clothing workers’ strike 239 291, 378–379
New Kingdom 170–171 deities see gods and goddesses Edict of Toleration 300–301
Old Kingdom 80–81 demons 120 education 154
co-regency 100, 156 Demotic 300, 301, 302 Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus 119
Coffin Texts 71, 109 Den 42, 48 Egyptian empire
coffins Dendera 367 building of 140, 150–151
Ahmose 196–197 Temple of Hathor 279, 288, 290–291, 299 consolidation of 164–165
Ahmose-Meritamen 244–245 temples 88, 94 first 130–131
anthropoid 237, 258 dentists 118–119 loss of 250, 251
Djeddjehutyefankh 258–259 desertification 89 el-Amrah 28, 29
Djehutynakht 108–109 desiccation 256, 257 el-Bersheh 98, 104, 109
Greco-Roman Period 276–277, 281, 283, 301 Destruction of Mankind 135 el-Kab 142–143, 378
Khnumnakht 106–107 Diadochi 281, 283 el-Kuruu 264
mummification 256–257 diet 116–117 el-Rashid (Rosetta) 303
for pets 275 Diocletian, Emperor 279, 286, 292, 300 Elephantine Island 20–21, 48, 86, 88, 94, 380
Rammeside Period 237 Diodorus Siculus 222, 273 Eloquent Peasant, The 135
Sheshonq II 254–255 Dioscorides 283 embalmers/embalming 119, 256, 257
use of two 258 Djeddjehutyefankh, coffins of 258–259 Esarhaddon 265
colossi Djedefre 60 Esna, Temple of Khnum 290, 291, 378
Great Sphinx 68–69 Djedkare Isesi 61 Eulaeus 294
of Memnon 174, 221, 372 Djehutynakht, coffin 108–109 Euphrates, River 151, 164
of Ramesses II 205, 217–219, 222 Djemi 90 evil spirits 120, 121
combs 149 Djer 46, 48, 128, 309 eye make-up 149
cones, head 170, 171 Djet 47, 48
Constantine I, Emperor 279, 300–301
copper 29, 58, 63, 76, 89, 122, 181
Coptos 27, 93
Djoser 49, 57, 310
Step Pyramid (Saqqara) 54, 56–57, 60,
62–63, 224, 227
F
faience 96–97, 124, 125
cosmetics 149, 166 doctors 119 Faiyum 98, 99, 102, 103, 112, 113, 122, 177, 189
Crete 180 dogs 274, 275 family, importance of 154
crocodiles 135 domestic animals 116–117, 274 famine 22, 57, 93
crops 19, 22, 24 domestic tasks 154 fashion
cult centers 36 Donations of Alexandria 299 New Kingdom 170–171
cult images 36 Dra Abu el-Naga cemetery 147 Old Kingdom 80–81
cuneiform script 180 drawing techniques 77 feluccas 24
Cyprus 123, 181, 241 dresses 80 fertilizer 19, 22
Cyrenaica 241 drink 116–117 festivals
droughts 57, 89 Beautiful Feast of Behdet 288

D
daggers 142, 144
ducks 117, 275
Dynasty 0 10, 28, 34, 46, 309
Beautiful Festival of the Western Valley 156,
159, 210
harvest celebrations 85
Dahshur 364
13th Dynasty pyramids 136
Bent Pyramid 62
E
Early Dynastic Period 10, 14, 304, 309
Min Festival 211
Mysteries of Osiris 110, 128
Opet Festival 159, 175, 210, 220
Black Pyramid 102 hieroglyphs 42 religious 210–211
Middle Kingdom pyramids 99, 102 royal tombs (Abydos) 46–47 Sed festival 49
Old Kingdom pyramids 54, 64 rulers 48–49 fiction 134–135
Pyramid of Senwosret III 31 temples 37, 205 Field of Reeds 23, 126–127, 209, 237, 262
Red Pyramid 62, 63 Early New Kingdom 140–141, 305 First Cataract 48, 86, 225
Damascus 201 17th and 18th Dynasty kings and queens 146–147 First Intermediate Period 10, 50, 54, 98, 158, 304, 314
dance 84–85 Akhenaten 178–179 Ankhtify and the Intefs 92–93
Darius I of Persia 270 Amarna 182–183 chaos of 90–91
 INDEX | 391

collapse of 88 God’s Wives of Amen 266 Hemaka 50, 72

Egypt reunited 94–95, 158 gold 29, 35, 122, 124, 125, 130, 131, 216 Herakleopolis Magna 54, 55, 90, 91, 93, 94, 110,
tomb robberies 244 Gold of the Brave 145 130, 253
fish 117, 274 Golden Age 174–175 Herculaneum (Italy) 288
flax 22, 80 government Herihor, General/High Priest 243, 252
flooding, Nile 18–19, 22, 24, 116 local 26–27 Herishef 110
food viziers 172–173 Hermes 287
for afterlife 72, 74, 206 Greco-Roman Period 11, 16, 278–279, 305, 330–333 Hermopolis Magna 94, 103, 175, 228, 253, 271,
diet 116–117 Alexander the Great 280–281 273, 287, 365
foreign policy Alexandria 284–285 Hermopolis Parva 270
Amarna Letters 180–181 art and culture 278 Herodotus 18, 65, 257, 266, 267
Early Dynastic Period 49 Cleopatra VII 298–299 Heryshef 341
Early New Kingdom 140, 150–151, 164–165, 180–181 early Ptolemies 282–283 Hesat 343
Greco-Roman Period 283, 294, 295, 299 Egyptian Hellenism 286–287 Hesy-Re 118–119
Late New Kingdom 198, 199, 200–201, 214–215, end of ancient Egypt 278, 300–301 Hierakonpolis 14, 15, 34–35, 40, 46, 49
228, 238–239, 240–241, 243 later Ptolemies 294–295 Main Deposit 40, 45
Late Period 264–265, 266–267, 270–271 temples 37, 290–293 Tomb 100 35, 40
Middle Kingdom 98, 101, 122–123 traditional religion 288–289 hieratic script 42, 43, 224
Old Kingdom 95 graffiti 224–225, 268 hieroglyphs 42–43, 300, 301, 302–303
see also warfare grain, transporting 24 high officials
Four Sons of Horus 339 granaries 113, 184 tombs 50, 61, 72–73, 86–87
Fourth Cataract 165 Granicus, Battle of 280 viziers 172–173
frankincense 149 granite 58, 63, 83 as warlords 243
fuel 231 Great Pyramid of Khufu (Giza) 58, 62, 63, 83 Hittites 140, 144, 165, 180, 194, 195, 198, 212,
funeral barges 24 Great Sphinx (Giza) 65, 68–69, 224 214–215, 240, 241
funerals Greece/Greeks hockey 114
dance 84, 85 Alexander the Great 280 Hor 136
Opening of the Mouth ceremony 258, 260–261 conflict with 267, 270 Horakhty 343
funerary enclosures 47, 49, 56, 57, 62 domination of Mediterranean 278 Horemakhet 68, 343
funerary masks 191, 227, 254 immigration 286 Horemheb 141, 194–195, 203, 205, 212, 322–323
Fustat see Cairo trade with 266 tombs (Saqqara/Valley of the Kings) 135, 194,
see also Greco-Roman Period 195, 223

G
Gabinius, Aulus 295
Greek script 300, 302–303
Gurna 200
gymnastics 114
Horus 25, 38, 93, 127, 133, 146, 248–249, 258,
271, 288, 290, 291, 292, 301, 343
Hotepsekhemwy 49
Galerius, Emperor 301 gynaecology 119 Hounds and Jackals 114
game, hunting 117 houses
games 50, 51, 114
Garstang, John 105
Gaugamela, Battle of 281
H
Hadrian, Emperor 278, 279, 300
artisans 233
Middle Kingdom 112–113
New Kingdom 184–185
Gaza 201 hairstyles 80, 148, 149, 154, 155, 170 human figures, painting 76
Geb 127, 339 Hapi 169, 340 Hunefer 260–261
Gebel Barkal 265 harim palaces 177, 189 hunting 114, 117, 274, 275
Gebel el-Araq 41 Harkhuf 85, 86–87 Huny 54, 62
Gebel Silsila quarries 58, 379 Harpocrates 288, 340 Huwebenef 169
Gebelein 91 harps 84, 85 Huya 177
geese 78–79, 117, 275 Hathor 39, 61, 135, 177, 214, 235, 288, 293, 340 Hyksos 98, 99, 136–137, 144, 212, 286
Gerf Hussein 217 Hatmehit 340 expulsion of 140, 142–143, 150, 197
Gerzeh Slate 12–13 Hatshepsut 17, 31, 140, 151, 152–153, 164, 165,
Giza
Great Sphinx 68–69
pyramids 54, 55, 62–63, 64–67, 362–363
205, 217, 228, 281, 320–321
mortuary temple (Deir el-Bahri) 141, 156–157,
207, 221, 374
I
Iah 234, 343
Valley Building 63, 65, 68, 82 Hauhet and Heh 341 Ibi, Pyramid of (Saqqara) 70
glass 125, 181 Hawara 98, 102, 301 Idet 168
gods and goddesses 334–359 health 118–119 Ihy 343
animals as 274, 275 heart Ikhernofret 110, 128
Greco-Roman Period 288, 300 medicine 119 Imhotep 57, 343
major Egyptian deities 38–39 weighing of the 209 impalement (“put to the wood”) 244, 245
in myths and stories 126–127, 135 Hednakht 224 incense 156–157
personal worship 234–235 Hefat 93 Ineb-Hedj (“White Walls”) 222
Predynastic Period 36–37 Heka 341 Inherkau 155
regional 26–27 Hekaib see Pepinakht Instruction of Ani 154
religious festivals 210–211 Hekanefer 217 instruments, musical 84–85
and royal power 48 Heket 341 Intef I 93, 94, 314
temples as homes for 210 Heliopolis 60–61, 64, 103 Intef II 93, 94, 274
see also religion; temples Hellenistic culture 278, 283, 285, 286–287, 288, 300 Intef III 93, 94
392 | INDEX

Ipuy, tomb (Deir el-Medina) 23 Khentyamentiu 345 coffins 258

irrigation 19, 22 Khepri 345 Nubian pharaohs 264–265
Irtjet 86, 87 Khety I 93, 114, 115 Saite Period 266–267
Isetnofret, Queen 214, 227, 228 Khety II 93 Lebanon 61, 122, 135
Isis 25, 38, 127, 146, 235, 288, 289, 292–293, 344 Khety III 93 Lector Priests 121
Israelites 241 Khnum 290, 345 Lenaeus 294
Issus, Battle of 280 Khnumhotep 72 Levant 122–123, 136, 140, 150, 164, 165, 181, 195,
Iti, Tomb of (Gebelein) 91 Khnumhotep II 104, 105, 136 200–201, 214–215, 228, 241, 252, 267
Itj-Tawy 98, 101, 102 Khnumnakht, coffin 106–107 Libya/Libyans 198, 199, 201, 212, 228, 233, 239,
Iuput 252 Khonsirdis 266 240–241, 243, 250, 252, 253, 267
Iuy 173 Khonsu 159, 237, 345 limestone 58, 63, 72
ivory 29, 41, 42, 48, 49, 64, 86, 87, 114, 165, 169, 245 Khufu 17, 60, 68, 310–311 Lisht 98, 101, 102
Iyneferti 23 Great Pyramid (Giza) 54, 58, 62, 63, 64–67, 72 literature
Iynofret 237 solar boat 65 12th Dynasty 101
Khusobek 123, 150 storytelling 134–135

J Khyan 137
king lists 16–17
livestock 22, 24, 89, 116–117
local government
Jerusalem 252 kingship Early Egypt 26–27
jewelry 80, 96–97, 124–125, 148, 248–249 chronology of dynasties 10–11 First Intermediate Period 94
as military decorations 145 co-regents 294–295 in Nubia 216, 217
Ramesside 170, 213 divine 14, 174, 212, 216, 220 local rulers
Jewish population 286 elective 136 and collapse of Old Kingdom 88
judges female 152–153, 156, 282–283 First Intermediate Period 88, 90–91
kings as 189 monuments as expressions of power 68 tombs 90, 104–105
viziers as 173 names of kings 10 Unification Period 40–41
Narmer Palette as statement of 44–45 see also nomarchs

K
ka 42, 50–51, 70, 72, 73, 136, 206, 253, 256
role of kings 48
royal palaces 188–189
timeline of dynasties 304–305
lotus 149
Lower Egypt 17, 18, 26, 29, 40, 45, 48, 172
Lower Nubia 90, 98, 110, 122, 130–131, 137, 151,
coffins 106–107 Kiya, Queen 190 165, 217
false doors 74–75 kohl 149 lutes 84
Kadesh 164, 201 Kom Abu Billou 283 Luxor 368–377
Kadesh, Battle of 198, 215, 221 Kom el-Ahmar mound 35 Luxor Museum 369
Kahun 98, 112–113, 364 Kom el-Hetan 174, 175, 221 Mummification Museum 369
Medical Papyrus 119 Kom Ombo, Temple of Horus and Sobek 290, Temple of Luxor 158, 159, 174, 175, 199, 202,
Pyramid of Senwosret II 102, 103 291, 294, 379 217, 220–221, 281, 300, 368–369
Kai 54 Kumma 130 lyres 84, 85
Kalabsha, Temple of 383 Kurgus 151, 165 Lysimachus of Thrace 282
Kamose 99, 142, 143, 146, 318 Kush/Kushites 123, 131, 142, 150, 151, 165
Karnak temple complex 17, 94, 158, 158–159, 164,
165, 202–203, 228, 238, 243, 252, 370–371
Avenues of Sphinxes 203
25th Dynasty pharaohs 264–265, 268, 286
rise of 137
see also Nubia
M
Maadi culture 14, 15, 29
Great Hypostyle Hall 200, 201, 202, 204, 205, 220 Kynebu, tomb (Thebes) 147, 237 Maat 202, 229, 346
Hatshepsut’s development of 153, 156 Macedon/Macedonian dynasty 11, 250, 251,
Khonsu Temple 243
Precinct of Amen 98, 110, 140, 158, 160, 174,
175, 202, 203, 204–205, 227, 370
L
labels 36, 42, 48
280–281, 330–331
magic/magicians 120–121, 154
mahat-chapels 128–129
Precinct of Montu 202, 370 Lake Nasser 293 makeup 149
Precinct of Mut 203, 205, 370 language 42 Malqata 158
Ramesses III’s additions to 198, 238 lapis lazuli 29, 35, 39, 76, 122, 124, 146, 248–249, Manetho 16, 89, 91, 252, 253, 265
Red Chapel 152, 153, 157 252–253 mansions 112, 113
temples to Aten 178, 182 Late New Kingdom 198–199, 305 Mariette, Auguste 147, 227
White Chapel 103, 204 end of 19th Dynasty 228–229 marriages of convenience 48
Kashta 265 Khaemwese 226–227 mastaba tombs 56, 57, 60, 65, 72–73, 105
Kauket and Kek 344–345 Ramesses II 212–221 Master of the Animals 41
Kawa 264 Ramesses III 238–239 May 224
Kemp, Barry 41 Ramesses IV–XI 242–243 Mazghuna, pyramids 102
Keret 168 Seti I 200–201 meat 116–117
Kerma 137, 150, 165, 264 threatening invaders 240–241 Medamud 103, 136
Kha 166, 231 Tomb of Sennedjem (Deir el-Medina) 236–237 medicine 118–119
Khabekhnet 235, 237 Late Period 11, 250–251, 305, 329–330 Medinet Gurob 177, 189
Khaefre 60, 68, 83, 311 27th–31st Dynasties 270–271 Medinet Habu 372
Khaefre Pyramid (Giza) 62, 63, 65 animal cults 272–273 Min Festival 211
Khaemwese 214, 224, 226–227, 268 archaism in art 268–269 mortuary temple of Ramesses III 189, 206,
Khasekhemwy 15, 35, 47, 48, 49, 309 art and culture 250 207, 238, 240
Khendjer 136 burial 258–259 palace 189
 INDEX | 393

Megiddo, Battle of 140, 164 Min 211, 235, 347 natron 256, 257
Mehen 114, 346 mineral pigments 76 Naukratis 266, 286
Mehet-Weret 346 mines 122, 123, 130 Naunet 349
Meidum 364 Mirgissa 130, 131 Neb-Ked, Papyrus of 167
Pyramid 54, 62, 81, 224 mirrors 149 Nebamun, tomb (Thebes) 18–19, 85, 166–167,
tomb chapel of Atet 78–79 Mitanni 140, 144, 164–165, 174, 180, 181, 187, 195, 240 170–171, 275
Meir 104 Mnevis bull 348 Nebethetepet 234, 349
Meketaten, Princess 182 Moalla 378 Necho I 266, 267
Meketre 112 monkeys 274, 275 Necho II 267
Memphis 55, 198, 222–223, 364 Montu 98, 136–137, 158, 202, 348 Nectanebo I 203, 205, 251, 271, 293, 330
as capital of unified Egypt 46, 48, 86, 222 Montuemhat, tomb (Deir el-Bahri) 251, 268–269 Nectanebo II 270, 271, 281, 330
changing location of 222–223 Montuhotep I 93, 94 Neferefre 60, 61
falls to Assyrians 265 Montuhotep II 17, 55, 93, 94–95, 98, 130, 314 Neferhotep I 136
foundation of 14, 48, 222 temple-tomb (Deir el-Bahri) 94, 95, 156 Neferirkare 60, 61
local government 26, 223 Montuhotep III 93 Pyramid of Neferirkare (Abusir) 83
palace of Merenptah 189 Montuhotep IV 93, 95, 100 Neferiu 74–75
pilgrimages and graffiti 224 monuments Neferneferuaten 190
Temple of Ptah 174, 222, 223, 227 archaism 268 Nefertari, Queen 170, 190, 214, 217, 220
under Nubian pharaohs 265 cities 35 Nefertem 349
waning power of 89, 94, 223 plundering for new buildings 254 Neferti 90, 101
see also Saqqara repair and restoration 227, 268 Nefertiti, Queen 125, 170, 186–187, 190
Mendes 271 royal 48, 49 Neferure, Princess 152, 156
Menes 16 stone 57, 58–59 Negative Confession 209
Menhyt 346 visiting 224 Nehebu-kau 349
Menkauhor 61 see also palaces; pyramids; temples; tombs Neith 48, 267, 350
Menkaure 60, 61, 311 Mooring Places of Pharaoh 189 Temple of 36
pyramid (Giza) 62, 65 mortar 31 Nekhbet 146, 177, 350
mercenaries 266, 267, 295 mortuary temples 57, 63, 74 Nekhemmut 237
Merenptah 189, 198, 199, 214, 223, 228, 229, royal 54, 65, 82–83, 159 Nekhen 34
241, 325 Theban 159, 206–207, 220–221 Nemtyhotep 104
Merenre 70, 86, 88 mosaics, Roman 280–281, 296–297 Neo-Assyrian empire 265
Merer, diary of 58 mother goddesses 37 Neolithic Period 14, 28
Mereruka, tomb (Saqqara) 73, 244 mud bricks 30–31, 58, 72, 132, 188 Nepherites I 270–271, 329
Meretseger 235, 247, 347 multicultural influences 123 Nephthys 127, 350–351
Merikare 93, 94, 95 mummies New Kingdom 11, 319–327
Meritamen, Princess 214 animals 273 Book of the Dead 71, 208–209
Meritaten, Princess 183, 187, 189, 190, 194 anthropoid coffins 258 coffins 196–197, 258
Merneith, Queen 48, 49, 309 mummification 265–266 end of 242–243, 250, 252, 264
Meryptah 148 Mummification Museum (Luxor) 369 fashion 170–171
Meshwesh Libyans 240, 252 mummy portraits 276–277 foundation of 17, 137, 143, 150, 197
Meskhenet 347 Ramesses III 239 graffiti 224–225
Mesopotamia Tutankhamen 257 House of Ranefer 184–185
art 34, 41 mummy-boards 237 ideas of soul 50
trade 35 music 84–85 imperialism 123, 150–151, 164–165
metalwork Mut 38, 158, 159, 202, 203, 205, 212, 235, 348–349 Karnak temple complex 202–203
Old Kingdom 89 Mutnofret, Queen 147, 152 liberation from foreign occupation 143
Predynastic Period 14, 29, 35 mww dancers 85 life at Deir el-Medina 230–231
Middle Kingdom 10, 98–99, 304, 314–317 Mycenaean civilization 241 magic 121
Buhen Fortress 132–133 Mycerinus see Menkaure Memphis 223
Coffin Texts 71 myths militarization 150
coffins 106–109 Hatshepsut 153, 156 mortuary temples 206–207
end of 136 mythical beasts 45 personal worship 234–235
foreign expeditions 122–123 Osiris 126–127, 128 private statues 168–169
kings of the 12th Dynasty 100–101 private tombs 140, 159, 166–167, 209, 236–237
magic 120–121
middle-class coffins 106–107, 127
mortuary temples 206
N
Nakhti 90
royal tombs 150, 159, 160–163, 167, 183, 190–
191, 206–207, 214, 220, 223, 230–231, 238
Thebes 158–159
Nubian conquests 130–133 Napata 264 tomb robberies 244–245
pilgrimages to tomb of Osiris at Abydos 128–129 Napoleon I of France 303 Valley of the Kings 140, 160–163
provincial cemeteries 104–105 Naqada I/Amratian Period 10, 14, 28, 29, 32, 33 viziers 26, 172–173
pyramids 98, 101, 102–103, 244 Naqada II/Gerzean Period 10, 13, 15, 28, 29, 32,33, 34 see also Early New Kingdom; Late New Kingdom
Senwosret III 110–111 Naqada III/Dynasty 0 10, 15, 28, 34 Niankhkhnum 72
storytelling 134 Naqada/Naqada culture 15, 28–29, 34 Nile, River 18–21
temples in provinces 102–103 Narmer 14, 15, 44, 45, 46, 309 agriculture along 14, 22–23
towns and houses 112–113 Narmer Palette 35, 41, 44–45 boats and river transport 24–25, 189
viziers 172 Nasser, Lake 132 Canopic branch 284
394 | INDEX

changing course 223, 254 Opening of the Mouth ceremony 258 politics
drop in water levels 89 Opet 352 4th and 5th Dynasties 61
floods 18–19, 22, 24, 116 ophthalmologists 119 Early Dynastic Period 14, 27, 28, 35, 40, 41, 49
Roman mosaic 296–297 organs, removal of 256, 257 Early New Kingdom 146, 174
Nile Delta 18, 22, 24, 29, 48, 89, 117, 241, 251, Orontes, River 215 Greco-Roman Period 286, 290, 294, 295
266–267, 270–271 orpiment 76 Late New Kingdom 238, 242
Niuserre 60, 61 Osiris 23, 39, 71, 146, 161, 167, 207, 209, 218, 288, 352 Late Period 250, 266
Nodjmet 243 coffins 106–107, 109 Middle Kingdom 98, 101, 110
Nofret 80–81 myth of 126–127 Old Kingdom 94
Nofretiabet, Princess 80 tomb (Abydos) 128–129, 200 Pompeii (Italy) 280
nomadic groups 89 Osorkon I 252, 253 pottery
nomarchs 26–27, 93, 94 Osorkon II 250, 252, 253 figured ostraca 246–247
Middle Kingdom 104 Osorkon III 255 making pots 33
tombs 99, 104–105, 114, 166 Osorkon the Elder 252 Predynastic Period 14, 28, 32–33, 35, 36
nomes 26–27, 90, 91, 94 Ostia (Italy) 300 Pr-Ramesses 31, 198, 212, 252, 253, 254
Nubia 49, 61, 142, 199, 240, 266, 267 ostraca prayers, on false doors 74
25th Dynasty pharaohs 250, 253, 264–265 Deir el-Medina 230, 231 Predynastic Period 10, 14, 28–29
Assyrian invasions 265 figured 246–247 Hierakonpolis 34–35
conquest of Egypt 265 overseer shabtis 263 pottery 32–33
conquests in 98, 100, 101, 110, 122, 130–131, religion 36–37
140, 144, 150, 164, 165, 174, 194, 243
expeditions to 86–87
fortress towns 98, 112, 130, 131, 132–133, 137
P
painting techniques 76–77
unification of Egypt 40
pregnancy 154
priests
mercenaries 91, 130 Pakhet 353 at temples 210
Nubian Museum (Aswan) 381 palaces High Priests 172, 227, 238, 250, 252, 253, 263
Ramesses II and 216–217 Alexandria 284, 287 Khaemwese 226–227
temple building 212 Amarna 183 magicians 121
tribute 173 royal 188–189 and medicine 119
Nun 351 Palermo Stone 17 mortuary temples 82–83
Nut 127, 351 Palestine 49, 122, 151 as servant of gods 36
Nynetjer 49 Palestrina (Italy) 296 towns for 112–113
palettes 12–13, 28, 29, 35, 41, 42, 44–45, 68 processions, religious festivals 210

O
obelisks
Panehesy (“King’s Son of Kush”) 243
papyrus 42
Paramessu see Ramesses I
pronaos 290
proportion 76, 77
prosthetic limbs 119
Karnak 153, 205 Paramnekhu 262 Proto-Sinaitic 123
Luxor 158, 221 parasitic infections 119 Psamtek I 250, 251, 266, 267, 329
transported on Nile 24, 58 parents 154 Psamtek II 267
unfinished obelisk (near Aswan) 381 pedestal coffins 258 Psamtek III 250, 267, 270
ocher 76 Peleset people (Philistines) 241 Psusennes I 250, 252, 254, 255
Octavian see Augustus Penmernab 169 Ptah 39, 203, 218, 227, 353
offerings Pentaweret 239 Ptah-Sokar-Osiris 353
animals 273 Pepi I 70, 88, 223, 253, 313 Ptolemaic dynasty 11, 16, 223, 278, 281, 284,
at mastabas 72–73 Pepi II 55, 70, 86, 87, 88, 89, 102, 313 285, 286, 288, 299, 300, 331–333
nomarchs’ tombs 104 Pepinakht 87 early Ptolemies 282–283
at royal tombs 50–51, 57, 63, 70 perfume 80, 149 later Ptolemies 294–295
royal mortuary temples 82–83, 206–207 Peribsen 49 temples 290–291, 292–293
oils, scented 149 Persian Empire 266, 267, 273, 280–281, 286 Ptolemy I Soter 278, 281, 282–283, 331
Old Kingdom 10, 54–55, 304, 310–313 first Persian Period 250, 251, 270, 329 Ptolemy II Philadelphus 281, 282, 284, 292, 332
4th and 5th Dynasties 60–61 second Persian Period 250, 251, 271, 281 Ptolemy III Euergetes 283, 332–333
climate change 89 Petosiris, tomb (Tuna el-Gebel) 271 Ptolemy IV Philopater 283
collapse of 87, 88–89, 90, 93 Petrie, Flinders 47 Ptolemy V 283, 294, 303
false doors 74–75 pets 274–275 Ptolemy VI 278, 292, 293, 294, 295
fashion 80–81 Philae Temple 18, 279, 290, 292–293, 382–383 Ptolemy VII 295
Giza pyramids 64–67 Philip II of Macedon 280 Ptolemy VIII 294–295
Great Sphinx 65, 68–69 Philip III Arrhidaeus of Macedon 281 Ptolemy IX 281, 295
local government 26–27 Piankhy 250, 264, 265, 266 Ptolemy X 295
mastaba tombs 72–73 pictorial script 42 Ptolemy XI 295
private tombs 50 pigments 76 Ptolemy XII Auletes/Neos Dionysos 279, 295,
Pyramid Texts 70–71, 206 pilgrimages 299, 333
pyramids 48, 54, 56–57, 62–65, 244 Abydos 8, 28, 47, 110, 128, 136 Ptolemy XIII 295, 299
royal mortuary temples 82–83 from Memphis 224 Ptolemy XIV 299
southern expeditions 86–87, 130 Hermopolis 273 Ptolemy XV Caesar 299
viziers 172 Pinudjem II, High Priest 245 Ptolemy Keraunos 282
working with stone 58–59 plague 121, 174, 187 Puiemre 275
Onuris 351 plants, medicinal 119 punishments, tomb robberies 244, 245
 INDEX | 395

Punt 156 Ramesses IV 238, 239, 326 New Kingdom tombs 140, 166
pylon gateways 205, 206, 207, 290 tomb (Valley of the Kings) 161, 162–163, 242, 243 pilgrimages and graffiti 224
Pyramid Texts 55, 61, 70–71, 82, 107, 161, 206 Ramesses V 242, 243 Pyramid of Unas 61, 70–71, 82, 89, 194, 227
pyramids Ramesses VI 192, 238, 242, 327 royal tombs 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 56, 60, 61, 64
administrative staff 82–83 Ramesses VII 199, 242 Serapeum 227, 272
Bent Pyramid (Dahshur) 62 Ramesses VIII 147, 238, 242, 243 tomb of Horemheb 135, 194, 195, 223
Black Pyramid (Dahshur) 102 Ramesses IX 242–243, 245, 327 Sati, Lady 263
building 67 Ramesses X 199, 243 Satis 355
Djoser’s Step Pyramid (Saqqara) 54, 56–57, Ramesses XI 198, 199, 243, 245, 250, 252, 327 scarabs 124, 135, 177, 255, 283
60, 62–63, 224, 227 Ramessesnakht, High Priest of Amen 243 schools 154
evolution of 62–63 Ramesseum (Thebes) 42–43, 207, 220–221, 238, scorpion charmers 121
Giza 54, 55, 60, 62–63, 64–67, 362–363 372–373 Scorpion Macehead (Hierakonpolis) 40
Great Pyramid of Khufu (Giza) 58, 62, 63, Ramesside Period 198, 208, 212–221, 223, 224, scribes 134, 135
64–67, 83 227, 238–243, 254 graffiti 224
Khaefre Pyramid (Giza) 62, 63, 65 coffins 237, 258 sculpture
Meidum Pyramid 62, 81, 224 fashion 170 human figures 76
Menkaure Pyramid (Giza) 62, 65 tombs 167, 209, 236–237 stone 59
Middle Kingdom 98, 101, 102–103 Ramose 148, 169 see also statues
Nubian 264 Raneb 49 Sea-Peoples 198, 199, 239, 240–241
Old Kingdom 48, 54, 60, 62–65, 88 Ranefer 52–53 seasons 19
Pyramid of Sahure (Abusir) 82–83 House of (Amarna) 184–185 Sebennytos 271
Red Pyramid (Dahshur) 62, 63 Rebu/Libu people 240–241 Second Cataract 110, 130, 131
royal mortuary temples 82–83 Red Land 22 Second Intermediate Period 11, 100, 131, 136–137,
Senwosret II’s Pyramid Complex (Kahun) 103 Rekhmire 30, 167, 172–173 140, 142, 143, 150, 158, 164, 173, 264,304, 318
size as measure of royal power 88 religion sedabs 72
symbolism of 57 Akhenaten’s changes to 178, 179, 187 Sedeinga 174, 177, 217
tomb robberies 244 animal cults 272–273 Sehel Island 383
ceremonial and ritual music and dance 84, 85 Famine Stela 57

Q festivals 210–211
Greco-Roman Period 278, 288–289, 300–301
graffiti 225
Sekenenre 137
Qa’a 48 New Kingdom personal worship 234–235 Sekenenre Taa II 142, 143
Qasr es-Sagha 112, 122 Predynastic Period 13, 36–37 Sekhmet 39, 60, 121, 135, 310, 355
quarries 58, 112, 122, 130, 254 solar religion and the Aten 178 statues 174
quartzite 58 see also gods and goddesses; ka; magic Seleucid dynasty/Empire 278, 282, 283, 294
Qubbet el-Hawa 55, 86–87, 274 Renenutet 168, 234, 354 Seleucus 283
rituals 28, 36, 37, 57, 70, 73, 82, 83, 84, 85, 121, Semerkhet 48

R
Ra 39, 60, 70, 135, 161, 178, 353
156, 157, 207, 288
river transport 24–25
rock-cut tombs 166, 183
semiprecious stones 124–125
Semna 130, 131, 137
Semna Despatches 131
Ra-Horakhty 207, 218 Romans Seneb 154
Rahotep 80–81, 137 Egypt absorbed into Empire 278, 279, 299 Senenmut 156, 247
Ramesses I 195, 198, 200, 201, 323 Egypt as client state of Republic 283, 294, 295, 299 senet 114
Ramesses II 43, 123, 198, 212–221, 325 Egyptian gods under 288, 289 Sennedjem, tomb (Deir el-Medina) 22–23, 233,
Abu Simbel 217–219, 384–385 and end of ancient Egypt 300–301 236–237, 257, 262
Bubastis 253 and Seleucids 283 Senwosret I 100, 101, 102, 103, 110, 130, 204, 315
children and wives 214, 227 temples 290 Senwosret II 98, 100, 110, 112–113, 124, 316
colossi 205, 217–219, 222 Rosetta Stone 278, 286, 302–303 pyramid (Kahun) 102, 103, 113
death and successors 199, 228, 238 royal palaces 188–189 Senwosret III 98, 100, 110–111, 128, 130, 131,137, 316
forts 241 royal power, concept of 41, 48 pyramid (Dahshur) 31, 102, 110
Great Western Hall (Memphis) 199, 223 Ruty 354–355 Serabit el-Khadim 122, 123
and Hittites 214–215 Stela Temple 99
monuments at Thebes 202, 204, 205, 220–221
mortuary temple (Ramesseum) 207, 220–221,
372–373
S
Sabni 87
Serapis 288, 300, 355
Serket 355
Seshat 355
in Nubia 216–219 saff tombs 166, 167 Seth 25, 38, 126, 127, 291, 356
Portal Temple (Abydos) 129 Sah 355 Sethnakht 229, 238
as Prince Ramesses 16, 213 Sahure 27, 54, 60, 61, 312 Seti I 16, 17, 198, 200–201, 202, 203, 205, 213,
tomb (Valley of the Kings) 220 pyramid (Abusir) 82–83 214, 216, 217, 223, 241, 323, 377
Ramesses III 198, 203, 205, 238–239, 326 Sais 36, 48, 250, 253, 267, 270, 303 Seti II 228, 325
death and successors 242–243 Saite Period 251, 266–267 Setju 86, 87
Libya 228 san el-Hagar see Tanis settlements
military achievements 198, 199, 238–239, 240–241 sandstone 58 Middle Kingdom 112–113
mortuary temple (Medinat Habu) 189, 198, Saqqara 363 Predynastic Period 28–29
206, 207, 211 13th Dynasty pyramids 136 prehistoric 14, 18
mummy and sarcophagus 239 Djoser’s Step Pyramid 54, 56–57, 60 sewage system 24
tomb (Valley of the Kings) 161, 198 mastaba tombs 72 Shabaqo 265
396 | INDEX

shabti figurines 127, 200, 242, 262–263 Late Period 266, 268, 271 Early Dynastic Period 37
shaduf 23 in mastaba tombs 72–73 Great and Small Aten Temples (Amarna) 182–183
Shai 356 metal 89 Greco-Roman Period 37, 278, 290–291, 300,
Sharuhen 151 Middle Kingdom private 104 301
Shashu people 201 New Kingdom private 168–169 Hatshepsut’s mortuary temple (Deir el-Bahri)
Shed 357 Ramesses II 221 156–157, 374
Shelley, Percy Bysshe 220, 221 transported on Nile 24 Karnak temple complex 202–205, 370–371
Shepenwepet II 266 stelae Late Period 267, 271
Shepseskaf 60, 61 Amenysonb stela 129 Luxor Temple 174, 368–369
Sherden people 241 Apis bull stela 272 medicine 119
Sheshi 137 of Bakenkhonsu 238 Middle Kingdom provincial 102–103
Sheshonq I 250, 252, 328 boundary 110 New Kingdom 37, 140, 202–205
Sheshonq II 249, 254–255, 255 ear 68, 234 paintings 76
Sheshonq III 250, 252, 254, 255 Famine Stela (Sehel) 57 Philae Temple 292–293, 382–383
Sheshonq V 252 Greek style 286 Predynastic Period 36–37
shields 144–145 Israel stela 241 Ramesseum (Thebes) 220–221, 372–373
Shipwrecked Sailor 134, 135 of local rulers 90, 91 religious festivals 210–211
shipwrecks, Ulu Burun 181 offering stela of Satka 51 robberies 244
Shu 127, 357 Osiris pilgrimage 128–129 royal mortuary 82–83, 156–157
Sihathor 128 personal worship 234–235 Saite Period 267
silt 19, 22, 33 Restoration Stela (Karnak) 190, 191 Tanis temples 254
siltstone 28, 29, 45 Tetisheri stela 146 Temple of Kalabsha 383
silver 124, 125 victory stelae 201, 228, 265 Temple of Neith 36
Sinai 49, 61, 63, 89, 122, 123, 136, 201, 283 stonework 58–59 Temple of Ptah (Memphis) 174, 222, 223, 227
singing 84 Predynastic Period 14, 28–29, 35 Temple of Seti I (Abydos) 17, 198, 200, 377
Siptah 228–229 pyramids 57, 63, 66–67 Third Intermediate Period 253
Sirenput, tomb (Qubbet el-Hawa) 274 temples 37 tenant farmers 23
sister-wives 146 transporting stone 24 terraced housing 112
sistrums 84, 88 storerooms, mastabas 72 territorial boundaries 48
Sithathoriunut, Princess 122 Story of Sinuhe 101, 122, 134, 135 Teti 55, 70, 88, 224, 253, 312–313
Sitre-Meriamen see Twosret storytelling 134–135 Tetisheri, Queen 146
Siwa Oasis, Oracle at 281 Strabo 284, 295 Thebes 54, 55, 92, 93, 98, 99, 158–159, 160, 223
Sixth Syrian War 294 sun 16th and 17th Dynasties 137
skin color, and status 80 divine significance 175 abandoned as capital 101
Smendes 250 solar afterlife 70 Amenhotep III’s buildings 175
Smenkhkare 187, 190 solar religion 54, 178 as home of Amen 160, 161, 266
snakes 121, 134, 135 swords 144 local government 26
Snefru 54, 60, 81, 135, 310 Syria 123, 140, 141, 164, 214, 294 Magician’s Tomb 121
pyramids (Meidum/Dahshur) 62, 63, 64, 224 Middle Kingdom buildings 98, 103
Sobek 290
Sobekemsaf II 136, 244
Sobekneferu 99, 101, 102, 152, 156, 317
T
T-shaped tombs 166–167
monuments of Ramesses II 198, 220–221
mortuary temples 206–207
New Kingdom private tombs 140, 166–167
social hierarchies 34–35 Taharqa 202, 203, 205, 263, 265, 328 rise of 93, 94, 158
Sokar 357 shrine of (Kawa) 264 tomb robberies 243, 244–245
solar boat, Khufu’s 65 Takelot II 255 under Nubian pharaohs 265
soldiers 130, 150 talatat blocks 178 see also Deir el-Medina; Karnak; Luxor; Valley of
Soleb 174, 217 Tanis 250, 251, 252, 253, 254–255, 361 the Kings; Valley of the Queens
Sons of Horus 256, 339 necropolis 250, 255 Theodosius I, Emperor 279, 301
Sothis 357 Tantamani 266 Third Intermediate Period 11, 198, 241, 243
soul Tatenen 358 250, 252–253, 264, 305, 328
after death 50 Tawaret 120, 177, 235, 358 coffins 258
soul houses 113 tax collection 26, 27, 172 Tanis 254–255
spells Teachings of Ptahhotep 154 Thoth 39, 169, 175, 234, 273, 287, 358
coffins 106–107 Tefnakht 253 thrones
papyri 121 Tefnut 127, 358 throne rooms 189
Pyramid Texts 70–71 Tell Basta see Bubastis Tutankhamen’s golden 191
Speos Artemidos 217 Tell ed-Daba 136, 140 Thuyu 177, 220, 257
sphinxes 68–69, 123, 152, 177, 179, 203, 265, 266 Tell el-Amarna 366 timber 61, 122
sports 114–115 Tell el-Farkha 36 Tiy, Queen 149, 174, 176–177, 181, 187, 190, 214,
statues temple-tombs 217
Amarna Period 178–179 Greco-Roman Period 288 Tjaty see viziers
clothing and physical appearance 80–81 New Kingdom 156, 223 Tjehenu people 240
colossi 68–69, 174, 205, 217–219, 221, 222 Old Kingdom 94–95 Tjemeh people 240
cult worship of divine 288 temples tomb robbers 49, 66, 161, 192, 198, 199,
of gods 210 Abu Simbel Temple 216, 217–219, 384–385 244–245
Greco-Roman Period 287, 288, 295, 298 Amen Temple (Tanis) 254, 255 Tomb Robbery Papyri 244–245
 INDEX | 397

tombs
animal 253, 273, 274
autobiographies 74, 75, 86–87, 90, 93, 105,
mummy 193, 257
post-Amarna restoration 195
tomb (Valley of the Kings) 138–139, 140, 160,
W
Wadi Abbad 35
142–143 161, 177, 191, 192–193, 376 Wadi Abu Suffian 35
Early Dynastic private 50–51 Tuthmose (sculptor) 186 Wadi el-Jarf 58
Early Dynastic royal 14, 15, 46–47, 48, 49, 50 Tuthmosis I 31, 140, 143, 147, 151, 152, 153, 156, Wadi es-Sebua 217, 384
false doors 74–75 157, 164, 205, 319 Wadi Hammamat 110, 122
Greco-Roman Period 278, 281, 284, 285, 287, tomb (Valley of the Kings) 161 Wadjet 358–359
301 Tuthmosis II 152, 153, 320 Wadjhorresne5 270
Late Period private 271 Tuthmosis III 17, 77, 140, 151, 152, 156, 157, 173, Wadjmose 152
Late Period royal 250, 255, 264, 267, 271 202, 205, 228, 320 Wah 97, 257
mastaba 56, 57, 60, 65, 72–73, 105 consolidation of empire 164–165 wands, magic 120–121
Middle Kingdom private 98, 104–105 tomb (Valley of the Kings) 160 warehouses, official 172
New Kingdom private 140, 159, 166–167, 209, Tuthmosis IV 68, 69, 165 warfare
236–237 Tuthmosis, Prince 177, 178, 275 Early New Kingdom 142–143, 150–151, 164–165, 195
New Kingdom royal 150, 159, 160–163, 167, 183, Tutu 288 First Intermediate Period 91
190–191, 206–207, 214, 220, 223, 230–231, 238 Two Kingdoms, King of the 40 Greco-Roman Period 294, 299
nomarch 90, 99, 104–105, 166 Twosret 156, 199, 228–229, 325 Late New Kingdom 200–201, 214–215, 240–241
Nubian 217, 264 Late Period 266, 267, 270, 271
Old Kingdom private 54, 59, 61, 86–87, 94, 166
Old Kingdom royal 54, 64
paintings 19, 23, 35, 72, 76, 84, 85, 114, 116,
U
Ugarit 241
Middle Kingdom 122–123, 132–133
military equipment 144–145
Predynastic Period 34, 35
147, 149, 166, 170–171, 217, 236–237, 275 Ulu Burun 181 Unification Period 40–41
Predynastic Period 28 Umm Ebeida 281 see also foreign policy
Third Intermediate Period 253 Umm el-Qa’ab 14, 15, 47, 49, 128 warlords
Tomb of the Warriors (Thebes) 94 Unas 55, 61, 312 high officials as 243
Tombs of the Nobles (Aswan) 380 pyramid (Saqqara) 61, 70–71, 82, 89, 194, 227 Libyan 243, 252
Tombs of the Nobles (Gurna) 374–375 underworld 70 waste-disposal system 24
Tutankhamen 138–139, 140, 160, 161, 177, 191, Unification Period 14, 29, 34, 40–41, 46 Wawat 86, 87, 165
192–193, 376 cult centers 36 weapons 144–145
see also afterlife; cemeteries; individuals by hieroglyphs 42 wekhdu 119
name; pyramids; Valley of the Kings; Valley role of king 48 wells 184, 231
of the Queens Upper Egypt 17, 18, 26, 40, 45, 48, 172 Wenamun 134–135
tools Upper Nubia 151, 165 Weneg 49
artisans 232 Userkaf 60, 312 Wepwawet 258, 259, 359
stoneworking 58 Weret-Hekau 121, 359
tourism, New Kingdom 224–225
towns
Middle Kingdom 112–113
V
Valley of the Kings 140, 150, 159, 160–163, 202,
Western Deffufa (Kerma) 150
Western Desert 61, 122, 240
White Nile 18
Nubian colonial 216–217 206–207, 376–377 wigs 149, 170
Nubian fortress 112, 130, 131, 137 Deir el-Medina workers 198, 230–233, 236, 237 Wilbour Papyrus 27
town planning 112 Golden Tomb (KV56) 228 Windows of Appearance 189
trade KV5 220 wise women 121
Early New Kingdom 141, 180, 181 KV14 229 women
Greco-Roman Period 284, 300 KV55 177, 190 clothing 80–81, 170–171
Late Period 266 KV62 191, 192 and cult of Amen 266
Middle Kingdom 122, 130, 131 tomb of Hatshepsut 157 royal 146–147, 152–153, 282–283
Old Kingdom 61, 82–83 tomb of Horemheb 195 Wondrous Tales 135
Predynastic Period 29, 35 tomb of Ramesses I 200 wrestling 114, 115
Trajan, Emperor 293 tomb of Ramesses II 220 writing 15, 41, 42–43, 123
transport, river 24–25 tomb of Ramesses III 161, 198 Roman Period 300
trials, tomb robbers 244–245 tomb robberies 199, 243, 244–245, 255 Rosetta Stone 302–303
tribute 131, 137, 141, 173, 217 tomb of Seti I 201 scribes 134, 135
Tuna el-Gebel 273, 365 tomb of Tutankhamen 138–139, 140, 160, 161
Tomb of Petosiris 271
Tura quarries 58, 67
Turin Canon 16
177, 191, 192–193, 376
tombs of Ramesses IV-XI 161, 162–163, 242, 243
Valley of the Queens 214, 220, 238, 374
X
Xerxes I of Persia 270
Turin Erotic Papyrus 149 vassal states 180, 181
Turin Museum (Italy) 161
turquoise 56, 122, 123, 124, 135, 146
Tushratta of Mitanni 174, 177, 181
veterinary matters 119
villages
Middle Kingdom 112
Y
Yuny 168, 169
Tutankhamen 141, 147, 180, 190–191, 195, 322 workers’ 112, 236–237 Yuya 144, 177, 220, 257, 263
coffins and sarcophagus 193, 258 see also Deir el-Medina
dagger and shield 144
death without heir 194
funerary mask 191
villas, Amarna 184–185
viziers 26, 172–173
Voyage of Wenamun 134–135
Z
Zeus-Ammon 281
398 | ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Acknowledgments
DK would like to thank the following for their help with this book: Image Partnership Ltd / Ashmolean Museum of Art and Archaeology (bl). © The Trustees of
Rose Blackett-Ord for editorial assistance: Helen Peters for the index; Katie Cavanagh for the British Museum. All rights reserved. 49 © The Trustees of the British Museum. All
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creative technical support; Simon Mumford for cartographic advice; Chhavi Nagpal, Devangana Laboratoriorosso: The Egyptian Museum, Cairo. 54 Sandro Vannini / Laboratoriorosso: The
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images (cra). © The Metropolitan Museum of Art: Rogers Fund and Edward S. Harkness Gift, Art: Purchase, Edward S. Harkness Gift, 1926 (bl). 77 © The Trustees of the British Museum.
1920 (bl). 25 Alamy Stock Photo: Album. 26-27 Alamy Stock Photo: Mike P Shepherd (b). 27 All rights reserved. 78-79 Sandro Vannini / Laboratoriorosso: The Egyptian Museum,
© The Metropolitan Museum of Art: Rogers Fund, 1918 (tr). 28 © The Trustees of the British Cairo. 80 Bridgeman Images: © Museum of Fine Arts, Boston / Harvard University / Boston
Museum. All rights reserved. The University of Manchester. 29 © The Trustees of the Museum of Fine Arts Expedition (c). Getty Images: Universal Images Group / Christophel Fine
British Museum. All rights reserved. 30 Getty Images: De Agostini / DEA / S. Vannini. 31 Art (br). 81 Sandro Vannini / Laboratoriorosso. 82 Alamy Stock Photo: mauritius images
Alamy Stock Photo: www.BibleLandPictures.com (bc). © The Metropolitan Museum of GmbH (bl). 83 Liebieghaus Skulpturensammlung, Frankfurt am Main. Photo Scala,
Art: Gift of James Douglas, 1890 (cra). 32 © The Trustees of the British Museum. All rights Florence: RMN-Grand Palais / Louvre / Georges Poncet (br). 84 Alamy Stock Photo: Alain
reserved. © The Metropolitan Museum of Art: Rogers Fund, 1912 (tr); Rogers Fund, 1915 Guilleux (bl). Getty Images: De Agostini / DEA / G. Dagli Orti (bc). Sandro Vannini /
(crb). 33 Bridgeman Images: Museum of Fine Arts, Boston / Egypt Exploration Fund by Laboratoriorosso. 85 © The Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved. Getty
subscription (br). Courtesy of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago: Austin M. Images: De Agostini / DEA / G. Dagli Orti (bl). © The Metropolitan Museum of Art: Rogers
Kramer (tr). © The Metropolitan Museum of Art: Rogers Fund, 1936 (tl); Rogers Fund, 1910 Fund, 1943 (tr). The Yorck Project: (bc). 86 123RF.com: Felix Lipov (b). 87 Alamy Stock
(tc); Rogers Fund, 1920 (cr). Yale University Art Gallery: (bl). 34-35 Heidelberg University Photo: agefotostock (tr). © The Metropolitan Museum of Art: Rogers Fund, 1934 (bl). 88
Library: (t). 35 Alamy Stock Photo: Heritage Image Partnership Ltd / Ashmolean Museum of Bridgeman Images: © Brooklyn Museum of Art / Charles Edwin Wilbour Fund (bl). © The
Art and Archaeology (bl). 36 kairoinfo4u: The Egyptian Musuem, Cairo (bl). 37 Bridgeman Metropolitan Museum of Art: Purchase, Edward S. Harkness Gift, 1926 (c). 88-89 Getty
Images: Brooklyn Museum of Art / Charles Edwin Wilbour Fund. 38 Alamy Stock Images: De Agostini / DEA / G. Dagli Orti. 89 Photo Scala, Florence: RMN-Grand Palais /
Photo: Prisma Archivo (bl). © The Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved. © Louvre / Christian Decamps (tr). 90 © The Metropolitan Museum of Art: Rogers Fund, 1965
The Metropolitan Museum of Art: Purchase, Edward S. Harkness Gift, 1926 (tr); Rogers Fund, (ca). Photo Scala, Florence: RMN-Grand Palais / Louvre / Hervé Lewandowski (bl). 91 Photo
1907 (br); Rogers Fund, 1934 (bc); Purchase, Joseph Pulitzer Bequest Fund, 1955 (crb). 39 akg- Scala, Florence: Fondazione Museo delle Antichita Egizie, Torino (t, bc). 92 Getty Images: De
images: Erich Lessing (br). © The Metropolitan Museum of Art: Anne and John V. Hansen Agostini / DEA / G. Sioen. 93 Getty Images: De Agostini / DEA / G. Sioen (bc). © The
Egyptian Purchase Fund, 2007 (tr); Purchase, Edward S. Harkness Gift, 1926 (tc); Harris Metropolitan Museum of Art: Rogers Fund, 1913 (tr). 94 Bridgeman Images: (bc). © The
Brisbane Dick Fund, 1956 (bl); Rogers Fund, 1919 (crb). Sandro Vannini / Metropolitan Museum of Art: Gift of Egypt Exploration Fund, 1907 (tr). 95 © The Trustees of
Laboratoriorosso: The Egyptian Museum, Cairo (l). 40 Alamy Stock Photo: Heritage Image the British Museum. All rights reserved. Getty Images: iStock / TerryJLawrence (b). 96 ©
Partnership Ltd / Ashmolean Museum of Art and Archaeology (br). 41 © The Trustees of the The Metropolitan Museum of Art: Rogers Fund and Edward S. Harkness Gift, 1940. 98 © The
British Museum. All rights reserved. Photo Scala, Florence: RMN-Grand Palais / Louvre / Metropolitan Museum of Art: Rogers Fund and Edward S. Harkness Gift, 1920 (bl). 99 Alamy
Georges Poncet (tr); RMN-Grand Palais / Louvre / Georges Poncet (crb). 42 © The Trustees of Stock Photo: Anka Agency International (cr); Jose Lucas (tr). BiblePlaces.com / Todd
the British Museum. All rights reserved. © The Metropolitan Museum of Art: Rogers Fund, Bolen: (br). 100 © The Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved. © The
1919 (ca). 42-43 Alamy Stock Photo: Jackie Ellies (c). 44 Sandro Vannini / Metropolitan Museum of Art: Rogers Fund, 1908 (bl). Sandro Vannini /
Laboratoriorosso: The Egyptian Museum, Cairo (l). 44-45 Sandro Vannini / Laboratoriorosso: The Egyptian Museum, Cairo (bc). 101 Getty Images: De Agostini / DEA /
Laboratoriorosso: The Egyptian Museum, Cairo (c). 46 Alamy Stock Photo: Mike P Shepherd G. Dagli Orti (bl); Universal Images Group / Werner Forman (bc). Photo Scala, Florence: bpk,
(t). 47 Alamy Stock Photo: Danita Delimont, Agent / Kenneth Garrett (bl). Photo Scala, Bildagentur fuer Kunst, Kultur und Geschichte, Berlin (br). 102 Alamy Stock Photo: Jose Lucas
Florence: RMN-Grand Palais / Louvre / Gérard Blot (tc). 48 Alamy Stock Photo: Heritage (t). 103 Sandro Vannini / Laboratoriorosso. 104 Alamy Stock Photo: Anka Agency
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS | 399

International (cl). Photo Scala, Florence: bpk, Bildagentur fuer Kunst, Kultur und Geschichte, Sandro Vannini / Laboratoriorosso. 161 Alamy Stock Photo: Alfredo Garcia Saz (bc). Museo
Berlin / Sandra Steiss (bc). 105 The New York Public Library: (t). 106 © The Metropolitan Egizio, Torino: Inv. Cat. 1885 / CC License (tr). 162-163 akg-images: Francis Dzikowski. 164
Museum of Art: Rogers Fund, 1915 (tc, b). 108-109 Bridgeman Images: Museum of Fine Arts, Alamy Stock Photo: Angus McComiskey (br). 165 © The Metropolitan Museum of
Boston / Stanford and Norma Jean Calderwood Gallery. 110 © The Metropolitan Museum of Art: Rogers Fund and Edward S. Harkness Gift, 1913 (t). Photo Scala, Florence: bpk,
Art: Gift of Edward S. Harkness, 1917 (bc). Photo Scala, Florence: bpk, Bildagentur fuer Kunst, Bildagentur fuer Kunst, Kultur und Geschichte, Berlin / Margarete Büsing (bc). 166 Getty
Kultur und Geschichte, Berlin / Sandra Steiss (tr). 111 Alamy Stock Photo: Bible Land Images: De Agostini / DEA / G. Dagli Orti (c). 166-167 © The Trustees of the British
Pictures. 112 © The Metropolitan Museum of Art: Rogers Fund and Edward S. Harkness Gift, Museum. All rights reserved. Getty Images: Moment / P. Lubas (b). 167 Alamy Stock
1920. 113 © The Metropolitan Museum of Art: Gift of The Egyptian Research Account and Photo: Heritage Image Partnership Ltd (cra). 168 Brooklyn Museum: Charles Edwin Wilbour
British School of Archaeology in Egypt, 1907 (tr); Rogers Fund and Edward S. Harkness Gift, Fund, 40.523 / CC BY (cb). © The Metropolitan Museum of Art: Rogers Fund, 1915
1920 (b). 114 © The Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved. © The (cr). Museo Egizio, Torino: Inv. Cat. 3085 / CC License (l, tr). Sandro Vannini /
Metropolitan Museum of Art: Gift of Egypt Exploration Fund, 1901 (tr); Purchase, Edward S. Laboratoriorosso: The Egyptian Museum, Cairo (br). 169 Bridgeman Images: Oriental
Harkness Gift, 1926 (26.7.1287a-k); Gift of Lord Carnarvon, 2012 (2012.508) (bl). 115 Getty Museum, Durham University (br). The Cleveland Museum Of Art: Leonard C. Hanna, Jr. Fund
Images: De Agostini / DEA / S. Vannini. 116 akg-images: Erich Lessing (bl). Steven Snape. 1996.28 / CC License (tl). © The Metropolitan Museum of Art: Purchase, Edward S. Harkness
116-117 © The Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved. 117 Alamy Stock Gift, 1926 (crb); Rogers Fund, 1933 (tc). Museo Egizio, Torino: Inv. Cat. 3046 / CC License
Photo: BibleLandPictures / Zev Radovan (tr). 118 akg-images: Andrea Jemolo. 119 Getty (bl). Sandro Vannini / Laboratoriorosso: The Egyptian Museum, Cairo (clb). 170 Photo Scala,
Images: Heritage Images / Ashmolean Museum (tr). Museo Egizio, Torino: Inv. S.8414 / CC Florence: Fondazione Museo delle Antichita Egizie, Torino (cra); RMN-Grand Palais / Louvre /
License (ca). National Library of Medicine: (br). 120-121 © The Metropolitan Museum of Les frères Chuzeville (bl). 171 © The Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved. 172
Art: Rogers Fund, 1908 (ca); Theodore M. Davis Collection, Bequest of Theodore M. Davis, 1915 Bridgeman Images: Luisa Ricciarini (bl). © The Metropolitan Museum of Art: Rogers Fund,
(t). 121 Bridgeman Images: Fitzwilliam Museum (br). 122 © The Metropolitan Museum of 1930 (bc); Rogers Fund, 1930 (br). 173 Getty Images: Gamma-Rapho / Patrick Chapuis (br). ©
Art: Purchase, Rogers Fund and Henry Walters Gift, 1916 (br). 123 BiblePlaces.com / Todd The Metropolitan Museum of Art: Rogers Fund, 1923 (tr); Rogers Fund, 1931 (bl); Rogers
Bolen. © The Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved. 124 © The Trustees of Fund, 1933 (bc). 174 Alamy Stock Photo: Suzuki Kaku. Sandro Vannini / Laboratoriorosso.
the British Museum. All rights reserved. © The Metropolitan Museum of Art: Purchase, 175 Sandro Vannini / Laboratoriorosso: The Egyptian Museum, Cairo. 176 Alamy Stock
Rogers Fund and Henry Walters Gift, 1916 (tr); Rogers Fund and Edward S. Harkness Gift, 1940 Photo: World History Archive. 177 © The Metropolitan Museum of Art: Gift of Helen Miller
(cla); Rogers Fund, 1908 (b); Rogers Fund, 1907 (cb). 125 Bridgeman Images. © The Trustees Gould, 1910 (bc). Photo Scala, Florence: Photo Josse / Louvre (tr). 178 © The Metropolitan
of the British Museum. All rights reserved. © The Metropolitan Museum of Art: Fletcher Museum of Art: Gift of Norbert Schimmel, 1985 (bl). 179 Bridgeman Images: Museum of Fine
Fund, 1922 (c); Purchase, George F. Baker and Mr. and Mrs. V. Everit Macy Gifts, 1920 (tl); Arts, Boston / Egyptian Curator’s Fund (tl). Florence Maruéjol. 180 © The Metropolitan
Purchase, Edward S. Harkness Gift, 1926 (clb); Rogers Fund, 1911 (br). 126-127 © The Museum of Art: Rogers Fund, 1930 (cla). 181 Alamy Stock Photo: WaterFrame (br). © The
Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved. 126 © The Trustees of the British Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved. 182 Getty Images: De Agostini / DEA /
Museum. All rights reserved. 127 © The Trustees of the British Museum. All rights G. Sioen (t). 183 Alamy Stock Photo: Lebrecht Music & Arts (bl). © The Metropolitan
reserved. © The Metropolitan Museum of Art: Rogers Fund, 1912 (bc). 128 © The Trustees Museum of Art: Theodore M. Davis Collection, Bequest of Theodore M. Davis, 1915 (crb). 184:
of the British Museum. All rights reserved. Getty Images: AFP / Francois Guillot (b). 129 The Amarna Project - www.amarnaproject.com. 184-185 Peter Bull Art Studio. 186 Dorling
Alamy Stock Photo: Mike P Shepherd (br). Image courtesy of The Garstang Museum of Kindersley: Bolton Library and Museum Services / Norman Taylor. 187 Photo Scala,
Archaeology, University of Liverpool.: (t). 130 Sandro Vannini / Laboratoriorosso. 131 Florence: bpk, Bildagentur fuer Kunst, Kultur und Geschichte, Berlin (bc). Sandro Vannini /
Bridgeman Images: © Museum of Fine Arts, Boston / Harvard University / Boston Museum of Laboratoriorosso. 188 Getty Images: De Agostini / DEA / A. Dagli Orti (tl); De Agostini / DEA
Fine Arts Expedition (br). © The Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved. 132 / W. Buss (tr). 189 Alamy Stock Photo: Stephen Hughes (tl). Photo Scala, Florence: RMN-
Getty Images: Corbis Historical / Paul Almasy (bl). 132-133 Peter Bull Art Studio. 133 Grand Palais / Louvre / Hervé Lewandowski (cr). 190 Photo Scala, Florence: bpk, Bildagentur
Bridgeman Images: Ashmolean Museum (tl). 134 Getty Images: De Agostini / DEA / G. Dagli fuer Kunst, Kultur und Geschichte, Berlin / Margarete Büsing (bc). Sandro Vannini /
Orti (t). Sandro Vannini / Laboratoriorosso: The Egyptian Museum, Cairo (crb). 135 Laboratoriorosso: The Egyptian Museum, Cairo (l). 191 Alamy Stock Photo: Album
Bridgeman Images: Ashmolean Museum (r); Mary Jelliffe (bc). © The Metropolitan Museum (br). Sandro Vannini / Laboratoriorosso: The Egyptian Museum, Cairo (l). 192 Getty
of Art: Rogers Fund, 1909 (c). 136 Getty Images: De Agostini / DEA / G. Dagli Orti (c, br). 137 Images: De Agostini / DEA / A. Jemolo (tl). 193-193 Peter Bull Art Studio. 194 Getty
© The Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved. Steven Snape: (t). 138 Sandro Images: De Agostini / DEA / C. Sappa (bl). Sandro Vannini / Laboratoriorosso: The Egyptian
Vannini / Laboratoriorosso: The Egyptian Museum, Cairo. 140 Sandro Vannini / Museum, Cairo (cl). 195 Alamy Stock Photo: Album (bc). Steven Snape. 196 Sandro Vannini
Laboratoriorosso: The Egyptian Museum, Cairo (bl). 141 Alamy Stock Photo: Mike P / Laboratoriorosso: The Egyptian Museum, Cairo. 198 © The Metropolitan Museum of
Shepherd (cr). © The Metropolitan Museum of Art: Rogers Fund, 1931 (tr). Sandro Vannini / Art: Funds from various donors, 1886 (bl). 199 Alamy Stock Photo: Joana Kruse (cr);
Laboratoriorosso. 142 Bridgeman Images: Andrea Jemolo (cr). Kenneth Garrett: (bl). Royal robertharding / John Ross (tr). Getty Images: De Agostini / DEA / A. Vergani (br). 200 Getty
Library of Belgium (KBR): Department of Coins & Medals / de Hirsch Collection (tl). 143 Images: Photodisc / Juergen Ritterbach (b). © The Metropolitan Museum of Art: Purchase,
Getty Images: De Agostini / DEA / G. Dagli Orti. 144 The Cleveland Museum Of Art: Gift of Edward S. Harkness Gift, 1926 (tl). 201 © The Metropolitan Museum of Art: Gift of J. Pierpont
the John Huntington Art and Polytechnic Trust 1914.676 (c). Getty Images: De Agostini / DEA Morgan, 1911 (tl). Photo Scala, Florence: (r). 202 Getty Images: Universal Images Group /
/ S. Vannini (tr). © The Metropolitan Museum of Art: Rogers Fund, 1912 (cr). Sandro Vannini Werner Forman (cl). 202-203 Alamy Stock Photo: Jan Wlodarczyk (tc). ALTAIR 4
/ Laboratoriorosso. 144-145 Sandro Vannini / Laboratoriorosso: The Egyptian Museum, MULTIMEDIA Srl: (c). 203 ALTAIR 4 MULTIMEDIA Srl. 204 123RF.com: Artur Maltsau
Cairo (b). 145 © The Metropolitan Museum of Art: Gift of Edward S. Harkness, 1917 (tl); (bc). Alamy Stock Photo: F1online digitale Bildagentur GmbH / Ritterbach (t). 205 Dorling
Rogers Fund, 1916 (bc); Gift of Elisha Dyer, in memory of George R. Dyer, 1941 (cl); Rogers Kindersley: Martin Garland (b). Dreamstime.com: Danilo Mongiello (tr). 206 Alamy Stock
Fund, 1936 (fcr); Rogers Fund, 1915 (cr). Sandro Vannini / Laboratoriorosso: The Egyptian Photo: eFesenko (bl). Steven Snape. 207 Alamy Stock Photo: Sean Harrison (tr). Steven
Museum, Cairo (tc). 146 akg-images: Bildarchiv Steffens (bl). BiblePlaces.com / Todd Bolen. Snape. 208-209 © The Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved. 210 Steven
147 © The Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved. Sandro Vannini / Snape. woodsboy2011: (cr). 211 kairoinfo4u. 212 Getty Images: De Agostini / DEA / G. Dagli
Laboratoriorosso. 148 Sandro Vannini / Laboratoriorosso. 149 The Cleveland Museum Of Orti (tl). Museo Egizio, Torino: Inv. Cat. 767 / CC License (bc). 213 Bridgeman Images.
Art: Gift of Jean-Luc and Véronique Chalmin (bc). Sandro Vannini / Laboratoriorosso: The Museo Egizio, Torino: Inv. Cat. 1380 / CC License (r). 214 Sandro Vannini /
Egyptian Museum, Cairo (tr, bl). 150 Alamy Stock Photo: imageBROKER (bc). Museo Egizio, Laboratoriorosso. 215 Steven Snape. 216 Getty Images: iStock / FevreDream (t). 217 AWL
Torino: Inv. Cat. 1372 / CC License (c). 151 © The Metropolitan Museum of Art: Rogers Fund, Images: Jane Sweeney (bl). © The Metropolitan Museum of Art: Rogers Fund, 1930 (tr). 218-
1915. 152 Getty Images: De Agostini / DEA / G. Dagli Orti (bl). © The Metropolitan Museum 219 AWL Images: Jane Sweeney. 220 AWL Images: Jane Sweeney (c). 220-221 AWL
of Art: Rogers Fund, 1928; Rogers Fund, 1931 (cr). 153 © The Metropolitan Museum of Images: Michele Falzone (c). 221 AWL Images: Jane Sweeney (tr). 222 Getty
Art: Rogers Fund, 1929. 154 Alamy Stock Photo: Alain Guilleux. © The Metropolitan Museum Images: Moment / Lansbricae (Luis Leclere) (t). Steven Snape. 223 Alamy Stock
of Art: Rogers Fund, 1944 (br). Sandro Vannini / Laboratoriorosso: The Egyptian Museum, Photo: agefotostock / Toño Labra (br); robertharding / John Ross (cla). 224 Steven Snape. 225
Cairo (bl). 155 Sandro Vannini / Laboratoriorosso. 156 © The Trustees of the British Florence Maruéjol. Steven Snape. 226 Photo Scala, Florence: RMN-Grand Palais / Louvre /
Museum. All rights reserved. Getty Images: De Agostini / DEA / C. Sappa (bc). 157 Getty Hervé Lewandowski. 227 Getty Images: AFP / Khaled Desouki (bc). Photo Scala,
Images: Moment Open / Nick Brundle Photography (t). Florence Maruéjol: (bc). 158 Alamy Florence: RMN-Grand Palais / Louvre / Philipp Bernard (tr). 228 © The Trustees of the British
Stock Photo: Alfredo Garcia Saz (l). 159 Alamy Stock Photo: Mike P Shepherd (br). Getty Museum. All rights reserved. Sandro Vannini / Laboratoriorosso. 229 Sandro Vannini /
Images: De Agostini (t). 160 © The Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved. Laboratoriorosso. 230 BiblePlaces.com / Todd Bolen. © The Trustees of the British
400 | ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Museum. All rights reserved. 231 © The Metropolitan Museum of Art: Purchase, Fletcher Florence: RMN-Grand Palais / Louvre / Georges Poncet (bc). 284 © The Trustees of the
Fund and The Guide Foundation Inc. Gift, 1966 (r). Museo Egizio, Torino. 232-233 Peter Bull British Museum. All rights reserved. 285 Alamy Stock Photo: eFesenko (cla). 286 © The
Art Studio. 232 © The Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved. 233 Alamy Metropolitan Museum of Art: Gift of Darius Ogden Mills, 1904 (cl). 286-287 Getty
Stock Photo: Frederic Reglain (br). Peter Bull Art Studio. 234 Museo Egizio, Torino: Inv. Cat. Images: iStock / Konstantin Aksenov (b). 287 Christoph Gerigk: Franck Goddio / Hilti
1592 / CC License (cl, ca, bc). Steven Snape. 234-235 Getty Images: De Agostini / DEA / G. Foundation (br). Getty Images: De Agostini / DEA / G. Dagli Orti (t). 288 Getty Images: De
Dagli Orti (c). 235 © The Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved. Museo Egizio, Agostini / DEA / G. Dagli Orti (cr). © The Metropolitan Museum of Art: Rogers Fund, 1965
Torino: Inv. Cat. 1521 / CC License (br, ca, cla). 236 Getty Images: De Agostini / DEA / G. (tl); Theodore M. Davis Collection, Bequest of Theodore M. Davis, 1915 (bl). 289 Alamy Stock
Dagli Orti (b). © The Metropolitan Museum of Art: Funds from various donors, 1886 (tr). 237 Photo: Album. 290 Alamy Stock Photo: Jan Wlodarczyk (cr). Getty Images: Moment /
© The Metropolitan Museum of Art: Funds from various donors, 1886 (b). 238 Archives skaman306 (bl). 291 Getty Images: iStock / eleaner (tc); Moment / Nick Brundle Photography
scientifiques du CFEETK: (bl). © The Metropolitan Museum of Art: Rogers Fund, 1933 (b). 292-293 ALTAIR 4 MULTIMEDIA Srl. 292 123RF.com: Jose Antonio Sanchez Romero
(c). 239 Bridgeman Images: Fitzwilliam Museum / Fitzwilliam Museum, University of (cl). ALTAIR 4 MULTIMEDIA Srl. 293 Getty Images: robertharding / Neale Clark (tc). 294
Cambridge, UK (tr). Sandro Vannini / Laboratoriorosso. 240 © The Trustees of the British Alamy Stock Photo: Mark Harmel (t). 295 Alamy Stock Photo: www.BibleLandPictures.com
Museum. All rights reserved. 240-241 Getty Images: De Agostini / DEA / ICAS94 (b). 241 (tr). Getty Images: De Agostini / DEA / A. De Gregorio (bl). 296-297 Sandro Vannini /
Steven Snape. Sandro Vannini / Laboratoriorosso. 242 Photo Scala, Florence: RMN-Grand Laboratoriorosso. 298 Getty Images: De Agostini / DEA / S. Vannini. 299 Alamy Stock
Palais / Louvre / Georges Poncet (bc). Sandro Vannini / Laboratoriorosso. 243 © The Photo: A. Astes (bl). Steven Snape. 300 Steven Snape. Yale University Art Gallery: Lent by
Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved. Museo Egizio, Torino. 244 Sandro Yale Peabody Museum of Natural History, Barringer Collection, ANT.264259 (cla). 301 © The
Vannini / Laboratoriorosso. 245 Sandro Vannini / Laboratoriorosso: The Egyptian Museum, Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved. 302 © The Trustees of the British
Cairo (l, br). 246 akg-images: Erich Lessing (c). Bridgeman Images: Brooklyn Museum of Art / Museum. All rights reserved. 306 Sandro Vannini / Laboratoriorosso: The Egyptian
Gift of the Egyptian Exploration Society (br). © The Trustees of the British Museum. All Museum, Cairo. 308 Sandro Vannini / Laboratoriorosso: The Egyptian Museum, Cairo. 309
rights reserved. The University of Manchester: (tr). The Walters Art Museum, Getty Images: De Agostini / DEA / G. Dagli Orti. 310 Steven Snape. 311 Bridgeman
Baltimore: (bl). Sandro Vannini / Laboratoriorosso: The Egyptian Museum, Cairo (bc). 247 Images: © Museum of Fine Arts, Boston / Harvard University / Boston Museum of Fine Arts
Bridgeman Images: Fitzwilliam Museum (tc). Brooklyn Museum: Charles Edwin Wilbour Fund, Expedition. 312 Getty Images: ullstein bild / Reinhard Dirscher. 313 Getty Images: De
37.51E / CC BY / Gavin Ashworth (c). © The Metropolitan Museum of Art: Anonymous Gift, Agostini / DEA / S. Vannini. 314 © The Metropolitan Museum of Art: Gift of Egypt Exploration
1931 (tr). Museo Egizio, Torino: Inv. Cat. 7052 / CC License (tl, cr, b). 248 Sandro Vannini / Fund, 1907. 315 Alamy Stock Photo: World History Archive. 316 Bridgeman Images: Sandro
Laboratoriorosso: The Egyptian Museum, Cairo. 250 © The Metropolitan Museum of Vannini. 317 Getty Images: De Agostini / DEA / G. Dagli Orti. 318 Shutterstock.
Art: Purchase, Edward S. Harkness Gift, 1926 (bl). 251 Alamy Stock Photo: Magica com: Kharbine-Tapabor. 319 Sandro Vannini / Laboratoriorosso: The Egyptian Museum,
(br). Sandro Vannini / Laboratoriorosso. 252 Bridgeman Images: Brooklyn Museum of Art / Cairo. 320 Getty Images: iStock / mareandmare. 321 Getty Images: Moment / Nick
Charles Edwin Wilbour Fund (bc). 252-253 Photo Scala, Florence: RMN-Grand Palais / Louvre Brundle. 322 Sandro Vannini / Laboratoriorosso: The Egyptian Museum, Cairo. 323 Getty
/ Hervé Lewandowski (c). 253 Sandro Vannini / Laboratoriorosso. 254 Alamy Stock Images: Photodisc / Juergen Ritterbach (t). 324 akg-images: Hervé Champollion. 325 Sandro
Photo: agefotostock / J.D. Dallet (cla). Sandro Vannini / Laboratoriorosso: The Egyptian Vannini / Laboratoriorosso. 326 Getty Images: AFP (bl); Design Pics / Richard Maschmeyer
Museum, Cairo (tr). 254-255 Sandro Vannini / Laboratoriorosso: The Egyptian Museum, (tr). 327 Sandro Vannini / Laboratoriorosso. 328 Getty Images: Universal Images Group /
Cairo (b). 255 Sandro Vannini / Laboratoriorosso: The Egyptian Museum, Cairo (c). 256 © MyLoupe. 329 Photo Scala, Florence: Musee d’Archeologie Mediterraneenne, marseille / David
The Metropolitan Museum of Art: Gift of Joseph Veach Noble, 1988 (bc); Gift of Theodore M. Giancatarina. 330 Getty Images: De Agostini / DEA / G. Nimatallah. 331 Getty Images: Hulton
Davis, 1910 (ftl); Theodore M. Davis Collection, Bequest of Theodore M. Davis, 1915 (tl); Archive / The Print Collector. 332 Getty Images: Universal Images Group / Leemage. 333 Steven
Theodore M. Davis Collection, Bequest of Theodore M. Davis, 1915 (tr); Gift of Theodore M. Snape. 334 Sandro Vannini / Laboratoriorosso. 335 akg-images: Andrea Jemolo. 336 Getty
Davis, 1910 (ftr). 257 Getty Images: Patrick Landmann / Cairo Museum (tr); Universal Images Images: Universal Images Group / Universal History Archive. 337 Getty Images: De Agostini /
Group / Eye Ubiquitous / Jenny Pate (tl). © The Metropolitan Museum of Art: Rogers Fund DEA / S.Vannini. 338 © The Metropolitan Museum of Art: Gift of Edward S. Harkness, 1918
and Edward S. Harkness Gift, 1940 (b). 258 Bridgeman Images: Ashmolean Museum (bl). 259 (b); Purchase, Fletcher Fund and The Guide Foundation Inc. Gift, 1966 (tc). 339 akg-
Bridgeman Images: Ashmolean Museum. 260-261 © The Trustees of the British Museum. images: François Guénet. 340 © The Metropolitan Museum of Art: Rogers Fund, 1930. 341
All rights reserved. 262 © The Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved. © The Alamy Stock Photo: Peter Horree (tl); World History Archive (b). 342 Alamy Stock Photo: www.
Metropolitan Museum of Art: Funds from various donors, 1886 (86.1.14, .18, .21, .28) (bl); BibleLandPictures.com. 343 Getty Images: Hulton Fine Art Collection / Art Images (br). 344
Funds from various donors, 1886 (bc); Funds from various donors, 1886 (br); Funds from Alamy Stock Photo: Heritage Images / Werner Forman Archive / E. Strouhal. 345 Alamy Stock
various donors, 1886 (fbr). 263 © The Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved. Photo: Alain Guilleux. 346 Sandro Vannini / Laboratoriorosso. 347 © The Trustees of the
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The Metropolitan Museum of Art: Gift of J. Pierpont Morgan, 1912 (fbl); Theodore M. Davis Images: Mary Jelliffe. 350 Sandro Vannini / Laboratoriorosso. 351 © The Metropolitan
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Photo: Adam Eastland. 265 © The Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved. The Guilleux. 353 Alamy Stock Photo: Arpad Benedek. 354 Alamy Stock Photo: Paul Vinten. 355
Cleveland Museum Of Art: Purchase from the J. H. Wade Fund (bl). Photo Scala, Alamy Stock Photo. 356 © The Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved. 357
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/ Historical Views. 268 Alamy Stock Photo: Magica (b). Fine Arts Museums of San / Stefan Lippmann. 361 Getty Images: Universal Images Group / Werner Forman. 362 Getty
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Berlin / Juergen Liepe (tr). 269 The Cleveland Museum Of Art: Gift of the Hanna Fund. 270 Images: VCG / Corbis. 365 akg-images: Erich Lessing. 366 Alamy Stock Photo: Mike P
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All rights reserved. 276-277 Sandro Vannini / Laboratoriorosso: The Egyptian Museum, Photographic. 375 Alamy Stock Photo: Simon Evans. 376 Alamy Stock Photo: Diego
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